Thomas Renard

Alberto Maria Banti

Gilles Pécout

George L Mosse

Emilio Gentile

Stefano Cavazza

Catherine Brice

Maria Antonietta Visceglia

Le Vittoriano

Collective Performances and Architectural Restorations: Image Creation and Historical Identity in Unified Italy

At the turn of 20 th century, as a recently unified country, Italy was the scene of an imposing national building effort. For the last 30 years, this process has been widely investigated.

Following the constructivist trend, embodied by scholars such as Benedict Anderson or

The 1911 celebrations took place in the third political cycle after Unification, marked by the rule of statesman Giovanni Giolitti. Succeeding the government of the Historical Left (sinistra storica) which had run the country during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, this period was characterized by the greater commitment of the ruling class to a political pedagogy in which the cultural dimension started to occupy a prominent position. Even if the Vittoriano is the most imposing and visually striking element of the cultural production of this time, I will argue, as a part of what the historiography has also suggested, that the image of ancient Italian art was largely more emphasized. Indeed from this period onwards the construction of the notion of Italianness, would not ground itself primarily on military, economic or political values and events, but rather on cultural production. In a still greatly divided country, the common denominator of the highlighted nation was mainly a cultural dimension combining artistic and literary elements with the beauty of landscapes. Purposefully fabricated, the idea of the Bel paese5 was to become a consolidating element for the recently unified nation. In this process, the figure of poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) became a trope for the Italian essence as a whole.

Parading with Dante

Shortly after Unification, in 1865, commemorations were organized in Florence to celebrate the sixth centenary of the birth of Dante (in 1265). All the partakers gathered at the foot of a new monument dedicated to Dante, sculpted by Enrico Pazzi, which was erected in front of Santa Croce church in Florence /Fig. 3/. As it was demonstrated by Bruno Tobia, 1865 Dante reaffirmed the values of Risorgimento, the movement of national unification. Whereas it was coming to an end, after the exaltation of military campaigns, the first doubts were already emerging. Its installation in front of the church of Santa Croce, which had become the pantheon of Italy during the nineteenth century, was particularly symbolic. Dante imposed himself as the great man capable of summarizing all the glories of Italy in the context of national liturgy, but this time right in the middle of the square, center of the national life 6 . A recently published study demonstrates that in spite of historians' ironical judgment of these events, they were extremely successful, gathering 50,000 enthusiastic Italians from all over the country to Florence in May 1865 7 . In a similar way, we should reconsider the importance of the commemorations of the sixth centenary of the death of the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri8 . Held in 1921, those celebrations remain to date a largely unexplored episode.

They had already been decided upon shortly before the beginning of World War I, but by the end of the war their meaning shifted to incorporate the celebration of the victory against the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The association between this military dimension and Dante was partly the result of the value the poet's figure had gained during the Risorgimento. During this time, Dante started to be considered as the father of the Italian nation for a series of reasons: his contribution to the development of the Italian language, the opposition to foreign intrusions in Italian national politics of the 14th century and also for having dreamed of national unification more than five-hundred years before its fulfillment. Having fought for Florence and then forced to political exile, Dante was considered as the model of integrity and civic commitment. Besides, the infinite admiration for his poem made him the model of the Italian artistic geniuses. Finally, because of his exile and the multitude of episodes from the Divine Comedy, almost the entire Italian territory could be referred to through his figure 9 . For all these reasons, Dante and the Divine Comedy (one being similar to the other) were chosen to represent the newly promoted Italianness 10 .

At the end of World War I, Dante appeared as one of the main (and few) expedients to build consensus in a country plagued by inflation, strikes and violent political oppositions, mainly between Socialists and Fascists 11 . In this context, the celebrations were marked by conspicuous military presence and parades, but also by a claimed, even if superficial, concord between the opposed political parties.

A remarkable feature of these celebrations is the fact that the homage to the national Poet was not pursued through the erection of new monuments (as it had been in 1865) but by interventions on old buildings. In spite of the military and political meaning of the celebrations, the organizers decided that the best way to commemorate Dante would be through the restoration of ancient buildings. The works conducted on the occasion of the centenary of Dante's death are representative of a new relation established between architecture and the construction of identity within the Italian national building process at the beginning of the 20 th century. This connection eventually resulted in a radical transformation of Italian urban centers that, in a specific form of medievalism, were reshaped to embody the quintessence of a fantasized Middle Ages Commune.

These projects were carried out in several parts of Italy, mainly in the central regions along Dante's path of exile or in places somehow evoked in the Divine Comedy. In a more particular way, Florence and Ravenna, respectively the place where Dante grew up and where he died, were the centers of important restorations developed at an urban scale. They were jointly conducted by local committees and the national administration for historical heritage preservation.

Ravenna, the invention of a counter "Altar of the Nation"

Mainly because Dante had died there 600 years before, Ravenna was chosen as the main center for the celebrations12 . Most of the architectural interventions concentrated around the tomb of the poet and San Francesco, the church where his funeral had taken place. This area of the city was renamed the "zona dantesca". The announced goal of the church's restoration was to return the building to the appearance it had during the funeral of the poet 13 . In practice, the realization of this ambitious project implied the complete removal of the late eighteenth century stucco decorations in search of what was proclaimed as a character of "severity, austerity and simplicity14 ". A leading protagonist of the centenary in Ravenna, Santi Muratori described these architectural interventions as a painstaking search aimed at "seeking Dante and wanting the church of Dante, waiting for a miracle to happen15 ". The term of invention, or reinvention, of the past is here perfectly appropriate 16 . This work produced a new architecture, a church with a medieval tone that was not connected to any particular state of its history /Fig. 4/. When reading Muratori evoking the expectation of a miracle, one cannot help but compare the way the architectural activities were conducted with the inventio sanctae crucisthe invention of the True Crosswhere the term inventio stands for the discovery of a relic.

Conducted as an archeological excavation, the restoration represented the religious quest for relics of the national poet. But of course the miracle did not occur and the church of Dante was not the reappearance of the fourteenth century one, but a creation of the early twentieth century.

Relying again on the religious metaphor, the tomb of the poet, a small neoclassical mausoleum built by Camillo Morigia in 1780-81, was described by Santi Muratori as an altar able to become the symbol of the nation 17 . Following this conception, the burial monument appears as a counterpart to the already mentioned Vittoriano which was in its turn commonly referred to as Altare della Patria ("Altar of the Fatherland"). But to the overbearing and grandiloquent rhetoric of the Roman monument, the tomb opposed the silence of meditation and the severity of Dante's face /Fig. 5/.

The church of San Francesco and the poet's tomb were the center of a program of restorations that was to form the so-called "zona dantesca". This was supplemented by other restoration works spread across the city. They were to constitute the different stops along the path of the processions organized during the festivities from September 11 th to September 14 th 1921 /Fig. 6/. The first day was dedicated to the parades of army and navy representatives to the sound of military fanfares 18 . Leaving from the train station at 8 a.m., the procession went along the church of San Giovanni Evengelista, which had also been restored and cleared from posterior buildings so as to emphasize the pittoresque vision one could have walking along the current viale Farini. Arriving on Vittorio Emmanuele square, the participants could admire the restored facade of the Palazzo Veneziano del Comune, the administrative head office of the commune, on top of which a frieze painted by Adolfo de Carolis bears Michelangelesque accents. From there, the procession went to the zona dantesca and ended in front of the tomb.

Here the music stopped and the flags were lowered. The religious character of the contemporary objectives by justifying institutions or cultural practices. Here the tradition is merging with the architectural form. Eric Hobsbawm, Terence Ranger (ed.), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge, 1983 17 Alfredo Lensi, Santi Muratori, Corrado Ricci, Il secentenario della morte di Dante, 1321-1921: celebrazioni e memorie monumentali per cura delle tre citta Ravenna-Firenze-Roma, Milan 1928, p. 129. 18 Soprintendenza per i Beni Architettonici e Paesaggistici per le province di Ravenna, Archivio documenti, RA 4/26, Comando della divisione militare di Ravenna, Omaggio dell'Esercito alla Tomba di Dante, Ravenna, September 7 th 1921. commemorations was openly embraced as participants referred to the parade as a pilgrimage to the "sanctuary of Dante". The military character was also obvious as the army had offered a silver wreath to Dante's sepulcher, thereby completing the bronze doors, resulting from the melting of an Austrian cannon. The link between the celebration of Dante's national character, the army omnipresence and the recent end of World War I was obvious to any eye.

According to general Sani, in charge of delivering the speech on behalf of the army, the offering of the silver wreath meant to reward Dante's national awareness and sense of duty 19 .

If Muratori wanted to see the 1921 celebration as not only Italy but also a humanism of nation's concord 20 , the ceremonies highlighted even more the patriotic nationalism.

In the climate of violence and confrontation between the rising fascist party and the socialists, the celebration had been thought of as a moment of concord under the auspices of the Poet. This hope was shattered by the events of September 12 thwhen the inauguration of the restored buildings saw the intrusion of five thousand fascists gathered at the tomb after a march on foot from all over Romagna /Fig. 7/. This was one of the first and major demonstrations of power of young fascists from central Italy. In Ravenna they committed violent acts, such as the fire of the seven communist circles and the Federazione cooperativa socialista 21 . A few months before the March on Rome, this epilogue foreboded the subsequent appropriation of Dante's myth by the Fascist Regime 22 .

Florence, urban scale, a scenario for performing identity

In Florence as in Ravenna, the commemorations reached an urban scale. The interventions systematically sought to recreate the image of late thirteenth and early fourteenth century stone facades. The association of this architectural character with the figure of Dante was not new. Already in the early twentieth century, a house had been demolished to make room for a small plaza and two facades were reconstructed of the so-called Casa di Dante, the house of Dante, in what was in fact a merely hypothetical location 23 .

The works conducted in Florence redefined even more strongly the image of the historic center, as the trauma caused by the destruction of the second half of the nineteenth century 19 Lensi/Muratori/Ricci, Il secentenario (n. 17), pp. 106-112. 20 Santi Muratori, "Il secentenario della morte di Dante", in Id., Scritti danteschi, Ravenna 1991, p. 188. 21 "Il saluto dei fascisti a Dante", Il resto del Carlino, September 12, 1921. 22 See for example: Domenico Venturini, Dante Alighieri e Benito Mussolini, Rome 1927. 23 Three commissions were necessary (1862, 1868 et 1902) to finish this controversial project successfully. The works were finally completed in 1911 by Giuseppe Castellucci. Archivio Storico del Comune di Firenze, Comune di Firenze, Lavori e servizi pubblici, Case di Dante, CF 7368. was important. For a short time Florence had been capital of Italy in 1860-65. From this period onwards, the local government had sought to transform the city along the lines of the changes that had affected other major European capitals such as Paris or Vienna. After the first extension of the city along Poggi's masterplan in the 1860s, an economic crisis stopped the transformations that eventually took place latter in the 1880s. Under the term of Risanamento most of the historical buildings around the old market (mercato vecchio) and the Ghettothe popular heart of Florencewere destroyed to make room for bourgeoisie neocinquecento palazzi24 .

Quite significantly, the building where the so-called "haussmannization" was conducted according to the hygienists' agenda had stopped, the Parte Guelfa Palace in Piazza San Biagio, became the main site of the restorations promoted for the centenary of Dante. On the facade of the palace, in addition to the inevitable coronation crenels, a wide mullioned window was restored and an outside staircase reconstructed upon a drawing found in the Codex Rustici, a fourteenth-century manuscript /Fig. 8/25 . Just as in Ravenna, the major part of the works were meant to create an area dedicated to Dante around the casa di Dante. These were completed by others reminding the poet's life and works.

The final result assumed a scenic character which was to serve as the stage for the performance of identity that characterized the centenary celebration. In that sense, it is striking to note that one of the main architects of the restoration, Giuseppe Castellucci, also Even though nowadays the commemorations are almost completely forgotten, personal accounts such as the journal of art critic Ugo Ojetti, confirm their undisputed popular success 28 . In the previously recalled context of financial and political crisis, the government and the local powers invested considerable amounts of money and time for these commemorations, an effort that reflected the patriotic and nationalist relevance of these events.

The dozens of restorations conducted on this occasion deeply transformed the aspect of the urban landscape as we can see it today. Most interventions tended to highlight the humanistic character of the city from central Italy, presenting features freely interpreted on the base of late Middle-Ages or early Renaissance examples, and often eliminating later transformations from the 17 th and 18 th century. Everywhere the tone was similar: removing coating to reveal the stonework in which semi-circular arch and mullioned paired windows as well as putlog holes were regularly and symmetrically inscribed. The aim was to accurately fabricate a coherent and unified image. The choice of these two historical periods as a reference for these restorationsor better recreationshad not originated in the intellectual milieu that promoted Dante's commemorations. Rather it was largely the result of a leading stream of historical research that was conducted during the nineteenth century and had tended to identify in the age of the Communethe latter interpreted as an Italian specificityand its pretended "independence" a founding stone for what was to become modern Italy 29 . To summarize, the architectural references arbitrarily drawn from the Middle-Ages and early-Renaissance paradoxically managed to provide through the Topos of the autarchic Commune and its specific artistic creation a unifying element to be valued by all Italians. If this architecture was 28 Ugo Ojetti, I taccuini 1914-1943, Florence 1954, p. 48. 29 There is a wide bibliography concerning the 19 th century's myth of the Middle Ages. In the Italian case, the European movement that began during the pre-romantic period mixed with specific values in line with the Risorgimento. See for example: Ilaria Porciani, "Il Medioevo nella costruzione dell'Italia unita: la proposta di un mito", in Il Medioevo. Immagini modelli e miti tra due popoli nell'Italia dell'Ottocento: Germania e Italia, Pierangelo Schiera, Reinhard Elze (ed.), Bologna, Berlin 1988, pp. 163-191. performative in increasing the sense of belonging and the idea of Italianness, the performance itself of the parade intensified both the message and the participation of the population to this historical recreation.

The fascist promotion of festivals

The 1921 historical corteges constituted the starting point for several festivities later established under Fascism. Often initiated and directed by the same administrative cadres, architectural restorations continued along the same lines. Festivals and parades on the other hand acquired a much more prominent role. As opposed to ephemeral, occasional celebrations, Benito Mussolini's fascist regime preferred annual festivities. During the ventennio, a whole set of festivals were reactivated, the most important being the Calcio Storico of Florence, Arezzo's Giostra del Saracino, Gioco del Ponte in Pisa, the palios of Asti, Fucecchio, Legnano, Ferrara and obviously Siena.

These events were often organized by the local bodies of the National Fascist Party and supported by the National Recreational Club (Opera Nazionale del Dopolavoro). It is rather easy to understand these activities as an integral part of a totalitarian agenda trying to control individuals and their bodies in all aspects of life, entertainment included 30 . But at the same time, those festivities pursued municipalist and touristic objectives. Stefano evidenced a series of objectives carried on by the organizers of those festivities 31 . First they participated to an ideological reconstruction of the past aiming at maintaining social balance. Then they favored the love for the small fatherland and therefore the great fatherland with the subordinate classes. Finally they highlighted religious as much as war virtues. This last dimension, also widely emphasized by Medina Lasansky, coincided with the myth of the Fascist man by accentuating values of strength, courage, youth and masculinity among the participants in the various games Festivities were often presented as the authentic re-enactment of ancient celebrations dating back to the end of the Middle-Ages or the Renaissance. In fact most of these festivals had some precursors between the 14 th and the 16 th century, for example it seems that the most ancient race in Arezzo was organized in 1535 and Asti claimed an origin as ancient as 127532 .

But over the centuries, they dramatically changed as far as scope, nature, periodicity, places and participating parties were concerned. Most of them disappeared during the 19 th century as in Arezzo, Asti or Pisa. In most cases their current characteristics, rules and costumes should be considered as 1920s and 1930s creations. Thus in 1930 was held the first calcio in costumes in Firenze, the next year the reintroduction of the Giostra del Saracino di Arezzo, in 1933 the Palio di San Giorgio in Ferrara and in 1935 the Gioco del Ponte in Pisa33 .

The most famous example of these recreations is the Palio, the famous horse race staged twice a year in the Tuscan city of Siena which opposed the 17 contrade (districts) of the city. A virtually unique case, the Palio has been staged continually since its establishment in the 14 th century but its character, location, participants and function have been greatly altered throughout the years. Furthermore, during the Middle-Ages and Renaissance the Palio was one of many other celebrations taking place in Siena and it was not exclusively held in the city, as other similar celebrations took place in many other towns. The festival was revived under the lead of podestà Bargagli Petrucci, who during a meeting with Benito Mussolini was granted the exclusive right to use the name Palio to designate Siena's festivity 34 . In 1924 a special commission received the mandate to redefine the rules of the game, the "restored" version of which was eventually inaugurated in 1928. The costumes were redesigned under the direction of four, then renowned, painters who drew inspiration from 15 th century Sienese painting. All formal aspects were placed under the control of a specific commission; fascist politicians, historians, architects and professors were between its members. Thus, one may perceive how a certain type of philologic history participated to a reinvention of the past which, through performance, should imposed itself visually into the urban space, by means of costume and ceremonial ornament colors but also by the restored facades of the buildings.

Moreover the festival underwent several changes in order to become more "disciplined". It meant having every recent modification removed to come back to the "historical character of the pure Middle-Ages 35 " but also eliminating all behaviors that seemed inappropriate according to the picture of the city and its inhabitants they wanted to show visitors. Alcohol and cigarettes were forbidden, along with the habit of hissing the opposing contrade and more generally any behavior straying away from the "gentilezza medieval" of Siena.

Besides the redesign of the performative elements of the Palio, the urban space where it took place was also largely redesigned, in accordance to previous experiments such as the ones we have described on the occasion of Dante's death centenary in 1921. Actually on this occasion, the city of Siena also developed an ambitious program of commemoration, including in particular a study by Gino Chierici, aiming at the restorations of houses from Dante's time, and the cloister of the old church of San Cristoforo in Piazza Tolomei, which bore the memory of confrontations between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines 36 . These works, funded by the city and the Public Instruction ministry were a prelude to a vast campaign during the fascist period. Just as behaviors had been disciplined, they endeavored to clean the city.

Architect Gino Chierici was entrusted the thorough restoration of the Piazza del Campo, widely altered to match the perfected medieval image, such as the entire Palio ceremony.

We can observe the same link between recreation of a presumed medieval festival and restoration of a non-less supposed medieval state of buildings in San Gimignano /Fig. 12 March 1922, p. 480. 37 Maria Luisa Masetti, "Fedelmente infedele: San Gimignano", Quaderni medievali, 21 1985, pp. 161-186. 38 In this case the spectacle was clearly enhanced by the architecture and vice versa.

Even if fascism's reappropriations of the imperial roman past are much more known and discussed 43 , the medieval Commune was clearly used by the party, at least in central Italy, as an historical identity marker. This is further proved by the casa del fascio (house of fascism) built in Arezzo by the same Castellucci in the same years in a neo-trecento style.

What seems fundamental in the restorations, without overemphasizing their arbitrary nature, is the key role they played in the definition and display of the visual identity of Italian historic cities. It would be misleading to consider these architectures only as the backdrop for a 41 Alfredo Lensi, Quaderni di ricordi, Florence 1985; Alfredo Lensi, Il gioco del calcio fiorentino, Florence 1931; Marina Gennari, "La nascita dell'Ufficio Belle Arti e Antichità del Comune di Firenze", in Cento anni di restauro a Firenze, Florence 2007, pp. 15-29. 42 The case is well studied in the already mentionned study of Medina Lasansky. Lasansky, The Renaissance (n. 30), chapter 3. 43 For classical example : Henry Millon, "The Role of the History of Architecture in Fascist Italy," Journal Society of Architectural Historian, 24 (1965), pp. 53-59 or William MacDonald, "Excavation, Restoration, and Italian Architecture of the 1930s," in In Search of Modern Architecture, Helen Searing ed., New York, 1982, pp. 298-320. performative identity. The visual aspects of these urban landscapes would not only contribute as a set to the composition of the city and its inhabitants' identity, but truly give it form and meaning. They reinforced civic identity drawing on local history and local sites. At the same time, by means of an entertaining event, they fostered the sense of belonging Italians felt towards their historical heritage. Restorations and rituals appear as parts of the same process consisting of a visual and symbolical inscription of historical identity within the shape of the built environment. As Medina Lasansky writes, "the festival successfully masked politics as historical traditions 44 ". This certainly reminds us of the concept of invention of tradition developed by Hobsbawm and Ranger 45 . Even if in the Italian case, we must insist on the fact that in spite of serving contemporary purposes, those described are reinventions based on real historical events.

I have tried to stress the continuity between the liberal period and the fascist regime in terms of architectural forms and privileged historical and literary references. If we were to highlight the differences, one would be the Regime's focus not only on the cultural and artistic aspects of Italianness but also on the physical dimension of the celebrations, an aspect the Regime particularly concentrated on. Minister of press and propaganda under Mussolini, Lando Ferretti noted that such games were the demonstration of "youthful strength", and "the spiritual rebirth of a new era in which such initiatives have brought hidden treasures, traditions, and histories back to life 46 ." This was a time when the physical condition of the Youth represented a great preoccupation for the government: free time was regulated by the after work organizations and sports like soccer largely promoted. Festivals participated in the promotion of ideal values such as bravery, virility, sportiness as well as violence, a complex constellation of elements used as the very building blocks of the new fascist man. An act of political and socio-cultural engineering that sought legitimacy under the rags of history. 44 Lasansky, The Renaissance (n. 30), p. 73. 45 Hobsbawm Ranger, The Invention, (n. 16). 46 Lando Ferretti, preface to Virgilio Salvestrini, Il Gioco del Ponte di Pisa, Pisa 1932, p. XX, quoted in Lasansky, The Renaissance (n. 30), p. 65.

  architect of the aforementioned Casa di Dante, was called in 1921 to design the mise en scène of a film depicting the life of Dante, Dante nella vita e nei tempi suoi /Fig. 9/ 26 . It does not come as a surprise then that resembling the frames of the film, the highlight of the centenary in September 1921 was huge in costume procession, on this occasion the participants' outfits were borrowed from another film expressly made for the celebration 27 . Under the eyes of King Vittorio Emanuele III, enthroned in the center of the loggia dei Lanzi in the piazza della Signoria, the procession restaged the triumphal entry of Florence's troops after the victory of Campaldino in 1289. Dante was directly involved in this battle as a soldier in the Florentine's troop /Fig. 10/. The parade organized for the opening of the commemoration in June 1921, had already emphasized this military dimension /Fig. 11/. With the ending of the war the army got largely involved in the commemorations, celebrating Dante as a soldier. During the celebrations of June a commemorative column paid by the army was also erected on the site of the battle of Campaldino. Ultimately Dante's year was concluded by an official ceremony held in the Salone dei Cinquecento, celebrating the end of World War I in front of Michelangelo's Genius of Victory installed here for the occasion.

  / 37 . A vast program to restore the city had been initiated in 1855 by the restoration of the Palazzo Communale on which Giuseppe Partini added crenels as often in his works. There again Dante had an important role to justify the works that culminated in 1921 under the supervision of Gino Chierici 38 . The works continued during the fascist period led by art historian Peleo Bacci while the city carnival was being revived on the model of Siena and was subjected to a similar medievalization strategy 39 . The Palio is just one of several Renaissance festivals reintroduced and reshaped during the late 1920s and early 1930s by local leaders of the National Fascist Party. As another example, on May 4 th 1930, the game of Calcio was reintroduced in Florence on the occasion of the four hundredth anniversary of Emperor Charles V's siege of the city 40 . The game is a peculiar and violent amalgam of rugby and soccer. The recreation of the game in 1930 was marked by a huge parade of more than 700 men dressed in colorful medieval costumes. The urban itinerary 36 "Siena. I festeggiamenti danteschi", Arte e Storia, April-June 1921, pp. 77-78; Bollettino d'arte, 2/I/10,

  stretched along the best preserved medieval and Renaissance streets, passing behind the most famous building and ending in Piazza della Signoria. The game took place in Piazza Santa Croce, the same site where in 1865 was erected the statue of Dante.The architect in charge of the "aesthetic organisation" of the celebration, Alfredo Lensi already directed the celebration of 1921 on behalf of the Ufficio Belle Arti e Antichità of the city of Firenze 41 . For the Calcio Storico, he designed all the costumes drawing inspiration from Renaissance Old Masters such as Titian, Vasari, Pinturicchio, Signorelli etc. Journalist Alessandro Pavolini's strenuous efforts in the organization of the Calcio were rewarded with a successful career within the regime's ranks culminating at his appointment as Minister of Popular Culture. Arezzo offers maybe the most obvious example of the relationship between festival recreation and architectural restoration 42 . The architect Giuseppe Castellucci was once again in the limelight with the almost complete restoration of the Piazza Grande in Arezzo, also the stage for the re-invented popular festival of the Joust of Saracen, Giostra del Saraceno /Fig. 13/. A joust in which men on horseback charged a wooden figure made in the image of a Saracen. The restorations were completed in 1934, three years after the reintroduction of the festivity in 1931. The main targets of Castellucci's project were all the square's perimeter facades, three carefully restored medieval towers that were lifted and crowned with Ghibelline battlements.

  "S. Gimignano. Restauri per il Secentenario dantesco", Arte e Storia, April-June 1921, p. 77. 39 "Da S. Gimignano. Il carnevale mascherato", La Nazione, Cronaca di Siena, March 2 nd , 1927. Leonardo Antognoni, Dal carnevale alla festa dell'uva: l'organizzazione delle feste popolari a San Gimignano nel ventennio fascista, Poggibonsi 2010. 40 Lasansky, The Renaissance (n. 30), pp. 63-68.

Bel paese is a term that refers to Italy, according to a famous verse of Dante ("Del bel paese là dove 'l sì sona", Inferno, XXXIII, 80). It was also the name of a book dedicated in 1875 to the natural landscapes which widely circulated in the recently unified Italy and participated to a better knowledge of national geography: Antonio Stoppani, Il Bel Paese, Milan 1876.

Tobia, Patria, (n. 3),

Mahnaz Yousefzadeh, City and Nation in the Italian Unification, The National Festival of Dante Alighieri, New York 2011.

If Mahnaz Yousefzadeh considers that the "1921 Sixth Centenary of Dante's death and the 1965 Seventh Centenary of his birth surfaced as scholarly and literary events, but Italian society as a whole barely concerned itself with the affairs", she gives no evidence of that assumption. Yousefzadeh, City and Nation (n. 7), p. 12.

Not only the unified Italian territory but beyond as Dante was certainly the main reference to support the irredentist movement, as it is proved by the statue of Dante in Verona (Ugo Zannoni, 1865) and in Trento (Cesare Zocchi, 1896). Bruno Tobia, "La statuaria dantesca nell'Italia liberale: tradizione, identità e culto nazionale", Mélanges de l'Ecole française de Rome. Italie et Méditerranée,

109/1 (1997), pp. 75-87. 10 On the so-called "concept of Dante" or "dantism" during the 19th century, see Carlo Dionisotti, "Varia fortuna di Dante", in Id., Geografia e politica della letteratura italiana, Turin 1967, pp. 255-303; Thies Schulze, Dante als nationales Symbol Italiens(1793( -1915( ), Tübingen 2005;; Eugenia Querci (ed.), Dante vittorioso, Il mito di Dante nell'Ottocento, Turin 2011. 11 Giovanni Sabbatucci (ed.), La crisi italiana del primo dopoguerra. La storia e la critica,Bari 1976.

For a more complete description, see: Thomas Renard, "Restauration et invention : les célébrations du centenaire de la mort de Dante à Ravenne (1921)", Histoire de l'art, 68 (2011), pp. 9-18.

Maria Giulia Benini, Luoghi danteschi, La Basilica di San Francesco e la Zona Dantesca a Ravenna, Ravenna 2003.

Cecilio Arpesani C., "Restauri del S. Fracesco di Ravenna", Arte Cristiana, IX/ 9 (1921), p. 264.

Santi Muratori, "La chiesa dei funerali di Dante. S. Francesco in Ravenna", Rassegna d'Arte Antica eModerna, 9 (1921), p. 298.

Here one obviously thinks about the notion of inventing traditions by Hobsbawm and Ranger according to which elements from the past are recovered to form new traditions that, while pretending to be ancient, carry

Carlo Cresti, Firenze, capitale mancata : architettura e città dal piano Poggi ad oggi, Milan 1995, Gabriella Orefice, Da Ponte Vecchio a S. Croce, Piani di risaniento a Firenze, Florence 1992.

Sara Benzi, Luca Bertuzzi, Il Palagio di Parte Guelfa a Firenze, Florence 2006.

Biblioteca Classense di Ravenna, Fondo Ricci, Centenario dantesco, vol. V, P. 5 et 7. For a discussion about cinematographic adaptation of Dante, see: Gianfranco Casadio (ed.), Dante nel cinema, Ravenna 1996.

The film was called La Mirabile visione, Archivio Storico del Comune di Firenze, Comune di Firenze, Secentenario Dantesco, 5064, lettera del Comitato per il Secentenario della morte di Dante al sindaco Garbasso, Florence,May 18, 1920.

Those festivals and their relations with Medieval and Renaissance architecture were best studied in: Medina D. Lasansky, The Renaissance Perfected: Architecture, Spectacle and Tourism in Fascist Italy, University Park 2004. For an historical point of view on civic liturgies and popular celebrations, see Gentile, Il culto (n. 3), Cavazza, Piccole patrie (n. 3).

Comune di Arezzo, Considerazioni sulla giostra del saracno e la storie diArezzo, Arezzo 1987, p. 11 and Cavazza, Piccole patrie (n. 3), pp. 202.

Cavazza, Piccole patrie (n. 3), p. 199.

Idem.

"Per il Palio", La Nazione, Cronaca di Siena, June20-21, 1926.


Vicmary Vargas

Jimmy Castillo

Rubén Ocampo Torres

Charles-Philippe Lienemann

Brice Bouyssiere

Surface Modification of SiO 2 Nanoparticles to increase Asphaltene Adsorption

The use of nanoparticle as asphaltene sorbent is a subject of great interest in the oil industry due to their usability in different steps in the crude oil processing. Nanoparticles of metals and nonmetals oxides as Fe 2 O 3 , NiO, SiO 2 , etc have been used for enhanced oil recovery, deasphalt or directly in crude oil as catalyst, finding a strong dependence of adsorptive properties and activity with the size and composition of the nanoparticles.

Characteristics as hydrophobicity, net charge and polarizability of the nanoparticle could modify the affinity of the nanoparticles to different molecules present in the media, in our case to asphaltenes dissolved in non-polar organic solvents. Modification of nanoparticle surface producing changes in their activity by adsorbing different

molecules has proved to be a suitable way to change their interaction with specific molecules improving the affinity and doing more specific. This work present results in the use of surface modified silica nanoparticles (SiO 2 ) to increase the asphaltene adsorptivity. SiO 2 nanoparticles were modified by wet impregnation method with three different molecules. Chitosan (SiO 2 Q), Carboxymethyl Cellulose (SiO 2 CMC) and Polyethylene Glycol 200. (SiO 2 PEG). Surface modified nanoparticles showed an enhanced in the absorptivity compare with a raw nanoparticle. Kinetics and thermodynamic experiments were done showing a preferential interaction of the modified nanoparticles with the smallest asphaltene nanoaggregate generating a competitive process diminishing asphaltene aggregation.

INTRODUCTION

Asphaltenes is considered the most aromatic and polar fraction in the crude oil. This fraction has been defined, in terms of solubility, as the fraction of crude oil insoluble in paraffin of low molecular weight (n-heptane). The adsorption of asphaltenes on solids is the result of favorable interactions of the asphaltene species or its aggregates with chemical species on or near to the mineral surface, different interaction forces, individually or in combination can be responsible for it. The adsorption onto surface depends strongly of the nature of the solvent and concentration of asphaltenes in the solution due to the aggregation tendency of the asphaltenes 1 -5 . The major forces, which contribute to the adsorption process, include electrostatic (Coulomb), charge transfer, van der Waals, repulsion or steric interactions and hydrogen bonding. Since asphaltenes are a complex mixture of compounds the forces responsible for the adsorption or interaction with solvent the use of appropriated sorbent could help to subdivide the asphaltenes in fractions. Recently Adams 6 publish a well documented review about Asphaltenes adsorption, including the effect of sorbent nature, solvent and temperature, in this review clearly is observed the complexity of the phenomena and the influence of these variables in the adsorption process.

The liquid phase adsorption is, in general, a very complex phenomenon; in the case of asphaltenes, the formation of molecular aggregates in solution and posterior adsorption competes with low molecular weight species adsorption and could be interpreted as multilayer adsorption. Molecular interaction could induce aggregation, multilayer formation or adsorption onto surfaces, these process occur simultaneously in the media and contributes to the complexity in results interpretation. Castro et al 7 reported studies related to the prediction of adsorption isotherms of asphaltenes on porous surfaces, their develop a molecular thermodynamic approach for modeling of adsorption isotherms of asphaltene adsorbed on Berea sandstone, siltstone, bedford, dolomitic limestone rock and using a mathematical model for asphaltene precipitation and approach to quasi two-dimensional confined liquids. The authors applied the classical thermodynamic model for describe asphaltene adsorption and fit experimental data with theoretical models. In the used macro surfaces experimental results indicate the tendency of asphaltenes to Langmuir-type adsorption isotherm.

Adsorption of asphaltenes onto various minerals at nano scale has been the subject of many research works. [START_REF] Acevedo | ACS Division of Fuel Chemistry[END_REF][START_REF] Castillo | [END_REF]6,[START_REF] Mendoza De La Cruz | Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem[END_REF][9][10][11] Nassar and co-workers have been done an extensive work in asphaltene adsorption onto different nanoparticles [12][13][14][15] . In these works, they report a Langmuir behavior in the adsorption thermodynamic with a maximum asphaltene adsorption in a range between 20 to 130 mg/g depending on nanoparticle composition. In other experiments and varying the properties of the media they could increase the maximum adsorption until 3 times due the changes in the asphalteneasphaltene interaction and asphaltene-solid interaction by variations in the solubility properties of the media. The adsorption capacity of nanoparticles in general is associated with size and composition. Additionally the tendency of nanoparticles to induce aggregates formation and adsorb it, could enhance the adsorptive capacity 11,16- 18 of the nanoparticles showing a complex adsorption kinetics behavior.

Nanoparticle surface modification [19][20][21][START_REF] Kaasa | Investigation of how Silica Nanoparticle Adsorption Affects Wettability in Water-Wet Berea Sandstone[END_REF][START_REF] Maghzi | [END_REF] is used to change the surface properties of the nanoparticle, and the interaction forces with solvent or particular molecules present in the media. Using different molecules, the surface of nanoparticle could be modified to change the wettability, acidity, interfacial tension or enhanced interaction with specific molecules present in the media. Several authors [START_REF] Liang | Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem[END_REF][25][26][START_REF] Ali | Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem[END_REF][28][29][30] have been employed surface modified nanoparticles to induce emulsion formation or break emulsions, by varying the surface activity and wettability of nanoparticles surface. This capability of the nanoparticles to change radically their properties could be used to enhance their adsorptive capability. In this work we produce SiO 2 nanoparticles (NPS) and modified their surface with three different molecules (Carboxymethyl Cellulose, Chitosan and Polyethylene Glycol 200) in order to enhance the adsorptivity of the NPS. and promote the adsorption of different kinds of components of asphaltenes. Based in the hypothesis that some sub fractions in the asphaltenes contribute preferentially with the aggregation, using nanoparticles with appropriate specificity to these sub fractions it's possible to diminish the aggregation and keep the asphaltenes well dispersed in the media.

Kinetics experiments were done showing the low effect of asphaltene aggregation in solution in the adsorption. Equilibrium kinetics showed a linear increment with a saturation regime clearly as result of the increment in the interaction forces and adsorptive capacity of the functionalized surfaces.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

Materials required for the synthesis of nanoparticles, surface modification, and asphaltene precipitation are described as follow. Tetraethyl Orthosilicate (TEOS 98%), Ammonium hydroxide solution 31.5% (NH 3 ), Absolute ethanol 99 %, Polyethylene Glycol 200 (PEG), Carboxymethyl Cellulose, Toluene, Tetrahydrofuran anhydro, Absolute ethanol 99 %, Acetic Acid glacial (100%) were obtained and used as received from the Aldrich Company. Quitosane was extracted from crustacean shells by the methodology proposed by Zhao et all 31,32 , in brief removal of proteins and the dissolution of calcium carbonate present in crab shells in high concentration permit the extraction of chitin. The resulting chitin is deacetylated in 40 % NaOH at 120 °C for 1-3 h. This treatment produces 87 % of deacetylated chitosan

Asphaltene precipitation

Asphaltenes were precipitated from Furrial Crude oil, a 21 API gravity medium crude oil, with 3.5% of asphaltenes, by a well-known method using a 40:1 heptane toluene mixture. The asphaltenes were washed three times to remove remain resins. Solutions were prepared by dissolving a desired amount of the asphaltenes in toluene.

Nanoparticle Preparation

Silica nanoparticles were prepared by hydrolysis and condensation of TEOS in ethanol, and in presence of ammonia using a variation of the methodology proposed by Ismail et all 33 . First, solution containing appropriate quantities of absolute ethanol, ammonia and deionized water were stirred for 5 minutes to ensure complete mixing. Then a proper amount of TEOS in absolute ethanol was added to the above solution and the reaction proceeded at ambient temperature for 24 hours.

The surface of SiO

Adsorption Experiment

Batch adsorption experiments were carried out by mixing 10mL of asphaltenes solutions of different concentrations with fixed amount of approximately 0,3 grams of desired nanoparticles. The vials were sealed and left in a closed chamber saturated with toluene vapor at 25 C. The samples were shaken periodically to ensure reach adsorption equilibrium. After desired time the mixture is centrifuged at 5000 rpm to separate the nanoparticles from the liquid phase. The adsorption of asphaltenes onto nanoparticles was followed by the change in the concentration of solutions. UV-vis spectra were measured with a Ocean Optics USB2000 instruments with a 0.2 cm path cell. Absorbance at 550 nm was taken to avoid saturation at high concentrations.

Calibration curve at this wavelength was done to establish the relationship of absorbance with a concentration in the range from 10 to 1000 ppm, this range assure a low preeminence of aggregates in the media.

The adsorbed amount of asphaltenes onto nanoparticle mass, (mg/g), was calculated using the mass balance in eq 1

= - ( 1 )
where is the sample volume (L), 0 is the initial concentration of asphaltenes in the solution (mg/L), is the concentration of asphaltenes in the solution at a given time, t (mg/L), and is the mass of the nanoparticles (g). When the system reaches equilibrium, can be estimated from eq 1 by replacing Cs(t) with Ce, where Ce is the liquid equilibrium concentration

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Nanoparticle Characterization

A representative Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) photograph and the corresponding particle size intensity distribution histogram are depicted in Fig. 1a andb respectively. The DLS size intensity distribution plot shown a principal mean particle diameter at 20 nm with a half-width of 10 nm, which is not very different from the estimation obtained by SEM. A second maximum in the distribution with lower intensity appear at 200 nm attributed to few aggregates of nanoparticles, these aggregates are collections of smaller particles. This second peak can be understood with the stated in previous works 34 the intensity distribution has a nonlinear dependence with the size and low concentrations of relative big particles could show relative high intensity distribution values.

After the nanoparticle surface modification, the size intensity distribution shift to higher mean diameter, due to recovering of the nanoparticles with the modifier increasing the mean size in few nanometers. To evaluate the recovering of nanoparticles for the different compounds, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were done and are presented in

Asphaltene adsorption onto nanoparticles

The kinetic mechanism for the adsorption process could be modeled by a pseudosecond order kinetics described by equation 2, the experimental data presented in

Adsorption Isotherms

When the solution reach the equilibrium, the approximated Langmuir model can be described by the following expression:

= # * $ * !"$ * ( 3 )
where is the amount of asphaltenes adsorbed onto the nanoparticles (mg/g), Ce

is the equilibrium concentration of asphaltenes in the solution phase (mg/L), K is the Langmuir equilibrium adsorption constant related to the affinity of binding sites (L/mg), and %&' is defined as the monolayer saturation capacity, representing the maximum amount of asphaltenes per unit mass of nanoparticles for complete monolayer coverage (mg/g). The values of K and %&' for each system were determined by fitting the experimental data with equation 3. In Figure 5 the plot of experimental data fitted are depicted.

Results from the fitted values shown a good correlation for the SiO 2 , SiO 2 Q and SiO 2 CMC. The plot shown an enhancement in the interaction of modified nanoparticles compare with raw material, this effect is observed as a faster growing in the curve and an increment n the adsorbed mass at the equilibrium. For SiO 2 PEG the model does not fit in the range of concentrations used may be due the slow interaction rate for this nanoparticles with the asphaltenes.

CONCLUSIONS

  2 nanoparticles were modified by wet impregnation method, three different molecules were used, Quitosane (SiO 2 Q), Carboxymethyl Cellulose (SiO 2 CMC) and Polyethylene Glycol 200 (SiO 2 PEG). In each case 0,3 gram of nanoparticle were dispersed in 10 mL of 2000 ppm of each solutions and agitated with magnetic stirrer at 300 rpm for 36 hours at 40 C. After this time the solution was centrifuged at 5000 rpm to separate the nanoparticle from the solution and washed 3 times. Modified nanoparticles were dried at 110 C for 48 h and keep in a closed vial until use. Nanoparticle size distribution was obtained by measuring a 0.02 wt % dispersion of nanoparticles in water in a homemade Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) Instrument.Before measurement, nanoparticles solutions were passed through a 0.8 µm PTFE membrane filter. Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) of the nanoparticle dry powders were carried out under N 2 atmosphere at a heating rate of 10 °C/min up to 700 °C (Universal V4.5A, TA Instruments, U.S.A.)

Fig. 2 for

 2 Fig. 2 for SiO 2 (A), SiO 2 Q (D), SiO 2 CMC (B) and SiO 2 PEG (C) showing the capping

Figure 3

 3 Figure 3 were fitted by using this model.

Asphaltene adsorption onto SiO 2 FIGURESFigure 1 .

 21 FIGURES

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Termogravimetric analysis (TGA) for SiO 2 (A), SiO 2 CMC (B), SiO 2 PEG (C) and SiO 2 Q (D),

Figure 3 .Figure 1 .

 31 Figure 3. Mads(t)/Mads_eq of asphaltenes vs time for different nanoparticles SiO 2 (diamonds) SiO 2 PEG (X), SiO 2 Q (squares) and SiO 2 CMC (triangles)


Bruno Asdourian

Virginie Zimmerli

Dr B Asdourian

Dr V Zimmerli

HOW IMPORTANT IS CIVIC ENGAGEMENT FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION COMMUNICATION?

Keywords: engagement, civic, communication, trust, knowledge Paper type Research paper

published or not. The documents may come

INTRODUCTION

The traditional forms of social and political engagement of volunteering in NGOs encounter a significant decline (Worth, 2013). Far from reaching the end of militancy [START_REF] Ion | La Fin des militants[END_REF], new forms of engagement are revealed through the networking of individuals [START_REF] Martinot-Lagarde | De nouvelles formes d'engagement[END_REF] willing to cooperate and share their expertise without expecting a financial compensation [START_REF] Béraud | Open innovation, economy of contribution and the territorial dynamics of creative industries[END_REF]. These new practices could be further detached from the organisational framework and occur episodically as illustrated by the notion of slacktivism [START_REF] Christensen | Political activities on the Internet : Slacktivism or political participation by other means ?[END_REF] or micro-volunteering [START_REF] Kacprowicz | E-Volunteering Handbook[END_REF]. Non Profit Organisations should, hence, meet the challenge of interpreting the nature of these new generations of citizens and adjust their activities and communication strategies accordingly. Under this perspective, the integration of an open data strategy appears as a windfall capable of relaunching and fostering online volunteer engagement [START_REF] Wymer | Non-Profit Marketing : Marketing Management for Charitable and Nongovernmental Organizations[END_REF] particularly in regards to the ideal of transparency and participation [START_REF] Asdourian | La communication transparente et participative des organisations. Une lecture croisée des approches communicationnelles de l'école de Palo Alto et d'Habermas appliquée aux usages des médias sociaux numériques[END_REF].

The communication between users of digital media and public or non-profit organization involved into an open data policy are represented through a democratic way with upwards and downward flows. This fact occurs mainly because of the increasing participation of citizens [START_REF] Deuze | Participation, Remediation, Bricolage: Considering Principal Components of a Digital Culture[END_REF] and the public deliberation [START_REF] Wright | Politics as Usual? Revolution, normalization and a new agenda for online deliberation[END_REF][START_REF] Held | Models of Democracy[END_REF][START_REF] Sunstein | Republic.com[END_REF]. This kind of movement appears within the social media and mobile application opportunities which promote new modalities of thought and expression, new ways of knowing [START_REF] Kaplan | Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media[END_REF]. Current scientific literature on digital technologies deals with the case of organizations which disseminate internal data to a crowd of citizens [START_REF] Chignard | Open Data, comprendre l'ouverture des données publiques[END_REF] and take into account its ideas, help and judgments [START_REF] Surowiecki | The Wisdom of crowds[END_REF]. These actions demonstrate a dual role. They not only contribute to development of a civic society oriented towards a civic engagement of citizens [START_REF] Uldam | Civic engagement and social media: Political Participation Beyond Protest[END_REF][START_REF] Lee | Do-it-Yourself Democracy: The Rise of the Public Engagement Industry[END_REF][START_REF] Oh | A conceptual model of user engagement with media[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | The Media and Modernity. A Social Theory of the Media[END_REF] but also perceive open data projects as one of the significant variations of political engagement [START_REF] Dahlgren | Media and political engagement[END_REF]. Thus, organizations involved into an open data policy need to comprehend this cultural context and to communicate specifically to participative citizens.

The overall purpose of this study is, above all, to determinate the tasks and their levels of importance by attaching certain cultural factors at an open data policy. Such factors, can shape civic agency, have an effect on citizens' engagement and participation and emphasize the role of an open data policy via social media and mobile devices. Besides, through this study, we propose a communication mix between organizations and citizens which will promote the engagement in an open data policy. At this point, an important question emerges: what are the characteristics of information flows and of the communication relations exchanged between these actors?

Relying on the methodology of the case study (Geneva Public Transport) conducted in this paper; this research explores the communication context that occurs between an organization involved into an open data project, certain mobile experts who create mobile applications as well as the users of such applications.

In the following sections, we set up the theoretical framework which incorporates a participative model and a civic cultural framework. Then, we provide an analysis of the concepts of open data and the utility of the crowd enriched with data from interviews and an e-survey. Various measures of concrete actions based on Dahlgren's notions of cultural factors, are also suggested and discussed. In that way, we propose a communication mix model implemented in an open data policy. Finally, the paper describes the managerial contributions as well as the possible limitations of this study.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review is carried out into two sections. The authors, at first section, determine the theoretical framework of the civic engagement principle thus to define and analyze the potential tasks emerged from this principle. Then, at the second section, is presented a reflection on the transformation of the utopian vision of an open data project into real and concrete.

Framework built to analyze tasks related to civic engagement

The theoretical framework interplays the participative related AIP model [START_REF] Carpentier | The concept of participation. If they have access and interact, do they really participate?[END_REF] and the Civic Culture Framework [START_REF] Dahlgren | Media and political engagement[END_REF] in order to categorize tasks performed in the relation between citizens and public transportation organization involved into an open data policy. [START_REF] Carpentier | The concept of participation. If they have access and interact, do they really participate?[END_REF] describes civic agency and participative environment in the public sphere through three distinctive notions: "Access", "Interaction" and "Participation". In fact, "Access" and "Interaction" could be defined as possible conditions for the participatory processes. These three notions are also interlinked with the following areas: technology, content, people and organizations. "Access", of course, is the main component for the media technologies since it allows people to access media content. In the context of organizations, "access implies gaining a presence within media organizations, which generates the opportunity for people to have their voices heard (in providing feedback). If we focus more on media production, access still plays a key role in describing the presence of media (production) technology, and of media organizations and other people to (co-)produce and distribute the content" (Carpentier, 2011, p.28). "Interaction" is related to the establishment of socio-communicative relationships. Finally, "Participation" focuses on power and decision-making. The AIP model will be implemented, in this paper, in order to identify the tasks performed at internal level (within the organization studied) but also at external level (between citizens). It will also serve to delineate the link between organization and citizens (see methodology of [START_REF] Carpentier | Engagement social, société civile et médias en ligne[END_REF]. [START_REF] Dahlgren | Media and political engagement[END_REF] indicates elements of a civic culture which depict the suitable environment for an agency: "Knowledge", "Values", "Trust", "Spaces", "Practices" and "Identities". As for "Knowledge", tool that triggers the participation process, Dahlgren puts emphasis on its crucial aspect: knowledge acquisition. This fact helps, at this point, two types of citizens emerge. The first kind of citizens includes those who "tend to rest more on established background knowledgewhich may even become outdated and ossified as ideological truths" (Dahlgren, 2009, p.110). Besides, the second type of citizens deal "with new information and thereby revising knowledge" (Dahlgren, 2009, p.110) while possessing the traits that render them "able to make sense of that which circulates in public spheres" (Dahlgren, 2009, p.109). In this way, new media play "key role in regard to civic knowledge [because] new media technologies promote new modalities of thought and expression, new ways of knowing" (Dahlgren, 2009, pp.109-110). "Values" are linked with the notion of democracy and with the principles of tolerance and willingness. Two categories of values are distinguished by Dahlgren: first, substantive values referring to equality, liberty, justice, solidarity, and tolerance; secondly, procedural values attached with the notions of openness, reciprocity, discussion, and responsibility/accountability. The most active citizens demonstrate an enthusiasm for democratic values, thereby; more engagement and action are stimulated and generated. Regarding the element of "Trust", Dahlgren claims that networks, social movements or political parties need, at least, a modest level of trust. For Mayer, Davis and Schoorman (1995) the nature of "Trust" connotes those citizens having confidence in each other (in a two-way communication). "Spaces" criteria are perceived by Dahlgren as "contexts in which [citizens] can act together" while he insist that new communicative contexts are easily generated by new media. These media create links between online and offline activities such as political interventions. "Practices" interact with "Knowledge", "Trust" and "Values" dimension of civic cultures. By practicing, citizens build their civic identities around a specific ideology adopted through networks. "Identities" are a protean and evolve through experience. Consequently, "people's subjective view of themselves as members and participants of democracy [is] build on knowledge and values […] can be reinforced by trust, and embodied in particular spaces via practicespursuing issues by the use of civic skillsthat in turn serve to reinforce identities" (Dahlgren, 2009, p.119). Thus, the sense of being an empowered agent and a member of communities are considered as valuable conditions to make some political interventions.

From an utopian vision of open data projects to real

An open data philosophy results in a provision of data, previously considered as private. Correspondently, the public can use and exploit these data "without copyright restrictions, patents or other mechanisms" (Noyer & Carmes, 2013, p.137-138). Open data is linked to the culture of "free"i.e. free software - [START_REF] Lessig | Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity[END_REF]. This logic lessens the boundaries between organizations and the general public; particularly its category of: "professional amateur" or "pro-am" [START_REF] Martin | Open Data: Barriers, Risks and Opportunities[END_REF] called "experts". This category of public, acts on a collaborative and ethical basis [START_REF] Lin | Hacking Practices and Software Development: A Social Worlds Analysis of ICT Innovation and the Role of Free/Libre Open Source Software[END_REF]Himanen, 2004). Thus, this logic of open data intertwines with the principles of utopia and myth [START_REF] Couldry | The myth of 'us': digital networks, political change and the production of collectivity[END_REF][START_REF] Ricoeur | L'idéologie et l'utopie[END_REF][START_REF] Flichy | L'imaginaire d'internet[END_REF], consequently, the free access to information and knowledge is promoted [START_REF] Powell | Open culture and innovation: integrating knowledge across boundaries[END_REF][START_REF] Mansell | Employing digital crowdsourced information resources: Managing the emerging information commons[END_REF].

The open data and web 2.0 stimulate the emergence of values constructed by the blend of collective intelligences [START_REF] Rheingold | Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution[END_REF]. In his book "The wisdom of crowds," [START_REF] Surowiecki | The Wisdom of crowds[END_REF] embraces the principle of the emergence of additional value resulting from the aggregation of the parties. He asserts that the more information a group possess, the more its collective judgment improves. However, Surowiecki claims that collective intelligence is evident mainly through the combined presence of amateurs and experts in social groups composing these crowds. The utility of expert communities for the company is also present in the principle of crowdsourcing [START_REF] Howe | Crowdsourcing: How the Power of the Crowd is Driving the Future of Business[END_REF].

The mission of crowdsourcing is to procure the creation of new ideas by external experts in business communities that can work together face to face and / or by digital social media (Levine, Loch, Searls & Weinberger, 1999;[START_REF] Hippel | Democratizing innovation[END_REF]. The crowdsourcing includes various forms (collaborative, cumulative, competitive and coopetitive) according to the levels of interaction and competition of participants [START_REF] Renault | Comment orchestrer la participation de la foule à une activité de crowdsourcing? La taxonomie des 4[END_REF]. In a community of experts oriented in a collaborative form, such as the case study provided below, the values of sharing and trust are considered as key components [START_REF] Watson | An engaged public: Considerations for the use of social media in managing crises[END_REF] versus to a competitive form. The methodology applied in this study allows us to quantify the levels of importance of these values.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Conducting a literature review, the following three research questions were established to guide the data collection and analysis:

METHOD

In this paper, we conducted an empirical case study research design [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research Design and Methods[END_REF] in order to obtain deeper insights into the possible factors affecting the actors' culture of participation in a context of open data. Subsequently a qualitative and a quantitative data analysis were performed.

Case and data collection

Data sets were collected from members of Geneva Public Transport (in French: Transports Publics de Genève as well as from creators and users of the UnCrowdTPG mobile applications. Transports Publics de Genève (TPG) operates the public transportation system in Geneva Canton with trams, buses and trolleybus. TPG is the first public transport organization in Switzerland involved in an open data project. The group Quality of Life (QoL)from Geneva Universityhas created the mobile application called UnCrowdTPG.

Winner of the Open Geneva competition, organized by TPG, UnCrowdTPG enables its users, since July 2014, to give their opinion on the overloading of vehicles [START_REF] Souche | Un exemple d'estimation de la demande de transport urbain[END_REF]. This application integrates the data of public transport users in order to detect the traffic affluence in real time. Hence, it allows citizens to change or postpone their urban travel. In test phase and without wide publicity, this application has been downloaded more than 100 times and has hosted about 300 visits in a three months period. The qualitative part of this research approach was developed through an explorative approach. It was based on a collection of data extracted from interviews. We conducted four interviews of approximately 45 minutes with each of the stakeholders of TPG, QoL and users of the UnCrowdTPG mobile application.

Following a thorough literature review, an e-survey was designed to include 49 civic acts related to 3 civic agencies and promoted by 5 cultural factors. All of the items in the e-survey were presented as statements to which contributors were asked to state their personal perceived importance on a seven-point Likert scale of 1 to 7 (1="Not at all important", 2="Low importance", 3="Slightly important", 4="Neutral", 5="Moderately important", 6="Very important", 7="Extremely important"). A brief description of our study and the link to the e-survey were sent from August to October 2015 to 12 Twitter accounts of the reference persons and organizations specialized in the open data thematic (i.e. @OKFN, @OpenDataMonitor, @schignard, @OpenDataZurich, @HackathonWatch, @OpendataCH, @giorgiop5, @katewac, @shalf, @loleg, @ecolix, @andreasamsler) ; 7 specifics Twitter hashtag dedicated to open data or open innovation (i.e. #makeopendata, #hackdays, #hackathon, #opendata, #hackzurich, #openinnovation, #innovation) ; and to Master students from Fribourg and Geneva Universities. Some of our messages including a link to the esurvey were retweeted to many followers. The e-survey was completed by 22 persons (5 contest organizers, 3 mobile applications developers and 14 mobile applications users). The results were analyzed using the online tool Qualtrics.

FINDINGS

Analysis and results from interviews

The interviews and the e-survey of this study have provided useful insights to comprehend the important factors appealed to the Open data Communication mix; created to enforce the engagement of citizens. The extracted data has allowed us to formulate suggestions for establishing a relation of contribution built upon Dahlgren's theory of cultural factors and particularly the principles of Trust and Knowledge. This was achieved by correlating messages and high number of participative related content. The interpretation of the interviews permitted us, also, to establish an overview of the relation between organization, data experts and mobile application users.

Analysis and results from e-survey

Regarding this overview, 49 tasks were created to define the relation between all actors involved in a collaborative relation. Results from the e-survey indicate the mean values of all of these tasks according to a level of importance. Table 5.1 illustrates the mean values of all tasks arranged, based on their mean values (highest starting from up).

Tasks (ranking) Mean

Information on the open data project 6.14 Gradual improvement of the application (in beta mode) through feedback 6.08 In order to simplify the interpretation of the findings, related items of the e-surveys were aggregated within the following five categories: (1) Knowledge, (2) Values, (3) Trust, (4) Spaces and (5) Participation. Table 5.2 illustrates the 49 tasks classified into five categories perceived by [START_REF] Dahlgren | Media and political engagement[END_REF] in his book "Media and political engagement: citizens, communication and democracy". Some tasks might be placed into more than one category; however, for heuristic purposes this e-survey embraces Dahlgren's notions.

Tasks KVTSP Dahlgren

Computer Top tasks were coined as those items presenting a mean value higher than 6.0 based on the use of a sevenpoint Likert scale. Respondents of our e-survey considered as highly important to following item also illustrated in Table 5.3 (mean value and related category are described into the brackets):

-"Information on the open data project" (6.14 -Knowledge): The organization embarks on the establishment and the diffusion of internal and external information related to open data procedures. Thus, documents, internal exchanges, web pages including core information and links towards tutorials for the development of software and open data formats are disseminated. The objective is to make accessible the information on the philosophy and open data practices. At this point, the criterion of Knowledge plays a crucial role.

-"Individual distribution of local data, advice and ideas for improvement in real time" (6.08 -Values): Citizens offer data issued from their perceptions and amelioration proposals. This task requires the Values of sharing and giving.

-"Gradual improvement of the applicationin beta modethrough feedback" (6.08 -Practices): practice of permanent technical improvements is conducted by the developers of mobile applications through the interactions of its users.

-"Collaborative crowdsourcing background" (6 -Trust): The developers of the mobile application collaborate between each other (high level of interaction, and low level of competition) in order to generate intelligible and comprehensive open data offered by the organization. The ultimate objective is to facilitate the daily life of citizens. This could be achieved if and only the citizens express Trust and confidence on the functioning of the application by indicating the information related to the level of traffic congestion of the transport they use.

Low tasks were defined as those items indicating a mean value lower than 4.5 based on the use of same seven-point Likert. A lower importance was evident to: "Software available for the development of Mobile applications" (4.38 -Knowledge) and "Participation of members of the company to highlight the themes of reflection to participants during the contest" (4.36 -Practices).

To intensify the detection of potential trends and to facilitate data interpretation, a simple depiction of the achieved data was performed, aiming to illustrate the ranking of the five categories (Table 5.3). The rankings are based on the average of the mean values of the items within each category where the items were given equal weight. The ranking of the Dahlgren's categories, in a context of open data, was the following: (1= highest -5=lowest): (1) Trust, (2) Knowledge, (3) Values and Practices and (5) Spaces (Table 5.4).

KVTSP Dahlgren

Discussion and proposition of an Open data Communication mix model

The objective of this study is to determinate the tasks and their levels of importance by attributing cultural factors inside an open data policy. Consequently, it is proposed a communication mix between organization and citizens capable to promote engagement in an open data policy. This study has revealed the significant importance of the Trust and Knowledge categories. Our findings indicate that the key characteristics of a well-defined open data context enhancing of citizens democratic participation, rely on symmetrical and horizontal interactions.

The symbiosis of Trust and Knowledge could be characterized as a valuable method to foster a participative creation of mobile applications by experts, data or even by feedback transmitted from end users. We propose that organizations involved into an open data project could undertake the following missions. First of all, they could try to reinforce the principle of Trust; secondly they could lay more emphasis on the notion of sharing knowledge through open data projects.

The four tasks that have been considered as "highly important" mean values are related to the four following categories: Knowledge, Practices, Values and Trust. However, respondents to the e-survey indicated a lowest importance to tasks related to the category "Spaces".

According to the number of tasks belonging to each category, "Practices" appeared to have a numerous items in comparison with "Trust" which includes a lower number of items. The level of importance for the first three tasks of these categories is equivalent; however, with a high number of items, the "Practices" category indicates a lower ranking mean value. If many "Practices" items were evoked by interviewees, many of them could be defined as not important at all (for instance: "Participation of members of the company to highlight the themes of reflection to participants during the contest" or even "Production, dissemination and reception of advertising content to enhance the image of an innovative company").

An Open data Communication mix model

The authors present a proposal for a communicational mix model between the players enrolled in a context of an open data project (Fig. 5.2). This model is inspired by aspects such as the content and type of relationship communication [START_REF] Watzlawick | Une logique de la communication[END_REF]. Following the Palo Alto theories, the transmission of a message involves two elements: the content itself and the relationship between the participants. In that way, information is established on a two-dimensional form revealing the facts and the link between the people involved. Most often, the relationship is more important than the content itself.

Fig. 5.2 An Open data Communication mix model

Regarding the aspect of the content of the communication, the flows of content between actors are presented in terms of a cybernetic process control and regulation [START_REF] Wiener | Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine[END_REF]. The command is materialized by an input consisting of data from a digital environment. This input is integrated in a black box of engaged civic experts. The output of that black box is a translation work data from the input. The regulation is materialized by the use of data feedback for refinement of open data, data translation, improving the novelty and the organization's services. This regulation may enrich the data of the digital environment of the system and constitutes a feedback effect on the cause, as defined by cybernetics. These exchanges based on content result from the element of Knowledge provided in Dahlgren's theory of cultural factors.

Under the scope of the communication relationship, relational flows between the actors derive from the adaptation of the [START_REF] Katz | Personal Influence: the Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications[END_REF] model of "two step flow communication" between the media and the public, via opinion leaders. Transcending these notions into situations of a communication for civic engagement related to open data, two phases emerge. The first phase, demonstrates the collaborative relationship between the organization and experts whereas, the second phase signifies the relationship of the uses of these services created as well as the link between the experts and the users. These relationships are considered as the steps inasmuch as grounds, in the sense that they are horizontal (collaborative) and not vertical (hierarchical). It is also observed a relationship between users and the organization through the trial of innovative services. These exchanges based on relationship derive from the element of Trust, provided in Dahlgren's theory of cultural factors.

CONCLUSION

Contribution

Our study provides a theoretical contribution. The integration of cultural factors and civic engagement theories into the present study sheds light on the new relationship between organization and citizens in a context of an open data policy for public transportation. The evidence of tasks importance, evaluated by all actors of an open data project, indicates the necessity of a suitable Open data Communication mix model capable to incorporate the values of Trust and Knowledge. These kinds of values could be attached into the exchanges and practices between organizations, experts and end users of mobile applications. Furthermore, our findings on circulation of information confirm that open data generate informational and relational descendants and ascendants streams. Namely, the organization must agree to disclose its data in order to access a value that ultimately aims to improve the lives of its customers and to collect valuable data for the organization itself. The improvement of the relationship between players through the use of these resources is thus considered as a main challenge for the development of ideas to the users of digital services.

Management implications

Based on these findings and the theoretical contribution, our study reveals several practical implications for issue management and open data communication. We propose that organizations involved into an open data project should intensify the value of Trust and attempt to facilitate the sharing of Knowledge on this subject.

Limitations and future research

This study demonstrates two important limitations. First of all, the categorization of tasks according to Dahlgren's cultural factors "may convey a misleading impression of their individual independence, but it is necessary for heuristic purposes" Dahlgren (2009: 108-109). Secondly, the e-survey presents a limited number of answers. Worth mentioning that this e-survey is still ongoing.

This study sets an important foundation for a future analysis. We intend to further explore the concept of communication mix model in relation to civic engagement discussed in this paper. We aim to test it into an open data project from a Non-Governmental Organization in relation with the development of smart cities.

-

  RQ1: What are the tasks related to cultural factors in an open data policy? -RQ2: What are the levels of importance of the tasks related to cultural factors in an open data policy? -RQ3: Which kind of communication mix between organization and citizens could promote engagement in an open data policy?

  Individual distribution of local data, advice and ideas for improvement in real time 6.08 Collaborative crowdsourcing Background 6 Facilitating the opening of internal borders 5.93 Ties with other similar organizations on the topic of open 5.86 Judgment/ Evaluation of the quality of the commitment of the creative team and the relevance of the result 5.86 Collaboration (Techies & Manager of competition on open data) 5.86 Networking dialogues between experts and users 5.85 Access to the content of the organization 5.85 Manager as good listener 5.79 Users donating proposals of improvement 5.79 Business-expert users together around a utopian project 5.79 Access to a network (bridging) 5.77 Determine open data formats 5.71 Translation of complex data into an understandable statement 5.71 Willingness to share, improved practices (tech-savvy spirit, civic engagement) 5.71 Computer specialists as proponent of open (data innovation) 5.64 Employee participation in valuing the process of open data 5.64 Selection of project management teams animating the contest 5.64 Data donation from organizations 5.62 Discussions for the creation of an innovative speech 5.57 Generating ideas to be developed 5.57 Strong technological and combinatorial skills: transdisciplinary approach 5.57 Dissemination of the concept of open utopia 5.57 Information on resources people 5.54 Access to tutorials and skills 5.54 Content production via the opinions / evaluations / recommendations of users 5.43 Access to internal raw data 5.43 Networking dialogues between experts 5.36 Requests for new datasets for additional services 5.36 Participation in the dissemination of an innovative discourse between the services concerned 5.36 Creation of mobile applications 5.36 Retrieving information provided by the experts and users of the mobile application 5.36 Retrieving information generated by the citizens about the mobile application 5.36 Information about the tools available for creating applications 5.23 Creation of content through the uses of applications 5.21 Selection of teams of experts participating in the contest 5.14 Participation in the creation of a digital innovation 5.14 Interaction via mobile applications 5.14 Decision making process to hold an open data contest 5.07 Crowdsourcing through competitions 5 Recovery of users' data by innovators 5 Access to mobile tools (citizens) 4.92 Production, dissemination and reception of advertising content to enhance the image of an innovative company 4.86 Access to the imaginary of sharing 4.62 Software /available for the development of Mobile applications 4.38 Participation of members of the company to highlight the themes of reflection to participants during the contest 4.36

Fig. 5 . 1

 51 Fig. 5.1 Number of civic cultural related tasks.

Table 5

 5

.1 Ranking of the mean value of all tasks.

Table 5 .

 5 2 Tasks categorized into five Dahlgren's categories.

  Table 5.3 Tasks categorized into five Dahlgren's categories and ranked through each of them.

		Tasks Requests for new datasets for additional services	Mean	Global
		Participation in the dissemination of an innovative discourse	5.36	Mean
	K	Information on the open data project Ties with other similar organizations on the topic of open Networking dialogues between experts and users Manager as good listener Access to a network (bridging) Determine open data formats Computer specialists as proponent of open (data innovation) Information on resources people Access to tutorials and skills between the services concerned Creation of mobile applications Creation of content through the uses of applications Selection of teams of experts participating in the contest Participation in the creation of a digital innovation of reflection to participants during the contest Participation of members of the company to highlight the themes enhance the image of an innovative company Production, dissemination and reception of advertising content to	6.14 5.21 5.14 5.86 5.14 5.85 4.86 5.79 5.77 5.54 5.54 5.64 5.71 4.36	5.57
		Networking dialogues between experts	5.36
		Information about the tools available for creating applications	5.23
		Software /available for the development of Mobile applications	4.38
		Individual distribution of local data, advice and ideas for Category Cultural factors Mean	6.08	5.43
	V	improvement in real time ranking		value
		Facilitating the opening of internal borders	5.93
		Willingness to share, improved practices (tech-savvy spirit, civic	5.71
		engagement)	1	Trust	5.88
		Data donation from organizations	5.62
		Dissemination of the concept of open utopia	5.57
		Retrieving information provided by the experts and users of the 2 Knowledge 5.57	5.36
		mobile application
		Retrieving information generated by the citizens about the 3 Values 5.43 mobile application Decision making process to hold an open data contest 3 Practices 5.43	5.36 5.07
		Recovery of users' data by innovators	5
		Access to the imaginary of sharing 5 Spaces	5.27	4.62
	T	Collaborative crowdsourcing Background	6	5.88
	Collaboration (Techies & Manager of competition on open data) Business-expert users together around a utopian project Table 5.4 Ranking of the Dahlgren's categories in an open data policy.	5.86 5.79
	S	Access to the content of the organization	5.85	5.27
		Access to internal raw data		5.43
		Interaction via mobile applications	5.14
		Crowdsourcing through competitions	5
		Access to mobile tools (citizens)		4.92
	P	Gradual improvement of the application (in beta mode) through	6.08	5.43
		feedback			5.86
		Judgment of the quality of the commitment of the creative team
		and the relevance of the result		5.79
		Users donating proposals of improvement	5.71
		Translation of complex data into an understandable statement	5.64
		Employee participation in valuing the process of open data	5.64
		Selection of project management teams animating the contest	5.57
		Discussions for the creation of an innovative speech	5.57
		Generating ideas to be developed	5.57
		Strong technological and combinatorial skills: transdisciplinary	5.43
		approach
		Content production via the opinions / evaluations /	5.36
		recommendations of users		5.36

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Thalia Georgiadou (University of Fribourg) for her valuable remarks.