Abdelmalek Benzekri
email: abdelmalek.benzekri@irit.fr

Romain Laborde
email: romain.laborde@irit.fr

Arnaud Oglaza
email: arnaud.oglaza@irit.fr

Hatahairat Maleerat Sodanil
email: maleerat.m@itd.kmutnb.ac.th

Hatahairat Ketneechairat
email: hathairat.k@cit.kmutnb.ac.th

Towards Situation-based IT Management During Natural Disaster Crisis

Keywords: crisis management, policy-based management, situation awareness, network infrastructure, social media, machine learning, natural language processing

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I. INTRODUCTION

Resilience against natural disasters is a field of growing importance, especially given the current changes in climate and environment. A crisis, whose cause can be accidental or intentionally induced, is a sudden situation, unexpected with severe adverse consequences for humans and organizations. According to Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Business Advisory Council, the Asia-Pacific region e periences o er 70% of the orld s natural disasters [START_REF] Kamezaki | ICT Infrastructure resilience against natural disasters in the Asia-Pacific region[END_REF]. With the heavy floods, earthquakes and storm damaging parts of Asia-Pacific over the past years, it has become clear that disaster preparedness is an absolute must for this area. Nevertheless, this issue is not specific to Asia-Pacific countries only and European Environment Agency reported in 2017 [START_REF]European En ironment Agenc , Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction in Europe[END_REF] that efforts to reduce disaster risk and at the same time adapt to a changing climate have become a global and European priorit . As a consequence, research in this field is of joint interest being a challenge for both, European and Asian partners. As IT infrastructures are playing an increasing role in our economy, their resilience against natural disasters is of utmost importance. Promoting disaster resilient Information and Communication Technology (ICT) frameworks was one of the main recommendations of APEC Business Advisory Council to APEC Leaders in its 2014 report [START_REF]APEC Business Ad isor Council, Building Asia-Pacific Community Mapping Long-Term Prosperit[END_REF]. Network service providers also share this objective in the 2015 reports of the NGMN Alliance [START_REF]NGMN 5G White paper, Ne t Generation Mobile Networks Alliance[END_REF] that requires resilience of 5G networks during natural disasters. Crisis management requires efficient collaboration between a certain number of public, as well as private actors, acting in a coordinated way in order to solve the crisis and reduce its impacts. Mobilizing institutional stakeholders, launching assessed processes, deploying emergency communications for disaster relief are among the response facilities.

The increasing adoption of wireless communication technologies LTE/4G/5G, wifi, satellite and the commercial infrastructures widely available or deployed on demand in case of a disaster, are at the heart of the information systems to consider [START_REF] Villebrun | Le R seau Radio du Futur[END_REF]. Because of their nature, and the services they render, these information systems allow for incredible and amazing new usages and/or new sources of information. Actors may exchange and share all types of multimedia information (voice, photos, live videos, georeferenced information, etc) and content-rich services (social media) providing a better appreciation and awareness of the current situation allowing a more efficient and reliable coordination for decision making and strengthening emergency response.

These new communication channels allow crisis cells to involve citizens in a participative approach to extend and leverage both the information dissemination and collection perimeters [START_REF]Risques : Pr ention des risques majeurs[END_REF]. The can be seen as a place for har esting information during a crisis event to determine what is happening on the ground and providing relevant direct realtime feedbacks.

Given the huge amount of raw data from a large diversity of sources mostly unstructured, it becomes impossible for a human to process the whole and take the right decisions related to the identified crisis situations. Information sources analytics should help not only in defining and identifying situations, but also in building a decision support system. Such cross-fertilization analysis should be gathered within a dedicated environment integrating support functions such as storage, filter, aggregation, inference and fusion of data and their associated meta-data. Crisis management processes involve complex management decisions to automatically adapt the deployed IT systems. As a consequence, crisis IT management systems require a better understanding of the dynamics of the environment which raises important research challenges on:

Eliciting/expressing/validating adaptive systems requirements.

Expressing/managing/validating adaptive security and/or management policies. Dynamically enforcing adaptive security and/or management policies. Situational Awareness (SA), describes the idealized state of understanding what is happening in an event involving many actors and other moving entities, especially with respect to the needs of command and control operations. SA theory provides an interesting construct to structure the dynamics of the environment in a consistent way [START_REF] Endsle | Situation a areness misconceptions and misunderstandings[END_REF]. Endsley and Garland [START_REF] Endsle | Theoretical underpinnings of situation a areness: A critical re ie[END_REF] define SA as the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space (level 1), the comprehension of their meaning (level 2), and the projection of their status in the near future (le el 3) . Since knowing hat s going on ou can figure hat to do [START_REF] Adam | Fighter cockpits of the future[END_REF] is a good principle, situation awareness can facilitate the decision making Although this construct was initially developed in the military domain, researchers are now trying to apply it to other areas such IT risk management [START_REF] Webb | A situation awareness model for information security risk management[END_REF] or incidence management in 5G networks [START_REF] Barona López | To ards Incidence Management in 5G Based on Situational A areness[END_REF].

In this article, we intend to consider open issues related to a holistic approach to improve crisis management efficiency during disaster by applying situation awareness principles to dynamic IT crisis management.

A situational awareness perspective is sound for anticipating how individuals, groups and communities can use information contributed by others especially in a social media context. We will discuss what social media may contribute to situational awareness. We expect to launch situation characteristics extraction as well as situational updates labeling from, for instance tweets in the Thai language. Natural Language Processing techniques will be assessed contributing in detecting and extracting emergency knowledge from the social media streams. These situational information will be hence transformed into structured information relevant for the definition of operational policies.

Besides, we have developed dynSMAUG, a dynamic security management framework driven by situations [START_REF] Laborde | A situation-driven framework for dynamic security management[END_REF] that combines a dynamic policy based management system with situation awareness. On the basis of our dynSMAUG system (Figure 1), we investigate how to integrate unstructured information coming from social media to dynamic IT management and adapt our management system to crisis management. This analysis highlights broader open research questions related to governing the operational IT infrastructure resilience as well as aligning crisis information system during natural disaster crises.

The rest of the article is structured as follows. Sections 2 to 5 describe the open research questions and related works. Section 6 complements this analysis by listing recent and current related research projects. Finally, Section 7 concludes the article.

II. EXPRESSING EMERGENCY/CRISIS PROCEDURES INTO THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Our dynamic management system has to operate within a global crisis management plan. The security and management decisions taken by our command centre must comply with the existing emergency procedures. The main goal should be to investigate the expression of emergency procedures using a situation driven policy language. The idea consists in finding official crisis procedures and express them into our language. However, how to write policies to dynamically manage IT systems during natural disaster crisis?

McHugh and Sheth [START_REF] Machuca | Technolog -related disasters: A survey towards disaster-resilient Soft are Defined Net orks[END_REF] describe how to construct an emergenc procedure flo chart here The objecti e of the emergency procedures is to be able to protect lives and minimi e damage to assets and to tr to nip the incident in the bud before it escalates into a disaster. The highlight the process to develop flow charts for emergency procedures, which in themselves are only able to summarize what needs to be done and should be used during top-level designs, trainings and awareness campaigns.

Hanachi et al. [START_REF] Ye | Situation identification techniques in per asi e computing: A re ie[END_REF] ad ocate to go further transforming a plan into a process providing an accurate and machinereadable specification of actions to be done in the field, a better common understanding between stakeholders responsible for these actions and a means to analyse, simulate and e aluate the crisis response before launching it

The ideal crisis policy language should address the expression of the policies governing crisis resolution at the business level. This language should also allow decision crisis cells to base their policies on relevant facts observed by the sensors in the impacted field and on the available business knowledge extracted from the plans, the stakeholders and their capacities.

We think that our situational awareness policy language is a good candidate to meet the crisis resolution processes requirements. In dynSMAUG, security policiesare expressed in a generic way: when situation and conditions then authorization decision and/or obligation(s) .

On the one hand, situations allow capturing the dynamic constraints (time, location, etc.) and organize them into a stable and logical concept. Situation oriented policies are simpler and more readable. Also, managing high level policies, close to the decision crisis cell needs, reduces the gap between policies requirements and the effective policy enforced by stakeholders, and then limits the policy translation errors. On the other hand, making policies more independent from technical constraints minimizes the impact of changing mechanisms and simplifies the policy life cycle management.

This approach has proven to be generic being applied to different use cases such as dynamic security management [START_REF] Laborde | A situation-driven framework for dynamic security management[END_REF], service-oriented architectures [START_REF] Laborde | To ard authori ation as a ser ice: a stud of the XACML standard[END_REF], virtual organizations [START_REF] Nasser | D namic creation of inter-organizational grid virtual organi ations[END_REF], healthcare urgency management by enforcing break-theglass [START_REF] Kabbani | Managing Break-The-Glass using Situation-oriented authori ations[END_REF] or permissions-based workflow management [START_REF] Kabbani | Specification and enforcement of d namic authori ation policies oriented b situations[END_REF].

III. HOW TO ADAPT THE DYNSMAUG ARCHITECTURE TO NATURAL DISASTER CRISIS ENVIRONMENT?

Resilience of networks is also under active consideration by network service providers being one of the main goals of future 5G networks. The NGMN Alliance [START_REF]NGMN 5G White paper, Ne t Generation Mobile Networks Alliance[END_REF] requires that 5G should be able to pro ide robust communications in case of natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, hurricanes, etc. From a more technical point of ie , 5G networks are expected, by the 5GPP (https://5g-ppp.eu/), to be a multi-access network in order to deserve 7 trillion wireless devices serving over 7 billion people creating a secure, reliable and dependable Internet ith a ero percei ed downtime for services provision. To reach such one-networkfits-all concept, 5G adopts a new paradigm for computing and infrastructure including Software Defined Networks (SDN), Network Function Virtualization (NFV) and Cloud Computing [START_REF]NGMN 5G White paper, Ne t Generation Mobile Networks Alliance[END_REF], [START_REF] Arfaoui | Securit and Resilience in 5G: Current Challenges and Future Directions[END_REF]. The objective is enabling the automation of network service provisioning and management as software functions running on commodity hardware to support efficient network resource utilization, quicker operational changes, and faster service provisioning cycles. The benefits expected are the shared infrastructure, the services deployment cost and the promising disruptive technologies [START_REF] Machuca | Technolog -related disasters: A survey towards disaster-resilient Soft are Defined Net orks[END_REF], [START_REF] Da Silva | Resilience support in soft are-defined networking: A sur e[END_REF], [START_REF] Tran | Disaster A oidance Control against Tsunami[END_REF].

We envision building a self-organized Public Protection and Disaster Relief (PPDR) network using a two-tier architecture that introduces two classes of spectrum users: a) primary users --the users owning a license to operate on a particular frequency, and b) secondary users unlicensed users who access a particular frequency only if the respective primary users do not need it. The PPDR will act as primary user in the frequencies allocated to it (698 703/753 758 MHz and 733 736/788 791 MHz) and use it for missioncritical application such as voice. On the other hand, to enable new application, such as the exchange of high-definition videos and images, PPDR will access other spectrum in the role of secondary user.

This architecture can significantly improve the performance of the PPDR network, however, it requires the PPDR radios, especially when acting as secondary user, to be cognitive. This means radios capable of intelligently adapting parameters, such as transmission frequency, power, etc.

The vision we would like to share can get materialized thanks to the 3 following actions:

-Technologies such as mmwave, drones, MIMO and C-RAN can be combined and utilized in the design of the new network architecture. The idea is to adapt the network to priorities and users/network conditions so as to deliver ultra-high bit rates over targeted geographical areas. In case of emergency, mobile access network elements (mainly BS elements carried by drones and ground mobile BSs) can be utilized for better spectrum management and throughput delivery.

In this context, we plan to conceive algorithms able to dynamically and quickly make decisions on optimal number and locations of resources to be allocated. -The design of a mechanism that, depending on the traffic s qualit of ser ice requirements and possibl on external events (e.g. an emergency situation), can decide dynamically whether to transmit the traffic over the PPDR dedicated frequencies, thus setting the radio to act as primary user, or over spectrum accessed opportunistically, thus setting the radio to act as secondary user. This mechanism can also participate in the dynamic reconfiguration of network components (such as edge gateways) and can be implemented as part of a Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) architecture deployed at the PPDR level [START_REF] Da Silva | Resilience support in soft are-defined networking: A sur e[END_REF], [START_REF] Ngu En | A Soft are-Defined Networking Approach for Disaster-Resilient WANs[END_REF]. -The current design of dynSMAUG includes single points of failure (the command center and the situation manager) which does not meet crisis IT requirements. We intend to distribute this entity to dynamically adapt dynSMAUG to 5G network requirements during natural disaster crisis.

IV. HOW TO CAPTURE NON STRUCTURED CONTEXT EVENTS? FOR INSTANCE, TWEETS IN THAI

This section targets situation characteristics extraction as well as situational updates labelling from social media in general and for instance tweets in the Thai language. Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques are contributing in detecting and extracting emergency knowledge from the social media streams. These situational information are hence transformed into structured information relevant for the characterization of the situations under operational deployment.

NLP is a kind of machine learning and artificial intelligence that can be used to with human and computers in natural languages. The objective of NLP is to achieve human-like comprehension of texts/languages. Named Entity Recognition (NER) is a part of NLP information extraction that seeks to locate and classify named entities in text into pre-defined categories such as the names of persons, organizations, locations, expressions of times etc. NER solutions can be divided into rule-based, machine learning based and hybrid methods [START_REF] Dong | Soft are-defined networking for smart grid resilience: Opportunities and challenges[END_REF].

Many related works have analysed twitter streams for crisis detection. Thusly in [START_REF] Vieweg | Microblogging during t o natural ha ards e ents: hat t itter ma contribute to situational a areness[END_REF], the authors analysed the contribution of twitter to situational awareness during two natural hazards events. Corvey et al. [START_REF] Corvey | T itter in mass emergenc : hat NLP techniques can contribute[END_REF] pointed out that using twitter in mass emergency requires NLP techniques. Neubig et al. [START_REF] Neubig | Safet Information Mining What can NLP do in a disaster[END_REF] quickly created a NLP system to aid the relief efforts during the 2011 East Japan Earthquake and were able to effectively deliver new information about the safety of over 100 people in the disaster stricken area to a central repository for safety information. Ifrim et al. [START_REF] Ifrim | E ent detection in t itter using aggressi e filtering and hierarchical t eet clustering[END_REF] proved that aggressive lettering of tweets based on length and structure, combined with hierarchical clustering of tweets and ranking of the resulting clusters, achieves encouraging results in detecting events from twitter. Klein et al. [START_REF] Klein | Detection and e tracting of emergenc kno ledge from t itter streams[END_REF] proposed a combined structural and content based analysis approach to detect and extract emergency knowledge from twitter streams. Finally, Imran et al. [START_REF] Imran | T itter as a lifeline: Human-annotated twitter corpora for NLP of crisis-related messages[END_REF] presented human-annotated Twitter corpora collected during 19 different crises that took place between 2013 and 2015. They used these corpora to train machine-learning classifiers to demonstrate the utility of the annotations.

However, these related works do not deal with Thai language that has specific features such as not marking word boundaries. As a consequence, an NLP model dedicated to twitter messages in Thai is required. We can reuse some existing tools like LexTo [START_REF]Le To : ล กซ์ ต ( ปร กรม ต ดค ภ ทย บ่ งค ภ ทย[END_REF] or pyThaiNLP [START_REF]PyThaiNLP/pythainlp[END_REF]. They will let us focus on how to turning text-based social media stream into structured events augmenting the knowledge on the disaster relief and the crisis resolution.

All these cited related works show how to turn social media streams into structured events augmenting the knowledge one may have in the disaster relief and in the crisis resolution. However, social media being not trusted information may convey fake news. This issue is still an open question but more and more researchers are focussing on it [START_REF] Bondielli | A sur e on fake ne s and rumour detection techniques[END_REF].

V. HOW TO CALCULATE A NATURAL DISASTER CRISIS SITUATION?

As pointed out by Castillo [START_REF] Castillo | Big crisis data: social media in disasters and time-critical situations[END_REF], Social media is an invaluable source of time-critical information during a crisis. However, emergency response and humanitarian relief organizations that would like to use this information struggle with an avalanche of social media messages that exceeds human capacit to process. Situation awareness theory provides a relevant support to deal with such issues.

A situation is a particular time frame of interest that has a beginning, a life span and an end [START_REF] Adi | Et ion, Amit-the situation manager[END_REF]. The beginning and the end of a situation are determined by combining multiple events coming from multiple sensors and occurring at different moments. Indeed, a situation involves multiple entities and multiple conditions. The beginning and the end of a situation cannot be simple events captured by a unique sensor. In addition, events being instantaneous, combining multiple events requires complex temporal operators (event ordering, event existence/absence, time windows, etc.) to specify the beginning and end of situations.

Currently, situations in dynSMAUG are described using Complex Event Processing techniques [START_REF] Luckham | An Introduction to Comple E ent Processing in Distributed Enterprise S stems[END_REF]. CEP solutions allow to specify complex events through complex event patterns that match incoming event notifications on the basis of their content as well as some ordering relationships on them. We choose the open source event processing implementation called Esper, which is maintained by Espertech. For specifying complex event patterns, Esper offers a stream-oriented language called Event Processing Language (EPL) that is an extension of SQL for processing events (e.g., windows definition and interaction, timed-data arithmetic definition, etc.). We previously showed it is possible to combine real time events with log events to calculate situations [START_REF] Benzekri | D namic securit management dri en b situations: An exploratory analysis of logs for the identification of security situations[END_REF].

This specification-based identification approach does not scale because situations identification rules become too hard for a human in such a Big data context that includes plenty of sensors and very complex situations [START_REF] Ye | Situation identification techniques in per asi e computing: A re ie[END_REF].Therefore, we have to investigate Machine Learning for crisis situations identification. We can benefit from initiatives like The Humanitarian Data Exchange that provides open crisis data related to previous disasters such as Typhoon Yolanda [START_REF]Open Crisis -Humanitarian Data E change[END_REF].

VI. RELATED RESEARCH PROJECTS

Many research projects have investigated these issues and we can list the following ones.

The H2020 TransCrisis project [START_REF] Home | TransCrisis[END_REF] -Enhancing the EU s transboundary crisis management capacity (2015 -2018) has studied the crisis management capacities the EU and how political leaders have made use of these crisis management capacities. This framework deals with transboundary crisis management at the EU level.

The H2020 DARWIN project [START_REF] Darwin | [END_REF] -Expecting the unexpected and know how to respond (2015 -2018) has focused on improving responses to expected and unexpected crises affecting critical societal structures during natural disasters (e.g. flooding, earthquakes) and man-made disasters (e.g cyber-attacks). To achieve this, DARWIN developed European resilience management guidelines aimed at critical infrastructure managers, crisis and emergency response managers, service providers, first responders and policy makers.

The H2020 5G-MoNArch project [START_REF]5G Mobile Network Architecture for diverse services, use cases[END_REF] -5G Mobile Network Architecture for diverse services, use cases, and applications in 5G and beyond (2017-2020) proposes a flexible, adaptable, and programmable 5G architecture by combining virtualisation, slicing and orchestration of access with inter-slice control and cross-domain management, experiment-driven optimization, cloud-enabled protocol stack.

The H2020 MATILDA [START_REF]The Matilda Project[END_REF] -A Holistic, Innovative Framework For The Design, Development And Orchestration Of 5g-Ready Applications And Network Services Over Sliced Programmable Infrastructure (2017-2020) designed and implemented a holistic 5G end-to-end services operational framework tackling the lifecycle of design, development and orchestration of 5G-ready applications and 5G network services over programmable infrastructure, following a unified programmability model and a set of control abstractions.

The H2020 SLICENET [START_REF] Slicenet Slicenet | [END_REF] -End-to-End Cognitive Network Slicing and Slice Management Framework in Virtualised Multi-Domain, Multi-Tenant 5G Networks (2017-2020) aimed at creating and demonstrating the tools and mechanisms to achie e net orks as a ser ice here logical network slices are created and allocated to flexibly and efficiently in a multi-operator environment.

The H2020 5G ENSURE [START_REF] Ensure | [END_REF] 5G Enablers for Network and System Security and Resilience (2015 2018) proposed the design of an overall security architecture including authentication, authorization and accounting, privacy, trust, security monitoring, and network management and virtualization isolation.

The H2020 SELFNET [START_REF]SELFNET-5G SELFNET-5G[END_REF] A Framework for Self-Organized Network Management in Virtualized and Software Defined Networks (2015 2018) designed an autonomic network management framework targeting the integration of SDN, NFV, Self-Optimizing Network, Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Quality-of-Experience, to address self-protection (to prevent distributed cyber-attacks), selfhealing (to deal with network failures) and self-optimization (to enhance the QoE and network performance), and virtual infrastructure management.

The H2020 COHERENT [START_REF] Eu H | COHERENT EU H[END_REF] Coordinated control and spectrum management for 5G heterogeneous radio access networks (2015 2018) defined a programmable unified management framework for heterogeneous 5G Radio Access Networks (flexible spectrum management, radio resources coordination and modelling, and RAN sharing).

The H2020 5G NORMA [START_REF]5G NORMA -5G Novel Radio Multiservice adaptive net ork Architecture[END_REF] 5G Novel Radio Multiservice Adaptive Network Architecture (2015 2018) developed an adaptive networking architecture with flexible and context-aware network functions deployment in a multitenant scenario involving software defined network control, joint optimization of access and core network functions, and adaptive decomposition and allocation of network functions.

The ANR GéNéPi project (2014-2017) proposed a Mediation Information System dedicated to support the collaborative management of crisis situation. Especially, it aimed at exploiting very large quantities of and flows of data generated from crisis sites.

None of the previous works integrate social media crisis information and the crisis IT architecture deployment. The originality of our approach is thus twofold. First, we consider natural disaster crisis management as a big data issue and we would like to exploit social media especially in Thai language using machine learning techniques. Secondly, we advocate for a crisis IT management framework that integrates information coming from social media to dynamically adapt the network architecture and support the crisis management services.

VII. CONCLUSION

Crisis management is definitely a big data issue given the incredible diversity, heterogeneity and number of channels that can contribute to a crisis resolution. To allow more efficient and reliable coordination for decision making and strengthening emergency response, crisis cells have to govern the operational IT infrastructure resilience as well as align its information system for a better appreciation and awareness of the situation being managed.

As it becomes impossible for a human to har est and process the whole information, machine-learning techniques can help in identifying the right situations in which the right decision might be taken. Situation awareness theory provides the tools for expressing and deploying the right policies.

Using the dynSMAUG system as a concrete example, we highlighted open questions in building an effective decision support system to help crisis cells identifying early warnings and situation-specific awareness figuring out the right actions/partnerships to coordinate. Our future work will tackle these open questions to propose a situation-based IT management system during natural disaster crisis.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Open research questions


Dr Alexandre Hentz

Prof. Dr Pascal Retailleau

Dr Vincent Gandon

Dr Kevin Cariou

Robert H Dodd
email: robert.dodd@icsn.cnrs-gif.fr

Prof. Dr V Gandon Icmmo

Transition-metal-free tunable chemoselective N functionalization of indoles

Keywords: ynamide, indole, N-functionalization, DFT

come

Ynamides are characterized as nitrogen-substituted alkynes with an electron-withdrawing group at the nitrogen (providing increased stability) and constitute highly versatile synthetic building blocks. [1] The nitrogen-substituted triple bond can react like other alkynes but can also exhibit specific reactivity due to the possible delocalization of the lone pair, rendering the α position electrophilic and the β position nucleophilic (Scheme 1). [1] Scheme 1. Resonance structures of ynamides Because of the strong polarization of the triple bond, examples of addition at the β position are rare and usually involve metallic species. [START_REF] Fadel | For nickel-catalyzed phosphonylation[END_REF][START_REF] Laroche | For gold-catalyzed intramolecular addition[END_REF][START_REF] Pizzetti | For iron-catalyzed carbonylation[END_REF][START_REF]Hydroboration has been shown to take place at the β-position[END_REF][START_REF] Tanaka | For titanium-mediated coupling at the β position[END_REF][START_REF] Laroche | Thiyl radicals also add to the β-position[END_REF] On the other hand, nucleophilic attack on the α position is much more common. [1,8] For instance, Zhang reported that using a catalytic amount of triflimide, a variety of vinyl-heterocycles could be obtained through a highly regioselective hydroarylation process. [9] In the case of indole 2a, the reaction exclusively took place at the 3 position of the indole and the α position of the ynamide to give 3vinylindole 3 (Scheme 2, eq. 1). During the course of studies involving the reaction of ynamides with indolic derivatives, our curiosity was aroused by a by-product that seemed to arise from the direct addition of the indole nitrogen on the ynamide (eq. 2).

Scheme 2. 3-Vinylation vs N-vinylation of Indole

Indeed, when reacting indole 2a with ynamide 1a in DMF at 80 °C in the presence of an excess of sodium tert-butoxide, compound 4aa was isolated with a 7% yield (Table 1, entry 1). To the best of our knowledge, such an intermolecular addition of a nitrogen nucleophile to an ynamide is unprecedented and only two intramolecular examples, first by Urabe [10] (in which case a copper assisted process is proposed) and more recently by Cossy, [11] have been reported. A handful of reports describe the addition of indoles and related heterocycles to non-activated alkynes leading to N-vinyl derivatives. [12] In these cases, the Z-isomer is usually obtained as the major product, however these reactions only take place at high temperature (80 °C-120 °C) and are limited to arylacetylenes. We thus sought to further investigate the formation of compound 4aa and initiated optimization of the reaction conditions. [c] 1 t-BuONa (1) R.T. 30 50 b 5 [c] 2 t-BuONa (2) R.T. 30 quant. 6 [c] 2 NaOH (2) R.T. 30 87 [b] 7 [c] 2 KOH (2) R.T. 30 42 [b] 8 [c] 2 LiOH (2) R.T. 30 14 [b] 9 [c] 2 t-BuONa (2) R.T. 4.5 [d] 100 [b] [a] Isolated yields, unless indicated otherwise. [b] Conversion determined by 1 H NMR analysis of the crude product mixture. [c] 3 Å molecular sieves were added. [d] 18-Crown-6 was added.

First, lowering the reaction temperature to R.T. (entry 2) and increasing the amount of base to 2.0 equiv. (entry 3) did not allow complete conversion but the yield was increased to 40%. As side-products coming from the hydrolysis of the ynamide were detected, [START_REF]hydration of the triple bond as well as the corresponding primary sulfonamide were identified in the crude reaction mixture[END_REF] molecular sieves were added to the reaction mixture and a 50% conversion was now achieved (entry 4). We then decided to use a two-fold amount of indole and full conversion of the ynamide as well as a quantitative yield of product 4aa were thus attained (entry 5). Alkali hydroxides were also tested and whereas they did promote the reaction, yields were lower, presumably because these salts are less soluble in DMF (entries 6-8). Finally, the role of the cation did not seem to be decisive since addition of 18-crown-6 to the reaction mixture did not change the outcome of the reaction, although it did proceed faster (entry 9).

With these optimal conditions in hand (Table 1,entry 5) we began to explore the scope of the reaction by first varying the indolic partner (Scheme 3). 3-Substituted derivatives such as skatole and gramine as well as carbazole reacted equally well, giving excellent yields of the corresponding adducts 4ba-4da. From a mechanistic point of view, these results tend to rule out a process initiated by reaction at the 3position followed by a rearrangement but rather point towards a direct reaction with the indolyl nitrogen (vide infra for more details). Electronic effects were then probed by studying the influence of a substituent at the 5-position of the indole nucleus. An electronwithdrawing group (nitro) greatly lowered the reactivity and compound 4ea could only be obtained in good yield after an extended reaction time of 7 days. On the other hand, electron-donating 5-OMe and 5-Br substituents were well tolerated and the reaction was also slightly accelerated. In the latter case an X-ray crystallographic analysis of 4ga was performed to further ascertain the structure of this new family of indolic derivatives. [14] 7-Azaindole, benzimidazole as well as imidazole derivatives 4ha-4ja could also be formed, while an ester group at the 2 position (2k) shut down the reactivity. Nevertheless, an EWG such as an aldehyde was tolerated on the 3 position and compound 4la could be obtained with a moderate 43% yield after prolonged reaction time in the presence of 18-crown-6. Scheme 3. Heterocycles scope [a] [a] Isolated yields. [b] 18-Crown-6 was added.

We then turned our attention to the ynamide partner (Scheme 4). Both N-tosyl and N-mesyl groups were tolerated as long as the nitrogen atom bore a primary alkyl substituent such as allyl (4ab), benzyl (4ac) or n-butyl (4ad, 4ae). Nevertheless, the reaction proved quite sensitive to steric hindrance as the reaction time was extended for the n-butyl substrates and no reactivity was observed for the bulkier cyclohexyl derivative 1f. Substituted ynamides such as 1g and 1h also did not react and only led to complex mixtures after prolonged reaction times and/or at higher temperatures. The case of the TIPSsubstituted ynamide 1i is noteworthy, as after 10 days of reaction unsilylated adduct 4aa was obtained. Our assumption is that this substituted ynamide does not react either, but the basic reaction conditions allow the slow desilylation of 1i to give 1a, which in turn reacts with the indole to finally yield 4aa. Scheme 4. Ynamide scope [a] [a] Isolated yields.

A drastic change in the reactivity pattern was witnessed when aniline-derived ynamide 1j was reacted with indole 2a, giving rise to amidine 5a, which formally results from the addition of the indole nitrogen to the α position of 1 [START_REF] Coste | Only two examples of base-mediated nitrogen addition on the position have been reported; for pyrrolidin-2-one see: a)[END_REF] followed by tautomerization and loss of the tosyl group (Scheme 5, in this case only one equivalent of both the indole and the base were sufficient to reach complete conversion). Methanesulfonamide, acetamide and tert-butoxycarbamate derivatives (1k-1m, respectively) led to the same product 5a, the structure of which was further confirmed by crystallographic analysis. [14] Moreover, benzylamine-derived ynamide 1n also yielded an amidine derivative (5b), indicating that this change in reactivity can be tuned not only by changing the R group but also by changing the nature of the EWG (compare 1a with 1n). Finally, Ph-substituted ynamide 1o was submitted to the same reaction conditions to give amidine 5c with 69% yield. This reactivity switch prompted us to devise a mechanistic scenario for these unusual transformations (Scheme 6). First, it can be assumed that the indole is deprotonated by the base to give 6. For N,N-sulfonyl-alkyl ynamides such as 1a, direct addition at the β position would generate anion 7 and compound 4aa after protonation. For N-sulfonyl-N-aryl-, N-Ac-and N-Boc-ynamides (1j-n), either the indole anion or the base could cleave the protecting group to give amide 8 [START_REF] Kong | During finalization of this manuscript a related process involving the cleavage of one tosyl group of highly activated N,N-ditosylynamides has been reported[END_REF] which after protonation and tautomerization would generate the highly reactive ketenimine 9. [17] Addition of the indole anion on the ketenimine would then lead to amidine 5a after protonation and tautomerization. It can be hypothesized that the stabilization of anion 8 facilitates the cleavage of the protecting group under basic conditions in a similar fashion as for pyrroles or indoles. [START_REF] Mohapatra | Boc cleavage on indoles under basic conditions has precedent, with Cs2CO3[END_REF] Alternatively, the ynamide could also act as group donor, transferring the protecting group onto the indole that could be deprotected thereafter. [START_REF]1m-o, respectively[END_REF]

Scheme 6. Mechanism proposal

As the addition process of 6 to 1a to give 7 seems counterintuitive in view of the polarization of the ynamide triple bond, DFT calculations were carried out at the M05-2X [START_REF] Zhao | [END_REF] /6-31+G(d,p) [21] level to provide insights on its feasibility. We first looked at the natural charges of ynamide 1a and the deprotonated indole (Figure 1). As expected, C of 1a bears a negative charge (-0.270), and as does the nitrogen atom 6 (-0.602). In spite of this unfavorable charge repulsion, a transition state corresponding to the addition of 6 to C could be located (TSA-7). The corresponding free energy of activation is quite low (9.6 kcal/mol) and the addition is appreciably exothermic by 12.5 kcal/mol. It should be noted that in agreement with the experimental data, TSA-7 leads to the Z-carbanion 7. The E diastereomer did not converge and collapsed to the Z form. It is likely that electron-electron repulsion strongly favors a trans relationship between the sp 2 orbital holding the electron pair at C of the carbanion and the electron-rich indole moiety. In TSA-7, a charge of -0.231 is transferred from the indolate to the ynamide. A great part of this excess negative charge is managed by C (-0.183) and by the electron-withdrawing Ts group (-0.079).

The approach of the indolate to the ynamide proceeds in a very peculiar way, as revealed by the structure of TSA-7 (Figure 2). There is no alignment of C, the nitrogen atom of the indolate, and the center of the C3-C4 bond marked in purple (148° instead of 180°). Thus, there is no overlap of the in-plane nitrogen sp 2 orbital of the indolate (corresponding to its HOMO-2, see Supporting Information) with the   orbitals of the alkyne moiety of the ynamide (corresponding to its LUMO). [22] Instead, the indolate presents its HOMO  system, inducing the repulsion of the C electrons towards C forming a nascent carbanion at C and reducing the negative charge at C. Thus, the approach of the nucleophile reduces the dipole moment of the alkyne moiety. This situation could be compared to the addition of Br2 to an alkene giving rise to a charge transfer complex, yet in this case the polarization of Br2 induces a positive charge on the bridging bromine in the approach transition state. [23] More relevant is the addition of singlet oxygen to an enecarbamate. [24] In the computed transition state corresponding to the first step of a [2+2] cycloaddition, the approach of the enecarbamate induces the polarization of the O-O double bond, the rupture of its  component and the formation of a sigma bond between carbon and the least yet still negatively charged oxygen. In our case, this is the stabilization of the resulting carbanion by the electron-withdrawing group that rationalizes the reaction between the two nucleophilic partners. [START_REF] Gérard | rationalizing the reaction of two electrophiles together[END_REF] Having opened an access to hitherto unknown and novel compounds, we then investigated if further functionalizations were possible to obtain new polycyclic frameworks that might possess interesting biological activities. [26] To this purpose, 2-vinylindole 2k was reacted with N-tosyl-N-allylynamide 1b to give 4kb which could then be cyclized using Grubbs' second generation catalyst to afford 1,4-diazocinoindole 10 (Scheme 7). Crystallization of 10 allowed structure determination by X-ray analysis. [14] Scheme 7. Access to polycyclic drug-like scaffolds

In conclusion we have discovered two new reaction pathways involving ynamides under basic reaction conditions. First, indole derivatives add to the β position of unsubstituted N-tosyl-N-alkyl ynamides to yield (Z)-2-indolo-etheneamides with complete regioselectivity. At first counterintuitive, this process could be rationalized by DFT calculations. Moreover these unprecedented molecular scaffolds give access to potentially biologically relevant structures as exemplified by the preparation of 1,4-diazocinoindole 10. On the other hand, under the same reaction conditions, N-phenyl and/or N-carboxyl ynamides react with indole through the more classical addition to the α position, albeit with the concomitant loss of the EWG. This process not only grants access to indolylamidines but also suggests a mild in situ generation of ketenimines, [27] which could be of considerable synthetic interest. Studies in these directions are currently underway in our laboratory and will be reported in due course.

Scheme 5 .

 5 Scheme 5. Reactivity switch[a] Isolated yields.[b] NMR yield using 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene as internal standard: 5b 60%, 1m 15% and N-Boc-Indole 15%.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Computed free energy profile (ΔG, kcal/mol) for the addition of the indolate 6 to the β position of ynamide 1a (NBO charges of atoms and circled fragments are indicated in bold)

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Computed structure of TSA-7 and orbital contour plot of the HOMO

Table 1 .

 1 Optimization of the reaction conditions

	Entry	X	Base (n equiv)	Temp.	Time (h)	Yield (%) [a]
	1	1	t-BuONa (1.5)	80 °C	22	7
	2	1	t-BuONa (1.5)	R.T.	22	20
	3	1	t-BuONa (2)	R.T.	72	40
	4

We wish to thank the Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles for financial support and the MESR for fellowship (AH). We used the computing facility of the CRIHAN (project 2006-

Synthetic Methods

Alexandre Hentz, Pascal Retailleau, Vincent Gandon, Kevin Cariou, and Robert H. Dodd * * __________ Page -Page Metal-Free Tunable Chemoselective N-Functionalization of Indoles with Ynamides Two birds with one stone: Under basic reaction conditions, two distinct manners of N-functionalizing indoles with ynamides are reported. On the one hand, unsubstituted N-tosyl-N-alkyl ynamides undergo addition on the β position to yield (Z)-2-indoloetheneamide with complete regioselectivity. On the other hand, N-phenyl and/or Ncarboxyl ynamides undergo addition on the α position, albeit with the concomitant loss of the EWG.


Virginie Rampal

Pierre-Yves Rohan

Helene Pillet

Aurore Bonnet-Lebrun

Mickael Fonseca

Eric Desailly

Philippe Wicart

Wafa Skalli

Combined 3D analysis of lower-limb morphology and function in children with idiopathic equinovarus clubfoot: A preliminary study

Keywords:

Introduction:

In children treated for idiopathic equinovarus clubfoot (EVCF), the relation between morphologic defects on clinical examination and standard X-ray on the one hand and functional abnormalities on the other is difficult to objectify. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate the feasibility of combined 3D analysis of the foot and lower limb based on biplanar EOS radiographs and gait analysis. The study hypothesis was that this provides better understanding of abnormalities in form and function. Methods: Ten children with unilateral EVCF and "very good" clinical results were included. They underwent gait analysis on the Rizzoli Institute multisegment foot model. Kinematic data were collected for the hip, knee, ankle and foot (hindfoot/midfoot, midfoot/forefoot and hindfoot/forefoot). Biplanar EOS radiographs were taken to determine anatomic landmarks and radiological parameters. Results: Complete acquisition time was around 2 hours per patient. No significant differences were found between EVCF and healthy feet except for calcaneal incidence, tibiocalcaneal angle and hindfoot/midfoot and hindfoot/forefoot inversion. Discussion: The feasibility of the combined analysis was confirmed. There were no differences in range of motion, moment or power between EVCF and healthy feet in this series of patients with very good results. The functional results are related to radiological results within the normal range. The protocol provided anatomic and kinematic reference data. A larger-scale study could more objectively assess the contribution of EOS radiography using optoelectronic markers. Level of evidence: II, low-power prospective study.

Introduction

Children treated for equinovarus clubfoot (EVCF) during growth are followed up in consultation on clinical examination [START_REF] Sawatzky | Ground reaction forces in gait in children with clubfeet -A preliminary study[END_REF][START_REF] Schleicher | Follow up of complete subtalar release for clubfoot -Evolution of different scores[END_REF] and standard 2D X-ray, which is insufficient for fine analysis of defects and for complete assessment [START_REF] Cooper | Treatment of idiopathic clubfoot. A thirty-year follow-up note[END_REF][START_REF] Laaveg | Long-term results of treatment of congenital club foot[END_REF][START_REF] Lau | Results of surgical treatment of talipes equinovarus congenita[END_REF][START_REF] Prasad | Clinico-radiological assessment and their correlation in clubfeet treated with postero-medial soft-tissue release[END_REF]. A 3D weight-bearing foot reconstruction technique based on biplanar radiographs was recently described [START_REF] Rohan | Three-dimensional reconstruction of foot in the weightbearing position from biplanar radiographs: evaluation of accuracy and reliability[END_REF][START_REF] Rampal | Assessing 3D paediatric foot morphology using low-dose biplanar radiography: parameter reproducibility and preliminary values[END_REF], and pediatric reference values have been reported [START_REF] Rampal | Assessing 3D paediatric foot morphology using low-dose biplanar radiography: parameter reproducibility and preliminary values[END_REF]. The model [START_REF] Dubousset | A new 2D and 3D imaging approach to musculoskeletal physiology and pathology with low-dose radiation and the standing position: the EOS system[END_REF] can also locate joint rotation centers with respect to the optoelectronic markers used in quantified analysis of movement (QAM) [START_REF] Pillet | A reference method for the evaluation of femoral head joint center location technique based on external markers[END_REF][START_REF] Sangeux | Which method of hip joint centre localisation should be used in gait analysis?[END_REF]. Radiographs, however, correlate poorly with function, and QAM is a complementary assessment instrument. Given the small size of children's feet, QAM treats the foot as a rigid segment, neglecting motion between the hind-, mid-and fore-foot [START_REF] Macwilliams | Foot kinematics and kinetics during adolescent gait[END_REF]. The Rizzoli Institute multisegment model [START_REF] Leardini | Rear-foot, mid-foot and fore-foot motion during the stance phase of gait[END_REF] describes inter-segment motion and is able to analyze such abnormalities [START_REF] Deschamps | Body of evidence supporting the clinical use of 3D multisegment foot models: a systematic review[END_REF].

Associating 3D reconstruction to QAM could improve decisionmaking in children with EVCF, by providing global analysis relating form to function.

The aim of the present preliminary study was to assess the feasibility of combing QAM on a multisegment model to 3D radiology based on biplanar imaging, to improve assessment of EVCF. The study hypothesis was that this improves understanding of lowerlimb abnormalities.

Material and method

Patients

After securing review board approval (CPP NX06036), 10 patients (9 boys, 1 girl) aged 7-11 years were included during pediatric orthopedics outpatient consultation, with consent form signed by parents and children. They were being followed for unilateral EVCF treated functionally since the first week of life. Pathological feet formed the EVCF group, with contralateral feet as controls.

Method

QAM was performed in the Georges Charpak Human Biomechanics Institute of Paris (France) on an optoelectronic analysis system comprising 12 video-cameras (Vicon Motion System Ltd., Oxford Metrics, UK) and 4 synchronized force platforms (Advanced Mechanical Technology Inc., Watertown, MA, USA). The optoelectronic markers were positioned following the Rizzoli Institute method [START_REF] Leardini | Rear-foot, mid-foot and fore-foot motion during the stance phase of gait[END_REF]. Biplanar radiographs were taken using the EOS system (EOS Imaging, France).

Measurement protocol 2.3.1. Clinical assessment

Feet were assessed by an orthopedic surgeon following Ghanem and Seringe [START_REF] Ghanem | Comparaison des méthodes d'évaluation des résultats du traitement du pied bot varus équin congénital[END_REF].

Subject preparation

The optoelectronic markers were positioned following the Rizzoli Institute protocol [START_REF] Leardini | Rear-foot, mid-foot and fore-foot motion during the stance phase of gait[END_REF] by the orthopedic surgeon, trained in the method. Markers were 9-mm diameter (Fig. 1a andb), except on the foot, where 2-mm minimarkers were used (Fig. 1c andd).

EOS imaging

Biplanar radiographs were acquired with the markers in position, in 3 modes per subject: standardized free-standing [START_REF] Faro | Evaluation of a functional position for lateral radiograph acquisition in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis[END_REF] (Fig. 1a), and right and left monopodal weight-bearing with contralateral foot in equinus [START_REF] Rampal | Assessing 3D paediatric foot morphology using low-dose biplanar radiography: parameter reproducibility and preliminary values[END_REF] (Fig. 1b). AP and lateral views were taken each time (Fig. 1c andd).

Static calibration

Ahead of gait trials, the minimarkers were replaced by standard 9-mm markers (Fig. 1e) for static calibration.

Gait analysis

Subjects walked barefoot at spontaneous speed for about 5 m. The test was concluded after 5 validated trials.

Data processing 2.4.1. 3D reconstructions and radiologic parameters

3D reconstruction was performed by a trained clinician [START_REF] Chaibi | Fast 3D reconstruction of the lower limb using a parametric model and statistical inferences and clinical measurements calculation from biplanar X-rays[END_REF][START_REF] Mitton | 3D reconstruction of the pelvis from bi-planar radiography[END_REF]. For feet, reconstruction followed the previously described method [START_REF] Pillet | A reference method for the evaluation of femoral head joint center location technique based on external markers[END_REF]. In patients 1 to 5, reconstruction was repeated 3 times, to test intra-operator reproducibility.

Table 1 and Fig. 2 show the radiological parameters.

Gait analysis

Reference planes were determined following the Rizzoli Institute model [START_REF] Leardini | Rear-foot, mid-foot and fore-foot motion during the stance phase of gait[END_REF]: flexion/extension (Flex/Ext), internal/external rotation (Int/Ext), abduction/adduction (Abd/Add) and, for the ankle, dorsiflexion/plantar flexion (Dors/Plan), inversion/eversion (Inv/Ev) and abduction/adduction (Abd/Add).

Rotations were calculated: pelvis-femur, calf-hindfoot (ankle), hind-midfoot (Cal-Mid), mid-forefoot (Mid-Met), and hindmidfoot (Cal-Met). The mean angle over all trials was used for calculation. Scatter was calculated as standard deviation. Ground reaction force, kinematics and joint moment were also calculated.

Table 1

Radiology results and reference values in the literature: femorotibial angle (FTA), femoral head diameter (FHD), neck-shaft angle (NSA), mechanical femoral angle (MFA), mechanical tibial angle (MTA), hip-knee-shaft angle (HKS), femur/tibia ratio (F/T), femoral torsion (FT), tibial torsion (TT), calcaneal incidence (CI), talo-calcaneal divergence (TCD), tibiotalar angle (TTA), tibiocalcaneal angle (TCA), talonavicular cover angle (TNCA), Méary angle, 1st metatarsal incidence angle (M1IA). NR: nonreproducible; n/a: not applicable.

Parameter

Pathologic side Healthy side Reference values

Pelvis

Sacral slope ( • ) [START_REF] Guigui | Physiological value of pelvic and spinal parameters of sagittal balance: analysis of 250 healthy volunteers[END_REF] 40 ± 8 n/a 38 ± 8 Pelvic tilt ( • ) [START_REF] Guigui | Physiological value of pelvic and spinal parameters of sagittal balance: analysis of 250 healthy volunteers[END_REF] 3 ± 9 n/a 6 ± 7 Pelvic incidence ( • ) [START_REF] Guigui | Physiological value of pelvic and spinal parameters of sagittal balance: analysis of 250 healthy volunteers[END_REF] 45 ± 8 n/a 45 ± 9 Lower limb [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 178 ± 2 177 ± 1 179 ± 3 FHD (mm) [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 35 [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 142 ± 7 137 ± 8 131 ± 6 MTA ( • ) [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 88 ± 1 89 ± 2 89 ± 3 MFA ( • ) [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 93 ± 1 92 ± 2 3 ± 3 Neck length (mm) [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 36 [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 25 ± 9 25 ± 12 n/a TT ( • ) [START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] 27

HKS ( • ) [21] 5 ± 1 4 ± 1 7 ± 5 FTA ( • )
± 2 3 4 ± 2 3 4 ± 3 NSA ( • )
± 4 4 1 ± 5 n/a F/T [21] 1 ± 0 1 ± 0 1 ± 0 FT ( • )
±

Statistics

Measurement uncertainty

Given the small size of children's feet and the large number of markers needed for gait analysis, analysis was performed in 2 healthy subjects (aged 8 and 10 years) to assess the reproducibility of marker positioning. Inter-trial and inter-session variation was assessed.

The impact of marker positioning uncertainty on gait parameters was quantified on the Monte Carlo method [START_REF] Chib | Monte Carlo methods and Bayesian computation: overview[END_REF].

Statistical analysis

The Wilcoxon signed ranks test was used for inter-group comparisons. The significance threshold was set at p < 0.05.

Results

Demographics and clinical assessment

Mean age was 9.2 years (range, 7-11 years). All feet showed very good results: Ghanem-Seringe score, 88-100 [START_REF] Ghanem | Comparaison des méthodes d'évaluation des résultats du traitement du pied bot varus équin congénital[END_REF].

Radiologic results

Table 1 shows radiologic results. Four foot parameters showed < 3 • reproducibility: tibiocalcaneal angle, calcaneal incidence, tibiotalar angle, and 1st metatarsal incidence. There were significant inter-group differences in calcaneal incidence and tibiocalcaneal angle.

Gait analysis

Measurement uncertainty was < 4 • . Table 2 shows the main angles (Dors/Plan, Inv/Ev). There were no significant inter-group differences except for hindfoot-midfoot inversion (p = 0.04) and hindfoot-forefoot inversion (p = 0.01) (Fig. 3).

Table 3 shows kinetic results. There were no significant intergroup differences.

Discussion

There are few elements describing the relations between foot architecture, kinematics and gait kinetics in children with EVCF; The EVCF group showed no particular 3D morphologic abnormalities [START_REF] Guigui | Physiological value of pelvic and spinal parameters of sagittal balance: analysis of 250 healthy volunteers[END_REF][START_REF] Rampal | Lower-limb lengths and angles in children older than six years: reliability and reference values by EOS ® stereoradiography[END_REF] or gait-related abnormalities, in contrast to the literature for pathologic children [START_REF] Bailly | 3-D lower extremity bone morphology in ambulant children with cerebral palsy and its relation to gait[END_REF][START_REF] Buldt | The relationship between foot posture and lower limb kinematics during walking: a systematic review[END_REF][START_REF] Shin | Flatfoot deformity affected the kinematics of the foot and ankle in proportion to the severity of deformity[END_REF]. However, the good results underlying the present series were the main study limitation, precluding correlation analysis of defects. Future studies should explore the methodology proposed for more severe pathologies.

On 3D radiology, only 4 foot parameters were reproducible (95% CI, < 3 • ), due to the difficulty of visualizing the hindfoot [START_REF] Rampal | Assessing 3D paediatric foot morphology using low-dose biplanar radiography: parameter reproducibility and preliminary values[END_REF]. This might be resolved by different foot positioning during acquisition. The difference in calcaneal incidence was related to lower ankle dorsiflexion in the EVCF group.

Positioning a large number of markers on a child's foot was not a technical problem, and applying the Rizzoli multisegment model [START_REF] Leardini | Rear-foot, mid-foot and fore-foot motion during the stance phase of gait[END_REF] was feasible. We found no intergroup differences in kinematics or kinetics, unlike in other reports [START_REF] El-Hawary | Gait analysis of children treated for clubfoot with physical therapy or the Ponseti Cast Technique[END_REF][START_REF] Karol | Gait analysis after initial nonoperative treatment for clubfeet: intermediate term follow-up at age 5[END_REF], and the results matched those for healthy children in the sole publication to report them [START_REF] Deschamps | Body of evidence supporting the clinical use of 3D multisegment foot models: a systematic review[END_REF]. There was, however, a difference in hindfoot/midfoot and midfoot/hind-and fore-foot motion, confirming that models representing the foot as a single segment are inadequate for describing abnormalities [START_REF] Eerdekens | Quantifying clinical misinterpretations associated to one-segment kinetic foot modelling in both a healthy and patient population[END_REF].

In this study, biplanar radiographs were taken with markers in position. This is clinically demanding, and presupposes a single site for QAM and biplanar radiography, but enables more precise determination of anatomic landmarks. The number of patients included was insufficient for conclusions to be drawn. Even so, as seen in Fig. 4, the interpretation of movement can differ considerably according to the landmark, and a larger-scale study is needed to

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Markers positioned according to the Rizzoli Institute multisegment protocol [13]: a: standardized free-standing position in EOS system; b: monopodal position and contralateral equinus; c: AP view; d: sagittal view; e: optoelectronic markers (9 mm).

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Radiologic parameters of foot.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Mean inversion/eversion in (a) hind/midfoot, (b) hind/forefoot.

3 11. 2 ±

 2 1.7 Vertical force at heel contact (N/kg) 10.5 ± 0.87 10.2 ± 2.1 Vertical force at propulsion (N/kg) 1.9 ± 0.3 1.9 ± 0.4 Anterior force (N/kg) 1.9 ± 0.4 2.0 ± 0.5 Posterior force (N/kg) 1.8 ± 0.7 1.6 ± 0.5 Ankle plantar flexion moment (N.m/kg) 4.5 ± 2.0 5.3 ± 2.8 Standard assessment is based on clinical examination and 2D radiography. Although QAM is a promising means of assessment, gait laboratory data are insufficient for clinical decision-making. The present study had the interest of performing the first combined analysis associating 3D reconstruction of the foot and lower limb from biplanar radiographs to QAM using a multisegment foot model. The feasibility of the protocol in a clinical setting (test time, 2 hours), differentiating hind-, fore-and mid-foot, was confirmed. The study cannot be a basis for a novel decision-tree in EVCF, (1) because sample size was small, and (2) as subjects had exclusively very good results. It does, however, open the way for a larger-scale exploration to enhance decision-making.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Mean internal/external rotation in (a) EVCF (left) and (b) controls (right). Gray curve: landmarks based on optoelectronic markers; red curve: landmarks based on EOS radiographs.

Table 2

 2 Kinematic results in EVCF and controls (mean ± SD).

		Dorsiflexion ( • )		Plantar flexion ( • )		Inversion ( • )		Eversion ( • )
	Joint	EVCF	Control	EVCF	Control	EVCF	Control	EVCF	Control
	Ankle	9.0 ± 6.7	10.4 ± 4.6	10.0 ± 4.8	11.4 ± 3.6	6.4 ± 3.0	5.1 ± 3.4	8.7 ± 4.4	5.9 ± 4.0
	Hind/midfoot	5.6 ± 3.4	4.8 ± 2.2	5.2 ± 2.6	6.3 ± 2.2	3.6 ± 2.8	2.0 ± 1.2	4.3 ± 1.9	4.1 ± 1.8
	Mid/forefoot	2.8 ± 1.0	2.3 ± 1.3	4.0 ± 2.0	5.4 ± 2.5	3.0 ± 1.5	3.1 ± 2.4	2.3 ± 1.6	1.9 ± 2.1
	Hind/forefoot	7.5 ± 2.4	6.7 ± 2.3	7.3 ± 3.7	11.5 ± 3.0	6.4 ± 2.6	3.4 ± 2.0	4.5 ± 2.2	4.5 ± 2.5

Table 3

 3 Kinetic

and ground reaction force results in EVCF and controls (mean ± SD). EVCF Control 12.2 ± 2.

Funding

The authors thank Chaire ParisTech BiomecAM (personalized musculoskeletal modeling) for financial help.

determine more objectively the contribution if any of EOS radiography with optoelectronic markers in position.

The present preliminary study focused exclusively on EVCF, but could be extended to other pathologies, to enhance understanding, help diagnosis and improve treatment in lower-limb pathology. Notably, the QAM protocol of the Rizzoli Institute [START_REF] Leardini | Rear-foot, mid-foot and fore-foot motion during the stance phase of gait[END_REF] is contributive in case of clinical suspicion of specifically midfoot abnormality.

Disclosure of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interest.

Author contributions

V. Rampal: protocol, inclusion, data acquisition and processing, article writing. P.Y. Rohan, H. Pillet, A. Bonnet Lebrun: data processing and analysis.

M. Fonseca, E. Desailly: gait analysis protocol and acquisition. P. Wicart: inclusion, marker positioning, data analysis, reediting.

W. Skalli: data analysis, re-editing.


Dr Raluca Grosescu

Introduction "Justice, Memory and Transnational Networks. European and South American

Entanglements" 1

More than twenty years after Augusto Pinochet's arrest in London, this special issue examines the globalization of post-dictatorial and post-conflict justice and memory processes through the lens of interconnections and mutual influences between Europe and South America.

The collection challenges the currently dominant literature on reckoning with violent pasts. It does so by moving beyond both analyses confined within specific national borders and diffusionist accounts of so-called "universalised" justice and mnemonic paradigms purportedly embraced worldwide. The Trans-Atlantic perspective provides scholars with an ideal opportunity to analyse empirically the nexus between global and local scales of action, and to highlight agency in transnational mnemopolitics. Through case studies of trans-regional entanglements, we contend that the globalization of memory and justice paradigms goes hand in hand with a fragmentation of, and on occasion competition between different narratives concerning dictatorial pasts, between international, regional and local understandings of "best practices" of dealing with political violence, and between various professional groups engaged in accountability and remembrance processes. The collection shows the multi-faceted nature of transnational transfers and collaborations, some of which reflect concepts that have become significant in the international arena, while others mirror ideas and practices with limited global impact that circulate only between "semi-peripheries" or between less influential networks of activists.

Since the 1990s, accelerated globalization and increasing world connectivity have led to the circulation of justice and mnemonic models across the globe and to the emergence of a multitude of transnational spaces of activism concerned with anti-impunity and memorialization processes. Yet, the scarcity of empirically informed research examining concrete transfers and exchanges across world regions remains striking. We by and large still lack any thorough investigation of these linkages, comprising cross-border relations between non-state actors.

Against this background, the collection focuses on concrete forms of trans-regional mobilization and circulation of ideas between two continents -Europe and Latin America -that have been at the forefront of the global processes of judicialization of the past. At different conjunctures since 1945, these regions have produced ground-breaking justice and memory paradigms (e.g. international tribunals, truth commissions, forensic archaeology, global imagery relating to the Holocaust and the transnational icon of the "disappeared") that have circulated between the two continents, mutually influenced each other, and were later reappropriated worldwide. Trans-Atlantic interactions lie at the heart of the global history of reckoning with violent pasts. Their analysis sheds light on globalization processes beyond the two regions by revealing how transnational narratives on political violence are constructed, shared, or contested through various channels and networks, and how cross-border activism reinforces (or downplays) specific models of dealing with the past at national, regional and international levels. This helps us understand why certain justice and memory claims become dominant in certain situations and even acquire global momentum, while others remain peripheral even though they may circulate between particular socio-political spaces.

Two approaches have so far dominated the scholarship on post-dictatorial and postconflict justice and memory. The prevailing one has provided analyses of national case studies or comparative accounts of countries viewed as discrete units, thereby neglecting entanglements across national borders and world regions. It has thus overlooked the impact of globalization on specific national settings and has sought to explain memorialization dynamics by reference to domestic variables alone. This line of inquiry was inaugurated at the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s by the first comparative studies on the "third wave of democratization", 2 and was succeeded by a burgeoning literature on transitional justice (TJ) in , 1991).

causal relationships between the implementation of various justice mechanisms and the prospects for democratization, identified factors that influence the processes of reckoning with past violence, and often drew prescriptive conclusions about whether and when to punish crimes committed under dictatorial rule. The focus was on the internal variables that frame transitional justice (e.g. the nature of the former regime, the modalities of exit from dictatorship, or the post-dictatorial struggles for political power), whereas external determinants such as the degree of regional integration, the role of transnational cooperation and the international shifts in memory and justice regimes, were overlooked. [START_REF] Dobry | Les voies incertaines de la transitologie. Choix stratégiques, séquences historiques, bifurcations et processus de la Path Dependence[END_REF] This literature paid scant attention to the manner in which interactions and movements of people and ideas between countries and regions have altered processes of dealing with painful pasts. Methodological nationalism did not explain how and why some accountability norms and models may acquire global significance, while others remain locally embedded. Nor did it account for the manner in which international norms are translated into local systems and are recast or rejected as a function of particular cultural, social and political contexts.

In the last twenty years, as the study of memory has become increasingly transnational, a second approach to the study of post-dictatorial and post-conflict justice and memory has emerged. An influential macro-sociological perspective has pointed to the rise of a so-called "cosmopolitan" regime of justice and memory, based on a "universal" ethics of human rights created around the Holocaust. Theorising concepts such as "cosmopolitan", 5

"multidirectional", [START_REF] Rothberg | Multidirectional Memory: Remembering the Holocaust in the Age of Decolonisation[END_REF] or "global" memory, [START_REF]Memory in a Global Age. Discourses, Practices and Trajectories[END_REF] various authors contend that the Holocaust imaginary has provided the foundations for a new remembrance regime that transcends ethnic and national boundaries, uniting Europe and other parts of the world around a shared ethos of human rights. [START_REF] Rousso | Vers une mondialisation de la mémoire[END_REF] These ground-breaking works are however somewhat abstract and normative in nature. Most of them lack a systematic analysis of the variety of actors involved in memorialization processes, with their specific political views and strategies of legitimization in national and international arenas. This literature consequently tends to overgeneralize global trends without offering in-depth analysis of the transnational structures, agents, and practices that shape the global realms of justice and memory. It also stresses the utopian potentialities of a "universalized" memory and overlooks the contested nature, limits, and inequalities characterizing the global field of symbolic politics that it enables. Finally, such a perspective neglects the competition between various victims' groups who use and endorse the same international norms while engaging in mnemonic battles, creating hierarchies of victimhood and directly or indirectly downplaying each other's sufferings. 9

A growing number of authors have tried to correct these gaps and empirically examine the activity of specific transnational organizations and networks involved in such processes.

Inspired by constructivist theories of international relations and norm formation, many of them have emphasized the crucial role of transnational advocacy networks in transmitting ideas and norms from one country to another and in pressuring international organizations and local governments to seek justice for severe violations of human rights. [START_REF] Keck | Activists Beyond Borders. Advocacy Networks in International Politics[END_REF] These scholars have provided in-depth analyses of the transnational mobilizations of Latin American activists and their cooperation with European and American partners in order to overcome impunity. This collaboration has not only created a "boomerang effect" that led to the reopening of trials against former military leaders in the Latin America, but also prompted the revival of proaccountability discourses concerning Francoist crimes in Spain and influenced memory processes in Eastern Europe. [START_REF] Baer | Memory an Forgetting in the Post-Holocaust Era. The Ethics of Never Again[END_REF] This scholarship has highlighted how cross-border mobilizations impact multidirectionally on the local politics of dealing with the past and thereby serve to create an anti-impunity ethos at the international level. It has fostered an optimistic and bottomup approach to the globalization of international norms and mnemonic regimes, akin to theories of "grassroots globalization". 12 According to this approach, increasing world connectivity creates new lines of communication and solidarity within the global arena and facilitates multiple forms of cooperation between various actors and projects. In this understanding, socalled "peripheral" actors are able to an important role in the modification of hegemonic narratives (be they national, regional, or international), using various channels of communication and lobbying, including supra-national organizations and global NGOs. 13 Within these complex interactions, memories and justice claims emerge in relation to other memories, from which they borrow resources, recognition or models of interpretation.

This idealist view regarding international norm formation and transnational cooperation has been challenged by critical human rights and TJ studies. Various scholars have underlined the mismatches between "one-size-fits-all" frameworks created in international forums and the local cultures and political contexts to which they are applied. 14 From this perspective, the globalization of standardized "toolkits" for dealing with violent pasts results from the increasing institutionalization and professionalization of an international milieu of experts, which in turn shapes global standards of post-conflict resolution. to impose their own interpretations of the recent past. 17 Building on this scholarship, the case studies presented in this collection combine political sociology and transnational history in order to move beyond both methodological nationalism and abstract readings of the global. They avoid diffusionist interpretations of the rise of a "universal" human rights paradigm by exploring a wide range of trans-regional networks and the way they construct, export, and re-appropriate ideas across the Atlantic.

Authors investigate how spatially and historically grounded mechanisms are shaped by globalization processes and how the local itself moulds, in turn, the global. They therefore emphasize the mechanisms by which memories and justice standards are shared, transformed and negotiated through transnational channels, while maintaining their local rootedness.

By examining both the circulation of justice and memory paradigms and the transnational actors involved in this process, the collection brings an original perspective in three main areas.

First, it investigates how ideas and instruments of reckoning with political violence circulate across borders and are adopted, recast or rejected according to specific political and cultural contexts. This process is driven by different local memory and justice entrepreneurs who promote or oppose transnational standards in order to further their own interests in struggles for symbolic recognition, justice, or political power. Their actions are shaped by international opportunity structures as well as local political and institutional settings that both endow them with resources and place constraints on them. This approach underscores the complex interactions between local, national, regional, and international agendas of activism. the Chilean transition of 1988. Spanish politicians, publicists, and academics promoted all over Latin America their vision of collective amnesty and official oblivion with the putative assumption that it would be the only appropriate approach to peaceful democratization. Despite its highly polemical dimension in the Spanish public sphere and its failure to affect the Argentinian TJ process, this set of tropes and narratives was embraced in Chile and ultimately led to the mutual validation of the two "pacted" transitions. Yet the Spanish "model" was not Third, the special issue identifies and examines a broad spectrum of actors (e.g. lawyers, historians, museum experts, architects, journalists, intellectuals, diasporas) who generate narratives about dictatorial pasts and circulate/recast them between continents and at a global level. This approach sheds light on the construction of the label of "crime" in various socioprofessional fields and shows how the judicialization of the past both draws upon, and influences, other interconnected social spaces where discourses about dictatorships are produced (e.g. historiography, victims' activism, heritage). The collection thus offers an integrated perspective on the transnational activity of various socio-professional groups in their attempts to criminalize (or decriminalize) dictatorial regimes and violent conflicts.

Emilio Crenzel shows how the genocidal narrative concerning the Argentinean dictatorship was fostered by actors situated in multiple professional fields, such as law, history, and sociology. In order to scrutinize the emergence of a global memorial architectural regime, Gruia Badescu's paper explains how a constellation of competing actors including architects, politicians and activists, as well as a Croatian Chilean community, have been involved in the memorialization process of Dawson island. Daniel Kressel emphasizes that the successful exportation of the Spanish "model" to Chile (and more broadly to Latin America) resulted from the shared endeavour of politicians, publicists, and social scientists who joined forces to promote the "pacted transition". In her paper on corporate accountability for human rights violations, Raluca Grosescu also depicts the existence of a fragmented field of knowledge and practice where different professional networks seek to achieve justice, but also to impose themselves as the legitimate agents of these same accountability processes.

The special issue demonstrates that the modalities of reckoning with violent pasts do not stem only from, and do not necessarly create a global trend towards a universalized model.

International norms do produce effects at a local level, but other dynamics are also in play.

Memory and justice entrepreneurs circulate in a variety of ways -between Europe and Latin America, between international organizations and local communities, but also horizontally between local communities across Europe and across the American continent. Through such circulation, these actors reinterpret global ways of dealing with the past while inventing or promoting lesser-known but equally powerful tools. To be sure, fragmentation and competition in the global arena represent the other side of globalization.

  Since the 1970s, the Holocaust has gained central stage, as the ultimate symbol of barbarism, in Western remembrance regimes. In the 1990s, post-communist countries adopted the Western canonical representation of the Holocaust and acknowledged their share of responsibility in the extermination of the Jews, as prescribed during the European enlargement process. But they simultaneously claimed a status of "double victimhood" based on the putative equivalence of Stalinism and Nazism. In European-level debates, their calls for equal treatment of Nazi and Communist legacies in terms of historical reckoning, collective remembrance and legal accountability repeatedly clashed with established Western memory cultures.

  imitated in its entirety in post-Pinochet Chile. Although they had borrowed from Spain the arguments for a general amnesty, Chilean politicians rejected the closing-down of historical investigations into the crimes of the dictatorship that had accompanied the post-Francoist transition. They appropriated instead the model of the truth commission established in neighbouring Argentina in 1983, proposing thus a new vision of dealing with the past based on "truth without justice". In a similar vein, Emilio Crenzel's article analyses the uses of the concept of genocide in Argentinean trials held in the 2000s with respect to gross violations of human rights perpetrated under the last military dictatorship(1976-1983). It demonstrates how numerous human rights activists, academics and judges -acting at both national and transnational level -recast and expanded the international definition of genocide in order to incorporate the political crimes committed in Argentina and to inscribe the military dictatorship in the dreadful history of bureaucratically organized atrocities of the twentieth century. Crenzel highlights how this characterization -built upon the memorialization of the Holocaust in Argentina since 1945 -poses two main obstacles to the historical understanding of the crimes committed under the last dictatorships: it portrays society as a whole either as completely removed from the crimes or as a victim of them; and it obliterates the victims' political commitment. David Copello's article examines the transatlantic circulations of the concept of "rupture strategy", popularized by French lawyer Jacques Vergès in the early 1960s during the Algerian war of decolonization. It shows how Argentinean radical left lawyers engaged in the defence of revolutionary activists judged by military authoritarian courts imported this concept and adapted it to the Argentinian context in the 1970s. The anti-colonial rhetoric that informed Vergès's thinking was recast to fit the political specificity of Latin America, perceived by Marxist lawyers as a semi-colony of foreign Anglo-Saxon capitalism. In the 1980s, however, the same radical lawyers came to reject the legitimacy of the "rupture strategy", because it was now used by the defence of the military leaders in the junta trials. Copello's socio-historical perspective, based on a precise reconstruction of the Argentinian legal field, emphasizes the dealignment of symbolic frames that interfered in the continued importation of rupture strategy in this country. Gruia Badescu surveys the circulation of design and museographic approaches between two remote but entangled memory sites, namely Goli Otok (an island off the Croatian coast that housed a political prison in socialist Yugoslavia) and Punta Arenas (a small town in South Chile where a memorial commemorates the deportation of the members of the Allende government to Dawson island after 1973). The paper inquires how local initiatives have been connected by the circulation of concepts and practices through cross-border professional networks involved in memorialization, such as the "bare walls" approach focused on the authenticity of the site, which is widely used in Latin America. But it also shows how memorial practices may be decontextualized and reshaped to fit local dynamics, with the complex legacy of Yugoslavism offering a clear contrast to the Croatian/Chilean history of Dawson island.Memorial landscaping in Goli Otok and Punta Arenas thus reflects both local politics of memory and transnational practices of memorialization designed to elicit an emotional response from museum visitors.Second, the collection contributes to studies of transnational activism. It emphasizes the existence of different transnational advocacy networks (TANs) that sometimes promote diverging justice and memory agendas and compete with each other in the global arena.Grasping the relations of both cooperation and conflict between various TANs provides a subtle understanding of why contrasting approaches to reckoning with the past co-exist and challenge one another not only at a local or national level, but also in transnational spaces of activism.The ideological and professional cleavages that shape the existence of different TANs and their subsequent views on dealing with particular violent episodes thus come to light.Caroline Moine analyses the competition between pro-and anti-Pinochet campaigners in (West) Germany since the 1970s. In contrast to a vast literature that has focused only on the solidarity movement with the victims of the regime, she traces opposing networks of activism concerned with denouncing or covering up the crimes of the dictatorship. The German sect "Colonia Dignidad" is especially instructive in this regard. Established in Chile in 1960, the sect became one of the main pillars of the Chilean repressive apparatus after 1973. Moine illustrates the conflicts between, on the one hand, human rights campaigners clustered around Amnesty International and leftist foundations, such as Friedrich Ebert, who sought to criminalize Pinochet's regime, and on the other hand, conservative supporters of Colonia Dignidad who denied the existence of political repression and hailed Pinochet as the champion of anti-communism. Tobias Rupprecht focuses on the subsequent promotion of a Chilean "authoritarian modernization strategy" worldwide. Rupprecht examines the trips Pinochet made to Asia, Southern Africa, continental Europe and Latin America after stepping down as head of state in 1990. His appearances inevitably provoked a variety of public debates, political reactions and legal consequences -with many Eastern European conservative and liberal economists using the "Chilean model" as legitimation for their own anti-communism and projects of neoliberal transformation. In Russia, China and Malaysia this "model" become a source of inspiration for an authoritarian path of modernization. Ruprecht argues that opposing attitudes towards the Chilean visitor reflected how different groups positioned and envisioned themselves in the transformative period after 1989, thereby complementing and partly challenging Western-centric views on post-Cold War criminalization of the past. A third article, by Raluca Grosescu, explores the repertoires of contentious action and the pro-accountability strategies of two TANs concerned with holding corporations and their representatives accountable for international crimes committed during the Argentinean dictatorship and the Colombian conflict. Grosescu argues that although transnational collaboration plays an important role in exerting pressure for corporate liability, this is not a linear process. Such cooperation involves negotiations over divergent visions of dealing with state violence held by actors who defend their own professional interests and promote different local/regional/global agendas of activism.

  Vol. 19 (2010), pp. 161-189; Sophie Baby, "¿Latinoamérica : un desvío necesario? Baltasar Garzón, de Pinochet a Franco", Amnis [On line] http://amnis.revues.org/1485, 2 (2011), (accessed 22 February 2019). 12 Arjun Appadurai, "Grassroots Globalization and the Research Imagination", Public Culture, Vol. 12, No. 1 (2000), pp. 1-19.13 Assman and Conrad, op. cit., pp. 1-2. 14 See for example Rosemary Nagy, "Transitional Justice as Global Project: Critical Reflections", Third World Quarterly,Vol. 29, No. 2 (2008), pp. 275-289; Nina Schneider and Marcia Esparza (eds.), Legacies of StateViolence and Transitional Justice in Latin America. A Janus-Faced Paradigm? (London: Lexington Books, 2015).

	15 Sandrine Lefanc, "La professionnalisation d'un militantisme réformateur du droit: l'invention de la justice
	transitionnelle", Droit et Société, No. 73 (2009), pp. 561-589; Paige Arthur, 'How "Transitions" Reshaped Human

15

Although this milieu does not necessarily reflect a North-South division, it often overlooks national histories, traditions and political contexts, as well as the demands and expectations of local communities, particularly those from developing countries.

16

In a similar vein, critical approaches to memory politics have shed light on the intense memory struggles that broke out in post-Cold War Europe between competing actors seeking Social, Rights: A Conceptual History of Transitional Justice,' Human Rights Quarterly Vol. 31, No. 2 (2009), pp.321-367. 16 Sally Engle Marry, Human Rights and Gender Violence. Translating International Law Into Local Justice (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2006); Delphine Lecombe, "Mobilisations autour d'un modèle de sortie de conflit. La Commission Nationale de Réparation et Réconciliation : une 'commission de vérité et réconciliation' (CVR) colombienne ?", Raisons politiques, Vol. 29, No. 1 (2008), pp. 59-75.

This special issue is the result of the research project The Criminalization of Dictatorial Pasts in Europe and Latin America in Global Perspective, funded by the AHRC "Care for the Future" (UK) and the LABEX "Les Passés dans le Présent". Sophie Baby and Laure Neumayer also wish to thank the Institut Universitaire de France for its generous support of this research. Raluca Grosescu acknowledges also the support of the Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation, through the CNCS -UEFISCDI project PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2016-1063.