Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The rapid diffusion of battery electric vehicles — in addition to the decarbonization of the energy sector — requires an increasing number of batteries. However, the EU's goal to cover 90% of its battery demand from domestic production by 2030 is at risk, as projected demand will likely exceed 1.0 TWh per year and outpace production capacity despite highly ambitious growth rates. ...

    Options:
    A. If Europe fails to scale up production, it may face severe economic and geopolitical risks, due to increased dependence on external suppliers, weakened industrial competitive ness and potential for delayed decarbonization.
B. An urgent question is therefore whether Europe can realistically meet its future battery demand through domestic production, and what policy actions are needed to ensure success.
C. We find that European battery cell demand will likely surpass 1.0 TWh per year by 2030, whereas domestic production capacity is expected to fall short, creating a risk of supply constraints.
D. Although Europe can be expected to meet at least 50-60% of its demand through domestic production by 2030, achieving the EU's 90% self-sufficiency target is feasible but uncertain, as nearly half of our modelled sce narios fail to meet this target (Fig. 1).
E. If Europe wants more independ ence from battery cell imports, our findings highlight the urgency of accelerating production capacity expansion, scaling up a bat tery supply chain, and implementing strong industrial policies to support competitiveness and supply sovereignty.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We find that European battery cell demand will likely surpass 1.0 TWh per year by 2030, whereas domestic production capacity is expected to fall short, creating a risk of supply constraints. Although Europe can be expected to meet at least 50-60% of its demand through domestic production by 2030, achieving the EU's 90% self-sufficiency target is feasible but uncertain, as nearly half of our modelled sce narios fail to meet this target (Fig. 1). ...

    Options:
    A. If Europe wants more independ ence from battery cell imports, our findings highlight the urgency of accelerating production capacity expansion, scaling up a bat tery supply chain, and implementing strong industrial policies to support competitiveness and supply sovereignty.
B. Our approach is broadly applicable to regions aiming for battery self-sufficiency and should be examined with interacting factors such as policy sup port and supply chain resilience.
C. However, our analysis does not account for disruptive market shifts, policy reversals, or unexpected technological breakthroughs, which could substantially alter pro duction and demand trajectories.
D. Our method is suitable for evaluating long-term indus trial transformation and supply chain resilience, making it applicable to other regions with similar ambitions.
E. By applying an established technology diffusion framework, we provide a robust, scenario-based outlook rather than relying on overly optimistic indus try projections.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Our study uses probabilistic modelling to project future battery demand and domestic production in Europe and evaluates Europe's pathway towards battery self-sufficiency via probabilistic statements. We independently model demand and supply using S-shaped diffu sion curves based on historical data, actual announced production capacities, and practice-oriented findings about how these announced capacities materialize over time. ...

    Options:
    A. Our approach accounts for uncertain ties such as construction delays, utilization rates and evolving mar ket conditions, and assesses corresponding raw material needs.
B. This study is particularly relevant given Europe's policy push toward climate neutrality and striving for resilient, sustainable battery value chains with domestic production and global competitiveness.
C. By applying an established technology diffusion framework, we provide a robust, scenario-based outlook rather than relying on overly optimistic indus try projections.
D. We find that European battery cell demand will likely surpass 1.0 TWh per year by 2030, whereas domestic production capacity is expected to fall short, creating a risk of supply constraints.
E. Although Europe can be expected to meet at least 50-60% of its demand through domestic production by 2030, achieving the EU's 90% self-sufficiency target is feasible but uncertain, as nearly half of our modelled sce narios fail to meet this target (Fig. 1).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Decarbonization and climate change entail risks for the global econ omy. Fossil fuel investments face stranded asset risks, that is, lost profits due to early retirement, as the global economy decarbonizes. ...

    Options:
    A. Stranded asset risks threaten financial stability.
B. Similarly, exposure to climate hazards contributes to financial instability.
C. Clean energy investments, meanwhile, come with technology and market risks that—left unmiti gated—result in lower climate mitigation.
D. Over the last decade, central banks have taken on a role in examining and managing transition and physical climate risks.
E. Yet the response from central banks has not been uniform: some have adopted measures of varying type and stringency; others have not taken any actions.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We find limited evidence that economic risks related to climate and energy are associated with central bank behaviour. While physi cal risks are associated with central bank actions to some extent, stranded asset risks and clean energy investment risks are not. ...

    Options:
    A. Instead, central bank actions to manage risks are significantly and positively associated with domestic climate politics, including cli mate policy stringency and public concern with climate change.
B. Our results thus suggest a risk mitigation gap between the magnitude of transition risks and central bank actions, and that central banks may not be entirely autonomous risk managers but responsive to political demands, reinforcing, instead of correcting for, lagging decarboni zation policy.
C. Our analysis is exploratory.
D. Future research needs to move beyond cross-sectional to time series analysis, investigate the underlying mechanisms, and study the broader regulatory system for climate risk, including financial supervisors and private sector institutions.
E. We provide a comprehensive, systematic study of central bank manage ment of climate risks.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We provide a comprehensive, systematic study of central bank manage ment of climate risks. We introduce an original dataset on climate risk management actions by central banks across 47 OECD and G20 coun tries and develop a classification system to identify actions that re-risk brown investments and de-risk green investments (Fig. 1). ...

    Options:
    A. Re-risking refers to embedding transition risks and physical climate risks into financial risk management practices to ensure financial stability, whereas de-risking means reducing the risk of clean energy investments, that is, the technology, market, and policy risks of new clean energy technologies, to facilitate decarbonization.
B. We use a simple linear regression model to test whether re-risking and de-risking scores are associated with economic risk factors (the size of the oil and gas sector and the financial sector as well as exposure to climate hazards) or political factors (climate policy stringency and public concern with climate change).
C. We find limited evidence that economic risks related to climate and energy are associated with central bank behaviour.
D. While physi cal risks are associated with central bank actions to some extent, stranded asset risks and clean energy investment risks are not.
E. Decarbonization and climate change entail risks for the global econ omy.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The volatility of energy prices is a major driver of economic fluctuations and their large associated costs. European electricity markets are based on day-ahead contracting where the price is set by the higher marginal cost of the last activated plants. ...

    Options:
    A. In this design, fluctuations in the prices of fuels, particularly of natural gas, have large impacts on the price of electricity and make it highly volatile.
B. . Investments in solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind technologies, which do not depend on fossil fuels, could reduce the sensitivity of electricity prices to fuel prices.
C. However, since their operation is affected by solar irradiance and wind speed, the volatil ity caused by weather factors would increase.
D. Additional penetration of these technologies is widely expected given their decreased costs and it is required to achieve the European Union (EU) decarbonization goals.
E. Understanding whether this will increase the volatility of power prices or stabilize them, and the magnitude of such changes, is important to anticipate macroeconomic volatility and manage it.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We define and estimate the β-sensitivity metric, the increase in the annual average price of electricity when the price of natural gas increases by 1 euro per MWh. Achieving the 2030 capacities foreseen in system operators' resource adequacy assessments in all EU countries, the UK and Switzerland would reduce the average European β-sensitivity from 1.4 to 1.0 in 2030 (Fig. 1). ...

    Options:
    A. Deploying solar PV and wind 30% above the targets would further reduce it to 0.5, while volatil ity and price spikes would also be less intense.
B. There is substantial heterogeneity across countries.
C. The mechanisms that stabilize prices also result in lower revenues for renewable plants, limiting the poten tial market-based penetration of these technologies.
D. Private agents are unlikely to account for the societal value of lower macroeconomic volatility.
E. Energy planning, market design, and support policies in Europe should consider this 'insurance value' of renewables explicitly, in addition to their benefits for climate mitigation.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We use a detailed model to simulate price outcomes of European elec tricity markets at high resolution, given power capacities for each tech nology and fuel prices and considering factors like the interconnection capabilities across countries, the availability of hydro generation, solar and wind capacity factors. We simulate electricity prices for random scenarios that reflect the historical variation in fuel prices, electricity demand and weather-related conditions. ...

    Options:
    A. We construct the distribution of these simulated annual prices for the indicative 2030 capacity tar gets of the 27 EU countries, plus the UK and Switzerland, and compare it with the price distribution resulting from current capacities.
B. We also simulate faster deployment of solar PV and wind technologies, beyond 2030 plans.
C. We define and estimate the β-sensitivity metric, the increase in the annual average price of electricity when the price of natural gas increases by 1 euro per MWh.
D. Achieving the 2030 capacities foreseen in system operators' resource adequacy assessments in all EU countries, the UK and Switzerland would reduce the average European β-sensitivity from 1.4 to 1.0 in 2030 (Fig. 1).
E. The volatility of energy prices is a major driver of economic fluctuations and their large associated costs.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The Paris Agreement sets a goal to keep global warming well below 2 °C. However, model projections show that this goal is unlikely to be met with current climate policies and actions, indicating a need for additional strategies to further reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. ...

    Options:
    A. Alongside technological supply-side solutions to transition away from fossil fuels, for example with the adoption of renewable energy sources in electricity generation, demand-side strategies involving energy users in sectors like buildings and transport can contribute significantly to emission reduc tions.
B. Direct emissions from energy use in buildings and transport account for over 20% of global GHG emissions.
C. In buildings, measures such as electrifying energy use through heat pumps, improving insulation, and reducing energy demand through behavioural shifts can significantly lower emissions.
D. Similarly, in transport, electrifying vehicles, enhancing efficiency, and promoting mode shifts to public transit or active modes like cycling can drastically reduce emissions.
E. Determining the most cost-optimal and effective policy mix is a complex systems problem.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Our analysis shows that a comprehensive set of measures involving end users can reduce sectoral CO2 emissions by 51-85% in buildings and 37-91% in transport by 2050, compared to a scenario based on current policies (Fig. 1). Electrifying energy end-use and switching to alternative fuels delivers the largest emission reductions, though also leads to increases in electricity demand. ...

    Options:
    A. Reducing or changing energy-using activities includ ing travel distances and mode choices can reduce energy demand and ease pressure on the electricity supply.
B. So too can using more efficient technologies.
C. The combination of all measures leads to significant fur ther emission reductions, despite some offsetting interactions such as the reduced emission-reduction potentials of heat pumps when homes are better insulated.
D. It is important to note, however, that the successful implementation of these policies depends on multiple conditions, such as broader societal support, which was not explicitly considered in this study.
E. The Paris Agreement sets a goal to keep global warming well below 2 °C.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Our study uses quantitative scenarios generated with global integrated assessment models (IAMs) that are specifically designed to capture the interactions within and between the energy system, the economy, and the environment. We developed three scenarios that each capture the impact of a specific strategy targeting energy use. ...

    Options:
    A. In the first scenario end users reduce or change energy-using activities, in the second they adopt more efficient technologies, and in the third they switch to electri fication or alternative energy carriers as substitutes to fossil fuels.
B. Using a structured questionnaire, we also gathered inputs from policymakers and experts in demand sectors to refine the scenarios.
C. The Paris Agreement sets a goal to keep global warming well below 2 °C.
D. However, model projections show that this goal is unlikely to be met with current climate policies and actions, indicating a need for additional strategies to further reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
E. Our analysis shows that a comprehensive set of measures involving end users can reduce sectoral CO2 emissions by 51-85% in buildings and 37-91% in transport by 2050, compared to a scenario based on current policies (Fig. 1).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    To meet climate targets, net-negative emissions in the energy system are likely necessary, with direct air capture and bioenergy with car bon capture and utilization or storage seen as important technology options.While bioenergy can be associated with both positive and negative environmental, social and economic effects, concerns about negative impacts have led the European Union to cap biofuels from food and feed crops and to increasingly emphasize the use of waste and residue resources. ...

    Options:
    A. Further policy development needs to be informed about intersectoral competition and effective use of biomass resources alongside emerging options such as direct air capture, low-carbon electrolysis and e-fuels.
B. Excluding biomass increases energy system costs by ~20% under stringent emissions targets (Fig. 1), similar to excluding wind power or electrolytic hydrogen, and the main value in the European energy system is the provision of carbon rather than energy.
C. How biomass is used is less critical if carbon is captured to provide feedstock for fuels and chemicals and enable negative emissions.
D. The study investigates the use of biomass in the European energy system by exploring a wide range of technology mixes with similar costs, in scenarios that adhere to stringent emissions targets.
E. We combine a rich portfolio of bioenergy technology options with a state-of-the-art sector-coupled energy system model employing a high spatial and temporal resolution.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Excluding biomass increases energy system costs by ~20% under stringent emissions targets (Fig. 1), similar to excluding wind power or electrolytic hydrogen, and the main value in the European energy system is the provision of carbon rather than energy. How biomass is used is less critical if carbon is captured to provide feedstock for fuels and chemicals and enable negative emissions. ...

    Options:
    A. However, advanced biofuels and chemicals gain importance if the deployment of carbon capture, variable renewables or electrolytic hydrogen is slow.
B. Biomass remains cost-effective even when associated with some upstream emissions, and the value of biomass and carbon capture and utilization increases significantly as fossil fuels are phased out.
C. Policymakers need to balance the risk-mitigating benefits of limiting the use of biomass for energy with its role in providing renewable carbon to meet emission targets.
D. This must be weighed against uncertainties about the possible scale-up pace of direct air capture, variable renewables, electrolytic hydrogen and carbon cap ture and storage.
E. To meet climate targets, net-negative emissions in the energy system are likely necessary, with direct air capture and bioenergy with car bon capture and utilization or storage seen as important technology options.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The study investigates the use of biomass in the European energy system by exploring a wide range of technology mixes with similar costs, in scenarios that adhere to stringent emissions targets. We combine a rich portfolio of bioenergy technology options with a state-of-the-art sector-coupled energy system model employing a high spatial and temporal resolution. ...

    Options:
    A. This allows us to show competition and synergies between biomass options on the one hand, and vari able renewables, electrolytic hydrogen, e-fuels and direct air capture on the other.
B. The analysis of near-optimal solutions avoids the com mon focus on least-cost results, and thus provides a more nuanced picture of the importance of individual biomass usage options.
C. We also use metrics from feasibility studies to put the penetration of variable renewables and electrolysers into context and assess the role of biomass at lower growth rates for solar photovoltaics, wind power and electrolytic hydrogen.
D. To meet climate targets, net-negative emissions in the energy system are likely necessary, with direct air capture and bioenergy with car bon capture and utilization or storage seen as important technology options.
E. How biomass is used is less critical if carbon is captured to provide feedstock for fuels and chemicals and enable negative emissions.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In recent years, green hydrogen has often been heralded as the clean fuel of the future. More than 60 countries have already released hydrogen strategies and companies are continually announcing new green hydrogen projects. ...

    Options:
    A. However, current production of green hydrogen remains minimal as the vast majority of projects have been delayed or scrapped due to rising costs, regulatory uncertainty, and limited willingness to pay.
B. Some analysts warn of a widening disconnect between expectations and reality regarding hydrogen availability and costs, which may distract from readily available and cheaper climate mitigation options.
C. Adding to the uncertainty, climate change mitigation scenarios show a wide spectrum of poten tial future hydrogen shares, ranging from negligible levels to sub stantial portions of the future energy system.
D. For policymakers, it is essential to realistically assess the future availability of green hydrogen, know the associated policy costs, and be aware of remain ing uncertainties in order to ensure a swift market ramp-up while hedging against the risk of fossil fuel lock-in.
E. We identify and quantify three gaps of global green hydrogen deploy ment (Fig. 1).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We identify and quantify three gaps of global green hydrogen deploy ment (Fig. 1). First, looking back, we find that in 2023 only 7% of the initially announced added green hydrogen capacity was eventually operational—the past implementation gap. ...

    Options:
    A. Second, looking ahead to 2030, we find that green hydrogen projects announced by industry increasingly exceed the requirements in 1.5 °C scenarios—the clos ing ambition gap.
B. Third, enormous subsidies of US$1.3 trillion would be required to realize all announced projects by 2030, far exceed ing currently announced policy support, which we term the 2030 implementation gap.
C. Policymakers should therefore interpret the increasingly steep growth indicated by recent project announcements with caution.
D. To safeguard climate targets, policymakers must prepare for prolonged green hydrogen scarcity, low competitiveness, and high policy costs.
E. Relying on abundant and cheap green hydrogen for the future risks crowding out cheaper alternatives such as end-use elec trification, and may endanger climate targets if hydrogen continues to fall short of expectations.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In our study, we start by tracking 190 individual global green hydrogen projects announced for 2023 over a period of three years. This tracking builds on three consecutive and manually validated versions of the IEA Hydrogen Production Projects Database, each providing unique project identifiers across versions. ...

    Options:
    A. Next, we collect data on 1.5 °C sce narios, drawing from integrated assessment models (primarily from the IPCC) as well as from institutional and corporate sources like the IEA, BloombergNEF, and the Hydrogen Council.
B. Lastly, we estimate the subsidies that would be required to realize all global project announce ments until 2030, developing a model of the required policy support per unit of green hydrogen.
C. For each of the 14 designated end-uses for green hydrogen projects, we calculate the cost gap between the green product and its corresponding fossil competitor.
D. This cost gap, together with the volume and timing of project announcements, deter mines the total required subsidies.
E. We identify and quantify three gaps of global green hydrogen deploy ment (Fig. 1).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    To reach national emissions reductions goals, the United States must quickly phase out the use of unabated coal, oil, and gas and build new renewable energy infrastructure. The scale of this energy transition will require a major overhaul of technologies, industries, and ways of living, requiring both public support and political will. ...

    Options:
    A. Although most Americans say they support renewable energy, many recent projects have faced public opposition, leading to delay or cancel lation.
B. While energy policies are set at the national or state level, infrastructure projects are sited in specific places and depend on local governments to develop zoning ordinances, solicit community feedback, and negotiate community benefits.
C. Energy projects can come in many different forms, however there is little evidence on which features of energy projects are most important to residents and local elected officials.
D. In a recent survey study in Pennsylvania, we show that community owned projects that create permanent, union-wage jobs increase support by larger margins than other project characteristics, like distance from residential areas (Fig. 1).
E. Regardless of their politi cal party affiliation, respondents in the general public had similar preferences for project characteristics, which suggests that direct benefits may help build bipartisan support.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In a recent survey study in Pennsylvania, we show that community owned projects that create permanent, union-wage jobs increase support by larger margins than other project characteristics, like distance from residential areas (Fig. 1). Regardless of their politi cal party affiliation, respondents in the general public had similar preferences for project characteristics, which suggests that direct benefits may help build bipartisan support. ...

    Options:
    A. Respondents prefer solar projects to wind, nuclear, and natural gas power plants with carbon capture and storage.
B. Local elected officials, however, mis perceive the preferences of their constituents, underestimating support for solar energy as well as the importance of job loss and creation.
C. These results shed light on preferences in Pennsylvania, but they emphasize the general importance of considering variation in project features, including conferred community benefits, to build public support.
D. To reach national emissions reductions goals, the United States must quickly phase out the use of unabated coal, oil, and gas and build new renewable energy infrastructure.
E. The scale of this energy transition will require a major overhaul of technologies, industries, and ways of living, requiring both public support and political will.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    To understand which aspects of large-scale energy projects impact support for their development by the public and local elected officials, we surveyed a representative group of 894 residents and 206 local elected officials in Pennsylvania, a critical energy transi tion state. We used a conjoint experiment to assess preferences for energy projects across various dimensions including distance from residential areas, job opportunities, local project benefits, owner ship structure, site type, and energy type. ...

    Options:
    A. Conjoint experiments allow researchers to compare tradeoffs across multiple dimensions by randomly generating bundles of attributes and asking respond ents to pick between two such choice bundles (in this case, which energy project they preferred).
B. This design is closer to real-life decision making than asking respondents to evaluate project characteristics independently.
C. In addition to asking about their own preferences, we also asked local elected officials to choose which project they thought most of their constituents would prefer.
D. In the United States, Democrats and Republicans are more likely to support energy projects that are community-owned, create jobs, and generate solar energy, but local elected officials underestimate their constituents' support for projects with these characteristics.
E. Since these officials play a key role in approving new energy projects and negotiating the benefits they bring to communities, aligning local elected officials' perceptions with the public's could improve progress toward just energy transitions.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Rooftop solar has enabled millions of households to reduce electricity bills and participate in the renewable energy transition. However, roof top solar adoption remains largely out of reach for households in cer tain communities, especially multifamily building occupants, renters, and low-income households. ...

    Options:
    A. In addition to reducing the deployment potential of rooftop solar, inequitable solar access generates political opposition to rooftop solar policies.
B. Policymakers are responding through measures to provide more equitable solar access.
C. One such approach is to enable and support community solar, a business model wherein multiple households buy solar output from a single shared system.
D. Proponents argue that community solar does not carry the same adoption challenges that have resulted in inequitable rooftop solar access.
E. However, the impacts of community solar on solar access have not yet been empirically evaluated.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Using household-level data from 11 US states, we find that community solar adopters in 2023 were about 6.1 times more likely to live in mul tifamily buildings than rooftop solar adopters, were about 4.4 times more likely to rent, and earned about 23% less annual income (Fig. 1). These results suggest that community solar has expanded solar access to households that would or could not otherwise have adopted solar. ...

    Options:
    A. We also find that policies have been effective in further expanding solar access, such as programmes that reserve community solar shares for low-income customers.
B. We estimate that income-targeted commu nity solar policies explain around 70% of differences in income levels between community and rooftop solar adopters in our sample, around 40% of differences in renter rates, and around 20% of differences in housing type.
C. The impacts of community solar on solar access may vary from the results of this study in other jurisdictions with distinct policy and socioeconomic contexts.
D. Rooftop solar has enabled millions of households to reduce electricity bills and participate in the renewable energy transition.
E. However, roof top solar adoption remains largely out of reach for households in cer tain communities, especially multifamily building occupants, renters, and low-income households.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Household-level adopter data were compiled from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's Tracking the Sun data set (rooftop solar), the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Sharing the Sun research project (community solar), and directly from state community solar programmes. Household-level solar adopter data were matched to household-level demographic data for income, housing type (for example, single versus multifamily), housing tenure (for example, own versus rent), and race/ethnicity. ...

    Options:
    A. We then selected a subset of data from 11 US states with at least 100 rooftop and com munity solar adopters with available data for key variables.
B. We ana lysed the demographic characteristics of rooftop and community solar adopters to identify statistically significant differences between the two adopter groups.
C. Demographic differences were relatively consistent and generally significant across all states in terms of income, housing type, and housing tenure, but not in terms of race/ethnicity.
D. We used additional statistical modelling to esti mate the impacts of community solar policies on community solar adoption trends.
E. Community solar, a business model where multiple customers buy output from shared solar systems, has expanded solar access among multifamily housing occupants, renters, and low-income households.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Supporting climate-tech startups that can rapidly bring innovations to market is a policy priority for meeting net-zero goals. However, many climate-tech startups face high risks and fail (for example, bankruptcy, going out of business). ...

    Options:
    A. Policymakers can support these startups by increasing public funding and mobilizing private investment to increase the likelihood of success or exits (for example, IPOs, merg ers/acquisitions).
B. But current policies treat all private investors the same, neglecting differences in their effects and potential synergies with public funding.
C. Alongside various financial- or impact-focused venture capital investors, corporations are strategic investors that seek to increase profits while achieving goals related to long-term business plans, competitive standing or decarbonization.
D. Corporations make fewer investments than other private investors, but these investments are often substantially larger and come with sectoral experience, supply chains and networks.
E. Corporations are thus potentially more influen tial at shaping innovation outcomes than other investors, yet remain poorly understood in innovation policy discussions.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Corporate investments in climate-tech have consistently increased since 2005, even when other sources of investment declined (Fig. 1a). The startups they invest in are more likely to achieve a successful exit. ...

    Options:
    A. Public grants are not significantly associated with exits on their own but are likely to act as catalysts for high-risk startups.
B. Publicly funded startups exit at a higher rate with the addition of corporate investment (155% increase) compared with other private investment (78% increase).
C. Additionally, corporate investment has not been sig nificantly associated with failure in more recent years (2012-2020), suggesting corporations may have learned from earlier losses and could play an increasingly important role in future climate-tech innovation.
D. Although these results may indicate corporate investors are better at selecting startups destined for success, the correlations we observe are unlikely to arise purely from selection bias because investments are correlated with failure as well as success.
E. Supporting climate-tech startups that can rapidly bring innovations to market is a policy priority for meeting net-zero goals.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We cleaned and expanded a comprehensive investment dataset created by the Cleantech Group to include 2,910 US-based startups founded between 2005 and 2020 that received at least one grant or equity invest ment. These startups were supported by 3,979 unique investors par ticipating in 15,108 investment deals (Fig. 1a,b). ...

    Options:
    A. This dataset enabled statistical analysis of whether corporate investment, coupled with public grants and other private investment, improves outcomes linked to technology deployment for climate-tech startups.
B. Corporate investments in climate-tech have consistently increased since 2005, even when other sources of investment declined (Fig. 1a).
C. The startups they invest in are more likely to achieve a successful exit.
D. Investment in climate and energy (climate-tech) startups is growing in the US and worldwide, with public grants backing high-risk sectors and publicly funded startups exiting at higher rates with corporate investment.
E. . Public policies to incentivize corporate investment in these startups can therefore be an important, yet sometimes underestimated, part of meeting net-zero goals.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The EU ETS puts a cap (and thereby a price) on emissions from power plants and large industry plants, with the cap expected to reach zero around 2040. If actors anticipate very high abatement costs in the future, they can reduce emissions today and bank the certificates. ...

    Options:
    A. This connects current prices to future scarcities, and should lead to dynamic cost-effectiveness: emissions are reduced when it is cheapest.
B. Thus, farsightedness helps to align actors' near-term investments with long-term climate targets, prevent stranded assets, and reduce price volatility.
C. However, over the last five years and two policy reforms that included changes to the cap, carbon prices have increased tenfold.
D. For policymakers and investors, it is crucial to understand what drives prices, and to what extent future scarcities are already accounted for in today's prices.
E. This knowledge is especially relevant to prepare the review of the EU ETS market stability reserve (MSR) in 2026.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We find that the price change following the EU ETS/MSR reform in 2018 is not mainly due to the change of the emission cap, as widely assumed. The full price increase can only be explained if the reform also made actors more farsighted. ...

    Options:
    A. Before the reform, observed prices aligned reasonably well with simulation results for short-sighted actors (actual prices in grey are closer to the orange than to the blue line, as noted in period (i) in Fig. 1).
B. After the reform, observed prices increased strongly (period (ii) in Fig. 1).
C. This strong increase diverges from what would have been only a small price increase from the change of cap if we assume actors were short-sighted (the difference between the orange line before 2018 and the orange line after 2018).
D. However, the strong price increases can be reproduced by assuming actors are farsighted (the actual prices in grey are much closer to the blue line in period (ii)).
E. We infer that the sizable political capital invested into the reform of the EU ETS strengthened policy credibility and thereby induced actors to account for future scarcities.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The numerical power sector/ETS-model LIMES-EU is used to analyse the impact of foresight on carbon prices in the EU ETS over the last decade. Carbon prices emerging from the emission caps are modelled once assuming that actors are farsighted and consider future scarcities, and once assuming that actors are short-sighted and only take a ten-year horizon into account. ...

    Options:
    A. The observed time period is uniquely suited for this endeavour, as two large ETS reforms brought well-defined changes to the emission caps and market stability reserve rules, causing a sub stantial change in carbon prices on both occasions.
B. The EU ETS puts a cap (and thereby a price) on emissions from power plants and large industry plants, with the cap expected to reach zero around 2040.
C. We find that the price change following the EU ETS/MSR reform in 2018 is not mainly due to the change of the emission cap, as widely assumed.
D. The full price increase can only be explained if the reform also made actors more farsighted.
E. If actors anticipate very high abatement costs in the future, they can reduce emissions today and bank the certificates.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from road transport requires a fast transition to zero-emission trucks. However, policymakers face uncertainty about the speed of this transition and which truck tech nologies merit support. ...

    Options:
    A. Adequate timing of carbon dioxide reduc tion regulation, infrastructure roll-outs, grid expansions and the level and duration of potential subsidies, require thorough knowl edge of the expected transition speed.
B. Carbon dioxide reduction targets should be ambitious, but still achievable for manufactur ers and infrastructure providers, yet not intimidate fleet operators and preclude profitability to ensure robust demand.
C. Electricity grid upgrades and charging infrastructure deployment as well as elec trifying the product portfolio and establishing new supply chains often require significant time; however, technological uncertainty should not delay action and investment decisions in new technologies.
D. To accelerate the transition while limiting public spending, policy makers need to prioritize financial support for the most promising technologies.
E. We find that costs for zero-emission truck components will decline faster than expected, projecting battery costs to cut €200 kWh-1 soon and approach €100 kWh-1 towards 2050 (Fig. 1a,b).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We find that costs for zero-emission truck components will decline faster than expected, projecting battery costs to cut €200 kWh-1 soon and approach €100 kWh-1 towards 2050 (Fig. 1a,b). In contrast, fuel cell costs are likely to reach €150 kW-1 in the late 2030s, albeit with greater uncer tainty due to lower commercial maturity and doubts about realizing floor costs. ...

    Options:
    A. The analysis stresses the challenge of achieving ambitious learning rates and cost reductions while highlighting the historical prec edent for such advancements.
B. Battery-electric trucks are very likely the most cost-effective pathway for achieving cost parity with diesel trucks (Fig. 1c).
C. They may also require less financial incentives than fuel cell trucks, which are likely to struggle from hydrogen scarcity.
D. Thus, pros pects for battery-electric trucks as the leading future truck technology seem more favourable at higher confidence, backed by faster availabil ity and higher profitability.
E. Additionally, other studies indicate that their technical competitiveness with diesel trucks is close for most cases of logistics.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    This study derives future cost developments for price-setting com ponents of zero-emission trucks, centred on batteries and fuel cells, by meta-forecasting from more than 200 sources. Different cost expectations related to the literature sources, from near-market to scientific, were analysed and discussed with respect to consist ency and level of ambition. ...

    Options:
    A. Regression-based cost projections are compared with implied market evolution, including cumulative volumes and time scales, as well as growth rates and learning rates.
B. Necessary actions to realize these cost reductions in practice are discussed.
C. Additional statistical techniques are used to validate the robustness of the results.
D. Feasibility is assessed by considering component-specific floor costs and historical advances of other technologies.
E. The cost developments are finally compared with breakthrough costs from other studies and incorporated into a total cost of ownership framework to assess the cost-effectiveness of battery-electric trucks and fuel cell trucks versus diesel trucks for 2020, 2030 and 2040.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Electricity is vital to many aspects of wellbeing, including keeping homes safe and comfortable, and keeping foods and medicines (such as insulin) refrigerated. Yet in Australia, electricity retail protections vary across the country. ...

    Options:
    A. Life support customers are not always protected from disconnection upon non-payment, whilst regulations for visibility such as retailer reports of disconnection rates are not always required.
B. Not all customers have a clear path to install rooftop solar for energy supply autonomy.
C. There is currently no national database to compare levels of protection and reporting requirements for individual settle ments.
D. Change is unlikely to happen so long as there is limited visibility of the differences in electricity retail protections nationwide.
E. Without change, residents of some settlements will enter the energy transition on an uneven footing, and we run the risk that future energy systems will simply sustain existing inequities, rather than remedy them.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We mapped five categories of regulatory protection for household electricity consumers in Australia: 1) life support protections against disconnection; 2) guaranteed minimum service levels; 3) mandated disconnection reporting; 4) complaints process clarity and independ ence; and 5) clear contractual guidelines for rooftop solar connection. Remote communities are 18% more likely to receive fewer than four of these five protections compared to urban or regional communities. ...

    Options:
    A. Indigenous communities are 15% more likely to be underserved com pared to communities that are not majority Indigenous.
B. These groups overlap.
C. Approximately 1 in 5 Australians live in settlements where not all consumers have all five of the protections examined (Fig. 1), while all urban and regional settlements are legally required to protect life support customers, guarantee service levels, and report disconnec tions.
D. Only 2 of the 631 settlements where prepayment can operate have clearly outlined conditions for prepay customers to connect rooftop solar.
E. Electricity is vital to many aspects of wellbeing, including keeping homes safe and comfortable, and keeping foods and medicines (such as insulin) refrigerated.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We created a dataset of electricity retail protections and solar access conditions for 3,047 Australian settlements nationwide. We did this by reviewing 284 legal documents (legislation, contracts, licences, authorities, codes and exemptions) to establish the presence (or the absence) of electricity retail protections and their conditions. ...

    Options:
    A. Communi ties were only considered to have a protection if all customer types, both prepay and post-pay, had unambiguous protections granted in legal documents.
B. We used multiple logistic regression (n = 2,996) to examine whether remote and Indigenous communities were less likely to have each of the five protections mapped (Fig. 1) individually and combined, while controlling for settlement-level population and socioeconomic disadvantage.
C. We use a simple count as the most transparent indicator of locations facing disadvantage in multiple areas, whilst being mindful that this may not fully capture regulation in each practical application.
D. Not all Australian communities are equally protected by consumer electricity retail regulations, with remote and Indigenous communities more likely to be underserved on multiple fronts.
E. Electricity is vital to many aspects of wellbeing, including keeping homes safe and comfortable, and keeping foods and medicines (such as insulin) refrigerated.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Low-income households spend a disproportionate amount of their income on energy bills. To address this burden and promote an equi table clean energy transition, many countries have enacted policies that provide efficient and renewable energy technologies at low or no cost to lower-income households. ...

    Options:
    A. The US Inflation Reduction Act is one recent example.
B. But offering such technologies free of charge may not be enough to attract eligible households.
C. Like other social benefits programmes, many subsidized energy programmes go undersubscribed, owing to distrust of programme providers, high hassle costs for programme enrolment, and lack of information.
D. Low participation rates translate to inefficient use of programme funds, as programme administrators must allocate additional resources for outreach, especially to capture vulnerable, hard-to-reach populations.
E. Emerging research suggests there is promise in tapping existing pro gramme beneficiaries to find new participants, but evidence on how to best do this is scant.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We identify cost-effective, scalable strategies to improve the efficacy of a peer referral programme for fully-subsidized low-income solar in California. The baseline programme ('control') offered existing pro gramme participants a US$200 reward for every referral that resulted in a solar installation (Fig. 1). ...

    Options:
    A. Adding a token gift upfront with a reminder about the programme (to evoke a sense of 'reciprocity') led to 1.7 times the response rate, 2 times the number of referrals and 2.6 times as many solar contracts.
B. A third 'reciprocity and simplification' group in which the gift was combined with a mailable referral slip (instead of just phone or web referrals) led to nearly 5 times the response rate, 7.5 times as many referrals, and 5.2 times as many solar contracts — making it more cost-effective than the baseline programme.
C. It was also more effective at eliciting referrals from participants who had not previously referred.
D. The results highlight strategies that could be adapted to other energy assistance programmes for electrification measures, heating and insu lation upgrades, and electric vehicles.
E. Low-income households spend a disproportionate amount of their income on energy bills.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The data are from a field experiment with all 7,680 homeowners who received fully subsidized solar in California from 2004 to June 2018. Households were sent one of three mailers reminding them that they could receive US$200 for each nomination which resulted in a solar installation. ...

    Options:
    A. The 'control' group received the standard postcard, with a website and toll-free number for making referrals.
B. The 'reciprocity' group provided the same information in a letter along with a US$1 gift to thank clients for being part of the solar community.
C. The 'reciprocity + simplification' group further provided a referral slip and stamped return envelope.
D. We tested for differences in response rates to the mailers, the number of nominations provided, whether nominations lived in subsidy-eligible areas, and the number of resulting solar con tracts.
E. As the referral reward was in all conditions, further research is needed to know how important the reward itself was.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    California's transportation green gas emissions (GHG) remain high, accounting for half of statewide emissions in 2022. The state has imple mented demandside policies such as vehicle fuel economy standards, low carbon fuel standards, and electric vehicle subsidies to tackle the issue. ...

    Options:
    A. Yet, without complementary supplyside policies, California could continue extracting oil and exporting to the global market, poten tially undermining GHG reductions.
B. Oil well setbacks — drilling bans on locations near homes, schools, health clinics and other sensitive sites — and oil excise taxes and carbon taxes are all viable options to reduce GHG emissions from oil extraction.
C. However, such policies have trade offs: they improve air quality but also lower employment near oil extrac tion, with potential for unequal distribution of costs and benefits.
D. To support the state's goals of achieving a just environmental and energy transition, decarbonization policy needs to be evaluated not only in terms of its ability to reduce GHG emissions, but also in terms of which communities see its air quality benefits and employment costs.
E. This policy debate is especially timely: California passed a 3,200 ft (975 m) setback restriction on new oil wells in 2022 but that law has been suspended until the outcome of a referendum vote in 2024.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    For a statewide 2045 GHG target, we find that setbacks applied to new oil wells generate the largest health benefits in terms of avoided mortality from reduced particulate matter air pollution, but also the largest lost worker compensation. This is followed by excise taxes and carbon taxes (see Fig. 1 for details). ...

    Options:
    A. Setbacks also have the most favourable equity outcomes by yielding the highest share of health benefits and the lowest share of lost worker compensation borne by disadvantaged commu nities.
B. However, even a 1mile setback — the largest considered in this study and much larger than the 3,200 ft (975 m) currently proposed in California — may fail to meet California's ambitious 90% GHG reduction target by 2045.
C. Meeting this target will require combining setbacks applied to both existing and new oil wells with other supplyside poli cies such as excise taxes and carbon taxes.
D. We combine a statisticallyestimated model of oil field production, an air pollution dispersion model, and an employment impact model to examine how different setback, excise tax, and carbon tax policies would lower production and GHG emissions from oil extraction, alter oil worker compensation across the state, and alter the distribution of local air pollution between disadvantaged and other communities.
E. We draw on over five decades of historical, fieldlevel oil production and reserves data from California's state government agencies as well as proprietary data on oil production costs.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We combine a statisticallyestimated model of oil field production, an air pollution dispersion model, and an employment impact model to examine how different setback, excise tax, and carbon tax policies would lower production and GHG emissions from oil extraction, alter oil worker compensation across the state, and alter the distribution of local air pollution between disadvantaged and other communities. We draw on over five decades of historical, fieldlevel oil production and reserves data from California's state government agencies as well as proprietary data on oil production costs. ...

    Options:
    A. Because of data limitations, we are likely understating the health benefits of supplyside policies by only quantifying mortality related to particulate air pollution and overstating labour costs by failing to capture reemployment possibili ties for workers affected by oil production phaseout.
B. California's transportation green gas emissions (GHG) remain high, accounting for half of statewide emissions in 2022.
C. For a statewide 2045 GHG target, we find that setbacks applied to new oil wells generate the largest health benefits in terms of avoided mortality from reduced particulate matter air pollution, but also the largest lost worker compensation.
D. Compared to excise taxes and carbon taxes, setback restrictions on new oil wells have larger health benefits and worker compensation losses, but are more equitable by bringing greater benefits and lower losses to disadvant aged communities in California.
E. For California to meet green gas emissions (GHG) targets, larger setbacks than currently proposed or additional supplyside policies are needed.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The war in Ukraine has led to significant increases in the oil price, which is passed on to households in the form of increased fuel prices. These fuel-price increases have significant negative financial effects on households, some of which are hit harder than others. ...

    Options:
    A. One policy response in the EU has been to lower fuel taxes to soften the blow.
B. However, such a policy stimulates oil demand in a situation where supply is the limiting factor and hence increases the oil price further.
C. The increased oil price implies a de facto income transfer from the EU to the oil suppliers.
D. Importantly, this includes suppliers in Russia, who the EU is trying to isolate economically due to the invasion of Ukraine.
E. The question for policy makers that we address in our study is whether this effect is sizable and what alternative policies exist.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We first estimate that EU countries on average already have, or intend to, cut fuel taxes by around 20 eurocents per litre. We then find that this will lead to an increased oil price with significantly increased Russian oil profits. ...

    Options:
    A. In the first year and up to three years later, Russia's oil profits can be expected to increase by more than 8 million euros per day.
B. This is equivalent to around 3,000 million euros in a year, 0.2% of Russia's pre-invasion GDP and 5% of its estimated pre-invasion military spending.
C. This is independent of whether the EU implements an import ban on Russian oil.
D. Our analysis thus indicates that lowering fuel taxes undermines the EU's efforts to restrict Russia's economic abilities.
E. As households are being hit significantly by the increased fuel price, we study an alternative policy measure: direct income transfers to households with the same fiscal burden (€170 million per day) as the tax cut (Fig. 1).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In our study, we set up a quantifiable model of supply and demand of the market for road fuel and crude oil. The results thus follow from the simple but fundamental principles of supply and demand. ...

    Options:
    A. To apply the model, key parameters such as supply and demand elasticities, import flows, extraction costs, tax rates and planned cuts, fuel processing costs, and so on were quantified based on a large number of previous studies as well as novel data analysis.
B. Some of the parameters were matched to how the oil market can be expected to behave over different time horizons.
C. A variety of perturbations to the model and its values showed the results to be fairly robust to investigated changes.
D. On a 1 to 12-month horizon, the results could be a third of our reported base case, or 70% higher.
E. We then find that this will lead to an increased oil price with significantly increased Russian oil profits.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Repeatedly, infrastructure relevant to the Texan power system failed during cold events. This culminated in February 2021 when a catastrophic event occurred, causing large-scale rolling blackouts that caused the death of up to 200 people in addition to sizeable economic damage. ...

    Options:
    A. Texas uses an energy-only market with a scarcity price mechanism to incentivize investments into capacity availability.
B. The rolling blackouts clearly showed that this mechanism failed to provide the correct investment signals into the winterization of power system infrastructure.
C. To prevent future catastrophic events, policymakers need to understand the causes of market and regulatory failures and why the current regulatory framework failed to address these.
D. We find that since 1950, eight events similar to the one observed in 2021 would have occurred if the past climate had met the current power system and power markets.
E. We further confirm previous findings that the frequency of cold events did not significantly decrease in the past seven decades, although the population-weighted mean temperature in Texas has increased by 0.017 °C per year on average.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We find that since 1950, eight events similar to the one observed in 2021 would have occurred if the past climate had met the current power system and power markets. We further confirm previous findings that the frequency of cold events did not significantly decrease in the past seven decades, although the population-weighted mean temperature in Texas has increased by 0.017 °C per year on average. ...

    Options:
    A. Under reasonable assumptions on discount rates and winterization cost, the frequency of cold events in Texas is sufficiently high to generate positive expected profits from investments into winterization under the current scarcity price mechanism.
B. Importantly, this result is qualitatively robust to changes in assumptions on power plant outages and to changes in how climate warming-induced mean temperature changes will affect extreme cold events.
C. Consequently, the under-investment can be explained by the high variance of profits from winterization, which may become negative due to the low frequency of cold events in some of our simulations.
D. We combine a statistical model that predicts electricity load on the Texan grid conditional on temperature, with a simplified power plant outage model, which simulates the failure of power system infrastructure depending on temperature.
E. Repeatedly, infrastructure relevant to the Texan power system failed during cold events.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We combine a statistical model that predicts electricity load on the Texan grid conditional on temperature, with a simplified power plant outage model, which simulates the failure of power system infrastructure depending on temperature. By combining these two models, we can derive estimates of capacity scarcity in the system, that is, periods when available capacity is only slightly above or even below power demand. ...

    Options:
    A. Capacity scarcity can be directly translated to spot market electricity prices active under those conditions based on current regulatory rules.
B. We run this model with seven decades of past climate data and can thus simulate revenues from winterization under different climate realizations.
C. We furthermore estimated the winterization cost and were thus able to calculate profits.
D. We do so for many different potential realizations of climate, which allows us to derive a distribution of revenues instead of a point estimate only.
E. We further confirm previous findings that the frequency of cold events did not significantly decrease in the past seven decades, although the population-weighted mean temperature in Texas has increased by 0.017 °C per year on average.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    In Australia's Northern Territory, most remote Indigenous households are provided with or elect to use prepayment electricity meters. This payment method is associated with high disconnection rates and is uncommon in other Australian urban and rural communities. ...

    Options:
    A. These remote communities also experience some of the most extreme temperatures in Australia (Fig. 1a).
B. Electricity use to sustain safe indoor temperatures can rapidly deplete available means, resulting in disconnection with little warning.
C. As such, safe temperatures cannot be maintained, and households lose access to other essential services that electricity provides, such as food storage, washing and cooking.
D. This raises the need to understand both the extent of current disconnections and the degree to which they are triggered by temperature.
E. Without this understanding, the existence and severity of problems cannot be identified, and policy cannot be designed to mitigate current harms or prevent future ones.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Among 28 remote communities in the Northern Territory, we found that 91% of households experienced a disconnection event at least once during the 2018/19 financial year; 74% of households were disconnected over 10 times, and 29% of all disconnections occurred during extreme temperatures. In mild temperatures (20-25 °C), households had a 1 in 17 chance of disconnection on a given day (Fig. 1b). ...

    Options:
    A. This increased to a 1 in 11 chance during hot days (34-40 °C) and a 1 in 6 chance during cold days (0-10 °C).
B. Households with high electricity use in the central Australian climate zones had a 1 in 3 chance of a same-day disconnection during temperature extremes.
C. Energy insecurity is worsened when energy use is heightened owing to heating or cooling needs (Fig. 1c).
D. Our analysis does not explore all of the complexities underlying energy insecurity in these communities, but we expect that these findings will inform discussions of energy insecurity in regions with extreme temperatures.
E. This analysis used daily smart-meter data from 3,300 households across 28 remote communities in Australia's Northern Territory to identify the incidence of disconnection events.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    This analysis used daily smart-meter data from 3,300 households across 28 remote communities in Australia's Northern Territory to identify the incidence of disconnection events. These smart-meter data were matched with daily temperature observations from the closest weather station using data from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology. ...

    Options:
    A. We estimated the probability of disconnection across distinct temperature ranges using random-effects probit regressions, which allowed us to include variables for the daily average temperature, month of the year, and different levels of electricity use.
B. Using a reference temperature range allowed us to measure how temperature influenced electricity use and the likelihood of a disconnection during both hot and cold days.
C. This assessment of whether extreme temperatures are a factor determining disconnection events was only possible with access to smart-meter data.
D. As the vulnerability of prepayment customers is often overlooked, we recommend that these data be better monitored and made more accessible to residents, community organizations and researchers.
E. Among 28 remote communities in the Northern Territory, we found that 91% of households experienced a disconnection event at least once during the 2018/19 financial year; 74% of households were disconnected over 10 times, and 29% of all disconnections occurred during extreme temperatures.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    At the current rate, the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG7) target of universal access to clean cooking services by 2030 is unachievable and may remain unattainable for some countries even by 2050. This can also hinder progress on other SDGs, including those on health, gender, inequality, climate and land. ...

    Options:
    A. Financial strain following the COVID-19 pandemic is pushing people further down the energy ladder and deepening inequities.
B. Emerging evidence also suggests that exposure to household air pollution from dirty cooking can exacerbate public health issues.
C. Understanding how access to clean cooking may change under alternative future scenarios is important to inform strategies for achieving health and climate goals.
D. Although there are several climate mitigation scenarios in the literature, it is not clear how the world might develop in the absence of climate policy and how climate change mitigation might interact with clean cooking access goals.
E. As a result, decision makers do not have clear guidance on integrated policy for climate mitigation, development and clean cooking access.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We explore clean cooking access until 2050 under alternative future scenarios of socioeconomic and demographic change, COVID 19 recovery and ambitious climate mitigation. We find that the population share with access to clean cooking improves in all scenarios relative to today, but the target of universal access by 2030 is not reached even in our most optimistic growth and low inequality scenario. ...

    Options:
    A. About 470 million more people could be pushed into cooking-fuel poverty by 2030, exacerbating global inequities, in a slow pandemic recovery scenario that accounts for 2020 and 2021 GDP estimates and assumes a 20-year recovery period, relative to a pessimistic growth scenario that assumes no pandemic shock (Fig. 1).
B. We find that populations in sub-Saharan Africa, developing Asia and Latin America are the worst affected.
C. Cooking poverty strongly correlates with income poverty, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.
D. Ambitious climate mitigation, without additional policies and financial support, could also make clean cooking unaffordable for about 200 million people by 2030.
E. A transition to clean cooking can reduce future demand for cooking energy, specifically in regions that currently rely heavily on biomass.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We apply existing models of household cooking choice and demand to assess future transitions worldwide. We account for multiple fuel use (fuel stacking), population heterogeneity, inter- and intraregional income distributions, and affordability of clean cooking options. ...

    Options:
    A. In the models, we use data from nationally representative household surveys of select countries for global coverage.
B. We then simulate behaviour, preferences and choices of individual households representing entire distributions of household characteristics and income into the future, by region, to analyse access to clean cooking, and subsequent changes in final cooking energy demand until 2050 under alternative scenarios.
C. We assess how cooking fuel transitions vary by income and urban or rural location across scenarios.
D. We also identify populations most vulnerable to falling into cooking poverty following a slow pandemic recovery or fuel price changes under ambitious climate mitigation policy.
E. We find that the population share with access to clean cooking improves in all scenarios relative to today, but the target of universal access by 2030 is not reached even in our most optimistic growth and low inequality scenario.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Growing opportunities for self-generation, smart metering and electrification of heat and transport mean that utilities are offering consumers new tariffs that go beyond traditional pay-per-kilowatt models. These tariffs include some element of utility control over energy use (such as smart thermostats), more complex pricing regimes (such as time-of-use tariffs), or alterations to the fabric of buildings (such as installing insulation products). ...

    Options:
    A. The transition to net-zero energy systems is likely to accelerate these trends, enrolling domestic consumers in novel and potentially more complex relationships with their utility providers.
B. There is little understanding of how much consumer demand there is in the wider energy market for these innovative new offers and what the aggregate social outcomes might be.
C. As such, there is a risk that new business models could exacerbate the problems of the existing energy retail market, which is already complex and failing to protect consumers.
D. We identified four new energy business models that could emerge in UK utilities: A 'new electrifier', helping consumers to switch to electric heat and mobility; an 'energy service company', which uses long term contracts to finance smart retrofits; a peer to peer model where consumers generate and trade energy with each other; and a 'third party control' model where consumers allow a third party to meet their energy and other utility needs, taking decisions on their behalf.
E. We presented these new models to existing consumers alongside a fifth 'control' model, 'same but smart' (a standard electricity tariff with a smart meter).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We identified four new energy business models that could emerge in UK utilities: A 'new electrifier', helping consumers to switch to electric heat and mobility; an 'energy service company', which uses long term contracts to finance smart retrofits; a peer to peer model where consumers generate and trade energy with each other; and a 'third party control' model where consumers allow a third party to meet their energy and other utility needs, taking decisions on their behalf. We presented these new models to existing consumers alongside a fifth 'control' model, 'same but smart' (a standard electricity tariff with a smart meter). ...

    Options:
    A. We found that innovative energy contracts appeal differently to four specific consumer segments (Fig. 1), each defined by a combination of characteristics relating to demographics, income, education, trust and willingness to innovate.
B. Despite a willingness to change, individual circumstances (such as not owning their own home) will lock some consumers out of new offers.
C. Other consumers are satisfied with the status quo or have trust issues with the energy market and are unlikely to engage with innovative offers.
D. Retail energy market regulation is currently insufficient to acknowledge this complexity and the risk of poor social outcomes.
E. These relations were observed in the UK retail energy market but could apply to other nations with liberalized energy systems.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    This study recruited 38 industry, academic and government stakeholders in the UK energy system in June 2016. We used a business model collaboration process to identify four new utility business models that may become widely available to retail energy consumers. ...

    Options:
    A. We then undertook a representative survey between 30 March and 13 April 2017 of 2,024 domestic consumers in the UK with some responsibility for choosing their energy contract.
B. We presented the consumer-facing attributes of the business models in a paired comparison exercise to identify preference factors alongside socio-economic and attitudinal data collection.
C. We performed a cluster analysis and identified segment characteristics.
D. These findings should be read as how consumers state they would participate in a future energy market with new options, not how the current retail energy market is segmented.
E. We presented these new models to existing consumers alongside a fifth 'control' model, 'same but smart' (a standard electricity tariff with a smart meter).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    The combined activity of dismantling or refurbishing existing wind turbines and commissioning new ones (known as repowering) is a growing point of focus for wind energy deployment. Ageing turbine fleets, increasing land-use constraints and the rising relevance of societal factors in siting decisions make the deployment of land-based (onshore) wind energy ever more complicated. ...

    Options:
    A. To unlock the full potential of wind energy, policies will need to target increasing clean energy supply as well as manage community impacts.
B. Repowering will be an increasingly important element of these policies but it involves complex technical, social and political dynamics.
C. Formulating adequate repowering policy will rely on a robust picture of the extent and potential of repowering activity and of how repowering decisions are made.
D. Through detailed project-level analysis, our study reveals that wind energy repowering involves consideration of more than just end-of-life replacement and space constraints.
E. Dismantling decisions are multifaceted and result in the dismantling of a larger number of turbines and at an earlier age than physically required.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Through detailed project-level analysis, our study reveals that wind energy repowering involves consideration of more than just end-of-life replacement and space constraints. Dismantling decisions are multifaceted and result in the dismantling of a larger number of turbines and at an earlier age than physically required. ...

    Options:
    A. We show this for Denmark, where more than a third (38%) of recent wind energy projects (2012-2019) involved repowering.
B. We found that repowered turbines were dismantled at an average age of 18.6 years — 5.8 years less than those without repowering.
C. Only two thirds (67%) of the capacity dismantled in repowering projects was related to physical space needed for new turbines.
D. This resulted in considerably lower achieved net capacity increases per project, with only 4.72 megawatts commissioned per dismantled megawatt, as compared to 7.05 megawatts if only space-related dismantling were considered.
E. Dismantling reasons besides physical space needs included regulation (noise-related, 8-17% of capacity), development principles (aesthetics, 7-20%), and political bargaining (4-13%).

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We developed a holistic and socially informed approach to analyse repowering activity based on comprehensive project-level information. The approach involves studying repowering projects in their entirety, considering all commissioning and dismantling activity within a project. ...

    Options:
    A. This includes existing turbines located at the same site as the new development project (on-site) as well as in other locations (off-site) for which the dismantling can be conditionally linked to the new development.
B. We demonstrate the approach for the empirical case of Denmark, the country with the oldest wind energy fleet and highest repowering share.
C. Data were collected from municipal plans, project publications, geospatial analysis and semi-structured interviews with wind energy developers (covering 91% of all dismantled capacity in repowering projects between 2012 and 2019).
D. From this, we identified the full breadth of repowering projects in Denmark and determined multiple dismantling reasons, spanning an array of physical, social and economic dimensions (Fig. 1).
E. Dismantling decisions are multifaceted and result in the dismantling of a larger number of turbines and at an earlier age than physically required.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Home Energy Reports (HER) are a popular means of encouraging energy conservation, reaching millions of energy utility customers across many countries. HERs typically rely on social information about the energy usage of a customer's neighbours (descriptive feedback) and their social approval of energy conservation (injunctive feedback) to nudge recipients toward more energy-efficient behaviour. ...

    Options:
    A. The specific content of both types of feedback depends on how the recipient's energy usage compares to that of their neighbours (Fig. 1).
B. Available evidence indicates that the impact of HERs on energy consumption varies significantly both across countries and across individuals.
C. This raises the question of whether the heterogeneity in the effectiveness of HERs can be attributed to how social information feedback is conveyed.
D. Answering this question could inform the design of more effective communication campaigns relying on social information.
E. Energy customers who received two different types of social feedback (descriptive and injunctive) encouraging them to save energy reduced their consumption more than low-energy users for whom conforming with the descriptive feedback would entail consumption increases, at odds with the injunctive feedback praising energy saving.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    Energy customers who received two different types of social feedback (descriptive and injunctive) encouraging them to save energy reduced their consumption more than low-energy users for whom conforming with the descriptive feedback would entail consumption increases, at odds with the injunctive feedback praising energy saving. The addition of a second piece of information of the same type (for example, adding a second descriptive messages that encouraged energy saving) had a limited impact. ...

    Options:
    A. When feedback was inconsistent, the piece of feedback delivering the strongest message prevailed, where strength reflected the difference between the user's energy consumption and that of their neighbours (descriptive feedback) and the intensity of social approval conveyed through visual cues (injunctive feedback).
B. These results suggest the significance of synergies between different types of feedback, rather than the superiority of any one type of feedback.
C. The results may be specific to the precise wording and graphical representations used to provide feedback in our HER (Fig. 1), and may not generalize to the whole customer base.
D. Home Energy Reports (HER) are a popular means of encouraging energy conservation, reaching millions of energy utility customers across many countries.
E. HERs typically rely on social information about the energy usage of a customer's neighbours (descriptive feedback) and their social approval of energy conservation (injunctive feedback) to nudge recipients toward more energy-efficient behaviour.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A


Question:
You are given the start of a paragraph from a policy brief, ending in "...". Choose the most coherent continuation from the options below.

    Query:
    We carried out a randomized controlled experiment in Italy in which households received HERs. We disentangled the impact of descriptive and injunctive feedback in two ways. ...

    Options:
    A. First, we exploited the discontinuities in the injunctive feedback, which changed discretely as users' consumption crossed certain thresholds, for instance shifting from one to two 'thumbs-up' as a user's consumption dropped below the average of their neighbours.
B. Second, we randomly assigned customers to receive a message at the bottom of the HER emphasizing either a descriptive or an injunctive norm of energy conservation (Fig. 1).
C. Using data on the content of the HERs received by users and on their energy consumption, we were able to evaluate the impact of each piece of feedback in isolation, and when combined with others of the same or of different types.
D. Home Energy Reports (HER) are a popular means of encouraging energy conservation, reaching millions of energy utility customers across many countries.
E. HERs typically rely on social information about the energy usage of a customer's neighbours (descriptive feedback) and their social approval of energy conservation (injunctive feedback) to nudge recipients toward more energy-efficient behaviour.

Answer with the letter (A-E) corresponding to the best continuation. **Strictly follow this format—do not include any explanations or additional text.**

Answer: A