Rémy Crassard

Holger Hitgen

From Сāfer to BālΉāfrescue excavations along the Yemen LNG pipeline route

Keywords: Yemen, Shabwa, Bronze Age, ДaΡramawt, Rescue Archaeology

CEFAS) and the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in СanaΚāΜ, in cooperation with the Yemeni General Organization of Antiquities and Museums (GOAM), carried out a preventive archaeological survey along the route of a projected pipeline that will transfer the natural gas from Сāfer deposits (Governorate of Mārib) to the future Yemen LNG facilities in the village of BālΉāf (Governorate of Shabwa). This survey took place along the route in order to identify all archaeological sites in danger of partial or total destruction due to the future construction of the pipeline. Archaeological remains are from very different time periods, which stretch from the earliest prehistoric times to recent Islamic occupations. A total of 171 archaeological sites have been individualized and documented by preliminary plan drawing, photography, and material sampling. The use of a Geographic Information System (GIS) enabled a precise localization of the archaeological occupations along the studied area. This paper focuses on the first results of the excavations realized at two major sites: the previously unknown ancient Hadramitic settlement of Darbas at Wādī Jirdān (main occupation during the second half of the first millennium BC), and a widespread sample of "Bronze Age" funerary structures on the western jawl.

Introduction

The Centre Français d'Archéologie et de Sciences Sociales de Sanaa (CEFAS) and the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in СanaΚāΜ, in cooperation with the Yemeni General Organization of Antiquities and Museums (GOAM), carried out a preventive archaeological survey along the route of a projected pipeline (Fig. 1) that will transfer the natural gas from Сāfer deposits (Governorate of Mārib) to the future Yemen LNG facilities in the village of BālΉāf (Governorate of Shabwa). This survey took place along the route in order to identify all archaeological sites in danger of partial or total destruction due to the future construction of the pipeline [START_REF] Crassard | Final report: Pipeline archaeological survey, Archaeological Management Plan[END_REF][START_REF] Arbach | Vers une archéologie préventive au Yémen[END_REF].

Following the initial survey, two sites -a necropolis of supposed Bronze Age tombs on the western jawl (plateau) and the Hadramitic site of Darbas -were selected for further studies and excavations. The fieldwork took place in the spring of 2006.

The planned pipeline crosses four major landscapes: the dune desert (southern Ramlat as-SabΚatayn), then a flat gravel desert, followed by the plateau (jawl) and the Hadrami coastal plain. In the desert and coastal plain regions few archaeological sites were identified. The majority of sites documented included prehistoric sites located in the dune desert, which dated predominantly to the Pleistocene and / or Holocene period. The sites are located along the fringes of probable relict early to mid-Holocene palaeolakes, which are features previously identified in other desert regions of Yemen, such as the published palaeolakes of the northern Ramlat as-SabΚatayn [START_REF] Cleuziou | Le peuplement pré-et protohistorique du système fluviatile fossile du Jawf-Hadramawt au Yémen (d'après l'interprétation d'images satellite, de photographies aériennes et de prospections)[END_REF][START_REF] Lézine | Holocene lakes from Ramlat as-Sab'atayn (Yemen) illustrate the impact of monsoon activity in Southern Arabia[END_REF]. Our survey established that the above-mentioned sites would not be directly endangered by the pipeline construction work.

Conversely, the situation in the region of the Wādī Jirdān and the plateau area is entirely volatile. On the one hand this region is a very rich zone for archaeological remains, and on the other the space for a possible rerouting of the pipeline is limited due to the topography of the region. Many tombs were identified in this region, and were initially attributed to the Bronze Age period (c. third to late second millennium BC). At the foot of the Wādī Jirdān plateau, a South Arabian site was discovered and later identified as the Hadramitic site of Darbas. It was dated from surface material present on the site to the first millennium BC.

The plateau area along the pipeline route possesses FIGURE 1. Yemen LNG pipeline route.

characteristics typical of the ДaΡramawt geosystem. High plateaux that reach an average height of 1300-1600 m are the remains of large Tertiary formations known as the Jizā and Umm al-RaΡūma geological formations. The plateau summits are permanently flat and consist of some remains of higher plateaux, which appear as flat pyramidal mesas. In many places, these geological formations are rich in chert sources. These chert sources attracted prehistoric populations as many prehistoric sites were within easy access of this raw material, which was commonly used to produce stone tools (Crassard & Bodu 2004: 68). This stone type is nevertheless rare in the area studied, even though sparse lithic industries are still visible on the surface.

Excavations of funerary structures on the plateau

Approximately 140 funerary structures were docu-mented along the pipeline route. Given that these funerary structures were only partly endangered by the construction work of the pipeline, it was not necessary to excavate all of them. Instead excavation and a detailed study of a representative selection of sites were carried out, which allowed us the opportunity to compare the results with similar structures further along the pipeline route.

Another main objective in the plateau area was to excavate a range of tomb types and especially those that were different from the prevailing tomb type in the region: the circular tomb with a chamber made of vertical flat limestone slabs (orthostats). Two other types of tombs were documented: circular tombs with a small quadrangular chamber and wall-tombs. Two tombs of each of these types were excavated in order to ascertain whether any variability existed.

Most of the circular tombs were found in a poor state of preservation. They more or less resembled large

Types of tombs and architecture

"Bronze Age" tombs were the predominant registered sites on the plateau (YLNG 009 to YLNG 033). Several single tombs and three large necropolises were documented. The funerary structures discovered along the pipeline route are of three different types. These include one main tomb type characterized by a circular tomb structure with an orthostat-lined funerary chamber (Type 1). The second type of circular tomb discovered is characterized by a circular tomb with a quadrangular funerary chamber (Type 2). A last type was isolated: the wall-tomb (Type 3). As demonstrated in Figure 2, a total of fourteen funerary structures were excavated (Crassard & Hitgen 2006).

Site YLNG 010

One major necropolis site, YLNG 010, was chosen for excavation because of the particularly good preservation of its many funerary structures (Fig. 3). The site is situated about 100 m from the main pipeline. Due to its distance from the pipeline itself, this site was not in danger of being destroyed through direct impact. Nevertheless, it appeared to be the best and most promising example of the main type of tombs documented along the pipeline route. Some of the tombs situated within the direct impact of the pipeline were excavated in order to ascertain whether their intra-site architectural organization was comparable, and whether they could provide enough archaeological material to produce a preliminary chronology and typology for these site types.

Type 1: circular tombs with an orthostat-lined funerary chamber

These tombs differed only slightly from each other, typologically speaking, and represented examples of the "circular tower tomb" variety, also called "turret tombs" (De Maigret & Antonini 2005: 11) or "pill-box tombs" (Philby 1939: 371). These have a circular plan that ranges from c. 3-10 m in diameter. A funerary chamber made of orthostats is situated within these structures. These chambers, which contain buried corpses, are enclosed by a circular wall. Some of the tombs have one or more tails, which consist of alignments of small stone structures or sparse stone piles (called sections) that can reach up to 100 m in length. The circular tower tombs excavated and inventoried along the pipeline route never have doors.

At site YLNG 010, four Type 1 tombs (Figs 4-5) were excavated (T5, T6, T7, T9). T6 and T7 were the most interesting of these structures and will be discussed in more detail below. 5. Bronze bracelet from the tomb T6 (YLNG 010 site). 6. Bead from the tomb T6 (YLNG 010 site). 7-14. Various beads from the tomb T7 (YLNG 010 site). Drawings J. Espagne.

Tomb T6 at YLNG 010

The structure is located atop the limestone plateau and lies within the YLNG 010 necropolis in proximity to tombs T5 and T7. The tomb is preserved to a height of 1.80 m and its top plan is apparent.

The dimensions of T6 are most impressive, especially in relation to the whole corpus of tombs discovered during the preliminary survey: the diameter of the external wall is 8 m, while the funerary chamber measures 2.50 m in diameter. Two very long tails are oriented towards the north-north-east and to the east (length of tail 1 (NNE): 84.89 m, composed of sixteen sections; length of tail 2 (E): 82.84 m, composed of twenty-one sections).

The tomb is surrounded by one (possibly two) partially collapsed external wall(s). The wall lies directly on bedrock composed of a large limestone shelf made up of superimposed strata approximately 15-20 cm in thickness, which provided the construction material (stone) for the outer walls of the tomb. The space between this peripheral wall (or walls) and the orthostats of the funerary chamber is packed with limestone rubble mixed with aeolian sediment. The exterior wall was partially removed.

The funerary chamber is circular and bounded by a dozen orthostats. At the top of these slabs is a second course of inclined orthostats, which appear to have provided the support for the capping stones of the chamber. The funerary chamber of this tomb has a rather complex stratigraphy in relation to the other structures in this necropolis. The stratigraphic complexity appears to be a consequence of the tomb's size and explains the difficulty tomb raiders encountered during their forceful attempts to enter the tomb. From the foundations of the tomb, which lie on bedrock, up to the summit of the tomb, the fill was composed of a 15 cm-deep undisturbed layer of aeolian sediment. The north-east part of this layer was covered by flat-lying limestone slabs which formed a built-up arrangement. The other part appears to have been a victim of pillaging. The layer above the limestone slabs consisted of aeolian silt within which the majority of the human and faunal bones as well as other artefacts were recovered. This level had been clearly disturbed after having been deposited. As a result, no connection could be discerned between the bones recovered and the stratigraphy of the structure.

Overlying the disturbed sediment was a layer coinciding with the collapse of some of the orthostats, which resulted in the breakage and fragmentation of their upper halves. To the south, above one of the first of the capping stones, three infant skeletons were recovered. The fact that they were partially intact and that they were located on one of the large capping stones which lay above a partially intact orthostat, implies that these burials were not affected by pillaging and that they came from a blocked-off area between the interior wall of the tomb and the large slabs which border the chamber (the exterior of the chamber). The artefacts recovered with the child burial included obsidian geometric microliths and oyster shells.

T6 is one of the richest tombs and contained a variety of objects including oyster shells, obsidian cores, flakes and microliths, shell, bronze and carnelian beads, stone tools (spherical and flat polishers), two bronze bracelets, and various bronze fragments.

Tomb T7 at YLNG 010

The dimensions of T7 are much smaller than those of T6: the diameter of the external wall is 4.90 m. The funerary chamber measures 2 x 1.70 m and is circular. Two tails are oriented towards the north-north-east and the north-east (length of tail 1 (NNE): 37.50 m, composed of nine sections; length of tail 2 (NE): 56.30 m, composed of thirteen sections). T7 lies in proximity to T6 and is preserved to a height of 0.90 m. Its top plan is entirely visible on the surface.

The external architecture of the tomb is similar to that of T6. The funerary chamber is lined with overlapping orthostats that form a herringbone design, both decorative as well as a supporting structural configuration. In certain instances small upright slabs were placed at the base of the orthostats to stabilize them further.

The first visit to the tomb revealed a recent looting event that was confirmed by the local villagers. The funerary chamber had been partially looted and pillaged to half of its original depth (approximately 35 cm). The aeolian sediment removed during the activity covered the sides of the mound and included fragments of bone and other artefacts (various beads, iron fragments). Several limestone slabs and disarticulated human bone fragments were excavated below 30 cm of aeolian sediment inside the chamber.

Abundant material culture was recovered from this tomb (Fig. 6). The reconstruction of the looting debris enabled us to determine the nature of these deposits. The excavation revealed numerous ornaments, which included 235 beads (made of agate, bronze, clay, carnelian, glass, green stone, mother-of-pearl, seashell, tooth/ shell, and a variety of other stones), one clay pendant, bronze ring fragments, an iron bead, an earring, and a bracelet. Furthermore, numerous unidentifiable oxidized and corroded iron and bronze fragments were recovered, as well as a fragment of an iron blade and one possible iron arrowhead. Obsidian is also present with many geometric microliths, flakes, and an obsidian core.

T7 is thus a collective burial, which has one phase that can be dated to the late Bronze Age period (geometric microliths) and / or the Iron Age (iron, glass beads, glazed pendant, and also geometric microliths).

Type 2: circular tombs with a quadrangular funerary chamber Type 2 is very similar in size and shape to Type 1 although it includes a vertical stone-made chamber. Only two Type 2 tombs (Fig. 7) were excavated (T50 and T54 at YLNG 017).

Tomb T54 at YLNG 017

T54 is 3.60 m in diameter, while the funerary chamber measures only 0.90 m x 0.60 m. The structure is located along the limestone plateau, about 30 m west of T56 (circular tomb composed of orthostats). It is perfectly clear in plan and is preserved to a height of approximately 55 cm. The ground plan of the structure is circular and built of large limestone slabs. A small central space left vacant in the centre of the circle formed the funerary chamber (approximately 90 x 60 cm).

The funerary chamber is not bound by a single architectural element (neither orthostats nor paving). The walls were built of limestone slabs that demarcate the structure's perimeter. Given these small dimensions, a simple slab would have sufficed as a capstone.

The inhumation methods used in this type of grave, characterized by a small funerary chamber, are not entirely clear as there is an absence of identifiable or associated bone remains. Artefacts were collected from the collapse layers of the structure, and these included a perforated shell brooch (Pinctada margaritifera), carnelian and shell beads, obsidian geometric microliths, a bronze pin, and two shell bracelets.

The circular Type 2 tombs revealed very similar objects to those found in Type 1 tombs and can be dated to at least one single period of use.

Type 3: the wall-tombs

A few other funerary structures that are long and rectangular in plan ("wall-tombs") were found close to tombs of Types 1 and 2. Unfortunately, due to the absence of bone remains and other archaeological artefacts, the wall-tombs had no chronological indicators.

Two wall-tombs (Fig. 7) were excavated (T144 at YLNG 010 and S4 at YLNG 019).

Tomb S4 at YLNG 019

The structure is located on the limestone plateau within a necropolis consisting of a number of circular funerary structures. The tomb is preserved up to a minimal height and its top plan is clear. The structure is made up of a long rectangular exterior wall that is oriented east-west and is approximately 16 m in length by 1.2 m in width. This wall is constructed of orthostats that are preserved up to a height of c. 30 to 40 cm. The orthostats are held by a double facing of flat-lying limestone slabs placed directly on the bedrock and preserved up to a height of one to three courses. Where the orthostats are absent, the troughs where they once lay are visible between two flat paving stones. With the exception of the funerary chamber, the interior of the rectangular structure is packed with a fill composed of limestone blocks (20-40 cm in length) and aeolian sediment.

A rectangular funerary chamber is located in the centre of the rectangular outer structure following an identical orientation (east-west). The chamber is lined with orthostats made of large upright slabs and has a dimension of 1.55 m x 0.55 m. The outer walls and the capping stones (large limestone slabs longer than 1 m) of the chamber were discarded along the edges of the room during one looting phase. This discard event produced a semi-circular mound at the level of the tomb chamber, which was preliminarily considered to be a voluntary enlargement of the structure at the time of construction. The chamber was excavated in its totality and contained no material or bone remains.

The chronological framework

The Bronze Age period (c. third to late second millennium BC) is mostly known thanks to the discoveries of numerous tombs and necropolises characterized by megalithic architectural elements (de Maigret 2002). A strong symbolism also appears in the funerary architecture of this period [START_REF] Braemer | Le Bronze Ancien du Ramlat As-Sabatayn (Yémen). Deux Nécropoles de la première moitié du III e millénaire à la bordure du désert: Jebel Jidran et Jebel Ruwaiq[END_REF][START_REF] Braemer | Dolmen-like structures: some unusual funerary monuments in Yemen[END_REF][START_REF] Steimer-Herbet | Classification des sépultures à superstructure lithique dans le Levant et l'Arabie occidentale (IV e et III e millénaires avant[END_REF] bearing elements that remain poorly understood (e.g. tomb tails and drawings inside dolmen-like structures). Associated domestic architecture is scarcely found and is best represented in the Yemeni highlands [START_REF] De Maigret | Arabia Felix: An Exploration of the Archaeological History of Yemen[END_REF].

The presence of a large number of trapezoidal geometric microliths in T5, T6, T7, T54, and T56 suggests that Types 1 and 2 tombs are more recent than the pro- jected Bronze Age period. These elements are in fact quite typical of the period dating from the end of the second millennium BC to the first centuries AD (Crassard, forthcoming). The presence of these stone tools in a funerary context is also quite surprising given that their function has generally been associated with agricultural activities [START_REF] Inizan | Les périples de l'obsidienne à travers la mer Rouge[END_REF]. Given their funerary context, such tools may be interpreted not only as the elements of a tool such as a scythe, but might also be interpreted as non-agricultural tools or weapons. The presence of numerous stone tools mainly made from sandstone implies that they were used for polishing activities. They can perhaps be associated with the polishing of steatite given that an abundance of vessels made from this material is present during the abovementioned period. Some iron object fragments were also found in T7, which further demonstrates the later date suggested for the burials. Nevertheless, prior to excavation, this particular tomb was found in a very poor state of preservation, which could indicate an intrusive context for these iron elements. In the findings of the archaeological project in al-Makhdarah (de Maigret & Antonini 2005), only one tomb can be associated to Type 1: MKDiii / T44. All the other tombs excavated in this project have one door and a different architectural structure. These are more related to the "turret tomb" type.

The precise chronological frame for Types 1, 2, and 3 tombs remains difficult to ascertain. We preliminarily propose a period of construction and occupation from the second to the first millennium BC, but the results of radiocarbon dates are awaited.

The Hadramitic settlement of Darbas in Wādī Jirdān

In the lower course of Wādī Jirdān to the north-east of 'Ataq, the capital of the province of Shabwa, a small ancient oasis dating to the Hadramitic period (second half of the first millennium BC to the first century AD) was discovered during the survey in the immediate vicinity of the pipeline alignment. The site, called Darbas by the locals, was previously unknown. Until this survey was carried out Wādī Jirdān had never been a site of intensive archaeological research. Because the region belonged, both culturally and politically, to the South Arabian kingdom of Shabwa, it only played a role as a possible transit route in the incense trade between QāniΚ and Shabwa (Bowen Jr 1958: 37). Only a few summary reports cite this region, including FIGURE 9. Darbas. Section of the main channel of the irrigation system east of the oasis.

the ones written by van der Meulen (1947: 107-18) in the 1930s and by Brian Doe (1971: 190-214) in the 1960s. Herrmann von Wissmann's study of aerial photographs in the 1960s led to the first detailed cartographic publications, which contained a large number of ancient sites in Wādī Jirdān (1962). In the 1980s, highresolution satellite images and more advanced evaluation methods enabled Ueli Brunner and Harold Haefner to produce a first comprehensive analysis of the ancient irrigation systems of the wadi (1990: 143). Thus far, however, this has not been followed up by further intensive field research for this particular region.

The most important sites of Wādī Jirdān are represented by the two city complexes of al-BināΜ and al- Barīra (von Wissmann 1962;Doe 1971: 190-214;Schiettecatte 2006: 283-86), lying about 12 km apart, on the lower course of this wadi. Both cities, which are protected by fortifications, are surrounded by large lay-ers of sediment that indicate an artificial irrigation system. About midway between these two sites, in the middle of a large gravel mound more than 30 m high, is a small tributary wadi, Wādī СaΚda. In this area, a Hadramitic settlement, which was also described by D. van der Meulen and A.J. Drewes (von Wissmann 1962: 185), was identified during the survey. Apart from a few ceramic finds and some graffiti, the site was totally destroyed by modern settlement activity.

Because Wādī СaΚda lies in the immediate vicinity of the Darbas settlement (Fig. 8) and will be crossed by the planned pipeline, this tributary wadi was also intensively surveyed. Compared to the ancient settlement, the agriculturally arable land in the wadi has recently been affected by modern agriculture and building activity. Apart from some minor irrigation elements, only a wall made of rubble and built to a height of 1 m is preserved, although its function is not yet clear. The wall encloses FIGURE 10. Darbas. General view on the main settlement of the oasis from the north.

the whole wadi, but most certainly had no protective or irrigational function. Rather it may have had a symbolic significance as a boundary between the settlement and its adjacent agricultural land, and the hinterland beyond.

Irrigation 1

Originally Wādī СaΚda did not have any natural inlet or outlet. In order to be able to use the wadi for agricultural purposes, water had to be obtained from Wādī Jirdān along artificial channels. The arrangement of the two (not isochronous) preserved channels that were partly hewn in the rock to a depth of 20 m and had a length of more than 350 and 700 m respectively, shows that during the first millennium BC Wādī Jirdān changed its course at least once. The ancient oasis area of Darbas lies right on the edge of the main wadi (Wādī Jirdān), at the foot of a Pleistocene fan plateau and is, at the same time, protected from the wadi by another rock formation. The preserved state of the ancient irrigation sediments and the existence of numerous ancient settlements and irrigation constructions made a comprehensive examination of all structures necessary. The scientific methodology, including a detailed mapping of all the structures, contributed towards the pipeline being relocated several hundred metres away from the area. The site is therefore no longer immediately threatened by building activities.

The aim of the archaeological project in Darbas was to carry out a comprehensive exploration of the oasis with its irrigation system and its respective settlement structures. The oasis area, only 120 ha in size, has sediment heights of c. 8 m. Based on an average annual sedimentation of c. 1 cm, this indicates a period of usage of at least 800 years (Brunner 1983: 74). Altogether two different, temporally uninterrupted irrigation systems have been identified (Brunner, in preparation). Whereas there are only a few traces of the older, deeper-lying irrigation system, the second system and its function can be reconstructed in detail: the water was fed in from the wadi via a c. 2 km-long channel (Fig. 9) in order to overcome the height differences of the higher-lying oasis area.

Here the channel ran parallel to and along the wadi, from the foot of the Pleistocene fan plateau to the oasis. It was partially cut into the layers of rock, but one part consisted of a channel bed that had been built for it and lined with stones. The water was then distributed to the field through small outlets made of wadi gravel stones. Other tributary channels are missing in this system compared to that of Mārib [START_REF] Brunner | Die Erforschung der antiken Oase von Marib mit Hilfe geomorphologischer Untersuchungsmethoden[END_REF]. After flooding a field section, the water could be led through other outlets to lower-lying fields. Only in a few areas of the oasis where it had been recultivated during the last few months before the survey, signs of ancient agriculture could be found. These included ploughed furrows and traces of tree plantations. The examination of botanical samples is still in process.

Settlement activities

The small agriculturally developed settlements of Darbas changed their position several times in the course of the occupation of the oasis. The earliest settlement, dating from the first half of the first millennium BC, can be found on the slopes of the Pleistocene fan plateau to the north of the oasis area. These take the form of simple rectangular building units, the foundations of which are made up of carefully placed wadi gravel stones. The masonry rising up from these foundations was presumably constructed by the loam or mud-brick method. Most buildings appear to have one main room with a courtyard in front of it. Some buildings have small side rooms or annexes. The buildings are often grouped together to form small farms with directly adjoining threshing floors.

After the abandonment of these early settlement areas a new settlement unit arose on the edge of the wadi bed (Fig. 10) in the area of a protective rock formation (second half of the first millennium BC). This can be divided into two areas. The first is located at the south-ern foot of the rocks, where large rectangular buildings were built with foundations of huge quarry stones. The buildings were destroyed right down to these foundation layers and the archaeological material consists almost exclusively of ceramics that do not allow allocation of function to this architecture. They were possibly residential buildings, but they also gave an indication of being public buildings such as temples, administration headquarters, etc. Such functions are possible because of their monumental character.

Contemporaneously, smaller building constructions arose to the north of the rock formation with quarrystone foundations and mud-brick walls. These small room units served as working and storage areas, as is demonstrated by the storage vessels and work tools. Likewise, many grinding and milling stones made from local stone provide evidence of an agricultural way of life. Indications of the local production of these tools are provided by numerous half-finished products and unused rubbing stones.

In the latest phase, dating up until the first century AD, the settlement was moved to the western section of the protective rock formation (Fig. 11). The building method corresponds to the older phases of the mudbrick houses built on quarry-stone foundations. The rectangular room units were often altered, and individual buildings connected with each other by new wall arrangements and combined to form larger building units. Individual buildings were demolished or burned down repeatedly. After being levelled off new houses were built in their place, but these no longer corresponded to the layout of the previous buildings.

The settlement and the oasis were finally abandoned around the first century AD. Only a few ceramic fragments provide evidence of an Islamic period occupation. These must have been mainly nomads as all traces of settlement are missing. However, the settlement areas of the latest phase, dating to c. 100 years ago, were used as a burial place, indicated by several Islamic burials.

Burials

The ancient cemetery was situated only a few metres to the east of the rock formation. Altogether twenty-six ground burials were recorded of which eight were excavated. All burials lie uniformly in an east-west direction whereby the head of the deceased is oriented to the east. However, the tombs are very different in their shape. Whereas some are simple pits, in which the dead were buried in a crouching position, others have a niche in the lower section in which the deceased was laid stretched out on his back with the head turned to one side. The niche was covered with large quarry stones so that a kind of burial tomb was formed, which was then covered over with sediment. In general the tombs of Darbas are comparable to some single graves in Wādī DawΚan that date to the late phase of ancient occupation in that region (Sedov 1997: 41).

In Tomb 26 (Fig. 12) at the foot end of the deceased, there was an iron knife that lay next to its leather sheath. The state of preservation of this burial, falling in the first century BC, is extremely good. In some parts of the body organic materials are still preserved. It can therefore be ascertained that the deceased, whose hands lay folded beneath the face that was turned to one side, was wrapped or sewn up in leather. In the area of the chest there were still remains of a red-dyed fabric, probably clothing. In the remaining tombs burial gifts or costume accessories are missing except for the presence of individual beads.

Notes 1

We owe the information about the ancient irrigation in Darbas to the fieldwork of Ueli Brunner who, dur-ing the project, was responsible for the research on irrigation. The results of his work will be published soon.

FIGURE 2 :

 2 FIGURE 2: Excavated Tombs (coordinates in UTM 38 WGS 84). S: Structure; T: Tomb; YLNG: Archaeological Site mounds formed as a result of the stone elements of the structure collapsing. The rubble and collapse occurred after the looting(s) of the funerary chambers over the past centuries and as a result of natural erosion and the progressive fragility of the dry-stone architecture.

FIGURE 3 .

 3 FIGURE 3. Map of YLNG 010 site.

FIGURE 4 .

 4 FIGURE 4. Type 1 tombs: T6 and T9.

FIGURE 5 .

 5 FIGURE 5. Type 1 tombs: T1, T2, T7 and T56.

FIGURE 6 .

 6 FIGURE 6. Objects from stone-made tombs: 1-4. Obsidian geometric microliths from the tomb T6 (YLNG 010 site).5. Bronze bracelet from the tomb T6 (YLNG 010 site). 6. Bead from the tomb T6 (YLNG 010 site). 7-14. Various beads from the tomb T7 (YLNG 010 site). Drawings J. Espagne.

FIGURE 7 .

 7 FIGURE 7. Type 2 tombs: T50 and T54; Type 3 tombs: S4.

FIGURE 8 .

 8 FIGURE 8. Darbas. Aerial photo of the ancient oasis.

FIGURE 11 .

 11 FIGURE 11. Darbas. Domestic dwelling of the late occupation phase.

FIGURE 12 .

 12 FIGURE 12. Darbas. Burial 26 dating to the 1 st century BC with remains of leather and textiles.

Acknowledgements

The archaeological operations were financed by Yemen LNG Co Ltd. We would like to thank the staff of Yemen LNG, especially Robert Hirst, James Firebrace, Sylvie Ledoirant, and Mohammad Sinnah; the President of the General Organization of Antiquities and Museums, Dr. ΚAbd-ΚAllah Bawazir; the director of GOAM, Shabwa branch, Khairan Mohseen al-Zubaidi; the directors of the German Archaeological Institute (DAI Sana'a), Iris Gerlach, and of the French Centre for Archaeology and Social Science in Sana'a (CEFAS), Jean Lambert, for their support and assistance during the fieldwork. The excavations were carried out by ΚIssa ΚAlī Ibn ΚAli, Mohammad ΚAmin, ΚAbd al-Karīm al-Barakani, RabiaΜ ΚAbd-ΚAllah al-Batful, Sylvain Bauvais, Ueli Brunner, Julien Espagne, Hervé Guy, Sarah Japp, Olivier Lavigne, Jürgen Malsch, Jamāl Mukrit, Jérémie Schiettecatte, and Mike Schnelle. We would also like to thank Lamya Khalidi for editing the English.


Cazalet, B G 1 David

E Charbonnel
email: charbonnel.eric@parcmarincotebleue.fr

E Couture

P G Fleury

N Pascal

Pelletier D 10

Salaun P 11

Tessier E 12

Participatory approach to identify governance indicators for integrated coastal zone management, the case of marine protected areas

Keywords: MPA, ICZM, participatory approach, indicator, governance

Marine protected areas are a laboratory of integrated coastal management. Driving the MPA system requires the implementation of a battery of indicators of governance. This governance must take into account both the internal dynamics of the system and the threats coming from the system environment. As part of a research project funded by the French Ministry of Ecology, (Liteau program), 4 coral reef MPAs were selected as pilote studies (St Martin in the Caribbean, Reunion and Mayotte in the Indian Ocean, the South Lagoon of New Caledonia in Oceania) to develop jointly between scientists and managers of MPAs governance indicators. The approach is definitely bottom up. It is based on the co-construction of indicators. In that way, the views of the scientists who bring their knowledge of governance and ICZM were crossed with the views of MPA managers who bring their field knowledge and specific requests relating to the management of their MPAs. The process was conducted in 5 steps which will be described. The main indicators will be presented and then discussed.

Introduction

Marine protected areas are a laboratory of integrated coastal management In general terms, management "is the application of a set of decisions in the service of a strategy to achieve the objectives defined in relation to issues" [START_REF] Corlay | Facteurs et cycles d'occupation des littoraux[END_REF]. The coastal areas management aims either to avoid or reduce conflicts of use, either to limit human pressures on natural resources or areas considered at risk of overexploitation. It proceeds by the establishment of a zoning and a management plan which regulates the uses of each type of zone. The application of these principles is subject to various drivers. Thus coastal management usually vary from a prescriptive approach to a negotiated approach. The prescriptive approach is the oldest. It inspired the bulk of public policy development and management of the French coastline for years 1970 to 2000 and remains active in the French administrative culture. In that perspective ICZM should be "the disposition of each coastal segment to the most appropriate business, according to decisions taken by the public authorities in light of scientific knowledge, thanks to which we can ensure consistency in the ICES CM 2010/B :15 use (avoiding the adverse effects that would result in sterilization of the rich shores), and harnessing the energy of nature to serve our needs rather than abruptly counter the natural system" (Pinot, 1988). This prescriptive approach put the space at the center of the management process: it proceeds by rules, and takes little account of the views of local people, which we expect strict compliance. On the opposite, the negotiated approach aims to involve stakeholders in the management process, particularly in defining management objectives and regulations associated with them. Ideally, this participation of the population to coastal management is endorsed and institutionalized in the form of co-management agreements. Between the prescriptive approach and the negotiated approach, most ICZM strategies which are currently in force could be called hybrids approaches because they involve practices from the both sides.

Marine protected areas have experienced a similar trend. Introduced to preserve marine biodiversity or ensure its recovery, they initially operated under a unique model in which the local population was excluded. In this conservation/ exclusion model, the local people were considered a set of poachers or potential spoilers of habitats to preserve. This conservation/ exclusion model tends to be replaced today at the international level by a conservation / participation model. According to its logics, the preservation of biodiversity can not be done without the support of the local population. Given the strong interactions between the marine protected area and its adjacent land parts, where human being live and work, MPAs are a laboratory of integrated coastal management.

The contribution of scientists in the study of MPAs

This trend from exclusion to participation in the operating model of MPAS leads to a major change in the input of scientists in MPAs management. Under the model preservation / exclusion their role was essential. The zoning and its associated management rules were directly driven by the scientific knowledge, including the monitoring of MPAs habitats and biodiversity. Thus, the management of the MPA was limited to the regulation of the relationship between a predator and a prey. Predators are the MPAs users and local population and the prey is the ecosystem to preserve.

With the transition to the model conservation / participation model, the task of MPAs is quite more complex. They must continue to act directly on the predator / prey relationship, but they also must work with the predators in order to achieve the self-limitation of their predation. Yet because of their initial training focused on the ecology and biology of marine populations, MPAs managers are powerless to address these new facets of their business. Scientific knowledge of habitats and their biodiversity is of no help in this area. In this framework, the contribution of scientific knowledge in the the MPAs is doomed to decrease unless it provides managers with a new field of knowledge dealing with the MPAs users (the predators), their uses of the ecosystem, their perceptions about this ecosystem, their impact on it and the rules established by the MPAs managers to protect it. This type of knowledge deals with governance and owns to the field of social sciences. Usually the involvement of these sciences in the acquisition of knowledge on MPAs and their management is low but the demand is dramatically increasing as more generally about the coast and its management. Thus this communication deals with the governance of MPAs. It is part of an applied research project called PAMPA and funded by the French Ministry of Ecology (LITEAU Programme).

The PAMPA project This project aims to develop and validate indicators of the performance of MPAs for management of coastal ecosystems, resources and their uses. These indicators should be presented in the form of a dashboard. It enables managers to drive their MPA in a sustainable way. Three types of indicators are included in this dashboard. The first deals with the status and dynamics of the ecosystem and related resources in and around MPAs. The second deals with a) the impact of uses on the ecosystem and resources and b) the role of MPAs in the nature and extent of this impact. The third deals with the state of governance and the role of AMPs on the coastal space uses dynamics, including the use conflicts. Eight study sites were selected. Four are located on the French coast of the Mediterranean. Four are located in the French overseas. It is this last group where the process of developing governance indicators is the most advanced. Thus, this communication will only deal with these four tropical MPAs: St Martin in the Caribbean, Reunion and Mayotte in the Indian Ocean, the South Lagoon of New Caledonia in Oceania. All of which have the feature to include large extents of coral reefs. The approach used to build the governance indicators will now be presented. It will be followed by a presentation of indicators and a discussion on the prospects of applying this type of approach in the context of ICZM.

Methodology: The process of building MPAs governance indicators

The approach is definitely bottom up. It is based on the co-building of indicators. In that way, the views of the scientists who bring their knowledge of governance and ICZM were crossed with the views of MPA managers who bring their field knowledge and specific requests relating to the management of their MPA. The process was conducted in 5 steps.

The first step was a critical review of the governance indicators proposed by [START_REF] Pomeroy | How is your MPA doing ? A guidebook of natural and social indicators for evaluating marine protected areas management effectiveness[END_REF] in their guide published by IUCN to assess the effectiveness of MPAs. Presented at the first Overseas PAMPA project workshop, held in Noumea in June 2008, this critical review was supplemented by discussions with participants: all MPAs managers of New Caledonia, representatives of the public authorities involved into coastal management in New Caledonia, the MPAs managers of Reunion and Mayotte. These discussions led to the development of an initial set of 40 indicators focusing on three themes: a) establishing and maintaining the structures and management strategies, b) participation and representation of actors, c) acceptance of the AMP and conflict reduction [START_REF] Pelletier | Gouvernance : objectifs et métriques I[END_REF][START_REF] David | Les métriques de la gouvernance des AMP[END_REF].

In a second step, these indicators were presented to the first national PAMPA seminar, held in Brest in November 2008. A critical review of these indicators begun at this time. It was fully conducted for the second overseas PAMPA project workshop, held in Reunion. Finally 43 indicators were proposed (David et al., 2009a).

In a third step, these 43 metrics were discussed by managers and scientists involved in the project during the second national PAMPA seminar, held in Marseille in December 2009. This resulted in a list of 66 indicators of governance (David et al., 2009a). This total is too high to be operational within a dashboard of indicators to drive a MPA. Concluding the seminar, he has been asked to all PAMPA stakeholders (managers and scientists) to select among these metrics of governance: -a set of ten indicators prioritized for inclusion in the final dash, -a set of ten indicators considered as secondary but still important to drive a MPA, ICES CM 2010/B :15 -some specific indicators poorly shared by other MPAs but which seem compulsory to local governance [START_REF] David | Co-construction de métriques pour la gouvernance des AMP[END_REF].

As results, a total of 13 indicators were selected without a rating can be established between key indicators and secondary indicators. This was the fourth stage of this process of cobuilding of indicators of MPAs governance. It took place during the first five months of 2010.

As final and fifth step of the process, this selection was validated during a workshop held in Banyuls in june 2010.

Results

The 13 selected indicators deal with four major topics: a) the control of the regulation, b) the sustainability of the management, c) the participation of local stakeholders in the MPA management and its activities, the acceptance of the MPA and reducing conflicts (Table 1). To properly fulfill its role of protecting and restoring biodiversity, any MPA must be sustainable. Securing financial resources is therefore a central element of its strategy. In the French context, the financing of MPAs is insured by the government: state, regions, departments, municipalities. We can therefore consider that these funds are secured but the total amount of these budgetary allocations may vary according the economical or political situations at these different institutional levels. Ideally, this amount should increase as inflation. In an environment characterized by greater volatility in budgets, as is the case in many countries of the tropics, secure budgets for the MPA requires the loyalty of the largest donors, who each provide at least 25% of the budget of the MPA. Plus the role taken by these loyal donors in the budget of the MPA is important, the greater the risk of crisis in the finances of the MPA is reduced.

Besides the financial security, to be sustainable, any MPA must complete properly for a long time its main objective which is the preservation of remarkable marine ecosystems and their restoration when they are damaged. This goal requires two things: a) monitoring the protected maritime area in order to arrest offenders and deter poaching and other offences by the mere presence of the MPA's staff, b) regular monitoring of the state of ecosystem health in order to measure the impact of the MPA management in terms of conservation or restoration. To be sustainable, any MPA therefore requires a large portion of its work time to be mobilized on both tasks (table 2). All other actions are secondary, including environmental awareness and education. This last task tends to take a growing importance in MPAs because it is hoped that it will change the stakeholders' behaviour in the direction of a better marine ecosystem conservation. But it is difficult to assess its effectiveness. So the risk is there that some AMP spend more than half of its work time to environmental awareness and education at the expense of a) implementation and enforcement of the MPA rules, including maritime surveillance, and b) monitoring the state of health of the ecosystem. If these two last tasks mobilize less than 25% of the MPA's work time, this AMP can be considered to lose its effectiveness and on the way to become a paper MPA. The implementation and enforcement of the MPAs' rules remains the key to the success of a large number of MPAs. If habitats and biodiversity are damaged by illegal use, this is the heart of the conservation project that is threatened. The presence of the MPAs' staff on the water is the main deterrent to potential offenders. Where are carried out jointly with the police, the monitoring effort is increased and the verbalization of offenders is provided. It is therefore logical that this indicator has been considered a priority. Poaching is done preferably at night, we can therefore consider that the proportion of trips made at night with the police is a good estimator of the effectiveness of the monitoring effort (Table 3). The participation of local stakeholders is central to the negotiated approach regarding MPAs as IZCM. This participation has two dimensions. The first is the willingness of MPAs' managers to involve local stakeholders in the management process. It results in the representation of each category of local stakeholders in the management committee. The second is the willingness of local stakeholders to participate in the management committee or activities driven by the managers of the MPA. Three of the four indicators in Table 4 fall into this category. Fishing is the main use which suffers from the creation of any MPA. That is why the participation of professional and recreational fishers in the management of fish stocks present in or around MPAs is a good indicator of the support of fishermen with the objectives of the GPA. Without this membership, participation can only be very limited. So can we consider that the last two indicators in Table 4 also reflect the social acceptance of the MPA by fishers.

Reduce conflict and generate public support for the MPA is one of the high priority put forward by managers. It determines the future of their MPA (table 5). Without a minimum acceptance of the work done by the MPA from the local population and users, it runs the risk of not really be effective unless substantial resources are put in the detection and apprehension of offenders. The local press plays an important role in educating the public about the goals of biodiversity conservation highlighted by the MPA. The corresponding indicator implies that managers do a regular press review to select all the papers dealing with the MPA. The willingness of the MPA users and local population to punish offenders is a very interesting indicator but it requires many questionnaires to be built as shown by the example of Reunion [START_REF] Thomassin | Social acceptability of a marine protected area : the case of Reunion Island[END_REF].

ICES CM 2010/B :15

Discussion and conclusion

The PAMPA project showed that if the word "governance" is known to MPA managers, most of them have a very vague idea of what it is. In this context, it had been possible to construct a set of indicators according to experts. But this type of approach is often ineffective if the experts do not sufficiently take into account the ground realities. The proposed indicators for MPA managers respond only very imperfectly to their needs. The participatory approach seems more relevant, if MPA managers can include their demand. The use of a questionnaire seems the easiest way to collect such a demand. But when it is unclear, the results of the questionnaire can only be irrelevant. We are here in a classic situation of an unclear demand by the MPA managers that requires to be specified with a clear offer of services by experts. Such a situation has already been tried out at Reunion as part of a proposed use of satellite imagery for integrated management of reef areas in association with the upper watersheds (David et al, 2009b). The choice fell on the co-construction of the demand with the potential users of remote sensing who manage the coastal watersheds [START_REF] Antona | dealing with User Demand for the Development of Coral Reef Management Indicators: Methodological Approach[END_REF]. A similar approach is used in the PAMPA project. Its main drawback is the lengthy process which requires multiple round trips between the MPA managers involved in the project and the experts who offer a range of indicators. But this iteration is the key to the success of the operation. A second drawback is the heterogeneity of the studied MPAs and the specificity of local contexts. Develop a dashboard generic enough to apply to all cases while being relevant enough to help each MPA to be driven with sufficient precision is a challenge. But the challenge worth addressing. We will know with time if the governance indicators co-constructed as part of PAMPA project will provide complete satisfaction to MPA managers, or if only a small number of them will stand the test of time, unless that over the years each dashboard evolves in the direction of new indicators better suited to local problems of governance. This development would mean that the search for a generic dashboard and locally relevant is utopia. One thing, however acquired. Given the difficulty of establishing such a dashboard, it is important not to freeze it and to be adaptable in order to include new indicators or to withdraw old ones at the request of local managers. In this perspective, the example of the PAMPA project seems relevant and applicable to a large number of ICZM cases.

  Willingness of professional fishers to fill properly their logbooks about their catch and effort and to provide these data to the MPA managers Table 5 -Indicators dealing with the social acceptance of the MPA and the conflicts reduction Indicator Meaning of the indicator % of investigated people able to explain 3 management objectives of the MPA Knowledge of the MPA's management objectives% of investigated people able to citer 3 management rules of the MPA Knowledge of the MPA's rules % of each type of local stakeholders having a) good relations with the other types of stakeholders, b) no relations, conflicts Identification of potential conflicts between users % of articles a) showing a) a positive perception towards the MPA, b) showing a negative perception, c) relating uses conflicts Perception of the local news papers towards the MPA Willingness of local stakeholders to punish offenders Balance between the uses value and the heritage value of the MPA

Table 1 -The major topics of the 13 indicators of MPAs governance

 1

	Topics

Table 2 -indicators dealing with the sustainability of the MPA

 2

	Indicators

Table 3 -indicators dealing with the implementation and enforcement of the MPA rules

 3

	Indicators

Table 4 -Indicators dealing with the participation of local stakeholders in the MPA management and its activities

 4

	Indicator