Laure Berti-Equille
email: laure.berti-equille@irisa.fr

Fouzia Moussouni
email: rmoussou@univ-rennes1.fr

QUALITY-AWARE INTEGRATION AND WAREHOUSING OF GENOMIC DATA

Keywords: Data Quality, Data Warehouse Quality, Biological and Genomic Data, Data Integration

In human health and life sciences, researchers extensively collaborate with each other, sharing biomedical and genomic data and their experimental results. This necessitates dynamically integrating different databases or warehousing them into a single repository. Based on our past experience of building a data warehouse called GEDAW (Gene Expression Data Warehouse) that stores data on genes expressed in the liver during iron overload and liver pathologies, and also relevant information from public databanks (mostly in XML format), DNA chips home experiments and medical records, we present the lessons learned, the data quality issues in this context and the current solutions we propose for integrating and warehousing biomedical data. This paper provides a functional and modular architecture for data quality enhancement and awareness in the complex processes of integration and warehousing of biomedical data.

INTRODUCTION

At the center of a growing interest due to the rapid emergence of new biotechnological platforms in human health and life sciences for high throughput investigations in genome, transcriptome and proteome, a tremendous amount of biomedical data is now produced and deposited by scientists in public Web resources and databanks. The management of these data is challenging, mainly because: i) data items are rich and heterogeneous: experiment details, raw data, scientific interpretations, images, literature, etc. ii) data items are distributed over many heterogeneous data sources rendering a complex integration, iii) data are often asynchronously replicated from one databank to another (with the consequence that the secondary copies of data are often not updated in conformance with the primary copies), iv) data are speculative and subject to errors and omissions, some results are world-widely published although the corresponding experiments are still on-going or are not validated yet by the scientific community, and v) biomedical knowledge is constantly morphing and in progress. For the comprehensive interpretation of one specific biological problem (or even a single gene expression measurement for instance), the consideration of the entire available knowledge is required (e.g., the gene sequence, tissue-specific expression, molecular function(s), biological processes, regulation mechanisms, expression in different pathological situations or other species, clinical follow-ups, bibliographic information, etc.). This necessarily leads to the upward trend for the development of data warehouses (or webhouses) as the keystones of the existing biomedical Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS). These systems aim at extensively integrating all the available information related to a specific topic or a complex question addressed by the biomedical researchers leading to new diagnostics and therapeutic tools.

Nevertheless detecting data quality problems (such as duplicates, errors, outliers, contradictions, inconsistencies, etc.), correcting, improving and ensuring biomedical information quality when data comes from various information sources with different degrees of quality and trust are very complex and challenging tasks mainly because of the high level of knowledge and domain expertise they require. Maintaining traceability, freshness, non-duplication and consistency of very large bio-data volumes for integration purposes is one of the major scientific and technological challenges today for research communities in bioinformatics and information and database systems. As a step in this direction, the contribution of this paper is threefold: first, we give an overview on data quality research and projects of multi-source information system architectures that "natively" capture and manage different aspects of data quality and also related work in bioinformatics (Section 2); secondly, we share the lessons learned from the development and maintenance of a data warehouse system used to study gene expression data and pathological disease information; in this context, we present data quality issues and current solutions we proposed (Section 3); finally, we propose a modular architecture for data quality enhancement and awareness in the processes of biomedical data integration and warehousing (Section 4). Section 5 gives concluding remarks and present our research perspectives.

RELATED WORK

Data Quality Research Overview

Data quality is a multidimensional, complex and morphing concept [START_REF] Dasu | Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning[END_REF]. Since a decade, there has been a significant emergence of work in the area of information and data quality management initiated by several research communities 1 (statistics, database, information system, workflow and project management, knowledge engineering and discovery from databases), ranging from techniques in assessing information quality to building large-scale data integration systems over heterogeneous data sources or cooperative information systems [START_REF] Batini | A Survey of Data Quality Issues in Cooperative Information Systems[END_REF]. Many data quality definitions, metrics, models and methodologies [START_REF] Wang | Journey to Data Quality[END_REF] [START_REF] Redman | Data quality: The Field Guide[END_REF] or Extraction-Transformation-Loading (ETL) tools have been proposed by practitioners and academics (e.g., [START_REF] Elfeky | Tailor: A Record Linkage Toolbox[END_REF] [START_REF] Galhardas | Declarative Data Cleaning: Language, Model and Algorithms[END_REF][41] [START_REF] Vassiliadis | ARKTOS: A Tool For Data Cleaning and Transformation in Data Warehouse Environments[END_REF]) with the aim of tackling the following main classes of data quality problems: i) duplicate detection and record matching (also known as: record linkage, merge/purge problem [START_REF] Hernandez | Real-world Data is Dirty: Data Cleansing and the Merge/Purge Problem[END_REF], duplicate elimination [START_REF] Low | A Knowledge-Based Approach for Duplicate Elimination in Data Cleaning[END_REF][21] [START_REF] Anathakrishna | Eliminating Fuzzy Duplicates in Datawarehouses[END_REF], name disambiguation, entity resolution [START_REF] Bejelloun | Swoosh: A Generic Approach to Entity Resolution[END_REF]), ii) instance conflict resolution using heuristics, domain-specific rules, data source selection [START_REF] Mihaila | Source Selection and Ranking in the Web Semantics Architecture Using Quality of Data Metadata[END_REF] or data cleaning and ETL techniques [START_REF] Rahm | Data Cleaning: Problems and Current Approaches[END_REF], iii) missing values and incomplete data [START_REF] Schafer | Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data[END_REF], and iv) staleness of data [START_REF] Bouzeghoub | A Framework for Analysis of Data Freshness[END_REF][46] [START_REF] Cui | Lineage Tracing for General Data Warehouse Transformation[END_REF].

Several surveys and empirical studies showed the importance of quality in the design of information systems, in particular for data warehouse systems [START_REF] English | Improving Data Warehouse and Business Information Quality[END_REF] [START_REF] Shin | An exploratory Investigation of System Success Factors in Data Warehousing[END_REF]. Many works in the fields of information systems and software engineering address the quality control and assessment for the information and for the processes which produce this information [START_REF] Ballou | Modelling Information Manufacturing Systems to Determine Information Product Quality[END_REF][37] [START_REF] Bobrowski | A Software Engineering View of Data Quality[END_REF]. Several works have studied in detail some of the properties that influence given quality factors in concrete scenarios. For example concerning currency and freshness of data, in [START_REF] Cho | Estimating Frequency of Change[END_REF] the update frequency is studied for measuring data freshness in a caching context. Other works combine different properties or study the trade-off between them, for example how to combine different synchronization policies [START_REF] Segev | Currency-Based Updates to Distributed Materialized Views[END_REF] or the trade-off between execution time and storage constraints [START_REF] Labrinidis | Balancing Performance and Data Freshness in Web Database Servers[END_REF]. Other works tackled the problem of the evaluation of data quality.

In [START_REF] Pipino | Data Quality Assessment[END_REF], the authors present a set of quality dimensions and study various types of metrics and the ways of combining the values of quality indicators. In [START_REF] Naumann | Assessment Methods for Information Quality Criteria[END_REF], various strategies to measure and combine values of quality are described. In [START_REF] Ballou | Modelling Information Manufacturing Systems to Determine Information Product Quality[END_REF], a methodology to determine the quality of information is presented with various ways of measuring and combining quality factors like freshness, accuracy and cost. The authors also present guidelines that exploit the quality of information to carry out the reverse engineering of the system, so as to improve the trade-off between information quality/cost. The problem of designing multisource information systems (e.g., mediation systems, data warehouses, web portals) taking into account information about quality has also been addressed by several approaches that propose methodologies or techniques to select the data sources, by using metadata on their content and quality [START_REF] Naumann | Quality Driven Source Selection Using Data Envelope Analysis[END_REF][34] [START_REF] Gertz | Data Integration Techniques based on Data Quality Aspects[END_REF].

Three research projects dedicated to tackle data quality issues provide an enhanced functional architecture (respectively for database, data warehouse and cooperative information system) are worth mentioning. Recently, the Trio project (started in 2005) at Stanford University [START_REF] Widom | Trio: A System for Integrated Management of Data, Accuracy, and Lineage[END_REF] is a new database system that manages not only data, but also the accuracy and lineage of the data. The goals of the Trio project are: i) to combine previous work on uncertain and fuzzy data into a simple and usable model; ii) to design a query language as an understandable extension to SQL; iii) to build a working system that augments conventional data management with both accuracy and lineage as an integral part of the data.

The European ESPRIT DWQ Project (Data Warehouse Quality) (1996-1999) developed techniques and tools to support the design and operation of data warehouses based on data quality factors. Starting from a definition of the basic data warehouse architecture and the relevant data quality issues, the DWQ project goal was to define a range of alternatives design and operational method for each of the main architecture components and quality factors. In [START_REF] Jarke | Architecture and Quality in Data Warehouses[END_REF] [START_REF] Vassiliadis | Towards Quality-Oriented Data Warehouse Usage and Evolution[END_REF] the authors have proposed an architectural framework for data warehouses and a repository of metadata which describes all the data warehouse components in a set of meta-models to which a quality meta-model is added, defining for each data warehouse meta-object the corresponding relevant quality dimensions and quality factors. Beside from this static definition of quality, they also provide an operational complement that is a methodology on how to use quality factors and to achieve user quality goals. This methodology is an extension of the Goal-Question-Metric (GQM) approach, which permits: a) to capture the inter-relationships between different quality factors and b) to organize them in order to fulfill specific quality goals.

The Italian DaQuinCIS project (2001)(2002)(2003) was dedicated to cooperative information systems and proposed an integrated methodology that encompassed the definition of an ad-hoc distributed architecture and specific methodologies for data quality measurement and error correction techniques [START_REF] Scannapieco | The DaQuinCIS Architecture: a Platform for Exchanging and Improving Data Quality in Cooperative Information Systems, Information Systems[END_REF]. This specific methodology includes process-and data-based techniques used for data quality improvement in single information systems. The distributed architecture of DaQuinCIS system consisted of (i) the definition of the representation models for data quality information that flows between different cooperating organizations via cooperative systems (CIS) and (ii) the design of a middleware that offers data quality services to the single organizations.

In error-free data warehouses with perfectly clean data, knowledge discovery techniques (such as clustering, mining association rules or visualization) can be relevantly used as decision making processes to automatically derive new knowledge patterns and new concepts from data. Unfortunately, most of the time, these data are neither rigorously chosen from the various heterogeneous sources with different degrees of quality and trust, nor carefully controlled for quality. Deficiencies in data quality still are a burning issue in many application areas, and become acute for practical applications of knowledge discovery and data mining techniques [START_REF] Pearson | Data Mining in Face of Contaminated and Incomplete Records[END_REF]. Data preparation and data quality metadata are recommended but still insufficiently exploited for ensuring quality in data warehouses and for validating mining results and discovered knowledge [START_REF] Pyle | Data Preparation for Data Mining[END_REF].

Quality of Integrated Biological Data

In the context of biological databases and data warehouses, a survey of representative data integration systems is given in [START_REF] Lacroix | Bioinformatics: Managing Scientific Data[END_REF]. But the current solutions are based on data warehouse architecture (e.g., GIMS 2 , DataFoundry 3 ) or a federation approach with physical or virtual integration of data sources (e.g., TAMBIS 4 , P/FDM 5 , DiscoveryLink 6 ) that are based on the union of the local schemas which have to be transformed to a uniform schema. In [START_REF] Do | Flexible Integration of Molecular-biological Annotation Data: The GenMapper Approach[END_REF], Do and Rahm proposed a system called GenMapper for integrating biological and molecular annotations based on the semantic knowledge represented in crossreferences. More specific to data quality in the biomedical context, other work has been recently proposed for the assessment and improvement of the quality of integrated biomedical data. In [START_REF] Martinez | Making Quality Count in Biological Data Sources[END_REF] the author propose to extend the semi-structured model with useful quality measures that are biologically-relevant, objective (i.e., with no ambiguous interpretation when assessing the value of the quality measure), and easy to compute. Six criteria such as stability (i.e., magnitude of changes applied to a record), density (i.e., number of attributes and values describing a data item), time since last update, redundancy (i.e., fraction of redundant information contained in a data item and its sub-items), correctness (i.e., degree of confidence that the data represents true information), and usefulness (i.e., utility of a data item defined as a function combining density, correctness, and redundancy) are defined and stored as quality metadata for each record (XML file) of the genomic databank of RefSeq 7 . The authors also propose algorithms for updating the scores of quality measures when navigating, inserting or updating/deleting a node in the semi-structured record. Biological databanks providers will not directly support data quality evaluations to the same degree since there is no equal motivation for them to and there are currently no standards for evaluating and comparing biomedical data quality. Müller et al. [START_REF] Müller | Data Quality in Genome Databases[END_REF] examined the production process of genome data and identified common types of data errors. Mining for patterns in contradictory biomedical data has been proposed [START_REF] Müller | Mining for Patterns in Contradictory Data[END_REF], but data quality evaluation techniques are needed for structured, semi-structured or textual data before any biomedical mining applications.

QUALITY-AWARENESS FOR BIOMEDICAL DATA INTEGRATION AND WAREHOUSING

In life sciences, researchers extensively collaborate with each other, sharing biomedical and genomic data and their experimental results. This necessitates dynamically integrating different databases or warehousing them into a single repository. Overlapping data sources may be maintained in a controlled way, such as replication of data on different sites for load balancing or for security reasons. But uncontrolled overlaps are very frequent cases. Moreover, scientists need to know how reliable the data is if they are to base their research on it because pursuing incorrect theories and experiments costs time and money. The current solution to ensure data quality in the biomedical databanks is curation by human experts. The two main drawbacks are: i) data sources are autonomous and as a result, sources may provide excellent reliability in one specific area, but not in all data provided, and ii) curation is a manual process of data accreditation by specialists that slows the incorporation of data and that is not free from conflicts of interest. In this context, more automatic, impartial, and independent data quality evaluation techniques and tools are needed for structured, semi-structured and textual biomedical data.

Some Lessons Learned from Bio-Data Integration and Warehousing

Searching across heterogeneous distributed biological resources is increasingly difficult and timeconsuming for biomedical researchers. Data describing genomic sequences are available in several public databanks via Internet: banks for nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), banks for protein (polypeptides, proteins) such as SWISS-PROT 8 , generalist or specialized databanks such as GenBank9 , EMBL 10 (European Molecular Biology Laboratory) and DDBJ 11 (DNA DataBank of Japan). Each databank record describes a sequence with several annotations. Each record is also identified by a unique accession number and may be retrieved by key-words (see Figure 2 for examples). Annotations may include the description of the genomic sequence: its function, its size, the species for which it has been determined, the related scientific publications and the description of the regions constituting the sequence (codon start, codon stop, introns, exons, ORF, etc.). The project GEDAW (Gene Expression Data Warehouse) [START_REF] Guérin | Integrating and Warehousing Liver Gene Expression Data and Related Biomedical Resources in GEDAW[END_REF] has been developed by the French National Institute of Health Care and Medical Research (INSERM U522) to warehouse data on genes expressed in the liver during iron overload and liver pathologies. Relevant information from public databanks (mostly in XML format), micro-array data, DNA chips home experiments and medical records are integrated, stored and managed in GEDAW for analyzing gene expression measurements. GEDAW aims at studying in silico liver pathologies by using expression levels of genes in different physio-pathological situations enriched with annotations extracted from the variety of the scientific data sources, ontologies and standards in life science and medicine.

Designing a single global data warehouse schema (Figure 1) that integrates syntactically and semantically the whole heterogeneous life science data sources is a very challenging task. In the GEDAW context, we integrate structured and semi-structured data sources and we use a Global As View (GAV) schema mapping approach and a rule-based transformation process from a given source schema to the global schema of the data warehouse (see [START_REF] Guérin | Integrating and Warehousing Liver Gene Expression Data and Related Biomedical Resources in GEDAW[END_REF] for details)

Data Quality Issues and Proposed Solutions

The GEDAW input data sources are: i) GenBank for the genomic features of the genes (in XML format), ii) annotations derived from the biomedical ontologies and terminologies (such as UMLS 12 , MeSH 13 and GO 14 also stored as XML documents), and iii) gene expression home measurements. Because gene expression data are massive (more than two thousands measures per experiment and hundreds of experiment per gene and per experimental conditions), the use of schema integration in our case -i.e., the replication of the source schema in the warehouse -would highly burden the data warehouse.

By using a Global as View (GAV) mapping approach for integrating one data source at a time (e.g. in Figure 1 with GenBank), we have minimized as much as possible the problem of identification of equivalent attributes. The problem of equivalent instances identification is still complex to address. This is due to general redundancy of bio-entities in life science even within a single source. Biological databanks may also have inconsistent values in equivalent attributes of records referring to the same realworld object. For example, there are more than 10 ID's records for the same DNA segment associated to human HFE gene in GenBank! Obviously the same segment could be a clone, a marker or a genomic sequence.

Anyone is indeed able to submit biological information to public databanks with more or less formalized submission protocols that usually do not include names standardization or data quality controls. Erroneous data may be easily entered and cross-referenced. Even if some tools propose clusters of records (like LocusLink 15 for GenBank) which identify the same biological concept across different biological databanks for being semantically related, biologists still must validate the correctness of these clusters and resolve interpretation differences among the records. This is a typical problem of entity resolution and record linkage (see Section 3.2.1) that is augmented and made more complex due to the high-level of expertise and knowledge it requires (i.e., difficult to formalize and related to many different sub-disciplines of biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medical sciences). After the step of bio-entity resolution, data are scrubbed and transformed to fit the global DW schema with the appropriate standardized format for values, so that the data meets all the validation rules that have been decided upon by the warehouse designer. Problems that can arise during this step include null or missing data; violations of data type; non-uniform value formats; invalid data. The process of data cleansing and scrubbing is rule-based (see Section 3.2.2). Then, data are migrated and physically integrated and imported into the data warehouse. During and after data cleansing and migration, quality metadata are computed or updated in the data warehouse metadata repository by pre-and post-data validation programs (see Section 3.2.3).

Biological Entity Resolution and Record Linkage

Before data integration, the process of entity identification and record linkage can be performed using a sequence of increasingly sophisticated linkage techniques, described in the following, and also additional knowledge bases, ontologies and thesaurus (such as UMLS Metathesaurus and MeSH-SR vocabulary), each operating on the set of records that were left unlinked in the previous phase: 1-Linkage based on exact key matching: i.e., based on the gene names and the cross-referenced accession numbers (for instance between a gene from Genew and a protein in SWISS-PROT), 2-Linkage based on nearly exact key matching (i.e., based on all the synonyms of a term and all the identifiers of a gene or gene product in Genew, the UMLS Metathesaurus and MeSH-SR and in the cluster of records proposed by LocusLink), 3-Probabilistic linkage based on the full set of comparable attributes (i.e., based on the search for information about a gene or a gene product: the set of concepts related to this gene in the Gene Ontology (molecular function, biological process and cellular component) and the set of concepts related to the gene in UMLS and MEDLINE 16 abstracts including chemicals & drugs, anatomy, and disorders), 4-Search for erroneous links (false positives), 5-Analysis of residual data and final results for biological entity resolution.

Biomedical Data Scrubbing and Conflict Resolution

In order to define an appropriate data aggregation of all the available information items resulting from the first step of bio-entity resolution, data conflicts have to be resolved using rules for mapping the source records and conciliating different values recorded for a same concept. Mapping rules are defined to allow the data exchange from the public databanks into the GEDAW data warehouse. Apart from experimental data, public information items are automatically extracted by scripts using the DTD (Document Type Definition) of the data source translated into the GEDAW conceptual data model. Three categories of mapping rules are proposed: 1) structural mapping rules, 2) semantic mapping rules and 3) cognitive mapping rules according to the different knowledge levels involved in the biological interpretation of data.

Structural mapping rules are defined at the schema level according to the GEDAW model by identifying the existing correspondences with relevant DTD elements (e.g., in Figure 1, the Seqdesc_title element in GenBank DTD is used to extract the name attribute of the gene and the MolInfo_biomol value its type of molecule with the appropriate structural mapping rules).

Semantic and cognitive mapping rules are used for data unification at the instance level: several rules may use available tools for determining analogies between homologous data (such as sequence alignment, for example). The result of the BLAST algorithm (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) implemented as a set of similarity search programs allows considering that two genomic sequences match. The nomenclature provided by our previous work on BioMeKE (Bio-Medical Knowledge Extraction system) reported in [START_REF] Marquet | BioMeKe: an Ontology-Based Biomedical Knowledge Extraction System Devoted to Transcriptome Analysis[END_REF] is also considerably used to conciliate duplicate records based on several ontologies, such as the Unified Medical Language System® (UMLS) covering the whole biomedical domain, and the Gene Ontology™ (GO) that focuses on genomics and other additional terminologies, as that provided by the HUman Genome Organisation (HUGO) Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) to resolve synonymy conflicts. More semantic mapping rules need to be built using this information for the integration process. For example, the Locus-ID is used to cluster submitted sequences associated to a same gene (with crossreferenced records in LocusLink) and the official gene name along with its aliases to relate different gene appearances with different names in literature for example. These aliases are also stored in the data warehouse and used to tackle the mixed or split citation problems similar to those studied by [START_REF] Lee | Effective and Scalable Solutions for Mixed and Split Citation Problems in Digital Libraries[END_REF] in Digital Libraries.

As an illustrative example presented in Figure 2, let us now consider three distinct records we may obtain from GenBank by querying the DNA sequence for the human gene HFE. A first record 1 identified by the accession number AF204869 describes a partial gene sequence (size = 3043) of the HFE gene with no annotation but one relevant information item about the position of the promoter region (1..3043) in the "misc_feature" field. A second record 2 identified by the accession number AF184234 describes a partial sequence (size = 772) of the protein precursor of HFE gene with a detailed but incomplete annotation. The third record 3 identified by the accession number Z92910 describes the complete gene sequence (size = 12146) of the HFE gene with a complete annotation.

We need to integrate the information and to evaluate the quality of this three records because they are complementary regarding the biological topic of interest (i.e., HFE human gene): the first record has a relevant data item that the other records do not have, the second record overlaps the third one regarding the gene sequence but provide more detailed annotation and the third record is complete regarding the gene sequence. This example shows the main quality criteria we use: i.e. completeness, relevancy and detail level of annotation. In this example, using the BLAST algorithm for determining the sequence alignment between the two sequences of the records 2 and 3 shows 100% of alignment. This indicates that the sequence in both records 2 and 3 are perfectly identical and can be merged. The detailed annotation of record 2 can be concatenated with the more complete annotation of record 3 in the data warehouse.

Several cognitive mapping rules may be used in this example for conciliating data such as the position offset: in the record 3 the fourth exon is located at position 6494 and in the record 2 this same exon is located at the relative position 130, thus using overlapping information that identifies the same entities, we can deduce the position offset and use the following cognitive rule such as:

record(AF18423)/exon[number>=4]/position = record(Z92910)/exon[number >=4]/position -6364

Quality Metrics and Metadata

As we previously mentioned, we identified several information quality criteria assigned to data extracted from biological databanks. We have classified them into three sets (see Table 1 for informal definitions): -Bio-knowledge-based quality criteria such as originality, domain authority of the authors who submitted the sequence, -Schema-based quality criteria such as local and global completeness, level of detail, and intra-and inter-record redundancy, -Contextual quality criteria such as freshness, and consolidation degree. Considering a set of records related to the same bio-entity (i.e., entity identification resolved), the originality of a data (sub-) item in a record set is defined by its occurrence frequency and its variability based on the normalized standard deviation of the edit distance between the considered strings.

Bio-Knowledgebased Quality Criteria Domain Authority

Record Domain authority is a grade in [0,1] that is computed depending on the status of the reference (Published, Submitted, Unpublished), the number of referenced submissions of the authors in the record and of the user-grade defined on the journal and authors reputations of the most recent reference of these authors.

Local Completeness

Record

Local completeness is defined by the fraction of the number of items and sub-items with non null values on the total number of items and sub-items in the local data source schema (DTD). Global Completeness

Record

Global completeness is defined by the fraction of the number of items and sub-items with non null values provided by a source on the total number of items and sub-items in the global schema of the data warehouse.

Level of Detail Data items and subitems per record

Level of detail is the number of sub-items per item described with non null values by a local source normalized by the total of possible sub-items in the data source schema.

Intra-Record Redundancy

Record Intra-record redundancy is defined by the fraction of items and sub-items in the record that are approximately the same based on the edit or q-grams distance functions or other semantic and cognitive rules

Schemabased Quality Criteria

Inter-Record Redundancy

Record Set of the same bioentity

Inter-record redundancy is defined by the fraction of items and sub-items in the record set that are approximately the same based on edit or q-grams distance functions, BLAST or other sequence alignment techniques or other cognitive rules.

Freshness Record

Freshness is defined by the difference between the current date and the publication date of the record Contextual Quality Criteria Consolidation Degree

Data items and subitems per record

Consolidation degree is defined by the number of inter-record redundancies and overlaps.

Table 1. Proposed Quality Criteria for Biomedical Data

Metadata are stored in XML files are linked to each XML record (identified by its accession number) used for data integration. Concerning the integration of genomic data, mapping are formalized and expressed by XPath and XSLT declarations. We proposed a simple XML quality metadata schema (Figure 3) that allows a flexible and extensible definition of the quality dimensions.

Figure 3. Metadata XML Schema Representation

As Figure 3 shows, the metadata type associated to a record (metadatasetType) can be a set of metadata (metadataset) or one metadata (metadata) which is composed of a criterion, a scoring value (in [0,1]) for the criterion that can be given by a human curator (annotator) or computed by a program (program), a creation date and a comment (comment). A consensus can be calculated for a given criterion and a date if several notations have been proposed by several data curators. Considering the three records respectively identified by their accession number AF204869, Z92910 and AF184234, the originality of the sub-item misc_feature is 1 occurrence on 3 records with no variability, the originality of the sub-item KEYWORDS is 3 occurrences on 3 records with a variability of 0.45. In the REFERENCE field of record Z92910, Albig et al. have published in Journal of Cell. Biochem. in 1998, and the domain authority of this record is 0.8; In the REFERENCE field of the record AF204869, Malfroy et al. have submitted a more recent internal paper in 1999 and their domain authority is 0.4. In the record AF204869, freshness of the data is 5 years and 3 months (from the 9 th of April 2000). For the sake of brevity, we'll present in Figure 4 only an extract of the quality metadata file generated for the record AF204869.

< m e t a d a t a s e t q id = " q 1 _ A F 2 0 4 8

A MODULAR ARCHITECTURE FOR QUALITY-PREVENTIVE INTEGRATION AND WAREHOUSING

From a functional perspective, different levels of periodic measurement and control can be implemented for ensuring a quality check-point grid upon the data warehouse system. They are represented as boxes with dotted-lines in Figure 5 from A. to J. and are different "modular" ways for implementing data quality check-points and mapping rules upon the data warehouse storage system. These modules consists of cleaning, reconciling, aggregating data and loading data into the data warehouse with appropriate ETL tools, record linking and mapping strategies. We used data pre-and post-validation programs before and after one-to-one mapping and massive data import in the data warehouse system (H. and I. in Figure 5). Record linking strategies previously described in Section 3.2.1 are included in the pre-and postvalidation programs (in H. and H'.) before loading data. Mapping and various constraints can be implemented at different levels from the core of the data warehouse by constraints predicates, check assertions, triggers, and views with check option and stored procedures that will verify the integrity of loaded data but also update quality metadata files associated to each stored value with the identification of its source and corresponding quality. Others mapping and checking rules may be implemented at different places of the application programs: in the access module (E.), in the application program code (F.) or in the user interface (G.).

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

Based on our past experience of building the biomedical data warehouse GEDAW (Gene Expression Data Warehouse) [15] [29] that stores all the relevant information on genes expressed in the liver during iron overload and liver pathologies (i.e., records extracted from public databanks, data generated from DNA chips home experiments, data collected in hospitals and clinical institutions as medical records), we present some lessons learned, data quality issues in this context and current solutions we propose for quality-aware integrating and warehousing our biomedical data from a very programmatic and functional perspective. In this paper, we gave an overview of data quality related work relevant to our approach and also elements for data quality-awareness for the complex processes of integrating and warehousing biomedical data.

With regards to the limits of our warehousing approach, it is relevant as long as data integration from the heterogeneous sources in Biomedicine and their refreshment in the warehouse stay feasible automatically and with a reasonable performance. A filtering task is nevertheless performed by the expert on the delivered annotations before their storage in the warehouse by using multiple criteria, like the frequency information of the concept co-occurrences in Medline for instance. And we plan on continuing the development of GEDAW to extend the base of mapping and filtering cognitive rules and to complete the different levels of quality check-points previously described, which would allow us to validate the overall approach and demonstrate that the proposed quality metrics and functional architecture upon the data warehouse are respectively meaningful and really useful for our colleagues in biomedical Research.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Mapping the GenBank Schema with GEDAW's Global Schema

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. GenBank Screen Shots for HFE Gene

e n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > lo c _ c o m p l_ p g 1 .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t oe n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > g lo b _ c o m p l_ p g 2 .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t or it e r io n it e m r e f = " H F E _ G e n e " > In t e r -R e c o r d R e d u n d a n c y < /c r it e r ioe n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > in t e r _ r e c _ r e d u n .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t oe n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > f r e s h _ p g .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t o

 12 it e r io n it e m r e f = " A C C E S S IO N _ A F 2 0 4 8 6 9 " > O r ig in a lit y < /c r it e r io n > < s c o r e > ( 3 ; 1 ) < /s c o r e > < d a t e > T h u J u l 7 1 5 : 2 3 : 0 8 M E T D S T 2 0 0 5 < /d a t e > < g e n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > o r ig in _ p g .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t o r > < /m e t a d a t a > < m e t a d a t a m id = " m 4 _ A F 2 0 4 8 6 9 " > < c r it e r io n it e m r e f = " V E R S IO N _ A F 2 0 4 8 6 9 " > O r ig in a lit y < /c r it e r io n > < s c o r e > ( 3 ; 1 ) < /s c o r e > < d a t e > T h u J u l 7 1 5 : 2 3 : 0 8 M E T D S T 2 0 0 5 < /d a t e > < g e n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > o r ig in _ p g .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t o r > < /m e t a d a t a n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > le v _ d e t _ p g 2 .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t o r > < /m e t a d a t a > [ ---] < m e t a d a t a m id = " m 4 4 _ A F 2 0 4 8 6 9 " > < c r it e r io n it e m r e f = " R E C O R D _ A F 2 0 4 8 6 9 " > In t r a -R e c o r d R e d u n d a n c y < /c r it e r io n > < s c o r e > 0 .0 6 < /s c o r e > < d a t e > T h u J u l 7 1 5 : 2 3 : 0 8 M E T D S T 2 0 0 5 < /d a t e > < g e n e r a t o r > < p r o g r a m > in t r a _ r e c _ r e d u n .c c < /p r o g r a m > < /g e n e r a t o r > < /m e t a d a t a > < m e t a d a t a m id = " m

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Example of Quality Metadata Associated to the Record AF204869

D B s c h e m a s to reFigure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Different Levels for Controlling and Measuring Data Quality Before and After Loading Data in the DW

Se the organization of international conferences such as the International Conference on Information Quality (ICIQ http://web.mit.edu/tdqm/www/iqc) at Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1996, several international workshops such as Data Quality in Cooperative Information Systems (DQCIS'03 in conjunction with ICDT'03) and the International Workshop on Information Quality in Information Systems (IQIS'04 and IQIS'05 in conjunction with ACM SIGMOD), and special issues of well-known journals such as IEEE Transactions on Data and Knowledge Engineering and Communications of ACM,

SWISS-PROT: http://www.expasy.org/sprot

GenBank: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Genbank

EMBL: http://www.ebi.ac.uk/embl/

DDBJ: http://www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp/

Unified Medical Language System® (UMLS): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/umls/

MeSH: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/mesh

Gene Ontology™ (GO): http://www.ontologos.org/IFF/Ontologies/Gene.html

MEDLINE/ PubMed: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed