Christophe Mougel

Denis Tagu

J Ean-Christophe Simon

A Chim Quaiser

Marie Duhamel

Sarah Ben Maamar

Romain Olivier

Guillaume

Maxime, K evin H, K evin T, A lice, Manon, Youn, Tiphaine, J ean, K aï na, A rmand, Hélè ne, Gorenka, Delphine Merci Aux Doctorants Du Labo, Diana

Sarah Mê

R emerciements

C'est avec un soulagement modéré que j'écris ces remerciements avant d'appuyer sur le bouton qui clôturera ces 3 ans d'aventure. Modéré parce qu'avec le soutient et l'aide de tous ceux que je vais citer ici, ces trois ans, bien qu'intenses en travail, ont été un réel plaisir. C'était cool ! J 'espè re avoir la chance de retrouver des gens aussi gentils tout au long de mes prochaines aventures. J e voudrais commencer par remercier mes super encadrants Cendrine Mony, A nne-K ristel Bittebiè re et Philippe Vandenkoornhuyse pour leur précieuse aide. Merci pour votre disponibilité, votre bienveillance et surtout votre bonne humeur au quotidien. J e trouve qu'on a formé une super équipe et mê me si quatre tê tus qui discutent ça peut faire des réunions compliquées je crois qu'on a réussi a faire émerger des idées de tout ça. Merci aussi Cendrine pour tout ce magnésium disponible dans ton bureau (3 ans de thè se, 5 de régime) et pour les sorties terrains rafraî chissantes bien qu'un peu humides ! Merci aussi Philippe pour ta bonne humeur et pour les biè res d'inspiration scientifique. Merci aussi A nne-K ristel pour tes précieux conseils (mê me a 700 km tu m'as beaucoup soutenu), notamment grâce a tes yeux bioniques capables de voir le moindre changement de police ou décalage dans un diapo.

R ésumé F rançais

Depuis plusieurs années déjà, la communauté scientifique a tiré la sonnette d'alarme sur les risques accrus de crises alimentaires du fait des événements climatiques qui deviennent plus fréquents et extrê mes (Battisti et al., 2009). L a productivité agricole mondiale diminueainsi alors mê me qu'en parallè le la population humaine continue a croî tre réguliè rement avec une population humaine estimée a 10 milliard à l'horizon 2100 (Lutz et al., 2001). Pour subvenir à une telle demande de nourriture la production agricole devra presque doubler [START_REF] Cirera | Income distribution trends and future food demand[END_REF]. A fin d'augmenter la production, les besoins en espaces agricoles seront en grande partie acquis par la transformation d'écosystè mes naturels (forê ts) en cultures. Il est estimé ainsi la transformation de 10 9 hectares en agrosystè mes d'ici à 2050 [START_REF] Tilman | Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change[END_REF] induisant ainsi une perte de biodiversité et de fonctions écosystémiques et impactant considérablement la quantité de CO2 émise vers l'atmosphè re. L e défi pour l'agriculture durant ce siè cle est donc de produire plus efficacement et durablement pour nourrir la plante tout en préservant au maximum les écosystè mes naturels.En agriculture, les contraintes locales de l'environnement ont été contournées par l'utilisation d'intrants dans les cultures (fertilisants, pesticides, etc). Cependant, la disponibilité des ressources permettant de produire ces fertilisants est limitée et se pose donc la question de la durabilité de l'agriculture conventionnelle (Duhamel & Vandenkoornhuyse 2013). s.

Durant les derniè res décennies, les communautés symbiotiques de bactéries, champignons et A rchaea ont été reconnues comme des déterminants majeurs des fonctions écosystémiques à échelle globale [START_REF] Van Der Heijden | Mycorrhizal fungal diversity determines plant biodiversity, ecosystem variability and productivity[END_REF][START_REF] Urich | A rchaea predominate among ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes in soils[END_REF][START_REF] Falkowski | The microbial engines that drive Earth's biogeochemical cycles[END_REF]van der Heijden et al., 2008), notamment via les fonctions de résistance et d'acquisition des ressources qu'ils fournissent. A insi, de nombreux chercheurs ont commencé à reconnaî tre le potentiel des micro-organismes associés aux plantes pour résoudre le dilemme productivité agricole-maintien de la biodiversité. L a prochaine étape pour l'agriculture de demain serait donc de prendre en compte les communautés microbiennes des cultures pour optimiser les fonctions qu'elles assurent.

A fin de parvenir a cet objectif d'utilisation des communautés microbiennes à des fins d'agriculture durable, il est nécessaire d'appréhender les rè gles qui régissent le fonctionnement de ces communautés. Cette thè se a pour objectif de déterminer les rè gles d'assemblage des communautés microbiennes associées aux plantes et leur influence sur le phénotype de la plante iv hôte. Elle est articulée autour de trois chapitres qui sont chacun composés d'articles en préparation, soumis ou publiés.

Chapitre 1 : Conséquences écologique et évolutive de la plasticité induite par les mutualistes.

In natura, les plantes sont colonisées par une grande diversité de micro-organismes à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur de leurs tissus. Ces microorganismes constituent leur microbiote. Ce microbiote fournit à son hôte des fonctions clés telles que l'acquisition des ressources ou la résistance aux stress biotiques et abiotiques (Friesen et al., 2011;Mü ller et al., 2016), influençant ainsi tous les aspects de la vie d'une plante, de l'établissement à la croissance jusqu'à la reproduction (Mü ller et al., 2016).

L a composition du microbiote des plantes est déterminée par une large gamme de facteurs environnementaux tels que les propriétés du sol comprenant le pH ou la disponibilité en nutriments et en eau [START_REF] Berg | Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Shakya et al., 2013;Schreiter et al., 2014). En effet, les micro-organismes associés aux plantes sont majoritairement recrutés depuis le sol. Du fait de leur style de vie sessile (i.e. immobile), les plantes doivent donc faire face à l'hétérogénéité de l'abondance des micro-organismes dans le sol. L es plantes ont ainsi développé différents mécanismes permettant de tamponner les effets des contraintes environnementales tels que des modifications plastiques (i.e. production de plusieurs phénotypes à partir d'un seul génotype) (Bradshaw, 1965). Ces modifications sont classiquement considérées comme étant déterminées par le génome de l'organisme. Or les mécanismes épigénétiques (régulant l'expression du génome) et les micro-organismes symbiotiques ont été identifiés à de multiples reprises comme des sources de variations phénotypiques (Richards, 2006;Friesen et al., 2011;Holeski et al., 2012;Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). Dans le premier chapitre de cette thè se nous avons étudié l'influence de ces deux sources de variations phénotypiques sur le phénotype et l'adaptation des plantes.

L 'article de synthè se bibliographique présenté dans cette thè se (A rticle I) a permis de mettre en évidence l'importance du microbiote et de l'épigenetique comme sources de plasticité phénotypique. L es avancées récentes en épigénétique et sur les symbiotes des plantes ont démontré leur impact majeur sur la survie, le développement et la reproduction des plantes. Ces sources de plasticité permettent aux plantes de s'adapter aux contraintes environnementales sur des pas de temps courts (au cours la vie de la plante) et longs (i.e. temps évolutifs). De plus, les variations phénotypiques ainsi produites peuvent ê tre intégrées dans le génome par accommodation génétique et ainsi influencer les trajectoires évolutives. De maniè re générale, cette synthè se bibliographique indique également que des interactions entre microbiote et épigénétique pourraient exister et v devraient donc ê tre étudiées en parallè le des effets respectifs de ces mécanismes sur la survie et l'évolution des plantes.

Dans le second article présenté dans ce chapitre (A rticle II), nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle des micro-organismes dans la réponse des plantes clonales à l'hétérogénéité environnementale.

L es plantes clonales sont des organismes particuliè rement plastiques. En effet, leur structure organisée en réseau (i.e. individus clonaux connectés) permet la propagation dans l'espace ainsi que le partage des ressources et de l'information (i.e. intégration physiologique ; Oborny et al., 2001).

De nombreuses études ont mis en évidence que ce réseau permet le développement de deux principaux types de réponses plastiques à l'hétérogénéité des ressources : le foraging (i.e. exploration de l'espace pour les ressources) et la spécialisation (i.e. division du travail pour l'exploitation des ressources) (Slade & Hutchings, 1987;Dong, 1993;Hutchings & de K roon, 1994;Birch & Hutchings, 1994). Par transposition, la présence de microorganismes symbiotiques dans le sol, pourrait induire le mê me type de réponses plastiques, en raison de leur rôle clé pour la plante (lire les synthè ses Friesen et al., 2011;Mü ller et al., 2016).. Nous avons testé expérimentalement cette hypothè se en manipulant l'hétérogénéité de présence de champignons mycorhiziens à arbuscules (MA ) et en mesurant les traits de réponses plastiques de foraging et de spécialisation de la plant clonale Glechoma hederacea. Dans nos expérimentations, nous avons démontré 1.) que Glechoma hederacea ne produit pas de réponse plastique de spécialisation et une réponse de foraging limitée a l'hétérogénéité des champignons MA et que 2.) les traits architecturaux impliqués dans les réponses de foraging des plantes ne sont pas affectés par les espè ces de champignons MA testées, contrairement aux traits d'allocation des ressources liés aux réponses de spécialisation. L e fait que G. hederacea ne réponde que peu ou pas à l'hétérogénéité de distribution des champignons MA suggè re que les plantes pourraient homogénéiser cette distribution en les transmettant d'un ramet a un autre dans le réseau. Cette hypothè se est corroborée par des observations en microscopie électronique à balayage révélant la présence d'hyphes à la surface d'échantillons de stolons et des observations en coupe montrant la présence de structures apparentées à des champignons colonisant les cellules de stolons.

Chapitre 2 : L 'héritabilité du microbiote des plantes, vers le concept de méta-holobionte Dans ce chapitre nous avons testé expérimentalement l'hypothè se de transmission des microorganismes entre ramets clonaux. Ce chapitre vise également à évaluer les conséquences d'un tel mécanisme de transmission pour les performances des plantes et pour la compréhension du fonctionnement et de l'évolution des plantes. vi Des études précédentes ont mis en évidence l'existence de transmission de symbiotes endophytiques via la colonisation des graines de la plante hôte. Ce type transmission a majoritairement été décrit pour le champignon Neotyphodium coenocephalum qui colonise les graines et permet la résistance à certains stress environnementaux (Clay & Schardl, 2002;Selosse et al., 2004). Cet exemple est le seul décrit dans la littérature montrant une transmission verticale de micro-organismes entre générations de plantes et n'implique le transfert que d'une seule espè ce de champignon a un moment spécifique de la vie de l'hôte. Comme mis en évidence dans le premier chapitre les plantes clonales pourraient potentiellement transmettre des micro-organismes, en plus des ressources et de l'information, à leurs descendants clonaux, constituant un niveau supplémentaire d'intégration physiologique .

Dans le premier article présenté dans ce chapitre (A rticle III), nous avons cherché à démontrer expérimentalement l'existence de transmission de microorganismes entre générations de plantes clonales. Dans nos expérimentations, nous avons détecté la présence d'archées, de bactéries et de champignons dans l'endosphè re des ramets mè res de G. hederacea. Certains de ces microorganismes (des champignons et des bactéries) ont été détectés dans les racines et stolons des ramets filles démontrant ainsi l'héritabilité d'une partie du microbiote de la plante à ses descendants.

De plus, les communautés transmises étaient similaires entre ramets filles bien que plus pauvres en nombre d'OTUs que l'assemblage présent au niveau des racines du ramet mè re initial. Ce résultat démontre l'existence d'une filtration des micro-organismes durant la transmission par une diminution de la richesse et une homogénéisation des communautés transmises constituant un « core microbiote » D'un point de vue théoriquela transmission du microbiote aux descendants est avantageuse car elle permet d'assurer la présence de symbiotes bénéfiques et permet donc d'assurer la qualité de l'environnement des descendants (Wilkinson & Sherratt, 2001). Nos résultats ouvrent des perspectives sur la capacité des plantes clonales à sélectionner et transmettre préférentiellement certains micro-organismes spécifiques. Cependant, les modalités de cette filtration ne sont pour l'instant pas connues et représentent donc une perspective de recherche importante de cette thè se.

L es micro-organismes transmis pourraient ainsi ê tre filtrés en fonction de leurs capacités de dispersion (i.e. de colonisation des entre-noe uds ou stolons) ou en fonction des fonctions qu'ils remplissent pour le ramet mè re (par exemple l'acquisition de ressource ou la résistance a un stress).

vii Cette transmission verticale de micro-organismes constitue une continuité du partenariat entra la plante et ses symbiotes (Zilber-Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008). Récemment, la compréhension des interactions hôtes-symbiotes a évolué vers une approche holistique de l'hôte et de ses symbiotes. L a théorie de l'holobionte fournit un cadre théorique pour l'étude des interactions hôte-symbiotes (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008;Theis et al., 2016). Dans l'hologenome (i.e. l'ensemble formé par le génome de l'hôte et celui de ses symbiotes) un micro-organisme peut ê tre assimilé à un gè ne dans le génome. De la mê me maniè re que les gè nes sont hérités lors de la reproduction sexuée, l'héritabilité des micro-organismes entre les générations d'hôtes est ainsi un paramè tre clé de l'évolution de l'hologénome. Dans ce contexte, le mécanisme démontré ici intè gre les plantes dans la gamme des organismes qui peuvent ê tre considérés et appréhendés comme des holobiontes. De plus, la structure en réseau des plantes clonales suggè re un niveau supplémentaire de complexité dans l'assemblage de l'holobionte puisque dans ce réseau les holobiontes peuvent échanger ou partager une partie de leur microbiote.

Dans le second article de ce chapitre deux (A rticle IV ) nous proposons une extension du concept de l'holobionte aux organismes clonaux organisés en réseaux : le méta-holobionte. En plus des bases théoriques de la compréhension des réseaux clonaux comme des méta-holobiontes nous proposons dans cette article de transposer des corpus de connaissances issus des théories écologiques des méta-communautés et des réseaux écologiques. L e cadre théorique des métacommunautés devrait permettre d'appréhender l'impact de la transmission des micro-organismes sur l'assemblage et la survie des communautés de micro-organismes et sur la gestion par les plantes des micro-organismes d'intérê t. L e cadre théorique de l'écologie des réseaux devrait fournir des perspectives sur l'optimisation de la résilience et des performances du réseau clonal en fonction de sa structure et de la transmission des micro-organismes qui dépend de cette structure.

Chapitre 3 : Importance du contexte de la communauté de plantes pour l'assemblage du microbiote d'une plante hôte L a composition des communautés de micro-organismes du sol dépend de différents facteurs environnementaux dont par exemple le type de sol et ses propriétés (e.g. pH, humidité, concentration en nutriments) [START_REF] Berg | Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;[START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]Shakya et al., 2013;Schreiter et al., 2014). Du fait de l'immobilité des plantes, ce pool de microorganismes disponibles pour le recrutement détermine en grande partie leur microbiote (L undberg viii et al., 2012;[START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]. En plus du type de sol et de ses propriétés, les plantes peuvent également modifier ce pool de micro-organismes via différents mécanismes. L es plantes sont capables de recruter préférentiellement certains micro-organismes à partir du sol (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015) et de promouvoir les symbiotes les plus bénéfiques [START_REF] Bever | Preferential allocation to beneficial symbiont with spatial structure maintains mycorrhizal mutualism[END_REF]K iers et al., 2011). De plus les exsudats racinaires des plantes peuvent également augmenter ou diminuer l'abondance de micro-organismes spécifiques en fonction de l'espè ce de plante considérée (pour une synthè se lire Berendsen et al., 2012). On s'attend donc à ce que les plantes modifient localement la composition des communautés microbiennes du sol. Suivant cette hypothè se, le voisinage d'une plante donnée (c'est-à-dire l'identité et l'abondance des plantes voisines) devrait influencer localement les communautés de micro-organismes du sol et donc les micro-organismes disponibles pour le recrutement par d'autres plantes de la communauté.

A insi, le voisinage d'une plante donnée devrait influencer l'assemblage du microbiote de la plante focale. Cependant, ce rôle potentiel du contexte de la communauté de plantes sur l'assemblage du microbiote n'a pas été étudié expérimentalement. En outre, des espè ces [START_REF] Oh | Distinctive bacterial communities in the rhizoplane of four tropical tree species[END_REF][START_REF] Bonito | Plant host and soil origin influence fungal and bacterial assemblages in the roots of woody plants[END_REF] et des écotypes [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012) différents de plantes ont des microbiotes spécifiques ce qui suggè re que les plantes peuvent promouvoir différents microorganismes et donc avoir des effets contrastés sur les communautés du sol. Considérant la grande diversité de fonctions fournies par les symbiotes des plantes (Friesen et al., 2011, Mü ller et al., 2016) et leurs effets sur le phénotype et les performances des plantes mis en évidence dans cette thè se (A rticles I et II), des changements de composition du microbiote devraient affecter les performances de la plante focale.

Dans ce chapitre qui est composé d'un article en préparation nous avons testé expérimentalement l'hypothè se de l'effet du contexte de la communauté de plantes sur l'assemblage du microbiote d'une plante hôte. Nous avons utilisé un dispositif de mésocosmes manipulant des communautés prairiales de plantes. Nous avons échantillonné les assemblages fongiques du sol de ces mésocosmes en utilisant Medicago truncatula comme plante piè ge et en cartographiant le recouvrement en plante sur plusieurs années.

Dans notre expérience (A rticle V ), nous avons détecté un effet significatif de l'abondance des espè ces de plantes du voisinage sur la composition du microbiote colonisant les racines de M. truncatula. Cette effet dépend de l'espè ce de plante du voisinage avec certaines plantes ayant un effet positif et d'autres un effet négatif sur la richesse et l'équitabilité des assemblages fongiques colonisant M. truncatula. Nous avons démontré ainsi qu'une plante spécifique peut filtrer et déterminer les assemblage fongiques locales présentes et disponibles pour le recrutement dans le sol ix comme proposé par Valyi et al., (2016). Nos résultats indiquent également que cet effet du voisinage de plantes ne se limite pas aux champignons MA mais influence tout l'assemblage fongique. L 'influence du voisinage en plantes sur le microbiote racinaire se produit à échelle fine (i.e. de 5 à 25 cm) . De plus, il s'avè re qu'à la fois le recouvrement passé et le recouvrement présent en plantes impactent les assemblages fongiques des racines suggérant que les plantes peuvent laisser une empreinte durable sur la composition des assemblages fongiques du sol. En outre, nous avons également démontré que les changements de composition des assemblages fongiques colonisant les racines impactent in fine les performances de la plante hôte M. truncatula. A insi, des assemblages fongiques plus riches ou plus équitables ont induit de meilleures performances chez les plantes hôtes. Dans leur ensemble ces résultats démontrent l'existence d'interactions plante-plante via les champignons et impactant in fine la fitness de la plante hôte et ouvrent des perspectives sur la manipulation du microbiote racinaire des plantes via leur voisinage dans l'objectif d'améliorer la productivité.

Ce travail a donc permis de mieux comprendre les modalités d'assemblage du microbiote et démontre l'existence d'une empreinte du voisinage des plantes sur la composition des communautés de micro-organismes. Un second résultat majeur est la démonstration de l'héritabilité d'une fraction de ce microbiote, sans doute un microbiote transmis essentiel au développement de son hôte. Ces travaux offrent de nouvelles opportunités de recherche qui devraient permettre de mieux comprendre le microbiote des plantes, son assemblage, ses fonctions et son influence sur le phénotype de l'hôte. A u delà des réflexions conceptuelles induites par cette thè se, ces travaux interrogent d'un point de vue appliqué la place du voisinage des plantes en agriculture pour contribuer à la diversité du réservoir des micro-organismes symbiotiques. Une perspective majeure de ce travail est donc le développement de polycultures dans lesquelles les espè ces de plantes induisent des effets de facilitation via la promotion de la diversité du microbiote.

x

Table of contents

INT R ODUC T ION GE NE R A L E . ...............................................................................1 General context of the thesis. .............................................................................2 I. Scientific context................................................................................................2 II. Structure of the PhD thesis. ..............................................................................5 L iterature review. ...............................................................................................6 1. Microbiota composition.....................................................................................6 1.1 Plants and microorganisms, an ubiquitous alliance. The root microbiota: Diversity and composition. .............................................................9 2. Endophytes induced functions and phenotypic modifications. .......................12 2.1 Resources acquisition. ....................................................................................................12 2.2 Resistance to environmental constraints. .................................................................................15 3. Plant microbiota assembly. ..............................................................................17 3.1 Microbiota recruitment...................................................................................................18 3.1.1 The soil as a microbial reservoir. ............................................................................18 3.1.2 Rhizosphere............................................................................................................19 3.1.3 Endosphere.............................................................................................................20 3.2 Controls of the plant over its microbiota ........................................................................20 3. Vertical transmission or heritability. .......................................................................26 4. The plant is a "holobiont". ...............................................................................27 5. Objectives of the thesis. ...................................................................................29 C hapter I: C onsequences of mutualist-induced plasticity. ....................................31 I. [START_REF] Simms | The relative advantages of plasticity and fixity in different environments: when is it good for a plant to adjust ?[END_REF] .........................................................................................................................33 I.2 A rticle I: Epigenetic mechanisms and microbiota as a toolbox for plant phenotypic adjustment to environment. ..............................................................35 I.3 A rticle II: A M fungi patchiness and the clonal growth of Glechoma hederacea in heterogeneous environments. .........................................................57 C hapter II: T he heritability of the plant microbiota, toward the meta-holobiont concept. .......................................................................................................................83 xi II.1 Introduction...................................................................................................83 Scientific context..................................................................................................................83 Objectives of the chapter. .....................................................................................................84 Methods................................................................................................................................84 Main results..........................................................................................................................85 II.2 A rticle III: A microorganisms journey between plant generations. ..............87 II.3 A rticle IV: Introduction of the metaholobiont concept for clonal plants. ...121 C hapter III:Importance of the plant community context for the individual plant microbiota assembly. ...............................................................................................141 III.1 Introduction...............................................................................................141 Scientific Context...............................................................................................................141 Objectives of the chapter. have raised the alarm on the risks of food crises becoming more and more frequent (Battisti et al., 2009) due to extreme climatic events or pests spreading. A gricultural productivity is thus expected to decline worldwide and in parallel human population is continuously increasing and is expected to reach 10 billion people before 2100 (L utz et al., 2001). By this time, it is estimated that agricultural production would need to almost double to fulfill world demands [START_REF] Cirera | Income distribution trends and future food demand[END_REF]. This need for space will be fulfilled by the transformation of natural ecosystems in cropland and following estimations about 10 9 ha are likely to be lost by 2050 [START_REF] Tilman | Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change[END_REF] constituting a massive loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functions. The future challenges for agriculture during this century is thus to produce enough food to support world population expansion and in parallel to limit collateral damage to the environment.

In agriculture, local environment constraints have been overstepped by the use of additives in the cultures (fertilizers, insecticides etc). However, the phosphorus that is used in fertilizers relies on high quality rock phosphate, which is a finite resource and major agricultural regions such as India, A merica, and Europe are already dependent on P imports (Duhamel & Vandenkoornhuyse 2013). The use of inputs have thus failed to solution the current challenges and have even impoverished soils. The last decades the symbiotic communities of bacteria, archaea and fungi have been recognized as major drivers of global ecosystem functions [START_REF] Van Der Heijden | Mycorrhizal fungal diversity determines plant biodiversity, ecosystem variability and productivity[END_REF][START_REF] Urich | A rchaea predominate among ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes in soils[END_REF][START_REF] Falkowski | The microbial engines that drive Earth's biogeochemical cycles[END_REF]van der Heijden et al., 2008). Researchers have thus started to recognize the potential of plant-associated microorganisms to solve the agricultural productivity-biodiversity loss conundrum. Together with the root nodules, A M fungi are now recognized as one of the important symbiosis that help feed the world (Marx et al., 2004, in The roots of plant-microbe collaborations) and are promising for the developtment or organic farming [START_REF] Gosling | A rbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and organic farming[END_REF]. Industrials and farmers have even started to conduct experiments using microorganisms inoculation to enhance crop resistance to pathogens or survival on deprived soils (de Vrieze, 2015 Science "The littlest farmhands"). The next step will be to engineer crops microbiota in order to optimize functional characteristics provided. For example, flowering time and biomass are suitable candidate plant traits for the research of microorganism-services. In order to fulfill this goal, scientists will have to describe in precision the links between the microbiota assembly and functioning and the resulting plant phenotype.

In natura, plants are colonized by a high diversity of microorganisms both inside and outside of their tissues, constituting the microbiota. These microorganisms affect plant health and growth in a beneficial, harmful, or neutral way. Because of their sessile lifestyle (i.e. immobile), plants rely on these micro-organisms for many ecological needs. Indeed, plant-associated microorganisms provide important ecological functions to the plant such as the acquisition of resources or the resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses (Friesen et al., 2011;Mü ller et al., 2016), all along the plant life (development, survival and reproduction) (Mü ller et al., 2016).

Considering the importance of microbiota, the last decade have seen significant advances in the description of the factors shaping the assembly of the plant microbiota. The improvements of sequencing technologies allow to describe more and more finely the composition of the microbota.

Composition and dynamics of this microbiota are driven by a large range of environmental factors such as soil properties comprising pH, nutrient and water availability [START_REF] Berg | Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Shakya et al., 2013;Schreiter et al., 2014). In addition, the complexity and versatility of plant-microorganisms associations makes difficult to disentangle all the rules leading to a given microbiota composition. Thus, determining the assembly rules of the plant microbiota is a current conundrum in ecology.

Because they are immobile, plants have to cope with environmental heterogeneity such as the heterogeneity of microorganisms presence in soil. Plants classically respond to environmental heterogeneity through the production of phenotypic plasticity (i.e. production of different phenotypes from a single genotype; Bradshaw, 1965). In nature, clonal plants represent up to 70% of plant species in temperous ecosystems (van Groenendael & de K roon, 1990). Clonal plants are organized as a network of ramets (i.e. clonal individuals constituted of leaves and roots) connected by above or below-ground modified stem (i.e. stolons and rhizomes respectively) (see Harper, 1977 for a description of clonal structure). This network allow the sharing of resources and information (i.e. physiological integration, Oborny et al., 2001) and thus allows to produce plastic responses at the scale of the network. These plants are thus able to modify the structure of the network allowing to explore the environment (i.e. foraging) ensuring resources acquizition (e.g. light or nutrients, Slade & Hutchings, 1987;Dong, 1993;Hutchings & de K roon, 1994;Birch & Hutchings, 1994).

Considering that microorganisms can have large effects on plant morphology (see for review Friesen et al., 2011;Mü ller et al., 2016), they may alter plant ability to produce such plastic responses despite it has not been demonstrated. In addition, because microorganims provide key functions to the plant, the expectation is thus that plants should develop plastic responses to ensure the availability of beneficial symbionts like they do for resources. Despite the ubiquity of clonal plants, the possibility that they forage for microorganisms to construct their microbiota has never been investigated.

A major mechanism ensuring the availability of beneficial microorganisms for macroorganisms is the transmission of microrganisms between individuals (investigated in the Chapter 2).

Two kinds of transmission have been theorized, vertical (i.e. direct transmission from parents to offsprings) and pseudo-vartical (i.e. transmission by sharing the same environment) (Wilkinson, 1997). In plants, vertical transmission has only been evidenced through seeds colonization and the most well-known example is stress-protective endophyte Neotyphodium coenocephalum to the descendants in several grass plant species (Clay & Schardl, 2002;Selosse et al., 2004). In clonal plants, the progeny is connected to the parent plant in the clonal network. Stuefer et al., (2004) suggested that in these plants, microorganisms could be transmitted in addition to resources and information. Despite it has been suggested and could represent a major factor structuring microbiota assembly, such transmission of microorganisms within the clonal network has never been investigated so far.

In prairial ecosystems, many plants species are coexisting and interact in competitive or facilitative ways. A large number of studies, mainly focusing on A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (A M fungi hereafter), have investigated how the plant community can be influenced by the diversity of soil fungi [START_REF] Grime | Floristic diversity in a model system using experimental microcosms[END_REF]van der Heijden et al., 1998a;K lironomos et al., 2000;[START_REF] Bever | A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: More Diverse than Meets the E ye, and the Ecological Tale of Why: The high diversity of ecologically distinct species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi within a single community has broad implications for plant ecology[END_REF]. Reciprocally, microcosm studies based on a focal plant design have demonstrated that the surrounding plant composition influence the fungal microbiota of the focal plant-associated (J ohnson et al., 2004). Such microcosms-based studies have provided insights into the possible effect of the community context on microbiota assembly. However, microcosms are oversimplifications of the plant community real context where many species co-exist in a spatiotemporal dynamic system. In multispecific plant communities, Hausmann & Hawkes (2009) showed that the plant community composition influenced the composition of a focal plant microbiota. A s a plant harbor a specific microbiota [START_REF] Hardoim | Properties of bacterial endophytes and their proposed role in plant growth[END_REF][START_REF] Redford | The ecology of the phyllosphere: geographic and phylogenetic variability in the distribution of bacteria on tree leaves[END_REF][START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012) then we can expect a plant to leave a specific fingerprint on the soil pool of microorganisms. A plant neighborhood could thus determine its microbiota assembly (investigated in Chapter 3). Nevertheless, the spatial and temporal scales of this influence are still unclear whereas it could determine the fingerprint of the plant community on the soil pool of fungi. In addition, the above-described studies mainly focused on particular type of plant symbionts, the A M fungi. Despite many other plant endophytes are known to provide important functions (see Introduction section), the influence of the plant community on bacteria, fungi, and archaea has not yet been described.

My PhD thesis aimed to address hypotheses related to these 3 current important frontiers of research in Ecology and Plant Science, (1) the importance of plant-micoorganisms interactions for plant phenotype and plasticity (2) the understanding of the vertical heritability of the plant microbiota and ( 3) the ability of plants to manipulate the local symbiotic compartment thus to leave a fingerprint on the pool of microorganisms. The work I did also aimed to question different theoretical concepts of ecology and evolution and to provide new perspectives regarding these concepts.

II. Structure of the PhD thesis

This thesis begins with a literature review of the existing knowledge on the plant microbiota composition, assembly rules and dynamics and the links between this microbiota and plant phenotypes. This state of the art aims at delimiting the current knowledges and gaps in our understanding of the plant microbiota and at identifying the objectives of this thesis work. The second part of this work consists in articles presented in three chapters addressing the questions raised by the literature review. Each of these chapters begins with a short presentation of the scientific context and the experimental procedure, as well as a brief summary of the main results.

The results are then presented and discussed in the form of articles published, submitted or in preparation for scientific journals with a proofread committee.

L iterature review 1. Microbiota composition 1.1 Plants and microorganisms, an ubiquitous alliance Plant and microorganisms have long been considered as separate but interacting organisms. This conception dividing two fields of research on plants and on microorganisms has progressively been replaced by an integrated approach to plant-associated microorganisms. This evolution in understanding of the plant has slowly evolved through the numerous studies describing how plants are systematically associated with microorganisms. For example, all plant species that were investigated were colonized by leaf endophytes (A rnold et al., 2003;[START_REF] Schulz | The endophytic continuum[END_REF]A lbrectsen et al., 2010;[START_REF] Gilbert | Symbiosis as a source of selectable epigenetic variation: taking the heat for the big guy[END_REF] and parallel studies also highlighted the difficulty of growing transplants of different species without bacteria and fungi [START_REF] Hardoim | Properties of bacterial endophytes and their proposed role in plant growth[END_REF]. Indeed, microorganisms colonize every plant species known and are found in various parts of these plants: roots, stems, xylem vessels, apoplast, seeds, and nodules (Rosenblueth & Martinez-Romero 2006; Figure 1). Some of these microorganisms live within or on the surface of plant organs, live within the endosphere or episphere and are called endophytes and epiphytes, respectively. The endosphere and episphere constitute the plant microbiota. On the surface of leaves, prokaryotes are found at densities of 10 6 to 10 7 per cm -2 (Lindow & Brandl 2003) and lab-based estimates of endophytic bacterial populations range from 10 7 to 10 10 cells per gram of tissue [START_REF] Hardoim | Properties of bacterial endophytes and their proposed role in plant growth[END_REF]. A mong the endophytic microorganisms colonizing plants, A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (A M fungi hereafter) have been found in 80% of all terrestrial plants [START_REF] Bonfante | Plants, mycorrhizal fungi, and bacteria: a network of interactions[END_REF].

Evidence of colonization of plant roots by A M fungi has been found in fossils dating from the early Devonian and Ordovician, suggesting that these fungi were already associated with plants over 400 to 460 million years ago [START_REF] Remy | Four hundred-million-year-old vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae[END_REF][START_REF] Redecker | Glomalean fungi from the Ordovician[END_REF]. A M fungi are suggested to be at the origin of major evolutionary events such as the colonization of land, and the evolution and diversification of plant phototrophs [START_REF] Selosse | The land flora: a phototroph-fungus partnership?[END_REF][START_REF] Heckman | Molecular evidence for the early colonization of land by fungi and plants[END_REF][START_REF] Brundrett | Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizas of land plants[END_REF][START_REF] Bonfante | Mechanisms underlying beneficial plant-fungus interactions in mycorrhizal symbiosis[END_REF]. A ll these elements converge towards a consideration of the plant as an obligate host of numerous microorganisms. In the light of these observations [… ] a plant that is completely free of microorganisms represents an exotic exception, rather than the -biologically relevant -rule [… ] (Partida-Martinez & Heil, 2011). Symbiotic interactions between plants and the micro-organisms can be cooperative, neutral or antagonistic, thus a continuum of interactions ranging from mutualism to parasitism (i.e. an interaction being parasitic if it is disadvantageous for one of the organisms or a mutualistic when beneficial for both partners; e.g. [START_REF] Rico-Gray | Interspecific interaction[END_REF]. The level of intimacy (physical association) is likely to be variable among symbionts and interactions are considered as symbioses when the physical association is strong. This is the case for many known associations in nature such as corals with the algae Symbiodinum (along with other symbionts, Rosenberg et al., 2007), lichens (an association between fungi and photobiontes; [START_REF] Spribille | Basidiomycete yeasts in the cortex of ascomycete macrolichens[END_REF], legumes with Rhizobia, and more generally plants with A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Such symbiosis has long been considered as beneficial to both organisms. Nevertheless, symbionts behavior cannot be considered as binary (i.e. either parasitic or mutualistic) but rather as more or less beneficial. This continuum in symbionts behavior has been demonstrated in different plant symbioses. For example, different A M fungi isolates can provide quantitatively different amounts of phosphorus in exchange for a given quantity of carbohydrates (K iers et al., 2011), with cheaters racketeering their host whereas cooperators display 'fair-trade' behavior (see section 3.2.3 for more details). Furthermore, a given symbiont can behave as a parasite or a mutualist depending on the ecological context. [START_REF] Hiruma | Root endophyte Colletotrichum tofieldiae confers plant fitness benefits that are phosphate status dependent[END_REF] demonstrated in an elegant experimental study that the endophyte Colletotrichum tofieldae transfers phosphorus to shoots of Arabidopsis thaliana via root-associated hyphae only under phosphorus-deficient conditions. This shift in C. tofieldae behavior was associated with a phosphate starvation response of the plant indicating that the behavior of the symbiont on was dependent on the nutrient status of the host. In addition, symbiosis generally involves more than two partners that can either be parasites or mutualists [START_REF] Graham | Functioning of mycorrhizal associations along the mutualism-parasitism continuum[END_REF][START_REF] Saikkonen | Fungal endophytes: a continuum of interactions with host plants[END_REF] and can colonize different parts of the plant at the same time. In the above-described experiment, C. tofieldae was shown to first colonize the roots and then spread to the leaves [START_REF] Hiruma | Root endophyte Colletotrichum tofieldiae confers plant fitness benefits that are phosphate status dependent[END_REF]. c) 1.3 The root microbiota: Diversity and composition

The diversity of microorganisms associated with plants roots is estimated to be in the order of tens of thousands of species (Berendsen et al., 2012). Tremendous advances in the approaches used to describe the microorganisms living in association with plants have been made in recent decades.

A pproaches based on the cultivation of organisms were for a long period of time the only methods available to characterize microbial communities [START_REF] Vartoukian | Strategies for culture of 'unculturable'bacteria[END_REF][START_REF] Margesin | Diversity and ecology of psychrophilic microorganisms[END_REF][START_REF] Rosling | A rchaeorhizomycetes: unearthing an ancient class of ubiquitous soil fungi[END_REF]. However, since most microorganisms, and especially fungi, are not cultivable [START_REF] Epstein | The phenomenon of microbial uncultivability[END_REF], the diversity of plant-associated microorganisms has long been underestimated.

Estimations of plant-associated fungal diversity for a long time relied on spore counts and morphology (see for example [START_REF] Burrows | A rbuscular mycorrhizal fungi respond to increasing plant diversity[END_REF]L andis et al., 2005).

Molecular methods developed in recent decades, such as Sanger sequencing of cloned products, PCR amplicons (polymerase chain reaction) or PCR-RFL P (restriction fragment length polymorphism) revolutionized the experimental approaches and were rapidly adopted for microorganisms identification and classification (Balint et al., 2016). This ability to rapidly detect DNA and at low cost provided information about the diversity of organisms in an environmental sample and led to numerous descriptions of the wide diversity of microorganisms associated with plants. Thanks to these studies, we now know that plants harbor an extreme diversity of archaea (Edwards et al., 2015), bacteria [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012) and fungi [START_REF] Vandenkoornhuyse | Extensive fungal diversity in plant roots[END_REF]. These studies extended our knowledge of plant-associated microorganisms and led to an upward revision of their diversity. In 2002, Vandenkoornhuyse et al. demonstrated that the diversity of fungi colonizing plants roots was much greater than previously believed and included non mycorrhizal fungi of the phyla Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. The composition of this microbiota varies significantly between plant species [START_REF] Hardoim | Properties of bacterial endophytes and their proposed role in plant growth[END_REF][START_REF] Redford | The ecology of the phyllosphere: geographic and phylogenetic variability in the distribution of bacteria on tree leaves[END_REF][START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012) and also depends on the genotype of the plant (Inceoğlu et al., 2010(Inceoğlu et al., , 2011) ) but to a limited extent [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF](Bulgarelli et al., , L undberg et al., 2012; see section 3.2.3 for host genetics effect).

A lthough the composition of the plant microbiota has been extensively described for different species of bacteria with estimations of the relative abundances and species richness for different organs (Figure 2) such knowledge is lacking for fungal and archaeal communities and only a few seminal papers have been published (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2002a;Edwards et al 2015;Colemann-derr et al., 2016). Within the fungal compartment, the most studied organisms are rootassociated mycorrhizae that are either endomycorrhizal (within the plant cells) or ectomycorrhizal (outside the cell walls) forming hyphae around the roots. A ll A M fungi belong to the phylum Glomeromycota whereas the ectomycorrhizal fungi are spread among the A scomycota and Basidiomycota phyla (A rnold, 2007;[START_REF] Rodriguez | Fungal endophytes: diversity and functional roles[END_REF][START_REF] Rudgers | A fungus among us: broad patterns of endophyte distribution in the grasses[END_REF]). In roots and shoots, endophytic Basidiomycota and A scomycota also exist in a non-mycorrhizal form. Recent studies enlarging the fungal compartment to groups other than mycorrhizae detected over 3000

OTUs in total in the soil, episphere and endosphere of agave species with a third of these OTUs (1007 OTUs belonging to nine orders) being found in the endosphere (Colemann-derr et al., 2016).

Endophytes induced functions and phenotypic modifications

Endophytic microorganisms are involved in a variety of phenotypic changes in plants. These changes have been widely studied especially in plants of agricultural importance. Because of their sessile lifestyle plants have to cope with the environmental conditions. A biotic conditions especially, such as light, water and others are spatially variable, so plants must cope with this heterogeneity [START_REF] Hodge | The plastic plant: root responses to heterogeneous supplies of nutrients[END_REF]. There are numerous reports of fungal and bacterial symbionts conferring tolerance to a variety of stresses to host plants as well as other benefits (e.g. Friesen et al., 2011;Mü ller et al., 2016). The range of functions provided by roots microorganisms are reviewed in the following section.

Resources acquisition

Microorganisms living in association with plants improve the acquisition of different resources and, more especially, allow the acquisition of otherwise inaccessible ones. L eaf epiphytic cyanobacteria for example transfer atmospherically fixed nitrogen to plants that can represent 10 to 20% of the leaf nitrogen [START_REF] Bentley | Direct transfer of newly-fixed nitrogen from free-living epiphyllous microorganisms to their host plant[END_REF]. This ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen is displayed by at least six different bacterial phyla, the most common being Proteobacteria, and by several archaea lineages [START_REF] Martinez-Romero | Dinitrogen-fixing prokaryotes[END_REF]Friesen et al., 2011). Nitrogen acquisition also occurs within the tree roots in boreal forests thanks to Ectomycorrhizal fungi (Lindahl et al., 2007). In parallel, other nutrients can be more easily obtained through the help of endophytic organisms and a given organism can provide multiple resources. For instance, the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi living in association with plants supply these plants with water, phosphorous, nitrogen, and trace elements [START_REF] Smith | Mycorrhizal Symbiosis[END_REF]Smith et al., 2009). In the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis, mineral nutrients uptake can be 5 and 25 times higher for nitrogen and phosphorus respectively, in mycorrhized as compared to non-mycorrhized roots (Van Der Heijden et al., 2003;Vogelsang et al., 2006). A M fungi acquire these resources more efficiently because hyphae can access narrower soil pores and increase the uptake of immobile resources (especially inorganic phosphate), by acquiring nutrients beyond the depletion zone of the root and stimulating the production of exudates that release immobile soil nutrients (Maiquetı á et al., 2009;[START_REF] Courty | The role of ectomycorrhizal communities in forest ecosystem processes: new perspectives and emerging concepts[END_REF][START_REF] Cairney | Ectomycorrhizal fungi: the symbiotic route to the root for phosphorus in forest soils[END_REF]. In addition, A M fungi are able to acquire both organic and inorganis nitrogen, which is not the case of plants (see [START_REF] Hodge | A rbuscular mycorrhiza and nitrogen: implications for individual plants through to ecosystems[END_REF] for a review on A M fungi nitrogen uptakes).

One example is the nitrogen in soil organic matter released by hydrolytic and oxidative enzymes produced by Ericoid mycorrhizae. This enhanced acquisition of resources not only directly affects the individual plant' s fitness but also its phenotype and competitive interactions with other plants (see section II 2.2.1 for examples; for a review see [START_REF] Hodge | A rbuscular mycorrhiza and nitrogen: implications for individual plants through to ecosystems[END_REF]. Indeed, a phenotypic consequence of the more efficient nutrient uptake of mycorrhizae for the plant is a reduced number of fine roots together with a lower root:shoot ratio and specific root length (Smith et al. 2009). Improved resource acquisition also allows the plant to cope more efficiently with environmental constraints.

Resistance to environmental constraints

A biotic stresses

Numerous studies indicate that plant adaptation to stressful conditions may be explained by the fitness benefits conferred by mutualistic fungi (for example resources acquisition described in the section 2.1) [START_REF] Stone | A n overview of endophytic microbes: endophytism defined[END_REF][START_REF] Rodriguez | The role of fungal symbioses in the adaptation of plants to high stress environments[END_REF]. In addition to these indirect effects of resources acquisition, fungi and bacteria also provide direct resistance to a large range of stresses through the production of certain compounds. A mong the stresses alleviated by plant endophytes the main ones are salinity, extreme heat, drought and heavy metal pollutants. Salinity tolerance for example can be increased by different metabolites such as trehalose produced by bacteria like Rhizobia in nodules (Lopez et al., 2008). Such improved tolerances are not only provided by bacteria. The fungal endophyte Curvularia found on thermal soils in Yellowstone Park has been shown to increase tolerance to extreme heat (Redman et al., 2002). Fungal endophytes such as F usarium culmorum colonizing the above-and below-ground tissues and seed coats of Leymus mollis, also confers salinity tolerance (Rodriguez et al., 2008). In addition a given microorganism can at the same increase resource acquisition and provide resistance to an abiotic stress (independently of its effect on resources acquisition). A M fungi increase stomatal conductance when they are inoculated to plants either under normal or drought conditions. This increase of stomatal conductance has been linked to greater drought tolerance of rice and tomato plants inoculated with such fungi [START_REF] Raven | Plant nutrient-acquisition strategies change with soil age[END_REF]Rodriguez et al., 2008). Following observation of the described tolerance, several microorganisms have been considered as suitable candidates for bioremediation of polluted soils. This is the case of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria that elicite tolerance to heavy metals [START_REF] Glick | Phytoremediation: synergistic use of plants and bacteria to clean up the environment[END_REF][START_REF] Zhuang | New advances in plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria for bioremediation[END_REF].

Biotic stresses

In addition to their role in the resistance against abiotic stresses plant-associated microorganisms also mediate plant resistance against biotic constraints among which the most studied are aggressions by pathogens. Indeed, endophytes are able to secrete defensive chemicals in plant tissues (A rnold et al. 2003;Clay & Schardl 2002). Different studies have identified chemicals providing defense against pathogens and produced by a myriad of microorganisms associated with plants. The range of compounds produced by symbionts consists of antimicrobials with direct effects on the pathogen or indirect effects such as a diminution of its pathogenicity. Compounds with a direct and immediate antibacterial effect include antimicrobial auxin and other phytohormones [START_REF] Morshed | Toxicity of four synthetic plant hormones IA A , NA A , 2, 4-D and GA against A rtemia salina (L each)[END_REF]. Compounds with indirect effects are for example nonanoic acid produced by the fungus Trichoderma harzianum that inhibits mycelial growth and spore germination of two pathogens in the tissues of Theobroma cacao (A neja et al. 2005). A lternatively, microorganisms can also produce compounds such as A HL -degrading lactonases that are able to alter the communication between pathogens and thus prevent the expression of virulence genes (Reading & Sperandio, 2006). In addition, different strains and species can produce different compounds and each endophyte can itself produce several compounds. Even within a species, each strain can produce multiple antibiotics as in Bacillus where these antibiotics have synergistic interactions against pathogens (Haas et al., 2000). Such protection against biotic aggressors can also be mediated by stimulation of the plant immune system. [START_REF] Boller | A renaissance of elicitors: perception of microbe-associated molecular patterns and danger signals by pattern-recognition receptors[END_REF] highlighted mutualist-induced signaling pathways initiated by flagellin/FL S2 and EF-Tu/EFR recognition receptors, allowing plants to respond to virus, pests and pathogens. The defensive responses induced by mutualists are not always localized and given microorganisms like the fungus Trichoderma may induce both systemic and localized resistances to a variety of plant pathogens [START_REF] Harman | Trichoderma species-opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts[END_REF]. Such resistances often protect against crop damage and many plantassociated microorganisms like the latter can be used for biocontrol [START_REF] Harman | Trichoderma species-opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts[END_REF].

Biotic constraints are not limited to pathogens and many other aggressors or competitors can affect plants. One of the most studied biotic stresses alleviated by plant-associated microorganisms is herbivory. Mutualist-induced resistance to herbivory has been identified and described for various plant feeding herbivores. Such resistance often involves the production by the endophyte of compounds that are toxic for herbivores or thatdiminish plant palatability. For example, [START_REF] Tanaka | A symbiosis expressed nonribosomal peptide synthetase from a mutualistic fungal endophyte of perennial ryegrass confers protection to the symbiotum from insect herbivory[END_REF] showed that the fungal endophyte Neotyphodium produces the secondary metabolite peramine that protects Epichloë festucae from insect herbivory. L ike for abiotic stress tolerance (see above section 2.2.1) a single microorganism can produce various compounds. For instance, clavicipitaceous endophytes such as Neotyphodium induce the production of alkaloids, lolitrems, lolines, and peramines allowing grasses to defend against herbivores [START_REF] Rowan | L olitrems, peramine and paxilline: mycotoxins of the ryegrass/endophyte interaction[END_REF]Siegel et al., 1989;[START_REF] Clay | Fungal endophytes of grasses[END_REF]Clay & Schardl 2002). Such patterns of defense against herbivores have been mostly evidenced in grasses and also comprise other endophytes limiting mammalian herbivory through the production of lysergic acid amide [START_REF] White J R | Endophyte-host associations in forage grasses. V III. Heterothallism in Epichloë typhina[END_REF][START_REF] Gentile | Origin divergence and phylogeny of Epichloë endophytes of native argentine grasses[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Neotyphodium endophyte increases A chnatherum inebrians (drunken horse grass) resistance to herbivores and seed predators[END_REF]. Non-toxic compounds conferring antifeeding properties include for example alkaloids that reduce rabbit herbivory on plants [START_REF] Panaccione | Effects of ergot alkaloids on food preference and satiety in rabbits, as assessed with gene-knockout endophytes in perennial ryegrass (L olium perenne)[END_REF].

Growth and reproductive strategy

A s has been shown in other hosts such as insects with Wolbachia, endophytes can also alter plant growth and reproductive strategy. In clonal plants, Streitwolf-Engel et al., (1997, 2001) showed that colonization of the roots by A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi could alter the growth and reproduction of clonal plants. In this experiment, the authors found that ramets (i.e. clonal units composed of roots and shoots) production by Prunella vulgaris was differentially affected by the inoculation of three A M fungi isolates (see figure 3 for clonal growth plant description). The number of ramets produced changed by a factor of up to 1.8 independently of the isolates' effects on plant biomass.

A M fungi can thus alter the trade-off between growth and reproduction. In addition, microorganisms can also alter the trade-off between different compartments of plant growth. In the above-described experiment the authors also found that branching (lateral ramification) was affected by the inoculation, suggesting that foraging by the plant (i.e., the strategy for resources acquisition) was modified by A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi inoculation. In another experiment conducted, Sudova (2009) showed that growth and reproductive strategy modifications induced by the A M fungi vari both with the fungi identity and the plant species. Using five co-occurring plant species with 3 A M fungal isolates the authors showed that plant growth response to inoculation varied widely from negative to positive depending on the inoculum. A M inoculation led to changes in clonal growth traits such as an increase in stolon number and length only in some plant species.

The effects of microorganisms on growth and reproductive strategy of plants appear thus to depend on the matching between plant and microorganisms identities although this idea has not been extensively tested.

A s shown in this section the vast diversity of plant-associated microorganisms ensures essential functions impacting plant growth, development, survival and resistance to environmental constraints in general. However, the described studies tended to focus on describing the effects of the microbiota but not on the use of this microbiota by the plant. Considering the benefits of symbiotic associations, evolution should favorize a plant that optimizes its interactions with microbes. However, the extent to which plants might forage for microorganisms has not been investigated to date.

Plant microbiota assembly

The additive ecological functions supplied by the plant mutualists described in the previous section extend the plant' s adaptation ability (e.g., Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015), leading to fitness benefits for the host in highly variable environments [START_REF] Conrath | Priming: getting ready for battle[END_REF] and therefore can affect evolutionary trajectories (e.g., [START_REF] Brundrett | Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizas of land plants[END_REF]. In addition, because microbial communities may produce a mixture of antipathogen molecules that are potentially synergistic (see section 2.2.2), we can predict that plant hosts will be better protected against biotic stresses in the presence of more diverse microbial communities (Friesen et al., 2011). The same idea has been proposed for resources acquisition following results showing complementarity between symbionts in the acquisition of resources [START_REF] Van Der Heijden | Mycorrhizal fungal diversity determines plant biodiversity, ecosystem variability and productivity[END_REF]. Thus the composition of the plant microbiota is of major importance in determining the ecological success (the fitness) of plants. In this context, the assembly rules shaping microbiota diversity and composition have only started to be described in recent years, and the current knowledge is reviewed in the following section (see figure 4 for an overview of the factors shaping microbiota assembly). These factors inducing a filter of the microorganism communities from the soil to the rhizosphere and subsequently wihtin the endosphere are presented in this section.

3.1 Microbiota recruitment 3.1.1 The soil as a microbial reservoir

The soil is a highly rich and diversified reservoir of microorganisms [START_REF] Curtis | Estimating prokaryotic diversity and its limits[END_REF][START_REF] Torsvik | Prokaryotic diversity--magnitude, dynamics, and controlling factors[END_REF][START_REF] Gams | Biodiversity of soil-inhabiting fungi[END_REF]Buee et al., 2009). For example, forest soil samples of 4 g were found to contain approximately 1000 molecular operational taxonomic units assigned to fungal species (Buee et al., 2009). Recent studies investigating the composition of microbiota in different compartments (soil, rhizosphere, root and leaf endosphere) of A gave species showed that the majority of bacterial and fungal OTUs found in the endosphere were present in the soil [START_REF] Coleman-Derr | Plant compartment and biogeography affect microbiome composition in cultivated and native A gave species[END_REF]. This observation was independently evidenced in the common model plant Arabidopsis thaliana where most of the root-associated bacteria were also found in the soil [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Schlaeppi et al., 2014). Root-associated microorganisms are thus mainly recruited from the surrounding soil, and the pool of microorganisms available for recruitment in the soil determines the diversity and composition of the plant root microbiota. The above-described recent studies, in line with others, have clearly demonstrated from experimental approaches that the main environmental factors determining the soil pool (and thus the plant roots endophytic microbiota) are soil type and properties such as pH, temperature or water availability [START_REF] Berg | Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Shakya et al., 2013;Schreiter et al., 2014).

Rhizosphere

While the composition of the soil microbial communities seems to be mostly determined by soil parameters (see above), the rhizosphere is a thin layer of soil at the periphery of the roots. This specific habitat of soil microorganisms contains a great abundance of microbes up to 10 11 microbial cells per g of soil and is also highly diversified with more than 30,000 prokaryotic species (e.g. [START_REF] Egamberdieva | High incidence of plant growth-stimulating bacteria associated with the rhizosphere of wheat grown on salinated soil in Uzbekistan[END_REF][START_REF] Mendes | Deciphering the rhizosphere microbiome for disease-suppressive bacteria[END_REF]. This rhizosphere corresponds to the influence zone of plant root exudates and oxygen releases (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). Exudates are highly complex mixtures comprising carbon-rich molecules and other compounds secreted by the plant as products of its metabolism. These exudates have a strong effect on the fungal and bacterial communities because they can be resources available for microorganisms, signal molecules (e.g. chemotaxy), and at the same time anti-microbial compounds (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). The large quantity of organic molecules secreted allows plants to manipulate the rhizosphere from the surrounding bulk soil reservoir (Bais et al., 2006). Differences in microbial communities in the rhizosphere of the same soil, depending on the plant species, have been highlighted (Berg et al., 2006;[START_REF] Garbeva | Rhizosphere microbial community and its response to plant species and soil history[END_REF][START_REF] Berg | Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Micallef | Influence of A rabidopsis thaliana accessions on rhizobacterial communities and natural variation in root exudates[END_REF] demonstrating the strong influence of plants and the induced "rhizosphere effect". Differences have also been detected within species as genotypes were shown to harbor distinct rhizosphere communities [START_REF] Micallef | Influence of A rabidopsis thaliana accessions on rhizobacterial communities and natural variation in root exudates[END_REF].

In addition some species have also been shown to create similar communities in different soils [START_REF] Miethling | Variation of microbial rhizosphere communities in response to crop species, soil origin, and inoculation with Sinorhizobium meliloti L 33[END_REF]. If specific richness seems to be lower in the rhizosphere than in the surrounding soil, suggesting that organisms are filtered from the original soil pool [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF], the intensity of the rhizosphere effect seems however to vary [START_REF] Uroz | Pyrosequencing reveals a contrasted bacterial diversity between oak rhizosphere and surrounding soil[END_REF][START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Schlaeppi et al., 2014). The importance and intensity of the rhizosphere effect still need to be clarified but it has been hypothesized that plant roots select for specific microorganisms to prosper in the rhizosphere through the composition of the exudates that they release into the rhizosphere (discussed in section 3.2).

Endosphere

The endosphere constitutes the area within the plant roots and is colonized by a large variety of organisms comprising mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal fungi [START_REF] Vandenkoornhuyse | Extensive fungal diversity in plant roots[END_REF][START_REF] Smith | Mycorrhizal Symbiosis[END_REF], bacteria (Reinhold-Hurek & Hurek, 2011) and A rcheae [START_REF] Sun | Endophytic bacterial diversity in rice (Oryza sativa L .) roots estimated by 16S rDNA sequence analysis[END_REF].

The plant' s influence on microbial assemblages is stronger in this area than in the rhizosphere because of the influence of the plant immune system (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). In this area the diversity and abundance of organisms are lower than in the surrounding soil [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Schlaeppi et al., 2014), with specific assemblages differing from the soil communities (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). Several key microorganisms are indeed enriched (i.e. with higher relative abundance) in the endosphere, as compared to the soil and rhizosphere compartments, whereas others are depleted (i.e. with a lower relative abundance). L undberg et al.

(2012) detected 96 OTUs that were enriched in the endosphere of A.thaliana and 159 OTUs that were depleted. These results have been confirmed in a more recent study using a larger set of Arabidopsis and Cardamina hosts where A ctinobacteria, Betaproteobacteria and Bacteroidetes dominated the datasets obtained from the rhizosphere and endosphere samples (Schlaeppi et al., 2014). These patterns of organisms enrichment and depletion can be attributed to the plant' s ability to control its microbiota through its immune system.

3.2 Controls of the plant over its microbiota

Microorganisms recruitment through compounds secretion

The microorganisms communities colonizing the rhizosphere, and those that penetrate the endosphere and form the plant microbiota, have been described with regard to their role in plant health. Studies have highlighted a large panel of mechanisms that allow the plant to control this microbiota by filtering the pathogens and promoting beneficial microbes [START_REF] Doornbos | Impact of root exudates and plant defense signaling on bacterial communities in the rhizosphere. A review[END_REF].

These control mechanisms have been identified for both the rhizosphere and endosphere and involve exudates secretion and the plant' s immune system. Berendsen et al., (2012) reviewed the mechanisms that enabled the plant to control its rhizosphere composition and showed that plant could exude secondary metabolites such as benzoxazinoids that inhibited the growth of specific microbes in the rhizosphere (Bais et al., 2002;[START_REF] Zhang | Secondary metabolites from the invasive Solidago canadensis L . accumulation in soil and contribution to inhibition of soil pathogen Pythium ultimum[END_REF]. Some studies have also evidenced plant-secreted compounds that suppress microbes cell-to-cell communication (i.e. "quorum sensing") and thus alter the expression of microbial virulence genes. Such compounds have been identified in a variety of species such as pea (Pisum sativum), rice (Oryza sativum) and green algae (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) [START_REF] Teplitski | Plants secrete substances that mimic bacterial N-acyl homoserine lactone signal activities and affect population density-dependent behaviors in associated bacteria[END_REF][START_REF] Teplitski | Chlamydomonas reinhardtii secretes compounds that mimic bacterial signals and interfere with quorum sensing regulation in bacteria[END_REF][START_REF] Ferluga | OryR is a L uxR-family protein involved in interkingdom signaling between pathogenic Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae and rice[END_REF]. A study on Medicago truncatula [START_REF] Gao | Production of substances by Medicago truncatula that affect bacterial quorum sensing[END_REF] found that ~20 compounds were produced and released in seedlings exudates that altered quorum sensing.

These exudates also exhibited anti-microbial properties against pathogens and at the same time attracted beneficial organisms. A n example of this attractive effect is the beneficial rhizobacterium Pseudomonas putida KT2440 that is tolerant to and chemotactically attracted by exudate compounds [START_REF] Neal | Benzoxazinoids in root exudates of maize attract Pseudomonas putida to the rhizosphere[END_REF]. Such recruitment of microorganisms, mediated by the root exudates, has been described in fungal antagonists as a response to colonization of the plant by the pathogen Verticillium dahliae. Other studies have indicated that upon attack by pathogens, planst respond by recruiting specific beneficial microorganisms [START_REF] Rudrappa | Root-secreted malic acid recruits beneficial soil bacteria[END_REF][START_REF] Ryu | Foliar aphid feeding recruits rhizosphere bacteria and primes plant immunity against pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria in pepper[END_REF]. For example, when the leaves of A rabidopsis were infected by Pseudomonas syringae pv., the roots were more colonized by Bacillus subtilis F B17 which is a beneficial endophyte. These observations led to the suggestion that the recruitment of specific microorganisms within the endosphere by the plant constituted a means for plants to repress pathogens (Berendsen et al., 2012). The plant is thus able to preferentially recruit microorganisms depending on its needs by repressing or facilitating the microorganisms within the rhizosphere. The control of the plant over the microbial communities is not limited to the area around the root and is even greater within the roots.

The immune system

A nother way for the plant to control the composition of its microbiota is through the innate immune system. The forms of innate immunity and their role in controlling microbiota composition have been reviewed (see for example J ones [START_REF] Dangl | The plant immune system[END_REF]. Two forms of innate immunity exist depending on the pattern of the molecules triggering the immunity that can be pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PTI) or gene-based effectors (ET I). [START_REF] Boller | A renaissance of elicitors: perception of microbe-associated molecular patterns and danger signals by pattern-recognition receptors[END_REF] described how host plant receptors detect molecular patterns of damage and microbes and initiate the immune response by producing reactive oxygen, thickening their cell walls and activating defense genes in response to bacterial flagellin. In the "arms race" between plants and their pathogens, pathogens have evolved the use of effectors to suppress the above-described PTI mechanisms (K amoun, 2006) whereas the plant has developed a perception of these effectors through ET I that induces a strong response of cell apoptosis and local necrosis [START_REF] Boller | A renaissance of elicitors: perception of microbe-associated molecular patterns and danger signals by pattern-recognition receptors[END_REF]. In a recent paper, Hiruma et al., (2016) suggested that the immune system has wider physiological roles than simply restricting pathogen growth and may be involved in symbiont behavior. In an experiment described previously in section 1.2 they used metabolic profiling and experimental inoculations of endophytic fungi to demonstrate that the plant's innate immune system favorized the colonization of Colletotrichum tofieldiae during phosphate starvation and defense responses under phosphate-sufficient conditions [START_REF] Hiruma | Root endophyte Colletotrichum tofieldiae confers plant fitness benefits that are phosphate status dependent[END_REF]. A t the same time the immune system stimulated the indole glucosinolate metabolism [START_REF] Pant | Identification of primary and secondary metabolites with phosphorus status-dependent abundance in A rabidopsis, and of the transcription factor PHR1 as a major regulator of metabolic changes during phosphorus limitation[END_REF] that induced a shift in symbiont behavior, triggering the transfer of phosphorus by the fungi from root-associated hyphae to the plant shoots. The immune system could thus be a tool allowing the plant to manipulate symbionts for its own good.

Regulation of symbiotic interactions

A s explained in section 1.2, symbiosis consists of a continuum of partnerships ranging from parasitism to mutualism. The level of symbiosis efficiency is a consequence of the evolutionary trajectory of the symbiont under consideration. This means that in any kind of symbiosis cheaters and cooperators can co-exist. But why cheating? A large proportion of the plant microbiota provides beneficial functions to the plant and is thus believed to consist of mutualists. Mutualism implies reciprocal benefits with an associated cost for both partners [START_REF] Cameron | Giving and receiving: measuring the carbon cost of mycorrhizas in the green orchid, Goodyera repens[END_REF][START_REF] Davitt | Do the costs and benefits of fungal endophyte symbiosis vary with light availability?[END_REF]Fredericksson et al., 2012). This type of interaction favors "the tragedy of the commons" since it creates a conflict of interest between organisms. From an evolutionary point of view, mutualism is thus expected to be unstable and to evolve toward an asymmetric relationship with one partner benefiting from the interaction at the expense of the other. By doing so, a cheater symbiont or a host providing few benefits (at low cost) to the other in exchange for high rewards would selfishly improve its own fitness and thus invade the community. The stability of mutualism has been proposed to rely on control mechanisms on both sides of the symbiosis [START_REF] Bever | Preferential allocation to beneficial symbiont with spatial structure maintains mycorrhizal mutualism[END_REF]K iers et al., 2011). It has been clearly demonstrated that plants can exert a carbon sanction on the less beneficial A rbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi cooperators (K iers et al., 2011) thus reducing the fitness of any cheaters. This mechanism of carbon sanction by the host plant has been demonstrated for both phosphorus [START_REF] Bever | Preferential allocation to beneficial symbiont with spatial structure maintains mycorrhizal mutualism[END_REF]K iers et al., 2011) and nitrogen transfer [START_REF] Fellbaum | Carbon availability triggers fungal nitrogen uptake and transport in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis[END_REF] by A M fungi. Reciprocally on the fungal side, phosphorus is only delivered to the host in exchange for photosynthates. In this symbiosis, being a cheater thus means increasing the carbon cost to deliver the phosphorus (K iers et al., 2011). Considering that a given host plant is colonized by multiple symbionts at the same time, cheaters can only proliferate if the plant is not able to favorise other symbionts. The level of cooperation is thus likely correlated with the level of diversity of symbionts. 3.2.4 The host plant effect: genetics and biogeography

The colonization of plants by microorganisms occurs in the light of a finely tuned innate plant immune system allowing a selective recognition and filtration of microorganisms. A plant is thus capable of constructing its own microbiota. The inherent expectation is thus a strong effect of plant identity on the assembly of the microbiota. A lthough the initial microorganisms communities depend on the original soil they become more and more plant-specific and less diverse during colonization of the rhizosphere and endosphere (see above section 3.1). Even within these compartments, communities become increasingly plant-specific during plant growth and development [START_REF] Chaparro | Rhizosphere microbiome assemblage is affected by plant development[END_REF][START_REF] Sugiyama | Changes in the bacterial community of soybean rhizospheres during growth in the field[END_REF]Edwards et al., 2015;[START_REF] Shi | Successional trajectories of rhizosphere bacterial communities over consecutive seasons[END_REF].

Plants represent microorganisms habitats and thus the root architecture or nutrient quality and quantity can determine the plant microbiota depending on the plant species [START_REF] Oh | Distinctive bacterial communities in the rhizoplane of four tropical tree species[END_REF][START_REF] Bonito | Plant host and soil origin influence fungal and bacterial assemblages in the roots of woody plants[END_REF]. Differences between microbiota compositions can even be detected at a finer scale such as the ecotype. A. thaliana ecotypes establish different rhizosphere communities from each other at a statistically significant level [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012). However the same studies along with others also highlighted that environmental factors seemed to exert greater control on root-associated bacteria than the plant genotype or even plant species [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Shakya et al., 2013;Schlaeppi et al., 2014). This suggests that plant identity might not be the primary or at least the strongest factor determining differences in plant microbiota. Recent advances indicate that the importance of the host species might be microorganism-specific. [START_REF] Coleman-Derr | Plant compartment and biogeography affect microbiome composition in cultivated and native A gave species[END_REF] found that while prokaryotic communities of A gave species were primarily shaped by plant compartment and soil properties, fungal communities were structured by the biogeography of the plant host species. Such differences in biogeographic effect have been independently found in other studies where the root fungal communities (ectomycorrhiza) were differentiated more by geographic distance than bacterial communities [START_REF] Peay | A strong species-area relationship for eukaryotic soil microbes: island size matters for ectomycorrhizal fungi[END_REF]Shakya et al., 2013;[START_REF] Meiser | Meta-analysis of deep-sequenced fungal communities indicates limited taxon sharing between studies and the presence of biogeographic patterns[END_REF].

Biotic interactions

Microorganisms living within the plant interact with each other in different ways and these interactions may determine their co-existence. The plant itself is also interacting with other plants in a community context. In this section we review the importance of the biotic interactions in assembly of the microbiota, focusing primarily on recent discoveries regarding microbe-microbe interactions and then emphasizing the under-appreciated role of the plant community context.

Microbe-microbe interactions

Considering the fact that plant roots constitute a habitat for microorganisms and that the roots represent a finite volume, co-existing microorganisms within the plant are expected to be in competition for space and resources. Competition between bacterial and fungal species has been demonstrated at the scale of the species. [START_REF] Werner | Partner selection in the mycorrhizal symbiosis[END_REF] demonstrated that the order of arrival of A M fungi structured the colonization of the plant roots suggesting that mycorrhizal fungi compete for root space. Specifically they evidenced that the A M fungal that first colonized plant roots (through an earlier inoculation) benefitted from a priority effect and were thus found in greater abundance. A t higher taxonomic levels, a recent study focusing on the whole endospheric root fungal microbiota (L ê Van et al., 2017) highlighted the coexistence of Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in Agrostis stolonifera. A n important result of this work was the demonstration that the phylogenetic structure and phylogenetic signal measured differed among phyla. A phylogenetic overdispersion was observed for Glomeromycota and Ascomycota indicating facilitative interactions between fungi or competitive interactions resulting in the coexistence of dissimilar fungi. Conversely, the fungi within Basidiomycota displayed a clustered phylogenetic pattern suggesting an assemblage governed by environmental filtering (i.e. plant host) favoring the coexistence of closely related species (L ê Van et al., 2017). These mechanisms of facilitation, competition or environmental filtering acting on the fungal microbiota composition are observed at the level of an individual plant.

However, competitive or facilitative interactions between microorganisms in the plant microbiota are not stable over time and colonization of the root by a new microorganism can bring major changes. For example, colonization by the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani,caused a significant shift in composition of the sugar beet and lettuce rhizosphere community often with an increase in specific family abundances [START_REF] Chowdhury | Effects of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens FZB42 on lettuce growth and health under pathogen pressure and its impact on the rhizosphere bacterial community[END_REF][START_REF] Chapelle | Fungal invasion of the rhizosphere micro-biome[END_REF]. Moreover, plant-microorganisms may themselves be colonized by bacteria and viruses (i.e. three way symbiosis) affecting symbiotic communication. For example, the endophyte Curvularia protuberata contains a virus that is required to induce heat tolerance [START_REF] Má Rquez | A virus in a fungus in a plant: three-way symbiosis required for thermal tolerance[END_REF], the fungus being asymptomatic without the virus. Current knowledge thus indicates that microbemicrobe interactions can, like host-microbe interactions, drive plant microbiota assembly and its effect on phenotype. However, information acquired about these microbe-microbe interactions is still very limited. A n example is the above-described three way symbioses that can mediate the effect of a given symbiont but whose occurrence in natural ecosystems is unknown.

The plant community context

The pool of microorganisms available in the soil conditions plant recruitment and thus determines the plant microbiota (see section 3.1.1). This soil pool depends on local environmental filtering and microorganisms dispersal. A nother factor structuring this pool is plant host filtering. Indeed, as a plant is able to selectively recruit and promote microorganisms depending on its needs (see section (2016) proposed that the degree of host filtering on the A M fungal community would depend on the spatial scale considered and could be stronger than environmental factors at a local scale. Taking into account that a given plant recruits its microbiota within its local environment, there is a need to evaluate the intensity of this plant community context in determining both the A M fungal and whole microbiota assembly.

Microbiota transmission

Diverse modes of transmission of microorganisms between generations, also called heritability, have been described and reviewed, and organized into different classifications [START_REF] Mcfall-Ngai | Unseen forces: the influence of bacteria on animal development[END_REF]Zilber-Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008). Herein, we present these modes of heritability in two categories: pseudo-vertical (or horizontal) and vertical transmissions.

Horizontal or pseudo-vertical transmission

Pseudo-vertical transmissions are indirect transmissions mediated by the environment. Two individuals sharing the same environment are able to recruit similar microorganisms from the soil pool and thus plants producing microorganisms at low dispersal distance may share a part of their microbiota to this environmental transmission. Such transmission has been largely described for a wide range of organisms with significant impact on plant phenotype such as growth-promoting rhizobacteria [START_REF] Smith | Genetic basis in plants for interactions with disease-suppressive bacteria[END_REF][START_REF] Singh | Unravelling rhizospheremicrobial interactions: opportunities and limitations[END_REF][START_REF] Somers | Rhizosphere bacterial signalling: a love parade beneath our feet[END_REF][START_REF] Egamberdieva | High incidence of plant growth-stimulating bacteria associated with the rhizosphere of wheat grown on salinated soil in Uzbekistan[END_REF], rhizobium [START_REF] Stougaard | Regulators and regulation of legume root nodule development[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | How rhizobial symbionts invade plants: the Sinorhizobium-Medicago model[END_REF] and even A rbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and non-photosynthetic fungi when seeds fall close to the mother plant [START_REF] Wilkinson | Mycorrhizal evolution[END_REF]Wang & Qui, 2006).

Vertical transmission or heritability

For plants, vertical transmission has primarily been reported for the cytoplasmic inheritance of chloroplasts [START_REF] Margulis | Origins of species: acquired genomes and individuality[END_REF]. Other true vertical transmission in plants does exist even if it has not been extensively studied. A limited diversity of endophytic fungi and bacteria are contained in the germplasm and are thus vertically transmitted in grasses (Clay & Schardl, 2002), conifers [START_REF] Ganley | Fungal endophytes in seeds and needles of Pinus monticola[END_REF], and tropical trees (U'Ren et al., 2009). A nother kind of vertical transmission has been proposed for plants through vegetative propagules [START_REF] Wilkinson | Mycorrhizal evolution[END_REF]Zilber-Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008). Plants are modular organisms and thus a fragment of plant (i.e. propagule) falling on the ground is able to grow and produce a new plant. In this context, it is probable that microorganisms developing within the plant fragment are transmitted to the progeny even if this has not been experimentally demonstrated. A nother form of vertical microbiota transmission was suggested for clonal plants by Stuefer et al., (2004). Clonal plants are organized as a network of ramets (i.e. clonal, potentially autonomous individuals) connected by above or below-ground modified stems (i.e. stolons) (Figure 3). This network structure promotes plant propagation in space (i.e. physical integration) and in some species the sharing of resources within the network to optimize fitness of the network as a whole (i.e. physiologic integration, Oborny et al., 2001).

A nother layer of integration could occur in such a network because the stolons could permit the transfer of microorganisms between ramets through the vascular system or via the surface of the stolons. This hypothesis has never been addressed despite its importance regarding microorganisms dispersal and plant adaptation to environmental constraints.

Considering all the benefits that can be attributed to symbiotic microorganisms (described in section 2) vertical transmission of part of or the whole microbiota would be advantageous because it would limit the costs of searching for suitable symbionts (Wilkinson & Sherratt, 2001) and thus could ensure habitat quality for the progeny. In terms of evolution, the transmission of symbiotic microorganisms between plant generations constitutes a "continuity of partnership" between the plant and the transmitted symbionts (Zilber- Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 2008). There is thus a need in plant science to search for vertical transmission of a significant part of the microbiota influencing the plant's fitness. [START_REF] Schlichting | Phenotypic plasticity-an evolving plant character[END_REF]. The plant is a "holobiont"

Following the observations described in the previous sections, a new understanding of plantmicroorganisms interactions has been proposed. Experiments and observations have clearly demonstrated the fundamental role of microorganisms in all aspects of host life with important consequences on host phenotype and fitness. Thus the plant should not be considered as a standalone entity but needs to be viewed as a host together with its microbiota. In this context, the holobiont idea, originally introduced in 1994 during a symposium lecture by Richard J efferson and the holobiont hypothesis later developed by Zilber-Rosenberg and Rosenberg ( 2008) allow a collective view of the functions and interactions of a host and its symbionts. Holobiont is a term derived from the Greek word holos (whole or entire) and is used to describe an individual host and its microbial community. This holobiont theory proposes that an entity comprising a host and its associated microbiota, can be considered as a unit of selection (i.e. not the only unit) in evolution (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008;Theis et al., 2016). The host and microbial genomes of a holobiont are collectively defined as its hologenome [START_REF] Rosenberg | Role of microorganisms in adaptation, development, and evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome concept[END_REF]Bordenstein & Theis, 2015). This concept relies on different tenets among which the idea that microorganisms can be vertically or horizontally transmitted between generations, constituting a continuity of partnership, which shapes the holobiont phenotype. Genomic novelties can thus occur within any components of the hologenome (host or microorganisms) and holobiont evolution could lead to variations in either the host or the microbiotic genomes (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008;[START_REF] Rosenberg | Role of microorganisms in adaptation, development, and evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome concept[END_REF]. Furthermore, variations in the hologenome can also arise by recombination in the host and/or microbiome and by acquisition of new microbial strains from the environment [START_REF] Rosenberg | Role of microorganisms in adaptation, development, and evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome concept[END_REF]. In this context, selection acts on the result of the interactions both between the host and its symbionts and between symbionts: the holobiont phenotype.

The recent development of the holobiont concept and hologenome theory (Bordenstein & Theis, 2015) has triggered a debate on its validity and its usefulness as a scientific framework (Moran & Sloan, 2015;[START_REF] Douglas | Holes in the hologenome: why host-microbe symbioses are not holobionts[END_REF]Theis et al., 2016). The primary role of this holobiont concept and related hologenome theory is to provide adequate vocabulary to describe and study host microbiota symbiosis (Theis et al., 2016) while blending the effects of complex microbiota on host phenotypes that may be cooperative or competitive [START_REF] Bosch | Metaorganisms as the new frontier[END_REF]Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). Holobionts and their hologenomes are theoretical entities that require understanding. Metaphorically, skepticism and critics are the selection pressures shaping the evolution of science and "...the hologenome concept requires evaluation as does any new idea" (Theis et al., 2016). One of the main critics and prospects regarding the validity and significance of the holobiont and hologenome theory is the lack of studies showing vertical transmission of microorganisms between holobiont generations (i.e. vertical transmission, or heritability).

Observational and experimental studies addressing the ubiquity (i.e. frequency of occurrence in natural populations), the fidelity (i.e. homogeneity in the organisms transmitted) and the significance (i.e. amount of microorganisms transmitted and impact on the plant phenotype) of the heritability are thus needed to build a comprehensive holobiont theory. A nother aspect of interest is the role of heritability in holobiont assembly and especially in the covariance of genomes between hosts and microbiota components that can induce variation in the phenotypes on which selection acts.

In order for the holobiont and hologenome theory to be comprehensive, it should encompass many symbiosis models. The current understanding of the plant as a holobiont suggests another layer of complexity that has not been theorized yet. Many organisms are modular but plants harbor an additional level of modularity through clonal reproduction. The network structure of clonal plants potentially allows exchanges between holobionts, and thus provides a particular model for comprehension of holobiont assembly and evolution. A n extension of the holobiont and hologenome theory for clonal organisms is thus required.

Objectives of the thesis

This thesis is organised around two major objectives that are the consequence of each another. This

work aims first at identifying the assembly rules governing the structure of the plant microbiota and the consequences of this asssembly regarding plant phenotypes. More precisely, we aimed at determining :

(i) The importance of the microbiota regarding plant phenotypic plasticity and adaptation (Chapter 1) with the hypothesis that fungal endophytes and specifically A M fungi influence the spatial spreading and performance of plants (ii) The occurrence of microbiota heritability between clonal generations in plants and its impact on the assembly of the microbiota (Chapter 2). Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that clonal plants are able to transmit to their clonal progeny a part of their microbiota, including important symbionts for plant fitness, through the connective structures forming the clonal network.

The second objective of the thesis is to determine the importance of the plant community context for the plant-microorganisms interactions and the outcome for plant performance (chapter 3). The hypothesis is that the abundance of a given plant in a community can modify the composition and structure of the fungal community colonizing a focal host-plant, ultimately determining its performance.

C hapter I: C onsequences of mutualist-induced plasticity I. 1. Introduction

Scientific context

Plants are sessile organisms and have thus to cope with environmental constraints. In nature, the spatial distribution of resources and environmental constraints in general, are heterogeneous. Plants have thus evolved different mechanisms to buffer these constraints such as plastic modifications (i.e. production of different phenotypes from a single genotype) to adapt to local conditions (Bradshaw, 1965). However, the tools available for plantplastic responses are not limited to its genome. Indeed, epigenetic mechanisms (regulating the expression of the genome) and microorganisms has been repeatedly shown as sources of variations (Richards, 2006;Friesen et al., 2011;Holeski et al., 2012;Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). A large number of studies have separately identified the effect of specific plant-associated microorganisms and epigenetic marking on plant phenotype. There is however a need to bring together these findings, to evaluate the importance of these sources of phenotypic variation on the plant ability to produce plastic responses and adapt to environmental constraints.

Clonal plants are particularly plastic organisms. In clonal plants, the network structure (i.e.

clonal individual connected) allows the propagation in space, together with resource and information sharing (i.e. physiological integration; Oborny et al., 2001). The network thus allow to develop plastic responses to the heterogeneity at low modular level such as a leaf or a root to higher modular level such as the ramet. Many studies have evidenced two plastic responses to the heterogeneity of resources that are specific to this network structure: foraging and specialization (Slade & Hutchings, 1987;Dong, 1993;Hutchings & de K roon, 1994;Birch & Hutchings, 1994).

Plant-associated symbionts provide a large range of key functions that can be useful for the plant (Friesen et al., 2011;Mü ller et al., 2016). From a theoretical point of view, plants should thus consider microorganisms as a resource and develop foraging and specialization behaviors in response to their heterogeneous distribution. . Based on the optimal foraging theory (de K roon & Hucthings, 1995), clonal plants are expected to aggregate ramets (i.e. clonal unit comprising shoot and roots) in favorable patches and to avoid unfavorable patches through an elongation of stolons (i.e. connective structure). In agreement with the division of labor theory (Stuefer & de K roon, 1996), plants are also expected to develop specialization response by developing preferentially roots in a nutrient rich soil patch. Such plant response to microorganisms heterogeneous distribution has never been investigated to date. In addition, as microorganism affect plant phenotype, they could alter its ability to produce plastic response.

Objectives of the chapter

This chapter aims at determining the role of microorganisms in the production of phenotypic plasticity to environmental heterogeneity. More precisely we address the following questions:

1) Is the genome the only source of phenotypic plasticity for plants ? A re microbiota and epigeneticsignificant sources of phenotypic plasticity allowing plant to adapt to environmental constraints ?(A rticle I)

2) Does plant develop foraging and specialization plastic responses to the spatial heterogeneity of A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi presence ? A rbuscular Mycorhizal Fungi identity is susceptible to alter plant traits, thus impacting its ability to produce foraging and plastic responses ? (A rticle II)

Methods

The work presented in this chapter is based on two different approaches. The first article presented is a review investigating the current knowledges and limits on plant phenotypic plasticity induced by epigenetic and microbiota. This paper aims at identifying perspectives in the roles of microorganisms for plant response to environmental constraints.

The second article presented herein is based on experimental cultivations of the clonal plant Glechoma hederacea in controlled conditions (light, temperature, water and nutrient availability, no exterior contaminations). Two different experiments are presented in this article.We tested the G.

hederacea foraging and specialization responses to the heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi. We manipulated the heterogeneity of A M fungi distribution by setting artificial patches (separate cultivation pots) that were inoculated (presence) or not (absence) with a mixture of three A M fungi species. To test the effect of the fungal species inocula on the plant traits, plants were cultivated into larger pots and the treatments consisted of the inoculation of individual fungal species (three treatments) or no inoculation at all.

Main results

The review presented herein (A rticle I) allowed to evidence the importance of microbiota and epigenetics as sources of phenotypic plasticity for plants adaptation to environmental constraints.

Recent discoveries on epigenetics and plant-associated microorganisms demonstrated their impact on plant survival, development and reproduction. Microbiota and epigenetics represent non genome based sources of phenotypic variations that can be used by the plant to cope with environmental conditions from very short (within lifetime) to longer time scales (i.e. evolutive). These phenotypic variations can furthermore be integrated in the genome through genetic accommodation and thus impacts plants evolutionary trajectories. Our review of the existing knowledge overall evidenced that an interplay between microbiota and epigenetic mechanisms could occur and deserves to be investigated together with the respective impacts of these mechanisms on plant survival and evolution.

In our experiments, we demonstrated 1.) in Glechoma hederacea no specialization and a limited foraging response to the heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi and 2.) that the architectural traits involved in the plant' s foraging response were not affected by the A M fungi species tested, contrary to resource allocation traits (linked to the specialization response).

Two possible explanations were proposed: (i) plant responses are buffered by the differences observed in fungal species individual effects. Indeed, as A M fungal species have contrasted effects on plant traits and resources acquisition, in mixture their cumulative effects could be neutral; (ii) the initial heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi is perceived as homogeneous by the plant either by reduced physiological integration or due to the transfer of A M fungi propagules through the stolons.

Indeed the fact that G. hederacea does not forage for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi suggests that plant could homogenize the distribution of its symbiotic microorganisms through their transmission between ramets i.e. generations. A dditional observation of Scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of hyphae on the stolon surface and several cells close to the external surface of the stolon cross-section were invaded by structures which could be interpreted as fungi. DNA sequencing of stolon samples confirmed these results and demonstrated the presence of A M fungi in the stolons. This suggests that fungi can be transferred from one ramet to another, at least by colonization of the stolon surface and/or within the stolon tissues. The possible transfer of A M fungi between ramets suggests that plants could have evolved a mechanism of vertical transmission of a part of their microbiota. This mechanism would ensure the habitat quality for their progeny and constitutes a continuity of partnership [START_REF] Wilkinson | Mycorrhizal evolution[END_REF]. To date, vertical transmission examples only concerns a few microorganisms colonizing plant seeds (Clay & Schardl., 2002;Selosse et al., 2004). Such mechanisms would be of importance since induced phenotypic modifications inherited between generations allow short, medium and long-time scale adaptation of plants to environmental constraints (A rticle I). The hypothesis of microbiota transmission between ramets is addressed in the following chapter. the sources of such variation that has led to the diversification of living organisms, is therefore of major importance in evolutionary biology. Diversification is largely thought to be controlled by genetically-based changes induced by ecological factors [START_REF] Schluter | Experimental evidence that competition promotes divergence in adaptive radiation[END_REF]2000). Phenotypic plasticity, i.e., the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes (Bradshaw, 1965;[START_REF] Schlichting | The evolution of phenotypic plasticity in plants[END_REF][START_REF] Pigliucci | Evolution of phenotypic plasticity: where are we going now?[END_REF], is a key developmental parameter for many organisms and is now considered as a source of adjustment and adaptation to biotic and abiotic constraints (e.g Because of their sessile lifestyle, plants are forced to cope with local environmental conditions and their survival subsequently relies greatly on plasticity [START_REF] Sultan | Phenotypic plasticity for plant development, function and life history[END_REF]. Plastic responses may include modifications in morphology, physiology, behavior, growth or life history traits [START_REF] Sultan | Phenotypic plasticity for plant development, function and life history[END_REF]. In this context, the developmental genetic pathways supporting plasticity allow a rapid response to environmental conditions (Martin and Pfennig, 2010) and the genes underlying The links between genotype and phenotypes are often blurred by factors including (i) epigenetic effects inducing modifications of gene expression, post-transcriptional and posttranslational modifications, which allow a quick response to an environmental stress (Shaw and Etterson, 2012) and (ii) the plant symbiotic microbiota recruited to dynamically adjust to environmental constraints (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). We investigate current knowledge regarding the evolutionary impact of epigenetic mechanisms and symbiotic microbiota and call into question the suitability of the current gene-centric view in the description of plant evolution. We also address the possible interactions between the responsive epigenetic mechanisms and symbiotic interactions shaping the biotic environment and phenotypic variations.

Genotype-phenotype link: still appropriate?

In the neo-Darwinian synthesis of evolution (Mayr and Provine, 1997), phenotypes are determined by genes. The underlying paradigm is that phenotype is a consequence of genotype (A lberch, 1991) in a nonlinear interaction due to overdominance, epistasis, pleiotropy, and covariance of genes (see A lberch, 1991;[START_REF] Pigliucci | Evolution of phenotypic plasticity: where are we going now?[END_REF]. Both genotypic variations and the induction of phenotypic variation through environmental changes have been empirically demonstrated, thus highlighting the part played by the environment in explaining phenotypes. These phenotypes are consequences of the perception, transduction and integration of environmental signals. The latter is dependent on environmental parameters, including (i) the reliability or relevance of the environmental signals (Huber and Hutchings 1997), (ii) the intensity of the environmental signal which determines the response strength [START_REF] Hodge | The plastic plant: root responses to heterogeneous supplies of nutrients[END_REF], (iii) the habitat patchiness (A lpert and Simms, 2002) and (iv) the predictability of future environmental conditions with current environmental signals information [START_REF] Reed | Phenotypic plasticity and population viability: the importance of environmental predictability[END_REF].

The integration of all these characteristics of the environmental stimulus regulates the triggering and outcomes of the plastic response (e.g. A lpert and Simms, 2002). In this line, recent works have shown that plant phenotypic plasticity is in fact determined by the interaction between plant genotype and the environment rather than by genotype alone (El-Soda et al., 2014).

Substantial variations in molecular content and phenotypic characteristics have been repeatedly

observed in isogenic cells (K aern et al., 2005). Moreover, recent analyses of massive datasets on genotypic polymorphism and phenotype often struggle to identify single genetic loci that control phenotypic trait variation (A nderson et al., 2011). The production of multiple phenotypes is not limited to the genomic information and the idea of a genotype-phenotype link no longer seems fully appropriate in the light of these findings. Besides, evidence has demonstrated that phenotypic variations are related to genes-transcription and RNA s-translation, which are often linked to epigenetic mechanisms, as discussed in the following paragraph [START_REF] Rapp | Epigenetics and plant evolution[END_REF].

E pigenetics as a fundamental mechanism for plant phenotypic plasticity "Epigenetics" often refers to a suite of interacting molecular mechanisms that alter gene expression and function without changing the DNA sequence (Richards, 2006;Holeski 2012) Epigenetics is now regarded as a substantial source of phenotypic variations (Manning et al., 2006;Crews et al., 2007;K ucharski et al., 2008;Bilichak, 2012;[START_REF] Zhang | Epigenetic variation creates potential for evolution of plant phenotypic plasticity[END_REF] in response to environmental conditions. More importantly, studies have suggested the existence of epigenetic variation that does not rely on genetic variation for its formation and maintenance (Richards, 2006;[START_REF] Vaughn | Epigenetic natural variation in Arabidopsis thaliana[END_REF]. However, to date, only a few studies have demonstrated the existence of pure natural epi-alleles (Cubas et al., 1999) although they are assumed to play an important role in relevant trait variation of cultivated plants [START_REF] Quadrana | Natural occurring epialleles determine vitamin E accumulation in tomato fruits[END_REF] adaptive value through modifications in the form, regulation or phenotypic integration of the trait.

In the "adaptation loop", the effect of environment on plant performance induces the selection of the most efficient phenotype. The epigenetic processes are not the only engines of plant phenotypic plasticity adjustment. Indeed, plants also maintain symbiotic interactions with microorganisms to produce phenotypic variations.

Plant phenotypic plasticity and symbiotic microbiot

Plants harbor an extreme diversity of symbionts including fungi (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2002) and bacteria [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012). During the last decade, substantial research efforts have documented the range of phenotypic variations allowed by symbionts. Examples of mutualist-induced changes in plant functional traits have been reported (Streitwolf-Engel et al., 1997;2001;[START_REF] Wagner | Natural soil microbes alter flowering phenology and the intensity of selection on flowering time in a wild Arabidopsis relative[END_REF], which modify the plant's ability to acquire resources, reproduce, and resist biotic and abiotic constraints. The detailed pathways linking environmental signals to this mutualist-induced plasticity have been identified in some cases. For instance, [START_REF] Boller | A renaissance of elicitors: perception of microbe-associated molecular patterns and danger signals by pattern-recognition receptors[END_REF] highlighted several mutualist-induced signaling pathways allowing a plastic response of plants to virus, pests and pathogens initiated by flagellin/FLS2 and EF-Tu/EFR recognition receptors. Mutualist-induced plastic changes may affect plant fitness by modifying plant response to its environment including (i) plant-resistance to salinity (Lopez et al., 2008), drought (Rodriguez et al., 2008), heat (Redman et al., 2002) and (ii) plant nutrition (e.g., Smith et al., 2009). These additive ecological functions supplied by plant mutualists extend the plant's adaptation ability (Bulgarelli et al., 2013;Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015), leading to fitness benefits for the host in highly variable environments [START_REF] Conrath | Priming: getting ready for battle[END_REF] and therefore can affect evolutionary trajectories (e.g. [START_REF] Brundrett | Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizas of land plants[END_REF].

In fact, mutualism is a particular case of symbiosis (i.e. long lasting interaction) and is supposed to be unstable in terms of evolution because a mutualist symbiont is expected to improve its fitness by investing less in the interaction. Reciprocally, to improve its fitness a host would provide fewer nutrients to its symbiont. Thus, from a theoretical point of view, a continuum from parasite to mutualists is expected in symbioses. However, the ability of plants to promote the best cooperators by a preferential C flux has been demonstrated both in Rhizobium/ and A rbuscular Mycorrhiza/Medicago truncatula interactions (K iers et al., 2007; 2011). Thus, the plant may play an active role in the process of mutualist-induced environment adaptation as it may be able to recruit microorganisms from soil (for review Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015) and preferentially promote the best cooperators through a nutrient embargo toward less beneficial microbes (K iers et al., 2011).

In parallel, vertical transmission or environmental inheritance of a core microbiota is suggested (Wilkinson and Sherratt, 2001) constituting a "continuity of partnership" (Zilber- Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 2008). Thus the impact on phenotype is not limited to the individual's lifetime but is also extended to reproductive strategies and to the next generation. Indeed, multiple cases of alteration in reproductive strategies mediated by mutualists such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Sudová , 2009) or endophytic fungi (A fkhami and Rudgers, 2008) have been reported. Such microbiota, being selected by the plant and persisting through generations, may therefore influence the plant phenotype and be considered as a powerhouse allowing rapid buffering of environmental changes (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). The idea of a plant as an independent entity on the one hand and its associated microorganisms on the other hand has therefore recently matured towards understanding the plant as a holobiont or integrated "super-organism" (e.g., Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015).

Holobiont plasticity and evolution

If the holobiont can be considered as the unit of selection (Zilber- Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 2008), even though this idea is still debated (e. g. L eggat et al., 2007;Rosenberg et al., 2007), then the occurrence of phenotypic variation is enhanced by the versatility of the holobiont composition, both in terms of genetic diversity (i.e. through microbiota genes mainly) and phenotypic changes (induced by mutualists). Different mechanisms allowing a rapid response of the holobiont to these changes have been identified [START_REF] Simms | The relative advantages of plasticity and fixity in different environments: when is it good for a plant to adjust ?[END_REF] 3) recruitment of new mutualists within the holobiont (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). In this model, genetic novelties in the hologenome (i.e. the combined genomes of the plant and its microbiota, the latter supporting more genes than the host) are a consequence of interactions between the plant and its microbiota.

The process of genetic accommodation described in section 3, impacts not only the plant genome but can also be expanded to all components of the holobiome and may thus be enhanced by the genetic variability of microbiota. In the holobiont, phenotypic plasticity is produced at different integration levels (i.e., organism, super-organism) and is also genetically accommodated or assimilated at those scales (i.e., within the plant and mutualist genomes and therefore the hologenome). The holobiont thus displays greater potential phenotypic plasticity and a higher genetic potential for mutation than the plant alone, thereby supporting selection and the accommodation process in the hologenome. In this context, the variability of both mutualistinduced and epigenetically-induced plasticity in the holobiont could function as a "toolbox" for plant adaptation through genetic accommodation. Consequently, mechanisms such as epigenetics allowing a production of phenotypic variants in response to the environment should be of importance in the holobiont context.

Do microbiota and epigenetic mechanisms act separately or can they interact ?

Both epigenetic and microbiota interactions allow plants to rapidly adjust to environmental conditions and subsequently support their fitness (Figure 1). Phenotypic changes ascribable to mutualists and mutualists transmission to progeny are often viewed as epigenetic variation (e.g., [START_REF] Gilbert | Symbiosis as a source of selectable epigenetic variation: taking the heat for the big guy[END_REF]. However, this kind of plasticity is closer to an "interspecies induction of changes" mediated by epigenetics rather than "epigenetics-induced changes" based solely on epigenetic heritable mechanisms (see section on epigenetics for a restricted definition). A part from the difficulty of drawing a clear line between epigenesis and epigenetics (J ablonka and L amb, 2002), evidence is emerging of the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in mutualistic interactions. A n experiment revealed changes in DNA adenine methylation patterns during the establishment of symbiosis [START_REF] Ichida | DNA adenine methylation changes dramatically during establishment of symbiosis[END_REF], suggesting an effect of this interaction on the bacterial epigenome or at least, a role of epigenetic mechanisms in symbiosis development. Correct methylation status seems also to be required for efficient nodulation in the Lotus japonicus -Mesorhizobium loti symbiosis [START_REF] Ichida | Epigenetic modification of rhizobial genome is essential for efficient nodulation[END_REF] These epigenetic mechanisms and microbiota sources of plant phenotypic plasticity may act synergistically although this idea has never convincingly been addressed. A s far as we know, different important issues bridging epigenetic mechanisms and microbiota remain to be elucidated such as [START_REF] Simms | The relative advantages of plasticity and fixity in different environments: when is it good for a plant to adjust ?[END_REF] the frequency of epigenetic marking in organisms involved in mutualistic interactions,

(2) the range of phenotypic plasticity associated with these marks either in the plant or in microorganisms, (3) the consequences of these marks for holobiont phenotypic integration, (4) the functional interplay between epigenetic mechanisms and microbiota in plant phenotype expression, [START_REF] Pigliucci | Reaction norms of Arabidopsis. V. flowering time controls phenotypic architecture in response to nutrient stress[END_REF] the inheritance of epigenetic mechanisms and thus their impact on symbiosis development, maintenance and co-evolution. To answer these questions, future studies will need to involve surveys of plant genome epigenetic states (e.g., methylome) in response to the presence/absence of symbiotic microorganisms. Recent progress made on bacteria methylome survey methods should represent useful tools to design future experiment on this topic (Sá nchez-Romero et al., 2015).

A lthough research on the interaction between microbiota and epigenetics is in its infancy in plants, recent works mostly on humans support existing linkages. Indeed, a clear link has been evidenced between microbiota and human behavior (Dinan et al., 2015). Other examples of microbiota effects are their (i) deep physiological impact on the host through serotonin modulation [START_REF] Yano | Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis[END_REF] and (ii) incidence on adaptation and evolution of the immune system (L ee and Mazmanian, 2010). Such findings should echo in plant-symbionts research and encourage further investigations on this topic. More broadly, and despite the above-mentioned knowledge gaps, our current understanding of both epigenetic mechanisms and the impact of microbiota on the expression of plant phenotype, invite us to take those phenomena into consideration in species evolution and diversification. Martin and Pfennig, 2010) but rapid shifts in plant traits, as allowed by both microbiota and epigenetics, would provide accelerated pathways for their evolutionary divergence. In addition, such rapid trait shifts also permit rapid character displacement. Induction of DNA methylation may occur more rapidly than genetic modifications and could therefore represent a way to cope with environmental constraints on very short time scales (during the individual's lifetime; [START_REF] Rando | Timescales of genetic and epigenetic inheritance[END_REF]. In parallel, microbiota-induced plasticity is achieved both at a short time scale (i.e. through recruitment) and at larger time scales (i.e. through symbiosis evolution; Figure 2).

Because of the observation of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, the relevance of epigenetically-induced variations is a current hot topic in the contexts of evolutionary ecology and environmental changes (Bossdorf et al., 2008;[START_REF] Slatkin | Epigenetic inheritance and the missing heritability problem[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Epigenetic variation creates potential for evolution of plant phenotypic plasticity[END_REF]Schilichting and Wund, 2014). This has stimulated renewed interest in the 'extended phenotype' (Dawkins, 1982).

The central idea of Dawkins 'extended phenotype' (Dawkins, 1982) is that phenotype cannot be limited to biological processes related to gene/genome functioning but should be 'extended' to consider all effects that a gene/genome (including organisms behavior) has on its environment. For example, the extended phenotype invites us to consider not only the effect of the plant genome on its resources acquisition but also the effect of the genome on the plant symbionts as well as on nutrient availability for competing organisms.

A fkhami, M. E., and Rudgers, J . A . (2008) No specialization and only a limited foraging response to A M fungi heterogeneous distribution was found.

A n effect of the A M fungal species on plant mass allocation and ramet production, but not on spacer length, In nature, environmental conditions, especially resources, vary spatially and temporally even at a fine scale.

The spatial variations in resources abundance are perceived by organisms as environmental heterogeneity as long as the patches of resources are smaller than the organism and larger than the response unit 1,2 . Plants, because of their sessile lifestyle, have to cope with this heterogeneity and have evolved complex and diverse buffering mechanisms, such as phenotypic plasticity (i.e. production of different phenotypes from a single genotype 3 ). Phenotypic plasticity improves the plant' s ability to respond to resource heterogeneity during its lifetime by allowing trait adjustment to current environmental conditions 4,5,6,7 . Plasticity is expressed at different modular levels in plants 8 ranging from first order modules such as leaf or root to a superior modular level such as the ramet (see Harper, 1977 for modular structure description 9 ). This plastic response results from a trade-off between environment exploration for a resource (e.g. foraging for nutrient-rich patches) and resources exploitation (e.g. uptake of the resource and establishment in the patches).

In clonal plants, each individual consists of a set of ramets connected through belowground (i.e. rhizomes) or aboveground horizontal modified stems (i.e. stolons). These connections result in a network structure and promote plant propagation in space(i.e. physical integration). In some species they also allow sharing of information and resources within the physical clone (i.e. physiological integration 10 ). A s a result of this network architecture, clonal individuals experience spatial heterogeneity at centimetric scales. They also share information about this environmental signaling between ramets. This leads to plastic responses at the local scale to optimize performance, through resource-sharing, at the clone level 11 . The response of clonal individuals to this small-scale heterogeneity results from a resource exploitation-exploration trade-off.

Exploration responses are mostly linked to ramet positioning and induce modifications in clonal network architecture to allow foraging for available resources 12,13 . The optimal foraging theory predicts that ramets should maximize resource acquisition by aggregating in rich patches and avoiding poor patches 12,14,15,16 . Such aggregation may be achieved through modifications of the horizontal architecture of clonal plants, such as internode shortening or increased branching 12,17,18 . Exploitative responses involve (changes in resource acquisition traits. A s a result of physiological integration, each ramet may specialize in acquiring the most abundant resource (division of labor theory 19 ) and share it throughout the network. This specialization can involve modifications in ramet resource allocation patterns 20,21 whereby a higher root/shoot ratio is observed in ramets developing in nutrient-rich patches, and a lower ratio in light-rich patches 20,22 .

Clonal foraging and ramet specialization have been demonstrated in response to soil nutrient heterogeneity 22,23,24,25 . However, under natural conditions, plant-nutrients uptake is mostly mediated by symbiotic micro-organisms such as A rbuscular Mycorrhizal (A M) fungi which colonize ~80% of terrestrial plants 26 . A M fungi symbionts (i.e. Glomeromycota) colonize roots and develop a dense hyphal network exploring soil to 'harvest' mineral nutrients for the plant' s benefit 26 . Plants with mychorrized roots can thus attain higher rates of phosphorus and nitrogen absorption n minus of 2 samples(x 5 and x 25 respectively) than plants with non-mycorrhized roots 27,28 . In turn, AM fungi obtain from plants, the carbohydrates required for their survival and growth 29,30 . In natural conditions, plant roots are colonized by a complex community of A M fungi 31 . These fungi display different levels of cooperation ranging from good mutualists to more selfish ones (i.e. cheaters 32 ). Within the root-colonizing fungal assemblage, plants have been shown to preferentially allocate carbon toward the best cooperators, thereby favoring their maintenance over cheaters 33 . The additive nutrient supply provided by A M fungi can be assimilated as a resource for the plant. A n important raising expectation is that plants may respond to the heterogeneous presence of A M fungi as for a nutritive resource.

The plant could thus forage (optimal foraging theory) or specialize (division of labor theory) in response to

A M fungi presence. The opposite hypothesis is that A M fungi and foraging or specialization are alternatives to cope with resource heterogeneity implying that plant with clonal mobility do not rely on AM fungi to respond to the heterogeneity.

Our aim in this study was to analyze a plant's plastic response to A M fungal heterogeneity by performing two experiments under controlled conditions with the clonal herb Glechoma hederacea. In the first experiment, we tested the plant's foraging and specialization response to the heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi. The treatments consisted of a mixture of three species of A M fungi that has been shown to display various cooperativeness in precedent studies. Two assumptions were tested: (i) according to the optimal foraging theory, clones should aggregate ramets in the patches containing A M fungi by reducing their internodes lengths and (ii) according to the division of labour theory, clones should specialize ramets with a higher allocation to roots in the presence of A M fungi than in their absence. To better understand the results obtained in experiment 1 and because of the potential impact of different cooperation levels in fungi involved in this symbiosis, we carried out a second experiment to test the effect of A M fungal identity on the foraging and specialization response of G. hederacea. We tested i) the effect on plant traits of the individual presence of the three different species of A M fungi used in the assemblage treatment and ii) the assumption that A M fungal species differ in their effects on the traits involved in foraging and specialization responses.

In both experiments, the performance of clonal individuals was expected to be reduced in the absence of A M fungi.

ME T HODS

Biological material

We used the clonal, perennial herb Glechoma hederacea which is a common L amiaceae in woods and grasslands. G. hederacea clones produce new erect shoots at the nodes at regular intervals of 5 to 10 cm on plagiotropic monopodial stolons (i.e. aboveground connections). Each ramet consists of a node with two leaves, a root system and two axillary buds. In climatic chambers with constant conditions, G. hederacea does not flower and displays only vegetative growth 12 . This species is known to exhibit foraging behavior 12,22,45 and organ specialization 22 in response to nutrients or light heterogeneity. The ramets used in our experiments were obtained from the vegetative multiplication of 10 clonal fragments taken in 10 different locations sufficiently spaced to obtain different genotypes. Plants were cultivated for three months under controlled conditions to avoid parental effects linked with their original habitats 51 . Vegetative multiplication was carried out on a sterilized substrate (50% sand and 50% vermiculite, autoclaved at 120°C for 20 minutes) to ensure the absence of A M fungi propagules. For each experiment, the transplanted clonal unit consisted of a mature ramet (leaves and axillary buds) with one connective internode (to provide resources to support ramet survival) 52 , and without roots (to avoid prior mycorrhization). The A M fungi inocula used in both experiments were Glomus species: Glomus intraradices (see [START_REF] Stockinger | Glomus intraradices DA OM197198', a model fungus in arbuscular mycorrhiza research, is not Glomus intraradices[END_REF] for discussion on G. intraradices reclassification 53 ), Glomus custos, and Glomus clarum. These A M species were chosen to limit phylogenetic differences between fungi life-history traits 54 . G intraradices has been shown to display beneficial P uptake in Medicago truncatula 33 . The use of three different A M species also ensure a range of cooperativeness in the symbionts. The inocula used in the two experiments consisted of a singlespecies inoculum produced in in vitro root cultures (provided by S.L . Biotechnologia Ecologica, Granada, Spain) or a mixture of equal proportions of all three inocula. The inoculations consisted of an injection of 1mL of inoculum directly above the roots, and were administered when the plants had roots of 0.5 to 1 cm in length.

E xperimental conditions

Experiment 1 was designed to test the foraging and specialization responses of G. hederacea to the heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi. Experiment 2 tested the effect of the species of A M fungus on the plant traits involved in these responses.

Both experiments were carried out with cultures grown on the same sterile substrate (50% sand, 50% vermiculite) in a climate-controlled chamber with a diurnal cycle of day /12h night at 20°C. Plants were watered with deionized water every two days to check for nutrient availability. Necessary nutrients were supplied by watering the plants every 10 days using a fertilizing Hoagland's solution with strongly reduced phosphorus content to ensure ideal conditions for mycorrhization (i.e. phosphorus stress) 55,56,57 . A t each watering, the volumes of deionized water and fertilizing solution per pot were 25 mL and 250 mL respectively for the first and second experiments. We also controlled nutrient accumulation during the experimental period by using pierced pots that allowed evacuation of the excess watering solution. To prevent nutrient enrichment due to the inoculum, AM fungi-free pots were also inoculated with a sterilized inoculum (autoclaved at 100°C for five minutes).

E xperiment 1: E ffect of heterogeneous A M fungal distribution on G. hederacea foraging and specialization responses.

The responses of G. hederacea to four different spatial distributions of AM fungi were tested. G. hederacea was grown in series of 11 consecutive pots: two homogeneous treatments with the presence (P) or absence (A ) of A M fungi in all pots; and two heterogeneous treatments with two patches of 5 pots either in presence then absence (PA) or absence then presence (A P) (Fig. 1). The two latter treatments were done to take into account a potential effect of ramet age in the plant's response to heterogeneity. These treatments were replicated for 10 clones of glechoma hederacea (see Methods section "Biological material" for precision on plants used). Each clone was grown in plastic pots (8 × 8 × 7 cm3) filled with sterile substrate. Only one ramet was allowed to root in each pot and plant growth was oriented in a line by removing lateral ramifications. The initial ramet, in all treatments, was planted in a pot without AM fungi. For each treatment, the inoculum consisted of a mixture of the three A M fungal species (G. clarum, G. custos and G.

intraradices). Inoculations were started on the second pot of each line which actually contained the fourth ramet of the clone (exceptionally, the first three ramets rooted in the same first pot due to internode shortness, see Fig. 1). Inoculations were administered for each ramet separetely when the ramet had roots of 0.5 to 1 cm in length to avoid a ramet age effect on the A M fungi colonization process. The clones were harvested when the final ramet (number 13) had rooted in the 11th pot. This ensured that each clone had 10 points for sampling environmental quality. The 5th, 6th, 10th and 11th ramets of each clone in the pot line (Fig. 1) were used for statistical analyses. These ramets corresponded to the second and third ramets experiencing the current patch quality. Indeed, L ouâpre et al. ( 2012) emphasized the role of the "past experience" of the clone in developing a plastic response. The choice of these four ramets thus ensured that the clone had enough sampling points to assess the quality of its habitat i.e. in the patches where A M fungi were present or absent, in the heterogeneous treatments, and to adjust accordingly when initiating new ramets 35 . Each ramet was carefully washed after harvesting. The foraging response was assessed by measuring the length of the internode just after the ramet. A n aggregation of ramets, with shortened internodes was expected in patches where A M fungi were present and an avoidance of patches, i.e.

production of longer internodes, was expected where A M fungi were absent. Modifications in ramification production linked to the effect of the treatment were checked by recording the number of ramifications produced by the ramets throughout the experiment. The specialization response was examined by measuring the root/shoot ratio (R/S) i.e. the biomass allocated to the below-and above-ground resource acquisition systems, after separating the roots and shoots and after oven-drying for 72h at 65°C. We expected a higher R/S ratio in patches where A M fungi were present than in patches where A M fungi were absent. Clone performance was assessed from (i) the total biomass of the clone, calculated as the sum of ramet roots, shoots and stolons after oven-drying for 72h at 65°C and (ii) the growth rate calculated as the number of days needed for the clone to develop the 10 sampling ramets i.e. the number of days between rooting of the 4th ramet and final harvesting.

E xperiment 2: E ffect of A M fungal identity on G. hederacea performance and traits.

The effects of individual A M fungal species on G. hederacea foraging and specialization traits were tested using four culture treatments: 1) no A M fungi, 2) with Glomus custos, 3) with Glomus intraradices, and 4)

with Glomus clarum. Each treatment was replicated eight times with four related ramets assigned to each treatment replicate (32 clones in total), to control for plant-genotype effects. The initial ramet of each clone had previously been cultivated on sterile substrate to ensure root system development and facilitate survival after transplanting. The initial ramets were then transplanted in pots (27.5 × 12 × 35 cm3) filled with substrate. The A M fungi inoculations consisted of three injections of 1 mL of inoculum directly on the roots of the first three rooted ramets to ensure colonization of the whole pot. The plants were harvested after six weeks. The following traits involved in foraging were measured: (i) the longest primary stolon length (of order 1) as an indicator of the maximum spreading distance of space colonization (ii) the number of ramifications as an indicator of lateral spreading and clone densification. We also measured biomass allocation to the roots, shoots and stolons at the clone level, i.e. traits involved in the specialization response, after oven-drying for 72h at 65°C. Plant performance for the entire clone was determined from: (i) the total biomass calculated as the sum of the dry weights of the shoots, roots and stolons after oven-drying for 72h at 65°C. and (ii) the number of ramets i.e. the number of potential descendants. Performance was expected to be higher in pots inoculated with fungi and to differ depending on the fungal species.

Statistical analysis

For experiment 1, to test whether G. hederacea develops a plastic foraging (internode length) or specialization (R/S ratio) response to the heterogeneous distribution of AM fungi, A NOVA analyses were performed using the linear mixed-effects model procedure in R 3. 1.3 58 with packages "nlme" 59 and "car" 60 .

Ramets of the same age were compared between genotypes to control for a possible effect of ramet age.

For experiment 2, to determine whether the species of A M fungi induced changes in plant traits and performance, A NOVA analyses were performed using linear mixed models with the same R packages and version described above. W Resource allocation was tested by using the clone total biomass as covariate to take into account the trait variance associated with clone growth.

For both experiments genotype-induced variance and data dependency was controlled by considering the treatment (four modalities) as a fixed factor and the plant-clone genotype as a random factor. The effect of genotype was assessed by comparing the intra-and inter-genotype variance and was considered significant when the inter-genotype variance was strictly superior to the intra-genotype variance. When a significant effect of treatment was detected by A NOVA , post hoc contrast tests were performed using the "doBy" package 61 to test for significant differences between modalities. When necessary, the normality of the residuals was ensured by subjecting the data to log transformation. The total clone biomass (summed dry weights of shoots, roots, and stolons) was used as covariate to account for variance due to differences in clone performance.

R E SULT S

In both experiments G. hederacea traits variation was not significantly influenced by plant genotype (i.e. the inter-genotypic variance was not greater than the intra-genotypic variance).

E xperiment 1: E ffect of heterogeneous A M fungi distribution on G. hederacea foraging and specialization responses.

The hypothesis of modified foraging and specialization responses of Glechoma hederacea to the patchiness of A M fungal presence was tested by comparing the internode lengths and the R/S ratio between the treatments for the 5 th , 6 th , 10 th and 11 th ramets (see Methods for details on ramet selection and experimental design).

We found a significant effect of the A M fungal treatment on the 10 th internode length (P=0.005; F=5.74) (Tab. 1, Fig. 2) with a longer internode in the PA treatment (A M fungi present then absent) than in the absence (A ) and presence (P) treatments. Conversely, no significant effect was found for the 5 th ramets (P=0.71; F=0.45) and 6 th ramets (P=0.15; F=1.92) (Fig. 2). The 11 th ramets seem to display the same response patterns as the 10 th ramets, but no significant differences were detected between the treatments (P=0.93; F=0.15), due to a partial bimodal distribution of data in the "P" treatment with a few individuals exhibiting longer stolon. In addition, the number of ramifications for the 5 th , 6 th , 10 th , and 11 th ramets was not significantly affected by treatment (Tab. 1). No changes in the R/S ratio in response to A M fungal treatment were detected in any of the four tested ramets (Tab.1). with Glomus intraradices allocating significantly fewer resources to stolons (Fig. 3) and more to shoots (P=0.019, F=4.24) than plants without A M fungi. The allocation to roots, however, was not dependent on the treatment (P=0.68; F=0.50).

DISC USSION

The plants did display some foraging behavior in response to A M fungi heterogeneity, as elongation of the internodes was observed in patches without A M fungi after the plant had experienced patches with AM fungi. This behavior would correspond to an avoidance of resource-poor patches, as expected from the optimal foraging theory. However, this behavior was only detected at a particular ramet age (10 th ramets), indicating a possible role of the ontogenic state in development of the plastic response 34 . This may be due to a "lag time" in the plant's response based on the need for environmental sampling. Indeed, L ouâpre et al., (2012) demonstrated that clonal plants may need a minimum number of sampling points as benchmarks in order to perceive and respond to resource availability 35 . In their study, Potentilla reptans and P. anserina started to respond to the treatment after the 5 th internode, suggesting a strong effect of patch size. A similar patch size effect had already been demonstrated in modeling studies 10,36 . No plastic modifications corresponding to a ramet specialization of G. hederacea, in response to A M fungal spatial heterogeneity, were found either. Contrary to the results expected with the specialization theory, biomass was not preferentially allocated to the roots in patches with A M fungi or to the shoots in patches without AM fungi.

This absence of response was recorded for all the ramet ages tested.

These results -a mild foraging response and no specialization -give credit to the theory supported by

Ornitchenko & Zobel (2000) that the species with high mobility do not rely on A M fungi to cope with resource heterogeneity 37. . Glechoma with its high clonal mobility should thus show no response to A M fungi response. However, our results do not fit with the literature predictions for specialization and foraging response 38 . This divergence may be explained by two alternative hypotheses that are developed in the following sections. The first explanation is linked with the occurrence of an individual effect of the species of A M fungus on plant traits, which may predominate or modify the response to the presence/absence of A M fungi when all three species exist together (experiment 2); the second is linked with reduced physiological integration either due to a direct effect of A M fungi on this plant trait, or to the absence of a clear contrast between the different patches sensed by the plant.

In our second experiment, we demonstrated that the architectural traits involved in the plant's foraging response were not affected by the species of A M fungi tested, consistently with the weak response detected in the first experiment. On the contrary, significant changes in resource allocation traits (linked to the specialization response) were detected, depending on the species of A M fungus. Only one species, G.

intraradices induced a change in allocation by the plant, in comparison to the absence of A M fungi treatment, which led to an increased allocation to shoots at the expense of stolons. Modifications of plant phenotype, depending on the A M fungal species, have already been observed in such traits 39,40 . These authors identified a significant effect of Glomus species isolates on branching, stolon length and ramet production in Prunella vulgaris and Prunella grandiflora. In the first analysis of the A M fungal genome, Tisserant et al.

(2013) revealed existing pathways attributed to the synthesis of phytohormones or analogues 41 . Such molecules would have a direct effect on host phenotype. In the individual effect observed, plant response in the presence of G. intraradices symbiosis was coupled with decreased plant performance due to a diminution of ramet production relative to biomass in this treatment. In contrast, the G. custos treatment led to a decrease in the potential number of descendants of the clone. A ccording to experiment 1, root colonization by an inoculum containing three species had no effect on plant traits associated with specialization and foraging. This suggests two alternative hypotheses: i) G. intraradices may be less cooperative than G.

custos with Glechoma hederacea and the result is a consequence of the plant's rewarding process to the more cooperative fungus 33 and/or ii) root colonization by G. custos or G. clarum buffers the effect of G.

intraradices due to a 'priority effect' (i.e. order of arrival in the colonization as a key to fungal community structure in roots) 41 .

To test this, the mycorrhization intensity of the three A M fungal species inoculated in the first experiment would need to be assessed by qPCR. A lternatively, the combined effects of the three A M fungal species on plant phenotype might result in the environment not being perceived as heterogeneous by the plant. This hypothesis is developed in the following section.

The intraclonal plasticity predicted by the foraging and division of labor theories is based on the ability of ramets to sense environmental heterogeneity, share information and resources within the clonal network, to locally adapt and optimize the performance of the whole clone. The weak response of G. hederacea to A M fungal heterogeneity could thus be explained by a decrease in physiological integration that reduces the level of resource-sharing within the clone and prevents the plant from developing an optimized foraging or specialization response. This diminution could initially be due to the presence of AM fungi. Only a few studies have been carried out on the effect of AM fungi on the degree of integration 43 . These authors demonstrated that A M fungi induced a decrease of physiological integration in the clonal plant Trifolium repens when grown in a heterogeneous environment. This effect was dependent on the presence and richness of A M fungal species. Whether this observed diminution of physiological integration is due to a direct manipulation of the host plant phenotype by the fungi remains, as far as we know, unknown. Secondly, this diminution may depend on the individual plant's perception of environmental conditions that might be sensed as homogeneous because the patch contrast is less important than expected. A reduction of plant integration is expected when the maintenance of high physiological integration is more costly than beneficial 44,45 , such as when the environment is resource-rich, not spatially variable 46 or not sufficiently contrasted 10,47 . Such a reduced contrast might result from the effect of the three A M fungal species on the plant phenotype (when used as a mixed inoculum), which is unlikely. A more probable mechanism of environment homogenization could result from A M fungal transfer through the stolons. Scanning electron microscopy of the clone cultures (see protocol in supplementary material) revealed the presence of hyphae on the stolon surface (fig. 5). In addition, several cells close to the external surface of the stolon cross-section were invaded by structures which could be interpreted as fungi. DNA sequencing of stolon samples (fig. 6) confirmed these results and demonstrated the presence of A M fungi in stolons. This suggest that fungi can be transferred from one ramet to another, at least by colonization of the stolon surface (as shown in Fig. 5a) and/or within the stolon (Fig. 5b). Whether fungi are passively or actively transferred through the plant's stolon tissues, and hence to all related ramets, remains an open question. Further studies are therefore needed to confirm these fungal transfers to plant clones and to measure their intensities in contrasted environments. Studies of the response of clonal plants to environmental heterogeneity have classically focused on abiotic heterogeneity 48,49 . Our study is the first to investigate clonal response to a heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi, based on the assumption that A M fungi can be regarded as a resource for the plant. However, in response to the heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi, G. hederacea clones displayed only a weak foraging response and no specialization, which suggests respectively that clones do not aggregate more especially in patches with A M fungi or maximize their proportion of roots in contact with A M fungi. We provide a first explanation by highlighting the impact of A M fungal identity on the plant phenotypes and more particularly on the allocation traits involved in specialization. More importantly, we provide evidence that stolons might be vectors for the transfer of micro-organisms between ramets, thereby buffering (through this dispersion of fungi) the initial heterogeneous distribution. If this is true, stolons will have to be regarded in a different way, and be seen as ecological corridors for the dispersion of micro-organisms allowing a continuity of partnership along the clone. Considering the plant as a holobiont 31,50 , this novel view of stolon function is expected to stimulate new ideas and understanding about the heritability of microbiota in clonal plants.

A cknowledgements

This work was supported by a grant from the CNRS-EC2CO program (MIME project), CNRS-PEPS program (MY COL A ND project) and by the French ministry for research and higher education. We thank S.

L e Panse for performing microscopy analysis and L . L eclercq for performing preliminary experiments. We are also grateful to D. Warwick for helpful comments and suggestions for modifications on a previous version of the manuscript.

A uthor contribution

NV, A K B, PV and CM conceived the ideas and experimental design. NV, A K B, CM did the experiments. NV did the data analyses. NV, A K B, PV and CM did the interpretations and writing of the publication.

C ompeting F inancial Interests statement

No competing financial interests.

C hapter II: T he heritability of the plant microbiota, toward the metaholobiont concept

II.1 Introduction

Scientific context

The first chapter findings suggested that the elongation of clonal plants stolons is accompanied by the transmission of a 'cohort' of microorganisms, that includes arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, from the mother ramet to spatially distant descendants (i.e. other developing ramets). This chapter aims at experimentally testing this hypothesis and at reviewing its consequences for both plant performance and the conceptual understanding of plants functioning and evolution.

Previous studies have evidenced the existence of vertical inheritance of endophytic symbionts, colonizing host-plants through seeds. The most described example of such transmission is the stress-protective endophyte Neotyphodium coenocephalum that colonizes plant seeds and is transmitted to descendants in several grass species (Clay & Schardl, 2002;Selosse et al., 2004).

However, this process is the only known example of true vertical transmission in plants. It represents the transfer of only a few plant-associated microorganism and at a single moment of the plant life. In clonal plant networks, information and resources can be shared within the physical clone (i.e. physiological integration; Oborny et al., 2001). A n additional level of integration may then occur through the sharing of microorganisms within the clonal network, as previously proposed by Stuefer et al. (2004) and suggested by our previous results (A rticle II).

From a theoretical point of view, vertical and pseudo-vertical transmissions (i.e. inheritance of conspecific symbionts from parents to offsprings sharing the same environment; Wilkinson, 1997) are advantageous because they limit the costs of foraging for suitable symbionts (Wilkinson & Sherratt, 2001). In this context, microbiota heritability allows the plant to ensure environmental quality for its progeny. Vertical transmission would thus permit a "continuity of partnership" between the plant and its symbionts (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008). Recently, the understanding of host-symbionts interactions has evolved toward an holistic perception of the host and its associated microorganisms. The holobiont theory provides a theoretical framework for the study of host-symbiont interactions (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008;Theis et al., 2016). In the hologenome, a microorganism can be equated to a gene in the genome. L ike genes are inherited during sexual reproduction, a key parameter for the evolution of the hologenome is the heritability of microorganisms between host generations. In this context, the mechanism suggested in the previous chapter would integrate clonal plants into the range of organisms that can be considered as holobionts. Furthermore, the network structure of clonal plants suggests another layer of complexity in the holobiont assembly since holobionts would be susceptible to share a part of their microbiota within the clonal network. There is thus a need to develop an extension of the holobiont concept for clonal organisms organized as networks, "the meta-holobiont concept".

Objectives of the chapter

This chapter aims at testing the hypothesis of the heritability of a core microbiota in clonal plants and intends to extend the current theories regarding the holobiont assembly and evolution to clonal plant networks. More precisely we address the following questions :

1) Is there a transmission of a cohort of microorganisms in the clonal plant G. hederacea through stolon elongation ? Is this cohort composed of specific microorganisms, thus constituting an inherited core microbiota ? (A rticle III)

2) To which extent this mechanisms redefine the holobiont theory for clonal organisms organized in network ? What are the perspectives of clonal plants as model organisms for the study of holobionts assembly ? (A rticle IV )

Methods

This chapter is composed of two articles (III and IV ). The first paper is based on an experimental approach to demonstrate the existence of a microbiota heritability mechanism in clonal plant. The second paper is an opinion paper addressing the consequences of this mechanism on the understanding of holobionts assembly in clonal network.

We tested the hypothesis of microorganisms' transmission to progeny through clonal integration with an experimental approach using the clonal herbaceous species Glechoma hederacea . Plants from 10 ecotypes were grown under controlled conditions in individual pots. The mother pot was filled with field soil in to provide an initial microbial inocula and newly emitted ramets were forced to root in separate pots containing sterilized substrate. To detect endophytic microorganisms transferred from mother to daughter ramets, we sampled roots of both mother (growing in pots containing microorganisms) and daughter ramets (growing in sterile substrate without microorganisms) as well as internodes connecting them. High-throughput amplicon sequencing of 16S and 18S rRNA genes was used to detect and identify Bacteria, A rchaea and Fungi within the roots endosphere and internodes.

We constructed an opinion paper to address the significance of the above heritability mechanism on pour understanding of plants fitness and evolution. In this review we mobilise knowledges on clonal plants network to propose hypotheses on whether they may use microorganisms transfer as a tool for adaptaton. We also mobilise knowledges from network theory and meta-community ecology to provide directions for future research on clonal network linked to microbiota assembly and plant fitness.

Main results

In our experiment (A rticle III), we detected the presence of archaea, bacteria and fungi within the root endosphere of the mother ramets. Some of these microorganisms were also found within the stolons and the roots of the daughter ramets, comprising fungi and bacteria but not A rchaea. We thus demonstrated the heritability of a part of the plant microbiota to its progeny.

In addition, endophytic communities of daughter ramets roots were found to be similar between each other, while they were different from the original mother communities. We thus demonstrated a filtration process during the transmission of the microbiota (decrease in richness and homogenization of the transmitted communities). Our results confirm the hypothesis of microorganism transmission between ramets constituting thus an heritable core microbiota (A rticle III). Whether the transmission could occur in the reverse sense, i.e. from the daughter to the mother ramets, remains an open question.

Microbiota transmission to the progeny is advantageous because it provides suitable symbionts and thus ensures habitat quality for the progeny (Wilkinson & Sherratt, 2001). Our results open new questions on the ability of clonal plants to preferentially select and transmit particular sets of microorganisms. Indeed, we observed that microorganisms were filtered during the transmission process but the modalities of this filtration remain unknown. Microorganisms could be filtered based on their ability to colonise the internodes (i.e. dispersal abilities) or alternatively they could be filtered depending on the functions they provide to the mother ramet. In the latter case, it would suggest an active filtering by the plant. The expectation is thus that beneficial organisms such as cooperative A M fungi would be preferentially transmitted to the progeny.

Our results invite to revise our understanding of clonal plants. Especially an extension of the holobiont concept toward the meta-holobiont for clonal plant network has been introduced (A rticle IV ). In addition, we propose that clonal network sharing of microrganisms should be apprehended through the network theory and meta-community frameworks. The network theory framework should provide insights on how the network structure and associated microorganisms sharing could enhance the network resilience and performance as a whole. The meta-community framework should help to understanding the impact of microorganisms transmission on microorganisms communities assembly and survival and on plant management of useful microorganisms.

Introduction

A ll living plants experience interactions with ectospheric and endospheric microorganisms and are known to harbor a great diversity of symbionts including fungi (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2002; L ê Van et al., 2017) , bacteria [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;Schlaeppi et al., 2014) and A rchaea (Edwards et al., 2015) which collectively form the plant microbiota. This microbiota performs ecological functions that extend the plant' s ability to adapt to environmental conditions (Bulgarelli et al., 2013;Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). Studies using maize cultivars demonstrated that genetic control of the composition of the microbial rhizosphere by the host-plant was detectable, even if limited [START_REF] Peiffer | Diversity and heritability of the maize rhizosphere microbiome under field conditions[END_REF]. Plant microbiota composition is thus, at least in part, not only a consequence of the pool of microorganisms available for recruitment in the surrounding soil but also of plant selective recruitment within the endosphere. This filtering system includes plant defense mechanisms (Berendsen et al., 2012;Yamada et al., 2016) and promotion of the best cooperators through a nutrient embargo toward less beneficial fungi (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015;K iers et al., 2011).

From a theoretical point of view, vertical and pseudo-vertical transmissions (i.e. inheritance of conspecific symbionts from parents to offspring sharing the same environment; Wilkinson et al., 1997) are advantageous because they limit the costs of foraging for suitable symbionts (Wilkinson and Sherratt, 2001). Vertical transmission would thus permit a "continuity of partnership" between the plant and its symbionts (Zilber- Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 2008). In this context, microbiota heritability is also a way for the plant to ensure environmental quality for its progeny. In natura, plants can reproduce either by seed production or by clonal multiplication (van Groenendael and de K roon, 1990;[START_REF] Hendricks | Clonal plant architecture: a comparative analysis of form and function. (The ecology and evolution of clonal plants[END_REF]. Some studies have evidenced a vertical inheritance of endophytic symbionts colonizing host-plants through the seeds: the most well-known example is perhaps the transmission of the stress-protective endophyte Neotyphodium coenocephalum to the descendants in several grass plant species (Clay and Schardl, 2002;Selosse et al., 2004).

Recent findings suggest that vegetative elongation of the horizontal stems forming the clonal plants network is accompanied by the transmission of a 'cohort' of microorganisms, that includes arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, to spatially distant descendants (Vannier et al., 2016). This form of heritability of microorganisms to plant-progeny is not mediated environmentally (i.e. through environment sharing) or sexually. Such a process would support the niche construction of plant progeny while microorganisms could benefit from a selective dispersal vector allowing them to reach a similar and hence suitable host. Transmission in clonal plants has been demonstrated to involve information-and resource-sharing within the physical clone (i.e. physiological integration; Oborny et al., 2001). A n additional level of integration might occur through the sharing of microorganisms within the clonal network, as previously proposed by Stuefer et al. (2004).

We tested this hypothesis of microorganisms transmission to progeny through clonal integration and addressed the new concept of a core microbiota heritability in clonal plants, using the clonal herbaceous species Glechoma hederacea as model. The growth form of this plant consists of a network of ramets connected through horizontal stems (i.e. aerial stolons), one of the most widespread forms of clonality (Zilber- Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 2008). Plants from 10 ecotypes were grown under controlled conditions. First, a juvenile ramet without roots (mother ramet) was transplanted into a pot containing field soil. Plant growth was oriented by forcing the newly emitted ramets (daughter ramets) of the two ramifications to root into separate pots containing sterilized substrate (Figure 1). Our aim was to detect the endophytic microorganisms present in the mother ramet roots and transferred to the daughter ramets through the clone stolons. High-throughput amplicon sequencing of 16S and 18S rRNA genes was used to detect and identify Bacteria, A rchaea and Fungi within the roots endosphere and the stolon internodes. Control pots randomly distributed in the experiment were also analyzed to remove from the dataset all operational taxonomic units (OTU) which could not be attributed to a plant-mediated transfer of microorganisms (see methods in supplementary information).

Material and methods

Biological material

We used the clonal, perennial herb Glechoma hederacea, which is a common model for studying clonal plant response to environmental constraints (Slade and Hutchings 1987;Birch and Hutchings, 1994;Stuefer et al., 1996). G. hederacea clones produce new erect shoots at the nodes at regular intervals of 5 to 10 cm (the internodes) on plagiotropic monopodial stolons (i.e.

aboveground connections). Each ramet consists of a node with two leaves, a root system and two axillary buds. In climatic chambers with controlled conditions and in the absence of enriched substrate, G. hederacea does not invest in flowering but displays only vegetative growth (Birch and Hutchings, 1994). The ramets used in our experiments were obtained from the vegetative multiplication of 10 clonal fragments taken at 10 different locations separated by at least 1 km to sample different ecotypes. Plants were grown for three months under controlled conditions to limit parental effects related to their geographic location and habitats [START_REF] Dyer | The role of adaptive trans-generational plasticity in biological invasions of plants[END_REF]). Vegetative multiplication was carried out on a sterilized substrate (50% sand and 50% vermiculite, autoclaved twice at 120°C for 1h).

E xperimental conditions

Experiments were carried out with cultures grown on the same sterile substrate (50% sand, 50% vermiculite) in a climate-controlled chamber with a diurnal cycle of 12h day /12h night at 20°C. Plants were watered with deionized water every two days to avoid a bias in nutrient availability. Necessary nutrients were supplied by watering the plants every 10 days with a lowphosphorus watering solution to favor mycorhization (Oborny et al., 2001). A t each watering, the volumes of deionized water and fertilizing solution per pot were 25 mL. To test for the transmission of microorganisms within the clonal network we transplanted an initial ramet (mother ramet) into a pot with field soil and oriented its growth to force the newly emitted ramets to root in different individual pots containing sterilized substrate (Figure 1). During the experiment, secondary ramifications of daughter ramets were removed to limit spread and confine the growth of the plant to a simple network of five ramets comprising the mother ramet and four daughter ramets equally distributed between two stolons (two on each primary stolon). By using two stolons we could test whether the potential transmission was systematic within the clone or whether this transmission varied between stolons (i.e. transfer of random organisms from the mother pool). The transplanted clonal unit (i.e. the mother ramet) consisted of a mature ramet (leaves and axillary buds) with one connective stolon internode (to provide resources to support ramet survival; Huber and Stuefer, 1997), and without roots (to avoid prior colonization of the roots by micro-organisms). Field soil was collected from grassland harboring native Glechoma hederacea and located in the experimental garden of the University of Rennes. Soil was then sieved through 0.5 cm mesh to remove stones and roots. The experiment was stopped and the ramets harvested when the clone had reached the stage with a mother ramet and four rooted daughter ramets. The composition of endospheric microorganisms in the root and internode samples was analyzed by separating the clonal network into stolon internodes, roots and shoots for both the mother and the daughter ramets. Each internode and root sample was meticulously washed first with water, secondly with a 1% Triton X 100 (Sigma) solution (three times) and lastly with sterile water (five times). This procedure ensured removal of the ectospheric microorganisms [START_REF] Vandenkoornhuyse | A ctive root-inhabiting microbes identified by rapid incorporation of plant-derived carbon into RNA[END_REF]. In order to control for potential contaminations, three control pots were also randomized into the experimental design.

These pots were filled with the same sterile substrate and watered similarly to the other pots.

Substrate from these control pots was sampled at the end of the experiment so that all contaminant microorganisms that were not plant-transmitted could be removed from the sequence analyses and from all subsequent statistical analyses. A ll root, internode and substrate samples were frozen at -20°C before DNA extraction and subsequent molecular work. DNA extraction and amplification DNA was extracted from cleaned roots and internodes, as well as from the substrate from control pots, using the DNeasy plant mini kit (Qiagen). The 18S rRNA gene was PCR amplified using fungal primers NS22b (5'-A ATTA A GCA GA CA A ATCA CT-3') and SSU817 (5'-TTA GCATGGA ATA ATRRA ATA GGA -3')(Lê Van et al., 2017). The conditions for this PCR comprised an initial denaturation step at 95°C for 4 min followed by 35 cycles of 95°C for 30 s, 54°C for 30 s and 72°C for 1 min with a final extension step at 72°C for 7 min. The 16S rRNA gene was amplified using Bacterial primers 799F (5'-A A CMGGATTA GATA CCCK G-3') and 1223R.

(5'-CCATTGTA GTA CGTGTGTA -3'). The conditions for this PCR consisted of an initial denaturation step at 94°C for 4 min followed by 32 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, 54°C for 30 s and 72°C

for 1 min with a final extension step at 72°C for 10 min. The 16S rRNA gene was also amplified using a nested PCR with A rchaea primer. The first PCR primers were Wo_17F (5'-ATTCY GGTTGATCCY GSCGRG-3') and A r_958R (5'-Y CCGGCGTTGA MTCCA ATT-3') and PCR conditions comprised an initial denaturation step at 94°C for 2 min followed by 35 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, 57.5°C for 50 s and 72°C for 50 s with a final extension step at 72°C for 10 min. The second PCR primers were A r_109F (5'-A CK GCTCA GTA A CA CGT-3') and A r_915R (5'-GTGCTCCCCCGCCA ATTCCT-3') and PCR conditions comprised an initial denaturation step at 94°C for 4 min followed by 32 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, 57°C for 30 s and 72°C for 1 min with a final extension step at 72°C for 10 min. A ll amplification reactions were prepared using Illumina RTG PCR beads with 2µ L of extracted DNA and target PCR products were visualized by agarose gel electrophoresis.

Sequencing and data trimming

A ll PCR amplifications products were purified using A gencourt A MPure X P kit. A fter purification, the amplifications products were quantified and their qualities checked using A gilent high sensitivity DNA chip for bioanalyzer and Invitrogen fluorimetric quantification.

A ll PCR amplifications products were then subjected to an end repair step and adaptor ligation using the Neb library preparation kit. Multiplexing was done with a PCR step using NEBnext Ultra 2 multiplex oligo (dual index). Multiplexed products were then quantified and quality checked using A gilent high sensitivity DNA chip for bioanalyzer and quantitative PCR with SmartChip Wafergen. A mplicons libraries were pooled to equimolar concentration and paired-end sequenced (2x250 bp) with an Illumina MiSeq instrument. Data trimming consisted of different steps: primer removal (Cutadapt), and classical sequence quality. A n additional step consisted of checking the sequence orientation using a homemade script. This stringent data trimming resulted in 9,592,312 reads. Trimmed sequences were then analyzed using the FROGS pipeline [START_REF] Escudie | FROGS: Find Rapidly OTU with Galaxy Solution[END_REF]) (X .SIGENA E [http://www.sigenae.org/]). FROGS pre-process was performed with a custom protocol (K ozich et al., 2013) for A rchaea and Fungi and with the FROGS standard protocol for bacteria reads. In this pre-process, bacteria reads were assembled using Flash [START_REF] Magoč | FLA SH: fast length adjustment of short reads to improve genome assemblies[END_REF]. The clustering step was performed with SWA RM to avoid, in an innovative manner, the use of identity thresholds to group sequences in OTUs [START_REF] Mahé | SWA RM: robust and fast clustering method for amplicon-based studies[END_REF]. Following the pipeline designer's recommendations, a de-noising step was performed with a maximum distance of aggregation of 1 followed by a second step with a maximum distance of aggregation of 3. Chimera were filtered with the FROGS remove chimera tool. A filter was also applied to keep those OTUs with sequences in at least three samples to avoid the presence of artificial OTUs. A ll statistical analyses were also done with a five samples filter and results were similar. We herein present only the R2 Fungi and R1 A rchaea results based on affiliation statistics that indicated a better quality of affiliation. OTUs affiliation was performed using Silva 123 16S for Bacteria and A rchaea and Silva 123 18S for Fungi. OTUs were then filtered based on the quality of the affiliations with a threshold of at least 95% coverage and 95% BLA ST identity. The stringent parameters used in FROGS enabled us to finally obtain 4,068,634 bacterial reads, 2,222,950 fungal reads and 113,008 A rchaeal reads. Rarefaction curves were generated using R (package vegan 2.2-1;Oksanen et al., 2015) to determine whether the sequencing depth was sufficient to cover the expected number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs). The sequencing depth was high enough to describe the microbial communities in detail (Supplementary Figure S1). To homogenize the number of reads by sample for subsequent statistical analyses, samples were normalized to the same number of reads based on graphical observation of the rarefaction curves using the same R package. During this step, samples with less reads than the normalization value were removed from the dataset. A ll OTUs found in the soil of the control pots were then removed from the data set.

Sequences data are available through the accession number PRJ EB20603 at European Nucleotide A rchive.

Statistical analyses

The positions and stolon of each ramet within the network were recorded as two factors for the statistical analyses. We considered three positions in the network: the mother ramet, the 1st daughter ramet and the 2nd daughter ramet. The stolon was considered as a factor with two levels: the 1st and the 2nd stolon emitted during growth. We analyzed heritability, richness and composition of microorganisms assemblages in G. hederacea ecotypes. We analyzed fungi and bacteria assemblages separately. No statistical analyses were performed on A rchaea data as they were found in the mother ramet roots and in the stolon internodes following the mother ramets but not in the daughter roots. A ll statistical analyses were performed using the R software (R Development [START_REF] Development | R: A language and environment for statistical computing[END_REF].

Heritability calculation and null model construction

Heritability was measured for each taxonomic group in each ecotype as the number of OTUs present in the mother ramet and shared by at least two daughter ramets (we also tested the heritability calculation for three and four daughter ramets). To determine whether the observed heritability could be expected stochastically, we compared the observed heritability against a null model. This procedure is designed to test the null hypothesis that species from the mother ramets are randomly distributed within each daughter ramet and do not reflect the selection or the dispersal of a particular set of species from the mother pool. It allows assessment of the probability that the observed heritability indexes are greater than would be expected under a null distribution (Mason etal., 2008). We built a null model for each of the 10 ecotypes by generating daughter ramets communities with a random sampling of microorganism species within the mother' s pool. The probability of species sampling was the same for all species in the mother's pool (i.e. independent of their initial abundance in the mother roots). Only species identity was changed from one model to another while species richness within the daughter communities remained unmodified. For each daughter ramet community within the 10 ecotypes, 9999 virtual communities were randomly sampled from the mother' s pool and the heritability indexes calculated for each of these models.

Results were similar when a less stringent heritability was used (e.g. OTU present in at least one daughter ramet) but the heritability could not be more stringent because it would create null communities with zero inherited OTUs for most of the null communities and thus overestimate the difference between the observed and the random heritability values.

For each ecotype, we computed the Standard Effect Size (SES), calculated as described by Gotelli whereas positive SES values reveal higher heritability than expected by random (heritability of microorganisms from the mother ramet). A one-sample t-test with the alternative hypothesis "greater" was then applied to the SES values to determine whether they were significantly greater than zero after checking for the data normality.

A nalyses of richness through linear mixed models

Richness was calculated as the number of OTUs present in the sample. Richness was calculated separately for bacteria and fungi at the scale of the whole community and at the scale of the phyla (OTU richness in each phylum). We chose these two scales to detect general patterns in microorganisms richness and also to detect potential variation in these patterns between taxonomic groups (phyla). We conducted our analyses at the phylum scale rather than at a more precise taxonomic level because we were constrained by the sequence affiliation that produced multiaffiliation of OTUs at lower taxonomic levels. To test whether the richness was affected by the sample position in the clonal network, we performed linear mixed-effects models using R packages "nlme" (Pinheiro et al., 2015) and "car" (Fox and Weisberg, 2011). We initially tested for differences in richness between mother and daughter ramets. We then tested for differences in richness between 1st and 2nd daughter ramets by considering the position in the clone (1st daughter or 2nd daughter) and the stolon (1st stolon, 2nd stolon) within the plant ecotype as explanatory variables. Ecotype-induced variance and data dependency were controlled by considering the position in the clone (mother or daughter) and the stolon as fixed factor and the plant ecotype as a random factor in the mixed models. Normality of the models residuals was verified using a graphical representation of the residuals and the data were log or square-root transformed when necessary. For several fungal and bacterial groups exhibiting low abundances in the samples, the models testing differences in richness did not respect the normality of the residuals and thus these results are not presented.

A nalysis of microorganisms community composition

A PLS-DA analysis was used to test whether the microbiota composition varied significantly between mother and daughter ramets and between daughter ramets. The PLS-DA consists of a Partial L east Squares (PL S) regression analysis where the response variable is categorical (y-block;

describing the position in the ecotype), expressing the class membership of the statistical units [START_REF] Sjöström | PLS discrimination plots[END_REF][START_REF] Sabatier | Two approaches for discriminant partial least squares[END_REF][START_REF] Mancuso | Soil volatile analysis by proton transfer reaction-time of flight mass spectrometry (PTR-TOF-MS)[END_REF]. This procedure makes it possible to determine whether the variance of the x-blocks can be significantly explained by the y-block. The

x-blocks (OTUs abundance) are pre-processed in the PLS-DA analysis using an autoscale algorithm (i.e., centers columns to zero mean and scales to unit variance). The PLS-DA procedure includes a cross-validation step producing a p-value that expresses the validity of the PLS-DA method regarding the data set. The PL S-DA procedure also expresses the statistical sensitivity indicating the modeling efficiency in the form of the percentage of misclassification of samples in categories accepted by the class model. Our aim in using this model was to test the variance of community composition that could be explained by the position of the ramet in the clone. The entire data set was subdivided into two or three groups depending on the groups tested (i.e. mother ramets vs 1st daughter ramets vs 2nd daughter ramets, mother ramets vs all daughter ramets and 1st daughter ramets vs 2nd daughter ramets).

Results

A rchaeal, Bacterial and fungal communities in the roots of Glochoma hederacea A rchaea (Thaumarcheota), fungi and bacteria were found in mother ramets. A rchaea were not detected in the daughter ramets, but fungi and bacteria were found in daughter roots (Figure 2).

Comparison of the sequences obtained from the roots of mother and daughter ramets revealed a subset of 100% identical reads in both mother and daughter ramets, representing 34% and 15% of the daughter fungal and bacterial reads respectively. Heritability, calculated as the number of OTUs found in the mother and in the roots of at least two daughters, varied from 15 to 374 OTUs (µ =100. 2±118.6) for bacteria and from 0 to 12 OTUs (µ =6. 1±3.63) for fungi, depending on the ecotypes. To test whether this observed heritability was higher than would be expected stochastically (i.e. random dispersal of OTUs), we used a null model approach in which the identity of the fungi or bacteria species in the experimental samples was randomized while keeping the OTU richness identical. For each ecotype, we thus generated bacterial and fungal random daughter communities by sampling species from all the mother roots communities (regional pool) and compared the observed heritability in our dataset to this distribution of random heritability values.

The null model approach indicated that the observed communities displayed significantly higher OTUs heritability between the roots of mothers and daughters than expected stochastically (one sample t-test with alternative hypothesis "higher", P<0.01 t = 3.03, df = 8, and P<0.001 t = 6.11, df = 9 for fungi and bacteria respectively) (Supplementary Figure S2). In addition to the non-random presence of OTUs in daughter roots we also found communities of fungi and bacteria in the stolon internodes connecting the ramets in the network (Supplementary Figure S3). These internodes exhibited similar phyla richness to that observed in the daughter roots. The transmission of bacteria and fungi within the G. hederacea clonal network was thus clearly demonstrated.

Microbial communities filtration during transmission

Endophytic microorganisms were strongly filtered during the transmission process.

Daughter roots displayed significantly lower fungal OTUs richness than mother ramet roots with mother communities averaging 40 OTUs compared to an average of 10 OTUs in the daughter ramets (linear mixed model, F 1,31 =280, P<0.001; mother ramet: 40±7; daughter ramet: 10±3)(Figure 2; supplementary table S1). The same significant pattern was observed for Bacteria with mother communities averaging 800 OTUs compared to an average of 100 OTUs in the daughter ramets (linear mixed model, F 1,39 =410, P<0.001; mother ramet: 800±131; daughter ramet: 100±100 Figure 2, supplementary table S1). The observed 'low' richness of the transmitted communities indicates that the transmitted microbiota is filtered from the original pool (i.e. the mother microbiota). A significant effect of ecotype, on the richness of the transmitted microbiota, was also found (Methods for details on the statistics and random factor used). Comparison of the microorganisms in the roots of mothers and daughters revealed a general decrease in richness of most phyla during the transmission process. The fungal communities colonizing the roots were mostly from the phyla A scomycota (106 OTUs) and Basidiomycota (39 OTUs) and to a lesser extent from Glomeromycota (24 OTUs), Zygomycota (7 OTU) and Chytridiomycota (4 OTUs) (Figure 2a). The mean OTU richness of A scomycota and Glomeromycota was significantly lower in daughter roots than in mother roots (supplementary table S1) whereas no significant variation was observed in the OTU richness of Basidiomycota. (supplementary table S1). This striking observation clearly advocates for the presence of a fungus-dependent filtering mechanism. The bacterial communities colonizing the roots were distributed in 3384 OTUs mostly belonging to Proteobacteria ( 2009OTUs) and Bacteroidetes (715 OTUs) which together represented about 80% of all the sequences, the remaining 20 % belonging to 6 additional phyla (Figure 2b). Consistently with fungi, the bacterial OTU richness was significantly lower in daughter roots than in mother roots for the Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, A cidobacteria, A ctinobacteria and Firmicutes (supplementary table S1). This observation suggests that bacterial phyla are indifferently affected by the filtering mechanism.

T he heritability of a core microbiota

The differences in microorganisms community composition between mother and daughter roots were assessed using a multi-regression approach with a Partial L east Squares Discriminant A nalysis procedure (PLS-DA ) (see Material and Methods, supplementary information). The advantage of this analysis is its ability to test an hypothesis based on a grouping factor of the samples in the data set (i.e. an explicative factor) and to obtain the significance of the factor as well as the part of the variance explained by the factor. With this analysis the entire dataset can be used and most of the variance conserved in contrast to NMDS approaches in which the distances between samples such as Bray-Curtis or J accard summary the variance between samples.

Significant differences in the composition of daughters communities compared to mothers' were detected for both fungi (PPL S-DA = 0.001, PMothers vs Daughters < 0.01, explained variance = 87.3%, Figure 3a) and bacteria (PPLS-DA = 0.001, PMothers vs Daughters < 0.01, explained variance = 72.4%, Figure 3b; supplementary table S2). These differences in composition between mothers and daughters can be explained by the observed diminution in richness during the transmission process. These result indicates that only a portion of the original pool of microorganisms is transmitted from the mother to the daughters (i.e. a specific set of organisms). To test the validity of the hypothesis that a plant filtering mechanism allows the transmission of a core microbiota we analyzed the filtering consistency between daughters by comparing the microbiota composition within the daughter roots using a PLS-DA procedure. The composition of the roots communities was not significantly different between the 1st and 2nd daughter ramets (PPL S-DA = 0.09 and PPL S-DA = 0.33 for fungi and bacteria respectively, supplementary table S2), thus confirming that a specific set of organisms was similarly transmitted to daughter-plants of all ecotypes.

E ffect of dispersal distance and dispersal time

We found patterns of richness dilution in bacterial communities along the stolons (linear mixed model, F 1,18 = 6.13, P < 0.05, supplementary table S3) showing that those ramets most distant from the mother were less rich in bacteria. This finding suggests that colonization of the daughters by bacteria is limited by dispersal distance. This pattern of richness dilution also followed the course of plant development as stolons produced earlier in the experiment (i.e 1st stolon emitted by the plant) were found to be richer (linear mixed model, F 1,9 = 4.92, P < 0.05, supplementary table S3), which suggests that richness of the bacterial community also depends on dispersal time.

A lternatively, these patterns may be linked to a cumulative filtering effect at each node of the clonal network, reducing the pool of transmitted bacteria. Conversely these richness dilution patterns were not detected for fungal communities (supplementary table S1), suggesting either that dispersion of the transmitted species was not limited or that the fungal community was already strongly filtered during the initial transmission. These two non-exclusive hypotheses are supported by our observation of a variation in the diminution of fungal community richness between mothers and daughters, probably dependent on the life history and dispersal traits of the different fungal taxonomic groups.

Discussion

This work provides the first demonstration of vertical transmission and heritability of a specific endospheric microbiota (fungi and bacteria) in plants. A long with other studies, it supports an understanding of the plant as a complex-rather than a standalone-entity and is aligned with the idea that the plant and its microbiota have to be considered as holobionts (Zilber- Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 2008;Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015;Theis et al., 2016). Our demonstration of coremicrobiota transmission supports the idea that microbial consortia and their host constitute a combined unit of selection. This finding does not conflict with the idea that this heritability of microbiota (microbial components metaphorically called 'singers' in [START_REF] Doolittle | It's the song, not the singer: an exploration of holobiosis and evolutionary theory[END_REF], within clonal-plants, in fact consists of the heritability of a selected set of functions (the 'song' in [START_REF] Doolittle | It's the song, not the singer: an exploration of holobiosis and evolutionary theory[END_REF]. Thus, our work reconciles aspects of the on-going debate regarding the evolutionary process at work within the holobiont entity (Bordenstein et al., 2015;Moran and Sloan, 2015;Theis et al., 2016).

For the plant, the transmission of a microbiota along plant clonal networks extends to microorganisms the concept of physiological integration previously demonstrated for information and resources. This integrated network-architecture questions the idea of a meta-holobiont organization where ramets (i.e. holobionts) can act as sinks or sources of micro-organisms. Such a structure may ensure exchanges between the holobionts, and especially between the mother source and the daughter "sinks", thereby increasing the fitness of the clone as a whole. Indeed, the inheritance of a cohort of micro-organisms that has already gone through the plant filtering system provides a pool of microorganisms available for recruitment in the newly colonized environments.

This "toolbox" of microorganisms could allow the plant to rapidly adjust to environmental conditions and therefore provide fitness benefits in a heterogeneous environment (Clay and Schardl, 2002). This may be assimilated to plant niche construction and provide a competitive advantage when colonizing new habitats.

From the perspective of microorganisms, the stolons can be seen as ecological corridors

facilitating the dispersal at a fine scale. In addition to propagules transport in the environment, this process ensures a spread of the transmitted organisms from one suitable host to another. A s a consequence, transmitted symbiotic partners may benefit from a priority effect when colonizing the rooting system within the new environment (Werner and K iers, 2015). Future work will thus need to address (i) the direction (uni vs. bidirectional) of microorganisms transmission within the clonal network as well as the modalities of (ii) the transmission mechanism (active or passive), and of (iii) microorganisms filtering during this transmission to determine (iv) the significance of the process in T he genome is not the only support of phenotypic variations

The theoretical basis of neo-Darwinian evolution (i.e. the modern synthesis) is linked to the idea that a genetic variation, as a mutation, is an accidental random event having neutral consequences or inducing advantageous or disadvantageous effects on fitness with the natural selection increasing the advantageous variants in large populations (e.g. [START_REF] Charlesworth | The sources of adaptive variation[END_REF]. This sorting of genetic variations by natural selection acts on the individual phenotypic value. It is thus generally believed that an organism, its functions and its ability to adapt to environmental constraints can be addressed by the analysis of its genome (i.e. the information repository of the organism). Behind this idea is the assumption that organisms develop through programmed genes. This view of genomes is an oversimplification [START_REF] Goldman | What is a genome ?[END_REF]. There are existing examples of physical transience in genomes (i.e. genome composition and stability are not fixed at all times in every organism) as in ciliates (e.g. Oxytricha) [START_REF] Bracht | Genomes on the edge: programmed genome instability in ciliates[END_REF]. Elsewhere and less anecdotal is the existence of additional information beside the genome supporting phenotype expression. These are of two main types. Firstly, the epigenetic marks (i.e. DNA methylation, histone modification, histone variants, and small RNA s) which can be heritable and reversible. They induce a suite of interacting molecular mechanisms which impact gene expression and function and thus phenotypes without changing the DNA sequence (e.g. Richards, 2006;Holeski et al., 2012;[START_REF] Huang | Epigenomic Diversity in a Global Collection of Arabidopsis thaliana A ccessions[END_REF]. Secondly, all macro-organisms, animals and plants, are interacting as hosts with symbiotic partners forming the microbiota. Such associations deeply impact the phenotypic variations, and determine host fitness (e.g. [START_REF] Hooper | Interactions between the microbiota and the immune system[END_REF][START_REF] Tremaroli | Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism[END_REF]Mc Fall-Ngai et al., 2013;[START_REF] Blaser | The microbiome revolution[END_REF]Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015;Vannier et al., 2015). A large proportion of population genetics studies considers the host genome solely whereas microbe-free plants are not facts but artifacts (e.g. [START_REF] Partida-Martinez | The microbe-free plant: fact or artifact? F rontiers in Plant Science[END_REF]. Thus phenotypic variations are often mistakenly attributed to genome variants and the neo-darwinian approach of species evolution fails to explain these variations. A n holistic understanding of plant-microbes associations is thus needed.

T he holobiont and hologenome concepts

A given macro-organism can no longer be considered as an autonomous entity but rather as the result of the host and its associated micro-organisms forming a holobiont (e.g. Bordenstein & Theis, 2015) with their collective genome forming the hologenome. The holobiont is a unit of biological organization and encompasses not solely the host and obligate symbionts but also includes [… ] the facultative symbionts and the dynamic associations with the host [… ] (Theis et al., 2016). This new understanding of what a macro-organism is, deeply modifies our perception of evolution processes in complex organisms. From this, an important idea is that genetic variations occurring in any genomic subunits have to be considered as hologenomic variations which may be neutral, deleterious or beneficial for the holobiont (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008;Bordenstein & Theis, 2015). This parsimonious idea is the keystone of the hologenome theory of evolution (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008). Beside these genetic changes in the hologenome, a plant, for example, can recruit micro-organism(s) within the phyllosphere and the rhizosphere to buffer environmental constraints (e.g. Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). The microbiota modification in a plant holobiont, thus hologenome modifications, can be seen as a rapid acquisition of new functions to adjust to biotic and abiotic environmental fluctuations. Because the micro-organisms recruited can be vertically or pseudo-vertically transmitted [START_REF] Rosenberg | The hologenome theory of evolution contains L amarckian aspects within a Darwinian framework[END_REF] this adjustment would be a reboot of the L amarckian deterministic evolution (i.e. inheritance of acquired characteristics). In this context, the microbiota assembly is the repository of the information transmitted between generations.

T he microbiota assembly of the holobiont

Natural selection acts on holobiont phenotype, thus on hologenome. The case of neutrality (nor advantage neither disadvantage) or circum-neutral effect on individual fitness, could explain the heterogeneity of microbiota community structure observed among hosts.

From ecological theories, both niche partitioning (through environmental filtering or through species interactions sorting) and neutral processes (Hubbell, 2001;2005) are classically admitted to drive community assemblies and to explain diversity patterns. Coexistence is mainly assumed to result from complementarity in resource use (Webb et al., 2002). The neutral and stochastic vs deterministic host-microbiota assembly has been debated [START_REF] Nemergut | Patterns and processes of microbial community assembly[END_REF], Bordenstein & Theis, 2015). From a random community assembly model [START_REF] Nemergut | Patterns and processes of microbial community assembly[END_REF], if a large proportion of the microbiota is recruited from the environment (i.e. horizontal transmission), the microbiota community composition is not expected to differ from a random assembly. However, because the functions assumed by the microbiota are important for holobiont fitness, a specialization at the metabolic level of the microbiota is expected from a strong selection process on hologenomes. In this case, the resulting observation would be a deterministic host-microbiota assembly (i.e. non-random assembly). This microbiota specialization could act at two different levels. The first level is the micro-organisms recruitment and filtering by host, a process that should culminate in the vertical or pseudo-vertical transmission of microbiota components. The second level of specialization is, for particular micro-organisms within the microbiota, the relaxation of selection pressure on 'useless' genes and accumulation of mutations in these particular genes toward a loss of functions evolution. In addition, microorganisms within the holobiont experience selection pressures both at the individual level within the holobiont and at the whole holobiont level.

Holobiont and hologenome: the special case of plants Plants are sessile macro-organisms. This conditions their interactions with their environment. First, they are not able to escape environmental constraints and need to adapt to either abiotic (e.g.

resource limitation) or biotic (e.g. competition, predation) stresses. Second, plants act on their own environmental conditions. For instance, they deplete through their nutrition mineral and water resources of their habitat, or modify microclimate and local soil characteristics through the developement of above and belowground organs [START_REF] Marschner | Root-induced changes in the rhizosphere: Importance for the mineral nutrition of plants[END_REF][START_REF] Orwin | L inkages of plant traits to soil properties and the functioning of temperate grassland[END_REF][START_REF] Veen | Peeking into the black box: a traitbased approach to predicting plant-soil feedback[END_REF]. This retroaction of plants on their environment drives environmental fluctuations occurring at different time scales. In these two above-described situations, the recruitment of microorganisms within the microbiota enables to acquire new ecological functions increasing resource acquisition or buffering stressful conditions (see for review Friesen et al., 2011;Bulgarelli et al., 2013;Mü ller et al., 2016). Changes in the microbiota composition along the seasons or years may thus reflect the temporal needs of the plants. Considering that the environmental changes can be either continuous or disruptive and occur over short or long timescales, the recruitment of microorganisms represents a quick and long-term adaptation to environmental constraints that is less costly for the plant than genomic plastic responses (see A lpert & Simms, 2002 for a review of plasticity advantages). Plant-associated micro-organisms then condition plant survival and fitness and provide quick phenotypic adjustments allowing adaptation to rapid and long-term environmental changes (Vannier et al., 2015).

Plants are modular organisms and can be seen as a discrete organization of units (modules)

forming a system (Harper, 1977). Their growth is iterative through undifferentiated and totipotent tissues (meristems). Such modularity is expressed at different levels of integration: from simple subunits such as a leaf, a root, or a flower (order 1 of modularity) to more complex units such as ramets (i.e.potentially autonomous clonal units composed of roots and shoots modules) produced by clonal multiplication (e.g. order 2 of modularity) (Fig. 2a). Most plants are then constituted as reticulated networks that sample the environment and can adjust their structure to the environment (van Groenendael & de K roon, 1990). A physiological integration involving information-and resource-sharing within the clonal network has been demonstrated (e.g. Oborny et al., 2001).

Physiological integration occurs for all first order modules within each second order module, at least partially during its life-cycle. Some species display physiological integration between all or part of the second order modules (Price & Hutchings, 1992), for a short period or the whole clonal plant life (e.g. splitter vs. integrator strategies). In response to small-scale environmental heterogeneity, such modularity and integration enable plastic adjustments of order 2 modules with an impact on the fitness of either or both 1 st and 2 nd order modules depending on integration level. (Stuefer et al., 2004;Hutchings & Wijesinghe 2008). More specifically, plastic changes have been reported in the network architecture in response to patchy distribution of favorable habitats (i.e.

foraging, Fig 2b). Such changes occur along a morphological gradient from a 'phalanx' (the clonal network is dense with high branching and low internode length) to a 'guerilla' form (loose network with low branching and high internode length) [START_REF] Doust | Population dynamics and local specialization in a clonal perennial (Ranunculus repens): I. The dynamics of ramets in contrasting habitats[END_REF]. Phalanx forms promotes the exploitation of nutrient rich habitats through ramet aggregation whereas guerilla forms enable space exploration and the colonization of habitats at distance from the mother plant. In addition to the sampling of resources in the environment, this plastic network also allow to sample potentially symbiotic microorganisms within the soil pool. In clonal plants, this process has never been taken into account for microbiota assembly despite the microbiota importance for plant fitness. Pseudo-vertical (i.e. acquisition by environment sharing) and vertical transmissions of microbiota ensure the presence of suitable symbionts and thus limit the associated foraging costs (Wilkinson & Sherratt, 2001). The question of the vertical or pseudo-vertical transmission of the microbiota is then of fundamental importance. In aggregated networks (i.e. phalanx), the clonal progeny is expected to be in contact with a similar pool of microorganisms than the mother plant (i.e.strong pseudo-vertical transmission). Conversely, in scattered networks (i.e. guerilla), a weak pseudovertical transmission is expected (i.e. progeny encounter different microorganisms than parents). However, it has recently been demonstrated that clonal plants are able to vertically transmit a core microbiota (i.e. a fraction of the mother microbiota) containing bacteria and fungi through their stolons (Vannier et al., 2016;Vannier et al., submitted). This vertical transmission of a subset of the mother microbiota could be seen as an insurance of habitat quality for progeny.

F rom holobiont to meta-holobiont concept Considering that a particular clone is colonized by a complex microbiota, that at least part of this microbiota is transmitted between clonal generations and that these transmitted microorganisms altere the clone fitness (e.g. among others, arbuscular mycorhizal fungi, A M fungi hereafter) (Vannier et al., Submitted), a clonal individual thus satisfies the holobiont and hologenome theory (Zilber- Rosenberg & Rosenberg, 2008;Theis et al., 2016). The plant clonal network represents however an additional level of organization in which holobionts are inter-connected and integrated in a higher modularity model (the clonal network). To explain this level of organization, we introduce the concept of meta-holobiont.

T he meta-holobiont concept Bordenstein & Theis, (2015) have proposed a framework of ten principles for the holobiont and hologenome theory which do not change the rules of evolutionary biology but redefine what a macro-organism really is. The meta-holobiont concept is primarily dedicated to better understand and define clonal organisms forming a network (i.e. like clonal plants) through which holobionts can share molecules and micro-organisms (Fig 3). The meta-holobiont concept thus posits that through a network passive or active transfers of microorganisms, resources and information between holobionts can impact an individual holobiont. The meta-holobiont also posits the existence of specific physical host structures to build the network used for these exchanges. The physical structures linking clonal plant holobionts can be stolons or rhizomes. This physical link is of crucial importance as it is the support of the plastic responses developed at both i.e. the holobiont and meta-holobiont scales.

In the case of mycorhizal hyphae for example, the physical link (hyphae) linking two plants is not produced by the host plant and thus does not allow integrated plastic responses at the metaholobiont scale (in this case two plants linked by a mycorhizal hyphae). In this case, the selection The inherent physiological integration of the meta-holobiont network (Oborny et al., 2001) and the microorganisms transmission from mother to clonal progeny (demonstrated in Vannier et Wijesinghe & Hutchings, 1999;[START_REF] Roiloa | Small-scale heterogeneity in soil quality influences photosynthetic efficiency and habitat selection in a clonal plant[END_REF]. A nother important response of clonal plants to heterogeneity is their ability to specialize individual modules in the acquisition of the most abundant resource to the network benefit (Fig 2c;[START_REF] Stuefer | Division of labour in clonal plants[END_REF][START_REF] Stuefer | Two types of division of labour in clonal plants: benefits, costs and constraints[END_REF]. This specialization process has been extended to the concept division of labour concept (sensu Stuefer et al., 1996), occurring when the spatial distributions of two resources are negatively correlated [START_REF] Stuefer | Division of labour in clonal plants[END_REF][START_REF] Van K Leunen | Quantifying the effects of reciprocal assimilate and water translocation in a clonal plant by the use of steam-girdling[END_REF]).

On the one hand, microbiota transfer within the clonal network may be an alternative to these plastic mechanisms by providing ramets the ability to compensate for nutrient-limitation. For instance the transfer of arbuscular mycorhizal fungi (A M fungi) with high resource uptake ability at the ramet scale is probably less costly for the plants than developing an increased rooting system or than increasing spacer length to forage for better patches. Specialization may then be seen in a wider context at the holobiont level (i.e. ramets that do specialize because of the recruitment of particular microbiota). Foraging through plant trait modifications could likely not be as beneficial as using microbiota functions. Note that such trade-off between foraging plant traits versus the use of microbial activity for resource uptake has already been well described at the individual level with root development (see for instance [START_REF] Eissenstat | L inking root traits to nutrient foraging in arbuscular mycorrhizal trees in a temperate forest[END_REF][START_REF] Iu | Complementarity in nutrient foraging strategies of absorptive fine roots and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi across 14 coexisting subtropical tree species[END_REF]. What we suggest herein at the meta-holobiont scale, thus only consists in an extension of plant foraging tradeoffs.

On the other hand, foraging and specialization mechanisms, may be indirectly mediated by the holobiont microbiota. Studies have demonstrated that microorganisms often manipulate plant traits [START_REF] Cheplick | Recovery from drought stress in L olium perenne (Poaceae): are fungal endophytes detrimental?[END_REF] inducing changes in plant architecture (e.g. connection branching or elongation; Streitwolf-Engel et al., 1997;Sudova, 2009;Streitwolf-Engel, 2001;Vannier et al., 2015), biomass allocation (Du et al., 2009;Vannier et al., 2015). In parallel, other works demonstrated that high diversity of A M fungi can reduce plant physiological integration in heterogeneous environments (Du et al., 2009). These results thus suggest a retroaction between plants and their microbiota in plastic adjustments to environmental heterogeneity developed at the clone level.

In these two cases, microorganisms sharing between holobionts in the meta-holobiont impacts both the holobiont and the meta-holobiont phenotypes. The meta-holobiont concept may shed light on a new understanding of these integration and plastic responses mechanisms, and explain the large range of strategies observed between plants.

Holobionts coexistence and dynamics within the meta-holobiont network: transposition of metacommunity-based theories Microbiota transmission within the meta-holobiont induces consequences at the holobiont scale. A s previously exposed, the meta-holobiont could specialize if the environment is heterogeneous and thus alter individual holobionts microbiota. Reversely an homogenization of holobionts microbiota within the meta-holobiont can be expected in homogeneous environments. This may condition the dynamics of microbiota assembly at the meta-holobiont level because in the first case, several holobionts may represent poorer pools of genomes than others to be transferred within the metaholobiont while in the second case, all holobionts represent the same potentialities. Understanding microbiota assembly within meta-holobiont networks and its consequence on microoragnisms species dynamics is likely to be achieved based on metacommunity theories. Different models of metacommunities have been described (see L eibold et al., 2004 for a review): specialization of microbiota within the meta-holobiont is close to the source-sink metacommunity model whereas homogenization corresponds to the neutral or patch dynamic models. Such theories transposition to the frame microorganisms transfer through plant network should provide an interesting framework for the understanding of the meta-holobiont impacts on microorganisms dispersal in natural ecosystems.

Network theory and meta-holobiont properties

Because microorganisms alter holobiont phenotypes, their recruitment in each holobiont and transmission dynamics within the meta-holobiont may condition the properties of the metaholobiont. Such properties can for instance include productivity (e.g. fitness of the meta-holobiont, plant mass productivity), adaptation to heterogeneous conditions or resilience to disturbance. There is a wide theoretical corpus of knowledge based on graph theory about the relationships between network topology and its properties. For instance the number of nodes, their connectance or shape (i.e. modularity, nestedness) within a network, condition its stability to perturbations since it determines individual fluxes at population and community levels (see review of [START_REF] Proulx | Network thinking in ecology and evolution[END_REF].

In plants in general and in clonal plants in particular, the modules topology has been demonstrated to be shaped by structural blue-print, ontogeny, and plastic response to the environmental conditions (Huber et al., 1999;[START_REF] Bittebiere | Structural blueprint and ontogeny determine the adaptive value of the plastic response to competition in clonal plants: a modelling approach[END_REF]. Many researches have been specifically done on clonal plants to investigate how the network topology provides emergent functions to the clonal plant such as response to heterogeneous conditions, fluctuating environments, or disturbance (see examples given in the review of [START_REF] Oborny | From virtual plants to real communities: a review of modelling clonal growth[END_REF]. Transposing graph theories to the meta-holobiont concept may allow for instance to determine keystone holobionts or specific network structures that maximize the whole network performance. This could be achieved through the maximization of resilience based on holobionts' positions within the network or the degree of redundancy of microbiota compositions in the network. The meta-holobiont concept may provide a new way to consider these questions while taking into account the plant-microorganisms associations.

C hapter III: Importance of the plant community context for the individual plant microbiota assembly

III.1 Introduction Scientific C ontext
The composition of the soil pool of microorganisms depends on different environmental factors comprising soil type and properties (e.g. pH, water content, nutrient concentration) [START_REF] Berg | Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012;[START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]Shakya et al., 2013;Schreiter et al., 2014). Because plants are sesssile this pool of microorganisms available for recruitment determine the plant microbiota (Lundberg et al., 2012;[START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]. In addition to soil type and properties, plants can also modify this soil pool of mcroorganisms through different mechanisms.

Plants are able to selectively recruit microorganisms from the soil (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015) and promote the most beneficial symbionts [START_REF] Bever | Preferential allocation to beneficial symbiont with spatial structure maintains mycorrhizal mutualism[END_REF]K iers et al., 2011). In addition, plant exudates have been shown to either enhance or reduce particular microorganisms abundances depending on the plant species (for a review see Berendsen et al., 2012). The expectation is thus that plants can locally alter the composition of the soil microbial pool. Following this idea, the neighborhood of a given plant (i.e. the identity and abundance of neighboring plants) should influence the local microorganisms soil pool and thus the microorganisms available for recruitment by other plants in the community. Thus the neighborhood of a given plant shoul influence the focal plant microbiota assembly. However, this potential role of the plant community context in the plant microbiota assembly has not been extensively described yet. In addition, plants have been shown to harbor contrasted microbiota between species [START_REF] Oh | Distinctive bacterial communities in the rhizoplane of four tropical tree species[END_REF][START_REF] Bonito | Plant host and soil origin influence fungal and bacterial assemblages in the roots of woody plants[END_REF] and ecotypes [START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012). A n expectation is thus that plant species select and promote different microorganisms and have thus constrasted effects on the soil pool and on the different microbial groups within this soil pool.

Considering the diversity of functions provided by plant-associated endophytes (Friesen et al., 2011, Mü ller et al., 2016) and their effects on plant phenotypes and performance evidenced herein (A rticles I and II), changes in endophyte community composition is likely to affect individual plant performance.

Objectives of the chapter

This chapter aims at testing the hypothesis that the plant community context and especially the close neighborhood of a plant determine its fungal microbiota assembly, ultimately impacting its performance. More precisely we will address the following questions:

1) Does the neighborhood plant species abundances influence the richness and equitability of the focal plant fungal microbiota ? Does neighborhood plant species have contrasted effect ?

(A rticle V )

2) A t which temporal and spatial scales act this neighborhood effect ? (A rticle V )

3) A re changes in fungal groups richness and equitability mediated by the neighborhood plants determining the focal plant performance ? (A rticle V )

Methods

This chapter is composed of a single article (V ). In this study, we tested the hypothesis of a neighborhood effect on plant microbiota assembly impacting plant performance using an outdoor experimental mesocosm design with grassland plant communities. This mesocosm comprises a range of grassland plant communities varying in composition and richness. Soil cores were sampled within each mesocosm and Medicago truncatula was used as a trap plant to capture soil fungal species. High-throughput amplicon sequencing of 18S rRNA genes was used to detect and identify fungi within the root endosphere of M. truncatula individuals. To determine plant neighborhoods, plant species abundances were mapped two consecutive years (one year before and the same year than soil sampling). We thus explained the richness and equitability (equality of species abundances) of the fungal community trapped by M. truncatula by the abundances of plant species within the neighborhood of the sampling point. We considered two temporal scales of the neighborhood, the past covering (one year before sampling) and the present covering (the same year than sampling). We additionally assess the effect of the microbiota composition on M. truncatula biomass as a measure of its performance.

Main results

In our experiment (A rticle V ), we detected a significant effect of the plant neighborhood species abundances on the composition of the microbiota colonizing M. truncatula's roots. This effect was plant species dependant with several plants affecting positively and others negatively the richness and the equitability of the M.truncatula fungal endophytes. We thus demonstrated that a particular plant can filter and determine the local fungal pool available for recruitment in the soil, as proposed by Valyi et al., (2016). This was true not solely at the A M fungal diversity level but was also the case for the other fungal groups and more widely for the whole fungal community.

Plant neighborhood influence on soil microbiotaoccurred at small scale (i. Heijden et [START_REF] Stuefer | Two types of division of labour in clonal plants: benefits, costs and constraints[END_REF]2008;Wagg et al., 2014, Fester et al., 2014) through nutrients cycling and symbioses (e.g. [START_REF] Bardgett | Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning[END_REF]. These symbioses between plants and soil microorganisms are widespread in natura and are compulsory for plant development and growth [START_REF] Hacquard | Survival trade-offs in plant roots during colonization by closely related beneficial and pathogenic fungi[END_REF]Bulgarelli et al., 2013;Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). A mong symbiotic microorganisms, the A rbuscular Mycorrhizal (A M) fungi have received much attention since they are arguably the world' s most abundant mutualists and among the most important terrestrial symbionts 'that help feed the world' (Marx, 2004).

In exchange for carbohydrates, A M association provides many ecological functions to plants such as nutrients acquisition and protection under stressful conditions. Despite their ubiquity, the existence of such mutualisms is unexpected in terms of evolutionary trajectories [START_REF] Hardin | The tragedy of the commons[END_REF] because cheaters (i.e. providing little phosphorus in exchange for carbohydrates) are predicted to spread at the expense of cooperative partners and thus indirectly favor competing strains (West et al., 2002). The ability of plants to preferentially reward A M fungal symbionts according to their level of "cooperativeness" was demonstrated using Medicago truncatula (K iers et al., 2011). This selective rewarding mechanism mitigates the fitness of less cooperative fungi, stabilizes the A M fungal symbiosis (K iers et al., 2011) and is supposed to allow plants to filter and exclude part of the colonizers. A consequence of this filtering phenomenon is the observation of a 'host-plant preference' (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2002;Duhamel & Vandenkoornhuyse, 2013). This filtering effect occurring at the individual plant level is then likely to influence the local diversity and abundance of fungal propagules.

A t the plant community scale, the very first experimental studies based on a matrix-focal plant design showed that the identity of the plant species in the neighborhood determines the composition of the focal plant fungal community (J ohnson et al., 2004;Hausmann & Hawkes, 2009). This observation remains consistent for A M fungi in more complex mixtures of plants and can be extended to their temporal dynamics (Hausman & Hawes, 2010). The first established plant species has a filtering effect on the pool of A M fungi colonizing the second established plant species (Hausman & Hawes, 2010). Following these findings, the temporal scale effect has been suggested as a key parameter in understanding of the whole fungal community assembly [START_REF] Bennett | A rbuscular mycorrhizal fungal networks vary throughout the growing season and between successional stages[END_REF]Cotton et al., 2015). However in the above-described experiment, the temporal scale tested was very short (several weeks) and the fingerprint of a plant on later fungal communities has never been tested over a long period of time [START_REF] Hausmann | Order of plant host establishment alters the composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal communities[END_REF]. A lthough the influence of plant community composition on fungal assemblages has been described (e.g. J ohnson et al., 2004;[START_REF] Hausmann | Order of plant host establishment alters the composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal communities[END_REF], the spatial scale of this influence is still unclear. In a recent review, Valyi et al. (2016) proposed that the relative influence of environmental conditions, dispersal and host filtering on the A M fungal community was dependent on on the spatial scale considered. The effect of the host plant (i.e. host filter) would then be stronger at a local scale (Valyi et al., 2016). A s far as we know, there are very few empirical or experimental supports for this hypothesis. A single seminal paper demonstrated that the relationship between plant and A M fungi compositions was detectable at the 25 cm² point scale but not at the 1m² plot scale (L andis et al., 2005). However, the fact that the influence of a given plant on the composition of fungal endophytes can be detectable at a fine scale suggests that the plant communities and their dynamics may condition the A M fungal community assembly. A t a given location, we can make the parsimonious assumption that the fungal propagule reservoir available is necessarily a consequence of the fungal community structure and composition within the previous hosts. If the fungal diversity pool results from the cumulative influences of plants, the consequence is that we can explain A M fungal community assembly and quantify the respective influences of the surrounding plant species.

This assumption drives the idea that the plant neighborhood determines the assembly of the fungal pool available for recruitment by the focal plant. The plant-associated fungal endophytes are known to provide benefits for plant nutrition and resistance to abiotic and biotic constraints (e.g. Friesen et al., 2011). Changes in fungal groups richness should therefore affect the ecological functions performed by the fungi to the focal plant and ultimately impact its fitness.

We herein address the hypothesis that a plant neighborhood fingerprint on the root fungal community impacts host-plant fitness. We used a mesocosm design comprising experimental assemblages of different grassland species, with varying levels of plant diversity. We spatially sampled soil cores from plots on which Medicago truncatula was then grown as a trap plant. Root fungal assemblages were characterized by amplicon sequencing. Plant neighborhoods around the soil sampling positions were characterized using centimetric maps of plant species occurrences recorded over two years. We analyzed the effect of past and current plant neighborhoods on endophyte assemblages of M. trunculata and ultimately on its biomass. In this study we considered two diversity scales, the sample scale (alpha diversity) and the plot scale (gamma diversity). More specifically, we tested the following hypotheses: (i) the root fungal community structure is determined by the local plant neighborhood and the relationships between plant composition and endophyte diversity and richness should be weaker at the plot than at the sample scale. The scale of influence is likely to be a few centimeters (ii) this relationship occurs across different fungal taxonomic groups (iii) the changes in the fungal communities colonizing the plant should ultimately impact the focal plant performance.

Materials and Methods

A nalyses were performed in two stages. We first analyzed the influence of past and present plant neighborhoods (i.e. plant species around the sampling point) on the fungal assemblages at the plot scale and at the sample scale. We based our analyses on indexes describing the fungal communities calculated for different taxonomic groups following a down scale approach (from the whole assemblage to the phyla and classes).

Experimental design

To determine whether fungal communities respond to the overlying plant communities depending on their taxonomic groups, and at which spatio-temporal scales, we used 112 experimental plant communities settled in 1.30 × 1.30 × 0.25 m mesocosms in 2009 (see [START_REF] Benot | Fine-scale spatial patterns in grassland communities depend on species clonal dispersal ability and interactions with neighbours[END_REF][START_REF] Bittebiere | Clonal traits outperform foliar traits as predictors of ecosystem function in experimental mesocosms[END_REF] for additional information on the experimental design). This study was conducted in the experimental garden of the University of Rennes1. Communities were constituted from a set of plant species widely distributed in temperate grasslands of Western France (des A bbayes et al., 1971), with one to 12 plant species in each mixture. Plants were grown on a homogeneous substrate composed of sand (20%) and ground soil (80%). Weeds were regularly removed, and the mesocosms were watered every two days during the dry season. A bove-ground vegetation was mown once a year in late September and plant flowers were cut off to suppress sexual reproduction. Plant community dynamics was therefore dependent only on the plant' s clonal growth. The present plant neighborhood therefore resulted from the previous one.

Plant neighborhood characterization

The plant species spatial distributions in the plots changed over time due to the ongoing community dynamics. To take these dynamics into account, species occurrences were therefore mapped in all mesocosms after two and three years of experimental communities cultivation (i.e. early spring 2011 and 2012), using an 80 × 80 cm squared lattice centered on the mesocosm (Fig. 1). We recorded presence/absence data in 5 × 5 cm cells of the lattice (i.e. 256 cells in total per mesocosm).

A plant species was considered as present when at least one individual rooted within the cell, with each individual belonging to a single cell. GIS (A rcGIS ver. 9.3.,ESR I) was used to calculate the number of cells colonized by each plant species (i.e. their abundances) at each spatial scale tested.

Plant species abundances were calculated at the plot scale as the total number of cells occupied over the square-lattice. Within the plot, we analyzed plant species abundance at five spatial scales around the central sampling point, ranging from 5 to 25 cm (Fig. 1) (see Bittebiere & Mony, 2015 for details on the method). We considered two temporal scales by performing these calculations in 2011 (past plant neighborhood) and 2012 (present plant neighborhood). Per species correlations between 2011 and 2012 for each spatial scale exceeding 90% were not detected.

Endophyte assemblages analyses through a trap plant bioassay

To determine the fungal pool of species available for plant recruitment, we sampled five soil cores per mesocosm within the 80x80cm lattice (the four corners and the center) (i.e. 560 soil samples in total). This design enabled the fungal community to be captured both at the sample (sample in the center of the mesocosm) and the plot scales (the five sampling points of the plot). These soil samples were used as substrates for the cultivation of Medicago truncatula individuals, used as trap plants. M. truncatulawas transplanted as seedlings after being germinated in sterile conditions for 3 weeks. This species is known to display a very low host-preference, trapping most of the fungal species present in the soil (Cook, 1999). M. truncatula individuals were cultivated for seven weeks under controlled conditions (constant temperature and water availability) with a 12h day/light cycle and nutrients were provided with a watering solution before harvesting. To evaluate M. truncatula performance, root and shoot samples from each individual were weighed at the end of experiment.

Plant total fresh mass was used as a proxy of performance.

DNA extraction and amplicon preparation

Medicago truncatula root samples were carefully washed with detergent (Triton 100X , 1% V /V ), thoroughly rinsed in sterile distilled water and ground to powder using a pestle and mortar under liquid nitrogen. Then, total DNA was extracted using the DNeasy plant kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's recommendations. A 480 bp fragment of the fungi SSU rRNA was specifically amplified by PCR using NS22/0817 primers (L ê Van et al., 2017) with PuReTaq Ready-to-go PCR beads (GE Healthcare). A ll the PCRs were done using fusion primers containing sequencing adapters and multiplex identifiers in addition to PCR primer (more details about amplifications in L ê Van et al., 2017). For each of the 560 samples, true technical amplicon replicates were performed (i.e. two independent PCRs for each extracted DNA sample). A mplicons were purified using A MPure X P -PCR kit (A gencourt/Beckman-Coulter). Purified amplicons were then quantified (Quant-iT Picogreen ds DNA assay, Invitrogen). A n equimolecular amount of each amplicon was pooled to prepare the sequencing library. Traces of concatemerized primers were removed (L abchipX T, Caliper) before emPCR and sequencing on a GS FL X + instrument (Roche), following the manufacturer' s instructions.

Data trimming and contingency matrix preparation

Trimming, filtering, clustering, OTU identification and taxonomic assignments were performed as described elsewhere (e.g. Ben Maamar et al., 2015, L ê Van et al., 2017). To summarize the strategy, short sequences (<200 bp), sequences with homopolymers (>8 nucleotides) or ambiguous nucleotides, sequences containing errors in the multiplex identifier or primer, were deleted from the dataset. Detected chimeric sequences using chimera.uchine were deleted. A fter these steps, and from the two replicates, only sequences displaying 100% identity were kept. The remaining sequences were grouped into OTUs using DNA clust [START_REF] Ghodsi | DNA CL UST: accurate and efficient clustering of phylogenetic marker genes[END_REF] with a 97% sequence identity threshold, and a contingency matrix was built. A fter these steps, the sequencing depth (i.e.

number of sequences per sample to describe the community) was checked from rarefaction curves computed using the V EGA N package (Oksanen et al., 2015) in R (R Core Team, 2013). We removed 154 samples which did not satisfy these criteria and samples were normalized to 1351 sequences.

OTUs affiliation and taxonomic groups selection

A total of 3471 fungal OTUs for the 406 samples were obtained. A large proportion of these OTUs were rare (i.e. >70% of the OTUs represented by less than 25 sequences). Similarly to plant community studies, OTUs occurring in at least 1% of the samples were used for the statistical analyses. To check the sensitivity of the statistical signal of this additional filtering step, we tested other thresholds and obtained similar statistical results (data not shown). The resulting dataset contained 2057 fungal OTUs. A ll the statistical analyses were performed at three taxonomic levels, all fungi, within phyla (i.e. Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Glomeromycota), and within classes (i.e.

Sordariomycetes, Glomeromycetes, and Agaricomycetes) (i.e. seven datasets in total). Phyla and classes were selected according to their respective dominance in the whole assemblage and within the phyla. The Ascomycota, the Glomeromycota, and the Basidiomycota contained 1587 OTUs (77.2% of the total richness), 308 OTUs (15% of the total richness) and 100 OTUs (4.86% of the total richness), respectively. In each of these three fungal phyla, Sordariomycetes (186 OTUs), Glomeromycetes (80 OTUs) and Agaricomycetes (86 OTUs) were the dominant classes in terms of OTU richness.

Diversity indices calculation

Indices were calculated at the plot scale (i.e. the five samples from each mesocosm pooled) and at the sample scale (i.e. based on the sample from the center of the mesocosm only) for the seven fungal datasets (see above). To characterize the fungal community at the plot scale (gamma diversity), we calculated the OTUs richness as the total number of OTUs occurring in at least one of the five samples from the plot. A t the sample scale (alpha diversity), we calculated the OTU richness (S), the Pielou equitability index (J ), and the Shannon and Simpson diversity indices.

Because strong correlations (i.e. > 90%) between Shannon diversity, Simpson diversity, and equitability were found, the Shannon and Simpson indices were discarded before further analyses.

No strong correlations (i.e. > 90%) were found between the two remaining indices regardless of the taxonomic level analyzed. Indices were calculated using the V EGA N package (Oksanen et al., 2013) in R (R Core [START_REF] Pinheiro | nlme: L inear and nonlinear mixed effects models[END_REF].

Statistical analyses

To determine whether the fungal community structure was influenced by the past and present plant neighborhoods at the sample and plot scales, we used multiple regression analyses with plantspecies abundances as explanatory variables in linear model (L M) procedures. These analyses were performed on the seven fungal datasets.

First, to test for the influence of past and present plant neighborhoods on the fungal pool at the plot scale, we tested the effect of the plant abundances for each date (see above section Plant neighborhood characterization) on the fungal OTUs richness. We constructed two models for each taxonomic level analyzed (i.e. 14 models), which were optimized using a backward stepwise selection procedure of the explanatory variables based on the A kaike' s Information Criterion (described below).

Second, to test for the influence of past and present plant neighborhoods on the fungal pool at the sample scale (i.e. corresponding to the soil sample from the mesocosm center), we tested the effect of the plant abundances for each date (see above section Plant neighborhood characterization) on the fungal richness and equitability for the five neighborhood sizes examined.

This enabled us to determine the spatio-temporal scale of response of taxonomic groups from the local fungal pool to the plant neighborhood. One model was developed for each date and neighborhood size. We therefore constructed a total of ten models per index (two indices) and per taxonomic level analyzed (i.e. 140 models in total), and each model was optimized using a backward stepwise selection procedure of the explanatory variables.

We used the information-theoretic model comparison approach based on A kaike's Information Criterion (A IC) and compared for each index, all the optimized models through second-order A IC corrected for small sample sizes (A ICc) [START_REF] Burnham | Model selection and multimodel inference: A practical information-theoretic approach[END_REF]. In our analyses, we considered models with smaller A ICc values and with a substantial level of empirical support (i.e., a difference of A ICc > 2 with other models) as the most probable [START_REF] Burnham | Model selection and multimodel inference: A practical information-theoretic approach[END_REF]. Thus this procedure enabled us to compute multiple models and to compare these models while minimizing the risk of producing false positives.

richness of the phylum Basidiomycota (P<0.05, 0.06≥R 2 ≥0.09) but decreased the richness of the class Agaricomycetes (P<0.05, 0.07≥R 2 ≥0.1). The same pattern was observed for F. rubra increasing the richness of the phylum Ascomycota (P<0.05, 0.04≥R 2 ≥0.12) but decreasing the richness of the class Sordariomycetes (P<0.05, 0.1≥R 2 ≥0.11). On the contrary, several species had a consistent effect between taxonomic levels. A. tenuis for example significantly increased the richness of the whole fungal community and at the phylum levels for both Ascomycota and

Basidiomycota, and at the class level for Sordariomycetes. The same pattern was observed with B.

pinnatum that increased the richness of both the phylum Glomeromycota and the class Glomeromycetes.

F ungal equitability at the sample scale

To investigate the effect of the plant neighborhood on the equitability of the fungal community at fine-scale, we produced linear models at the sample scale (center of the mesocosm) with plant species abundances as explanatory variables. The multiple linear models analysis revealed that the equitability of the whole fungal community, of the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Glomeromycota, Sordariomycetes, Glomeromycetes, and Agaricomycetes were all significantly determined by the plant neighborhood (Tab 2). A t the level of the whole fungal community, the equitability significantly decreased with the presence of only Holcus mollis in the neighborhood whereas the abundances of other plant species had no significant effect on fungal community equitability (P<0.05; 0.04≥R 2 ≥0.07).

Tab l e 1 . wesp o n ses o f each fu n gal gro u p ri ch n ess at th e p l o t scal e to th e p ast an d p resen t p l an t n ei gh b o rho o ds ( resu l ts o f l i n ear mo del s) . t -v al u es an d adj u sted w² are p resen ted. hn l y sp eci es p arti ci p ati n g si gn i fi can tl y to mo del b u i l di n g are sh o wed as wel l as th ei r effect o n th e fu n gal ri ch n ess ( + i n creasi n g th e ri ch n ess; -decreasi n g th e ri ch n ess) .

E ffect of temporal and spatial scales on the link between plant landscape and fungal community

We determined the spatio-temporal scale of response of the fungal community to the plant neighborhood by producing linear models with past and present plant species distributions at five neighborhood sizes (5 to 25 cm). These analyses were performed at the scale of the sample (center of the mesocosm) and the best models were selected according to the A ICc criteria (see Material & Methods section). These selected models showed that fungal community richness and equitability responded equally to present and past plant neighborhoods (i.e. the A ICc criteria of the models were not different; Tab. 2). Furthermore, the species explaining the variations in richness and equitability of the fungal community were the same at both temporal scales (i.e. past and present). Only the equitability of Glomeromycota, Basidiomycota, and Sordariomycetes and the richness of Glomeromycetes responded to a single temporal scale.

The whole fungal community richness and equitability responded indifferently to the plant neighborhood at the five neighborhood size scales analyzed (i.e. 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 cm around the sampling point) (Tab. 2). Only the Glomeromycota equitability index responded to a specific neighborhood size (i.e. 25 cm), whereas the two other fungal phyla and the classes analyzed responded to at least two of the five neighborhood sizes tested for both richness and equitability.

Thus a clear neighborhood effect was highlighted but no specific neighborhood size was detected in the response of the fungal community to the plant neighborhood. To investigate the effect of the changes in fungal communities richness and equitability on the fitness of the trap plant we produced linear models at the sample scale (center of the mesocosm) with fungal groups richness or equitability as explanatory variables.

The biomass of the trap plant Medicago truncatula was not affected by the richness of its whole fungal community (Tab 3). However, the biomass increased significantly with the richness of the Basidiomycota and Glomeromycota phyla (P<0.01 and P<0.05 respectively) (Tab. 3) but not with the phylum Ascomycota (Tab 3). The combined effects of Basidiomycota and Glomeromycota richness explained ~12% of the variations in plant biomass (P<0.05; R 2 =0.12). A t the class level, the same positive effect on M. truncatula biomass was found for Glomeromycetes and Agaricomycetes richness but not for Sordariomycetes richness (P<0.01; R 2 =0.13; Tab 3).

If a higher microbiota fungal richness positively impacted the M. truncatula biomass, we would expect a reciprocal effect of equitability, because the detection of rare OTUs from the same sequencing depth within a more evenly distributed community, is less likely. A s expected, the data analyses indicated that the biomass of the trap plant increased with the equitability of its whole fungal microbiota community (P<0.01; R 2 =0.07; Tab 3). However, the biomass increased only with the equitability of the phylum Ascomycota but not with the Basidiomycota and Glomeromycota phyla (P<0.01, R 2 =0.1; Tab 3). A t the class level, the same positive effect on M. truncatula biomass was found for Sordariomycetes equitability (P<0.01; R 2 =0.1; Tab 3) but not for Agaricomycetes and Glomeromycetes equitability. . This result suggests that the biotic interactions structuring the fungal community (i.e., host preference and host filtering) mostly act at a centimetric scale (Hazard et al., 2013;Valyi et al., 2016).

A t the sample level, our results indicated that the plant neighborhood determined, at least in part, the richness and competitive balance (i.e. equitability) of the whole fungal community colonizing the trap plant, M. truncatula. Such heterogeneity of microbiota composition within a given host-plant species is a recurrent observation (e.g. [START_REF] Davison | A rbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in plant roots are not random assemblages[END_REF]Schlaeppi et al., 2014; L ê Van et al., 2017) and has been linked to plant recruitment from the soil "reservoir" (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). Indeed, root-associated fungi in agave species have been shown to be mainly recruited from the surrounding soil [START_REF] Coleman-Derr | Plant compartment and biogeography affect microbiome composition in cultivated and native A gave species[END_REF]. The importance of abiotic factors, notably soil properties, as determinants of the soil microbial pool composition (Shakya et al., 2013;Schreiter et al., 2014;[START_REF] Coleman-Derr | Plant compartment and biogeography affect microbiome composition in cultivated and native A gave species[END_REF] has been repeatedly demonstrated and is considered as the main source of variation of the plant microbiota (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). We demonstrated here that the plant neighborhood at a centimetric scale (i. The fungal community also results from past plant neighborhoods

In agreement with our expectations (hyp. 2) we demonstrated that the past neighborhood also impacted the fungal community structure of the following year and that this was not due to correlations between past and current neighborhoods. This result was found for the whole fungal microbiota community level as well as for the three phyla and classes analyzed. The key interpretation of this result is that past plants do leave a "fingerprint" on the composition of microorganisms colonizing the present plant community. A lthough the fungal communities responded at both temporal scales, there was no difference in the intensity of response between the two years. The persistence of the effect of the plant over these years could be due to the short period investigated in the present study (two years) because the majority of fungal spores and propagules can survive in soil for a long time. A study involving a longer period (i.e. >2 years), for example mapping the plant communities 5 years before sampling, would allow the temporal limits of this potential soil fungal bank "memory" to be determined.

The structure of the root endospheric fungal community impacts M. truncatula biomass

In agreement with our expectations (hyp.3) we demonstrated that the performance of the Medicago truncatula plant was affected by the composition of the fungal endophytes community. The measures of Medicago truncatula performance indicated that the individual biomass production depended on the richness of Glomeromycota and Basidiomycota (but not on the total richness of fungal OTUs or on the Ascomycota richness). This relationship between Glomeromycota richness and plant performance has already been demonstrated for A M fungi (Van der Heijden et al., 1998, K lironomos et al., 2000[START_REF] Hiiesalu | Species richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: associations with grassland plant richness and biomass[END_REF], due to their beneficial effects. The increase in A M fungal diversity has experimentally been shown to result in more efficient exploitation of available resources such as soil phosphorus (Van der Heijden et al., 1998) and to decrease plant pathogens [START_REF] Van Der Putten W H | Empirical and theoretical challenges in aboveground-belowground ecology[END_REF]. To our knowledge, however, the positive effect of fungal species richness on plant performance has never been demonstrated with the phylum Basidiomycota or the class Agaricomycetes. A s far as we know, little is known about the functions of the endospheric Agaricomycetes in grass plants and the role of this group on plant growth has still to be clarified.

Interestingly, Medicago truncatula performance only depended on the equitability of the whole community, the phylum Ascomycota and the class Sordariomycetes that represented the larger fungal groups in the samples. This result suggests that a community dominated by a few Ascomycota and Sordariomycetes species has a less beneficial effect on plant growth. Ascomycota is a phylum known to be composed of very diversified organisms performing various functions for host plants. In this context, an equitable community could represent a higher diversity of organisms available to recruitment in the plant "toolbox" for adjustment to environmental conditions (Vannier et al., 2015).

neighborhood on the productivity of the trap plant M. truncatula, mediated by an increase in fungal richness or equitability, was evidenced. This change in fungal soil assemblage may be due to a complementarity of the niches that plants provide to fungal symbionts. The degree of host preference differs between plants [START_REF] Helgason | Selectivity and functional diversity in arbuscular mycorrhizas of co-occurring fungi and plants from a temperate deciduous woodland[END_REF], which may then constitute different niches for fungi. These differences in host preference can be due to the level of mycotrophy of the host with generalist hosts favoring a rich fungal community contrary to more specialist hosts. Such positive effects of particular plant identities have already been suggested: for instance, spore abundance in salt marsh was determined by the proximity of mycotrophic hosts [START_REF] Carvalho | Spatial variability of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores in two natural plant communities[END_REF], whereas the presence of the grass Anthoxantum odoratum increased the abundance of A M fungi in the soil regardless of the plant mixtures (De Deyn, 2010).

Conversely, we also demonstrated in our experiment the negative effects of several plant species on the richness and equitability of key fungal groups, which ultimately reduced the trap plant biomass. For example, H. mollis, A. stolonifera and H. lanatus indirectly decreased the productivity of the trap plant M. truncatula. This negative impact might be due to a host-preference effect. Indeed, several groups of fungi can harbor a limited range of host plants. A given plant can thus represent either a good or a bad choice of host. It can also be interpreted as an allelopathic-like phenomenon although it has not been evidenced before on these species. For example, a species belonging to the family Festuca has been shown to produce allelopathic compounds suppressing D.

glomerata growth but depending on the competition context of the community (Viard-Crétat et al., 2012). Plant production of allelopathic compounds may suppress the germination of spores or the formation of mycorrhizal associations [START_REF] Stinson | Invasive plant suppresses the growth of native tree seedlings by disrupting belowground mutualisms[END_REF]Callaway et al., 2008) and thus alter the reservoir of soil microorganisms.

We More importantly, we showed that A M fungal species used have contrasted effects on plant traits. In our experiments, the difficulty of identifying the role of a given symbiont in determining the plant phenotype resided in the fact that a given plant was colonized by different symbionts with contrasted effects at the same time (A rticle II). It is thus necessary to identify the range of variations due to symbiont identity. A perspective of this work would thus be to test a wider range of A M fungal partners to determine whether they specifically modify plant traits and act on performances.

We performed a preliminary study (not presented in the document) testing this hypothesis. We grew individuals of G. hederacea in controlled conditions inoculated with a fungal isolateor not inoculated. We tested the effect of nine fungal species selected to constitute a large range of cooperative behabior (i.e. provinding high benefits to low or no benefits). We found significant differences in various plant traits comprising performance traits depending on the fungal partner identity.

In addition to direct effects described herein (A rticle II), the microbiota can also indirectly impact plant phenotype through its interplay with epigenetic mechanisms (A rticle I). These two sources of phenotypic variation happening during the plant' s life currently constitute two separated fields of research. The few observations of a link between epigenomic modifications and the establishment of symbiosis [START_REF] Ichida | DNA adenine methylation changes dramatically during establishment of symbiosis[END_REF][START_REF] Ichida | Epigenetic modification of rhizobial genome is essential for efficient nodulation[END_REF]De Luis et al., 2012) suggest however that interplays does exist. These two separated fields of research will thus need to develop a common framework to determine the occurrence and significance for plant phenotype of microbiotaepigenetics interplays. Conducting a monitoring of epigenetic marking while inoculating different experimentally engineered microbiota would surely provide insightful results and could allow to disentangle complex endophytes-induced phenotypic changes.

Plants have evolved mechanisms ensuring the presence of symbionts

Plants have been interacting with microorganisms for a very long time (over 400 millions years for A M fungi; [START_REF] Remy | Four hundred-million-year-old vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae[END_REF][START_REF] Redecker | Glomalean fungi from the Ordovician[END_REF] allowing the establishment of co-evolution patterns [START_REF] Brundrett | Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizas of land plants[END_REF]. Subsequently, plants should have evolved mechanisms to optimize their association with beneficial symbionts. Many studies have described how plants have evolved, filtration, defense, promotion or regulation mechanisms regarding microorganism colonization. For example, mechanisms allowing plants to regulate the symbiosis and avoid cheating behavior with A M fungi have already been evidenced [START_REF] Bever | Preferential allocation to beneficial symbiont with spatial structure maintains mycorrhizal mutualism[END_REF]K iers et al., 2011). However, since plants are sessile organisms, their "recruitment choice" depends on available microorganisms in the local environment (e.g. Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). In this context, the heterogeneity of beneficial microorganisms presence in the soil could be considered as a source of stress for plant (i.e. absence of beneficial microbes).

Regarding this heterogeneity, different forms of "continuity of partnership" could be expected to ensure beneficial interactions. Clonal plants are known to display plastic responses maximizing either exploration (foraging) or exploitation (specialization) of heterogeneous resources relying on their ability to share resources and information within the clonal network. Such responses could then be expected to buffer beneficial microorganisms heterogeneity. In our experiments (A rticle II), we however demonstrated that Glechoma hederacea only displayed a low foraging and no specialization response to A M fungi heterogeneity.

Clonal plants have however evolved another mechanism allowing to ensure the presence of microorganisms and thus their habitat quality. We evidenced the existence of vertical transmission (or heritability) of microorganisms through the connexions between ramets (A rticle III). This previously unknown mechanism allows the transfer of a core microbiota that ensures habitat quality of theplant progeny. This results suggest that plants physiological integration (Oborny et al., 2001) comprise in addition to resources and information, the sharing of microorganisms, constituting a prospect of interest.

These results open a large avenue for future research questions such as 1.) the direction of this transfer (unidirectional or bidirectional; i.e. from progeny to parent plants), 2.) the mechanisms of transfer, active through the vascular network fluxes or passive by colonization of the stolon surface; 3.) the modalities of microorganisms filtering during the process. Considering the latter hypothesis we indeed evidenced that transmitted communities are similar and an important consequence is the existence of a filtration process during the transmission that creates this similarity. This filtration process could be based either on microorganisms dispersal ability (i.e.

ability to colonize stolons) or on the functions they provide to plants. Different hypotheses can be drawn from these resulst like the transmission of a core microbiota necessary for the clone establishment or alternatively the transfer of only the most cooperative and important fraction of the microbiota transmitted. We are currently testing the hypothesis that more beneficial symbionts could be preferentially transmitted. This experiment comprises two phases. A first phase (already completed, see above) aims at identifying the impact of the inoculation of single A M fungal species on plant traits and performance to detect beneficial and deleterious A M species. The second phase of the experiment consists in the inoculation of clonal plants with a designed mixture of A M fungal species comprising a range of symbiont qualities. T his second phase aims at determining which A M fungal species are transmitted to the progeny, depending on their level of cooperation and their effects on plants.

Estimating the ecological significance of this mechanism should be the main focus of future research by determining its ubiquity, fidelity and its significance for plant phenotype expression.

The next step would thus be to test if specific microbial cores can be recruited depending on plant ecological needs. For example when the plant is subjected to a stress, it should preferentially transfer organisms conferring an increased resistance to this particular stress.

II. Redefining the individual plant : from holobiont to meta-holobiont

Plants can no longer be considered as standalone entities

Plants are colonized by a high diversity of symbionts that individually (A rticle II) and collectively (A rticles I and V ) determine the plant phenotype and its subsequent ability to grow, reproduce and adapt to environmental conditions (A rticle I). This microbiota is present in every known plant and can be transmitted between generations (A rticle II). The plant can thus no longer be seen as an independent entity. Regarding selection and evolution processes the plant has to be considered as a complex and multiple entity comprising the plant and its microbiota forming the holobiont as well as their genomes forming the hologenome (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). Selection processes can act at different organisation levels in such complex organisms (i.e. on the plant phenotype, on the microorganisms phenotypes or on the result of their interactions).

Toward a novel understanding of clonal network organisms

The discovery of a novel microbiota heritability mechanism deeply impacts our understanding of This idea could be extended to other clonal networks as soon as organisms can be shared within the network. Future research are needed on clonal organisms in order to determine whether such structure happens to exist in other organisms or if the meta-holobiont only fits for clonal plants. Even if the meta-holobiont theory developped herein (A rticle V ) cannot be extended to other organisms, we emphasize the suitability of the clonal plant model (and thus the meta-holobiont) for the study of microbiota assembly in the context of complex organisms.

The role of the meta-holobiont in determining microorganisms dispersal and plant fitness in natural ecosystem is a major perspective. Especially, in the context of plant community, transmission and filtration mechanisms in the meta-holobiont could impact the dispersal of beneficial symbionts in the environment. If the meta-holobiont is able to selectively facilitate the spreading of the most useful microorganisms within the plant community it could impact the microbiota assembly of the whole plant community.

III. From individuals to community

The community context shapes the microbiota A t the plant community scale, plants are interacting with each other in neutral, competitive, or facilitative ways. A given plant in the community is thus interacting with its neighborhood and it is likely that this neighborhood could affect the assembly of its microbiota. More importantly, at a given location, the fungal propagule reservoir (i.e. the soil pool) available for recruitment by the plant is a consequence of the fungal community within the previous host-plants. We demonstrated that the plant neighborhood determines in part this fungal soil pool available for plant recruitment (A rticle V ). We explained the competitive balance and richness of the fungal communities colonizing the trap plant Medicago truncatula based on the close neighborhood of plants surrounding the soil sampling point. Valyi et al. (2016) proposed that the relative influence host filtering on the A M fungal community is stronger at local scale (Valyi et al., 2016). Our results fits perfectly with this hypothesis and introduce the role of the local plant community context (i.e. the plant neighborhood) as a factor structuring the assemblage of the plant microbiota, aside from the plant genetics and the environmental factors like soil properties. The results obtained herein (A rticle V ) suggest that the host preference and host filtering structuring the fungal community mostly act at centimetric scale (Hazard et al., 2013;Valyi et al., 2016). The effect of the plant neighborhood occurred at finer scale than previously thought (i.e. 5 cm to 25 cm around the sampling point) on the fungal community richness and composition. Previous studies focusing on A M fungi reported that A M fungal community composition was highly heterogeneous, even at local scale [START_REF] Brundrett | Mycorrhizal fungus propagules in the jarrah forest[END_REF][START_REF] Carvalho | Spatial variability of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores in two natural plant communities[END_REF][START_REF] Wolfe | Origins of major human infectious diseases[END_REF]). Bahram et al. (2015) also reported in a meta-analysis the existence of a spatial autocorrelation of A M fungi, suggesting thus dispersal patterns of fungi at the scale of the meter.

This corpus of knowledge, together with our results, suggest that fungi, and possibly more widely the microorganisms, are dispersal limited at the scale of the plant community. However, evidences that isolation and dispersal limitation exist for microbial assemblages are scarce [START_REF] Telford | Dispersal limitations matter for microbial morphospecies[END_REF]. There is thus a need to reconsider the scale at which we study plant microbiota assembly rules. In addition, the mechanism of microbiota heritability evidenced herein (A rticle III) allow the dispersal of fungi in the community and calls for the development of a framework on microorganisms dispersal.

Toward the concept of micro-organisms micro-landscape

Plant host has been shown to affect the microbiota structure, in particular its composition and diversity [START_REF] Berg | Plant species and soil type cooperatively shape the structure and function of microbial communities in the rhizosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Bulgarelli | Revealing structure and assembly cues for Arabidopsis root-inhabiting bacterial microbiota[END_REF]L undberg et al., 2012). In addition, we demonstrated that the plant neighborhood can have contrasted effects on fungal taxonomic groups (e.g. different phyla or classes) richness and equitability. Theoreticall, niche partitioning and neutral processes (Hubbell, 2001(Hubbell, , 2005) ) are classically admitted to drive community assemblies and explain diversity patterns. In the context of symbiotic microorganisms, plants can be considered as habitat and the assembly of the plant community is driven by the nich partitioning of microorganisms. This result thus suggest that a particular plant constitutes a host of a specific quality (favorable or unfavorable) that can be assimilated to a patch of habitat for symbiotic organisms. From here, the plant community can be assimilated to a dynamic mosaï c of patches. The composition of the patches and their spatial arrangement could thus determine the microbiota assembly of plant species within the mosaï c.

In this context, a major perspective is to transpose and adapt macro-landscape ecological frameworks at the scale of the microorganisms landscape. Plant community can be redefined from the fungal perspective in an attempt to characterize what habitat size, isolation and dispersal should be considered in microbial ecology. From our results, we develop the idea that for a given fungus, the plant community is a dynamic mosaï c of plants of various quality that can be assimilated to patches in a landscape. A n important consequence of this understanding of the fungal landscape is the transposition of macro-landscape elements to a micro-scale. For example, a perspective of this approach is to investigate the impact of the connectivity in the fungal micro-landscape. The connectivity describe the permeability of landscape elements to the dispersal of organisms. If plants can be considered as habitat of different quality for a fungus, then the abundance of a favorable host within the fungal landscape would increase the dispersion of the fungus. We are currently engaged in the redaction of a review (not presented herein) that aims at transposing these knowledge of macro-landscape to the micro-landscape, introducing the micro-landscape. In parallel, we conducted an experiment in collaboration (not presented herein) using experimental mesocosms to test the hypothesis that landscape parameters such as the connectivity between two hosts (defined as the presence of favorable hosts between the focal plants) could explain the similarity of their microbiota.

IV. Microbiota assembly and agricultural practices

The ability to engineer plant-microbiota is a key challenge to resolve the productivity-biodiversity loss conundrum. Microbiota engineering aims at optimizing specific attributes of the focal host organisms through the selection of a specific microbiota (Mü ller et al., 2016). In plants, several candidate traits have been identified, comprising for example flowering time and plant biomass [START_REF] Panke-Buisse | Selection on soil microbiomes reveals reproducible impacts on plant function[END_REF]. To fulfill this goal, future research will have to describe in precision on one the hand the rules driving microbiota assembly and on the other hand the host-plant fitness resulting from a given assembly. While beneficial microorganisms have started to be commercialized [START_REF] Berg | Plant-microbe interactions promoting plant growth and health: perspectives for controlled use of microorganisms in agriculture[END_REF]; and see de Vrieze, 2015 for a chronicle) they are not always reliable on crops, especially depending on the local context. Our results provide evidences that it is not only the presence of one particular beneficial microbe that increases plant performance but also the global richness of the plant fungal microbiota (A rticle V ). For a few years, scientists have proposed improvements for agricultural practices such as the increase in plant crop richness to promote microorganisms diversity and then enhance the diversity of ecological functions provided to the plant (Duhamel & Vandenkoornhuyse, 2013). The work presented herein demonstrated that the rules of plant microbiota assembly, comprising the richness of major fungal groups, and the resulting effects on plant phenotype depend on the plant community context (A rticle V ). There is thus perspectives for agricultural practices to consider not only the plant richness but also the plant composition and spatial arrangement.

Studies have until now focused on either the identification of key beneficial microorganisms or the maximization of microorganisms diversity. We additionally demonstrate that opportunities exist of maximizing the equitability of the microbiota to increase plant fitness. In addition, the effect on plant phenotype does not necessarily rely on the plant community richness as previously thought, but can also depend on plant identities in the host neighborhood. This encourage for the development of polyculture practices. For example, combination of facilitative plants can be used in cultures to maximize key fungal groups richness thus ultimately increasing productivity.

To conclude, i can see two major perspectives arising from this PhD thesis. The first perspective is linked to the above mentioned limits of the neo-Darwinian synthesis of evolution in describing and understanding plant-microbes interactions and their evolutionnary consequences.

Both microbiota and epigenetics are not linked to the genome and are thus not integrated in the synthesis. The synthesis do not encompass biological units of organization like holobionts and meta-holobionts. From my perception, one of the major challenges of the next few years relies on the development of an extention for the neo-Darwinian synthesis of evolution integrating nongenome based and interactions mediated evolutionnary patterns. The second pespective is linked to the concrete application of acquired knowledges for the development of a sustainable agriculture.

The results obtained during this PhD highlights the complexity and the dynamics of plant microbiota assembly and of its resulting effects on plant phenotype. From my perception thus, the ability to maximize crops resistance, resilience and productivity does not reside on the study of a given beneficial microorganism but rather on the understanding of the mechanics regulating emerging properties and functionning of microbiota assemblages.

A BSTRA CT

Plants live in association with a wide diversity of microorganisms forming the microbiota. The plant microbiota provides a variety of key functions that influence many aspects of plant's life comprising establishment, growth and reproduction. The present thesis aims at determining the assembly rules of the plant microbiota and its consequences for plant phenotype, adaptation and evolution. To fulfill this objective, we used different experimental approaches using either clonal plants as model organisms or grassland mesocosms for community-wide analyses.

Our results demonstrated i) that A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi induce important phenotypic variations in clonal plants traits involved in space exploration and resources exploitation. These changes depended on the identity of the symbionts and altered the plants ability to produce plastic responses to environmental heterogeneity. ii) Plants have evolved a mechanism allowing the transmission of a part of their microbiota to their progeny, ensuring thus their habitat quality. iii) The plant community context is a major factor structuring local plant microbiota assembly. Particular plant species identity in the neighborhood increase or decrease the microbiota diversity and ultimately determine the focal plant performance.

This thesis overall demonstrates the importance of symbiotic microorganisms in the understanding of the plant adaptation and evolution. From the knowledges acquired we developed a novel understanding of symbiotic interactions in clonal plants by extending the holobiont theory to the meta-holobiont theory.

2 . 1

 21 Microorganisms recruitment through compounds secretion..................................20 3.2.2 The immune system...............................................................................................21 3.2.3 Regulation of symbiotic interactions......................................................................22 3.2.4 The host plant effect: genetics and biogeography..................................................23 3.3 Biotic interactions.

1

 1 Microbe-microbe interactions.................................................................................24 3.3.2 The plant community context................................................................................25 3.4 Microbiota transmission.

  of global changes (i.e. global warming), local conditions are changing and scientists

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. a) Schematic plant showing the different compartments of the plant and its environment colonized by microorganisms comprising bacteria, fungi and archaea. Numbers of bacterial cells are indicated for phyllosphere, atmosphere, rhizosphere, and root and soil bacterial communities and were taken from (Bulgarelli et al., 2013). b) Schematic root cross section of the root hair zone showing epiphytic colonization endophystes colonizing the endosphere. c) Schematic longitudinal section of a root and the zhizosphere and bulk soil around the root. The bulk soil is colonized by a wide diversity of microorganisms and they are filtered within the rhizosphere and subsequently in the endosphere. The figure was modified from Mü ller et al., (2016).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Phylogenetic structure of bacteria associated to the roots and leaves of different plant species. This figure was realised from sequencing data of different papers and analyzed using a reference-based operational taxonomic unit (OTU) picking method and were subsequently combined at the family level. A bbreviations: n.d., not detected. From Mü ller et al., (2016).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Growth form of the clonal plant Glechoma hederacea. The plant is organized as a network of ramets that are potentially independant individual units composed of roots, shoots and a node.These ramets are connected by stolons and the section of the stolon separating two nodes (i.e. two ramets) is called an internode. Modified fromBirch & Hutchings, 1994.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Schematic root surface and root endosphere as welle as surrounding rhizosphere (zone of the soil unfer plant influence) and bulk soil. The figure shows the different abiotic and biotic factors structuring the assembly of the microorganisms community within the different compartments.

3. 2

 2 ) a given plant will influence the local soil pool. Thus at the scale of the plant community, the effect of a plant on the local soil pool of microorganisms indirectly affects the microbiota assembly of the other plants in the community. More importantly, as the filtering effect is dependent on plant identity, studies based on matrix-focal plant designs have demonstrated that this identity determines the composition of the focal plant fungal community(J ohnson et al., 2004; Hausmann & Hawkes, 2009). Such host filtering effects have long been considered negligible for plant microbiota assembly in comparison to abiotic environmental factors. However, a recent review by Valyi et al.

I. 2 A

 2 rticle I: E pigenetic mechanisms and microbiota as a toolbox for plant phenotypic adjustment to environment 35 Evolution is driven by selection forces acting on variation among individuals. Understanding

  these induced phenotypes are subjected to selection(Pfennig, 2010). If selection acts primarily on phenotype, the environmental constraints an organism has to face can lead either to directional selection or disruptive selection of new phenotypes(Pfennig, 2010). Thus, novel traits can result from environmental induction followed by genetic accommodation of the changes (West-Eberhard, 2005). These accommodated novelties, because they are acting in response to the environment, are proposed to have greater evolutionary impact than mutation-induced novelties (West-Eberhard, 2005).

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: (A ) Plant phenotypic plasticity is trigged by environmental constraints. Phenotypic changes induced are not solely genetically controlled but are also based on either epigenetic marks (box 2) or plant microbiota by recruitment of mutualists. This plant 'toolbox' allows a rapid response to environmental constraints. (B) The control over plant phenotypic plasticity may crosstalk or synergistically interplay with different possible interactions. 1) Co-evolution plant-symbiont 2) Interplay genetic/epigenetics 3) Cross-talk epigenetic/microbiota. These mechanisms also act at the modular scale of plant structure.

57 1

 57 T., Hutton, M. G. and Denison, R. F. (2007). Human selection and the relaxation of legume defences against ineffective rhizobia. Proc. R.Soc. B 274,[3119][3120][3121][3122][3123][3124][3125][3126] K iers, E.[START_REF] Duhamel | Reciprocal rewards stabilize cooperation in the mycorrhizal symbiosis[END_REF].Reciprocal rewards stabilize cooperation in the mycorrhizalsymbiosis. Science 333, 880-882 K ucharski, R., Maleszka, J ., Foret, S., and Maleszka, R. (2008). Nutritional control of reproductive status in honeybees via DNA methylation. Science 319, 1827-1830 L ee, Y.K ., and Mazmanian, S. K . (2010). Has the microbiota played a critical role in the evolution of the adaptive immune system? Science 330, 1768-1773.L eggat, W., A insworth,T., Bythell, J ., Dove, S., Gates, R., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., et al. (2007). The hologenome theory disregards the coral holobiont.Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 5, doi:10.1038/nrmicro1635C1 L ira-Medeiros, C. F., Parisod, C., Fernandes, R. A ., Mata, C. S., Cardoso, M. A ., and Ferreira, P. C. G. (2010). Epigenetic variation in mangrove plants occurring in contrasting natural environment. PLoS ONE 5, e10326L opez, M., Herrera-Cervera, J .[START_REF] Tejera | Trehalose and trehalase in root nodules of Medicago truncatula and Phaseolus vulgaris in response to salt stress[END_REF].Growth and nitrogen fixation in Lotus japonicus and Medicago truncatula under NaCl stress: Nodule carbon metabolism. J . Plant Physiol. 165, 641-650 De L uis, A ., Markmann, K ., Cognat, V., Holt, D. B., Charpentier, M., Parniske, M., et al. (2012). Two microRNA s linked to nodule infection and nitrogen-fixing ability in the legume Lotus japonicus. Plant Physiol. 160, 2137-2154 L undberg, D. S., L ebeis, S. L ., Paredes, S. H., Yourstone, S., Gehring, J ., Malfatti, S., et al. (2012). Defining the core Arabidopsis thaliana root microbiome. Nature 488, 86-90 Manning, K ., Tör, M., Poole, M., Hong, Y., Thompson, A . J ., K ing, G. J ., et al. (2006). A naturally occurring epigenetic mutation in a gene encoding an SBP-box transcription factor inhibits tomato fruit ripening. Nat. Genet. 38, 948-952 Martin, R.A . and Pfennig, D.W. (2010). Field and experimental evidence that competition and ecological opportunity promote resource polymorphism. Biol. J . Linn. Soc. 100, 73-88 Mayr, E. and Provine, W. B. (Eds.) (1998). The evolutionary synthesis: perspectives on the unification of biology. Harvard University Press Molinier, J ., Ries, G., Zipfel, C., and Hohn, B. (2006). Transgeneration memory of stress in plants. Nature 442,1046-1049 Peck, L .S., Thorne, M. A ., Hoffman, J . I., Morley, S. A ., and Clark, M. S. (2015). Variability among individuals is generated at the gene expression level. Ecology 96, 2004-2014 Pfennig, D.W., Wund, M. A ., Snell-Rood, E. C., Cruickshank, T., Schlichting, C. D., and Moczek, A . P. (2010). Phenotypic plasticity's impacts on diversification and speciation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 459-467 Pigliucci, M. (2005). Evolution of phenotypic plasticity: where are we going now? Trends Ecol. Evol. 20,481-486 I.3 A rticle II: A M fungi patchiness and the clonal growth of Glechoma hederacea in heterogeneous environments Université de Rennes 1, CNRS, UMR 6553 EcoBio, Campus Beaulieu, Avenue du Général L eclerc, RENNES Cedex (France) 2 Université de Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5023 L EHNA 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, V IL L EURBA NNE Cedex (France) A bstract:The effect of A M fungi spatial distribution on individual plant development may determine the dynamics of the whole plant community. We investigated whether clonal plants display a foraging or a specialization response, as for other resources, to adapt to the heterogeneous distribution of A M fungi. Two separate experiments were done to investigate Glechoma hederacea response to a heterogeneous distribution of a mixture of 3 A M fungi species, and the single effects of each species on colonization and allocation traits.

  was detected. Two possible explanations are proposed: (i) the plant' s responses are buffered by differences in individual effects of the fungal species or their root colonization intensity. (ii) the initial A M fungi heterogeneity is sensed as homogeneous by the plant either by reduced physiological integration or due to the transfer of A M fungi propagules through the stolons. Microscopic and DNA sequencing analyses provided evidences of this transfer, thus demonstrating the role of stolons as dispersal vectors of A M fungi within the plant clonal network. K ey words: Glechoma hederacea, A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi, Phenotypic Plasticity, Clonality, Heterogeneity, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Patches

Fig.- 1 :

 1 Fig.-1: Schematic drawing of the experimental design composed of pots arranged in lines. Ramets were forced to root in different pots and lateral ramifications were removed to orient growth in a line. Four treatments of AM fungal distribution were applied based on the presence or absence of A M fungi in the pots: A bsence (A ) (10 pots without A M fungi); Presence (P) (10 pots with A M fungi); Presence-A bsence (PA) (five pots with A M fungi followed by five pots without A M fungi); A bsence-Presence (A P) (five pots without A M fungi followed by five pots with A M fungi).

Fig.- 2 :

 2 Fig.-2: Foraging response: internode length under the four treatments applied (cm per gram of ramet total biomass) (A ). Specialization response: root:shoot ratio (R/S) of 5 th , 6 th , 10 th and 11 th ramets under the four applied treatments (g of roots per g of shoots after drying) (B). A bsence (blue bars), Presence (grey bars), Presence-A bsence (orange bars), A bsence-Presence (green bars). Statistical significance of the internode length or R/S variations between treatments: NS, not significant; **, P<0.01.

Fig.- 3 :

 3 Fig.-3: A llocation traits of the whole clone for the four treatment of A M fungi inoculation: T1= no A M fungi (white bars), T2= Glomus custos (blue bars), T3= Glomus intraradices (yellow bars), T4= Glomus clarum (red bars). Means of each organ (shoots, roots and stolons) biomass in grams per gram of total clone biomass. Statistical significance of the organ biomass variations between treatments: NS, not significant; *, P<0.05.

Fig.- 4 :

 4 Fig.-4: Performance traits of the clone for the four treatments of A M fungi inoculation: T1= no AM fungi (white bars), T2= Glomus custos (blue bars), T3= Glomus intraradices (yellow bars), T4= Glomus clarum (red bars). Total clone biomass in grams after drying (A ). Number of ramets per gram of total clone biomass (B). Statistical significance of the total biomass and number of ramets variations between treatments: NS, not significant; *, P<0.05.

Fig.- 5 :

 5 Fig.-5: Maximum likelihood tree of the GTR +I+G model using PhyML . Multiple alignment has been produced with MUSCL E 62 . Bootstrap values at the nodes were produced from 200 replicates. Only values above 50 are shown. Multiple alignment and tree reconstruction were performed using SEAV IEW 63 . OT Us have been obtained from a Glechoma hederacea stolon after DNA extraction using DNEasy plant mini kit (Qiagen), PCR amplification using fungal primers NS22b and SSU817, and Illumina MiSeq sequencing. In addition to reference sequences within the Glomeromycota phylum, we sampled 13 sequences among the best BL A ST hits ( † ).

Fig.- 6 :

 6 Fig.-6: Results for the microscopy analysis of stolons harvested from G. hederacea pre-cultures. Scanning electron microscopy of the stolon surface showing hyphae attached to the stolon hairs (A ). Stolon microscopy cross-section observed with an optical microscope. A rrows indicate cortical cells invaded by structures which may be interpreted as fungi (B).

F igure 1 |

 1 E xperimental design. (a), clonal ramets of 10 ecotypes were forced to root in separate individual pots and connected by stolons. A t the end of the experiment, the clonal network consisted of the mother ramet and 4 daughter ramets. The daughter ramets (1st and 2nd mother ramets) were positioned along the two primary stolons produced by the mother ramet. Pots with mother ramets were filled with homogenized field soil, those with daughter ramets contained sterilized substrate, and contact was only by the internode that separated two consecutive ramets. M = mother, D1 = 1st daughter, D2 = 2nd daughter. (b), picture of the experimental design: the pots are only connected by the internodes.

F igure 2 |

 2 C omposition of the bacterial and fungal communities within the root endosphere at the different positions in the clonal network. (a), mean number of OTUs of each fungal phylum and mean total number of OTUs for all phyla together found in the root samples at the different positions in the clonal network (mother, 1st daughter or 2nd daughter). Vertical bars represent the standard error of the mean for each phylum. Significance of the linear mixed models testing the differences in OTUs richness between mothers and daughters in the clonal network is indicated: *** P<0.001. (b), Mean number of OTUs of each bacterial phylum and mean total number of OTUs for all phyla together found in the root samples at the different positions in the clonal network (mother, 1st daughter or 2nd daughter). Vertical bars represent the standard error of the mean for each phylum. Significance of the linear mixed models testing the differences in OTUs richness between mothers and daughters in the clonal network is indicated: *** P<0.001.

103F igure 3 |

 3 Partial L east Square Discriminant A nalysis (PL S-DA ). (a), PLS-DA testing the significance of the position (mothers, 1st daugthers and 2nd daughters) on the composition of the root bacterial communities. (b), PLS-DA testing the significance of the position (mothers, 1st daugthers and 2nd daughters) on the composition of the root fungal communities. The groups used as grouping factor in the model are represented on the graphs. They correspond to mother, 1st and 2nd daughter ramets. 1st and 2nd ramets were grouped independently of the stolon to which they belonged. This analysis was used to test the hypothesis that roots at different ramet positions in the clonal network exhibit similar compositions of fungal and bacterial communities. The percentage of variance indicated on each axis represent the variance of the communities composition explained by the grouping factor.

  ecosystems. A s regards this last aspect, plant communities are dominated by clonal plants and our findings demonstrate their fundamental role in the spreading of microorganisms between trophic levels and reveal a new ecological function of plant clonality. Considering that the heritability process demonstrated herein affects different compartments within the ecosystem, this novel ecosystem process consisting of microbiota filtering and transfer by clonal plants is of paramount importance. between plant generations Nathan Vannier 1 , C endrine Mony 1 , A nne-K ristel Bittebiere 2 , Sophie Michon-C oudouel 1 , Marine Biget 1 , Philippe Vandenkoornhuyse 1* II.3 A rticle IV: Introduction of the metaholobiont concept for clonal plants.

Fig 1 :

 1 Fig 1: Glechoma hederacea phenotypic plasticity induced by its microbiota composition. A ll the plants have the same genotype (i.e. same clone) grown under controlled conditions (light, temperature, hygrometry, duration, water supply). Only one of their microbiota component differed (i.e.mycorrhizal colonizer).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. a) Schematic clonal plant showing the twol levels of modularity within clonal plants: 1 st order modules and 2 nd order modules. b) Schematic clonal plant showing a plastic repsonse of foraging in resource heterogeneous environment. The foraging response consist on ramet aggregation in good patches through the modification of internodes length while avoiding poor patches. c) Schematic of a clonal plant showing a plastic repsonse of specialization to combine heterogeneity of light and nutrient. The response consist on preferentially develop roots in high nutrient and shoots in high light a redistribute resources within the network thanks to the physiological integration.

Fig 3 :

 3 Fig 3: The meta-holobiont. (A ) the holobiont entity and meta-holobiont entity and their respective composition are explained in (A ) and (B) respectively. Colored dots correspond to epiphytic or endophytic microorganisms forming the root microbiota. Notice that roots and shoots are colonized by microorganisms.

  al., Submitted) and possibly reciprocally (i.e. from clonal offsprings to ascendent ramets), although this has not been demonstrated yet, clearly represent an important level to consider in the understanding of the clonal holobiont. If holobionts and hologenomes are units of biological organization for the observation and understanding of a given macro-organism (principle 1, 2, 3 inBordenstein & Theis, 2015) then the meta-holobiont could be considered alike a supra-organism.Holobiont impacts on meta-holobiont structure and reciprocal effectsIn patchy resource distribution, many authors demonstrated that clonal individuals aggregate ramets through internodes shortening and increased branching in resource-rich patches, and avoid resource poor patches through spacers elongation (i.e. foraging, Fig 2b;[START_REF] De K Roon | Morphological plasticity in clonal plants: the foraging concept reconsidered[END_REF]

  e. from 5 to 25 cm), stressing the importance of the local plant community context for endophytes assembly. In addition, both the present and the past plant neighborhood impacted the root fungal community thus demonstrating that plants can leave a durable fingerprint on the composition of the soil fungal pool. Furthermore, we demonstrated that such changes in the fungal composition of the host plantroots impacted M. truncatula performance. Higher species richness and more equitable endophyte assemblages increased the fitness of the plant. Both results demonstrated the existence of plant-plant interactions mediated by fungi ultimately impacting the plant fitness. This offers a new understanding of the plant microbiota assembly through the underestimated role of the local plant community. The role of leaf endophytes diversity in the diversity-productivity relationship has been recently proposed (L aforest-L apointe et al., 2017) and our result suggest that it could be extended to the root microbiota and depend on the plant community context. III.2 A rticle V: Plant-plant interactions mediated by fungi impact plant fitness Introduction The great diversity of soil microorganisms, micro-and meso-fauna is a key-driver of aboveground ecosystem functioning which determines vegetation composition and dynamics (e.g. van der

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Sampling protocol. Plant neighborhoods were determined by mapping the abundances of the different plant species in the past (one year before sampling) and present (the same year than sampling). Five soil cores were sampled within each plot and an individual of M. truncatula was grown on each soil sample as a trap plant.

  fungal richness and equitability on the trap plant biomass

  e. 5 cm to 25 cm around the sampling point) also determines in part the fungal soil pool available for plant recruitment. Our findings thus open up new avenues in the understanding of plant microbiota assembly rules by introducing the role of the local plant community context (i.e. the plant neighborhood) as a structuring factor.

  herein explain the competitive balance and richness of the fungal communities colonizing Medicago truncatula based on the close neighborhood of plants surrounding the sampling point. These findings expand the rules of plant fungal microbiota assembly to consideration of the fingerprint that a plant in the local neighborhood can leave on the soil fungal pool. These plant filtering mechanisms operated on the fungal community at a finer scale than previously thought (below 25 cm). The clear influence of plant neighborhood on the local soil microbial reservoir is an additional ecological force driving microbiota complexity and heterogeneity with strong consequences on the focal plant fitness. Recent advances demonstrated a significant impact of the leaf-associated microbiota diversity on ecosystem productivity(Laforest- L apointe et al., 2017). We extend this idea to include the root-associated microbiota and support the correlation between plant-associated microbial diversity and ecosystem productivity, suggesting that manipulations of plant neighborhoods can be used to improve biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relationships. V iard-C rétat F, Baptist F, Secher-F romell H, Gallet C . 2012. The allelopathic effects of Festuca paniculata depend on competition in subalpine grasslands. Plant ecology 213: 1963-1973. Wagg C , J ansa J , Schmid B, van der Heijden MG. 2011. Belowground biodiversity effects of plant symbionts support aboveground productivity. Ecology Letters 14: 1001-1009. Wagg C , Bender SF, Widmer F, van der Heijden MG. 2014. Soil biodiversity and soil community composition determine ecosystem multifunctionality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111: 5266-5270. West SA , K iers E T, Pen I, Denison R F. 2002. Sanctions and mutualism stability: when should less beneficial mutualists be tolerated? J ournal of Evolutionary Biology 15: 830-837. Z hang Q, Sun Q, K oide RT, Peng Z , Z hou J , Gu X , Gao W, Y u M. 2014. A rbuscular mycorrhizal fungal mediation of plant-plant interactions in a marshland plant community. The Scientific World J ournal: 923610. A cknowledgements This work was supported by a grant from the A NR program, by a grant from the CNRS-EC2CO program (MIME project) and by the French ministry for research and higher education. We thank K evin Potard for advice on statistical analysis. We are also grateful to D. Warwick for helpful comments and suggestions for modifications on a previous version of the manuscript. We also thank the Institut National de la Recherche A gronomique (INRA , Montpellier, France) for providing M. truncatula seeds. A uthor C ontributions A .K .B., P.V. and C.M. conceived the ideas and experimental design. A .K .B. and C.M. did the experiments. N.V. did the data analyses. N.V., A .K .B., P.V. and C.M. did the interpretations and writing of the publication. I. Plants and microorganisms: a tight association Microbiota matters for plant phenotype Considering the diversity of functions provided by the plant microbiota, it is clear that endophytes have important impacts on plants phenotype (A rticle I). Clonal plants that represent most of the known plants in temperate ecosystems (van Groenendael & de K roon, 1990) are no exception to this rule (A rticle II). We demonstrated that the inoculation of symbionts (A M Fungal species) can alter architectural, allocative and reproductive traits (A rticle II). The effects of these plantassociated microoragnisms on the traits involved in clonal plants foraging and specialization have been poorly described to date. Our experiments thus provided indications that A M fungi could be responsible for changes in the ability of clonal plant to produce foraging and specialization responses.

  plant phenotype and evolution. Not only plants can be considered as holobionts but the structure of clonal plants in network connecting clonal ramets extends the holobiont concept to a more complex scale that we have called the meta-holobiont (article IV ). The clonal network allows indeed the dynamic sharing of microorganisms between ramets. Different holobionts are connected in clonal network allowing them to exchange of part of their hologenome. The network thus constitutes an additional level on which selection can act. Selection can act on the phenotype of the individual holobiont or on the phenotype of the network. In addition, these two levels of organization are intricated because the fitness of one member of the network could effect the fitness of the whole network.

K

  eywords: Clonal plants; Microbiota; A rbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi; Holobiont; Plant-plant interactions; Community assembly RESUME L es plantes vivent en association avec une grande diversité de micro-organismes qui forment son microbiote. Ce microbiote fournit des fonctions clés qui influencent tous les aspects de la vie d'une plante, son établissement, sa croissance et jusqu'à sa reproduction. Cette thè se a pour intention de déterminer les rè glent d'assemblage du microbiote et ses conséquences pour le phénotype ,l'adaptation et l'évolution des plantes. Pour atteindre cet objectif nous avons utilisé différentes approches expérimentales comprenant des plantes clonales comme organismes modè les ainsi que des mésocosmes prairiaux pour des analyses à l'échelle des communautés.Nos résultats ont démontré i) que les Champignons Mycohiziens à A rbuscules induisent d'importantes variations phénotypiques pour les traits des plantes clonales impliqués dans l'exploration de l'espace et l'exploitation des ressources. Ces changements dépendent de l'identité des symbiotes et altè rent les capacités des plantes à développer des réponses plastiques à l'hétérogénéité environnementale. ii) Les plantes ont évolué un mécanisme permettant la transmission d'une partie de leur microbiote a leur descendance, assurant ainsi la qualité de leur habitat. iii) L e contexte spécifique des communautés de plantes est un facteur majeur structurant l'assemblage du microbiote des plantes à échelle locale. L 'abondance de certaines espè ces de plante dans le voisinage d'une plante cible augmente ou diminue la diversité de son microbiote, déterminant in fine ses performances De maniè re générale, cette thè se démontre l'importance des organismes symbiotiques dans la compréhension de l'adaptation et de l'évolution des plantes. A partir des connaissances acquises nous avons développé une nouvelle compréhension des interactions symbiotiques chez les plantes clonales en introduisant la théorie du méta-holobiont une comme extension de la théorie de l'holobiont.Mots-clés : Plantes clonales ; Microbiote ; Champignons Mycorhiziens à Arbuscules ; Holobiont ; Interactions plante-plante ; A ssemblage des communautés

  ..13 2.2.1 A biotic stresses.......................................................................................................13 2.2.2 Biotic stresses.........................................................................................................14 2.3 Growth and reproductive strategy.

  . Introduction...................................................................................................31 Scientific context..................................................................................................................31Objectives of the chapter......................................................................................................32 Methods................................................................................................................................32 Main results.

  ...................................................................................................142 Methods..............................................................................................................................142 Main results........................................................................................................................143 III.2 A rticle V: Plant-plant interactions mediated by fungi impact plant fitness ...........................................................................................................................145 GE NE R A L DISC USSION A ND PE R SPE C T IV E S..............................................179

I. Plants and microorganism: a tight

association.............................................

..180 II. Redefining the individual plant : from holobiont to meta-holobiont............183 III. From individuals to community

................................................................

..184 IV. Microbiota assembly and agricultural practices..........................................186 Bibliography

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Table . -

 . 1: Results of linear models for each traits linked to the plants foraging, specialization and performance.

	Trait E xperiment 2: E ffect of A M fungi identity on G. hederacea traits. Treatment F -value P -value (α =0.05) The hypothesis that modifications in G. hederacea foraging and specialization traits were affected by the A M Total biomass F -value P -value (α =0.05) Intra : lower/estimate/upper Inter : lower/estimate/upper R andom factor (G enotype)
	Total Biomass G rowth time fungal species was tested by comparing the allocation, architectural and growth traits of four treatments 0.39 0.75 --0.72 / 0.95 / 1.25 2.7 0.067 --3.98 / 5.24 / 6.89 0.45 0.71 1.58 0.22 1.19 / 1.61 / 2.18 1.92 0.15 8.32 <0.01 1.03 / 1.4 / 1.9 inoculated with different A M fungal species (see Methods for details on experimental design). Primary 5 th in te rn o de l e n g th 6 th in te rn o de l e n g th stolon length (an architectural trait) tended to vary (P=0.07; F=2.83) in response to the presence and species 5.74 <0.01 4.38 <0.05 0.59 / 0.81 / 1.12 0.15 0.93 0.02 0.87 0.96 / 1.34 / 1.86 0.48 0.69 --n/a 0.18 0.9 --n/a 1.09 0.37 --n/a 0.46 0.7 --n/a 1.1 0.36 14.49 <0.01 0.99 / 1.31 / 1.7 0.46 0.7 5.2 <0.01 1.06 / 1.40 / 1.85 0.26 0.84 1.91 0.18 0.89 / 1.18 / 1.55 0.88 0.46 1.08 0.3 0.89 / 1.18 / 1.56 1 0 th Ln te rn o d e l e n g th 11 th ramet number of ramifications 10 th ramet number of ramifications 6 th ramet number of ramifications 5 th ramet number of ramifications 11 th ramet root/shoot 10 th ramet root/shoot 6 th ramet root/shoot 5 th ramet root/shoot 11 th internode length of A M fungi whereas the number of ramifications (P=0.25; F=1.49) did not (Tab. 2). A llocation to stolons	0.43 / 0.81 / 1.53 0.37 / 1.79 / 8.53 0.75 / 1.45 / 2.8 0.34 / 0.83 / 2.05 0.54 / 0.97 / 1.74 0.41 / 0.94 / 2.17 n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.38 / 0.83 / 1.8 0.81 / 1.46 / 2.64 0.36 / 0.77 / 1.66 0.22 / 0.59 / 1.63

F-values and P-values of the treatment and total biomass (when used as covariable) are presented, as well as lower, estimate and upper values of intra and inter genotype variance (random factor).

was significantly affected by the presence and species of A M fungi (P=0.017; F=4.51) with plants inoculated

Table . -

 . 2: Results of linear models for each traits linked to the plants resources allocation and performance.

	Trait	Treatment F -value P -value (α =0.05)	Total biomass F -value P-value (α =0.05)	R andom factor (G enotype) Intra : lower/estimate/upper Inter : lower/estimate/upper
	Total Biomas s Number of ramets (allocation) P rimary stolon length Number of ramifications S tolons weight (allocation) S hoots weigth (allocation) R oots weight (allocation)	0.67 3.55 2.84 1.49 4.51 3.96 0.5	0.57 <0.05 0.07 0.25 <0.05 <0.05 0.68	-46.6 1.99 5.8 91.37 1528 30.72	-<0.001 0.17 <0.05 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001	0.27 / 0.38 / 0.52 5.97 / 8.45 / 11.96 10.99 / 15.45 / 21.75 0.46 / 0.66 / 0.93 0.08 / 0.11 / 0.17 0.06 / 0.09 / 0.13 0.06 / 0.09 / 0.12	0.03 / 0.14 / 0.67 7.58 / 13.7 / 24.8 4.53 / 10.69 / 25.23 0.24 / 0.53 / 1.18 0.03 / 0.09 / 0.22 0.04 / 0.08 / 0.18 0.006 / 0.03 / 0.19

F-values and P-values of the treatment and total biomass (when used as covariable) are presented, as well as lower, estimate and upper values of intra and inter genotype variance (random factor).

  Iobs is the observed heritability index value, Inull is the mean of the null distribution and σ null is its standard deviation. SES aims to quantify the direction and magnitude of each ecotype heritability index compared to the null distribution. Negative SES values indicate lower heritability than in the random model (heritability of microorganisms species not present in the mother ramet),

	and McCabe, 2002:	SES 3	I obs -I null σ null
	where

  Considering the fungal phyla and classes separately, plant-species effects were better revealed. For example, the equitability of the phylum Ascomycota significantly increased with B. Glomeromycetes, and Agaricomycetes whereas A. stolonifera increased the equitability of Glomeromycetes but decreased the equitability of Agaricomycetes. The explained variance in the models increased when lower as compared to higher fungal taxonomic levels were considered (e.g. 14% of the variance was explained for the Ascomycota phylum (P<0.01) while ~24% of the variance was explained for the Sordariomycetes class (P<0.001).

	Present pinnatum but decreased with H. mollis abundances (P<0.01; 0.11≥R 2 ≥0.14), whereas Past Glomeromycota equitability increased with F. rubra abundance (P<0.01; R 2 =0.09). Several plant
	Taxonomic groups species had the same effect on the equitability for every fungal group whereas others had different P-value R² Significant plant species P-value	R²	Significant plant species
	A ll Fungi effects between groups: the abundance of B. pinnatum always increased fungal equitability within 0.04 0.04 A sto (-) 0.11 A scomycota 0.07 0.03 Hmol (-) 0.09 the Sordariomycetes,	0.01 0.02	--
	Glomeromycota	0.04	0.05	Cnig (-)	0.08	0.02	-
	Basidiomycota	0.12	0.03	Bpin (+)	0.03	0.04	Hlan (-)
	A garicomycetes	0.02	0.04	Hlan (-)	0.02	0.04	Hlan (-)
	Sordiariomycetes	0.03	0.07	Erep (+) Dglo (+) L per (+)	0.01	0.08	A ten (+) Cnig (+) L per (+)
	Glomeromycetes	0.004	0.08	Hmol (-) Cnig (+)	0.01	0.06	Cnig (-

162 Table 2 .

 1622 Responses of each fungal group richness and equitability at the sample scale to the past and present plant neighborhoods (results from linear models). P-values and the range of adjusted R² of best models are presented. Significant timeand spatial scales of neighborhood are also indicated. Only species significantly participating to the model building are showed as well as their effect on the fungal richness and equitability (+ increasing;decreasing). *, P<0.05; **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001.

	Taxonomic groups Time scale of response A ll F ungi Richness Present/Past Equitability Present/Past A scomycota Richness Present/Past Equitability Present/Past Glomeromycota Richness Present/Past Equitability Present Basidiomycota Richness	Spatial scale of response (radius) 5 to 20cm 10 to 25cm 5 to 25cm 5 to 20cm 5 to 25cm 25cm	R² 0,07-0,1 (*) 0,04 -0,07 (*) 0,04 -0,12 (*) 0,11 -0,14 (**) 0,06 -0,09 (*) 0,09 (**)	Significant plant species A ten (+) Hmol (-) A ten (+) Frub (+) Hmol (-) Bpin (+) Erep (-) Bpin (+) Dglo (-) Frub (+)

Table 3 .

 3 Results of linear models testing the effect of each fungal group richness and equitability on the biomass of the trap plant M. truncatula. ANOVA P-values, F -values and adjusted R² of the best models are presented. Only fungal groups significantly participating to the best model building are presented.

		Tax o n o mi c gro u p s ! l l Cu n gi	t -v al u e 0 . 2 4	wi ch n ess C-v al u e 1 . 4 2	w² 0 . 0 0 5	t -v al u e 0 . 0 0 7	9q u i tab i l i ty C-v al u e 7 . 6 7	w² 0 . 0 8
	t h y l a / l assess	! sco my co ta . asi di o my co ta Dl o mero my co ta {o rdari o my cetes ! gari co my cetes Dl o mero my cetes	---0 . 0 1 0 . 0 2 ---0 . 0 1 0 . 0 4	---2 . 5 6 2 . 3 8 ---6 . 8 3 4 . 3 4	0 . 1 2 0 . 1 4	0 . 0 0 3 ------0 . 0 0 7 0 . 0 5 7 ---	9 . 5 7 ------7 . 6 2 3 . 7 1 ---	0 . 1 0 . 1

Université de Rennes 1, CNRS, UMR 6553 EcoBio, campus Beaulieu, Avenue du Général L eclerc, 35042 RENNES Cedex (France)

Université de Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5023 L EHNA 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, 69622 V IL L EURBA NNE Cedex (France) *Corresponding author. Email: philippe.vandenkoornhuyse@univ-rennes1.fr

Université de Rennes 1, CNRS, UMR6553 EcoBio, campus Beaulieu, Avenue L eclerc, 35042 RENNES Cedex (France)

Université de Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5023 L EHNA 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, 69622 V IL L EURBA NNE Cedex (France) ~In preparation~1

A cknowledgments:

This work was supported by a grant from the CNRS-EC2CO program (MIME project), CNRS-PEPS program (MY COLA ND project) and by the French ministry for research and higher education. We also acknowledge E. T. K iers and D. Warwick for helpful comments and suggestions for modifications on a previous version of the manuscript and A . Salmon for helpful discussions about epigenetics.

Summary

The classic understanding of organisms focuses on genes as the main source of species evolution and diversification. The recent concept of genetic accommodation questions this gene centric view by emphasizing the importance of phenotypic plasticity on evolutionary trajectories. Recent discoveries on epigenetics and symbiotic microbiota demonstrated their deep impact on plant survival, adaptation and evolution thus suggesting a novel comprehension of the plant phenotype. In addition, interplays between these two phenomena controlling plant plasticity can be suggested.

Because epigenetic and plant-associated (micro-) organisms are both key sources of phenotypic variation allowing environmental adjustments, we argue that they must be considered in terms of evolution. This 'non-conventional' set of mediators of phenotypic variation can be seen as a toolbox for plant adaptation to environment over short, medium and long time-scales.

K ey-words : Plant, Symbiosis, Phenotypic Plasticity, Epigenetic, Evolution More recently the development of the 'hologenome theory' (Zilber- Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 2008) posits that evolution acts on composite organisms (i.e., host and its microbiome) with the microbiota being fundamental for their host fitness by buffering environmental constraints.

Both the 'extended phenotype' concept and 'hologenome theory' admit that the environment can leave a "footprint" on the transmission of induced characters. Thus, opportunities exist to revisit our understanding of plant evolution to embrace both environmentally-induced changes and related 'genetic accommodation' processes.

A microorganisms journey between plant generations Nathan Vannier 1 , Cendrine Mony 1 , A nne-K ristel Bittebiere 2 , Sophie Michon-Coudouel 1 , Marine Biget 1 , Philippe Vandenkoornhuyse

~In revision for ISME J ~89

A bstract

Plants are colonized by a great diversity of symbiotic microorganisms which form a microbiota and perform additional functions for their host. This microbiota can thus be considered a toolbox enabling plants to buffer local environmental changes, with a major influence on plant fitness. In this context, the transmission of the microbiota to the progeny represent a way to ensure habitat quality. However, examples of such transmission are scarce and their importance unclear. We investigated the transmission of symbiotic partners to plant progeny within the clonal network using

Glechoma hederacea as plant model. We demonstrated the vertical transmission of a significant proportion of the mother' s symbiotic Bacteria and Fungi to the daughters and the heritability of a specific core microbiota. In this clonal plant, microorganisms are transmitted between individuals through connections, thereby ensuring the availability of symbiotic partners for the newborn plants as well as the dispersion between hosts for the microorganisms. This previously unknown ecological process allows the dispersal of microorganisms in space and across plant generations.

The vast majority of plants are clonal, this process might be therefore a strong driver of ecosystem functioning and assembly of plant and microorganism communities in a wide range of ecosystems. Supplementary F igure 1 | (a), mean rarefaction curves for the Bacterial communities in the mother roots samples (red), the daughter roots samples (green), the internode samples (brown) and the control pots (blue). (b), mean rarefaction curves for the fungal communities in the mother roots samples (red), the daughter roots samples (green), the internode samples (brown) and the control pots (blue). (c), mean rarefaction curves for the fungal communities in the mother roots samples (red), the daughter roots samples (green), the internode samples (brown) and the control pots (blue).

Coloured ideas indicate ± SE. ecotypes by generating daughter communities with random samples of the microorganisms species occurring within the species pool (regional pool) of the mother ramet. Only the species identity was changed while species richness within the null daughter communities remained unmodified. We created 9999 null datasets for each daughter ramet and measured the OTUs heritability for each ecotype created in this way as the number of OTUs shared between the mother and at least 2 daughters. We then calculated the Standard effect size (SES) values of each ecotype. Negative SES values indicated that the observed heritability was lower than would be expected in the null-model (heritability of OTUs not specific to the ecotype mother ramet), whereas positive SES values revealed a higher heritability than expected (heritability of microorganisms from the mother). The horizontal line represents an SES value of 0 (no difference between the observed heritability and the null heritability). P-values indicate the significance of the one sample t-test to determine whether SES values are significantly higher than 0 (alternative hypothesis "greater"). Plant-plant interactions mediated by fungi impact plant fitness ~In preparation~1 Summary • The plant microbiota is now recognized as a major driver of plant health. The rules governing root microbiota assembly have been recently investigated and the importance of abiotic determinants has been highlighted. The role of the biotic context of the plant community however remains unclear.

• We tested whether the plant neighborhood may leave a fingerprint on the fungal soil pool.

We used outdoor experimental mesocosms comprising various floristic composition and mapped plant distribution over two years. Medicago truncatula was used as a trap plant on soil samples and root DNA was sequenced to describe fungal communities. The trap plant performance was estimated through biomass measures.

• Fungal communities richness and equitability were influenced by the abundance of key plant species in the neighborhood. A given plant had contrasted effects on fungal phyla and classes. A dditionally, we demonstrated that changes in fungal groups richness and equitability influenced the biomass of the trap plant.

• Our results suggest the existence of plant-plant interactions mediated by fungi and impacting plant fitness. The shift between facilitation and competition may be mediated by the fungal community. The ecosystem diversity-productivity relationship could be extended to the root microbiota and depend on the plant community context.

To determine the impact of fungal taxonomic groups, OTUs richness, and equitability on the trap plant performance we used linear models with the indices as explanatory variables and M.

truncatula biomass as the dependent variable. This was done at the sample scale (central point of the mesocosm) and at the three taxonomic levels analyzed (all fungi, phyla, classes).

For all models, data were log or square-root transformed when necessary to satisfy the assumption of a normal distribution of the residuals. The model coefficients and the proportion of index variation that was accounted for by the regression (R² ) were calculated. The significance of each explanatory variable was tested with an A NOVA procedure. A ll the statistical analyses were performed using the packages "car" (Fox & Weisberg, 2011) and "A ICcmodavg" [START_REF] Mazerolle | Package 'A ICcmodavg[END_REF] in R (R Core Team, 2013).

R esults E ndospheric fungal microbiota in Medicago truncatula roots

The 2057 fungal OTUs found in the M. truncatula root endosphere belonged to five phyla (i.e.

Zygomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota), with Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota together accounting for less than 3% of the total number of OTUs F ungal community richness response to the plant neighborhood

F ungal richness at the plot scale

To investigate the effect of the plant neighborhood on the richness of the fungal community at the scale of the whole mesocosm (i.e. gamma diversity), we produced linear models at the plot scale (i.e. the five sampling points of the mesocosm) with the plant species abundances as explanatory variables (Tab. 1). The plot richness of the whole fungal community was significantly determined by the present plant neighborhood. However, the proportion of the variation in fungal richness explained by the model was low (p=0.04; R 2 =0.04). In addition, the fungal richness within the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota was not determined by the plant neighborhood and only 5% of the variance in Glomeromycota richness could be attributed to the present-plant neighborhood (P=0.04; R 2 =0.05) (Tab. 1). When considering the past-plant neighborhood, only Basidiomycota richness was weakly determined by the plant neighborhood (P=0.03; R 2 =0.04) whereas Ascomycota and Glomeromycota, as well as the fungal community as a whole, were not.

F ungal richness at the sample scale

To investigate the effect of the plant neighborhood on the richness of the fungal community at finescale we produced linear models at the sample scale (i.e. center of the mesocosm) with plant species abundances as explanatory variables. Our multiple linear models analysis revealed that the richness of the fungal community was significantly determined by the plant neighborhood for all taxonomic groups tested (Tab 2). In comparison with the models produced at the plot scale, a larger proportion of the variations in fungal community richness could be explained at this alpha diversity scale. A t the level of the whole fungal community, the richness increased significantly only with the abundance of Agrostis tenuis in the neighborhood whereas the abundance of the other plants had no significant effect on fungal community richness (P<0.05; 0.07≥R 2 ≥0.1). In addition, A. tenuis was one of the rarest species in the experiment and the effect detected could be an artifact of this rarity.

Ascomycota richness increased with the abundance of A. tenuis and F estuca rubra (P<0.05; 0.04≥R 2 ≥0.12) whereas Glomeromycota richness increased with Brachypodium pinnatum and Dactylis glomerata and decreased with Elytrigia repens (P<0.05; 0.06≥R 2 ≥0.09). The effects (positive or negative) of plant species at the phylum-level were not necessarily the same at the class-level. The presence of D. glomerata in the plant neighborhood significantly increased the Plant-plant interaction mediated by fungi affects plant performance K nowing that the fungal communities compositions were determined by the plant neighborhood and that these changes affected plant performance (biomass productivity), this study demonstrates the existence of plant-plant interactions mediated by the fungal communities. Our results indicate that these shifts in fungal community composition can have positive or negative effects on the trap plant biomass, suggesting that the neighborhood can have either a facilitative or a competitive effect on the trap plant. Studies investigating the shift between plant-plant facilitation and competition suggested that this shift is linked to environmental stress or disturbance intensity and is spatially heterogeneous [START_REF] O'brien | The shift from plant-plant facilitation to competition under severe water deficit is spatially explicit[END_REF]. Previous studies have indicated that plant-plant facilitation (i.e. a beneficial effect of a given plant presence) may be linked to the compositions of their A M fungal communities [START_REF] Montesinos-Navarro | The network structure of plant-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi[END_REF], Zhang et al., 2014). [START_REF] Montesinos-Navarro | The network structure of plant-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi[END_REF] argued that stronger facilitation occurs between pairs of plant species with different associated A MF. This phenomenon underlies a potential mechanism which increases A M fungal diversity in the shared rhizosphere and promotes complementarity between the beneficial effects of each A M fungus (Van der Heijden et al., 1998;Wagg et al., 2011). We herein provide the first experimental evidence of this assumption by showing that the richness of Glomeromycota increased with the abundance of specific plants in the neighborhood, which ultimately increased M.

trunculata's biomass. Our results also indicate that changes in plant fungal communities can be detrimental as several plant species had a negative effect on fungal richness and/or equitability. We thus propose that the shift from plant-plant facilitation to competition is mediated by changes in the fungal communities available for recruitment in the surrounding soil. More importantly, we demonstrated here that these phenomena of plant-plant facilitation and competition mediated by fungi are not restricted to A M fungi but have to be extended to other fungal groups such as Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. We thus encourage future studies to consider the whole fungal community and to take into account the feedbacks between plant and fungal communities that can affect ecosystem properties such as productivity (Cadotte et al., 2008).

Positive and negative effects of given plants on the trap plant biomass

A n increase in the plant trap biomass associated with an increase in fungal groups richness (e.g.

Glomeromycetes and Agaricomycetes) and equitability (e.g. Ascomycota and Sordariomycetes) was Physiology and Biochemistry, 40 [START_REF] Hutchings | Performance of a clonal species in patchy environments: effects of environmental context on yield at local and whole-plant scales[END_REF], 983-995.

Bais, H. P., Weir, T. L ., Perry, L . G., Gilroy, S., & Vivanco, J . M. (2006). The role of root exudates in rhizosphere interactions with plants and other organisms. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol.,[START_REF] Cui | Facilitation of plant phosphate acquisition by arbuscular mycorrhizas from enriched soil patches[END_REF] Bá lint, M., Bahram, M., Eren, A . M., Faust, K ., Fuhrman, J .