Ariadna Nieto-Espinet

Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas

Delphine Bosch

Armelle Gardeisen

Livestock production, politics and trade: A glimpse from Iron Age and Roman Languedoc

Keywords:

Mobility is crucial in animal husbandry to overcome scarcity of food and the related over-grazing of pastures. It is also essential to reduce the inbreeding rate of animal populations, which is known to have a negative impact on fertility and productivity. Complex societies with a strong territorial component developed during the Iron Age in Southern France and across Europe. The impact of this phenomenon over animal husbandry is not yet fully understood, but a general small size of animals is attested in different parts of Europe at that time.

This paper presents the main zooarchaeological results (main domesticates species representation, mortality profiles, osteometry, pathologies) of two major Iron Age sites in Languedoc -La Monédière (Bessan) and Lattara (Lattes). In addition, the strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) of 44 sheep and 16 cattle teeth from these sites are provided together with some baseline isotopic data. La Monédière and Lattara represent good case studies to characterise the geographic range of meat provisioning in coastal urban centres in the mid Iron Age (6th-4th c. BC). Their archaeological record enables us to analyse whether different species may have had different mobility patterns. In addition the strontium ratios of 4 Roman cattle from these sites were analysed for comparative purposes. The results are contextualised with other archaeological and zooarchaeological data from Languedoc and neighbour Catalonia, and suggest that the socio-political context has a major influence on animal production.

Introduction

Animal mobility allows the mitigation of periods when limited pasture is available. It is also essential to reduce the inbreeding rate of animal populations, which is known to have a negative impact on fertility and productivity (e.g. [START_REF] Baker | Effect of inbreeding on the growth curves of height at withers, weight, and heart girth of Holstein females[END_REF][START_REF] Sutherland | Effects of inbreeding on size and type in Holstein-Friesian cattle[END_REF][START_REF] Dickerson | Inbreeding and heterosis in animals[END_REF]Pedrosa et al., 2010;[START_REF] Berry | Genetics and genomics of reproductive performance in dairy and beef cattle[END_REF]. Complex societies with a strong territorial component developed during the Iron Age in Southern France and across Europe (e.g. [START_REF] Py | Évolution des rapports sociaux de la fin de l'âge du Bronze à la conquête romaine en Languedoc oriental[END_REF]Johnson and Earle,1987;[START_REF] Py | Les Gaulois du Midi, de la fin de l'âge du Bronze à la conquête romaine[END_REF][START_REF] Brun | From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe[END_REF][START_REF] Asensio | Paisatges ibèrics. Tipus d'assentaments i formes d'ocupació del territori a la costa central de Catalunya durant el període ibèric ple[END_REF][START_REF] Sanmartí | Urbanización y desarrollo de estructuras estatales en la costa de Cataluña (siglos VII-III aC)[END_REF][START_REF] Collis | The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions[END_REF][START_REF] López-Cachero | Society and economy in the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in the Northeast of the Iberian Peninsula: an approach from the archaeological sources[END_REF][START_REF] Kristiansen | Interpreting Bronze Age trade and migration[END_REF]. This is perceivable in the archaeological record through different evidences. The settlement pattern changed from open-air settlements located on the plains to fortified villages located on hilltops with incresingly complex defensive structures (e.g. [START_REF] Dedet | Les enceintes protohistoriques de Gaule méridionale[END_REF][START_REF] Beylier | Traditions indigènes et innovations dans les fortifications de l'aire languedocienne à l'âge du Fer: l'exemple de Pech Maho (Sigean, aude) et du Cayla de Mailhac (Aude)[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Innovations architecturales et processus d'acculturation au VIe s. av. n. ère sur le littoral languedocien. L'exemple de Pech Maho[END_REF][START_REF] Bagan | Approche historique de la géographie des comptoirs littoraux à l'Âge du Fer en Méditerranée occidentale à travers l'exemple du port de Lattara (Lattes, Hérault)[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF]etc). Other evidences are the growing presence of warrior equipment in the tombs and severed heads nailed to walls and gate spaces (e.g: [START_REF] Janin | L'évolution du Bronze final IIIB et la transition Bronze-Fer en Languedoc occidental d'après la culture matérielle des nécropoles[END_REF][START_REF] Dedet | Rites funéraires protohistoriques dans les garrigues languedociennes: approche ethno-archéologique[END_REF][START_REF] Dedet | Étrusques, grecs et indigènes dans les Garrigues du Languedoc oriental au premier âge du fer. Habitats et sépultures[END_REF][START_REF] Arcelin | La France du Sud-Est:(Languedoc-Roussillon, Midi-Pyrénées, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur)[END_REF][START_REF] Beylier | L'armement et le guerrier en Méditerranée nord-occidentale au premier âge du Fer. Lattes[END_REF]. In the case of the area of the Gulf of Lion, these changes are related to the spread of iron technology, which is thought to have favoured cereal production and demographic increase, which subsequently led to increased pressure over resources and territoriality (e.g. [START_REF] Garcia | Observations sur la production et le commerce des céréales en Languedoc méditerranéen durant l'âge du Fer: les formes de stockage des grains[END_REF][START_REF] Sanmartí | From local groups to early states: The development of complexity in protohistoric Catalonia[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF].

The impact of this phenomenon over animal husbandry is not yet fully understood, but a general small size of animals is attested in different parts of Europe at that time (e.g. [START_REF] Matolcsi | Historische Erforschung der Körpergrösse des Rindes auf Grund von ungarischem Knochenmaterial[END_REF][START_REF] Bökönyi | History of Domestic Animals in Central and Eastern Europe[END_REF][START_REF] Altuna | Historia de la domesticación en el País Vasco desde sus orígenes hasta la romanización[END_REF][START_REF] Ijzereef | Bronze Age Animal Bones from Bovenkarspel: The Excavations at Het Valkje[END_REF][START_REF] Méniel | Contribution à l'histoire de l'élevage en Picardie du Néolithique à la fin de l'Âge du Fer[END_REF][START_REF] Vigne | Les mammifères post-glaciaires de Corse, étude archéozoologique[END_REF][START_REF] Audoin-Rouzeau | La taille du boeuf domestique en Europe de l'Antiquité aux temps modernes[END_REF][START_REF] Lepetz | Effets de la romanisation sur l'élevage et la diète carnée dans les établissements ruraux du nord de la Gaule. L'exemple de l'augmentation de la stature des animaux domestiques[END_REF][START_REF] Peters | Römische Tierhaltung und Tierzucht: eine Synthese aus archäozoologischer Untersuchung und schrif-tlich-bildlicher Überlieferung[END_REF][START_REF] Breuer | Größenveränderungen des Hausrindes. Osteometrische Untersuchungen großer Fundserien aus der Nordschweiz von der Spätlatènezeit bis ins Frühmittelalter am Beispiel von Basel, Augst (Augusta Raurica) und Schleitheim-Brüel[END_REF][START_REF] Forest | À propos de la corpulence des bovins en France durant les périodes historiques[END_REF][START_REF] Frémondeau | Pigs and cattle in Gaul: the role of Gallic societies in the evolution of husbandry practices[END_REF][START_REF] Valenzuela-Oliver | Tracing Changes in Animal Husbandry in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean) from the Iron Age to the Roman Period[END_REF][START_REF] Colominas | Animal husbandry and hunting practices in Hispania Tarraconensis: An overview[END_REF][START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Animal husbandry across the Western Roman Empire: changes and continuities[END_REF][START_REF] Duval | Boeufs gaulois et boeufs français: morphologies animales et dynamiques économiques au cours de La Tène et des périodes historiques[END_REF]. The reasons behind the small size of animals are not clear, and explanations include preference for smaller more manageable animals [START_REF] Clutton-Brock | Domesticated Animals from Early Times[END_REF], consequence of climatic changes [START_REF] Davis | The effects of temperature change and domestication on the body size of Late Pleistocene to Holocene mammals of Israel[END_REF], intensification of sub-adult breeding [START_REF] Manning | Size Reduction in Early European Domestic Cattle Relates to Intensification of Neolithic Herding Strategies[END_REF] and impact of socio-political context [START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Animal husbandry across the Western Roman Empire: changes and continuities[END_REF][START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep? Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian peninsula during the Iron Age based on strontium isotopic analyses of sheep and goat tooth enamel[END_REF].

This paper aims to contribute to this debate through the combination of archaeological, zooarchaeological and strontium isotopic data from two major Iron Age sites in the Gulf of Lion -La Monédière and Lattara. These sites constitute outstanding examples of the process of local elite emergence and redistribution of Mediterranean products towards the interior plain. Aspects discussed here include the characteristics of the settlement pattern, Mediterranean trade, herding practices, pathologies related to inbreeding, and strontium isotopic variability as a proxy of the catchment area/mobility of caprines (sheep and goats) and cattle from these sites. In this respect, strontium data from 44 Iron Age caprines and 20 cattle (16 dated from the Iron Age, 4 dated from Roman times) are provided.

Settlement pattern and trade in the area of Gulf of Lion during the Iron Age

Amphorae finds suggest that the lower valley of the Hérault river (present-day Languedoc, France) was an area of intense contacts between the local population and Mediterranean traders from the 7th c. BC onwards (e.g. [START_REF] Nickels | Contribution des fouilles de l'arrière-pays d'Agde à l'étude du problème des rapports entre Grecs et indigènes en Languedoc (VIe-Ve siècles)[END_REF][START_REF] Nickels | Les Grecs en Gaule: l'exemple du Languedoc[END_REF]Ugolini and Olive, 1991a;[START_REF] Py | Le Cailar (Gard). Un nouveau comptoir lagunaire protohistorique au confluent du Rhôny et du Vistre. Documents d'archéologie méridionale[END_REF][START_REF] Ugolini | Présences étrangères méditerranéennes sur la côte du Languedoc-Roussillon durant l'âge du Fer: de la fréquentation commerciale aux implantations durables[END_REF][START_REF] Mazière | La circulació d'àmfores al Mediterrani occidental durant la Protohistòria (segles VIII-III aC): aspectes quantitatius i anàlisi de contiguts[END_REF][START_REF] Ugolini | La circulació d'àmfores al Mediterrani occidental durant la Protohistòria (segles VIII-III aC): aspectes quantitatius i anàlisi de continguts, II Reunió[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF]. This coincided in time with the spread of iron technology and the increase of fortified settlements on hilltops as well as some stone-built sites close to the littoral like La Monédière and Lattara [START_REF] Py | Bilan des recherches archéologiques sur la ville portuaire de Lattara (Lattes, Hérault)[END_REF][START_REF] Garcia | La Celtique méditerranéenne, habitats et sociétés en Languedoc et en Provence VIIIè-IIè siècle avant J.-C[END_REF][START_REF] Garcia | Urbanization and spatial organization in southern France and northeastern Spain during the Iron Age[END_REF][START_REF] Beylier | Traditions indigènes et innovations dans les fortifications de l'aire languedocienne à l'âge du Fer: l'exemple de Pech Maho (Sigean, aude) et du Cayla de Mailhac (Aude)[END_REF][START_REF] Janin | Lattara/Lattes (Hérault): nouveaux acquis, nouvelles questions sur une ville portuaire protohistorique et romaine[END_REF][START_REF] Janin | Grecs et Celtes en Languedoc[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF] (Fig. 1). From the 6th c. BC, Greek influence is more apparent [START_REF] Nickels | Les Grecs en Gaule: l'exemple du Languedoc[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF], and the colony of Massalia (presentday Marseille) was founded in the Eastern part of the Gulf. Nevertheless, Etruscan materials -most notably amphorae -were also well represented [START_REF] Ugolini | La circulació d'àmfores al Mediterrani occidental durant la Protohistòria (segles VIII-III aC): aspectes quantitatius i anàlisi de continguts, II Reunió[END_REF][START_REF] Mazière | La circulació d'àmfores al Mediterrani occidental durant la Protohistòria (segles VIII-III aC): aspectes quantitatius i anàlisi de contiguts[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF][START_REF] Curé | La céramique de cuisine tournée et les pratiques culinaires à l'âge du Fer en Gaule méditerranéenne[END_REF]. This is particularly evident at Lattara, one of the main trading ports in the region, located in the Eastern part of the Hérault valley.

From the 5th c. BC, Greek presence increased even further and the port-of-trade of Agathé (present-day Agde) was founded under the influence of Massalia [START_REF] Nickels | Les Grecs en Gaule: l'exemple du Languedoc[END_REF]. This entailed some restructuration in its hinterland and some indigenous sites, like La Monédière, were abandoned [START_REF] Beylier | Banquets et rites collectifs au ve s. av. J.-C. au sein de l'habitat de la Monédière à Bessan (Hérault): caractérisation et signification d'une fosse hors norme et des dépôts associés[END_REF].

In this context of strong intensification following iron technology and Mediterranean trade, it is currently accepted that there was an increase on cereal and wine production [START_REF] Alonso | Cultivos y producción agrícola en época ibérica[END_REF][START_REF] Méniel | Histoire de l'agriculture en Gaule. 500 av[END_REF][START_REF] Wells | The Iron Age[END_REF][START_REF] Alagich | Using stable isotopes and functional weed ecology to explore social differences in early urban contexts: The case of Lattara in mediterranean France[END_REF] that led to the development of trade and a market economy beyond the local or even the regional scale [START_REF] Dietler | Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France[END_REF][START_REF] Janin | Grecs et Celtes en Languedoc[END_REF][START_REF] Wells | The Iron Age[END_REF]. In this context of intensification and Mediterranean trade, were domestic animals part of the maritime exchanges? Did territoriality and conflict -as evidenced by severed heads and the spread of weapons and fortifications -shaped animal husbandry somehow?

Archaeological context: La Monédière and Lattara

The site of La Monédière (Bessan, Hérault; from here onwards MON) is located about 6 km northwest of Agde, on the western bank of the Hérault river (Fig. 1). With an estimated area of about 4.5 ha, it occupied the end of an interfluve of approximately triangular shape, elevated about ten meters above the fluvial plain. This small promontory, formed during the Riss glacial period, is composed of gravel, sand and colluviums that constitute the base of the protohistoric habitat. There are no evidences of occupation prior to the 6th c. BC, and the site was abandoned when the Greek colony of Agathe was founded (late 5th c.-early 4th c. BC). The abundance of amphorae and the situation of the site -close to the coast and in close contact with the interior area of the plain, rich in mineral resources [START_REF] Garcia | Entre Ibères et Ligures: Lodévois et moyenne vallée de l'Hérault protohistoriques[END_REF] -suggests that the settlement had a redistributive function closely related with the Mediterranean trade, both Etruscan and Greek [START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF][START_REF] Beylier | Résidence de l' oppidum, L' habitat protohistorique de La Monédière, Bessan, La Monédière (Hérault)[END_REF]. New archaeological data confirmed the importance of the Mediterranean influence in the material culture and architecture of the site [START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF][START_REF] Beylier | Résidence de l' oppidum, L' habitat protohistorique de La Monédière, Bessan, La Monédière (Hérault)[END_REF][START_REF] Beylier | Banquets et rites collectifs au ve s. av. J.-C. au sein de l'habitat de la Monédière à Bessan (Hérault): caractérisation et signification d'une fosse hors norme et des dépôts associés[END_REF].

Lattara (Lattes, Hérault; from here onwards LSS) is located 6 km south of Montpellier, in a lagoon area at the mouth of the Lez River, in a small gulf. The settlement was a very important port-of-trade in the Mediterranean from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century AD [START_REF] Janin | Lattara/Lattes (Hérault): nouveaux acquis, nouvelles questions sur une ville portuaire protohistorique et romaine[END_REF]. From its foundation at the end of the 7th century BC some elements suggest the presence of exogenous communities in the site (possibly Etruscan; [START_REF] Lebeaupin | Lattara et l'Étrurie: Nouvelles données sur l'installation d'un comptoir vers 500 av[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF][START_REF] Daveau | Grecs et Etrusques à Lattes: nouvelles données à partir des fouilles de la Cougourlude. Contacts et acculturations en Méditerranée occidentale. Hommages[END_REF]. But from the 5th century BC (475-450 BCE), imported pottery finds indicate a reorientation of the commercial activity of the city, now dominated by the Greek colony of Marseille. The site stands as the largest indigenous habitat in this area, with a surface area of about 9 ha and an estimate population between 4000 and 4500 inhabitants (Py and Garcia, 1993: 33).

Materials and methods

Archeozoology: taxonomy, mortality profiles, biometry, pathologies

The relative frequencies of cattle (Bos taurus), sheep/goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus), and pigs (Sus scrofa) were quantified on the basis of the number of identified specimens (NISP). Although subject to several systematic biases, NISP offers a widely employed and easy to calculate method of assessing the relative frequency of different species [START_REF] Lyman | Quantitative palaeozoology[END_REF].

The analyzed assemblages have a significant number of animal remains in both settlements (Table 1). The material originates from habitat contexts or from specialized deposits linked to economic activities. In the case of the Monédière, unpublished data from the archaeozoological studies from habitat areas are presented for the first time [START_REF] Nieto-Espinet | Annexe 7. Premiers résultats des études des assemblages fauniques du site de La Monédière[END_REF][START_REF] Nieto-Espinet | Les assemblages fauniques de la zone 12. Les assemblages fauniques de la zone 12. Résultats préliminaires[END_REF]. For Lattara some unpublished data are coupled to those previously published [START_REF] Gardeisen | Economie de production animale et exploitation du milieu à Lattes au cours du IVe siècle avant notre ère[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | Contribution de l'archéozoologie des grands mammifères à l'étude d'un espace ouvert en contexte urbain: La zone 123 (Lattes/Saint-Sauveur, Hérault)[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | Terrestres ou volants: les animaux dans la ville antique de Lattes[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | Gestion des animaux de bouche au cours du Ve s. av. notre ère dans le Midi méditerranéen (-475/-375): un aperçu lattois[END_REF]Gardeisen, in this paper).

The anatomical and taxonomic identifications and classifications of the materials based on the reference collections of the Laboratory of Archaeology of the University of Lleida (Spain) and the Laboratory of Archaeology of the CNRS-UMR 5140 (Montpellier, France). This was completed with diagnostic criteria from different atlases and catalogues for distinction between sheep and goat [START_REF] Boessneck | Diferencias osteológicas entre las ovejas (ovis aries linne) y cabras (capra hircus linne)[END_REF][START_REF] Payne | Morphological distinctions between the mandibular teeth of young sheep Ovis, and goats, Capra[END_REF]Fernandez, 2001;[START_REF] Halstead | Sorting the sheep from the goats: Morphological distinctions between the mandibles and mandibular teeth of adult Ovis and Capra[END_REF].

The age of slaughter was estimated for cattle and caprines (sheep and goats) from the degree of epiphysation of long bones [START_REF] Barone | Anatomie comparée des mammifères domestiques[END_REF], as well as tooth eruption and wear [START_REF] Silver | La determinación de la edad en los animales domésticos[END_REF][START_REF] Bull | Tooth eruption and epiphysial fusion in pigs and wild boar[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | Exploitation des prélèvements et fichiers de spécialité (PRL, FAUNE, OS)[END_REF][START_REF] Blaise | Economie animale et gestion des troupeaux au Néolithique final en Provence. Approche archéozoologique et contribution des analyses isotopiques de l'émail dentaire[END_REF]. The mortality profiles were calculated using a bayesian method that considers both long bones and mandibular ageing data [START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Assessment and prediction of mortality profiles. A Bayesian approach -Proposta i predicció de models d'aprofitament ramader[END_REF]. In a similar approach to that of [START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le midi de la France[END_REF], the histograms height shows the 'intensity' of killings by age group, the total number is expressed with the histogram area, and the line shows the survival curve expressed in percentage. For the interpretation and restitution of livestock management we considered different baseline works, most notably [START_REF] Redding | Decision making in subsistence herding of sheep and goats in the Middle East[END_REF][START_REF] Redding | Theoretical determinants of a herder's decisions: Modeling variation in the sheep/goat ratio[END_REF][START_REF] Payne | Kill-off patterns in sheep and goats: The mandibles from Aşvan Kale[END_REF][START_REF] Halstead | Mortality models and milking: Problems of uniformitarianism, optimality and equifinality reconsidered[END_REF][START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le midi de la France[END_REF][START_REF] Vigne | Was milk a "secondary product" in the Old World Neolithisation process? Its role in the domestication of cattle, sheep and goats[END_REF][START_REF] Blaise | L'élevage au Néolithique final dans le sud-est de la France: éléments de réflexion sur la gestion des troupeaux[END_REF][START_REF] Blaise | Economie animale et gestion des troupeaux au Néolithique final en Provence. Approche archéozoologique et contribution des analyses isotopiques de l'émail dentaire[END_REF]. These studies complement Payne's specialized management models as, in most cases, the prehistoric communities are likely to have had a mixed management model rather than a specialised one [START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le midi de la France[END_REF][START_REF] Helmer | The development of the exploitation of products from Capra and Ovis (meat, milk and flece) from the PPNB to the Early Bronze in the northerm Near East (8700 to 2000 BC cal.)[END_REF][START_REF] Blaise | Economie animale et gestion des troupeaux au Néolithique final en Provence. Approche archéozoologique et contribution des analyses isotopiques de l'émail dentaire[END_REF].

In order to contextualise the results from MON and LSS we compared NISP frequencies and biometric data from other contemporary sites in Hérault region and neighbour present-day Catalonia -an area strongly connected with Southern France. Each site was georeferenced to analyse the correlation between animal husbandry and ecology.

Osteometric analysis was based on 426 caprine measurementsfrom which 275 from Lattara, 33 from La Monédière and 118 from other sites in France (n = 39) and north Catalonia (n = 79) -and 325 cattle data -197 from Lattara, 50 from La Monédière and 46 from other sites in France and 32 from North Catalonia. Only limb bone length measurements following standards established by Von den [START_REF] Von Den Driesch | A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites: As developed by the Inst. für Palaeoanatomie[END_REF] were taken into account. Changes in animal size were assessed using size-index scaled Log Standard Index values (LSI) [START_REF] Meadow | The use of size index scaling techniques for research on archaeozoological collections from the Middle East[END_REF]. Published standards were used for cattle [START_REF] Nieto-Espinet | Element measure standard biometrical data from a cow dated to the Early Bronze Age (Minferri, Catalonia)[END_REF] and caprines [START_REF] Davis | Measurements of a group of adult female shetland sheep skeletons from a single flock: A baseline for zooarchaeologists[END_REF]. Log ratios offer a useful method for investigating animal size, because they allow measurements from different elements to be pooled into a larger sample of indices for each dimension (length and width). However, this method can lead to the overrepresentation of specimens that yield several measurements, a problem that is quickly compounded if a skeleton or articulating limb is included. To avoid over representation of articulating remains, our LSI analyses included only one measurement per specimen and one specimen from an articulating group of bones following the protocol described in [START_REF] Trentacoste | Pre-Roman improvements to agricultural production: Evidence from livestock husbandry in late prehistoric Italy[END_REF]. Bone widths were considered separately from lengths in order to assess two-dimensional change.

Strontium isotopic analysis

Strontium isotope ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) in tooth enamel can be used to analyse mobility patterns across geological landscapes as strontium substitutes for calcium in animal tissues (e.g. [START_REF] Comar | Strontium-calcium movement from soil to man[END_REF][START_REF] Toots | Strontium in fossil bones and the reconstruction of food chains[END_REF][START_REF] Chamberlain | The use of isotope tracers for identifying populations of migratory birds[END_REF][START_REF] Price | The characterization of biologically available strontium isotope ratios for the study of prehistoric migration[END_REF][START_REF] Bentley | Strontium isotopes from the earth to the archaeological skeleton: A review[END_REF]. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios vary geographically, primarily based on the distribution of local bedrock. In general, the older and more felsic a rock formation is, the higher the proportions of 87 Sr [START_REF] Faure | Isotopes: principles and applications[END_REF]. The 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio from vegetal samples can be used to produce maps of bioavailable strontium ratios [START_REF] Sillen | 87Sr/86Sr ratios in modern and fossil food-webs of the Sterkfontein Valley: implications for early hominid habitat preference[END_REF][START_REF] Hodell | Spatial variation of strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) in the Maya region: a tool for tracking ancient human migration[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Spatial variations in biosphere 87Sr/86Sr in Britain[END_REF][START_REF] Copeland | Strontium isotope evidence for landscape use by early hominins[END_REF] that then enable geographic sourcing. In addition, strontium isotope ratios from tooth dentine reflect the ones of the burial environment while dentine is susceptible to diagenetic alteration [START_REF] Budd | Differential diagenesis of strontium in archaeological human dental tissues[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Anglo-Saxon animal husbandry techniques revealed though isotope and chemical variations in cattle teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Price | The characterization of biologically available strontium isotope ratios for the study of prehistoric migration[END_REF]. For this reason, dentine can also be used as a proxy of the strontium ratio present in the archaeological site (e.g. [START_REF] Viner | Cattle mobility in prehistoric Britain: strontium iso-tope analysis of cattle teeth from Durrington Walls (Wiltshire, Britain)[END_REF][START_REF] Minniti | Widening the market. Strontium isotope analysis on cattle teeth from Owslebury (Hampshire, UK) highlights changes in livestock supply between the Iron Age and the Roman period[END_REF].

In order to assess the geographic origins of cattle and caprines (sheep and goats) in LSS and MON during the Iron Age, a total of 64 teeth were analysed: 9 cattle and 35 caprines from MON, and 7 cattle and 9 caprines from LSS, all dated between the 5th and the 4th c. BC according to pottery finds and contextual evidence. In addition, 4 Roman cattle (3 from LSS and 1 from MON) were analysed for comparative purposes.

We mainly selected third lower molars that were fully erupted and formed (closed roots) to facilitate data comparison as they are easily identified even when isolated. However, it was not always possible so 29 lower molars were also considered for sheep and goats and, in some cases, the wear stage corresponded to an early stage of tooth formation. In addition, an effort was made to sample teeth from the same side (right/left) in order to ensure that the analysed teeth corresponded to different individuals.

In order to have some comparative strontium isotopic data around the archaeological sites we analysed one sample from tooth dentine, one long bone sample and 6 present-day tree leaves.

The sampling and cleaning protocol for the archaeological samples and present-day tree leaves followed the ones described in [START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Analysis of seasonal mobility of sheep in Iron Age Catalonia (north-eastern Spain) based on strontium and oxygen isotope analysis from tooth enamel: First results[END_REF][START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep? Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian peninsula during the Iron Age based on strontium isotopic analyses of sheep and goat tooth enamel[END_REF]. A transversal slice from the protoconid of each archaeological tooth was cut using a dentist drill with a diamond cutter disc just above the enamel root junction (2-3 mm). The samples were then mechanically cleaned with a rotation drill to remove all the dirt, tartar and dentine. Further cleaning, strontium collection and isotopic analysis was developed at Géosciences Laboratory (CNRS, Montpellier, France) following standard protocols to Delphine Bosch (in Valenzuela-Lamas et al. 2018: 5). Strontium isotopic ratios were obtained using the Neptune + Thermo Scientific Multi-Collector Inductively-Coupled-Plasma Mass Spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) at the AETE-ISO platform (OSU OREME) from the University of Montpellier. Total chemistry blanks were less than 20 pg and thus negligible for this study. The samples were alternatively run with international NBS 987 standards using a sample-standard-bracketing measurement protocol wherein standards were run every 3 unknowns. The 88 Sr beam intensity for all standards and samples ranges from 8 V to 15 V. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotopic ratios were internally normalized from the instrumental bias using a value of 0.1194 for the 86 Sr/ 88 Sr ratio. Then the corrected ratios were normalized to the NBS 987 standards which gave a mean value of 0.710245 with a reproducibility of ± 0.000004 (2 s, n = 8) during the course of this study.

Results

Frequency of the main domesticates (%NISP) at La Monédière (MON) and Lattara (LSS)

The NISP counts from the two sites show that the domestic species represent about the 90% of the zooarchaeological record at both MON and LSS (Table 1). Bone remains from wild species are very scarce, although the frequence of wild species is higher at LSS in the levels dated from the 5th and 4th c. BC compared to the oppida located inland [START_REF] Columeau | L'animal pour l'homme: recherches sur l'alimentation carnée dans le sud de la France du néolithique au moyen-âge d'après les vestiges osseux[END_REF][START_REF] Columeau | Nouveau regard sur la chasse et l'élevage dans le sud et le sud-est de la Gaule, aux IVe et Ve s. ap. J.-C. et l'exemple de. Constantine (B.-du-Rh.)[END_REF][START_REF] Columeau | Alimentation carnée en Gaule du sud: VIIe s. av. J.-C.-XIVe s[END_REF]Gardeisen, 2008: 189). Both sites (MON and LSS) display a notable continuity in their meat diet during the Iron Age [START_REF] Gardeisen | Gestion des animaux de bouche au cours du Ve s. av. notre ère dans le Midi méditerranéen (-475/-375): un aperçu lattois[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | Contribution de l'archéozoologie des grands mammifères à l'étude d'un espace ouvert en contexte urbain: La zone 123 (Lattes/Saint-Sauveur, Hérault)[END_REF]. MON has a high frequency of caprines (72-77%) and a low frequency of bovine remains (13-14%) during the whole occupation of the site (6th-5th c. BC) (Table 1). In contrast, caprines represent 47% of NISP remains at LSS and bovines constitute 36-39% NISP, while pigs are 12-16% of NISP at LSS and only 9% at MON.

Mortality profiles at La Monédière (MON) and Lattara (LSS)

Both sites register the presence of both sheep and goats, with a higher frequency of sheep compared to goats. At MON, the mortality profiles of sheep and goats were put together to improve the robustness of the results. Given the predominance of sheep remains at MON, it is likely that the mortality profile mainly reflects sheep management (Fig. 2). The main peak is centred on the culled-off very young animals (0-2 months). This fits well with the 'A milk type' mortality profile according to [START_REF] Halstead | Mortality models and milking: Problems of uniformitarianism, optimality and equifinality reconsidered[END_REF] and [START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le midi de la France[END_REF], which exemplifies intensive milk exploitation. It must be noted that the exploitation of milk does not require the slaughter of the very young animals (a limited access to it would be enough see e.g. [START_REF] Halstead | Mortality models and milking: Problems of uniformitarianism, optimality and equifinality reconsidered[END_REF][START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le midi de la France[END_REF][START_REF] Vigne | Maîtrise et usages de l'élevage et des animaux domestiques au Néolithique : Quelques illustrations au Proche-Orient et en Europe[END_REF][START_REF] Helmer | The development of the exploitation of products from Capra and Ovis (meat, milk and flece) from the PPNB to the Early Bronze in the northerm Near East (8700 to 2000 BC cal.)[END_REF][START_REF] Vigne | Was milk a "secondary product" in the Old World Neolithisation process? Its role in the domestication of cattle, sheep and goats[END_REF], but it facilitates intensive milking. In this productive model, females are usually culled-off when milk production decreases, between 48 and 72 months. The profile at La Monédière is also compatible with this kind of management (Fig. 2). Despite the intensity of slaughters in the early stages, the majority of individuals were slaughtered in the meat optimum and when they reached their maximum weight as demonstrated by the mortality curve and histograms area. Wool exploitation would be also possible as it can start in the first-second year of life up to 48-84 months [START_REF] Torrent | La oveja y sus producciones[END_REF].

At LSS, the joint mortality profiles (sheep and goats together) were found to be centred on the slaughter of young animals (2-6 months) and 'old' adults (48-72 months), both in the 5th and the 4th century BCE (Fig. 2). The young caprines correspond to weaned animals that provide tender meat (type A meat following [START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le midi de la France[END_REF], and the 'old' adults likely correspond to animals in decreasing reproductive capacity. Previous works suggested that the mortality profile could correspond to an intensive production of wool (Gardeisen and Raux, 2000: 105). When considering sheep and goats separately (Fig. 2), it is clear that sheep lead the observed tendency (the number of sheep remains is significantly higher) but, interestingly, goats seem to follow a similar profile, in which most animals are slaughtered older than 48 months.

Cattle mortality profile at MON suggests that slaughter was focused on fully-grown animals (24-48 months), followed by animals aged between 48 and 72 months (Fig. 3). In contrast, cattle mortality profile for the 5th c. BC at LSS indicates a strong focus on animals between 48 and 72 months, followed by animals between 24 and 48 months. This tendency is even clearer for the 4th c. BC.

Animal size at La Monédière (MON) and Lattara (LSS)

Fig. 4 shows the log values for lengths and widths for cattle at MON and LSS (top). Length values at both sites are generally smaller than the Early Bronze Age cow from Catalonia used as a reference (Nieto-Espinet, 2018), especially cattle from the 4th century BC at LSS. Nevertheless, some length measurements are bigger than the reference cow, especially at MON. In contrast, width measurements are generally bigger thus suggesting that Iron Age animals at MON and LSS were robust compared to the reference Early Bronze Age cow. In addition, width measurements at MON display a bimodal distribution, while they are continuously distributed at LSS. When comparing LSS and MON, the size differences on cattle lengths were found not to be statistically significant, whereas they were statistically significant on width measurements (p = 0.005). Overall, cattle from the 4th century BC at LSS were significantly smaller (or slender) compared to 6th-5th century cattle at MON (see Tables 1 and2 in supplementary material). In addition, Roman cattle were found to be significantly bigger than the Iron Age ones (see Tables 6 and7 in supplementary material).

Concerning caprines (Fig. 4), sheep and goat measurements were considered separately whenever possible. Regarding goats, a sudden length decrease is attested at LSS from the 5th to the 4th century BCE, although more data would be needed to check the robustness of these results. This contrasts with the more stable size of sheep at the same site, although the length dataset is equally small. Sheep lengths at MON are smaller compared to LSS, but the differences between populations were found not to be statistically significant. Regarding widths, the biggest values are found at 4th century BC caprine remains from Lattara, but this probably results from the presence of both species, sheep and goats (i.e. goat width measurements are bigger compared to widths obtained on bones identified as unequivocally sheep). When comparing the different assemblages (Table 3 and4 4th century BCE goat widhts from LSS were found to be significantly bigger than the rest of data -excepting 5th-4th goats from LSS -and caprine widths from LSS were found to be different between the 5th and the 4th century BC. Given the presence of both species in these datasets we cannot assess the origin of the size difference (e.g. it could result from a higher presence of goat measurements in 4th century BC caprine dataset). Nevertheless, the differences were found to not be statistically significant and, therefore, we combined the data for a regional scale comparison.

Paleopathology at La Monédière (MON) and Lattara (LSS)

Pathologies can inform about dietary or work stress as well as inbreeding, among others [START_REF] Argant | Spatio-temporalpatterns in absent/reducedhypoconulids in mandibular third molarsamongst domestic cattle in north-westEurope: a preliminary investigation and somespeculations[END_REF]Nieto-Espinet et al., 2014: 95). The pathologies observed on cattle and caprine remains at MON and LSS related to dietary stress and inbreeding are reported here (e.g. fractures or pathologies with an infectious origin were not included). This totals 19 pathologies at MON and 16 at LSS (Table 10 in supplementary material).

Despite their low frequency compared to caprines and pigs, cattle both at MON and LSS concentrate the highest number of pathologies (n = 15 and n = 12 respectively). Pathologies were mainly observed on teeth, metapodials and phalanxes (see Table 10 in supplementary material for details). Other than exostoses on 7 remains, 4 upper third molars (M3) at MON had a singular wear pattern (Fig. 5). At LSS, a cattle bilobate M3 with a reduced hypoconulid was recorded together with a caprine lower M3 with an abnormal hypoconulid wear (Fig. 5). In addition, hypoplasia was observed on 3 teeth at MON.

Concerning the anomalous wear of the upper M3, a preliminary study presented at the Fifth Animal Palaeopathology Working Group Conference in Stockholm (May/June 2013) by Thierry Argant, Richard Thomas and James Morris, showed that high frequencies of the trait appear to occur in France in the Iron Age and at the beginning of the Roman period, and again in the medieval period. Some authors have interpreted the presence of this anomalous wear as a problem of occlusion caused because the cattle were maintained in smaller breeding groups, so that an uncommon genetic trait was more likely to be expressed in at least some herds (e.g: O'Connor, 2000; [START_REF] Argant | Spatio-temporalpatterns in absent/reducedhypoconulids in mandibular third molarsamongst domestic cattle in north-westEurope: a preliminary investigation and somespeculations[END_REF]Nieto-Espinet et al., 2014: 95). Some examples observed in herds of extant cattle give strength to this hypothesis. This is the case of a feral herd of cattle in Chillingham (UK), which has remained very stable since the late medieval period, with a small herd size (50-100 individuals) and highly inbred. In this case, the anomalous M3 wear frequency is 23%. This approximates the percentages for the cattle of MON with almost 16% of the teeth with this type of wear (Fig. 5). Other pathologies related to inbreeding also include high frequencies of acetabular notches and absence of second premolars [START_REF] Argant | Spatio-temporalpatterns in absent/reducedhypoconulids in mandibular third molarsamongst domestic cattle in north-westEurope: a preliminary investigation and somespeculations[END_REF]. No absence of second premolar was detected for the moment at MON, but this genetic abnormality was found in a LSS goat's mandible (Fig. 5 and Table 10 in supplementary material). The presence of these pathological elements suggests that the flocks of LSS and MON could be subject to inbreeding rates.

Strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) at Hérault valley, La Monédière (MON) and Lattara (LSS)

Table 2 and Fig. 6 present the strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) obtained on the 8 baseline samples. The bone and tooth dentine samples from La Monédière provided isotopic ratios around 0.7093-0.7094, and the present-day leaves collected at Lattara ranged between 0.7081 and 7095. These results are compatible with other studies providing strontium isotopic ratios from Pliocene and Miocene sediments (e.g. [START_REF] Knipper | Social differentiation and land use at an Early Iron Age "princely seat": Bioarchaeological investigations at the Glauberg (Ger-many)[END_REF][START_REF] Brönimann | The lay of land: Strontium isotope variability in the dietary catchment of the Late Iron Age protourban settlement of Basel-Gasfabrik, Switzerland[END_REF], Valenzuela-Lamas et al. 2018). The bioavailable strontium variability 25 Km around the sites was found to range from 0.7095 to 0.7111, which comprises Jurassic and Cretaceous bedrocks.

Table 3 and Fig. 7 (see also Figure Supplementary Fig. 1) show the strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) from the 20 cattle enamel and the 44 caprine (sheep and goats) enamel samples from Iron Age and Roman La Monédière (MON) and Lattara (LSS). The 9 Iron Age cattle from MON provided strontium isotopic ratios between 0.7081 and 0.7179, and the 7 Iron Age cattle samples from LSS ranged between 0.7078 and 0.7108. The Roman individual from MON gave a ratio compatible with the local baseline (see Table 3) and the Roman cattle from LSS provided ratios between 0.7107 and 0.7195. The diversity of strontium ratiosunderstood as the difference between the maximum and the minimum value -provided a span of 0.0097 in Iron Age cattle from MON, 0.0029 in Iron Age LSS ones, and 0.0087 in the three Roman cattle from LSS.

The strontium ratios obtained on the 35 caprine teeth from MON ranged between 0.7076 and 0.7108, and the 9 caprine samples from LSS gave strontium ratios between 0.7079 and 0.7098 (Table 3). Same as with cattle, caprine samples from MON display a wider diversity of strontium ratios compared to LSS (0.0031 vs. 0.0018). Nevertheless, the differences in the diversity of cattle and caprine strontium signatures between the two sites were found not to be statistically significant. Conversely, the three Roman cattle from LSS were found to likely correspond to a different population (Table 5 in supplementary material).

Frequency of the main domesticates and animal size in a broader context

We compared the frequency of the main domesticates and osteometric cattle and caprine data at other sites in Languedoc and neighbour areas (northern present-day Catalonia). Mortality profiles and pathologies as well as strontium isotopes could not be compared because the lack of published data.

Fig. 8 shows the relative frequencies (%NISP) of the main domesticates at several sites in Languedoc and northern Catalonia. NISP frequencies at MON (Fig. 8 top) are similar to the contemporary indigenous oppida located on the littoral plain (zone 2) and the ones located inland (zone 3). They are characterised by high frequencies of caprines, generally over 60%. In contrast, LSS has a higher percentage of bovines, like other sites located on the coastal wetlands and swamps (zone 1). These sites display cattle frequencies between 30 and 50%. This pattern (higher percentage of cattle remains in the sites located on coastal wetlands and swamps) is also found in northern Catalonia, althought cattle remains are generally lower, between 20% and 30%. The application of a regression test from a linear model [START_REF] Chambers | Chapter 4 of statistical models[END_REF] revealed that there is indeed a correlation between coastal wetlands (zone 1) and higher proportions of cattle compared to caprines (p = 0.01). Similarly, a correlation was found between high frequencies of caprine remains and scrubland and dry hills (zone 3; p = 0.01).

Most assemblages dated from the 4th c. BC have higher percentages of pig remains and lower percentages of caprines compared to the previous ones (Fig. 8 bottom). In addition, sites located on coastal wetlands and swamps have higher cattle frequencies than the sites located on scrubland and dry hill, characterised by higher caprine frequencies.

Cattle size at MON and LSS (Fig. 9) is also coherent with other sites in Languedoc and neighbour areas, both in widths and lengths. Most length values from the Iron Age are smaller than the Early Bronze cow used as a reference [START_REF] Nieto-Espinet | Element measure standard biometrical data from a cow dated to the Early Bronze Age (Minferri, Catalonia)[END_REF]. This is especially visible at the Greek colony of Emporion in the levels dated from the 6th-5th centuries BC, both on lengths and widths. In contrast, width values are generally larger, thus suggesting a robust aspect for Iron Age cattle in the area of the Gulf of Lion. In this case, the Mann-Whitney U test (Tables 6 and7 in supplementary material) indicates that these differences are significant. Some large animals were present at Lattara in the 3rd century BC (Fig. 9). But the global cattle size increase is not statistically significant until the 1st century BC (Tables 6 and7 in Caprine size appears to be more stable through time, although some variations occurred (Fig. 9). Iron Age caprines from Lattara seem to be larger than the contemporary ones from present-day Catalonia. The Mann-Whitney U test (Tables 8 and9 in supplementary material) revealed that these differences are not significant although this may be consequence of the low sample size. Empúries had a large degree of caprine length variability, something that it is not attested on widths (Fig. 9). In addition, the indigenous site of Mas Castellar de Pontós had caprines with bigger width values compared to Empúries (Mann-U p value = 0.001). As stated above, there was a significant increase of width values at LSS from the 5th to the 4th c. BC, and the Mann-Whitney U test confirmed that this increase was statistically significant (p value = 0.009). Perhaps the most significant result is that, in contrast with cattle, caprine size seemed not to change much in Roman times in this area.

Discussion

The comparison of Iron Age NISP frequencies from Languedoc suggests that each site adapted animal husbandry to their most immediate environment, especially in early chronologies (6th-5th c. BC). This led to higher frequencies of caprine remains at the oppida located on scrubland and dry hills, and higher presence of cattle at the sites located on the coastal wetlands and swamps as previous works had pointed out (Al [START_REF] Besso | Les restes fauniques du Rocher de l'Aigle à Nant (Aveyron)[END_REF][START_REF] Forest | Données archéozoologiques sur les sites ruraux du Bas-Languedoc entre le VIe et le IIIe s. av. J.-C.: Première synthèse[END_REF]. This has an echo today in this area, as the local cattle breed (Camargaise) is reared in a freerange regime on the coastal wetlands and swamps the whole year (Fig. 10). In contrast, sheep graze on the dry inland area for which they are better adapted, as they are more sensitive to humidity and bacteria [START_REF] Vincent | Synthèse bibliographique de dix ans d'étude du pâturage sur les landes du Cragou (29)[END_REF][START_REF] Dupieux | La gestion conservatoire des tourbières de France: Premiers éléments scientifiques et techniques[END_REF][START_REF] Thulliez | Guide technique d'aménagement et de gestion des zones humides du Finistère[END_REF]. From the 4th c. BC, the higher frequency of pig remains at most sites may be related to the increase of urbanisation and/or the convenience of an animal that does not compete with agricultural land. It also suggests a more intensive meat production as observed at Iron Age sites from present-day Catalonia dated from the 4th and especially the 3rd c. BC (e.g. [START_REF] Iborra | La ganadería y la caza desde el Bronce Final hasta el Ibérico Final en el territorio valenciano[END_REF][START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Alimentació i ramaderia al Penedès durant la protohistòria : segles VII-III aC[END_REF][START_REF] Nieto-Espinet | Entre el consum i l'afecte. La interacció entre els animals i les comunitats protohistòriques de la plana occidental catalana (segles VII -IV a.C)[END_REF][START_REF] Colominas | Arqueozoología y Romanización. Producción, distribución y consumo de animales[END_REF].

The focus and the intensity of meat production are also attested on mortality profiles. Cattle cull-off pattern at MON suggests a strong focus on meat production and the slaughter of adult animals the reproductive capacity of which started to decrease (Fig. 3). In this sense, the low number of animals older than 72 months suggests that cattle devoted to labour were not usually slaughtered for their meat at the end of their productive life. At LSS, cattle were kept alive for a longer period compared to MON, and most animals were killed between the 48 and 72 months of life (Fig. 3). This may reflect better nourishment conditions, longer reproductive life, or perhaps a stronger focus on secondary products. Same as in MON, the absence of senile animals suggest that workforce animals were not usually consumed at LSS.

Caprine mortality profiles suggest a strong focus on milk exploitation together with meat and, most probably, wool and hair, although these later products were not driving the overall management (Fig. 2). In any case, management at MON is clearly different to the one attested at LSS, which seems very specialised on young caprines and adults older than 48 months. Conversely, MON shows a profile centred on milk and prime meat. In both cases, exploitation seems to be intensive, with a quick renewal of animals before their productive capacity started to decrease. This has been also attested at French Neolithic sites [START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le midi de la France[END_REF][START_REF] Blaise | L'élevage au Néolithique final dans le sud-est de la France: éléments de réflexion sur la gestion des troupeaux[END_REF][START_REF] Blaise | Economie animale et gestion des troupeaux au Néolithique final en Provence. Approche archéozoologique et contribution des analyses isotopiques de l'émail dentaire[END_REF] among others), and other Neolithic sites in Greece (e.g Helmer, 2000a), the Near East (p.e Helmer, 2000b) and Iron Age sites in present-day Catalonia (e.g: Colominas, 2004: 223;[START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Alimentació i ramaderia al Penedès durant la protohistòria : segles VII-III aC[END_REF]Nieto-Espinet 2012: 387-389). In previous studies, [START_REF] Gardeisen | Les données archéologiques liées au textile à Lattara (Hérault, France)[END_REF] suggested that the slaughter of older adults increased in the 4th-3rd c. BC at LSS, and they related this increase to a stronger focus on secondary products. Some archaeological materials such as the faiselles together with the loom weights and spindle whorls recovered across the site testify of the use of milk and its derivates (Feugère, 1992: 294) as well as wool work at domestic level [START_REF] Raux | Les objets de la vie quotidienne à Lattes: au IVe siècle avant notre ère[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | Les données archéologiques liées au textile à Lattara (Hérault, France)[END_REF].

Both cattle and caprines have different mortality profiles at MON and LSS, and mature animals predominate at LSS. Based on ethnographical parallels, [START_REF] Stein | Regional Economic Integration in Early State Societies. Third Millenium B.C. Patoral Production at Gritille, Southeast Turkey[END_REF] proposed that producers and : Casellas, 1999a;Illa d'en Reixac: Casellas, 1999b; Ciutadella de Roses: [START_REF] Monteró | Les restes de maocrofauna del jaciment de Ciutadella de Roses (Girona)[END_REF]Mas Castellar: Colominas, 2013;[START_REF] Colominas | Animal husbandry and hunting practices in Hispania Tarraconensis: An overview[END_REF]; Puig de Sant Andreu and Empúries: [START_REF] Molist | Quaderns de prehistòria i arqueologia de[END_REF] and Western Languedoc (Salses and Mèze: Columeau, 1997aColumeau, , 1997b;;Sauvian: Ugolini and Olive, 1998;Béziers: Ugolini and Olive, 1991b;[START_REF] Gardeisen | Un nouveau comptoir lagunaire protohistorique au confluent du Rhôny et du Vistre[END_REF][START_REF] Creuzieux | Contribution de l'archéozoologie à l'étude du dépôt du Cailar (Gard), IIIe siècle avant notre ère[END_REF]Pech Maho: Columeau, 2004; and for the other sites see references in Gardeisen, 2010: 426;Albesso et al., 2013: 140-142;Sejalon et al., 2012: 22). (n) The number in brackets refers to the NISP of the main domesticates; (*) the asterisk in brackets refers to the sites with only main domesticates percentages available. Source map: DREAL Languedoc-Roussillon/Agence Folléa-Gautier, paysagistes DPLG. Atlas des paysages du Languedoc-Roussillon-Synthèse régionale-Mars 2010 (source on-line: http://paysages.languedoc-roussillon. developpement-durable.gouv.fr/synthese). consumers had different patterns of meat consumption. In a producer site, young animals (mainly males aged between 12 and 36 months) would be sold for slaughter and the best reproducers would be kept to ensure herd sustainability. Consequently, the meat consumption pattern of producers would have a peak on young animals (before the optimum meat) and another one on adults aged between 72 and 84 months, when the reproductive capacity of the animals starts to decrease. A consumer economy would be characterised by the high (Creusieux, 2009;Valenzuela-Lamas, unpublished;Columeau, 2000a: 115;Ugolini et al., 1991: 141-143;Columeau, 1997: 18). presence of animals in optimum meat (12-36 months) and the absence of young and seniles. The mortality profiles at MON at LSS do not fully correspond to either of these models, but MON ones suggest a strong focus on milk production and meat consumption, and the high presence of mature adults at LSS seems to better correspond to a producer site that may be selling the animals at their optimum meat. The profiles observed at LSS seem inappropriate with the idea of an urban site depending on its hinterland, but may fit with a lively Mediterranean portof-trade dependent from a bigger site (Marseille in this particular case).

Iron Age cattle at both MON and LSS, as well as other sites in Languedoc and neighbour present-day Catalonia, were small compared to Neolithic cattle from these areas (e.g. [START_REF] Forest | Données archéozoologiques sur les sites ruraux du Bas-Languedoc entre le VIe et le IIIe s. av. J.-C.: Première synthèse[END_REF]. Cattle size decrease happened across Europe from Neolithic times onwards, and numerous studies point out that size only increased in the Late Iron Age and Roman times (see references in Valenzuela-Lamas and Albarella 2017 for a review, and also [START_REF] Duval | Boeufs gaulois et boeufs français: morphologies animales et dynamiques économiques au cours de La Tène et des périodes historiques[END_REF] for an updated synthesis for France). This has also been attested in the region studied here, although a high diversity of sizes coexisted at LSS in the 1st c. AD (Fig. 9). In contrast, caprine size remained more stable through time. Roman caprines at LSS may have been smaller than Iron Age ones, but the differences were found not to be significant (Tables 8 and9 in supplementary material).

As stated in the introduction, the reasons for cattle size diminution are not clear, but the presence of pathologies related with herds with high ratios of inbreeding and malnutrition at MON and LSS, together with the strontium isotopic ratios recorded (most of them compatible with local geology), may provide some hints to understand this process. In the case of MON, the pathologies observed on cattle teeth include hypoplasia and anomalous wear on M3 related to malocclusion (Table 2 and Fig. 5). Hypoplasia is known to reflect malnutrition and physiological stress during the period of tooth formation [START_REF] Upex | Dental enamel hypoplasia as indicators of seasonal environmental and physiological impacts in modern sheep populations: a model for interpreting the zooarchaeological record[END_REF], and anomalous M3 wear has been related with herds maintained in small breeding groups [START_REF] O'connor | The Archaeology of Animal Bones[END_REF][START_REF] Argant | Spatio-temporalpatterns in absent/reducedhypoconulids in mandibular third molarsamongst domestic cattle in north-westEurope: a preliminary investigation and somespeculations[END_REF]Nieto et al., 2014: 95). In the case of LSS, a cattle bilobate M3 with the reduced hypoconulid was identified, together with a caprine lower M3 with abnormal hypoconulid wear (Table 2). The reduction of hypoconulid has also been related with inbreeding and malnutrition [START_REF] O'connor | The Archaeology of Animal Bones[END_REF]. The presence of these pathologies indicates that some animals suffered from inbreeding and nutritional stress both at MON and LSS. In this sense, [START_REF] Argant | Spatio-temporalpatterns in absent/reducedhypoconulids in mandibular third molarsamongst domestic cattle in north-westEurope: a preliminary investigation and somespeculations[END_REF] state that malocclusion and bilobate third molars are especially present during the Iron Age in Europe compared to other prehistoric and historical periods.

Strontium isotopic analysis ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) on 20 cattle and 44 caprines from MON and LSS revealed low variability of strontium ratios among most animals dated from the Iron Age (Fig. 7). Two cattle MON have strontium ratios not compatible with any geology immediately surrounding the sites, which indicates the presence of some animals coming from further away, probably from a granitic bedrock area. Interestingly, no caprines with high strontium signatures were recorded despite the significantly higher number of teeth sampled and the presence of both M2 and M3 -and therefore different mineralisation periods. While the possibility cannot be excluded that cattle and caprines analysed originated from other areas with similar geology, the homogeneity of strontium values argues against this. The results obtained are compatible with local and small scale herding coupled to occasional exchange of animals as observed on other Iron Age sites (e.g. Owslebury, UK, Minniti et al 2014; Turó de la Font de la Canya, Spain, Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2018) rather than frequent long-distance trade of animals.

Another evidence suggesting local herding is the high correlation between the immediate ecological environment of the sites and animal production (Fig. 8).

Consequently, the combination of different lines of evidence (NISP frequencies, pathologies, strontium isotopes) suggests that livestock was mainly bred locally during the Iron Age in this area, and mainly 'prestige' goods (e.g. Greek wine, Etruscan and Greek fine ware) arrived from distant sources [START_REF] Dietler | Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France[END_REF][START_REF] Janin | Grecs et Celtes en Languedoc[END_REF]. Nevertheless, transport of living animals towards other places overseas, or the shipping of preserved meat as exchange for the imported goods cannot be excluded.

Local breeding of livestock may reflect the local socio-political context during the Iron Age. The significant change in settlement pattern from the Late Bronze to the Iron Age -from open-air sites to fortified settlements -together with the presence of warrior equipment and weapons in some tombs and severed heads at some sites is thought to reflect increased warfare and territoriality (e.g. [START_REF] Dedet | Les enceintes protohistoriques de Gaule méridionale[END_REF][START_REF] Dedet | Étrusques, grecs et indigènes dans les Garrigues du Languedoc oriental au premier âge du fer. Habitats et sépultures[END_REF][START_REF] Janin | L'évolution du Bronze final IIIB et la transition Bronze-Fer en Languedoc occidental d'après la culture matérielle des nécropoles[END_REF][START_REF] Arcelin | La France du Sud-Est:(Languedoc-Roussillon, Midi-Pyrénées, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur)[END_REF][START_REF] Beylier | Traditions indigènes et innovations dans les fortifications de l'aire languedocienne à l'âge du Fer: l'exemple de Pech Maho (Sigean, aude) et du Cayla de Mailhac (Aude)[END_REF][START_REF] Bagan | Approche historique de la géographie des comptoirs littoraux à l'Âge du Fer en Méditerranée occidentale à travers l'exemple du port de Lattara (Lattes, Hérault)[END_REF][START_REF] Gailledrat | Espaces coloniaux et indigènes sur les rivages d'Extrême-Occident méditerranéen (Xe-IIIe s. avant notre ère). Collection "Mondes anciens[END_REF]. Perhaps, even if long-Fig. 10. A-B-C: The breed from Camargue or "Raço di biòu" to a type of breeding that has remained very extensive. The Camargue is located in the Rhone delta, with typical landscapes shaped by the river. The diversity of Camargue's landscapes, which include ponds, canals, flooded prairies, paddies, and salt flats. In this area around 18,000 to 20,000 bulls are raised in more than 150 herds, of which at least half have more than 100 heads. URL: http://www.parc-camargue.fr/index.php? distance maritime trade flourished during the Iron Age across the Mediterranean, long-distance terrestrial movements of livestock were difficult in Languedoc at this time.

Conversely, the three Roman cattle from Lattara had a much higher strontium isotopic variability, which could reflect a wider circulation of animals. Cattle were clearly bigger in Roman times in the Gulf of Lion as demonstrated in numerous studies (e.g. [START_REF] Forest | À propos de la corpulence des bovins en France durant les périodes historiques[END_REF][START_REF] Forest | Données archéozoologiques sur les sites ruraux du Bas-Languedoc entre le VIe et le IIIe s. av. J.-C.: Première synthèse[END_REF][START_REF] Duval | Boeufs gaulois et boeufs français: morphologies animales et dynamiques économiques au cours de La Tène et des périodes historiques[END_REF][START_REF] Colominas | The impact of the Roman Empire on animal husbandry practices: study of the changes in cattle morphology in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula through osteometric and ancient DNA analyses[END_REF], see also Fig. 9). More data are needed for this region, but the results are also compatible with the ones observed at Roman Owslebury (UK, [START_REF] Minniti | Widening the market. Strontium isotope analysis on cattle teeth from Owslebury (Hampshire, UK) highlights changes in livestock supply between the Iron Age and the Roman period[END_REF]. This suggests that animal size, mobility and economic system may be correlated, as previously suggested [START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Animal husbandry across the Western Roman Empire: changes and continuities[END_REF].

Conclusions

This work presents the main zooarchaeological results from two major Iron Age sites in present-day Languedoc -La Monédière (Bessan) and Lattara (Lattes) -and contextualises them in their regional environment. In addition, strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) of 44 caprines (sheep and goats) and 16 cattle were analysed to assess the geographic range of livestock rearing during the Iron Age at these sites. Four Roman cattle were also included as a comparison. The zooarchaeological results showed that meat diet at these two urban sites focused on and cattle. Moreover, a strong link between animal husbandry and immediate ecological environment was observed, and several pathologies related with inbreeding and malnutrition were recorded both at La Monédière and Lattara (i.e. anomalous wear on the third molar, bilobate third molar, hypoplasias). Iron Age cattle in Languedoc were small compared with Neolithic and Roman ones, as attested across Europe at this time, and caprine size was found to be more stable. Most animals dated from the Iron Age had strontium isotopic ratios compatible with the ones present in a 25 Km radius from the sites. Conversely, the Roman cattle from Lattara corresponded to individuals raised on a higher diversity of geological areas, thus suggesting wider circulation of animals in Roman times.

The results are coherent with other archaeological data and provide a comprehensive insight of animal husbandry in Iron Age Languedoc. Local breeding of livestock may reflect the local socio-political context of warfare and territoriality (as shown by fortifications, weapons and severed heads). This probably increased inbreeding and perhaps malnutrition of animals, and favoured smaller cattle, less demanding in water and fodder. While 'prestige goods' (e.g. wine, fine ware) were imported from distant places, terrestrial movement was probably difficult compared to Roman times, in which large-scale production and trade also involved wider circulation of living animals.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. A: Map with the location of the sites mentioned in the text (black points) and the studied sites (black stars). Source map: Hervé Bohbot (CNRS/UMR 5140). B: Plan of La Monédière (Bessan, Hérault): after Beylier et al. (2018: 6, Fig. 2), modified. C:Plan of Lattara (Lattes, Hérault), modified.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Mortality profiles of sheep/goats at La Monédière and Lattara.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Mortality profiles of cattle at La Monédière and Lattara.

  Fig. 4. Distribution of sheep/goat and cattle bone length LSI values at La Monédière and Lattara.

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. On top: Dental pathologies identified at the settlements of La Monédière and Lattara. Data are expressed in number of affected teeth and percentatge of the total number of dental pieces (isolated teeth, mandibles and maxilla) per site; A: Degree of incidence of dental pathologies at each site; B: Degree of affectation by species with percentage of teeth affected by each species; Bottom: Illustrations of the dental pathologies identified in the sheep/goat and cattle of La Monédière and Lattara. After Argant et al. (2013), modified.

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) obtained from archaeological cattle and sheep and goats enamel from La Monédière and Lattara and baseline samples from the archaeological sites and Hérault department.

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. Comparison of the distribution of the main domesticates in Middle Iron Age (6th to 4th BC) sites in North Catalonia (Sant Martí d'Empúries: Casellas, 1999a; Illa d'en Reixac: Casellas, 1999b; Ciutadella de Roses:[START_REF] Monteró | Les restes de maocrofauna del jaciment de Ciutadella de Roses (Girona)[END_REF] Mas Castellar: Colominas, 2013;[START_REF] Colominas | Animal husbandry and hunting practices in Hispania Tarraconensis: An overview[END_REF]; Puig de Sant Andreu and Empúries:[START_REF] Molist | Quaderns de prehistòria i arqueologia de[END_REF] and Western Languedoc (Salses and Mèze:Columeau, 1997aColumeau, , 1997b; Sauvian: Ugolini and Olive, 1998; Béziers:Ugolini and Olive, 1991b;[START_REF] Gardeisen | Un nouveau comptoir lagunaire protohistorique au confluent du Rhôny et du Vistre[END_REF][START_REF] Creuzieux | Contribution de l'archéozoologie à l'étude du dépôt du Cailar (Gard), IIIe siècle avant notre ère[END_REF] Pech Maho: Columeau, 2004; and for the other sites see references inGardeisen, 2010: 426; Albesso et al., 2013: 140-142; Sejalon et al., 2012: 22). (n) The number in brackets refers to the NISP of the main domesticates; (*) the asterisk in brackets refers to the sites with only main domesticates percentages available. Source map: DREAL Languedoc-Roussillon/Agence Folléa-Gautier, paysagistes DPLG. Atlas des paysages du Languedoc-Roussillon-Synthèse régionale-Mars 2010 (source on-line: http://paysages.languedoc-roussillon. developpement-durable.gouv.fr/synthese).

Fig. 9 .

 9 Fig. 9. Comparison of bone lengths and widths measurements (LSI values) for sheep/goat and cattle at the sites of La Monédière and Lattara together with other sites of the North Coast of present-day Catalonia and Western Languedoc(Creusieux, 2009; Valenzuela-Lamas, unpublished; Columeau, 2000a: 115; Ugolini et al., 1991: 141-143; Columeau, 1997: 18).

  Fig. 10. A-B-C: The breed from Camargue or "Raço di biòu" to a type of breeding that has remained very extensive. The Camargue is located in the Rhone delta, with typical landscapes shaped by the river. The diversity of Camargue's landscapes, which include ponds, canals, flooded prairies, paddies, and salt flats. In this area around 18,000 to 20,000 bulls are raised in more than 150 herds, of which at least half have more than 100 heads. URL: http://www.parc-camargue.fr/index.php? pagendx=app_173. D: Nearly 20,000 sheep roam in the Languedoc and the Cevennes (in the picture flocks of sheep in the Cevennes, South France). URL: https:// www.la-croix.com/Journal/estives-Cevennes-bergers-sont-labri-2017-09-20-1100878201. E: Present day flocks of sheep in the Corbières (South France), a dry massif south of the Carcassonne-Narbonne line, URL: http://www.albas-corbieres.fr. F: Present day flocks of sheep in the Garrigues (Gard). URL: http://www.pascalemenetrier-delalandre.com/moutons-caussenarde-des-garrigues-a92788485.

Table 1

 1 Percent NISP of main domesticates of La Monédière and Lattara settlements.

	Sites	Chrono	Dom	Wild	Total	%Dom	%Wild	Cattle	Pig	Sheep Goat	Total	%Cattle	%Pig	% Sheep Goat
	Monédière Monédière Monédière Lattara Lattara Total	6 th BC 6-5th BC 5th BC 5 th BC 4th BC	779 1999 464 2016 2966 8224	13 140 31 138 439 761	792 2139 495 2154 3405 8985	98.4 93.5 93.7 93.6 87.1 91.5	1.6 6.5 6.3 6.4 12.9 8.5	104 354 65 861 863 2247	74 194 47 175 506 996	596 1437 344 942 1527 4846	774 1985 456 1978 2896 8089	13.4 17.8 14.3 43.5 29.8 27.8	9.6 9.8 10.3 8.8 17.5 12.3	77.0 72.4 75.4 47.6 52.7 59.9

Table 2

 2 Strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) obtained on modern tree leaves and sheep bones from different geologic formations. Coordinates ETRS89 UTM31N. Fig.6. A. Location of sites in Hérault mentioned in the text (with numbers) and the sampling locations (with letters) of modern tree leaves and archaeological bones used to assess the bioavailable strontium of the different geological formations surrounding the sites. B. Detail map only with the sampling locations of modern tree leaves in the area of the department of Hérault. Source map: DREAL Languedoc-Roussillon/Agence Folléa-Gautier, paysagistes DPLG. Atlas des paysages du Languedoc-Roussillon-Synthèse régionale-Mars 2010 (source on-line: http://paysages.languedoc-roussillon.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/synthese)/partie1.html.

	code Sample code	W	N	Municipality	Era	Epoch	Bedrock	sample type	Species	87 Sr/ 86 Sr error ( ± 2s)
	a b c d e f g h	M37 M38 M39 M40 L10 L11 MON-12_B MON-13_B	43.663170 3.343710 Celles 43.502553 3.590682 Villeveyrac 43.505669 3.652922 Poussan 43.580919 3.146213 Faugères 43.56978 3.907409 Lattes St. Sauveur Cenozoic Cenozoic Mesozoic Mesozoic Palaeozoic Ordovician Gneiss, Schists, Quaternary Basalte Cretaceous Calcareous Jurassic Calcareous Micaschists Holocene Alluvial deposits 43.566410 3.906950 Lattes St. Sauveur Cenozoic Holocene Alluvial deposits 43.352739 3.427054 Bessan Cenozoic Holocene Alluvial deposits 43.352559 3.426070 Bessan Cenozoic Holocene Alluvial deposits	tree leaf tree leaf tree leaf tree leaf tree leaf tree leaf bone fragment dentine	Quercus ilex 0.706704 0.000007 Pinus sp. 0.709583 0.000007 Quercus ilex 0.711104 0.000017 Quercus ilex 0.710416 0.000008 Pinus sp. 0.709576 0.000003 Populus sp. 0.708130 0.000003 cattle 0.709493 0.000004 cattle 0.709384 0.000004

(caption on next page)

Table 3

 3 Strontium isotopic ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) obtained from the archaeological sheep/goats and cattle enamel.

	Site	SU	Sample code	Species	Tooth	sample type	87 Sr/ 86 Sr	error ( ± 2s)	Chronology	period
	Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Lattes St. Sauveur Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière Monédière	10,443 11,190 10,556 20,093 10,581 11,205 20,024 10,707 10,758 10,616 os-27757-9 os-51121-27 os-51075-1 os-51121-28 os-27757-5 os-50301-7 os-51019-1 os-30294-5 os-30292-11 os-30291-3 53301-22 51121-53 51092-53 53022-26 53038-28 53228-74 53224-5 50404-2 53022-28 10605-unf8 11436-FS1130-3 11436-FS1130-2 11436-FS1130-1 10849-2 10714-2 10714-1 10,971 10849-1 20,024 10461-1 10461-2 11,092 11,366 10,181 11,022 20,012 11,202 11,227 10413-1 10413-2 11,190 11,203 10,847 10970-1 10970-2 10970-3 10970-4 11,190 11041-1 11041-2 10,922 11,119 11,028 10,369	MON-10_B MON-11_B MON-2_B MON-3_B MON-4_B MON-5_B MON-6_B MON-7_B MON-8_B MON-9_B LS5-1_B LS5-3_B LS5-5_B LS5-7_B LS5-9_B LS5-11_B LS5-13_B LS5-15_B LS5-41_B LS5-63_B L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 M12 M13 M14 M15 M16 M17 M18 M19 M20 M21 M22 M23 M24 M26 M27 M28 M29 M30 M31 M32 M33 M34 M35 M36	cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle cattle s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g s/g sheep goat s/g s/g s/g s/g sheep s/g sheep sheep sheep sheep goat sheep sheep sheep sheep goat goat sheep sheep s/g goat sheep s/g	lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M2 upper M3 upper M3 upper M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M3 lower M2 lower M3 lower M2 lower M3 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M3 lower M2 lower M2 lower M3 lower M2 lower M3 lower M3 lower M3 lower M2 lower M2 upper M3 lower M3 lower M2 lower M2 lower M3 lower M3 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M2 lower M3 lower M2 lower M2 upper M3	enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel enamel	0.709535 0.709146 0.708739 0.709393 0.714934 0.708151 0.709343 0.708689 0.709213 0.717909 0.708594 0.709759 0.708722 0.707892 0.710728 0.710804 0.708635 0.718899 0.719532 0.710799 0.708824 0.708740 0.709805 0.707982 0.708975 0.709087 0.708497 0.708914 0.708916 0.708950 0.708644 0.710115 0.709802 0.708363 0.709307 0.707691 0.708666 0.709193 0.709191 0.708188 0.710842 0.707844 0.709459 0.708661 0.708986 0.709197 0.710568 0.709880 0.710531 0.708956 0.708842 0.710750 0.708284 0.709017 0.708977 0.708982 0.709595 0.707856 0.708075 0.709506 0.708948 0.708386 0.708772 0.707901	0.000004 0.000005 0.000005 0.000010 0.000006 0.000003 0.000008 0.000005 0.000003 0.000008 0.000006 0.000005 0.000005 0.000008 0.000006 0.000009 0.000011 0.000006 0.000008 0.000009 0.000007 0.000003 0.000008 0.000003 0.000003 0.000002 0.000003 0.000004 0.000003 0.000005 0.000007 0.000006 0.000008 0.000004 0.000003 0.000003 0.000008 0.000004 0.000005 0.000004 0.000010 0.000004 0.000008 0.000004 0.000003 0.000004 0.000006 0.000004 0.000007 0.000003 0.000004 0.000005 0.000005 0.000006 0.000004 0.000009 0.000006 0.000005 0.000004 0.000004 0.000003 0.000004 0.000004 0.000004	-450/-425 -450/-425 -500/-450 -525/-450 -550/-450 -450/-425 -200/-50 -500/-400 -550/-500 -500/-450 -450/-425 -425/-400 -425/-400 -425/-400 -450/-425 -425/-400 -425/-400 75/90 75/90 75/90 -450/-425 -425/-400 -425/-400 -450/-425 -450/-425 -450/-425 -450/-425 -425/-400 -450/-425 -500/-450 -475/-450 -475/-450 -475/-450 -500/-450 -525/-450 -525/-450 -575/-450 -500/-450 -525/-425 -475/-450 -475/-450 -550/-500 -525/-400 -575/-550 -540/-500 -525/-425 -550/-400 -475/-450 -525/-475 -525/-475 -450/-425 -550/-500 -475/-425 -550/-500 -550/-500 -550/-500 -550/-500 -450/-425 -575/-500 -575/-500 -575/-400 -600/-500 -500/-400 -475/-450	IA IA IA IA IA IA RR IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA ERE ERE ERE IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA

supplementary material). This is most evident on Early Imperial assemblages at present-day Montpellier and Port Ariane.

Acknowledgements

This paper was developed as part of the research projects Labex Archimede ANR-11-LABX-0032-01 under the direction of AG, and the ERC-Starting Grant 716298 ZooMWest-'Zooarchaeology and Mobility in the Western Mediterranean: Husbandry production from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Antiquity', funded by the European Research Council Agency (ERCEA) under the direction of SVL. The research also benefited from the support of the Agència de Gestió d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (2017SGR995). We would like to give special thanks to Alexandre Beylier and Éric Gailledrat (directors of the archaeological excavations at La Monédière and Lattara respectively) for their involvement, availability and advice in the preparation of this article.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102077.