A Delextrat

V Tricot

C Hausswirth

T Bernard

F Vercruyssen

J Brisswalter

Influence of drafting during swimming on ratings of perceived exertion during a swim-to-cycle transition in well-trained triathletes

published or not. The documents may come

Influence of drafting during swimming on ratings of perceived exertion during a swim-to-cycle transition in well-trained triathletes

Numerous physiological and psychological factors have been suggested to account for successful performance during endurance events. Among psychological parameters, the perception of workload represents a major determinant of performance [START_REF] Russell | On the current status of rated perceived exertion[END_REF], as a positive or negative evaluation of the exercise's constraints could lead to either the continuation or the cessation of the competitive task. The technique most commonly used for the measurement of perceived exertion is the Rating Scale of Perceived Exertion (RPE, from 6 to 20) described by [START_REF] Borg | Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress[END_REF]. This parameter is classically suggested to be a good indicator of physical stress and provides a complementary tool for training prescription, especially during long duration exercises where fatigue is likely to occur (Williams & Eston, 1989). In this context, most studies have been conducted during continuous unimodal events. During the last decade several multimodal events involving successive locomotion mode sessions such as triathlon have attracted increased attention of scientists. Further, introduction of drafting, i.e., swimming or cycling directly behind a competitor, has considerably modified the race strategy, as triathletes attempt to swim or cycle as fast as possible to stay in the leading group. During these events it has been shown that the succession of different exercises or different drafting strategies leads to specific physiological adaptation when compared with a unimodal sport (Hausswirth, Vallier, Lehenaff, Brisswalter, Smith, Millet & Dreano, 2001). However, to our knowledge, relatively little information is available on the effect of successive exercises on the RPE scores. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether RPE responses measured during a cycling session are affected by a prior swimming bout realized at a competition pace. Eight well-trained triathletes competing at national level were tested during four experimental sessions. The first test was always a 750-m swim realized alone Ad at a competition pace (A: Swimming Alone). It was used to judge swimming intensity for each subject. During the three other tests, presented in counterbalanced order, subjects undertook a 15-min. ride on a bicycle ergometer at 75% of maximal aerobic power (MAP) and at a freely chosen cadence (FCC). This test was preceded by either a 750-m swim performed alone at the pace adopted during Swimming Alone (SAC trial), a 750-rn swim in drafting position at the pace adopted during Swimming Alone (SDC trial), or a cycling warm-up (same duration as the swimming tests) at a power representing 30% of maximal aerobic power (MAP, C trial).

The subjects were asked to rate their perceived exertion (RPE 6-20 scale, Borg, 1970) immediately after the cessation of the swimming and cycling bouts. Moreover, blood lactate concentration was assessed immediately after swimming, and after 3 and 15 min. of cycling, and oxygen uptake (V02) was collected continuously during cycling. The RPE responses and physiological parameters measured during the cycling trials are presented in Table 1. Analysis showed that prior swimming alone led to significantly higher V02, Lactate, and RPE values during subsequent cycling when compared with cycling alone (p< ,051. Further, swimming in drafting position yielded significantly lower blood lactate concentration and RPE values measured during subsequent cycling in comparison with swimming alone (p < .05).

The main result was that RPE during cycling at a constant power output is significantly higher after a swimming bout. The similar evolution of RPE and physiological parameters confirms the hypothesis that RPE is a good indicator of exercise metabolic load (Williams & Eston, 1989) even during multimodal events and could therefore be a useful tool during triathletes' training, especially to prescribe exercise intensity during combined swimming and cycling exercises. Moreover, the lower RPE responses obtained during the cycling session when preceded by a swimming bout performed in drafting position in comparison with an isolated swimming bout indicated that drafting strategies during competition lead, on the one hand, to a significant improvement in energy cost of locomotion, i.e., lower V02 and lactate values, and, on the other hand, to a lower perceived workload. Therefore, we suggest that drafting during swimming improved both physiological and psychological factors of triathlon performance. Further studies are still needed to validate this hypothesis during a triathlon competition.


Étienne St

Jean Miruna

Radu - Lefebvre

Cynthia Mathieu

Can Less be More? Mentoring Functions, Learning Goal Orientation, and Novice Entrepreneurs Self-Efficacy

Purpose

One of the main goals of entrepreneurial mentoring programs is to strengthen the mentees' selfefficacy. However, the conditions in which entrepreneurial self-efficacy is developed through mentoring are not yet fully explored. This article tests the combined effects of mentee's learning goal orientation and perceived similarity with the mentor and demonstrates the role of these two variables in mentoring relationships.

Design

The current study is based on a sample of three hundred and sixty (360) novice Canadian entrepreneurs who completed an online questionnaire. We used a cross-sectional analysis as research design.

Findings

Findings indicate that the development of entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) is optimal when mentees present low levels of learning goal orientation (LGO) and perceive high similarities between their mentor and themselves. Mentees with high LGO decreased their level of ESE with more in-depth mentoring received.

Limitation

This study investigated a formal mentoring program with volunteer (unpaid) mentors. Generalization to informal mentoring relationships needs to be tested.

Practical implication/value

The study shows that, in order to effectively develop self-efficacy in a mentoring situation, learning goal orientation (LGO) should be taken into account. Mentors can be trained to modify mentees'

LGO to increase their impact on this mindset and mentees' entrepreneurial self-efficacy.

Originality/value

This is the first empirical study that demonstrates the effects of mentoring on entrepreneurial selfefficacy and reveals a triple moderating effect of LGO and perceived similarity in mentoring relationships.

Introduction

In recent decades, countries all over the world have implemented support programs contributing to the development of entrepreneurial activity as part of the entrepreneurial ecosystem [START_REF] Spigel | The Relational Organization of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems[END_REF]. Among these initiatives, the mentoring of novice entrepreneurs was emphasized as highly beneficial for enhancing entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) and entrepreneurial skills (e.g. [START_REF] Crompton | The effect of business coaching and mentoring on small-to-medium enterprise performance and growth[END_REF][START_REF] Gravells | Mentoring start-up entrepreneurs in the East Midlands -Troubleshooters and trusted friends[END_REF][START_REF] Radu Lefebvre | How to Do Things with Words": The Discursive Dimension of Experiential Learning in Entrepreneurial Mentoring Dyads[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | The Effect of Mentor Intervention Style in Novice Entrepreneur Mentoring Relationships[END_REF]. Extensive empirical research [START_REF] Ozgen | Social sources of information in opportunity recognition: Effects of mentors, industry networks, and professional forums[END_REF][START_REF] Sullivan | Entrepreneurial learning and mentoring[END_REF][START_REF] Ucbasaran | Opportunity identification and pursuit: does an entrepreneur's human capital matter?[END_REF] confirmed the positive impact of mentoring relationships on both mentees' cognitions (improving opportunity identification, clarifying business vision) and emotions (reducing stress and feelings of being isolated, establishing more ambitious goals). However, there is limited knowledge of how mentoring relationships produce these outcomes. We thus know little about the individual and relational variables moderating the impact of mentoring relationships. This article makes a theoretical and practical contribution to our understanding of how, and under what conditions, mentor input (mentor functions), along with a mentee variable (mentee's learning goal orientation; LGO) and a mentoring relationship variable (perceived similarity with the mentor) combine to develop novice entrepreneurs' ESE. This, in turn, will enable entrepreneurial support programs to better match and support mentoring dyads.

Despite their potential effects on mentees' ESE [START_REF] Egan | The Impact of Learning Goal Orientation Similarity on Formal Mentoring Relationship Outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchell | My mentor, my self: Antecedents and outcomes of perceived similarity in mentoring relationships[END_REF], research dedicated to the study of ESE development while simultaneously taking into account mentor functions, perceived similarity with the mentor, and mentees' LGO is scarce. Studies based on goal orientation theory [START_REF] Dweck | Mindset: The new psychology of success[END_REF][START_REF] Dweck | A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality[END_REF], social learning theory (Bandura, 1986[START_REF] Bandura | Self-efficacy : the exercise of control[END_REF] and social comparison theory [START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF] generated consistent evidence related to the development of ESE through supportive relationships such as mentoring.

Goal orientation theory emphasizes the role of LGO in producing positive effects on mentees' ESE [START_REF] Godshalk | Aiming for career success: The role of learning goal orientation in mentoring relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Learning goal orientation, formal mentoring, and leadership competence in HRD: A conceptual model[END_REF], whereas social learning theory and social comparison theory focus on the importance of perceived similarity in producing positive ESE outcomes at the mentee level [START_REF] Ensher | Effects of Race, Gender, Perceived Similarity, and Contact on Mentor Relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchell | My mentor, my self: Antecedents and outcomes of perceived similarity in mentoring relationships[END_REF]. The present article builds on these three streams of literature to test the combined effects of perceived similarity with the mentor and mentees' LGO on mentees' ESE. Moreover, we build on previous mentoring research in entrepreneurship that has established that the input mentors bring in mentoring relationships can be effectively operationalized as a set of mentoring functions. These mentoring functions can be related to career development whereas others are more focused on the mentees' attitude change and skills development [START_REF] St-Jean | Mentor functions for novice entrepreneurs[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | The Effect of Mentor Intervention Style in Novice Entrepreneur Mentoring Relationships[END_REF].

The aim of the present study is to demonstrate that the impact of mentoring functions on mentees' ESE is moderated by the mentee's LGO and perceived similarity with the mentor. The reason for combining these three streams of literature to test our moderating model is that together they contribute to our understanding of the impact of mentoring relationships on novice entrepreneurs. First, the social comparison perspective within mentoring relationships is considered by testing the moderating effect of perceived similarity with the mentor on mentees' ESE development. Second, goal orientation is taken into account as part of novice entrepreneurs' psychological disposition upon entering a mentoring relationship, and how these relationships can have an impact on their ESE. Third, we highlight the potential combined effect of mentees' LGO and perceived similarity with the mentor in explaining the conditions in which mentees' ESE could develop to allow them to reach their full potential.

The article is structured as follows: first, we present the theoretical background and the main hypotheses. Then we focus on our empirical study and the methods used to test the hypotheses.

Based on a sample of 360 entrepreneurs supported by a mentoring program in Canada, the study shows that mentoring functions foster ESE under certain conditions, which supports the hypotheses concerning the moderating role of mentees' LGO and perceived similarity with the mentor. We demonstrate that high perceived similarity with the mentor increases mentees' ESE and we show that mentoring functions increase mentees' ESE, particularly when mentees have low levels of

LGO. We discuss these findings and highlight their theoretical and practical implications for entrepreneurial research and policy.

Theoretical background

This section first presents the notion of ESE and its relevance in the context of mentoring for entrepreneurs. We then focus on the issue of the mentor's input and show the importance of mentor functions and mentees' perceived similarity with the mentor for mentees' ESE development.

Mentees'

LGO is also introduced and we highlight its direct and moderating effects on mentees' ESE enhancement. Finally, the combined effect of mentees' LGO, mentor functions and perceived similarity with the mentor is examined to explore how these variables may influence the development of mentees' ESE as a result of involvement in mentoring relationships.

ESE refers to the subjective perception of one's ability to successfully accomplish a specific task or behavior [START_REF] Bandura | Self-efficacy : the exercise of control[END_REF]. According to Bandura (1997, p. 77), ESE beliefs are constructed through four main sources of information: 1/ enactive mastery experiences that serve as indicators of capability; 2/ vicarious experiences that alter efficacy beliefs through transmission of competencies and comparison with the attainments of others; 3/ verbal persuasion and allied types of social influence that may persuade the individuals that they possess certain capabilities; and 4/ physiological and affective states from which people partly judge their capability, strength, and vulnerability to dysfunction. Although mentoring may not support ESE development through enactive mastery experiences, indirect evidence obtained from previous studies (ref. [START_REF] Bandura | Self-efficacy : the exercise of control[END_REF] suggests that mentoring can develop ESE through the three other processes (vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states). Mentors may act as role models in a vicarious learning relationship which consists in facilitating mentees' self-evaluation and development of entrepreneurial and business skills through social comparison and imitative behavioral strategies [START_REF] Barnir | Mediation and Moderated Mediation in the Relationship Among Role Models, Self-Efficacy, Entrepreneurial Career Intention, and Gender[END_REF][START_REF] Johannisson | University training for entrepreneurship: a Swedish approach[END_REF][START_REF] Scherer | Role Model Performance Effects on Development of Entrepreneurial Career Preference[END_REF]. Indeed, vicarious learning from mentors was identified as the most significant contribution to mentoring relationships, regardless of the context being studied [START_REF] Barrett | Small business learning through mentoring: evaluating a project[END_REF][START_REF] Crocitto | Global mentoring as a means of career development and knowledge creation: A learning-based framework and agenda for future research[END_REF][START_REF] D'abate | Mentoring as a learning tool: enhancing the effectiveness of an undergraduate business mentoring program[END_REF][START_REF] Gordon | Coaching the mentor: Facilitating reflection and change[END_REF][START_REF] Hezlett | Protégés' learning in mentoring relationships: A review of the literature and an exploratory case study[END_REF][START_REF] Lankau | An investigation of personal learning in mentoring relationships: content, antecedents, and consequences[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | The role of mentoring in the learning development of the novice entrepreneur[END_REF]. Furthermore, mentors may use verbal persuasion strategies to help mentees explore and sometimes change their attitudes and beliefs [START_REF] Marlow | Analyzing the influence of gender upon high-technology venturing within the context of business incubation[END_REF][START_REF] Radu Lefebvre | How to Do Things with Words": The Discursive Dimension of Experiential Learning in Entrepreneurial Mentoring Dyads[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | The Effect of Mentor Intervention Style in Novice Entrepreneur Mentoring Relationships[END_REF]. Finally, mentors may influence mentees' emotional states by reducing their levels of stress related to perceived uncertainty and future challenges [START_REF] Kram | Mentoring as an antidote to stress during corporate trauma[END_REF][START_REF] Sosik | Leadership styles, mentoring functions received, and jobrelated stress: a conceptual model and preliminary study[END_REF].

It is, however, important to note that not all mentors are equally invested in mentoring relationships; some may only provide marginal mentoring [START_REF] Ragins | Marginal mentoring: The effects of type of mentor, quality of relationship, and program design on work and career attitudes[END_REF] or worse, harmful mentoring experiences [START_REF] Eby | Protégés' negative mentoring experiences: Construct development and nomological validation[END_REF][START_REF] Eby | The Protege's Perspective Regarding Negative Mentoring Experiences: The Development of a Taxonomy[END_REF][START_REF] Simon | A typology of negative mentoring experiences: A multidimensional scaling study[END_REF].

The quality and depth of mentoring relationships can be assessed by mentor functions [START_REF] Kram | Mentoring at work : Developmental relationships in organizational life Scott Foresman[END_REF] that allow mentees to benefit from the mentoring relationship in various ways, particularly in terms of positive changes regarding their ESE [START_REF] Day | The relationship between career motivation and self-efficacy with protégé career success[END_REF][START_REF] Powers | An Exploratory, Randomized Study of the Impact of Mentoring on the Self-Efficacy and Community-Based Knowledge of Adolescents with Severe Physical Challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Wanberg | Mentoring research: A review and dynamic process model[END_REF]. Mentor functions studied in large organizations, as well as in entrepreneurship, refer to three categories of support a mentee can receive: psychological, careerrelated, and role modeling [START_REF] Bouquillon | It's only a phase': examining trust, identification and mentoring functions received accross the mentoring phases[END_REF][START_REF] Pellegrini | Construct equivalence across groups: an unexplored issue in mentoring research[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | Mentor functions for novice entrepreneurs[END_REF][START_REF] Waters | The role of formal mentoring on business success and self-esteem in participants of a new business start-up program[END_REF]. Mentor functions can act as an indicator of the quality of the mentoring provided or received [START_REF] Hayes | Mentoring and nurse practitioner student self-efficacy[END_REF]. These functions influence the mentoring process, more specifically the development of mentees' ESE; prior research has demonstrated that higher levels of psychological support improve mentees' ESE [START_REF] Kram | Mentoring at work : Developmental relationships in organizational life Scott Foresman[END_REF]. As a result of their focus on providing challenging tasks to the mentee or in guiding them throughout the decision-making process, career-related functions also play a significant role in the development of mentees' ESE [START_REF] Kram | Mentoring at work : Developmental relationships in organizational life Scott Foresman[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | Mentor functions for novice entrepreneurs[END_REF]. To sum up, there is consistent evidence that mentor functions have a direct impact on mentees' ESE. Our goal is to demonstrate the contribution of two moderating variables that may enhance or diminish the impact of mentoring functions on mentees' ESE development: perceived similarity with the mentor and mentees' LGO, as indicated in the Figure 1.

The role of perceive similarity with mentor in supporting mentees' ESE development

The notion of "perceived similarity" was introduced by [START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF], who stressed that when individuals evaluate their own opinions and abilities, there is a tendency to look to external sources of information such as role models. Social comparison theory [START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF] complements Bandura's social cognitive learning theory in suggesting that the greater the perceived similarity to the role model, the greater the impact of that role model on the observer's ESE [START_REF] Bandura | Self-efficacy : the exercise of control[END_REF]. Social comparison theory highlights that the observer's identification with the role model is crucial for maintaining the social comparison process. Perceived similarity regarding age, gender, background [START_REF] Wheeler | Self-Schema matching and attitude change: Situational and dispositional determinants of message elaboration[END_REF], values and goals [START_REF] Filstad | How newcomers use role models in organizational socialization[END_REF] reinforces identification to the role model. Individuals tend to compare themselves with people they perceive as similar to themselves, and avoid comparing themselves with people perceived as too different [START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF]. Mentoring relationships with low levels of perceived similarity are thus likely to reduce the social comparison process and generate a negative impact on vicarious learning; this decrease in vicarious learning would negatively impact the observer's ESE.

To generate positive outcomes as role models, one condition seems essential: mentors of entrepreneurs must be perceived as similar by their mentees [START_REF] Elam | Gender and entrepreneurship: A multilevel theory and analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Terjesen | The role of developmental relationships in the transition to entrepreneurship: A qualitative study and agenda for future research[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | An analysis of the role of gender and self-efficacy in developing female entrepreneurial interest and behavior[END_REF]. In three recent meta-analyses in mentoring contexts, [START_REF] Eby | An interdisciplinary meta-analysis of the potential antecedents, correlates, and consequences of protégé perceptions of mentoring[END_REF], [START_REF] Ghosh | Antecedents of mentoring support: a meta-analysis of individual, relational, and structural or organizational factors[END_REF] and [START_REF] Ghosh | Career benefits associated with mentoring for mentors: A metaanalysis[END_REF] demonstrated that perceived similarity with mentors is correlated to positive mentoring outcomes. The process through which perceived similarity influences mentoring outcomes was characterized by [START_REF] Mitchell | My mentor, my self: Antecedents and outcomes of perceived similarity in mentoring relationships[END_REF] as "relational identification" in work relationships (cf. the theory of relational identification; [START_REF] Sluss | Relational identity and identification: Defining ourselves through work relationships[END_REF]. Prior empirical research has shown that entrepreneurs tend to choose role models of the same gender. This tendency is stronger for women entrepreneurs [START_REF] Murrell | The gendered nature of role model status: an empirical study[END_REF], who start a business in what is still perceived as a male dominated social milieu [START_REF] Wilson | Gender, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, and Entrepreneurial Career Intentions: Implications for Entrepreneurship Education[END_REF]. Interestingly, mentoring research has emphasized that perceived similarity is more important than actual similarity [START_REF] Ensher | Effects of Perceived Attitudinal and Demographic Similarity on Protégés' Support and Satisfaction Gained From Their Mentoring Relationships[END_REF]. When identification is effective, mentors share their values and attitudes, and they may model desired entrepreneurial behaviors or attitudes.

Comparing oneself to a mentor is an upward social comparison that can stimulate mentees' motivation to engage in a learning process when perceived similarity with the mentor is high [START_REF] Schunk | Developing children's self-efficacy and skills: The roles of social comparative information and goal setting[END_REF]. On the other hand, upward social comparisons can also reduce mentees' ESE if the mentor's level of proficiency seems unattainable and perceived similarity is low [START_REF] Lockwood | Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self[END_REF]. As a consequence, a high level of perceived similarity will facilitate upward social comparison with the mentor and enable mentees to improve their ESE through the mentor function received. These considerations suggest the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: The mentee's perceived similarity with the mentor has a positive moderating effect on the relation between mentor functions and the mentee's ESE.

Mentees' LGO

Learning goal orientation (LGO) (also known as mastery goal-orientation) is a relatively stable psychological disposition that individuals develop through their interpersonal relationships [START_REF] Dweck | Motivational processes affection learning[END_REF]. Individuals with a high LGO tend to perceive their abilities as malleable and subject to change [START_REF] Dupeyrat | Implicit theories of intelligence, goal orientation, cognitive engagement, and achievement: A test of Dweck's model with returning to school adults[END_REF]. These individuals will therefore approach the tasks at hand with self-confidence, and with the intention of developing new skills. They will consequently value hard work and self-improvement and will be constantly looking for new challenges to enhance their skills [START_REF] Dweck | A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality[END_REF]. By doing so, they engage in new activities, regardless of their difficulty [START_REF] Button | Goal Orientation in Organizational Research: A Conceptual and Empirical Foundation[END_REF]. Conversely, individuals with low levels of LGO tend to see their intelligence and their skills as 'stable' and 'unchangeable', and they tend to have a lower level of ESE than those who perceive their skills as malleable [START_REF] Ames | Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation[END_REF]. Their approach towards, and expectations of, a mentoring relationship will undoubtedly differ from mentees with high levels of LGO.

LGO does not seem to be related to short-term or long-term goal setting [START_REF] Harackiewicz | Short-term and long-term consequences of achievement goals: Predicting interest and performance over time[END_REF]; however, individuals with low LGO and high LGO use different strategies to reach their goals. For instance, given that LGO is related to self-regulated learning, low LGO individuals rely more heavily on external support than individuals with high LGO, who will mobilize external sources of information to learn but will behave more autonomously [START_REF] Wolters | The relation between goal orientation and students' motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning[END_REF]. The notions of 'goal orientation' and 'goal setting' are distinct [START_REF] Phillips | Role of goal orientation, ability, need for achievement, and locus of control in the self-efficacy and goal-setting process[END_REF].

LGO plays a crucial role in understanding how mentees perceive their ability to master a number of skills. From a learning perspective, prior research has shown that mentees enter mentoring relationships either with a desire to grow and improve their current skills [START_REF] Barrett | Small business learning through mentoring: evaluating a project[END_REF][START_REF] Benton | Mentoring women in acquiring small business management skills -Gaining the benefits and avoiding the pitfalls[END_REF] or to receive advice and suggestions on how to improve their entrepreneurial project [START_REF] Gaskill | Qualitative Investigation into Developmental Relationships for Small Business Apparel Retailers: Networks, Mentors and Role Models[END_REF][START_REF] Gibson | Developing the professional self-concept: Role model construals in early, middle, and late career stages[END_REF] without having to change their current skills.

LGO may be related to these mentoring outcomes from the mentees' perspective and thus depend on their motivation to grow/learn or to receive advice/help from their mentors. High LGO mentees could exhibit the first category of motivations whereas low LGO mentees may prefer the second types of motivations.

In a study that investigated children's behavior after a failure in school, [START_REF] Diener | An Analysis of Learned Helplessness: Continuous Changes in Performance, Strategy, and Achievement Cognitions Following Failure[END_REF] found that learning-oriented children make fewer attributions and focus on remedies for failure, while helpless children (i.e., low LGO) focus on the cause of failure. In school, students who adopt a high LGO engage in more self-regulated learning than the others [START_REF] Ames | Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation[END_REF][START_REF] Pintrich | The role of expectancy and self-efficacy beliefs[END_REF]. Furthermore, a high LGO mindset, also called a growth mindset [START_REF] Dweck | Mindset: The new psychology of success[END_REF], is demonstrated to be related to high intrinsic motivation [START_REF] Haimovitz | Dangerous mindsets: How beliefs about intelligence predict motivational change[END_REF], goal achievement [START_REF] Burnette | Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation[END_REF] and ESE [START_REF] Ames | Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation[END_REF]. Therefore, we assume that mentees with a high level of LGO will also have a high level of ESE, based on the influence the former has on the latter. These considerations lead us to the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: Mentee's LGO is positively related to his/her ESE.

As we mentioned earlier, mentees can enter mentoring relationships harboring different motivations: to learn and to improve their skills or to receive advice and suggestions on how to manage their business. Who would benefit most from mentoring relationships with regard to ESE development? There is evidence that LGO is associated with feedback seeking behaviors [START_REF] Tuckey | The influence of motives and goal orientation on feedback seeking[END_REF][START_REF] Vandewalle | A goal orientation model of feedback-seeking behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Vandewalle | A test of the influence of goal orientation on the feedback-seeking process[END_REF]; entrepreneurs with high LGO should thus be attracted to mentoring, as it procures feedback in a career setting where there are no hierarchical superiors for assessing one's skills and performance.

Additionally, entrepreneurs with high LGO should be stimulated by mentoring relationships and consider their mentors as a potential learning source [START_REF] St-Jean | The role of mentoring in the learning development of the novice entrepreneur[END_REF][START_REF] Sullivan | Entrepreneurial learning and mentoring[END_REF] to develop their intelligence and skills [START_REF] Ames | Achievement goals in the classroom: Students' learning strategies and motivation processes[END_REF]. On the other hand, low LGO entrepreneurs would prefer situations in which they can perform well (performance goal orientation) [START_REF] Dweck | Mindset: The new psychology of success[END_REF]. Given that they perceive their intelligence as fixed in time, when facing a difficult task or receiving a bad performance, they will seek help or try to avoid the task at hand rather than try to learn new skills that could allow them to face a similar challenge in the future.

As previously mentioned, individuals with high LGO tend to exhibit a higher level of ESE.

Despite the fact that mentoring can be a source of learning for them, it is unlikely that they will significantly improve their ESE. As mentioned by [START_REF] Bandura | Self-efficacy : the exercise of control[END_REF], vicarious experience (i.e., observing someone similar to oneself succeeding in a particular task will improve the observer's beliefs that he/she can also master the task) as well as verbal persuasion allow individuals to adjust their ESE to a more realistic level, either upward or downward. Thus, considering the high level of ESE of mentees with high LGO, it is highly probable that, at best, they will maintain their high ESE, or experience a decrease in ESE to a more realistic level.

The picture is quite different for low LGO mentees. They believe their intelligence to be stable and immovable. When facing a difficult task or receiving negative performance feedback, they will either seek help to accomplish the task or try to avoid it in the future [START_REF] Dweck | Mindset: The new psychology of success[END_REF].

Novice entrepreneurs, despite feeling incompetent at performing certain tasks, are often required to complete these tasks because they often do not have the resources to hire qualified individuals to help them. Under these conditions, external support may become the preferred way to overcome this personal limitation as it may help them feel more effective in their management decisions. Given that low LGO entrepreneurs do not believe their intelligence is malleable, they are not likely to work on developing new skills to face challenging situations. Consequently, mentoring can help them feel more confident about their efficacy in managing their business (i.e., ESE). However, the increase of their ESE is dependent on the mentor functions received, and therefore it may only last as long as they stay in the mentoring relationship.

To sum up, mentoring may have less of an effect on high LGO novice entrepreneurs' ESE.

For these entrepreneurs, mentoring may represent a source of learning (along with formal education, entrepreneurs' clubs, media, learning through action, etc.). Mentoring will thus keep their ESE high or slightly readjust it to a more realistic level. On the other hand, low LGO novice entrepreneurs may view mentoring as a significant source of help to overcome their perceived inability to deal with career-related goals and tasks. With the support of a mentor, the latter type of mentee should consequently perceive themselves as more suited to accomplish the tasks related to their entrepreneurial career, and thus experience an improvement of their ESE. These considerations suggest the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 3: Mentee's LGO has a negative moderating effect on the relationship between the mentor functions and the mentee's ESE, such that the relationship would be stronger for low LGO mentees.

As previously mentioned, low LGO mentees do not think that they are able to significantly improve their abilities. Thus, they will seek advice, support and help from mentors to compensate for their perceived weaknesses. Given that mentoring offers an opportunity to compare with others and because low LGO mentees may not believe they can change their abilities, perceived similarity with the mentor may act as a moderator of the relationship between mentor functions and mentees' ESE. Indeed, mentees would probably be more willing to accept advice and support from a mentor if the former is perceived as highly similar to the latter, causing in turn the mentor functions to improve ESE to a greater extent. Furthermore, throughout social comparison processes [START_REF] Corcoran | Social comparison: Motives, standards, and mechanisms[END_REF][START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF], the more the mentor exerts his/her functions, the more adapted the mentee will feel toward his/her entrepreneurial career, which, in turn, will have a positive influence on his/her ESE. However, when the mentee perceives himself/herself as not being very similar to the mentor, social comparison processes will stop [START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF]. Therefore, mentor functions would have less effect in improving the mentee's ESE as the mentee would feel less adapted to an entrepreneurial career [START_REF] Lockwood | Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self[END_REF]. This suggests the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4: The impact of the mentor functions on the mentee's ESE is enhanced when the mentor is perceived as highly similar and when the mentee's LGO is low.

Methodology

We conducted a study of mentoring relationships within Réseau M, a mentoring network Before the first pairing, every mentor receives a mandatory three hour training session on the mission of mentoring and the main guidelines to follow. Novice entrepreneurs benefit from mentor support for a minimal cost: a few hundred dollars per year, and in some cases, for free. The program is available to every novice entrepreneur who wants to be supported by a mentor. Mentees are seeking career-related support (e.g. advice, a sounding board for decision-making, expertise, etc.), as well as psychological support (e.g. to ease loneliness, to be reassured or encouraged, etc.) from their mentors. Each mentor acts as a volunteer to help novice entrepreneurs in their entrepreneurial journey. Most of them are experienced entrepreneurs that are retired and want to stay active by supporting those less experienced, and a few of them are still working in the business world (e.g. bankers, practitioners, etc.). To ensure the coordination of the mentoring cells, the Fondation organizes workshops dedicated to the development of mentor-mentee relationships. Réseau M provides a Code of Ethics and a standard mentoring contract signed by mentors and mentees at the beginning of their interaction.

Sample

The sample for this study was composed of mentored entrepreneurs from Réseau M of the Fondation de l'entrepreneurship, who had attended at least three meetings with their mentor or were still in a mentoring relationship, and whose email addresses were valid at the time of the survey. In 2008, mentees were invited to participate in the study by email, and two follow-ups were conducted with non-respondents, resulting in a total of 360 respondents (a response rate of 36.9%). Given that the Fondation was not able at that time to provide information concerning the demographic characteristics of the sample, we decided to compare early respondents (who answered the first time), and later respondents (who answered after follow-ups), as suggested by [START_REF] Armstrong | Estimating nonresponse bias in mail surveys[END_REF]. There are no significant differences between the two groups in terms of demographic variables, business-related variables, and the variables measured in the study. The respondents are thus representative of the studied population. Table 1 shows the characteristic of the sample. (1999). This allowed us to measure several perceived abilities such as: defining strategic objectives (3 items), coping with unexpected challenges (3 items) [START_REF] De Noble | Entrepreneurial self-efficacy: The development of a measure and its relationship to entrepreneurial action[END_REF], recognizing opportunities (3 items), engaging in action planning (3 items), supervising human resources (3 items), and managing finance issues (3 items) [START_REF] Anna | Women business owners in traditional and non-traditional industries[END_REF]. These items are similar to those suggested by other authors [START_REF] Mcgee | Entrepreneurial Self Efficacy: Refining the Measure[END_REF].

Seven-point Likert scales were used. The Cronbach's alpha was 0.936, which is well above the average [START_REF] Cronbach | Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests[END_REF]. A mean score of all the items was calculated.

Mentor functions. The measure of mentor functions was developed by St-Jean (2011), and includes 9 items assessed on a seven-point Likert scale. This scale provides an assessment of the depth of mentoring provided. The Cronbach's alpha was 0.898, which is well above average. A mean score of all the items was calculated.

Perceived similarity. We used the measure developed by [START_REF] Allen | Relationship effectiveness for mentors: Factors associated with learning and quality[END_REF], which includes similarity in values, interests, personality, and those suggested by [START_REF] Ensher | Effects of Race, Gender, Perceived Similarity, and Contact on Mentor Relationships[END_REF], including similarity in worldview. Seven-point Likert scales were used and the Cronbach's alpha was 0.897, which is well above average. A mean of all the items was calculated.

Learning goal orientation (LGO).

The study used a measure developed by [START_REF] Button | Goal Orientation in Organizational Research: A Conceptual and Empirical Foundation[END_REF], which includes 8 items. Seven-point Likert scales were used. The Cronbach's alpha was 0.927, which is well above the average suggested. A mean score of all the items was calculated.

Control variables. There are certain exogenous variables that may impact ESE, such as the respondents' gender [START_REF] Mueller | Gender-role orientation as a determinant of entrepreneurial self-efficacy[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | An analysis of the role of gender and self-efficacy in developing female entrepreneurial interest and behavior[END_REF], age [START_REF] Maurer | Career-relevant learning and development, worker age, and beliefs about selfefficacy for development[END_REF], education level and management experience. They were all included in the analysis.

The research was conducted in French. Thus, all the items have been translated into English and proofread by a professional translator, to ensure the validity of measures.

Common method bias

Using self-reported data and measuring both predictors and dependent variables may result in common method variance (CMV) [START_REF] Lindell | Accounting for common method variance in crosssectional research designs[END_REF][START_REF] Podsakoff | Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies[END_REF]. To reduce the possibility of CMV, we first ensured confidentiality for each respondent in order to reduce social desirability, respondent leniency, and taking on perceptions consistent with the researchers' objectives [START_REF] Podsakoff | Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies[END_REF]. We also performed Harman's single factor test as a post-hoc test. This procedure involved conducting an unrotated exploratory factor analysis on all of the items collected for this study. Results indicate that data converge into four factors, with the first factor explaining 26.87% of the variance. Furthermore, data show negative correlation or no correlation between the main variables (Table 1 shows no significant correlation between LGO and perceived similarity or mentor functions), which is unlikely to appear in data contaminated with CMV.

Moreover, when the variables are too complex and cannot be anticipated by the respondent, as observed in this study, this reduces the potential effects of social desirability and therefore reduces CMV [START_REF] Podsakoff | Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies[END_REF]. Given that personality is usually measured through self-report instruments, the fact that we used a self-report questionnaire for LGO does not constitute a limitation of the current study [START_REF] Spector | Method variance in organizational research -Truth or urban legend?[END_REF]. We thus believe that the risk of CMV with the data used for the present study is relatively low.

Data analysis

A hierarchical regression analysis of ESE was conducted to test the hypotheses. We started by entering control variables, and then we considered the main effects of mentees' LGO, perceived similarity with the mentors and mentor functions. Lastly, we entered the interactions between independent variables and we ended with a triple interaction analysis. To calculate the interaction between variables and to avoid collinearity, we first multiplied the relevant variables and focused on the results of each mean. After removing surveys where participants left out answers, the remaining sample was composed of 314 respondents.

Results

Means, standard deviations and correlations between variables are shown in Table 2. Model 3 takes into consideration the moderators (R 2 =0.268), and Model 4 adds the three-way interaction between independent variables (R 2 =0.284). The hypotheses were validated with model 4. Indeed, Model 4 shows that age has a negative effect on ESE, whereas the level of education and prior management experience produced a positive impact on ESE (p=0.073).

LGO is related to ESE level (β=0.344, p=0.000), which confirms H2. The moderation of the LGO (H3) and perceived similarity (H1) on ESE is also confirmed (β=-0.357, p=0.000 and β=0.205, p=0.008, respectively).

Finally, the three combined independent variables simultaneously influence ESE, which confirms H4 (β=-0.160, p=0.023). Overall, the two-way and three-way interactions explain 0.099% of the variance of ESE (Δ adj.R 2 ). Figure 2 shows that perceived similarity positively influences the interaction between mentor functions and ESE. Thus, when mentees perceive little similarity with their mentor, there is no shift in their ESE. Yet, in dyads where mentees perceive their mentor as highly similar, an increase in mentor functions increases mentees' ESE as well. Figure 4 illustrates the three-way interaction between variables. When a mentee has a high

LGO, the mentor functions lower his/her ESE, no matter the level of perceived similarity. For mentees with low LGO, mentor functions increase their ESE level. This effect is the most significant when mentees perceive their mentors as similar, which indicates that mentoring relationships are the most effective at enhancing mentees' ESE when mentees have a low LGO orientation and a high level of perceived similarity with their mentor.

Implications

The present research results show the positive effects of mentor functions on mentees' ESE when perceived similarity with the mentor is high. This suggests that entrepreneurial role models may play a similar role in improving ESE as found with other types of support relationships, such as entrepreneur-in-residence programs and business incubators [START_REF] Christina | The Role of Entrepreneur in Residence towards the Students' Entrepreneurial Performance: A Study of Entrepreneurship Learning Process at Ciputra University, Indonesia[END_REF][START_REF] George | What is (the point of) an entrepreneur in residence? The Lancaster University experience, with some worldwide comparisons[END_REF], peer learning networks [START_REF] Kempster | Learning to lead in the entrepreneurial context[END_REF][START_REF] Kutzhanova | Skill-based development of entrepreneurs and the role of personal and peer group coaching in enterprise development[END_REF] and, more generally, in the context of public support for entrepreneurs [START_REF] Delanoë | From intention to start-up: the effect of professional support[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | Supporting black businesses: narratives of support providers in London[END_REF].

Findings suggest that high and low LGO mentees do not share the same motivations when entering mentoring relationships. Mentees with low levels of LGO are looking for advice and approval relative to their entrepreneurial skills (reassurance motivation) because external feedback may enable them to go beyond their perceived abilities (guidance motivation). On the other hand, mentees with high LGO levels are probably looking for a mentoring relationship that may enable them to improve their skills by learning from their mentor's experience, a support relationship that may stimulate them in terms of new ideas and practices (motivation to be challenged). The present research also demonstrates that low LGO mentees benefit most from mentors' help in improving their ESE. High LGO mentees experienced a higher ESE when mentor functions were lower; conversely, when mentor functions were fully exercised, these mentees' ESE had a tendency to decrease to the same ESE level as that of low LGO mentees. In other words, in an intense mentoring context (high mentor functions), mentees reported a similar level of ESE, regardless of their LGO levels. At first glance, one would be tempted to prevent high LGO novice entrepreneurs from being accompanied by a mentor, as it seems to lead to a reduction in their level of ESE. However, previous studies have demonstrated that some entrepreneurs are overly optimistic, and this has a negative effect on the survival of their business [START_REF] Lowe | Overoptimism and the performance of entrepreneurial firms[END_REF]. Moreover, [START_REF] Hmieleski | When does entrepreneurial self-efficacy enhance versus reduce firm performance?[END_REF] demonstrated that a high ESE has a negative effect on business performance when the entrepreneurs' optimism is high. In this perspective, mentoring could be useful for these entrepreneurs because it brings ESE to a level closer to the reality of the entrepreneurs' abilities, which could reduce errors committed due to overconfidence in their skills.

Finally, our findings suggest that the positive effect of mentoring on mentees' ESE may be limited to the duration of the mentoring relationship for low LGO novice entrepreneurs. In other words, as long as low LGO mentees are involved in a mentoring relationship, they will probably feel more self-confident. However, once the mentoring relationship ends, they may experience a decrease in their ESE because of their need for constant external reassurance and support. This suggests that LGO is an important personal variable to consider in researching entrepreneurship support outcomes. In this regard, [START_REF] Dweck | Motivational effects on attention, cognition, and performance[END_REF] demonstrated that it is possible to develop specific training and support that effectively enhances the participants' LGO, which, in turn, has an important effect on their motivational processes, attention, cognition, and performance.

Thus, an important practical implication of our findings is that mentors could learn how to counsel novice entrepreneurs with low levels of ESE and LGO, and help them not only improve their ESE level but also their LGO, thus securing an enduring increase in their ESE once the mentoring relationship ends.

Discussion

The present study has three main theoretical contributions. First, we demonstrate that the impact of mentors on mentees' ESE is moderated by the perceived similarity with the mentor, as previously assessed in entrepreneurial education contexts [START_REF] Laviolette | The impact of story bound entrepreneurial role models on self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention[END_REF][START_REF] Lockwood | Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self[END_REF][START_REF] Schunk | Developing children's self-efficacy and skills: The roles of social comparative information and goal setting[END_REF]. Prior research has stressed the positive effect of mentoring on mentees' ESE [START_REF] Gravells | Mentoring start-up entrepreneurs in the East Midlands -Troubleshooters and trusted friends[END_REF][START_REF] Kent | An evaluation of mentoring for SME retailers[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | The role of mentoring in the learning development of the novice entrepreneur[END_REF][START_REF] Sullivan | Entrepreneurial learning and mentoring[END_REF] and the fact that mentors act as role models [START_REF] Barnir | Mediation and Moderated Mediation in the Relationship Among Role Models, Self-Efficacy, Entrepreneurial Career Intention, and Gender[END_REF]. We introduce the notion of upward comparison with the mentor to explain the importance of mentees' perceived similarity with the mentor, based on social comparison theory [START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF][START_REF] Gibson | Role models in career development: New directions for theory and research[END_REF]) [START_REF] Festinger | A Theory of Social Comparison Processes[END_REF].

Second, our study demonstrates the importance of mentees' LGO in entrepreneurial mentoring relationships, because of its relationship with mentees' ESE. Prior research based on goal-orientation theory documented the relationship between LGO and ESE in other contexts [START_REF] Phillips | Role of goal orientation, ability, need for achievement, and locus of control in the self-efficacy and goal-setting process[END_REF]. Our findings suggest that there is a strong relationship between LGO and the need for feedback [START_REF] Tuckey | The influence of motives and goal orientation on feedback seeking[END_REF][START_REF] Vandewalle | A goal orientation model of feedback-seeking behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Vandewalle | A test of the influence of goal orientation on the feedback-seeking process[END_REF], as the mean score for the level of mentees' LGO in our study is 6.24 (on 7). However, another explanation for this high level of LGO may be that entrepreneurship, being a career with many challenges and difficulties [START_REF] Aspray | Positive illusions, motivations, management style, stress and psychological traits : A review of research literature on women's entrepreneurship in the information technology field[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | On being entrepreneurial: the highs and lows of entrepreneurship[END_REF], attracts individuals interested in learning and with a desire to improve their abilities. This latter explanation is probably more plausible, as previous research on LGO in a mentoring context found a mean score of mentees' LGO of 4.35 (on 7) [START_REF] Egan | The Impact of Learning Goal Orientation Similarity on Formal Mentoring Relationship Outcomes[END_REF]) and a study measuring the impact of LGO on entrepreneurial intentions found an LGO score of 5.198 (on 7) [START_REF] De Clercq | The roles of learning orientation and passion for work in the formation of entrepreneurial intention[END_REF]. Additionally, prior research has shown that a high level of LGO combined with a high level of ESE is likely to lead to choosing entrepreneurship as a career choice [START_REF] Culbertson | Enhancing entrepreneurship: The role of goal orientation and self-efficacy[END_REF]. In fact, a recent study indicated that LGO strengthens the relationship between ESE and entrepreneurial intention [START_REF] De Clercq | The roles of learning orientation and passion for work in the formation of entrepreneurial intention[END_REF]. Thus, LGO may be an important mindset that attracts and retains individuals in an entrepreneurial career, which suggests new research directions.

Finally, the third contribution of the present study is that it provides evidence concerning the combined effects of mentor functions, mentees' LGO and perceived similarity with the mentor on mentees' ESE. We confirmed the fourth hypothesis relative to the positive impact of the mentor functions on the mentee's ESE when the mentor is perceived as highly similar and when the mentee's LGO is low. The research model explains 15.1% of the variance when considering main effects only (adj. R 2 ). Adding the interaction effects explains an additional 9.9% of the variance, for an R 2 final adjustment of 0.25. Findings confirm previous research relative to the positive correlation between the mentees' LGO, level of education, prior management experience, and ESE [START_REF] Bell | Goal orientation and ability: Interactive effects on selfefficacy, performance, and knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Phillips | Role of goal orientation, ability, need for achievement, and locus of control in the self-efficacy and goal-setting process[END_REF]. We found that a low level of LGO combined with a high level of perceived similarity significantly contributed to reinforcing novice entrepreneurs' ESE in a mentoring context.

Our study has, however, several limitations. First, although LGO is highlighted as an important moderator to consider in the study of mentoring for entrepreneurs, we cannot confirm without a doubt that low/high LGO mentees have different motivations for entering a mentoring relationship. Our reasoning was guided by the theoretical framework of LGO and social comparison theory; however, further investigation of the reasons underlying the need for a mentor could bring additional confirmation of the underlying processes at play. Second, the present research assessed the impact of mentoring on mentees' ESE. However, not every entrepreneur has the desire to improve his/her ESE and novice entrepreneurs may seek mentoring for other cognitive or affective reasons. Thus, our final sample may include mentees who did not seek ESE development.

Nevertheless, the reader should keep in mind that many other outcomes could be reached through mentoring and, as such, focusing on ESE development, despite highlighting specific processes at play, suggests a limited view of the potential effects of mentoring on the entrepreneurial process.

The role of mentoring in improving opportunity identification, reducing loneliness and stress of novice entrepreneurs, or developing better managerial skills are also important research questions to be further explored. Third, we measured ESE development within a formal mentoring program.

Given that mentors are trained and aware of the many aspects that could foster or hinder the effectiveness of mentoring, our findings cannot be extended to informal mentoring settings. Indeed, because informal mentors are generally well-known by their mentees before the beginning of the mentoring relationship, the former may be selected based on perceived similarity with the latter. Thus, our findings are most relevant for formal mentoring programs. Fourth, the study was not longitudinal, making it difficult to assess the mentoring effects on the development of mentees' ESE over time. Longitudinal research is thus necessary to better evaluate the contribution of personal and relational mentoring variables in terms of impact on mentees' ESE.

Conclusion

For the past decades, many mentoring programs have been launched in developed countries and evidence exists that they may trigger many outcomes [START_REF] Wanberg | Mentoring research: A review and dynamic process model[END_REF]. Prior research has also emphasized mentoring's contribution to novice entrepreneurs' personal development [START_REF] Edwards | Promoting entrepreneurship at the University of Glamorgan through formal and informal learning[END_REF][START_REF] Kent | An evaluation of mentoring for SME retailers[END_REF][START_REF] St-Jean | The role of mentoring in the learning development of the novice entrepreneur[END_REF][START_REF] Sullivan | Turning experience into learning[END_REF] and business success in terms of startup launching, fundraising and business growth [START_REF] Mcadam | Building futures or stealing secrets? Entrepreneurial cooperation and conflict within business incubators[END_REF][START_REF] Radu Lefebvre | How to Do Things with Words": The Discursive Dimension of Experiential Learning in Entrepreneurial Mentoring Dyads[END_REF][START_REF] Styles | Using SME intelligence in mentoring science and technology students[END_REF][START_REF] Sullivan | Entrepreneurial learning and mentoring[END_REF]. These programs invest time and energy into identifying mentees and mentors potentially interested in developing mentoring relationships. However, little attention is being paid to the matching process of mentors and mentees in terms of perceived similarity and the training of mentors that could be offered.

The present research demonstrates that role-model identification needs to be secured by mentoring programs so as to ensure that novice entrepreneurs perceive their mentor as someone who is relevant, inspiring, and accessible. Mentoring programs could consider the similarity of mentors and mentees before making proposals concerning the composition of mentoring dyads. Also, mentors could be informed of the importance of perceived similarity in mentoring relationships. Moreover, the predominance of male mentors may become an issue as more women entrepreneurs enter the market.

Research indicates that gender matching of mentors and mentees is especially important for women [START_REF] Quimby | The influence of role models on women's career choices[END_REF]. Social identity theory [START_REF] Tajfel | Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations[END_REF] and the similarity-attraction paradigm [START_REF] Byrne | The attraction paradigm[END_REF]) predict more perceived similarity and identification in same-gender relationships.

Another practical implication related to these findings is that more attention should be paid to the matching process of mentoring dyads in terms of learning motivations and learning orientation.

Complementary mentoring relationships may thus develop, with the help of a program manager, who could assist mentors in the identification of mentees' learning needs so as to ensure more effective mentoring relationships with regard to their potential impact on mentees' ESE. Training should be provided to mentors in order to help them identify their mentees' needs and personal profile more accurately in order to adapt the rendering of mentoring functions while taking into account mentees' needs and motivations. Given that LGO can be enhanced through training, mentors may play a significant role in developing mentees' LGO and in fostering mentees' ESE by the same token.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Tested theoretical model

  launched in 2000 by the Fondation de l'entrepreneurship, an organization dedicated to Quebec's economic development. Réseau M provides mentoring support to novice entrepreneurs through a network of 70 mentoring cells implemented across the province of Quebec (Canada). These cells are generally supported by various economic development organizations such as local development centres (LDC's), Community Future Development Corporations (CFDCs), and local chambers of commerce. These organizations ensure the program's local and regional development, while subscribing to the mentoring model provided by the Fondation de l'entrepreneurship. Local organizations have cell coordinators in charge of recruiting mentors, organizing their training, promoting the program to novice entrepreneurs, and pairing and guiding mentor-mentee dyads.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Moderating effect of perceived similarity on the interaction between mentor functions and ESE

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Moderating effects of LGO on the interaction between mentor functions and ESE.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Three-way interaction between mentor functions, LGO, and perceived similarity for the development of ESE

Table 1 . Sample characteristics

 1

	Mentoring relationship caracteristics
	Male mentees: 162 (51.6%)
	Female mentees: 152 (48.4%)
	Paired with male mentors: 275 (81.4%)
	Paired with female mentors: 63 (18.6%)
	Mean mentoring relationships length: 16.07 months (SD=14.4)
	Mean meeting length: 68.52 minutes (SD=14.4)
	Median meeting frequency: Each month
	Mentees characteristics
	Mean age: 39.8 years old (SD=8.97)
	Mentees with university degree: 173 (55%)
	Experience in industry before startup: Less than 5 years: 61.6%
	Experience in entrepreneurship: Less than 5 years: 82.9%
	Firm characteristics
	Mean number of employees: 4.48 (SD=9.69)
	Annual turnover: Less than $100,000CAD: 62.8%
	Annual gross profit: Less than $25,000CAD: 68.1%
	Professional services: 23.0%
	Manufacturing: 14.4%
	Retailing: 11.9%
	Others: 50.7%

Measures

Entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE). To gain better insight into the dimensions of ESE, we combined the scales developed by

[START_REF] Anna | Women business owners in traditional and non-traditional industries[END_REF]

and De Noble et al.

Table 2 . Means, Standard Deviations and Correlations of Variables

 2

		Mean S.D.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
	1-Gender	0.48 0.50	1.00
	2-Age	39.81 8.97	-0.01 1.00
	3-Education	2.53 0.94	0.12* 0.08 1.00
	4-Managerial experience	2.29 1.56	-0.13* 0.25* -0.09 1.00
	5-LGO	6.24 0.88	0.12* -0.05 -0.02 0.04 1.00
	6-Perceived Similarity	4.71 1.40	0.01 -0.14* -0.09 -0.01 -0.00 1.00
	7-Mentor Functions	5.39 1.15	0.06 -0.14* -0.00 -0.03 0.01 0.61* 1.00
	8-Ent. Self-efficacy (ESE)	5.89 0.76	0.01 -0.21* 0.05 0.08 0.33* 0.16* 0.16*
	(dependent variable)
	*=p≤0.05

Table 2

 2

	illustrates the results of the hierarchical regression of ESE. As expected, Model 1
	takes into account control variables (R 2 =0.069), Model 2 adds the main effects (R 2 =0.175), while

Table 3 . Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy Hierarchical Regression

 3

	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4
	Std.β	Std. β	Std.β	Std.β