Keywords: Goal striving, resource dynamics, conservation of resources, cultural values IV La poursuite d'objectif, dynamique des ressources

This dissertation explores the goal-striving process in work settings. Based on the conservation of resources conceptualization, the current research examines how resource dynamics shape individual's behavior during goal pursuit. In this research three independent studies probe the resource mechanism. Specifically, the first study presents the investment of personal resources like self-efficacy, optimism and subjective well-being based on the value placed on end result(s) (goal attainment) or striving experience (goal commitment). Cross-cultural data collected from salespeople working in France, Pakistan and the USA support the hypothesized reciprocal relationships. The second study explores the curvilinear interactive role of grit and perceived organizational support in an individual's goal progress. Time lagged data collected from university professors working in the USA confirm the curvilinear relationship between grit and goal progress. The linkage between perceived organizational support and goal progress appears to be linear. The third study of this dissertation tests the mechanism through which fear of goal failure can predict unethical behavior. This study also explores the moderating role of conscientiousness and moral attentiveness during this process. The current research contributes to the field by testing various hypothesized models in work settings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

"In the name of God, the most Gracious, the most Merciful" First and foremost, I would like to thank my mentor Prof. Jean-Pierre Neveu, without whom this Ph.D. would not be possible. He deserves huge respect for the guidance he provided and the attention which he dedicated to all the matters. All his professional support and dedication has been exemplary. I would regret that I wasn't able to impress him with my English writing style but I hope that one day I'll work on this part just to make him say that Rahman you're improving!  . I cannot pay him back for what he did by providing me an opportunity to learn the basics of research and then to complete this dissertation. Any lacking in this process would have been on my part as he taught me more than all of this. All I can say that Thank you, Professor, for being there all the time and supporting me through all ups and downs.

I offer my sincere gratitude to the honorable jury. I would like to thank Prof. Stevan Hobfoll, Prof. Patrice Roussel, Prof. Sandrine Hollet-Haudebert, Prof. Antoine Renucci & Prof.

Nathalie Richebet for taking time out from busy schedules. Your remarks to my Ph.D. work are noteworthy and I couldn't find words to thank all of you. Honestly, I wasn't expecting such a remarkable and respected jury for my work. Plus I was a bit nervous to be evaluated by such highly qualified researchers but I hope you look this document as work done by a beginner who's getting started with the research.

When staying in France I have spent quality time with friends and those who are worth mentioning are Humaira, Iqbal, Lutf, Murtaza, Nezha, Randa, Rashid and Saeed. The time went so fast and we might not be able to interact so often but I promise that you all will be having a special place in my memories. Thank you all for your support during my stay over here. une entreprise de soins de santé réputée met en lumière les dures réalités de la recherche sur les objectifs au travail [START_REF] Anand | Driven to Suicide by an 'Inhuman and Unnatural' Pressure to Sell[END_REF]. Il décrit comment l'un des employés les plus performants des laboratoires Abbot, ayant des activités de vente en Inde, a décidé de quitter ce monde, une note manuscrite en poche, en déclarant: «Je vais me suicider car je ne peux pas atteindre les objectifs de vente de mon entreprise et ma société fait pression sur moi. » Son acte a ému la société, et le public a exigé davantage de réglementations concernant l'industrie. L'une des principales raisons de son suicide était l'immense pression exercée pour obtenir, à n'importe quel prix, des ventes sur un marché hautement concurrentiel. De plus, le manque de soutien du dirigeant, la menace de perte d'emploi ou de mutation dans une autre région très éloignée, étaient parmi les raisons qui ont motivé sa décision. Lors d'enquêtes ultérieures, il est apparu que des collègues de l'âme disparue avaient également du mal à joindre les deux bouts en prenant des décisions contraires à leur éthique. Ils soudoyaient des médecins pour que ceux-ci prescrivent des médicaments et signalent de fausses ventes à des prix réduits, etc. Un autre employé travaillant dans la même entreprise a admis qu'il achetait lui-même des produits pour aider son équipe à atteindre son objectif de vente. Ces histoires horribles de comportement individuel en matière de préservation de soi au cours de la poursuite d'objectifs justifient l'importance de son exploration dans la recherche sur le lieu de travail.

La recherche d'objectifs a toujours existé dans la vie humaine. Depuis toujours, les gens ont du mal à obtenir plus en utilisant ce qu'ils possèdent déjà. Dans la vie de tous les jours, les objectifs d'achat d'une nouvelle voiture ou, sur le lieu de travail, de lutte pour obtenir une promotion / une prime annuelle, apparaissent souvent sur notre liste des tâches à effectuer. Et tous ces objectifs peuvent être atteints en élaborant différents plans qui sont ensuite menés à bien. Lorsque la réalisation de ces objectifs reste hautement souhaitable, leur poursuite inefficace entraîne certaines conséquences inquiétantes. Dans le contexte organisationnel, la non-réalisation XVII de l'objectif peut entraîner une perte de ressources de la société ou des conflits entre superviseurs et subordonnés. Cette non-réalisation peut à son tour prédire le roulement du personnel et des statistiques de chômage plus élevées. Elle peut aussi motiver une personne à faire les choix décrits précédemment, ce qui n'est pas acceptable dans des situations normales. De même, dans le secteur de l'éducation, les résultats des étudiants peuvent être médiocres, ce qui peut les forcer à abandonner les études, et entraîner un niveau d'analphabétisme plus élevé. En ce qui concerne le sport, les échecs constatés dans les performances des athlètes peuvent entraîner des pertes économiques et morales. Même la peur de l'échec peut motiver un athlète à se livrer à des pratiques immorales telles que l'acte mémorable (contraire à l'éthique) de Mike Tyson, qui mord l'oreille de Evander Holyfield durant un combat, et qui est toujours considéré par certains comme une tentative délibérée de mettre fin rapidement au match plutôt que d'affronter une défaite honteuse [START_REF] Powell | Twenty years on Mike Tyson and Evander Holyfield have made peace over the Bite Fight that saw the Baddest Man on the Planet turn The Real Deal into The Real Meal[END_REF].

Explorer le concept de but (« goal »), c'est-à-dire une condition désirée qui orientent les individus vers la poursuite de l'objectif [START_REF] Austin | Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content[END_REF]Carver & Sheier, 1981), ou «des représentations mentales des résultats souhaités envers lesquels les gens s'engagent» [START_REF] Mann | Self-regulation of health behavior: social psychological approaches to goal setting and goal striving[END_REF], nous constatons que deux phénomènes qui sont restés au centre de l'intérêt de la littérature sont l'établissement d'objectifs (« goal-setting ») et la poursuite d'objectifs (« goal striving »). L'établissement d'objectifs peut être défini comme la manière dont on construit des objectifs mentalement [START_REF] Austin | Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content[END_REF]. Les recherches ont révélé que la fixation d'objectifs avait un effet important sur le comportement d'un individu en dirigeant ses actions, en encourageant la persistance, etc. (Latham et Locke, 1991;Locke, 1991[START_REF] Locke | Grounded Theory in Management Research (SAGE series in management research[END_REF]. En revanche, pour la poursuite d'un objectif, l'individu s'engage dans une démarche de planification et performance continues [START_REF] Kanfer | Goal and self-regulation: Applications or theory to work settings[END_REF][START_REF] Lord | Moving from cognition to action: A control theory perspective[END_REF]. Selon [START_REF] Austin | Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content[END_REF], la recherche d'atteinte d'un objectif est le processus qui consiste à diriger des ressources vers un objectif poursuivi. En procédant ainsi, une personne peut abandonner, revoir, se désengager temporairement ou persister pour atteindre son objectif. Selon la conceptualisation du contrôle (Carver et Sheier, 1982), l'atteinte des objectifs nécessite une boucle de rétroaction. Un individu effectue une comparaison de soi avec le standard et, en cas de chute brusque, il doit subir une opération pour se remettre à niveau.

XVIII

Compte tenu de l'importance d'une poursuite efficace des objectifs, un changement peut être perçu en termes d'études se concentrant davantage sur le processus de recherche d'objectifs, au lieu de limiter leur attention à la théorisation initiale des objectifs [START_REF] Locke | The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core[END_REF].

Dans le passé, la conceptualisation de la fixation d'objectifs a alimenté un grand nombre d'études empiriques avec des extensions et des applications pertinentes de la prise de décision au bien-être individuel [START_REF] Locke | New directions in goal-setting theory[END_REF]. Mais une exploration plus approfondie des mécanismes d'ajustement post-décisionnel de l'allocation des ressources en vue de la réalisation des objectifs, c'est-à-dire le processus de poursuite des objectifs [START_REF] Diefendorff | Goal-striving and self-regulation processes[END_REF], reste inévitable.

En raison de l'importance de la poursuite d'objectifs dans presque tous les domaines de la vie, ce domaine doit être approfondi.

Le processus d'atteinte des objectifs peut varier d'une personne à l'autre car tout le monde se comporte différemment dans certaines conditions. Ainsi, un chemin choisi par un employé travaillant dans une organisation peut être différent, voire contradictoire, avec la stratégie choisie par un autre dans une organisation différente pour atteindre le même objectif. De même, le fait de montrer un type de comportement pourrait être bien accueilli dans une société, mais le même comportement peut être considéré comme offensant dans une autre culture. Et une stratégie pour effectuer une tâche peut être très fructueuse dans certaines conditions mais peut avoir des résultats préjudiciables lorsque ces conditions cessent d'exister. Ainsi, l'objectif est un processus qui peut être affecté par le niveau de compréhension de la personne ainsi que par son environnement. Étant une combinaison de comportements fonctionnel et dysfonctionnel, l'étude de ce processus donne un aperçu des différents antécédents susceptibles d'influencer le niveau de motivation de chacun.

Modélisation d'un processus de poursuite d'objectif par le biais de la conceptualisation des ressources

La présente recherche offre un modèle original basé sur la théorie de la conservation/préservation des ressources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF], explorant la dynamique de la recherche d'objectifs à travers le prisme de la préservation des ressources et des investissements.

La théorisation du COR relie la motivation à une volonté évolutive de préserver des ressources valorisées. En particulier, cela suggère que les facteurs de motivation qualifiés de ressources peuvent être individuels, tangibles ou sociaux, et sont les principales fonctions de la motivation XIX individuelle [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. Ainsi, lorsqu'on cherche à obtenir des ressources supplémentaires, la motivation première d'un individu est de préserver les ressources existantes. En outre, un investissement supplémentaire dans ces ressources dépendra également du réservoir de ressources disponible.

La nature empirique de la recherche actuelle contribue à la conceptualisation des ressources de la théorie du COR en la combinant avec la vision axée sur le processus de la recherche d'objectifs. Premièrement, elle (la nature empirique ?) rend compte de la complexité de la dynamique du comportement humain grâce à de nouvelles approches, nécessaires pour faire avancer la science psychologique. Au lieu de limiter l'attention au «quoi» de l'atteinte des objectifs, cette recherche explore le «pourquoi» et le «comment» de ce processus, en le considérant comme un phénomène dynamique et complexe. Deuxièmement, elle étend la validation empirique de la théorie COR en suggérant son utilisation pour expliquer des phénomènes discrets ou discontinus de poursuite d'objectifs, qui étaient auparavant limités à la conceptualisation des ressources en tant que variables étalonnées dans les modèles de relations de causalité. Troisièmement, nous pensons qu'il est temps d'utiliser des méthodologies sophistiquées actuellement disponibles. Donc, en intégrant différentes techniques, nous testons notre modèle d'objectif basé sur l'objectif du COR.

La présente étude adopte le cadre COR pour aller au-delà de l'approche traditionnelle dans laquelle la réalisation des objectifs est normalement associée à une motivation extrinsèque axée sur les résultats. En fait, cet objectif de conceptualisation est lié à la valeur de la motivation qui dépasse la satisfaction d'obtenir une récompense [START_REF] Kruglanski | The endogenous-exogenous partition in attribution theory[END_REF]Touré-Tiller et Fishbach, 2014). En premier lieu, des recherches antérieures suggèrent que la motivation distingue de préférence la dynamique sous-jacente de la poursuite d'objectifs des intentions, et récompense l'association aux résultats (finaux) [START_REF] Fishbach | When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit[END_REF][START_REF] Tubbs | The role of intentions in work motivation: Implications for goal-setting theory and research[END_REF]. En second lieu, il faut mettre l'accent sur les défis liés à la perception des états psychologiques comme intrinsèquement positifs ou négatifs. Il est possible que la nature positive et négative soit relative aux fonctionnalités contextuelles [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | When happiness makes us selfish, but sadness makes us fair: Affective influences on interpersonal strategies in the dictator game[END_REF]. En nous appuyant sur des recherches antérieures, nous présentons un cadre intégré qui relie ces questions essentielles à une théorie commune des processus d'atteinte des objectifs basée sur les ressources.

XX

Les individus recherchent des ressources

La théorie du COR [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF], similaire à la théorie de MI, suggère que les objectifs sont des réalisations symptomatiques fondées sur l'évaluation des besoins signalée par les ressources. Définissant les ressources par la dynamique des objectifs, la théorie du COR énonce un concept de motivation axé sur les processus, qui reste la base de la recherche d'objectifs. Il combine également les processus interactifs et spécifiques de la recherche d'objectifs. Comme la théorie de Brehm se concentre sur les raisons pour lesquelles les individus s'abstiennent d'investir de l'énergie [START_REF] Stanek | Evidence against the primacy of energy conservation: Exerted force in possible and impossible handgrip tasks[END_REF], la conceptualisation du COR cible à la fois les processus d'investissement énergétique d'approche et d'évitement. Il cible le «pourquoi», c'est-à-dire le mécanisme de la dynamique des ressources, en le postulant en fonction de la conservation. La théorisation du COR suggère que tous les besoins n'ont pas un poids égal et que la motivation repose sur une dominance négative, c'est-à-dire une dynamique intrinsèque qui remplace l'attrait associé à la perception du gain, en d'autres termes une dynamique extrinsèque. En outre, la théorie du COR souligne l'importance de la perte de valeur en dépassant la conceptualisation des évaluations cognitives. Ce faisant, il contribue à l'approche de l'action raisonnée [START_REF] Tubbs | The role of intentions in work motivation: Implications for goal-setting theory and research[END_REF], qui relie les processus non conscients aux incohérences associées à la cognition. Basée sur des principes d'évolution inconsciente centrés sur la psychologie humaine (Hall, Hobfoll, Canetti-Nisim, John-son et Galea, 2009;[START_REF] Hinds | The psychology of potential threat: properties of the security motivation system[END_REF], l'auto-préservation a été supposée être une motivation constante qui reste supérieure au désir de croissance.

Sur la base de ce qui précède, en proposant un modèle du processus de recherche d'objectifs du point de vue du COR, nous étendons la recherche axée sur l'autorégulation et les processus relatifs au contrôle cybernétique, en fonction du contexte d'allocation et de gestion des ressources. Pour trouver un soutien empirique à nos propositions théoriques, nous avons mené de nombreuses études en prenant en compte diverses ressources telles que l'efficacité personnelle, l'optimisme, le bien-être subjectif, le courage, la conscience et l'attention morale. Ceci teste non seulement les principes de base de la théorie du COR en matière d'investissement et de préservation des ressources, mais également la notion de caravanes de ressources. Dans le même ordre d'idées, nous intégrons également la conceptualisation de l'autorégulation [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource[END_REF] afin d'observer comment les ressources d'épuisement peuvent motiver les individus XXI à faire des choix contraires à leur éthique lorsqu'ils s'efforcent de préserver leur intégrité. en même temps, nous souhaitions valider les propositions de disponibilité de ressources du COR, selon lesquelles les ressources aideraient les individus à mieux travailler. De plus, sur la base des arguments du COR concernant une réversibilité possible des ressources, nous testons leur rôle curviligne possible dans certaines conditions en adoptant des méthodologies appropriées. Selon le cadre du COR, c'est le potentiel de motivation des ressources d'un individu qui les rend bonnes ou mauvaises [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. Ainsi, [START_REF] Morelli | Not all resources are created equal: COR theory, values, and stress[END_REF] s'inquiètent d'une conceptualisation linéaire monotone consistant à supposer que les liens de ressources avec ses résultats sont a priori positifs ou négatifs. Nous incorporons des conceptions similaires, telles que « trop de bonnes choses », suggérées par les recherches existantes, pour tester notre processus de poursuite d'objectifs basé sur le COR [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Pierce | The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management[END_REF]. Enfin, nous essayons d'explorer la notion relativement peu étudiée des voies de circulation des ressources du COR dans le contexte du travail. La théorie du COR suggère que les conditions environnementales jouent un rôle crucial dans l'accélération de la modification des ressources, pour le meilleur ou pour le pire. D'un côté, certains environnements peuvent s'ajouter aux fonctions de conservation déjà existantes, ce qui permet de prévoir des conséquences plus négatives telles que l'épuisement professionnel et les problèmes physiologiques.D'un autre côté, du côté positif, ces environnements peuvent aider à atteindre les objectifs et à accumuler des ressources supplémentaires en alimentant une dynamique d'élargissement et de développement [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Fredrickson | Positive emotions and upward spirals in organizations[END_REF]. Des environnements tels que les conditions de travail, la culture, qu'il s'agisse de l'organisation ou de la société et de l'interface travail-famille, ont déjà été suggérés comme moyens de passage des ressources (Hobfoll, 2011a). Pour valider empiriquement cette conceptualisation en la couplant au processus de recherche d'objectifs, nous incluons les valeurs culturelles et le soutien organisationnel perçu dans nos études.

XXII

ARTICLE 1

La valeur d'un objectif: relations réciproques entre la réalisation des objectifs de travail, les ressources psychologiques et l'engagement des objectifs Qu'est-ce qui rend un objectif désirable? Autrement dit, quel est le processus qui valide l'attractivité des objectifs? la recherche sur l'atteinte des objectifs est passée de la théorie initiale de la fixation d'objectifs [START_REF] Locke | The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core[END_REF] à une plus grande attention portée au processus d'allocation des ressources [START_REF] Klein | Goal choice and decision processes. Work motivation: Past, present, and future[END_REF]. Par exemple, l'intérêt croissant a amené des auteurs à se concentrer sur l'ajustement post-décisionnel des mécanismes d'allocation de ressources [START_REF] Diefendorff | Goal-striving and self-regulation processes[END_REF]. Ce passage d'une perspective téléologique à une perspective autotélique [START_REF] Csikszentmihalyi | Play and intrinsic rewards[END_REF] a ouvert des perspectives importantes et innovantes. Premièrement, les recherches suggèrent que la dynamique de la poursuite d'objectifs devrait être mieux distinguée des intentions et des métriques de la gratification des résultat(s) (fin) [START_REF] Fishbach | When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit[END_REF][START_REF] Tubbs | The role of intentions in work motivation: Implications for goal-setting theory and research[END_REF]. Deuxièmement, l'accent mis sur cette dynamique remet en cause la vision des états psychologiques intrinsèquement positifs ou négatifs. Cela suggère une possible réversibilité, où la positivité et la négativité sont des attributs relatifs à la fonctionnalité contextuelle [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | When happiness makes us selfish, but sadness makes us fair: Affective influences on interpersonal strategies in the dictator game[END_REF]. Enfin, une vue dynamique met en évidence le besoin de complexité de la modélisation. La recherche d'objectifs est appréhendée à travers le prisme des interactions entre processus concurrents, «coactivants» [START_REF] Fishbach | The goal construct in social psychology[END_REF] en relation avec une ou plusieurs injonctions simultanées [START_REF] Boudreaux | Goal conflict, goal striving, and psychological well-being[END_REF][START_REF] Emmons | Conflict among personal strivings: immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being[END_REF].

Dans un aperçu synthétique, Fischbach et Ferguson (2007) ont ainsi résumé les principales questions en jeu sous trois questions programmatiques: comment activer un objectif, qu'est-ce qui sous-tend et rend possible le processus d'atteinte d'objectif, et comment ces processus d'atteinte d'un objectif interagissent-ils entre eux ? Les résultats ont mis en évidence l'existence de deux chemins complémentaires qui rendent compte de comportements différenciés d'atteinte d'objectifs, par exemple (or e.g.). poursuite d'objectif tenace et versus flexible, (Brandtstadter et XXIII [START_REF] Brandtstädter | Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: Explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping[END_REF][START_REF] Kelly | Flexible and tenacious goal pursuit lead to improving well-being in an aging population: A ten-year cohort study[END_REF]. Il reste toutefois nécessaire de mieux comprendre la dynamique de l'atteinte de l'objectif.

Théorie et modèle conceptuel

Le plus souvent, la relation entre ressources et objectifs est abordée à partir d'une métaphore semblable à celle d'un compte bancaire, où une offre disponible de ressources peut être exploitée à la demande [START_REF] Peterson | Psychological capital and employee performance: A latent growth modeling approach[END_REF][START_REF] Xanthopoulou | Work engagement among employees facing emotional demands: The role of personal resources[END_REF]. Par exemple, le modèle d'allocation de ressources de personne (PRA) [START_REF] Grawitch | Rethinking the work-life interface: It's not about balance, it's about resource allocation[END_REF] théorise un système dans lequel une quantité finie de ressources alimente un processus d'allocation orienté par les demandes. L'individu choisit où et comment allouer ses ressources. Nous suggérons deux hypothèses limitantes à cette approche. Premièrement, elle souscrit implicitement à l'idée de rationalité contrôlée dans laquelle les acteurs optimisent l'allocation de leurs ressources. Des recherches ont toutefois montré comment des normes subjectives limitent le contrôle volontaire [START_REF] Ajzen | Attitudes, Personality, and Behavior[END_REF] et comment des cadres de jugement implicites peuvent fausser les choix rationnels [START_REF] Goffman | Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience[END_REF][START_REF] Tversky | Rational choice and the framing of decisions[END_REF]. Deuxièmement, cette approche postule une déconnexion entre les ressources et les objectifs. Cela peut effectivement être le cas lorsque des objectifs sont imposés par l'environnement. Les objectifs sont donc vécus comme des formes de revendications. Néanmoins, les objectifs que l'on se fixe à soi-même peuvent être considérés comme liés aux perceptions et aux goûts de chacun, à avec la recherche d'un but qui se chevauche en même temps à la recherche d'un sens [START_REF] Barrick | The theory of purposeful work behavior: The role of personality, higher-order goals, and job characteristics[END_REF]. Dans ce cas, la distinction entre ressources et objectifs devient moins claire. Il devient donc nécessaire d'explorer d'autres voies possibles pour relier ressources et objectifs. [START_REF] Eccles | Motivational beliefs, values, and goals[END_REF] [START_REF] Bandura | Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Laguna | Dynamic relationships between personal resources and work engagement in entrepreneurs[END_REF][START_REF] Thaler | The role of feedback, causal attributions, and selfefficacy in goal revision[END_REF]. La théorie COR intègre les croyances relatives à l'efficacité en tant que ressource personnelle importante [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. L'efficacité personnelle a donc montré des relations négatives, nulles, curvilignes, monotones ou même discontinues avec la performance au travail [START_REF] Beattie | The moderating role of narcissism on the reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Sitzmann | A meta-analytic investigation of the within-person self-efficacy domain: Is self-efficacy a product of past performance or a driver of future performance[END_REF][START_REF] Vancouver | Finding a between-person negative effect of self-efficacy on performance: Not just a within-person effect anymore[END_REF]. Enfin, il convient de noter le manque d'études longitudinales sur l'efficacité personnelle et sa relation avec d'autres ressources en ce qui concerne la réalisation des objectifs et la théorie du COR.

Optimisme

L'optimisme fait référence à l'attente d'un résultat positif, qui encourage la persistance face aux obstacles [START_REF] Schulman | Applying learned optimism to increase sales productivity[END_REF]. Cette attente concerne la santé psychologique et les résultats au travail [START_REF] Scheier | Optimism, coping, and health: assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies[END_REF][START_REF] Youssef | Positive organizational behavior in the workplace: The impact of hope, optimism, and resilience[END_REF]. Durant le processus de persistance, les personnes optimistes déploient plus d'efforts que les pessimistes pour réduire l'écart entre l'objectif recherché et la situation [START_REF] Gaudreau | Differential associations of dispositional optimism and pessimism with coping, goal Attainment, and emotional adjustment during sport competition[END_REF]. Un niveau de confiance supérieur leur permet de poursuivre leurs objectifs avec ténacité et de les ajuster de manière flexible dans des conditions défavorables [START_REF] Hanssen | Optimism, motivational coping and well-being: Evidence supporting the importance of flexible goal adjustment[END_REF]. L'optimisme, ressource personnelle, a par ailleurs été démontrée comme étant lié à une plus grande auto-efficacité [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. En ce qui concerne l'auto-efficacité, toutefois, des études ont mis XXVI en évidence des relations d'optimisme non linéaires ainsi que négatives avec la performance au travail [START_REF] Brown | Great expectations: Optimism and pessimism in achievement settings[END_REF][START_REF] Hmieleski | Entrepreneurs' optimism and new venture performance: A social cognitive perspective[END_REF].

Bien-être subjectif

Le bien-être subjectif (BE) fait généralement l'objet de recherche en tant que résultat positif d'un cycle de gain de ressources [START_REF] Avey | Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time[END_REF]. Du point de vue de la recherche d'objectifs, on peut toutefois affirmer que le BE désigne un actif psychologique qui aide les individus à atteindre leurs objectifs dans les meilleures conditions psychologiques.

En cohérence avec les préceptes du COR, le SWB correspond ainsi à une ressource énergétique dont l'efficacité perçue est jugée déterminante pour la réalisation de l'objectif [START_REF] Grawitch | Rethinking the work-life interface: It's not about balance, it's about resource allocation[END_REF]. À partir d'un résultat, le SWB se transforme en entrée.

Engagement pour atteindre un objectif

L'engagement envers la réalisation d'un objectif est défini comme « un lien psychologique volontaire reflétant l'engagement et la responsabilité vis-à-vis d'une cible particulière » (Klein, Molloy et Brinsfield, 2012: 137). Il joue un rôle clé dans l'autorégulation [START_REF] Meyer | Employee commitment and motivation: a conceptual analysis and integrative model[END_REF] et concerne l'investissement en efforts et la productivité [START_REF] Becker | Dual commitments to organizations and professions: Different motivational pathways to productivity[END_REF]. L'engagement a été intégré aux principaux cadres sur la motivation [START_REF] Brickman | Commitment[END_REF]. La théorie de l'espérance fournit l'une des premières tentatives complètes pour relier les différentes étapes d'un processus d'atteinte d'objectif [START_REF] Mitchell | Expectancy-value models in organizational psychology[END_REF].

En tant que tel, le modèle la valence de [START_REF] Vroom | Work and motivation[END_REF] introduit la notion d'instrumentalité, pour laquelle l'importance d'un résultat dépend de l'impact subjectif des moyens de conditionnement. [START_REF] Lawler | Pay and organization effectiveness: A psychological view[END_REF], par exemple, a enquêté sur la rémunération en tant que moyen essentiel pour atteindre un objectif. D'autres recherches ont poussé plus loin cette idée pour montrer comment les objectifs et les moyens se définissent les uns par rapport aux autres, et comment un objectif est une action de valeur motivationnelle endogène qui dépasse la satisfaction d'obtenir une récompense [START_REF] Kruglanski | The endogenous-exogenous partition in attribution theory[END_REF]Touré-Tiller et Fischbach, 2014).

Nous étendons l'approche de Kruglanski à l'incorporation de l'engagement aux objectifs comme moyen de traduire l'impact des ressources personnelles sur la réalisation des objectifs. Il est intéressant de noter que des ressources personnelles telles que l'auto-efficacité (Wofford,

XXVII

Goodwin et Premack, 1992) et l'optimisme [START_REF] Monzani | Effective pursuit of personal goals: The fostering effect of dispositional optimism on goal commitment and goal progress[END_REF] ont eu une incidence sur l'engagement en faveur de l'objectif.

En conséquence, nous formulons les hypothèses réciproques suivantes:

Hypothèse 1. Les objectifs et les ressources ont des relations réciproques. Les ressources, y compris l'efficacité personnelle, l'optimisme et le bien-être subjectif, tirent leur valeur de la réalisation de l'objectif, tandis que l'atteinte de l'objectif est valorisée pour son bénéfice sur les ressources.

Hypothèse 2. La valeur de l'engagement à atteindre un objectif dépend de la mesure dans laquelle il est essentiel que les ressources atteignent cet objectif. Cependant, l'efficacité de l'engagement aux objectifs en tant que moyen d'atteindre un objectif devrait également avoir une incidence sur la valeur des ressources et la réalisation des objectifs.

Valeurs culturelles

Les ressources ne sont pas disponibles ni évoluent dans le vide. Selon [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF], elles sont soumises à un véritable « commerce (…) au sein d'individus imbriqués dans des familles, imbriqués dans des organisations, imbriqués dans des communautés » (ibid: 161). La dynamique des ressources reflète un processus de congruence écologique qui confère une signification externe (situationnelle) et une valeur aux attitudes et comportements individuels. Pourtant, en mettant l'accent sur la perspective individuelle, la recherche a principalement négligé cet aspect de la théorie.

Celui-ci émerge comme une limitation puisque la signification et le développement de telles ressources, comme l'optimisme et l'auto-efficacité, ont été jugés tributaires des conditions sociales et culturelles [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources and disaster in cultural context: The caravans and passageways for resources[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. Dans leur présentation de différents résultats empiriques dépendants de diverses cultures, une analyse récente des réalisations de la théorie COR confirme la nécessité d'explorer plus amplement les contingences culturelles qui façonnent la nature et la dynamique des ressources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF].

Nous proposons donc une hypothèse supplémentaire dans laquelle le processus d'évaluation des objectifs est intégré dans un système de ressources valorisées sur le plan culturel.

XXVIII

Outre les mécanismes cognitifs internes, la valeur d'un objectif doit être considérée dans la perspective d'un processus d'évaluation sanctionné par la société.

Hypothèse 3. Le processus d'évaluation de la réalisation des objectifs de travail varient d'une culture à l'autre (par exemple, pakistanais, français et américain).

Méthodes

Procédure

Participants

En T1, 793 participants des trois pays ont rempli et renvoyé des questionnaires valides (France, n = 272; États-Unis, n = 280; Pakistan, n = 241). En raison de l'effet d'attrition, le nombre total de participants au T2 est tombé à 407 (France, n = 139, soit 51,1% du T1; États-Unis, n = 114, soit 40,7% du T1; Pakistan, n = 154, soit 63,9% du T1).

Les mesures

Auto-efficacité

Une version modifiée de l'échelle généralisée d'auto-efficacité [START_REF] Schwarzer | Generalized Self-Efficacy scale[END_REF] a été utilisée pour mesurer l'auto-efficacité liée au travail.

Optimisme

XXIX

Nous avons mesuré l'optimisme à l'aide de trois éléments du questionnaire révisé du Test d'orientation sur la vie (LOT-R; [START_REF] Scheier | Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test[END_REF].

Bien-être subjectif

Les versions anglaise et française validées de l'échelle de satisfaction à l'égard de la vie (SWLS) [START_REF] Diener | The Satisfaction with Life Scale[END_REF] ont été utilisées.

Engagement pour atteindre un objectif

La mesure de l'engagement aux objectifs a consisté en une version modifiée à 4 items de l'échelle d'engagement neutre de Klein et al. (K.U.T) [START_REF] Klein | The assessment of commitment: Advantages of a unidimensional, target-free approach[END_REF].

Atteinte des objectifs de travail.

La réalisation des objectifs de travail a été mesurée à l'aide de deux éléments de Green, Oades et Grant (2006).

Valeurs culturelles.

En T1, nous avons utilisé une échelle de 33 éléments du questionnaire sur les valeurs de portrait (PVQ-RR) [START_REF] Schwartz | The refined theory of basic values[END_REF].

La démographie.

Le sexe, l'état matrimonial et le lieu de travail ont été inclus.

Résultats

Analyse descriptive

Des corrélations test-retest modérées à élevées dans la direction attendue ont été trouvées entre les variables de l'étude, y compris l'efficacité personnelle, l'optimisme, le bien-être subjectif, l'engagement envers les objectifs de travail et l'atteinte des objectifs de travail entre les vagues de collecte dans les trois pays.

Des

Analyse factorielle confirmatoire

Une analyse factorielle confirmatoire a été réalisée pour vérifier le caractère distinctif des constructions de l'étude pour tous les échantillons. Plus précisément, deux modèles de mesure ont été testés, à savoir le modèle factoriel non corrélé et le modèle factoriel corrélé. La comparaison de l'ajustement entre les deux modèles de mesure a montré que le modèle du facteur corrélé était le meilleur ajustement dans tous les pays de l'étude et à travers les vagues temporelles.

Mesure d'invariance

Une mesure de l'invariance a été réalisée pour vérifier les différences entre les vagues

Analyse du chemin transversal

Une analyse de trajectoire croisée a été réalisée à l'aide de SEM multi-groupes afin de tester notre modèle hypothétique de manière transculturelle.

Discussion

La présente recherche est une contribution à la littérature sur les objectifs. En ce qui concerne le cadre conceptuel, nos recherches apportent de nouveaux éléments à la théorie du COR. Nos conclusions réciproques suggèrent de recentrer l'attention sur la nature des cibles et des objectifs, la distinction initiale entre cible et moyen étant remise en question.

Les résultats montrent que l'engagement envers des objectifs et la réalisation du travail alimentent les ressources personnelles comme deux moyens différents d'atteindre un objectif de conservation ou de développement. La réalisation de l'objectif perd donc sa valeur intrinsèque, au moment où elle se transforme en une étape transitoire d'un processus de COR axé sur la préservation et le développement de l'auto-efficacité personnelle, de l'optimisme et du SWB.

Les implications pratiques

XXXIV D'un point de vue pratique, l'une des principales implications de la présente recherche concerne la question de la gestion des récompenses. En réalité, les organisations ont beaucoup de difficulté à s'extraire d'un modèle de gestion où les individus sont considérés comme des stratèges rationnels motivés par des incitations d'une valeur prédéterminée [START_REF] Jeffrey | The motivational properties of tangible incentives[END_REF]. La présente étude confirme d'abord l'hypothèse théorique d'une valeur intrinsèque à attribuer à un objectif / une récompense. Des contributions classiques telles que celle de [START_REF] Kohn | Punished by rewards[END_REF] ont déjà souligné le caractère réversible des récompenses, qu'il faut comprendre par rapport aux valeurs et aux perceptions individuelles. Les sciences économiques comportementales ont également insisté sur l'impact imparfait des incitations qui seraient considérées en dehors de la « comptabilité mentale » individuelle non rationnelle [START_REF] Presslee | The effects of reward type on employee goal setting, goal commitment, and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Thaler | The role of feedback, causal attributions, and selfefficacy in goal revision[END_REF]. Conformément aux recherches insistant sur la nécessité de prendre en compte la motivation individuelle par rapport à la nature qualitative, intrinsèque ou extrinsèque des objectifs [START_REF] Deci | The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Kammeyer-Mueller | A head-start or a step behind? Understanding how dispositional and motivational resources influence emotional exhaustion[END_REF][START_REF] Schmuck | Intrinsic and extrinsic goals: Their structure and relationship to well-being in German and US college students[END_REF][START_REF] Vansteenkiste | Less is sometimes more: Goal content matters[END_REF], nous soutenons qu'une gestion pertinente des récompenses doit être envisagée du point de vue d'un processus d'évaluation intégré régi par un besoin intrinsèque de préserver des ressources de motivation valorisées.

Limites et orientations futures

La recherche présente est un test en deux vagues temporelles d'un modèle réciproque.

Des critiques récentes ont toutefois remis en question les résultats longitudinaux obtenus avec moins de trois tests dans le temps [START_REF] Ployhart | The "quick start guide" for conducting and publishing longitudinal research[END_REF]. Argument le plus valable, la norme minimale T3 est néanmoins difficile à respecter dans de véritables contextes professionnels.

Contrairement aux plans expérimentaux strictement contrôlés, nos échantillons correspondent à des professionnels actifs répartis dans trois pays différents.

Comme indiqué précédemment, les questionnaires distribués à l'échantillon pakistanais étaient uniquement en anglais. Cependant, il a été avancé que la langue peut influencer la pensée des gens [START_REF] Harzing | Does the use of English-language questionnaires in cross-national research obscure national differences?[END_REF] [START_REF] Locke | The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core[END_REF], des recherches récentes ont donc exploré le processus de recherche d'objectifs, en mettant l'accent sur le mécanisme d'ajustement postdécisionnel de l'affectation des ressources [START_REF] Diefendorff | Goal-striving and self-regulation processes[END_REF]. Conformément à cette perspective, la recherche présente utilise la théorie de COR [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll, , 1998) ) pour explorer le rôle des ressources personnelles dans la dynamique d'atteinte des objectifs.

Il a été observé que la poursuite d'objectifs peut ne pas suivre une trajectoire linéaire et que des efforts soutenus sont d'une importance cruciale (Bandura, 1986;[START_REF] Dweck | Self-theories: The mindset of a champion[END_REF]. Étant donné que les revers font partie de la poursuite d'objectifs, seuls ceux qui peuvent «garder leur sang-froid » peuvent progresser [START_REF] Southwick | Ready for Anything[END_REF]. Ces ressources personnelles sont liées à la résilience et à la sensation qu'a un individu de contrôler son environnement efficacement [START_REF] Hobfoll | Resource loss, resource gain, and emotional outcomes among inner city women[END_REF]. La disponibilité de ressources personnelles telles que l'efficacité, l'optimisme, la résilience et l'espoir peut conduire à des « caravanes de ressources » d'un ordre supérieur, qui à leur tour permettent de prédire la réalisation de l'objectif [START_REF] Hobfoll | Social and psychological resources and adaptation[END_REF]. Nous suggérons une ressource personnelle supplémentaire, bien que moins explorée, qui soit essentielle à la poursuite d'objectifs le « grit » 1 .

Le « grit » a été défini comme « une disposition à poursuivre des objectifs à long terme en fournissant des efforts et un intérêt prolongés [START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF].

Concrètement, on a découvert que le « grit » constituait une ressource individuelle pertinente à [START_REF] Bailey | Wanted: Employees With Grit[END_REF][START_REF] Barghelame | Why You Should Hire Employees Who Have Grit[END_REF][START_REF] Friedman | How to Get a Job at Google, Part 2[END_REF].

Cependant, des caractéristiques personnelles seules peuvent ne pas suffire pour une poursuite réussie des objectifs. L'environnement façonne également ce que nous faisons. Selon le concept de ressources « passage-ways » selon lequel «des conditions environnementales qui soutiennent, développent, enrichissent et protègent les ressources des individus, des familles et des organisations, ou qui nuisent, minent, obstruent ou appauvrissent les réservoirs de ressources des personnes» [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF], l'investissement dans les ressources est lié à un environnement favorable tel que le soutien organisationnel perçu [START_REF] Chen | The commerce and crossover of resources: Resource conservation in the service of resilience[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Social and psychological resources and adaptation[END_REF]. Les passages de ressources peuvent alimenter une dynamique d'expansion et de construction [START_REF] Fredrickson | Positive emotions and upward spirals in organizations[END_REF] au profit de la réalisation des objectifs et de l'obtention de ressources supplémentaires. Ainsi, l'environnement de travail favorable est un exemple de facilitateur / accélérateur potentiel du développement fonctionnel des ressources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF].

Néanmoins, est-ce que plus de ressources, c'est nécessairement mieux. L'accumulation de ressources peut avoir des effets néfastes au-delà d'un niveau optimal [START_REF] Credé | Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature[END_REF][START_REF] Vancouver | The changing signs in the relationships among self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance[END_REF]. En se fondant l'idée qui "suggère que les chercheurs en gestion devraient émettre des hypothèses et tester la possibilité que des niveaux relativement élevés d'antécédents autrement bénéfiques puissent conduire à des résultats inattendus et non souhaités", sur divers autres fondements théoriques, par exemple l'obligation ressentie, la réciprocité, l'incompétence perçue, l'engagement excessif, ou l'engagement et la passion excessive au travail, diverses ressources psychologiques ont été suggérées comme étant négativement liées aux résultats du travail [START_REF] Astakhova | The curvilinear relationship between work passion and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Pierce | The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management[END_REF].

Dans le contexte actuel, l'observation et la démonstration de la contribution précieuse des ressources lors de la réalisation des objectifs de travail sont limitées. Pour résoudre ce problème, suivant la théorie de la conservation des ressources (COR) [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll, , 1998))

1.

Développement de la théorie et des hypothèses

Progression et objectif

Le rôle important du « grit » dans la prévision des résultats des objectifs liés au travail a été validé dans différents domaines de travail [START_REF] Duckworth | Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness[END_REF][START_REF] Dugan | Gritting their teeth to close the sale: the positive effect of salesperson grit on job satisfaction and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Eskreis-Winkler | The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage[END_REF]. Le grit aide les individus à rester engagés et à être résilients dans des situations difficiles [START_REF] Maddi | The role of hardiness and grit in predicting performance and retention of USMA cadets[END_REF][START_REF] Von Culin | Unpacking grit: Motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF]. Pourtant, peu d'études ont mis en évidence les problèmes liés à l'impact des ressources sur la prévision de la performance, et les résultats restent peu concluants [START_REF] Credé | What shall we do about grit? A critical review of what we know and what we don't know[END_REF][START_REF] Credé | Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature[END_REF]. Plus important encore, des recherches récentes ont proposé un rôle curviligne possible du grit, suggérant ainsi un côté négatif sur la disponibilité excessive [START_REF] Alaoui | Know When to Fold'Em: The Flip Side of Grit[END_REF][START_REF] Jordan | Toward a Work Motivation Conceptualization of Grit in Organizations[END_REF]. Par conséquent, en présence d'un niveau de grit élevé, investir des efforts supplémentaires sur des objectifs non productifs pourrait devenir préjudiciable, un phénomène appelé « persistance inappropriée » [START_REF] Howard | Persistence: Defining the multidimensional construct and creating a measure[END_REF][START_REF] Lucas | When the going gets tough: Grit predicts costly perseverance[END_REF]. De même, la poursuite d'objectifs plus courageux peut devenir coûteuse en raison de l'engagement excessif envers ceux-ci.

Dans une telle situation, les personnes possédant du grit élevé restent collées obstinément au cours initial et investissent leurs efforts dans des directions moins optimales, voire négatives [START_REF] Hietala | What is the price of hubris. Using takeover battles to infer overpayments[END_REF][START_REF] Lindberg | Goal commitment and performance: An empirical study incorporating role-stress literature to reveal functional and dysfunctional influences[END_REF].

Sur la base de ce qui précède, nous proposons donc l'hypothèse suivante:

XXXIX Hypothèse 1. La relation entre le grit et l'progression vers les objectifs de travail est curvilinéaire. Plus précisément, la relation attendue entre la progression et l'objectif de travail est positive à un niveau modéré de gravité, mais devient négative aux niveaux les plus bas et les plus élevés.

Soutien organisationnel perçu et progression des objectifs

Selon la théorie du soutien organisationnel (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison et Sowa, 1986, p. 501), un lien entre le soutien organisationnel perçu, et les résultats du travail a été montré [START_REF] Eder | Perceived organizational support: Reducing the negative influence of coworker withdrawal behavior[END_REF]. L'impact positif univoque du soutien organisationnel perçu a toutefois été également mis en doute, en particulier à des niveaux d'intensité plus élevés. En s'appuyant sur le modèle de menace à l'estime de soi [START_REF] Fisher | Recipient reactions to aid[END_REF][START_REF] Nadler | The role of threat to self-esteem and perceived control in recipient reaction to help: Theory development and empirical validation[END_REF]

Effets interactifs du soutien organisationnel perçu et concentré

Des recherches antérieures suggèrent que les ressources personnelles pourraient être mieux étudiées du point de vue de leurs effets interactifs ainsi que des environnements de travail favorables.

La disponibilité d'un soutien de la part de l'organisation, associée au niveau élevé de compétences sociales d'un individu, a été jugée utile pour prédire les résultats du travail [START_REF] Hochwarter | The interaction of social skill and organizational support on job performance[END_REF]. Ce rôle modérateur de soutien organisationnel s'est avéré important dans le lien entre la performance des dirigeants et des subordonnés et suggère que XL l'accès des superviseurs à de tels environnements de soutien peut les aider à échanger des ressources psychologiques avec leurs subordonnés [START_REF] Erdogan | Support from the top: Supervisors' perceived organizational support as a moderator of leader-member exchange to satisfaction and performance relationships[END_REF]. Conformément à la théorie de la conservation des ressources, Luthans, Norman, Avolio et [START_REF] Luthans | The mediating role of psychological capital in the supportive organizational climate-employee performance relationship[END_REF] ont mis en évidence le rôle du soutien organisationnel perçu dans l'accumulation de ressources supplémentaires telles que l'espoir, la résilience et l'optimisme qui aident les individus à atteindre leurs objectifs. Lorsque les organisations ne fournissent pas d'environnements favorables, c'està-dire des passages de ressources utiles pour renforcer le réservoir de ressources, la productivité des employés peut être compromise [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF].

Les mesures

Grit

Nous avons mesuré le niveau de grit de l'individu à l'aide de Grit-S à 8 éléments (Duckworth et Quinn, 2009).

Le soutien organisationnel perçu

Pour évaluer le soutien organisationnel perçu des employés, nous avons utilisé 8 éléments de l'enquête sur le soutien organisationnel perçu [START_REF] Eisenberger | Perceived organizational support[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenberger | Perceived organizational support and employee diligence, commitment, and innovation[END_REF]).

Détermination des objectifs et progression des objectifs

Au premier temps de collecte de données (T1), les participants ont répondu aux questions relatives aux objectifs. Suivant la procédure adoptée par des recherches antérieures telles que celle de Sheldon et Kasser (1995, 1998), les participants ont été invités à énumérer leurs objectifs de travail actuels: «Veuillez énumérer les quatre objectifs les plus importants liés au travail (par exemple, enseignement, projet de recherche / publication, supervision de la recherche) que vous avez pour le semestre universitaire en cours. » Ensuite, au deuxième temps de collecte des données, trois éléments de l'échelle de progression des objectifs adoptée par [START_REF] Gaudreau | From goal motivation to goal progress: the mediating role of coping in the Self-Concordance Model[END_REF] ont été utilisés pour mesurer les progrès des participants par rapport à chaque objectif de travail, c'est-à-dire mentionné au moment T1.

La démographie.

L'âge, le sexe et la fonction des participants dans l'organisation actuelle ont été inclus en tant que données démographiques dans l'étude. XLII

Résultats

Analyse descriptive

Le tableau 1 présente les statistiques descriptives pour toutes les variables de l'étude, y compris les moyennes, les écarts-types et les corrélations, ainsi que la cohérence interne des échelles de l'étude. Remarque. * p <0,05; N = 293. Les estimations de fiabilité alpha sont présentées en diagonale.

Analyse préliminaire

Nous avons effectué une analyse factorielle confirmatoire (CFA) en testant quatre modèles de mesure alternatifs en plus de notre modèle à trois facteurs proposé, qui comprend le grit, le soutien organisationnel perçu et les progrès de l'objectif de travail. Les résultats ont montré que notre modèle hypothétique à trois facteurs, à savoir (χ2 / df = 1,172, CFI = 0,991, TLI = 0,990, IFI = 0,991, RMSEA = 0,024) semblait être le meilleur ajustement. En outre, le modèle à facteur unique (χ2 / df = 13,071, CFI = 0,356, TLI = 0,302, IFI = 0,359, RMSEA = 0,203) a mis en évidence un mauvais ajustement excluant ainsi la possibilité d'un biais de méthode commun et a confirmé la validité discriminante des variables de l'étude. XLIII

Tests d'hypothèses

Nos données décalées dans le temps ont été analysées à l'aide d'une régression polynomiale hiérarchique suivant les recommandations de recherches précédentes [START_REF] Cohen | Applied Multiple Correlation/Regression Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences[END_REF][START_REF] Shanock | Polynomial regression with response surface analysis: A powerful approach for examining moderation and overcoming limitations of difference scores[END_REF]. En outre, les résultats de la régression polynomiale ont été visualisés à l'aide d'une modélisation de surface de réponse (RSM), comme suggéré par [START_REF] Shanock | Polynomial regression with response surface analysis: A powerful approach for examining moderation and overcoming limitations of difference scores[END_REF]2014), qui avait été utilisée auparavant pour explorer des liens non linéaires [START_REF] Edwards | Polynomial regression and response surface methodology[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | Work and family stress and well-being: An examination of person-environment fit in the work and family domains[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Job stress and well-being: An examination from the view of person-environment fit[END_REF].

Les résultats de l'analyse par régression polynomiale ont montré que le terme quadratique du grit était significativement (négativement) lié à la progression de l'objectif de travail (β = -.37, p <0,05). Lors des tests, le terme quadratique de soutien organisationnel perçu semble être non significatif (β = 0,08, p> 0,05), ignorant ainsi la possibilité de son lien non linéaire avec la progression de l'objectif de travail. Mais l'impact linéaire du soutien organisationnel sur la prévision des résultats liés aux objectifs des employés semblait être significatif (β = .19, p <0.05). En outre, l'interaction entre le grit et le soutien organisationnel perçu ainsi que pour leurs valeurs au carré était insignifiante, à savoir (β = -.12, p> 0,05) et (β = -.03, p> 0,05) respectivement. Cependant, les résultats de la régression montraient que l'interaction entre le grit au carré et le soutien organisationnel perçu était significative (β = 0,24, p <0,05), ce qui montre que le soutien organisationnel perçu a un impact interactif significatif sur la relation curviligne entre le grain et les progrès réalisés dans l'objectif de travail.

De plus, nous avons observé des liens non linéaires entre les variables de l'étude à l'aide de la modélisation de la surface de réponse (figure 1). La présentation visuelle confirme que la progression de l'objectif de travail est minimale lorsque le niveau de grit de l'individu est faible et atteint son maximum avec la disponibilité modérée de la ressource grit, mais diminue à nouveau avec l'accumulation supplémentaire de grit. Cette relation dépend également de la disponibilité du soutien de l'organisation. De telle sorte que la pénurie de courage et le soutien organisationnel perçu maintiennent la progression des objectifs individuels au plus bas. Et les employés travaillent au maximum avec un niveau de grit moyen associé à un soutien organisationnel élevé. En outre, un environnement de travail très favorable réduit l'impact négatif des ressources importantes sur la progression des objectifs de travail. Cependant, notre suggestion de relation entre le niveau le XLIV plus bas d'atteinte des objectifs et l'excès joint de ressources et d'un soutien organisationnel perçu n'a pas été soutenue par les résultats.

Figure 1

Progrès de l'objectif de travail tel que prédit par la divergence de soutien organisationnel perçue par le grit. [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF]. Outre la régression polynomiale hiérarchique, la représentation de notre modèle de surface de réponse visuelle montre clairement que la progression des objectifs de travail ne répond pas de manière linéaire et mécanique à une existence simultanée de ressources et d'environnements favorables.

Implications théoriques

Conformément développement théoriques récents [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF], nos résultats suggèrent une possible réversibilité des ressources, l'impact positif des ressources ne devant pas être limité à une valeur de motivation intrinsèque absolue. Cela fait écho à des conclusions similaires qui ont remis en cause la vision de ressources à valeur égale [START_REF] Morelli | Not all resources are created equal: COR theory, values, and stress[END_REF]. C'est également cohérent avec les recommandations de Hobfoll (1998de Hobfoll ( , 2002) ) selon lesquelles les ressources devraient être considérées en fonction de leur écologie, c'est-à-dire le processus simultané d'autres états psychologiques qui fonctionnent chez l'individu. Notre étude fourni des preuves empiriques concernant le rôle différentiel des ressources.

Une seconde implication répond à une incertitude entre des problèmes théoriques et méthodologiques. Tout en soulignant l'importance des relations réciproques, les recherches précédentes ont rencontré des difficultés lorsqu'elle ont identifié des processus en spirale non équivoques [START_REF] Demerouti | The loss spiral of work pressure, workhome interference and exhaustion: Reciprocal relations in a three-wave study[END_REF]. Notre étude actuelle suggère que de telles limitations pourraient provenir des conceptions de recherche linéaire traditionnelles qui supposent l'identification des prédicteurs positifs / négatifs. Les conceptions non linéaires construites sur des équations polynomiales peuvent enrichir des résultats sous-estimés par ailleurs par des scores linéaires normalisés.

Les implications pratiques

Cette [START_REF] Bonner | Employee unethical behavior to shame as an indicator of self-image threat and exemplification as a form of self-image protection: The exacerbating role of supervisor bottom-line mentality[END_REF][START_REF] Friedman | Enhancing Critical and Ethical Thinking with Scenarios[END_REF] et que la compréhension générale des causes de ces pertes matérielles demeure importante pour la réussite organisationnelle.

Un comportement contraire à l'éthique peut être défini comme un comportement qui a des effets préjudiciables sur les autres et qui est "illégal ou moralement inacceptable pour la communauté en général" (Jones, 1991, p. 367). Selon cette conceptualisation, les comportements contraires à l'éthique comprennent les violations des normes ou standards éthiques tels que le mensonge, la tricherie et le vol [START_REF] Treviño | Un) ethical behavior in organizations[END_REF]. La littérature émergente sur l'éthique des affaires a mis en lumière de nombreuses causes de comportements contraires à l'éthique, notamment l'insatisfaction, la vengeance ou la dignité, l'injustice, la déviance XLIX réciproque et l'influence des pairs, la pression de la direction, le leadership éthique et les objectifs contradictoires [START_REF] Badrinarayanan | Mirroring the boss: Ethical leadership, emulation intentions, and salesperson performance[END_REF][START_REF] Carucci | Why ethical people make unethical choices[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | An experimental examination of the effects of individual and situational factors on unethical behavioral intentions in the workplace[END_REF][START_REF] Lincoln | Ethical beliefs and personal values of top level executives[END_REF]. Cependant, une cause notable (p.

ex., les émotions) demeure dans la recherche actuelle en éthique. A savoir, la peur de l'échec d'un objectif, antécédent d'un comportement contraire à l'éthique, a été sous-représentée. Bien que de plus en plus de recherches aient reconnu l'importance de l'échec des objectifs, les chercheurs se sont traditionnellement limités à l'établissement d'objectifs. Ce faisant, ils signalent que, dans l'environnement de travail, l'établissement d'objectifs précis pourrait améliorer le rendement [START_REF] Locke | Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey[END_REF] au prix d'un comportement contraire à l'éthique [START_REF] Barsky | Understanding the ethical cost of organizational goal-setting: A review and theory development[END_REF][START_REF] Jensen | Paying people to lie: The truth about the budgeting process[END_REF][START_REF] Schweitzer | Goal setting as a motivator of unethical behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Shantz | The effect of primed goals on employee performance: Implications for human resource management[END_REF].

Notre objectif est d'appliquer la perspective des théories d'autorégulation des ressources [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource[END_REF] pour examiner un modèle centré sur la déplétion de soi afin de déterminer l'effet négatif de la peur de l'échec sur les comportements éthiques des employés. Puisque les chercheurs ont considéré la peur de l'échec comme un facteur de stress [START_REF] Sagar | Coping with the effects of fear of failure: A preliminary investigation of young elite athletes[END_REF], et que les facteurs de stress épuisent les ressources limitées des employés en matière de maîtrise de soi par des processus surtaxants de régulation de l'atteinte des objectifs [START_REF] Alarcon | A meta-analysis of burnout with job demands, resources, and attitudes[END_REF][START_REF] Schmidt | Self-control demands[END_REF]. Partant de l'hypothèse d'une maîtrise de soi limitée, nous soutenons que la peur de l'échec de l'objectif peut conduire à l'amoindrissement de l'ego. D'une part, le sentiment d'appauvrissement (appauvrissement de l'ego; [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: A resource model of volition, self-regulation, and controlled processing[END_REF] conduit à des raccourcis heuristiques dans le processus décisionnel qui, à leur tour, peuvent ouvrir la voie à des choix non éthiques [START_REF] Christian | Examining the effects of sleep deprivation on workplace deviance: A self-regulatory perspective[END_REF]. Ainsi, nous proposons que la peur de l'échec de l'objectif soit positivement liée à des comportements contraires à l'éthique et que la déplétion de l'ego serve de mécanisme de médiation dans une telle relation.

Des travaux antérieurs suggèrent que la prise de décision éthique est influencée par une variété de processus cognitifs et de différences individuelles (Kligyte, Connelly, Thiel, & Lynn, 2013). Bien que nous supposions que la peur de l'échec de l'objectif provoque l'amoindrissement de

Développement de théories et d'hypothèses

Peur de l'échec dans l'atteinte d'un objectif et d'un comportement contraire à l'éthique en milieu de travail

Diverses études antérieures ont étudié le rôle des émotions sur la prise de décision et le comportement éthiques d'un individu [START_REF] Kouchaki | Anxious, threatened, and also unethical: How anxiety makes individuals feel threatened and commit unethical acts[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchell | Cheating under pressure: A self-protection model of workplace cheating behavior[END_REF], plus précisément, la notion de " peur de l'échec " a été largement étudiée dans les domaines du sport, de l'éducation et de l'entrepreneuriat et s'est révélée liée au comportement de l'individu [START_REF] De Castella | Unmotivated or motivated to fail? A crosscultural study of achievement motivation, fear of failure, and student disengagement[END_REF][START_REF] Morgan | Aspiring to succeed: A model of entrepreneurship and fear of failure[END_REF][START_REF] Sagar | Coping with the effects of fear of failure: A preliminary investigation of young elite athletes[END_REF] mais son rôle dans la détermination du comportement des employés en vue de réaliser des objectifs est rarement étudié. Selon les premiers théoriciens, la peur de l'échec est une " disposition à éviter l'échec et/ou une capacité à éprouver de la honte ou de l'humiliation à la suite d'un échec " (Atkinson, 1966 p.13). Mais les théoriciens contemporains ont conceptualisé la construction multidimensionnelle de la peur de l'échec, en particulier le modèle multidimensionnel de Conroy, Willow et Metzler (2002). Sur la base de ce concept, la peur de l'échec est une tendance à l'évaluation de la menace tout en s'efforçant d'atteindre ses objectifs personnels. L'échec dans le rendement est perçu comme une menace, car il s'agit d'une personne qui y associe les conséquences de l'aversion [START_REF] Conroy | Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The performance failure appraisal inventory[END_REF].

Craignant l'échec de l'objectif, les individus peuvent se lancer dans des activités contreproductives pour privilégier l'autoprotection plutôt que la réussite. L'intention réelle de ces autoprotecteurs n'est pas d'éviter l'échec, mais de minimiser les conséquences de cet échec [START_REF] Covington | Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform[END_REF]. De même, le concept d'aversion aux pertes de la théorie de la conservation des ressources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF] suggère que les gens choisissent une stratégie préventive pour écarter la menace possible pour les ressources précieuses. Dans le contexte du travail, des menaces réelles ou perçues peuvent amener l'individu à adopter un comportement contraire à l'éthique pour se protéger contre les agressions prévues de l'organisation. Sur cette base, nous proposons que les personnes qui craignent l'échec d'un objectif sont plus susceptibles de s'engager dans un comportement contraire à l'éthique et à l'intérêt personnel et de se protéger elles-mêmes.

Hypothèse 1: La peur de l'échec est directement et positivement liée au comportement contraire à l'éthique en milieu de travail. LII

Le rôle de médiation de l'appauvrissement de l'Ego (Ego-Depletion)

Les preuves concernant le rôle de l'appauvrissement de l'ego comme "un état dans lequel le moi n'a pas toutes les ressources dont il dispose normalement " (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007, p.2) jouent un rôle important dans la formation du comportement. Plus précisément, elle a déjà été liée à des décisions contraires à l'éthique comme la tricherie [START_REF] Muraven | Self-control depletion and the general theory of crime[END_REF], la surévaluation de la performance [START_REF] Mead | Too tired to tell the truth: Self-control resource depletion and dishonesty[END_REF] etc.

Selon la théorie de l'appauvrissement de l'ego [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource[END_REF], la maîtrise de soi est une ressource limitée qui peut s'épuiser avec le temps. Lorsque les individus s'engagent dans des actes de volition, leurs ressources de maîtrise de soi s'épuisent, ce qui réduit leur capacité à résister à un comportement impulsif et augmente leur propension à prendre des risques éthiques.

La maîtrise de soi est donc nécessaire pour surmonter la tendance vers des résultats à court terme (p. ex. avantages monétaires) en adoptant un comportement contraire à l'éthique au détriment des objectifs à long terme (p. ex. bonne réputation) [START_REF] Yam | Ego depletion and its paradoxical effects on ethical decision making[END_REF]. Ainsi, dans les situations où les ressources de maîtrise de soi diminuent, il est difficile de se conformer à son comportement avec une norme morale [START_REF] Welsh | The dark side of consecutive high performance goals: Linking goal setting, depletion, and unethical behavior[END_REF]. Nous émettons donc l'hypothèse que, Hypothèse 2: L'appauvrissement de l'ego est un médiateur important de la relation entre la peur de l'échec de l'objectif et le comportement contraire à l'éthique en milieu de travail.

Le rôle modérateur de la conscience

La conscience est un large éventail de constructions qui décrivent les différences individuelles dans la tendance à la maîtrise de soi, à la responsabilité envers autrui, au travail acharné, à la participation à un processus actif de planification, d'organisation et d'exécution des tâches [START_REF] Roberts | Conscientiousness[END_REF]. Elle a été considérée comme la plus importante parmi les traits de personnalité [START_REF] Barrick | Conscientiousness and performance of sales representatives: Test of the mediating effects of goal setting[END_REF]. Du point de vue de la théorie du COR [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], les ressources peuvent être définies en termes de conditions et d'attributs qui sont évalués. Par conséquent, les variables des différences individuelles peuvent être prises en compte dans cette définition, car ces caractéristiques affectent souvent la façon dont les gens réagissent aux processus de perte, de menace et d'investissement fondés sur les ressources LIII [START_REF] Grandey | The conservation of resources model applied to work-family conflict and strain[END_REF]. La conscience a été associée à une performance positive et à des réponses comportementales plus efficaces dans un certain nombre d'études [START_REF] Brown | Social cognitive career theory, conscientiousness, and work performance: A meta-analytic path analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Lapierre | Trait conscientiousness, leader-member exchange, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviour: A test of an integrative model[END_REF][START_REF] Judge | Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis[END_REF] ; elle peut donc être considérée une ressource précieuse. Plus précisément, les personnes qui sont très consciencieuses sont très motivées pour réussir, ont moins peur de l'échec et sont motivées pour réussir dans leur travail [START_REF] Mccrae | A five-factor theory of personality[END_REF][START_REF] Richardson | Conscientiousness and achievement motivation predict performance[END_REF]. De plus, en raison de leur motivation à exceller dans des situations aux exigences multiples et de leur sens aigu des responsabilités personnelles [START_REF] Mccrae | An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications[END_REF], les personnes très consciencieuses sont moins susceptibles d'avoir peur de ne pas atteindre leurs objectifs.

Hypothèse 3: La conscience modère la relation entre la peur de l'échec de l'objectif et l'appauvrissement de l'ego des employés, de sorte que la relation entre la peur de l'échec de l'objectif et l'appauvrissement de l'ego sera plus forte chez les employés moins consciencieux et plus faible chez les employés plus consciencieux.

Le rôle modérateur de l'attention morale

L'attention morale, définie comme "la mesure dans laquelle un individu perçoit et considère de façon chronique les éléments moraux et moraux de ses expériences " [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF](Reynolds, , p. 1028)), est un trait caractéristique, sans rapport avec une situation particulière. Elle se distingue de la sensibilité morale et de la conscience morale et peut aider à percevoir et à interpréter des situations morales [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF]. L'attention morale comporte deux dimensions, c'est-à-dire l'attention morale perceptuelle: la mesure dans laquelle un individu reconnaît la moralité dans ses expériences quotidiennes et l'attention morale réfléchie : la mesure dans laquelle un individu considère et réfléchit aux questions morales. L'attention morale aide non seulement l'individu à juger son propre comportement, mais aussi à évaluer le comportement des autres en le comparant aux normes morales [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF]. Cette caractéristique spécifique permet à un individu de détecter un comportement immoral en traitant l'information à partir de repères moraux (cf. [START_REF] Tversky | Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability[END_REF]. De plus, elle lui fait agir moralement parce qu'elle va de pair avec la perception de la "bonne chose à faire " [START_REF] Van Gils | Ethical leadership and follower organizational deviance: The moderating role of follower moral attentiveness[END_REF][START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF]. Cela peut suggérer que les personnes très attentives n'auront peut-être pas de difficulté à résoudre les dilemmes éthiques en élargissant leurs ressources cognitives. D'un autre côté, ceux qui n'ont pas cette caractéristique LIV peuvent avoir besoin de ressources pour résister à la tentation d'avoir un comportement contraire à l'éthique. Par conséquent, dans des situations où les ressources sont déjà épuisées, les personnes moralement peu attentives sont plus susceptibles de faire des choix contraires à l'éthique.

Sur la base des connaissances actuelles, nous émettons l'hypothèse qu'une grande attention morale peut aider les gens à agir de façon éthique dans les situations où la maîtrise de soi est réduite.

Hypothèse 4: L'attention morale modère la relation entre la déplétion de soi et le comportement contraire à l'éthique, de sorte que la relation directe entre la déplétion de soi et le comportement contraire à l'éthique sera plus faible lorsque l'attention morale est élevée et inversement.

Culture, peur de l'échec et réactions proximales

Comme nous l'avons présenté plus haut, cette recherche s'appuie sur la théorie du COR qui souligne que la dynamique des ressources doit être comprise du point de vue des interactions

Méthodes

Procédure

Une étude décalée dans le temps a été réalisée à l'aide de deux enquêtes en ligne dont l'écart était d'un mois. Les questionnaires ont été administrés en utilisant le Turc Mécanique d'Amazon (MTurk) et Turk Prime, panels en ligne de crowdsourcing, pour recruter des professionnels de la LV vente travaillant aux Etats-Unis et par contact personnel au Pakistan après avoir fixé les critères des objectifs de vente mensuels. Afin de conserver la diversité, nous n'avons pas limité les participants à un secteur d'activité spécifique, mais nous avons permis aux employés de travailler dans différents secteurs comme les télécommunications, la santé, la banque, le transport, l'immobilier, etc. Mais avec une attention particulière au fait que le participant doit avoir un rôle de vendeur dans son poste de travail actuel et travailler sur un objectif de vente mensuel.

Les mesures

Peur de l'échec d'objectif.

Afin de mesurer la peur de l'échec, nous avons utilisé 5 éléments de la version abrégée modifiée de l'Inventaire d'évaluation de l'échec de rendement [START_REF] Conroy | Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The performance failure appraisal inventory[END_REF].

Appauvrissement de

Comportement contraire à l'éthique.

L'échelle de comportement contraire à l'éthique en 12 points adoptée par [START_REF] Barsky | Investigating the effects of moral disengagement and participation on unethical work behavior[END_REF] a été utilisée pour mesurer le comportement contraire à l'éthique des participants au travail.

Attention morale.

Nous avons adopté la mesure d'autoévaluation en 12 points de [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF] pour évaluer l'attention morale.

Conscience.

La conscience consciencieuse a été mesurée à l'aide de 10 items, soit la mesure de la réserve internationale d'items de personnalité (IPIP) des marqueurs des cinq grands facteurs [START_REF] Goldberg | The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure[END_REF].

Données démographiques.

Nous avons inclus l'âge et le sexe dans l'étude. L'âge a été mesuré en nombre d'années. Le sexe a été codé 0 = homme et 1 = femme.

Résultats

Analyse descriptive

LVI

Selon les résultats, le score moyen de l'attention morale aux États-Unis a montré la valeur la plus élevée de l'échelle tandis que la valeur moyenne du genre au Pakistan semble être le minimum. Toutes les variables de l'étude, comme la peur de l'échec, l'appauvrissement de l'ego, le comportement contraire à l'éthique, l'attention morale et la conscience professionnelle, ont montré des corrélations dans la direction prévue pour les deux pays étudiés.

Analyse factorielle de confirmation

Avant de procéder à l'ACC multigroupe, afin de vérifier le caractère distinctif des

Discussion

D'après les résultats du SEM multigroupe, il est évident que nos liens hypothétiques proposant le rôle direct de la peur de l'échec de l'objectif sur le comportement contraire à l'éthique de l'employé ainsi que la relation indirecte par la médiation de la déplétion de soi étaient très LVIII positifs dans différents pays. En outre, nos résultats ont également confirmé l'effet modérateur de l'attention morale aux États-Unis et dans l'échantillon pakistanais. Mais les résultats de l'étude suggèrent que le rôle modérateur de la conscience professionnelle semble n'être significatif que pour l'échantillon américain. Et il ne montre aucun impact significatif sur la relation entre la peur de l'échec et l'appauvrissement de l'ego pour l'échantillon pakistanais. Nos preuves empiriques confirment le rôle positif des ressources dans la poursuite des objectifs. De plus, les résultats confirment également l'existence de différences dans les relations hypothétiques fondées sur l'environnement culturel.

Conséquences pratiques

En pratique, on estime que les coûts annuels de la documentation des comportements contraires à l'éthique sur l'économie américaine s'élèvent à 120 milliards de dollars pour la violence au travail [START_REF] Deyle | Global retail theft barometer[END_REF], 44 milliards pour le vol [START_REF] Shively | Theft cost retailers $44 billion last year[END_REF] et jusqu'à 200 milliards pour les comportements délinquants [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF]. Notre recherche suggère que les employés qui perçoivent des résultats négatifs par rapport à leurs objectifs de travail pourraient faire des choix contraires à l'éthique pour se protéger. Cette constatation désagréable suggère qu'une attention particulière doit être accordée à l'établissement des objectifs de l'employé ainsi qu'au soutien en temps opportun pour faire face aux difficultés liées à la poursuite des objectifs.

L'attention morale est apparue comme une ressource précieuse pour aider les individus à prendre des décisions éthiques dans des conditions stressantes, de sorte que la direction devrait considérer l'attention morale comme un atout précieux et fournir des formations pour l'amélioration du niveau moral des employés.

Nos résultats insistent sur le rôle important de la culture qui rend la ressource psychologique d'un individu comme la conscience si utile qu'une attention particulière doit être accordée pour faciliter l'amélioration de ces caractéristiques individuelles.

Limites

Un certain nombre de limites peuvent être envisagées en ce qui concerne la présente people as a deliberate attempt to make an early end instead of facing shameful defeat [START_REF] Powell | Twenty years on Mike Tyson and Evander Holyfield have made peace over the Bite Fight that saw the Baddest Man on the Planet turn The Real Deal into The Real Meal[END_REF].

Exploring the concept of Goal i.e. a desired condition which is responsible for directing individuals towards goal pursuit [START_REF] Austin | Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content[END_REF][START_REF] Carver | The self-attention-induced feedback loop and social facilitation[END_REF], or "mental representations of desired outcomes to which people are committed" (Mann, Ridder, & Fujita, 2013, p.488), In literature two phenomena which remained the focus of interest are goal setting and goal striving. Goal setting can be defined as the way one establishes the goals mentally (Austin [START_REF] Austin | Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content[END_REF]. It has a significant effect on an individual's behavior by directing actions, encouraging persistence, etc. (Latham & Locke, 1991;Locke, 1991[START_REF] Locke | Grounded Theory in Management Research (SAGE series in management research[END_REF]. While goal striving is the stage at which one gets involved in continuous planning and performing for goal achievement [START_REF] Kanfer | Goal and self-regulation: Applications or theory to work settings[END_REF][START_REF] Lord | Moving from cognition to action: A control theory perspective[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Austin | Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content[END_REF] goal striving is the process of directing resources to pursue a goal. On the way of doing so an individual may quit, revise, temporarily disengage or persist for goal attainment. Based on control conceptualization [START_REF] Carver | Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology[END_REF], reaching goals needs a feedback loop. An individual performs a comparison of self with the standard and in case of short falling, he/she requires some operation to bring him/her up to that standard.

Previous research suggested four phases of the goal process i.e. goal setting, planning, goal striving and goal attainment [START_REF] Diefendorff | Goal-striving and self-regulation processes[END_REF][START_REF] Vancouver | Industrial and organisation research on self-regulation: From constructs to applications[END_REF]. Several researchers worked on these stages like goal setting [START_REF] Locke | The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core[END_REF], planning [START_REF] Aarts | To plan or not to plan? Goal achievement or interrupting the performance of mundane behaviors[END_REF], getting started [START_REF] Gollwitzer | Implementation intentions: strong effects of simple plans[END_REF] and keep making efforts [START_REF] Fischer | Pursuing parenthood: Integrating cultural and cognitive perspectives on persistent goal striving[END_REF]. [START_REF] Gollwitzer | Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit[END_REF] explained getting started at work and then taking actions to accomplish tasks as an integral part of the goal process. They demonstrated four phases i.e. pre-decisional, pre-actional, actional and post-actional to explain how one pursue goals. Based on existing knowledge it seems highly necessary to look thoroughly into the comparatively less explored stage i.e. when an individual keep's struggling for reaching his/her goal or quit at some point. There's a possibility that the level of goal striving can be divided into two parts i.e. getting started to work on the goal and persistence in making efforts.

Considering the importance of an effective goal pursuit, a shift can be seen in terms of studies focusing more on the goal striving process instead of limiting their attention towards original goal theorizing [START_REF] Locke | The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core[END_REF]). In the past, goal-setting conceptualization has fueled a vast body of empirical studies with relevant extensions and applications from decisionmaking to individual well-being [START_REF] Locke | New directions in goal-setting theory[END_REF]. But further exploration of the postdecision adjustment mechanisms of resource allocation for reaching objectives i.e. goal-striving process [START_REF] Diefendorff | Goal-striving and self-regulation processes[END_REF] remains inevitable. Due to the importance of goal pursuit across almost every field of life this area needs to be explored in further detail.

The goal striving process can vary from person to person as everyone behaves differently in certain conditions. So, a path chosen by an employee working in one organization might be different or even contradictory to the strategy adopted by the others in another organization for the accomplishment of the same goal. Similarly, showing one kind of behavior might be welcomed in one culture but the same behavior can be considered offensive in another culture.

And a strategy to perform task might be highly fruitful in certain conditions but may show detrimental results when those conditions cease to exist. Thus, goal striving is a process which can be affected by the individual's level of understanding as well as its surrounding environment.

Being a combination of functional and dysfunctional behavior, study of this process gives us an insight about different antecedents which may influence one's level of motivation.

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR AND GOAL STRIVING

Researchers offered various concepts related to individual's behavior and its interference with the striving process. It has been suggested being linked to one's motivation which results in a specific kind of action in response to a particular situation. Martin and Tesser (2009) explored the idea of Persistence-Until to explain one's behavior during goal pursuit. Persistence-until is the tendency of an individual to continue making an effort towards the goal until its attainment.

Hints of such conceptualization is evidenced in previous studies like [START_REF] Goschke | Representation of intentions: Persisting activation in memory[END_REF]; [START_REF] Zeigarnik | On the retention of completed and uncompleted activities[END_REF]Zeigarnik ( , 1938) ) etc. Relating with such understandings [START_REF] Rothermund | Motivation and attention: Incongruent effects of feedback on the processing of valence[END_REF] found that goal non-attainment increased the accessibility of information linked to non-attained goals. So, information related to failure of goals is more distracting as compared to information related to success goals. This increased level of accessibility can facilitate the goal-related stimuli processing and hinder the goal unrelated one. The ability to process stimuli differently can help in goal attainment (Martin & Tesser, 2009). Empirical evidence from the study of [START_REF] Fishbach | Leading us not into temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation[END_REF] confirmed that accessibility differences resulting in facilitating goal progress. So, reducing the counterproductive thoughts and focusing on the active goal (i.e.

persistence-until) can increase the chance of achieving outcomes one motivated to pursue [START_REF] Kuhl | Performance deficits following uncontrollable failure: Impaired action control or global attributions and generalized expectancy deficits[END_REF].

Previous research suggested Docility as another marker of motivated behavior [START_REF] Tolman | Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men[END_REF]. According to this concept when an individual starts performing it is difficult to separate goal-relevant from irrelevant behaviors. But with the passage of time and experience the individual can maintain those behaviors which help in goal achievement and eliminate others.

The individual also makes a hierarchy of responses based on the level of attention required to perform during the goal-striving process. This idea was supported by [START_REF] Shiffrin | Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory[END_REF]) that one's behavior becomes automatized as the individual become skillful. So, the individual starts performing without any attention and such phenomena were explained as mindlessness [START_REF] Langer | When practice makes imperfect: debilitating effects of overlearning[END_REF] and misapplied competence [START_REF] Reason | Little Slips and, Big Disasters[END_REF] in research.

When docility is not the individual's behavior they are guided based on well-established knowledge structures with less focus on the environment. [START_REF] Wright | Cardiovascular responses to threat: Effects of the difficulty and availability of a cognitive avoidant task[END_REF] suggested that in the situation of obstacles, effort increases with the motivational level. They argued that the effort invested in goal pursuit is linked with the difficulty of choosing a route, and the chances that a specific route will lead to goal satisfaction and the goal value. Based on the value expectancy theory, [START_REF] Atkinson | On the dynamics of action[END_REF] argued that its goal value and probability of goal attainment which determines the task effort while Brehm and [START_REF] Wright | Cardiovascular responses to threat: Effects of the difficulty and availability of a cognitive avoidant task[END_REF] proposed that the expected value is actually the "Potential" or maximum effort that an individual can make in the direction towards goal. And actual effort invested will depend upon the demand of task until a certain level.

All previous evidence points towards the important role of individual's behavior during goal-striving. As individuals may vary based on the choice of goals as well as path chosen to pursue them, so the current research incorporates individual differences as a key element to further explore goal-striving process based on various theoretical conceptualizations and utilizing appropriate methodological techniques.

CULTURE AND GOAL STRIVING PROCESS

Being part of a system whenever an individual starts performing on already set goals he/she has to deal with some external forces that can halt or speed up his/her striving process.

One of those key forces is culture that has been explained as "a culture that consists of the acquired or cultivated behavior and thoughts of individuals within a society, in addition the intellectual, artistic and social ideals which the members of the society profess and to which they strive to conform" (Bidney, 1942: 452). In other words, culture can be defined as what a society does and thinks (Sapir, 1921: 233).

Various forms of culture can have an influence on human choices and actions like weak vs norm orientation of cultural dimensions [START_REF] Oettingen | Goal pursuit in the context of culture[END_REF] those has also been suggested as tightness vs looseness [START_REF] Triandis | The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts[END_REF]. Such dimensions argued that indulging and dwelling should prevail in tight cultures as this will promote endurance and positive effects in a situation where one's behavior is determined by societal set rules. Although the individual differences matter in making preferences of self-regulatory thoughts, cultural contexts remain influential. Culture might have high stakes in shaping an individual's behavior during goal-striving because cultural values affect one's preferences in using certain selfregulatory strategies when striving towards a goal. Oettingen and colleagues (2008) studied the impact of culture on goal-setting as well as goal-striving. They explained how culture can be influential on the translation of set goals into actions. Additionally, they suggested that loose culture can promote the use of mental contrasting, making implementation intentions while in tight cultures such modes are not required to facilitate the striving process.

Empirical evidence argued that culture has an impact on one's persistence level which helps in goal achievement. Like Fischer and colleagues ( 2007) developed a study based on [START_REF] Bagozzi | Goal setting and goal striving in consumer behavior[END_REF] model showing how the life project framing and cultural discourses have an impact on individual's persistence. Most of the previous research limited its focus to explore role of culture in goal choice (e.g., [START_REF] Thompson | Speaking of fashion: consumers' uses of fashion discourses and the appropriation of countervailing cultural meanings[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | Trying to be cosmopolitan[END_REF] but Fischer and colleagues (2007) explored how culture interplays with cognition to predict persistent goal striving. This study observed striving experience of people who pursued parenthood goal using Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) i.e. an option used by infertile people to become parent's other than the biological way. Culture proved to be a significant influencer in making choices i.e. whether people should choose this option or keep on trying for parenthood in a natural way.

To have an inside view of how culture affects persistence, researchers observed two kinds of cultural discourses i.e. one that frame life projects and other which is more culturally pervasive. Discourses can be defined as the historical, social and political aspects of language hence a subjectivity that helps individuals in making images of their world [START_REF] Bristor | Feminist thought: Implications for consumer research[END_REF]. Culturally pervasive discourses influence the way chosen by individuals to strive for goals [START_REF] Foucault | History, discourse and discontinuity[END_REF]. Additionally, these discourses also enable them to persist in efforts to reach the end state. Culture affects an individual's persistence that leads to goal achievement in another way i.e. encouraging them to be self-reliant instead of depending on other's opinion when making decisions [START_REF] Giddens | Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age[END_REF]. Conservation of resources theory also relies on the culturally constructed nature of the environment in explaining the stress process [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF].

So being a significant part of the human decision-making process, culture needs to be considered when exploring the mechanism of goal-striving. Its empirical test can help an individual under such conditions to stay engaged or allow him/her to stop performing and disengage from that goal to avoid adversity.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this dissertation is to elaborate on the current understanding of the goal striving process, by incorporating conservation of resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. Additionally, to use different conceptualizations such as the model developed by [START_REF] Kruglanski | A structural model of intrinsic motivation: On the psychology of means-ends fusion[END_REF], too-much-of-a-good-thing framework [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Pierce | The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management[END_REF] and self-regulatory dynamics [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource[END_REF]. In the second study, the curvilinear role of both psychological resource and environment during goal striving is explored. Specifically, an inverted U-shape role of grit and perceived organizational support as a favorable environment is investigated in predicting work goal progress. Mostly such constructs has been explored considering a linear impact during goal striving and suggesting contradictory findings. To address this issue such relationships are modeled as curvilinear based on COR and too-much-of-a-good-thing conceptualizations.

In the third study, the consequences of negative emotions associated with the goal striving process are explored. To be specific, this study tests how emotions relating to failure to achieve work goals (fear of goal failure) can motivate employees to make immoral choices such as unethical behavior. It considers the role of psychological resources, including conscientiousness and moral attentiveness (perceptual as well as reflective), which may help individuals to avoid such deviant behaviors. This model is tested in individualistic (American)

and conservative (Pakistan) cultures.

In sum, these studies explore the following three goal striving questions (see Figure 1). This dissertation is structured in five chapters that include all three articles. In chapter 1, it provides the general introduction and background of the goal-striving process along with various conceptualizations. In addition to this, it gives a concise overview of the three articles.

Then chapter 2, 3 and 4 present three core studies. Finally, chapter 5 comprises the overall conclusion, theoretical and managerial implications, and it closes by providing future directions for this research.

GOAL STRIVING AND MANAGEMENT THEORIES

As goal striving is about the study of human behavior, motivation theories always provided a helping hand to analyze how people initiate and persist in behavior to achieve goals. Furthermore, the mechanism that makes people striving for target goals and the psychological value they assign to the goals, has also remained the point of interest in the past [START_REF] Carver | On the self-regulation of behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Kasser | Further examining the American dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals[END_REF][START_REF] Vroom | Work and motivation[END_REF]. One such attempt to explore the mechanism of goal-directed behavior was initiated by Deci andRyan (1980, 1985b) in the form of self-determination theory. They used the concept of innate psychological needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy) for the integration of different goal contents and regulatory processes and suggested that the concept of needs provide the basis for strength and direction to one's actions. According to this conceptualization internalized (autonomous) regulation is linked with more persistence, more performance, and better psychological health. While controlled regulation leads to a lower level of performance [START_REF] Deci | The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior[END_REF].

Comparing with control theory which relates to how we pursue goals, the self-determination theory is more focused on what and why of this process. In a similar vein, based on the self-regulation concept [START_REF] Heckhausen | Developmental regulation before and after a developmental deadline: The sample case of" biological clock" for childbearing[END_REF] argued that individuals normally become involved in restructuring goals or focusing others when an active goal seems unmet. From self-regulation concept people are considered controlling their psychological processes (i.e. cognitive and emotional) for goal achievement [START_REF] Gollwitzer | The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior[END_REF] and how they allocate attentional resources to different tasks while progressing towards goals [START_REF] Kanfer | Self-regulatory and other non-ability determinants of skill acquisition[END_REF][START_REF] Kanfer | Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition[END_REF]. Presenting goal-striving in a different perspective control theory focuses on goal discrepancies [START_REF] Klein | An integrated control theory model of work motivation[END_REF][START_REF] Lord | A control system model of organizational motivation: Theoretical development and applied implications[END_REF]. By explaining how one's behavior may change over time [START_REF] Miller | Plans and the structure of behavior[END_REF] and comparing the current state with the end state [START_REF] Markman | The influence of goals on value and choice[END_REF], control theory suggested that goal striving is a dynamic process [START_REF] Klein | An integrated control theory model of work motivation[END_REF]. Few researchers added concepts of multi-tasking and planning as a self-regulatory process [START_REF] Kernan | Effects of valence, expectancies, and goal-performance discrepancies in single and multiple goal environments[END_REF]. Along the same line, for explaining goal process action theory analyzed goals by focusing on pre-action and action phases [START_REF] Frese | Action as the core of work psychology: A German approach[END_REF][START_REF] Kuhl | Volitional aspects of achievement motivation and learned helplessness: Toward a comprehensive theory of action control[END_REF]. The pre-action phase includes goal setting and planning processes while the action phase includes the goal-striving process. During the action phase one can change behavior and plan because of feedback received while working on a task.

CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES THEORY

The conservation of resources theory (COR) presented by Steven [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF] gave new insights to stress process and been further validated by a number of researchers to analyze an individual's behavior such as psychological resources [START_REF] Zeidner | Vicarious life threat: An experimental test of Conservation of Resources (COR) theory[END_REF], burnout analysis [START_REF] Gorgievski | Work can burn us out or fire us up: Conservation of resources in burnout and engagement[END_REF], effect of anxiety on job performance [START_REF] Mccarthy | Are anxious workers less productive workers? It depends on the quality of social exchange[END_REF]. All these studies are dependent on the fundamental tenet of Conservation of resource theory that is "Individuals strive to obtain, retain, protect and foster those things that they value" [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF].

In organizational behavior research, COR theory has been used to find reasons of human motivation in different situations. For instance, [START_REF] Luria | Resources and coping with stressful events[END_REF] and Canetti et al.

(2010) etc. provided a better understanding of an individual's behavior under stress environment.

At its core, the basic principle of COR theory is that individuals are motivated to protect their already held resources and try to acquire a new one [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF].

Resources and COR theory

According to COR Theory, a resource is anything that has value for an individual, which contributes to his/her well-being and helps in coping. Additionally, individuals try to preserve these resources and have more in order to deal with life demands. These resources can be in the form of objects, conditions, personality characteristics and energies and are valued by the individual (Hobfoll, 1998). Hobfoll listed a number of key resources and categories them in different parts like personal resources i.e. the collection of different aspects of self and are valued on the level of their aid in stress resistance [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], object resources i.e. tangible items that help one to deal with daily life needs and are deemed necessary for survival, conditions resources i.e. those that are helpful to conserve and acquire other resources and may include physical health, job, marriage etc., and energy resources i.e. resources those are useful to facilitate the acquiring of an object, condition and personal resources. Such resources e.g. time, money, knowledge etc.

are not typified based on their intrinsic value but the value in helping to acquire other resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF].

Principles and corollaries of the COR theory

Conservation of resource theory is formulated on the concept of gain and loss and according to it resource loss is proximal as compared to resource gain [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. COR theory is a continuous process in which one tries to conserve, invest and acquire resource and is based on several key principles and corollaries [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF].

The first principle of COR theory is based on the proximity of resource loss and resource gain. According to it anticipated loss has more impact on individual's behavior as compared to expected gain. This focus on loss may alter an individual's behavior to disengagement instead of showing resiliency and approach orientation. So, it needs to be sure that the losses are prevented. The second principle of COR theory is based on resource investment. Individuals must invest resources in order to protect against resource loss, recover from losses and gain resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources theory: Applications to stress and management in the workplace[END_REF] individuals have to make resource investment that is necessary for preservation of already held resources and for acquiring new ones. According to this principle initial loss may lead to more loss as one has to change focus and invest additional resources that might not be as fruitful. The first corollary of COR theory relates to the principle 2 and according to this individual who have more resources are less vulnerable to resource loss and in better position to acquire more resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. For those who have large pool of resources might better able to persist and keep on investing to accumulate more resources as compared to those having limited number of resources to deal with situation.

According to the third principle of COR theory, saliency of resource gain increases in the context of resource loss. Such that with the high risk of resource loss, the value to gain resource enhances. The fourth principle of COR theory suggests the defensive strategy adopted by an individual as a result of resource exhaustion. According to this principle, when resources are outstretched then an individual tries to preserve self through aggressive or sometimes irrational behavior. Alternative coping strategy to deal with stressor could be an option in such situations.

The reason behind defensive behavior might be unavailability of excess resources so individual tries to save those he/she already has. As further investment may not lead to bring additional resource so conserving already held few ones might be the better strategy.

According to the second corollary of COR theory, in a situation of limited resources initial resource loss leads to further losses. "Those who lack in resources are not only more vulnerable to resource loss, but that initial loss begets future loss" [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. This concept of loss spiral is highly salient in situations of fewer resources. An initial loss may take individual to back foot and stress elevation results in further depletion of remaining resources.

The third corollary, just opposite to the second one suggests that "Those who possess resources are more capable of gain and initial resource gain begets further gain, because loss is more potent than gain, loss cycles will be more impactful and more accelerated than gain cycles" [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. From the concept of gain and loss spiral people who have fewer resources are more susceptible to lose more resources while gain in resources leads to increasing resource pool, and predicts further acquiring resources (Lloren, [START_REF] Llorens | Does a positive gain spiral of resources, efficacy beliefs and engagement exist?[END_REF]. As resource loss leads to decrease in motivation and finally burnout thus making people vulnerable as a result of loss spiral [START_REF] Demerouti | The loss spiral of work pressure, workhome interference and exhaustion: Reciprocal relations in a three-wave study[END_REF]) but resource gain brings motivation and subsequent well-being as a result of gain spiral [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF].

MODELING GOAL STRIVING PROCESS THROUGH COR BASED

RESOURCE CONCEPTUALIZATION

The present research offers an original model based on the conservation of resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF], exploring the goal-striving dynamics through the prism of resource preservation and investment. COR theorizing connects motivation with an evolutionary drive to preserve valued resources. Specifically, it suggests that motivational factors termed as resources those can be individual, tangible or social are the primary functions for an individual's motivation [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. Hence, during an attempt to obtain additional resources, an individual's prime motivation is to preserve the existing ones. Additionally, a further investment of such resources will be contingent on the available resource reservoir. This dissertation adopts the framework by going beyond a mere traditional approach that relates goal achievement with extrinsic outcome-focused motivation. In fact, according to our conceptualization, goal is linked with the motivational value which exceeds the satisfaction of getting a reward [START_REF] Kruglanski | The endogenous-exogenous partition in attribution theory[END_REF]Touré-Tiller & Fishbach, 2014). Previous research proposes that motivation preferably distinguish dynamics underlying experience of goal pursuit from intentions and rewards association with (end)-results [START_REF] Fishbach | When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit[END_REF][START_REF] Tubbs | The role of intentions in work motivation: Implications for goal-setting theory and research[END_REF]. Rather, we challenge that psychological states as inherently positive or negative. There is a chance of possible reversibility in which positive and negative nature may be relative to contextual functionality [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | When happiness makes us selfish, but sadness makes us fair: Affective influences on interpersonal strategies in the dictator game[END_REF]. We present an integrated framework that links such pivotal issues within a common resource-based theory of goal-striving processes.

Individuals' striving for resources

COR theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF] proposes that goals are symptomatic achievements based on needs' valuation signaled by resources. Defining resources through dynamics of goal, COR theory spells out a process-focused concept of motivation which remains the basis for goal-striving.

It also combines the interactive and specific processes of goal-striving. As Brehm theory limits focus on why individuals refrain from investing energy [START_REF] Stanek | Evidence against the primacy of energy conservation: Exerted force in possible and impossible handgrip tasks[END_REF], the COR conceptualization targets both approach and avoidance energy investment processes. COR theorizing suggests that all needs do not carry equal weight, and motivation relies on negative dominance i.e.

intrinsic dynamics which supersedes the attractiveness associated with gain perception i.e. extrinsic dynamics. Based on principles of unconscious evolution focused on human psychology (Hall, Hobfoll, Canetti-Nisim, John-son, & Galea, 2009;[START_REF] Hinds | The psychology of potential threat: properties of the security motivation system[END_REF], self-preservation has been assumed as a constant drive that remains superior to the desire for growth.

By proposing a model of the goal-striving process from COR perspective we extend research based on the context of resource allocation and management. To find empirical support for our theoretical propositions multiple studies are conducted by considering various resources such as selfefficacy, optimism, subjective well-being, grit, conscientiousness, and moral attentiveness. This not only tests the basic tenents of COR theory concerning resources investment and preservation but also the notion of resource caravans. Along the same line, self-regulatory conceptualization is incorporated [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource[END_REF] to observe how resource depletion can motivate individuals to make unethical choices during goal-striving for self-preservation. And at the same time validating the COR's propositions of resource availability, according to which resources helping them to strive in a better way. Additionally, based on COR arguments about possible reversibility of resources we test their possible curvilinear role in certain conditions by adopting suitable methodologies. According to COR framework, it's the motivating potential of resources to an individual that makes them good or bad [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF].

This goes against the equally good nature of resources suggested by previous research e.g. [START_REF] Morelli | Not all resources are created equal: COR theory, values, and stress[END_REF] and raises concerns about the monotonic linear conceptualization of assuming resource linkages with its outcomes as positive or negative. Similar understandings such as toomuch-of-a-good-thing suggested by existing research are incorporated to test our COR based goalstriving process [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Pierce | The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management[END_REF]. Lastly, the comparatively understudied COR's notion of resource passageways is explored in the work context. COR theory suggests that environmental conditions play a crucial role in accelerating the change in resources for the better or worse. On one side certain environments can add up to the already existing functions of preservation thus predicting more negative outcomes like burnout and physiological issues. On a positive note, these environments may help in goal achievement and accumulation of additional resources by fueling broaden-and-build dynamics [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Fredrickson | Positive emotions and upward spirals in organizations[END_REF].

Environments like workplace conditions, culture, and work-family interface have previously been suggested as potential resource passageways (Hobfoll, 2011a). To empirically validate this conceptualization by coupling it with the goal-striving process we include the cultural values and perceived organizational support in our studies.

OVERVIEW OF THREE STUDIES

The further part of this dissertation presents three empirical studies to support initially

INTRODUCTION

What makes a goal desirable? Put differently, what is the process that validates goal attractiveness? Developments in goal-striving research have shifted from original goal-setting theorizing [START_REF] Locke | The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core[END_REF] to greater focus on the resource allocation process [START_REF] Klein | Goal choice and decision processes. Work motivation: Past, present, and future[END_REF]. For instance, growing interest has led authors to focus on post-decision adjustment of resource allocation mechanisms [START_REF] Diefendorff | Goal-striving and self-regulation processes[END_REF]. This shift from a teleologic to an autotelic perspective [START_REF] Csikszentmihalyi | Play and intrinsic rewards[END_REF] has raised important and innovative perspectives. First, research suggests that the dynamics of goal pursuit experience should be better distinguished from intentions and metrics of rewarding (end)-result(s) [START_REF] Fishbach | When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit[END_REF][START_REF] Tubbs | The role of intentions in work motivation: Implications for goal-setting theory and research[END_REF]. Second, a focus on dynamics challenges the view of inherently positive or negative psychological states. It suggests possible reversibility, where positivity and negativity are attributes relative to contextual functionality [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | When happiness makes us selfish, but sadness makes us fair: Affective influences on interpersonal strategies in the dictator game[END_REF]. Finally, a dynamic view highlights the need for modeling complexity. Goal-striving is apprehended through the prism of interactions between concurrent, "co-activating" [START_REF] Fishbach | The goal construct in social psychology[END_REF], processes in relation to one or several simultaneous injunctions [START_REF] Boudreaux | Goal conflict, goal striving, and psychological well-being[END_REF][START_REF] Emmons | Conflict among personal strivings: immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being[END_REF].

In a synthetic overview, Fischbach and Ferguson (2007) thus summarized some main issues at stake under three programmatic questions: how is a goal activated, what underlies and enables the goal striving process, and how do such goal processes interact with each other? Findings have evidenced the existence of two complementary paths that account for differentiated goal striving behaviors, e.g. tenacious and flexible goal pursuit, [START_REF] Brandtstädter | Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: Explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping[END_REF][START_REF] Kelly | Flexible and tenacious goal pursuit lead to improving well-being in an aging population: A ten-year cohort study[END_REF]). Yet, a need remains to further our understanding of goal attainment dynamics.

In the present research we explore the psychological network that links selected personal resources to goal commitment and to work-goal attainment. In doing so, we develop a reciprocal model that captures the complexity of interaction processes overtime. In order to account for the perspective of a process fueled by the notion of value, the model is grounded in Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. As such, it integrates goal attainment within dynamics of determinant resources including, self-efficacy, optimism, and subjective well-being. In addition, the aim of the study is to explore the impact of the environment in the goal motivation process. The stress literature, in particular, has long acknowledged the role of factors, e.g. social support, time constraints…, as moderating or mediating a cognitive-transactional approach to goal achievement [START_REF] Schwarzer | Tenacious goal pursuits and striving toward personal growth: Proactive coping[END_REF]Smith, Ntoumanis, Duda, & Vansteenkiste, 2011).

In sum, the present research makes three key contributions to the existing literature. First, as we outlined above, it makes an empirical contribution by answering calls from recent investigations to examine the issue of goal attractiveness from the perspective of complex, and competitive, interactions between psychological states [START_REF] Fishbach | When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit[END_REF].

Second, the study makes a methodological contribution by drawing on panel data across time to examine the directionality of the relationship between psychological resources, goal commitment and goal attractiveness. This addresses the limitations of prior work that has typically favored unidirectional cause and effect approaches [START_REF] Fishbach | The goal construct in social psychology[END_REF].

Finally, the study makes a theoretical contribution by drawing on recent development of COR theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF], to examine the controlling impact of the environment on the resource preservation process. Based on cross-cultural data in three different countries, it thus postulates that the cultural environment impacts goal valuation as it contextualizes individual thoughts and behaviors.

RESOURCES AND GOALS

Most commonly, the relationship between resources and goals is approached from a bank account-like metaphor, where a disposable supply of resources can be tapped on demand [START_REF] Peterson | Psychological capital and employee performance: A latent growth modeling approach[END_REF][START_REF] Xanthopoulou | Work engagement among employees facing emotional demands: The role of personal resources[END_REF]. For instance, the Person Resource Allocation (PRA) model (Grawitch, Barber, & Justice, 2010) theorizes a system where a finite amount of resources feeds an allocation process oriented by demands. The individual choses where and how to allocate his resources. We suggest two limiting assumptions to this approach. First, it implicitly endorses the idea of controlled rationality where actors optimize their resource allocation. Research, however, has shown how subjective norms limit volitional control [START_REF] Ajzen | Attitudes, Personality, and Behavior[END_REF], and how implicit judgmental frames can distort rational choice [START_REF] Goffman | Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience[END_REF][START_REF] Tversky | Rational choice and the framing of decisions[END_REF]. Second, it postulates a disconnection between resources and goals. This can effectively be the case when goals are imposed by the environment. Goals are thus experienced as forms of demands. Nevertheless, self-imposed goals can be viewed as related to individual perceptions and likes, with striving for a purpose overlapping striving for a meaning [START_REF] Barrick | The theory of purposeful work behavior: The role of personality, higher-order goals, and job characteristics[END_REF]. In this case, the distinction between resources and goals becomes less clear. It thus becomes necessary to explore possible alternative paths for linking resources and goals.

In a cogent review, [START_REF] Eccles | Motivational beliefs, values, and goals[END_REF] highlight two major issues that affect research on goals and motivation, e.g. interactions between affective and cognitive processes, and values. The authors emphasize that goal striving remains conditioned by valued self-schema and identity constructs. As "individual's values influence the attractiveness of different goal objects" (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002: 121), the link between input/resources and output/goals transforms into a valuation process. Hence, resources identify as potentialities rather than as fixed universal motivation boosters. Coherent with this view, COR theory provides a useful framework for further analysis and empirical testing. While not our purpose to state yet another presentation of COR basic tenets (see [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF] for recent reviews), we should stress some of its implications with regard to resources and goals.

First, COR theory suggests that resources exist in relation to a goal process. They do not exist in absolute. A resource means relevancy. As individuals may not fully be aware of their own potentials, they can under-estimate (under-value) their resources. Within a COR perspective, resources are first-level means to an end. They are vectors of more basic needs among which preservation is of prime importance. In this respect, COR theory is a theory of valued motivation, with resources equating to goal attainment facilitators [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF], and goals to extensions/outcomes/realizations of what is valued.

Second, and as forcefully recalled [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF], both the nature and the dynamics of resources ought to be understood within the context of ever-changing environmental demands.

Therefore, the link between resources and goals reflect dynamics of an ecological fit, whose quality determines the value of both the resource and the goal. Unlike the view of a ready-for-use pool for strategic investment purposes, the resource reservoir metaphor corresponds to an openended matrix that processes and recycles psychological factors to sustain the fit with situational demands and goal achievement injunctions.

Grounded in the above theorizing, we now present a COR-based approach of goal attainment as a valuation process.

A RECIPROCAL MODEL OF GOAL ATTAINMENT

We suggest that modeling of relationships between resources and goals ought to incorporate the notions of complexity and value. Three main propositions will therefore structure and guide our investigation. Firstly, that the value of a goal is to be understood relative to how it relates to invested resources. Secondly, that the value of a goal is conditioned by the compatibility/appropriateness of the means instrumental for achievement. Here, means derive their value from the goal, and the value of a goal is served by its means. Thirdly, that the value of a goal is not limited to the interplay of reciprocal interactions. It also owes to its embeddedness within a cultural environment.

In sum, we propose a goal-striving reciprocal model that includes a two-level valuation process. Internal, and relative to the nomological structure of its dynamics. External, and constrained by situational characteristics that frame individual attitudes and behavior. Based on the literature, and coherent with COR tenets, variables have been selected to give substance to the model. These include psychological resources, e.g. self-efficacy, optimism, and subjective well-being, goal commitment (means), and cultural values (environment).

HYPOTHESES

Self-efficacy

Defined as "beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce given attainment" (Bandura, 1997, p.3), the notion of self-efficacy is intimately linked to that of goal attainment. From an agentic perspective that relates to effort expectancy, self- (2002) showed a positive impact of self-efficacy on job search motivation and intensity.

Furthermore, researchers have suggested that self-efficacy can be self-debilitating [START_REF] Bandura | Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited[END_REF]. Considering the expectancy of efforts to be invested, self-efficacy has thus shown negative, null, curvilinear, monotonic or even discontinuous relationships with work performance [START_REF] Beattie | The moderating role of narcissism on the reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Sitzmann | A meta-analytic investigation of the within-person self-efficacy domain: Is self-efficacy a product of past performance or a driver of future performance[END_REF][START_REF] Vancouver | Finding a between-person negative effect of self-efficacy on performance: Not just a within-person effect anymore[END_REF]. Finally, it should be noted a lack of longitudinal studies on self-efficacy and its relationship with other resources with regard to goal attainment and COR theory.

Optimism

Optimism refers to the expectancy of a positive outcome that encourages persistence in the face of obstacles [START_REF] Schulman | Applying learned optimism to increase sales productivity[END_REF]. It relates to psychological health and work outcomes [START_REF] Scheier | Optimism, coping, and health: assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies[END_REF][START_REF] Youssef | Positive organizational behavior in the workplace: The impact of hope, optimism, and resilience[END_REF]. While striving, optimistic people have been found to exert more efforts than pessimists to reduce discrepancy between the desired goal and the situation [START_REF] Gaudreau | Differential associations of dispositional optimism and pessimism with coping, goal Attainment, and emotional adjustment during sport competition[END_REF]. Higher level of confidence enables them to pursue goals tenaciously, and to make flexible goal adjustment in unfavorable conditions [START_REF] Hanssen | Optimism, motivational coping and well-being: Evidence supporting the importance of flexible goal adjustment[END_REF]. A personal resource, optimism also was shown to relate to higher self-efficacy [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. As for self-efficacy, however, studies have also shown non-linear as well as negative relationships of optimism with work performance [START_REF] Brown | Great expectations: Optimism and pessimism in achievement settings[END_REF][START_REF] Hmieleski | Entrepreneurs' optimism and new venture performance: A social cognitive perspective[END_REF].

Subjective well-being

Subjective Well-Being (SWB) is commonly investigated as a positive outcome of a resource gain cycle [START_REF] Avey | Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time[END_REF]. From a goal-striving perspective, however, it can be argued that SWB refers to a psychological asset that helps individuals to carry-out their objectives in the best psychological conditions. Coherent with COR precepts, SWB thus corresponds to an energy resource, whose perceived efficiency is deemed instrumental for goal attainment [START_REF] Grawitch | Rethinking the work-life interface: It's not about balance, it's about resource allocation[END_REF]. From an outcome, SWB turns into an input.

Goal commitment

Goal commitment is defined as "a volitional psychological bond reflecting dedication to and responsibility for a particular target" (Klein, Molloy, & Brinsfield, 2012: 137). It plays a key role in self-regulation [START_REF] Meyer | Employee commitment and motivation: a conceptual analysis and integrative model[END_REF], and relates to effort investment and productivity [START_REF] Becker | Dual commitments to organizations and professions: Different motivational pathways to productivity[END_REF]. Commitment has been incorporated in major motivational frameworks [START_REF] Brickman | Commitment[END_REF]. Expectancy theory provides one of the first comprehensive attempts to link the various stages of a goal striving process [START_REF] Mitchell | Expectancy-value models in organizational psychology[END_REF]. As such, [START_REF] Vroom | Work and motivation[END_REF] valence model introduces the notion of instrumentality, where the importance of an outcome depends on the subjective impact of conditioning means. [START_REF] Lawler | Pay and organization effectiveness: A psychological view[END_REF], for instance, investigated money as an instrumental means to an end, "when valued outcomes or objects are felt to be obtainable as a result of having it" (ibid, 19). Building upon these early advances, research has pushed further to show how goals and means define with respect to each other, and how a goal is an action of endogenous motivational value that exceeds reward-getting satisfaction [START_REF] Kruglanski | The endogenous-exogenous partition in attribution theory[END_REF]Touré-Tiller & Fischbach, 2014).

We thus propose that goal commitment be viewed as a means to an end. Specifically, that it acquires its value relative to an individual's subjective expectation that it will be of help to reach a goal. Put differently, a goal owes its value to the perception that it is obtainable through commitment. A main challenge is then to frame such a mutual relationship within the more general relationship that links personal resources and goals. Recently, [START_REF] Kruglanski | A structural model of intrinsic motivation: On the psychology of means-ends fusion[END_REF] have proposed a vertical comparison model that highlights differential dynamics of resource investment to the benefit of either lower-order means or higher-order goals. We extend Kruglanski's approach to incorporate goal commitment as a means that translates the impact of personal resources on goal attainment.

Interestingly, such personal resources as self-efficacy [START_REF] Wofford | Meta-analysis of the antecedents of personal goal level and of the antecedents and consequences of goal commitment[END_REF] and optimism [START_REF] Monzani | Effective pursuit of personal goals: The fostering effect of dispositional optimism on goal commitment and goal progress[END_REF] have been found to impact goal commitment.

Consequently, we formulate the following reciprocal hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1. Goals and resources have reciprocal relationships. Resources, including self-efficacy, optimism, and subjective well-being, derive their value from goal attainment, while goal attainment is valued for its benefit on resources Hypothesis 2. The value of goal commitment is conditioned by the extent to which it is instrumental for resources to reach a goal. Yet, the effectiveness of goal commitment as a means to an end is also expected to impact the value of both resources and goal attainment.

Cultural values

Resources do not emerge from, nor evolve in, a vacuum. According to [START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF], they are subject to a veritable "commerce (…) among individuals nested-in families, nested-in organizations, nested-in communities" (ibid: 161). Resource dynamics reflect processes of ecological congruence that confer external (situational) meaning and value to individual attitudes and behavior. Yet, with its emphasis on the individual perspective, research has mainly overlooked this aspect of the theory. This comes as a limitation as both meaning and development of such resources as optimism and self-efficacy were found tributary to social and cultural conditions [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources and disaster in cultural context: The caravans and passageways for resources[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. In presenting varying empirical results that depend on differing cultures, a recent review of COR-based findings confirms the need to further explore those cultural contingencies that shape the nature and the dynamics of resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF].

We thus propose an additional hypothesis, where the goal valuation process is embedded within a system of culturally valued resources. In addition to internal cognitive mechanisms, the value of a goal is hence to be considered from the perspective of a socially sanctioned valuation process.

Hypothesis 3. The valuation process of work-goal attainment varies significantly

between cultures (e.g. Pakistani, French, and American).

METHODS

Procedure

The empirical phase took place over a seven-month period. Online questionnaires were administered in two-waves in order to collect T1 and T2 data with a gap of one month from sales professionals working full time in three different countries, including France, Pakistan and the United States. Target samples were contacted through online professional social network i.e.

LinkedIn and participants were limited to professionals who qualified for the criteria of having to meet objective monthly goals. Survey participation was voluntary and no monetary reward was paid to the participants. Study results were made available to the respondents upon request. At T2, participants who had already completed time-lagged questionnaires related to predictor and outcome variables (T1 questionnaires) were sent reminders through the same network. To control for cultural representativeness, data were collected from different regions in each of the countries under study. In addition, the respondents themselves reflected a broad selection of sectors, including automotive, banking, Information technology, and pharmaceutical industries.

Structured questionnaires were sent to only those respondents who agreed to participate to the study. Language for questionnaires was English for the United States and Pakistan, and

French for France. At first, questionnaires comprised items related to psychological resources (e.g. self-efficacy, optimism, subjective well-being), goal commitment, culture values as well as demographics. Then, and in order to keep a time lag between predictors and the outcome variable, participants responded about their work-goal attainment at the end of one month. While excluding culture values and demographics items, similar procedure was replicated for the second month period.

Participants

At T1, 793 participants from all three countries completed and returned valid questionnaires (France, n= 272; USA, n = 280; Pakistan, n= 241). Due to attrition effect, total number of T2 participants dwindled to 407 (France, n= 139 i.e. 51.1% of T1; USA, n = 114 i.e.

40.7% of T1; Pakistan, n= 154 i.e. 63.9% of T1). Data from T2 responses were matched using nicknames initially chosen by the participants at T1. To control for potential selection bias due to sample loss, we checked whether the professionals who took part in the second wave were significantly different from the dropouts in terms of study variables and demographic characteristics. For this purpose, multivariate analyses of variance were conducted. Results

showed non-significant differences (p > .05) in all study variables as well as in demographics for three study countries, thus validating that sample size reduction did not cause a significant selection bias.

Final French sample was predominantly male (79.9 %), and single (41%). Similar proportions were found for both the Pakistani sample (90.9 % male, 46.1% single) and the US sample (64.9% male, 44.7% single).

Measures

Self-Efficacy.

A modified version of the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale [START_REF] Schwarzer | Generalized Self-Efficacy scale[END_REF] was used to measure work related self-efficacy. Such domain-related scale modifications have been used in previous research [START_REF] Laguna | Dynamic relationships between personal resources and work engagement in entrepreneurs[END_REF][START_REF] Salanova | Yes, I can, I feel good, and I just do it!" On gain cycles and spirals of efficacy beliefs, affect, and engagement[END_REF]. To harmonize with the range of other scales in the survey, it was amplified to a five point Likert scale from the original four, with higher values showing greater efficacy beliefs.

The scale was comprised of 10 items like "I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events at work".

Optimism. We measured optimism using three items from the Life Orientation Test-Revised questionnaire (LOT-R; [START_REF] Scheier | Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test[END_REF]. French version adopted that from [START_REF] Trottier | Validation de la version canadienne-française du Life Orientation Test-Revised[END_REF]. Items like "I'm always optimistic about my future" were tested on a 5-point Likert scale of 1, Strongly Disagree to 5, Strongly Agree.

Subjective Well-being. Validated English and French versions of the Satisfaction With

Life Scale (SWLS) [START_REF] Diener | The Satisfaction with Life Scale[END_REF] Work Goal Attainment. Work goal attainment was measured using two items adopted from [START_REF] Green | Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching: Enhancing goal striving, well-being, and hope[END_REF]. Similar measurement has been validated in previous research [START_REF] Carter | The effects of employee engagement and self-efficacy on job performance: a longitudinal field study[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | The impact of life coaching on goal attainment, metacognition and mental health[END_REF][START_REF] Spence | Professional and peer life coaching and the enhancement of goal striving and well-being: An exploratory study[END_REF].

For the first item, respondents were asked to mention their objective monthly goals in terms of sales revenue, product units or number of contracts. The second question was: "In the last month, how successful have you been in attaining your sales goal?" The item was rated on 6-point Likert scale, 1= 0% and 6= 100%. The second item evaluated progress made from the previous month.

Cultural Values. At T1, we used a 33-items scale from the Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ-RR) [START_REF] Schwartz | The refined theory of basic values[END_REF]. The PVQ-RR scale was preferred to the Schwartz Value Survey [START_REF] Schwartz | User's Manual: Proper Use of the Schwarz Value Survey, 7 February 2013[END_REF] as it has been recommended for online administered studies. It corresponds to a 6point Likert scale, from 1= Not like me at all, to 6= Very much like me. Values to be rated ranged on a continuum from openness to change (self-direction-thought, self-direction-action, stimulation, hedonism), to conservatism (humility, conformity-interpersonal, conformity-rules, tradition, securitysocietal, security-personal, face). English version of the PVQ-RR scale was used for Pakistan and the United States. For France, the items were translated into the local language following the procedures adopted in previous research [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's recent consequences: Using dimension scores in theory and research[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Instrumentation in cross-cultural research[END_REF]. Hence, while translating the scale into French, special care was taken by language experts who removed to keep meanings similar to the English version. It was not possible, however, to check for differences of cultural values using Spearman rho correlations due to the small number of samples (n= 3) [START_REF] Glick | Conceptualizing and measuring organizational and psychological climate: Pitfalls in multilevel research[END_REF]. Instead, we compared mean scores of culture values and countries.

Demographics. Gender, marital status and place of work were included. Gender was coded 1, for Male, and 2 for Female. Marital status was measured as 1 for Single, 2 for Married, 3 for Divorcee, and 4 for Widowed. Place of work was included as 1 for Pakistan, 2 for France, and 3 for the USA.

RESULTS

Descriptive Analysis

Means, standard deviations, scale alpha reliabilities and correlations (individual and pancultural results) are presented in Table 1. Moderate to high test-retest correlations in expected direction were found between study variables, including self-efficacy, optimism, subjective wellbeing, work goal commitment and work goal attainment between waves in all three countries. 2). For instance, values related to openness to change, i.e. hedonism and stimulation, are strongest for the French sample than for those from Pakistan and the US.

Similarly, when examining cultural differences across countries, we find strong evidence supporting that, with minor exceptions, all three countries are distinct from each other. For example, Pakistan ranked highest on conservation values, while France lowest (Table 2).

Note.

All culture values are significantly different from each other except those sharing superscript on a-j mean scores. Similarly, all culture values showed significant difference across countries except those sharing subscript on a-b mean scores.

Data Analysis Strategy

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted using Maximum-likelihood method to analyze cross-cultural longitudinal data. For model fit assessment, we considered chi square (χ 2 ) goodness of fit statistics, comparative fit index (CFI) and root mean square of approximation (RMSEA). To confirm differences between alternative models, χ2 difference test (Δχ 2 ) and difference in comparative fit index (ΔCFI) were also computed [START_REF] Brown | Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research[END_REF].

To reduce complexity of the hypothesized model, all three psychological resource variables were taken as underlying dimensions of a common factor across all three countries (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009). First, and as suggested by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and [START_REF] Podsakoff | Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies[END_REF], item level confirmatory factor analyses were conducted for each time measurement in all three countries. Second, we proceeded to test the uncorrelated first order model (with all three personal resources treated independently) with the second order model, in which items of respective factors were loaded separately, i.e. all three personal resource variables and then all three factors loaded on an overall personal resource factor. Results of second order factor for the French sample showed a significantly better fit than the first order factor at both T1 and T2 (T1:

Δχ 2 = 83.719, ΔDF= 3, P< .001 and ΔCFI= .065; T2: Δχ 2 = 81.917, ΔDF= 3, P< .001 and ΔCFI= .060.

A similar pattern emerged for US and Pakistani samples.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to check distinctiveness of the study constructs for all samples. Specifically, two measurement models were tested, i.e. uncorrelated factor model and correlated factor model. In the first model, items of all study variables were treated as one underlying dimension of the corresponding latent factors with addition of three psychological resources. In the second model, all latent variables were allowed to covary with each other. (Note: Overall psychological resource factor was covaried instead of the three underlying resources). The model fit comparison of both measurement models showed the correlated factor model as the better fit in all study countries as well as across time-waves (Table 3).

Invariance Measurement

Measurement of invariance was conducted to check for differences among corresponding waves for three countries. To check differences between nested models, Δχ 2 and ΔCFI were considered as indicators. T1 results of configural invariance model without constrains showed good model fit. Then metric invariance model was tested with constrained factor loadings. The model comparison between unconstrained and constrained models showed significant invariance (Table 4), thus validating full metric invariance. Next, and as suggested by [START_REF] Meredith | Measurement invariance, factor analysis and factorial invariance[END_REF], a scalar model with additional intercepts constraints was carried out that was found to vary when compared to the unconstrained model. Following Byrne's recommendations ( 2004), a partial invariance procedure was performed, followed by a comparison of the partial scalar invariance between all three countries. Evidence of partial metric and partial scalar invariances were found at T2 for all sampled countries.

Cross-Lagged Path Analysis

Cross-lagged path analysis was conducted using Multi-group SEM to test our hypothesized model cross-culturally. First, we tested the M1 stability model with autocorrelations and synchronous correlations. Results yielded a poor fit (Table 5). Second, we introduced an M2 causality model with additional paths from T1 personal resources and goal commitment to T2 work goal attainment. Results did not markedly improve the M1 model.

Third, we found an acceptable fit from a M3 reversed causation model from T1 work goal attainment to T2 personal resources and work goal commitment.

DISCUSSION

The present research is a contribution to goal literature. Using COR theory as a framework, it seeks to better understand the valuation process that animates goal-seeking dynamics. Goal value was thus tested, overtime, from two perspectives. In a first phase, hypotheses were formulated to test reciprocity between selected psychological resources, including self-efficacy, optimism, and subjective well-being, means, e.g. goal commitment, and outcome, e.g. objective measure of work goal attainment. Validation of all hypotheses presented the view of a complex web of interactions that breaks away from a linear determinant-to-output view of goal attainment. Specifically, results show that the perceived value of personal resources owes to goal attainment, whose value itself relates significantly to not only goal commitment but also to the impact of psychological resources. Similarly, goal commitment does not limit to the role of a step stone to subsequent goal attainment, as it equally impacts resources. Such a complex interplay of reciprocities comes to an even brighter light when controlled for cultural values. In a second phase, our model hypothesized that the value process would also be conditioned by cultural differences typified by the nature of our samples. Indeed, results showed marked differences between three samples of employed professionals, e.g. American, French, and Pakistani, with regard to the intensity of reciprocal relations between model variables. Specifically, and concerning the US sample, work-goal attainment benefits mainly to personal resource development. This suggests that the goal takes value when it contributes to the development of personal resources. A personal focus appears to frame the work-goal attainment process. Conversely, for the French sample, the value of the goal seems secondary, as goal commitment benefits to future resources. This suggests that the process itself is more important than achievement. The Pakistani sample presents yet another profile as results show more balanced reciprocal relationships, with goal commitment and work-goal attainment relating equally to resources.

Our findings suggest a number of comments and implications. Broadly, results align with previous research on the need for alternative modeling to better grasp the complexity of resource dynamics. Indeed, testing reciprocity has met with increased interest in relation to general work performance [START_REF] Miraglia | Translating selfefficacy in job performance over time: The role of job crafting[END_REF], and specific issues of occupational health [START_REF] De Cuyper | The reciprocal relationship between resources and psychological distress among unemployed job seekers[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | An examination of the reciprocal relationship between avoidance coping and symptoms of anxiety and depression[END_REF].

Our results suggest that reciprocity modeling can cast new light on the role of resources in the goal striving process. Specifically, they indicate a possible alternative to linear path modeling, as the role of goal commitment is not necessarily that of an intermediary stage linking antecedent resources to attainment purposes. Reciprocity blurs the distinction between states and transitions.

It suggests a flow of complex interactions, a set of dynamics where causes and consequences combine, and where the process creates its own valued goal.

With regard to the conceptual framework, our research adds to COR theory. In continuation of previous comments on resource dynamics [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF], it explores COR's relevancy and applicability to goal seeking and attainment. So far, the link between both research traditions has been largely ignored. Specifically, our reciprocal findings suggest a renewed focus on the nature of targets and goals, as the initial distinction between target and means comes under question. Results

show that both goal commitment and work attainment fuel personal resources as two different means to an end of conservation or development. Goal achievement thus loses its intrinsic value as it turns into the expression of a transitory stage of a COR process geared toward preservation, and development, of personal self-efficacy, optimism, and SWB. Furthermore, our results show that goal attainment, in itself an individual gratification, should be viewed in light of a value creating process. They indicate that the valuation process can either be outcome or process-oriented [START_REF] Sansone | I don't feel like it": The function of interest in self-regulation[END_REF]. In the former case (US sample), means are put to an end. In the latter case (French sample), it is a matter of fulfillment related to the achieving experience itself. While seemingly ambivalent, results from the Pakistani sample can vindicate a COR-based valuation interpretation. The equally important reciprocal role played by goal commitment and goal attainment on dynamics of personal resources can relate to a cultural doublebind of the Pakistani professionals. These work in a profit-and-result oriented organization (values of personal focus), while, at the same time, being embedded in a societal context that emphasizes the virtue of relationships (values of social focus) [START_REF] Schwartz | The refined theory of basic values[END_REF].

Indeed, the research questionnaires were filled by educated professionals who have good command of the English language. Though, for historical reasons, usage of English remains fairly widespread in Pakistani society, Urdu is the national idiom. We thus propose that results reflect not only the education level of our sample, but also a state of acculturation that translates into a double valuation of the resource conservation and development processes.

Practical Implications

From a practical viewpoint, a main implication of the present research relates to the issue of reward management. As a matter of facts, organizations have great difficulties extracting themselves from a management model where individuals are considered rational strategists motivated by incentives (preferably tangible cash) of pre-determined value [START_REF] Jeffrey | The motivational properties of tangible incentives[END_REF]. The present study first confirms the moot assumption of an intrinsic value to be assigned to a goal/reward. Classic contributions such as [START_REF] Kohn | Punished by rewards[END_REF] had already pointed to the reversible nature of rewards, to be understood relative to individual values and perceptions.

Behavioral economics have further insisted on the flawed impact of incentives that would be considered outside from individual non-rational "mental accounting" [START_REF] Presslee | The effects of reward type on employee goal setting, goal commitment, and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Thaler | The role of feedback, causal attributions, and selfefficacy in goal revision[END_REF]. In line with research insisting on the need to consider individual motivation in relation to the qualitative, i.e. intrinsic vs extrinsic, nature of goals [START_REF] Deci | The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Kammeyer-Mueller | A head-start or a step behind? Understanding how dispositional and motivational resources influence emotional exhaustion[END_REF][START_REF] Schmuck | Intrinsic and extrinsic goals: Their structure and relationship to well-being in German and US college students[END_REF][START_REF] Vansteenkiste | Less is sometimes more: Goal content matters[END_REF], we argue that a relevant reward management is to be considered from the perspective of an integrated valuation process governed by an intrinsic need for preserving valued motivational resources.

Limitations and Future Directions

The present research is a two-wave test of a reciprocal model. Recent criticisms, however, have questioned longitudinal results obtained from less than a three-point test over time [START_REF] Ployhart | The "quick start guide" for conducting and publishing longitudinal research[END_REF]. A most valid argument, the T3 minimum standard is nevertheless hard to abide to in real professional field contexts. Unlike strictly controlled experimental designs, our samples correspond to active professionals spread over three different countries. Logistical difficulties coupled with psychological weariness on the part of the samples failed to yield an acceptable number of T3 questionnaire returns. Nevertheless, and to our knowledge, this research stands as a pioneer T1/T2 example of a goal-related model tested cross-culturally.

As stated earlier, the questionnaires distributed to the Pakistani sample were in English language only. Yet, it has been argued that language can be influential on people's thinking [START_REF] Harzing | Does the use of English-language questionnaires in cross-national research obscure national differences?[END_REF]. We thus propose that future research reaches out to other samples with Urdutranslated versions of the scales. This would allow a comparison with our present results, and could further investigations on the impact of a cultural double bind on the goal valuation process.

Other main limitations lay with the operationalization of dependent and independent variables. Work-goal attainment was tested using self-reports of monthly sales, products, contracts... Still, respondents were asked to answer on the basis of objective figures, i.e. revenue, units, and other relevant figures. Greater objectivity could be ensured using administrative registers that plot together individual and performance data. This, however, would necessitate an access to internal organizational documents that the present study was not designed to obtain on a cross-country level.

With regard to resource variables, we suggest expanding to the measurement of social support (interpersonal resource) and time (energetic resource). Concerning social support, cross-cultural investigations have indeed evidenced the impact of collectivist vs individualist values on COR dynamics [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. An innovative development would thus be to integrate these findings within a research framework of goal valuation processes. As for time, its inclusion in a COR-based goal achievement study could highlight the impact of cross-cultural dynamics. For instance, more indepth results could have been obtained from our research as the US, France, and Pakistan, stand markedly different on their respective long term/short term orientations [START_REF] Bearden | A measure of long-term orientation: Development and validation[END_REF][START_REF] Hofstede | Long-versus short-term orientation: New perspectives[END_REF].

INTRODUCTION

Individual goals like performing well in sports, achieving work targets, or maintaining good health, remain an indispensable part of one's life. Despite having this much importance people often reconsider/quit pursuing their already set goals. To investigate possible reasons behind this, recent research started exploring the goal-striving process, the post-decision adjustment mechanism of resource allocation [START_REF] Diefendorff | Goal-striving and self-regulation processes[END_REF] to reach goals, instead of limiting focus to the original goal-setting theorizing [START_REF] Locke | The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core[END_REF]. Goal striving that's comprised of dynamic psychological processes has previously been investigated from different perspectives such as control [START_REF] Vancouver | Analyzing goal-striving processes and a test of the generalizability of perceptual control theory[END_REF], self-regulation [START_REF] Kanfer | Self-regulatory and other non-ability determinants of skill acquisition[END_REF], goal-systems [START_REF] Bélanger | Beyond goal commitment: How expectancy shapes means evaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Kruglanski | Goals as knowledge structures[END_REF], and action theories [START_REF] Gollwitzer | The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior[END_REF]Morsella, Bargh, & Gollwitzer, 2009). The present research fits the COR theorizing [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF]1998) suggesting the dynamic role of personal resources in goal attainment as well as their contextual functionality based on ecological conditions. Goal pursuit may not follow a linear path and accompany certain challenges. In such conditions investment of sustained effort is crucial to overcome these difficulties (Bandura, 1986;[START_REF] Dweck | Self-theories: The mindset of a champion[END_REF]. According to the dual-process model of self-regulation people actively make efforts to achieve goals by adopting the assimilative mode termed as tenacious goal pursuit (Brandstädter & Renner, 1990). As setbacks are part of goal pursuit so only those who can "hold its nerve together" and handle them productively, then, as a result, make progress [START_REF] Southwick | Ready for Anything[END_REF]. So one may need a reservoir of personal resources helping to not break when facing adversity and bounce back quickly. These personal resources, aspects of the self, are linked with resiliency and individual's feeling of ability to successfully control the environment [START_REF] Hobfoll | Resource loss, resource gain, and emotional outcomes among inner city women[END_REF]. Taking the COR's concept, the availability of such personal resources e.g. efficacy, optimism, resilience, and hope can lead to the creation of higher-order "resource caravans", which subsequently predict attainment [START_REF] Hobfoll | Social and psychological resources and adaptation[END_REF]. One such personal resource that could help tenacious goal pursuit is Grit i.e. a disposition to pursue long-term goals by investing sustained effort and interest [START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF]. As most of the time when facing adversity people may give up and decide to let go of their goals instead of finding alternate ways to improve strategies and in turn not accomplishing set goals. In such situations, people possessing girt: a combination of perseverance and passion, may help to overcome obstacles [START_REF] Von Culin | Unpacking grit: Motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF]. Previous research has suggested grit as a valued psychological resource and found it significantly predicting retention across various domains like military, education, and workplace (Eskreis-Winkler, [START_REF] Eskreis-Winkler | The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage[END_REF]. This individual disposition has been found so useful that many organizations such as Google, American Express Global Business Travel, Alere Inc, BrandBarr and Cancer Treatment Centers of America, etc. have included it in their employee recruitment and promotion processes [START_REF] Bailey | Wanted: Employees With Grit[END_REF][START_REF] Barghelame | Why You Should Hire Employees Who Have Grit[END_REF][START_REF] Friedman | How to Get a Job at Google, Part 2[END_REF].

Why is Grit so important during work goal striving? The answer to this might be hidden in the two building blocks of grit i.e. perseverance and passion. Individuals having grit resemble tortoise, with distinguished ability to sustain "effort and interest over years despite failure, adversity, and plateaus in progress" [START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF](Duckworth et al., , p. 1088)). People possessing such characteristics may not give up while facing setbacks. In her bestseller, Grit: True Power of Passion and Perseverance, Angela Duckworth argued that individuals having grit resource possess four key characteristics i.e. purpose, interest, practice, and hope [START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: The power of passion and perseverance[END_REF].

Built on these characteristics grit has been suggested significantly predicting creativity, goal orientation, drive to achieve purpose and showing persistence when others give up [START_REF] Schwartz | Hiring for Grit: Why It Matters, and How to Identify It[END_REF]. Taking the example of James Dyson who invented the Dyson vacuum. He tried over 5000 number of prototypes and finally end up creating the model that generated billions [START_REF] Heffernan | Suck It Up: James Dyson's Lessons in Perseverance[END_REF]. That persistence in investing effort over time lead to a final product revolutionizing the industry. This is what grit can do.

Possessing personal characteristics only may not suffice for successful goal pursuit. As we don't work in a vacuum, the environment might also define what we do. According to the resource passageways notion i.e. "environmental conditions that support, foster, enrich, and protect resources of individuals, families, and organizations, or that detract, undermine, obstruct, or impoverish people's resource reservoirs" [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF], resource investment during an individual's striving is linked to the supportive environment like culture, perceived organizational support [START_REF] Chen | The commerce and crossover of resources: Resource conservation in the service of resilience[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Social and psychological resources and adaptation[END_REF]. During goal pursuit, these resource passageways may fuel broadenand-build dynamics [START_REF] Fredrickson | Positive emotions and upward spirals in organizations[END_REF] to the benefit of goal achievement and additional resources.

Thus, supportive work environments among all other working conditions, work-home interface, organizational and societal culture situations are instances of potential facilitators/accelerators of resource functional development [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. A positive workplace leads to success over time because it brings positive emotions and well-being, which in turn, develop employees' social relationships and boost their abilities and creativity. Furthermore, in challenging and difficult situations it helps them to bounce back. Such organizations with supportive cultures lead to attaining higher financial performance, productivity and more engaged workforce [START_REF] Seppälä | Proof That Positive Work Cultures Are More Productive[END_REF].

Is more always better? Putting question mark on the universal beneficial role of psychological resources, research has suggested the possible "dark side" of such resources when they exist beyond optimal level [START_REF] Credé | Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature[END_REF][START_REF] Vancouver | The changing signs in the relationships among self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance[END_REF]. Vast theoretical and empirical evidence justifies that personal psychological resources and conducive work environments positively contribute towards attaining work goals [START_REF] Abele | The longitudinal impact of self-efficacy and career goals on objective and subjective career success[END_REF][START_REF] Peterson | Psychological capital and employee performance: A latent growth modeling approach[END_REF][START_REF] Xanthopoulou | The role of personal resources in the job demands-resources model[END_REF]. But on contrary to this, based on too-much-of-a-goodthing framework which "suggests that management researchers should hypothesize and test the possibility that relatively high levels of otherwise beneficial antecedents may lead to unexpected and undesired outcomes" and various other theoretical underpinnings e.g. felt obligation, reciprocation, perceived incompetence, too much engagement, over-commitment and over work passion, various psychological resources have been suggested negatively related to work outcomes [START_REF] Astakhova | The curvilinear relationship between work passion and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Pierce | The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management[END_REF].

In the current context, the limitations in observing and demonstrating the valuable contribution of resources during work goal pursuit are obvious. To address this issue, the present study was conducted using an alternative to the linear approach for investigating the dynamics of goal striving. Following Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll, , 1998)), we suggested the context-based dynamic role of resources in predicting work goal outcomes. Specifically, we considered the role of grit (as a personal resource) and perceived organizational support (as a favorable work environment) on the employee's work goal progress. The main objective was to explore how employee-focused self-regulation interventions can benefit from the understanding that work goal attainments are the outcome of complex interactions between personal resources and their environment.

The term "Resource" in general is positively accepted and assumed to be related to predicting desired outcomes. Previous research has explored psychological resources in relation to employee work outcomes based on this realistic view utilizing linear approaches [START_REF] Luthans | Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction[END_REF]Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009). According to this traditional role of conditional factors on work outcomes, the goal striving has been considered highly dependent on the availability of personal and organizational resources. But issues concerning this linear perspective have been raised by researchers working in the field of applied psychology [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Jordan | Toward a Work Motivation Conceptualization of Grit in Organizations[END_REF]. In line with these concerns, various empirical studies validated curvilinear models, as opposed to traditional linear positive linkage of psychological resources with work outcomes, in which high accumulation of resources can be costly [START_REF] Astakhova | The curvilinear relationship between work passion and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Baltes | The use of multitraitmultimethod data for detecting nonlinear relationships: The case of psychological climate and job satisfaction[END_REF][START_REF] Burnett | Revisiting how and when perceived organizational support enhances taking charge: An inverted Ushaped perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Luchak | A comparison of linear and nonlinear relations between organizational commitment and work outcomes[END_REF]. This evidence supports the initially suggested inverted-U shaped phenomenon [START_REF] Mcgrath | Stress and behavior in organizations[END_REF] by validating the curvilinear relationships between different levels of resource availability and individual outcomes.

Still to-date these nonlinear approaches are tested empirically at very low scale because of various reasons like limited theoretical justifications, lack of statistical expertise, and contradicting empirical findings [START_REF] Karanika-Murray | Work and health: curvilinearity matters[END_REF][START_REF] Muse | Has the inverted-U theory of stress and job performance had a fair test?[END_REF]. The Vitamin model [START_REF] Warr | A conceptual framework for the study of work and mental health[END_REF], keeping the consumption of vitamin C in consideration, suggested the curvilinearity between various job characteristics and employee's well-being. Thus proposing that going beyond the optimum level of resource availability could be harmful. Although several studies supported this curvilinear approach, still some contradictory empirical evidence raises questions about the complete legitimacy of Warr's predictions [START_REF] Jeurissen | Testing the vitamin model of job stress in Dutch health care workers[END_REF][START_REF] Sonnentag | Performance concepts and performance theory[END_REF].

We suggest that such inconsistencies in previous results might be a result of theoretical and methodological limitations instead of inaccurate hypothesized curvilinear relationships. This can be justified according to the various notions of COR theory. According to the COR conceptualization, psychological resources should not be labeled "good" or "bad" in advance because their role can be determined based on how much they contribute in an individual's motivation [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]. Following this concept, if the attractiveness of some specific psychological determinant for an individual can change into a demand/liability, then the positive role of resource availability in all situations can be questioned [START_REF] Morelli | Not all resources are created equal: COR theory, values, and stress[END_REF]. Previous research found support for this argument confirming that resources can possibly turn into demands according to the context [START_REF] Cormier | Examining the domain specificity of grit[END_REF][START_REF] Duckworth | Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success[END_REF]) so one should be cautious while presuming monotonic positive or negative linear linkage between psychological resources and work outcomes.

Additionally, observing the limited role of predictors, involving linear mediating and moderating effects could also contribute towards inconclusive findings in applied psychology research. Specifically, oversimplification and incorrect determination of complex interrelationships between variables might have resulted in such issues [START_REF] Karanika-Murray | Conceptualising nonlinear dynamic systems for health psychology research[END_REF]. So it is highly desirable to explore such relationships by incorporating possible nonlinearity between psychological resources and their environment during goal pursuit.

To empirically test our previous arguments, we hypothesized a complex curvilinear model of grit and perceived organizational support (POS) based on various theoretical underpinnings. The nonlinear role of these constructs in addition to their interactive relationships during goal striving will be discussed in the later sections.

BASIC PURPOSE AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of this research is to revisit the existing linear role of resources during goal-striving and by doing so we make several contributions to the previous knowledge. First, by offering a theoretical framework on COR theorizing and too-much-of-a-good-thing conceptualization we improve our understanding about relationships of grit and perceived organizational support with work goal-related outcome. Second, we propose a curvilinear approach as a substitute for existing linear knowledge that dominates the grit literature. This contribution has relevance not only with theory but also to practice by arguing that the abundance of a resource is not necessarily beneficial. Third, we contribute by suggesting role of environment (availability of organizational support) in determining the usefulness of personal resources during goal striving. According to the COR theorizing about resource accumulation and their existence in a certain ecology, we propose the fluctuating nature of resources such as grit when striving to attain work goals.

THEORY AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

Grit and Goal Progress

The significant role of grit i.e. "perseverance and passion for long-term goals" [START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF](Duckworth et al., , p. 1087) ) in predicting work-related goal outcomes has been validated in different work domains [START_REF] Duckworth | Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness[END_REF][START_REF] Dugan | Gritting their teeth to close the sale: the positive effect of salesperson grit on job satisfaction and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Eskreis-Winkler | The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage[END_REF]. Grit helps an individual in staying engaged and being resilient in challenging situations [START_REF] Maddi | The role of hardiness and grit in predicting performance and retention of USMA cadets[END_REF][START_REF] Von Culin | Unpacking grit: Motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF]. Specifically, during goal pursuit, gritty individuals put more effort to overcome challenges, maintain interest and keep on investing the effort to face adverse situations [START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF][START_REF] Duckworth | Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success[END_REF]. Furthermore, grit has also found to play a buffering role on the linkage between stressful conditions and employee outcomes [START_REF] Ceschi | Grit or honesty-humility? New insights into the moderating role of personality between the health impairment process and counterproductive work behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Jordan | Work grit as a moderator of politics perceptions: Workplace outcomes relationships: a three-study convergent investigation[END_REF]. Building upon these findings and theorizing on COR theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF] we assume grit as a key personal resource that helps individuals towards goal attainment.

But few studies have pointed out the issues concerning the impact of grit resource in predicting performance by showing inconsistent results [START_REF] Credé | What shall we do about grit? A critical review of what we know and what we don't know[END_REF][START_REF] Credé | Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature[END_REF]. Most importantly recent research has proposed the possible curvilinear role of grit resource that suggests its negative side on excessive availability [START_REF] Alaoui | Know When to Fold'Em: The Flip Side of Grit[END_REF]Jordan et al., 2019). Such downside might have several reasons like in the presence of high level of grit, investing additional efforts on non-productive goals might be harmful and this has been referred as "inappropriate persistence" [START_REF] Howard | Persistence: Defining the multidimensional construct and creating a measure[END_REF][START_REF] Lucas | When the going gets tough: Grit predicts costly perseverance[END_REF]. Similarly, work passion is one of the key dimensions of the grit resource but previously has been validated negatively related to work outcomes when available in abundance [START_REF] Astakhova | The curvilinear relationship between work passion and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF]. In a similar way goal pursuit of grittier individuals may become costly because of their over-commitment towards goals. In such situations individuals with a high level of grit remain stuck to the original course stubbornly and invest efforts in less optimal or even in negative directions [START_REF] Hietala | What is the price of hubris. Using takeover battles to infer overpayments[END_REF][START_REF] Lindberg | Goal commitment and performance: An empirical study incorporating role-stress literature to reveal functional and dysfunctional influences[END_REF]. Another possible reason for this flip side of the grit resource is: it might victimize individuals by sunk cost fallacy. As gritty individuals may keep on investing further resources/efforts to save the previously invested ones [START_REF] Duckworth | True grit[END_REF]. These inconsistent findings suggest the possible problem in linear modeling of grit with various goal outcomes, and that should be dealt with theorizing nonlinear linkages coupled with appropriate methodological techniques. So in the current study, we argue that an individual may benefit from the availability of grit resource having a positive impact on goal progress as long as resource-level remains moderate. And this relationship may turn into negative when grit is at a very low or very high level.

Hypothesis 1. Grit is curvilinearly related to work goal progress. Specifically, the expected relationship between grit and work goal progress is positive at a moderate level of grit but becomes negative at lower or higher levels.

Perceived Organizational Support and Goal Progress

According to the organizational support theory (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986, p. 501) perceived organizational support, the "employees' beliefs concerning the extent to which organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being" has previously been suggested to relate with work outcomes [START_REF] Eder | Perceived organizational support: Reducing the negative influence of coworker withdrawal behavior[END_REF]. Studies exploring the role of supportive workplace suggested that availability of such environment enhances employee's willingness to contribute additional efforts and abilities which helps in work goal attainment [START_REF] Schaufeli | Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study[END_REF]. Such benefits of support availability specifically perceived organizational support could be explained by various concepts such as it fulfills one's socioemotional needs and increase employee's commitment towards organization and investing additional efforts to achieve organizational goals [START_REF] Eisenberger | Perceived organizational support[END_REF]Rhoades, Eisenberger, & Armeli, 2001). Furthermore, according to the felt obligation concept based on the norm of reciprocity [START_REF] Gouldner | The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement[END_REF] and the social exchange perspective [START_REF] Blau | Exchange and Power in Social Life[END_REF], those employees who perceive higher level of support from their organization may feel obliged to repay this support by engaging in actions beneficial for their organization [START_REF] Eisenberger | Reciprocation of perceived organizational support[END_REF]. This felt obligation to reciprocate may help individuals to sustain efforts towards work goal attainment which in turn is linked to their organization. Previous research tested this positive impact on various work-related outcomes and found empirical evidence related to job satisfaction, employee performance, organizational commitment, absenteeism and turnover [START_REF] Baran | Advancing organizational support theory into the twenty-first century world of work[END_REF][START_REF] Kurtessis | Perceived organizational support: A meta-analytic evaluation of organizational support theory[END_REF] see review by [START_REF] Rhoades | Perceived organizational support: a review of the literature[END_REF][START_REF] Riggle | A meta-analysis of the relationship between perceived organizational support and job outcomes: 20 years of research[END_REF].

Notwithstanding such well-established findings, however, the univocal positive impact of perceived organizational support has also been questioned, especially at higher levels of intensity. Relying on the threat-to-self-esteem model [START_REF] Fisher | Recipient reactions to aid[END_REF][START_REF] Nadler | The role of threat to self-esteem and perceived control in recipient reaction to help: Theory development and empirical validation[END_REF], the overabundance of support has been found negatively related to work outcomes because providing too much assistance may result in the employees feeling incompetent and lacking in terms of autonomy. This continuous support may also give the impression that authorities don't trust their skills to accomplish the task, thus hurting their selfesteem level [START_REF] Deelstra | Receiving instrumental support at work: when help is not welcome[END_REF]. Integrating previous concepts of social exchange [START_REF] Emerson | Social exchange theory[END_REF] i.e. felt obligation to repay organization against positive rewards and threat-to-self-esteem model [START_REF] Fisher | Recipient reactions to aid[END_REF] i.e. feelings of incompetency and inferiority on gaining support), Burnett and colleagues (2015) suggested a threshold level until which perceived organizational support remains beneficial to employees and assumed as self-supportive. By crossing that level in form of overabundant support availability the positive effect turns into a bad thing with perceptions of threat to self-esteem. They found empirical evidence of this curvilinear relationship between perceived organizational support and employee's taking charge behavior.

In a similar line, the felt obligation to reciprocate or high organizational commitment may put some pressure on an employee to show better performance. Such heightened work pressure to perform broader work responsibilities has been linked to stress and this may in turn hamper work progress [START_REF] Stamper | The impact of perceived organizational support on the relationship between boundary spanner role stress and work outcomes[END_REF]. Based on too-much-of-a-good-thing (TMGT) effect we propose several possible reasons for example employees may become overcommitted with their organization and goals due to felt obligation/reciprocation or may become victim of high support availability threatening their self-esteem, thus providing organizational support to individuals beyond some specific level can impede their work goal pursuit and may result into negative outcomes. Unfortunately, very little research has yet explored the potential non-linear aspect of this resource.

Building on current elements, we expected that: Hypothesis 2. Perceived organizational support is curvilinearly related to work goal progress. Specifically, the expected relationship between POS and work goal progress is positive at a moderate level of POS but becomes negative at lower or higher levels.

Interactive Effect of Grit and Perceived Organizational Support

Past research suggests that personal resources could be better explored from the perspective of their interactive effects along with favorable work environments. Availability of support from organization combined with an individual's high level of social skills has been found positively predicting work outcome [START_REF] Hochwarter | The interaction of social skill and organizational support on job performance[END_REF]. Such moderating role of organizational support has been found significant in the linkage between leader-member exchange and subordinate's performance suggesting that supervisors' access to such supportive environments can help them to exchange psychological resources with their subordinates [START_REF] Erdogan | Support from the top: Supervisors' perceived organizational support as a moderator of leader-member exchange to satisfaction and performance relationships[END_REF]. In line with Conservation of Resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], [START_REF] Luthans | The mediating role of psychological capital in the supportive organizational climate-employee performance relationship[END_REF] highlighted role of perceived organizational support results in accumulation of additional resources such as hope, resilience, and optimism that helps individual towards attainment. When organizations fail to provide supportive environments i.e. resource passageways that are helpful in fostering resource pool, the employees' productivity can be compromised [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF].

But these previous findings are obtained by using linear analytical techniques, thus limiting our understanding. We are not aware of similar, but nonlinear, examinations of these issues within the goal striving literature. Given this gap in the literature, and coherent with the anticipated relationships outlined in H1 and H2, we expected goal progress to be not only a product of non-linear main effects of grit and perceived organizational support, but more importantly, conditioned by their interaction. We suggest that high level of grit may result in stubbornness, which coupled with high organizational commitment (as a reciprocation of perceived organizational support) may result in additional pressure that can be detrimental to performance. Additionally, in situations when goal attainment is highly unlikely the individual is unwilling to "let go and accept failure" that may turn into a costly goal pursuit (Alaoui & Fons-Rosen, 2016, p.12). Consequently, we anticipated: Hypothesis 3. Perceived organizational support moderates the nonlinear relationship between grit and work goal progress. Such that work goal progress is highest at moderate levels of grit and perceived organizational support but with the joint excess or scarcity of both, individual's work goal progress reaches its lowest level.

METHODS

Participants and Procedure

A time-lagged study was administered at two data points (T1 & T2). University professors working in the USA were invited to complete survey questionnaires during (T1) as well as at the end (T2) of the academic semester. Participation in this study was voluntary and no financial reward was offered to the respondents. In second data collection wave, only respondents from the first wave were invited by sending reminder emails. Items related to grit, perceived organizational support and work goals were included in the first survey questionnaire. Participants completed the second questionnaire having items concerning work goal progress and the demographics.

In total 293 participants completed valid questionnaires at both data points and different responses of the same participant were matched using the email address. The study sample (N = 293) presented a balance distribution having 153 men (SD=0.50). The average age of respondents was 39.36 years (SD=8.62) and in terms of tenure in the current organization, 73.4% accumulated between 1 and 7 years (SD=5.11).

Measures

Grit. We measured the individual's level of grit using 8-item Grit-S (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). The participants responded the statements e.g. ''Setbacks don't discourage me" and ''I finish whatever I begin" on the 5-points Likert scale 1 (Not like me at all) to 5 (Very much like me). Moderate level of internal consistency i.e. from .73 to .83 of this shorter version of the Grit scale has been shown previously (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009).

Perceived Organizational Support. To assess employee's perceived organizational support we used 8 items Survey of Perceived Organizational Support [START_REF] Eisenberger | Perceived organizational support[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenberger | Perceived organizational support and employee diligence, commitment, and innovation[END_REF]. The respondents were asked to rate items about their current organization such as "The organization really cares about my well-being" and "The organization strongly considers my goals and values" on the 5 points Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). This 8-item version of the POS scale has been validated by several previous studies [START_REF] Burnett | Revisiting how and when perceived organizational support enhances taking charge: An inverted Ushaped perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Farh | Individual-level cultural values as moderators of perceived organizational support-employee outcome relationships in China: Comparing the effects of power distance and traditionality[END_REF].

Goal Elicitation and Goal Progress. At the first data collection point (T1), participants responded to the goal elicitation items. Respondents were explained that the study is focused on the individual's work goals. They were told that "Goals are projects and concerns that people think about, plan for, carry out, and sometimes (though not always) complete or succeed at. They may be more or less difficult to implement; require only a few or a complex series of steps; and be more or less time consuming, attractive and urgent" [START_REF] Koestner | Autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and goal progress[END_REF]. Following procedure adopted by past research like Sheldon andKasser (1995, 1998), the participants were asked to list their current work goals: "Please list the four most important workrelated goal (e.g. teaching, research project/publication, research supervision) that you have for the current academic semester." Then at second data collection point three items goal progress scale adopted from [START_REF] Gaudreau | From goal motivation to goal progress: the mediating role of coping in the Self-Concordance Model[END_REF] was used to measure participant's progress related to each work goal i.e. mentioned at time 1. The scale items for example ''Please rate the extent to which you have progressed on your goal'' were measured on the 5 points Likert scale (1 = not at all to 5 = totally). We used aggregated level of goal progress by combining scores of all four goals for each respondent and results for this second order overall construct showed a good fit i.e. (χ2/df = 1.603, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.990, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = 0.987, incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.990, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.045).

Demographics. Age, gender and participant's tenure in the current organization were included as demographics in the study. Age was measured in the number of years and gender was coded as 0 = Male and 1= Female. Tenure in the current organization was measured in the number of years.

RESULTS

Descriptive Analysis

Table 6 shows the descriptive statistics for all study variables including means, standard deviations, and correlations as well as the internal consistency of the study scales. From results, it's evident that respondents showed above-average mean levels of resource constructs i.e. grit and perceived organizational support as well as for the goal related outcome. Findings of the descriptive data analyses showed slightly higher levels of grit in male respondents (M = 3.68) as compared to the females (M = 3.47). In terms of work goal progress, we found almost same mean scores for female and male respondents.

Preliminary Analysis

Before testing our hypothesized relationships we conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to confirm the discriminant validity of our study constructs and to check for common method bias. We tested four alternate measurement models in addition to our proposed three factor model that includes grit, perceived organizational support and work goal progress. The results showed that Second, in order to further check the common method bias (CMB) we conducted

Harman's single-factor analysis. The findings confirmed that all factors yielded by rotation have eigenvalue greater than 1 and explained 71.22% of the variance. From results 30.42% of the variance was found explained by the first factor which is quite less than the cutoff i.e. 50%

suggested by [START_REF] Harrison | Context, cognition, and common method variance: Psychometric and verbal protocol evidence[END_REF]. This reconfirms that our study has no concern regarding common method bias.

Hypothesis Testing

Our time-lagged data was analyzed using the hierarchical polynomial regression following recommendations of the previous research [START_REF] Cohen | Applied Multiple Correlation/Regression Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences[END_REF][START_REF] Shanock | Polynomial regression with response surface analysis: A powerful approach for examining moderation and overcoming limitations of difference scores[END_REF]. To confirm our hypothesized relationships, we used regression coefficients as well as the change in R2 (∆R2) at each hierarchical step in regression.

Furthermore, results from polynomial regression were visualized using Response Surface Modeling (RSM) as suggested by Shanock and colleagues (2010;2014) which has been used for exploring nonlinear linkages previously [START_REF] Edwards | Polynomial regression and response surface methodology[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | Work and family stress and well-being: An examination of person-environment fit in the work and family domains[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Job stress and well-being: An examination from the view of person-environment fit[END_REF].

For testing our proposed linkages of predictors with work goal progress we entered different variables at multiple steps into the regression equation. Specifically, at Step 1, we started by entering demographic variables, then we proceeded with centered scores of grit and perceived organizational support in Step 2. At the next stage (Step 3) the squared terms of grit and perceived organizational support were included in the regression equation. Then at Step 4 the interaction term of both predictors i.e. grit and POS were entered followed by the interaction term of their squared values at Step 5. Finally at Step 6 the interaction term of grit (squared) and perceived organizational support were added to the regression equation. The results from polynomial regression analysis (Table 7) supported our hypothesis H1 showing quadratic term of grit significantly (negatively) related to work goal progress (β = -.37, p < .05). We further explored this linkage by following recommendations of Aiken, West and Reno (1991) and found the inverted U-shaped curve as illustrated in the plot (Figure 3).

TABLE 7

Grit and perceived organizational support as predictors of work goal progress

Predictors

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Step On testing our hypothesis H2 the quadratic term of perceived organizational support appears to be non-significant (β = .08, p > .05), hence ignoring the possibility of its non-linear linkage with work goal progress. But the linear impact of organizational support in predicting employee goal related outcomes appeared to be significant (β = .19, p < .05). Furthermore, the interaction between grit and perceived organizational support as well as for their squared values were insignificant i.e. (β = -.12, p > .05) and (β = -.03, p > .05) respectively. But from regression results it was evident that the interaction between squared grit and perceived organizational support was significant (β = .24, p < .05) showing that perceived organizational support has significant interactive impact on the curvilinear relationship between grit and work goal progress. Following previous recommendations [START_REF] Dawson | Moderation in management research: What, why, when, and how[END_REF], we plotted these interaction effects by incorporating slopes having +/-1 S.D (standard deviation) above and below the mean score of perceived organizational support (Figure 4). The illustration confirmed our polynomial regression results by showing the curvilinear role of interaction.

FIGURE 4

Interactive role of grit and POS in predicting work goal progress grit is low and reaches its highest on the moderate availability of grit resource but again dips down with the further accumulation of grit resource. This relationship is also contingent on the availability of support from the organization. Such that the joint shortage of the grit and perceived organizational support keeps individual's goal progress at the lowest. And employee performs maximum at the moderate level of grit coupled with high organizational support.

Furthermore, highly supportive work environment reduces the negative impact of high grit resource on work goal progress. But our suggested lowest level of work goal progress resulting from joint excess of grit and perceived organizational support was not evident.

FIGURE 5

Work goal progress as predicted by grit-perceived organizational support discrepancy

5 4 3 Z (Work Goal Progress) 2 1 2 2 1 0 -1 -2 0 -2 Y X (Centered (Centered POS Scale)
Grit Scale)

DISCUSSION

The main objective of the current study was to observe how taking into account the complexity of interactions between psychological resources and work environments can help us to better understand the complex, yet mostly oversimplified relationships between the resources and goal-related outcomes. Such enhanced understanding of predictors contributing towards employee attainments, in turn, can help in developing and implementing more comprehensive work goal-related programs.

From the results of polynomial hierarchical regression, it is evident that, up to some extent, non-linear relationships between study variables do exist, thus supporting that inclusion of quadratics forms of predictors contribute toward enhancing the explanatory value of such models. In other words, the findings of this study suggest that there is merit in moving beyond monotonic, linear theorizing about the relationship between an individual's resources and work goal progress. Furthermore, our results also supported the more complex interactive effects of grit and perceived organizational support on work goal progress. But the study findings suggested the linear role of perceived organizational support on goal progress thus invalidating our initially proposed non-linear relationship. Broadly, the present results validate a view of goal progress as an outcome of the complex interaction between motivational elements like grit and supportive work environments. As opposed to our hypothesized negative role of high perceived organizational support during interaction with grit, it helps in buffering the detrimental effect of too much grittiness. Individuals with high level of grit and are unable to disengage from nonproductive goals may better self-regulate themselves when organizations are supportive. Our empirical evidence from interaction supports the positive role of resource passageways during goal pursuit [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings[END_REF]. This suggests supportive environments having key role in determining resource effectiveness. In addition to hierarchical polynomial regression, our visual response surface model representation clearly illustrates how work goal progress does not respond linearly and mechanically to a simultaneous existence of resources and favorable environments. To better explain these findings, we offer the following discussion points.

In line with the COR theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], high levels of grit and perceived organizational support positively relate to work goal progress. For instance, higher grit was generally positively associated with individual's attainments, consistent with the literature on the beneficial role of grit resource during setbacks [START_REF] Duckworth | Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success[END_REF][START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals[END_REF]. Similarly, higher levels of perceived organizational support were generally related to a higher level of employee goal

progress. Yet, it was also found, that the highest work goal progress was reached at mid-range values of grit while dropping again to low levels at the extreme abundance of grit resource. Such a pattern of relationships suggest the two possible interpretations. First, the one we presented in our introduction part, very high level of resource availability such as girt may result in hindering goal attainment and employee may become a victim of "too-much-of-a-good-thing". Second, the significant interactive effect of grit and perceived organizational support may suggest that people having enough resources coupled with conducive work environments are in a better position to deal with adversity and are less vulnerable to setbacks.

Extending past the tests of our focal hypotheses, the current study highlights several interesting issues. First, the findings question grit as a clear and unambiguous predictor of work outcome. Supporting the suggested possible curvilinear role of grit (as cited in our literature) as opposed to always the beneficial role of such resource, this study suggests that grit should be treated carefully. Second, the results call for renewed attention to perceived organizational support as an accelerator to the effectiveness of personal resources during goal striving. Specifically, results

suggest that, regardless of how low or high is the level of resources, their effect should be considered jointly with the perceived organizational support. Thus supportive environments may help employees to flourish and perform well during goal pursuit. Finally, our findings should be considered relative to the nature of the sample. As professors working in universities may highly rely on the organization providing the necessary help to perform well so their effort investment towards goal attainment might be contingent on the organizational support. Availability of such work environment may help them to remain goal-focused and persist longer.

Theoretical Implications

The present study following an alternate to often-used cumulative/linear framework was designed to explore at least one possible reason behind the inconsistent results of psychological resources. Following [START_REF] Probst | On the use, misuse, and absence of theory in stress and health research[END_REF] call for a more theory-based investigation, we proposed and demonstrated how COR theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF]) can be applied to goal striving.

The first issue concerns the nature of resources. In line with recent theorizing [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF], our findings suggest possible resource reversibility, as their positive impact should not be limited to an absolute intrinsic motivational value. Similar to recent findings that have challenged the view of equally valued resources [START_REF] Morelli | Not all resources are created equal: COR theory, values, and stress[END_REF], and following Hobfoll's (1998[START_REF] Hobfoll | Social and psychological resources and adaptation[END_REF] recommendations that resources should be considered in relation to ecology i.e. the concurrent process of other psychological states that operate within the individual, our study gave empirical evidence regarding differential role of resources.

The second implication bridges both theoretical and methodological issues. While emphasizing the importance of reciprocal relationships, research has met with difficulties in identifying the unequivocal spiral process [START_REF] Demerouti | The loss spiral of work pressure, workhome interference and exhaustion: Reciprocal relations in a three-wave study[END_REF]. Our present study suggests that such limitations may stem from traditional linear research designs that assume identified positive/negative predictors. In contrast, non-linear designs built on polynomial equations can enrich results which otherwise underestimated by regular linearderived scores. In turn, this suggests investing in a new challenging task of complex modeling.

In the current study, we integrated COR's perspective with an inverted U-shaped model [START_REF] Grant | Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U[END_REF][START_REF] Pierce | The too-much-of-a-good-thing effect in management[END_REF]. We advance existing research on the role of grit in predicting work-related goal outcomes by finding possible direct and interactive curvilinear relationships.

Practical Implications

Organizations devote increasing attention to issues of employees' motivation as a means of sustaining their performance. Managerial strategies, however, are often according to the assumption that employees with certain characteristics remain successful in every situation and achieve already set goals. But our findings show a somewhat different story as they propose considering work goal striving beyond solely dependent upon a certain set of dispositions.

First, this research suggests that work goal striving has a nonlinear mechanism and during such pursuit distinction between the positive and negative role of valued psychological resources can be limitative. Psychological states appear to be more reversible than expected, with usually assumed resources turning into liabilities, and vice-versa. This discomforting finding, though destabilizing for normative approaches to human resource management, has the advantage to ground employee motivation initiatives on actual workers' perceptions of the workplace experience. No doubt self-regulation focused programs are necessary to enable employees to deal with adverse situations but special attention to be rendered because ready-made programs may not benefit every employee.

The second practical implication of this research is concerning people holding key positions in organizations and formulating strategies for their subordinates. Although grit has been

INTRODUCTION

In the business world, the organization's reputation is considered an important contributor to organizations' success [START_REF] Alzola | Even when no one is watching: The moral psychology of corporate reputation[END_REF]. Customers remain loyal and foster long-term relationships with organizations and even recommend others to buy products and services if they believe that organizations have strong ethical values. On the flipside, if organizations ignore ethical considerations, they can face risk making their customers angry, seeing their reputations dented customers may stop purchasing [START_REF] Mintel | 56% of Americans Stop Buying from Brands They Believe are Unethical[END_REF] and ultimately lose business [START_REF] Eccles | Reputation and its risks[END_REF]. The pervasive rule violations by both managers and lower-level employees led to various corporate scandals such as Enron's bankruptcy, Citibank's near-collapse-in. Similarly, Wells

Fargo's recent debacle cost them $185 million in fines because 5300 employees opened up more than a million fraudulent accounts. Logically, one could argue that employees' unethical behavior is crucial because it can not only cause all kinds of legal problems for companies [START_REF] Bonner | Employee unethical behavior to shame as an indicator of self-image threat and exemplification as a form of self-image protection: The exacerbating role of supervisor bottom-line mentality[END_REF][START_REF] Friedman | Enhancing Critical and Ethical Thinking with Scenarios[END_REF] and at large understanding the causes of these tangible losses remains important to organizational success.

Unethical behavior can be defined as behavior that has detrimental effects on others and is "either illegal or morally unacceptable to the larger community" (Jones, 1991, p. 367). Under this conceptualization, unethical behaviors include violations of ethical norms or standards such as lying, cheating, and stealing [START_REF] Treviño | Un) ethical behavior in organizations[END_REF]. Emergent literature on business ethics has highlighted many causes of unethical behavior including, dissatisfaction, revenge or dignity, unfairness, reciprocal deviance and peer influence, pressure from management, ethical leadership and conflicting goals [START_REF] Badrinarayanan | Mirroring the boss: Ethical leadership, emulation intentions, and salesperson performance[END_REF][START_REF] Carucci | Why ethical people make unethical choices[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | An experimental examination of the effects of individual and situational factors on unethical behavioral intentions in the workplace[END_REF][START_REF] Lincoln | Ethical beliefs and personal values of top level executives[END_REF].

However, one notable cause (e.g., emotions) remains in the current ethics research. Namely, the fear of goal failure antecedent of unethical behavior has been underrepresented. Despite the growing body of research has acknowledged the importance of goal failure, researchers have traditionally limited their focus to goal-setting. By doing so they report that within the work environment, setting specific targets could improve performance [START_REF] Locke | Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey[END_REF] at the cost of unethical behavior [START_REF] Barsky | Understanding the ethical cost of organizational goal-setting: A review and theory development[END_REF][START_REF] Jensen | Paying people to lie: The truth about the budgeting process[END_REF][START_REF] Schweitzer | Goal setting as a motivator of unethical behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Shantz | The effect of primed goals on employee performance: Implications for human resource management[END_REF]. Further, fear of failure and its relation to individual's behavior has received ample attention in the fields of sports, education, and entrepreneurship (De Castella, [START_REF] De Castella | Unmotivated or motivated to fail? A crosscultural study of achievement motivation, fear of failure, and student disengagement[END_REF][START_REF] Morgan | Aspiring to succeed: A model of entrepreneurship and fear of failure[END_REF][START_REF] Sagar | Coping with the effects of fear of failure: A preliminary investigation of young elite athletes[END_REF], but its role in determining employee behavior while striving towards goal attainment has rarely been examined.

Seeing few exceptions are the studies conducted by [START_REF] Kouchaki | Anxious, threatened, and also unethical: How anxiety makes individuals feel threatened and commit unethical acts[END_REF] and [START_REF] Mitchell | Cheating under pressure: A self-protection model of workplace cheating behavior[END_REF] found the significant role of emotions on an individual's ethical decision making and behavior. This important omission is striking because fear is one of the most powerful forces in our lives and it affects the decisions we make, the actions we take, and the outcomes we achieve [START_REF] Tsaousides | Why Are We Scared of Public Speaking? Retrieved from[END_REF]. For example, if several years ago one of your colleagues failed in achieving specific work goal, and he got fire. The event might have been so terrible that you became afraid of failing in your own work goal. And you carry that fear of risk getting fired even now, years later. In other words, fear of failure can keep you locked in a cage of insecurity. As a consequence, employees may be tempted to engage in unethical acts to reach their goals in order to avoid punishment or getting fired. Also, fear of failure may blind people to ethical considerations.

The reason for unethical behavior may be even more pronounced than the existing research suggests.

In this research, we delve to contribute to this body of knowledge by examining the antecedent role of fear on employees' unethical behaviors.

Numerous studies have explored the antecedents and consequences of employees' unethical behaviors [START_REF] Barsky | Understanding the ethical cost of organizational goal-setting: A review and theory development[END_REF][START_REF] Niven | Susceptibility to the 'dark side'of goal-setting: Does moral justification influence the effect of goals on unethical behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Ordóñez | Goals gone wild: The systematic side effects of overprescribing goal setting[END_REF].

But how and why individuals engage in unethical behaviors is conspicuously lacking in the extant literature. So we aim to apply the perspective of self-regulatory resources theories [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource[END_REF] to examine a model centered on ego-depletion to determine the negative effect of fear of goal failure on employees' ethical behaviors. Since researchers have considered the fear of failure as a stressor [START_REF] Sagar | Coping with the effects of fear of failure: A preliminary investigation of young elite athletes[END_REF], and stressors deplete employees' limited resource of self-control through overtaxing processes of goal attainment action regulation [START_REF] Alarcon | A meta-analysis of burnout with job demands, resources, and attitudes[END_REF][START_REF] Schmidt | Self-control demands[END_REF]. Based on the assumption of limited self-control resource, we argue that fear of goal failure may lead to ego-depletion. On one hand, feeling depleted (egodepletion; [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: A resource model of volition, self-regulation, and controlled processing[END_REF] leads to heuristic shortcuts in the decision process which, in turn, can pave the way for unethical choices [START_REF] Christian | Examining the effects of sleep deprivation on workplace deviance: A self-regulatory perspective[END_REF]. As such, we propose that fear of goal failure would be positively related to unethical behaviors and that ego-depletion, would serve as the mediating mechanism in such a relationship.

In spite of the increased interest in business ethics, surprisingly little research in the related fields of organizational research has focused on understanding the factors that influence individuals to engage in unethical behavior. Thus, researchers and practitioners have called for ways to reduce unethical behavior in organizations [START_REF] Barsky | Understanding the ethical cost of organizational goal-setting: A review and theory development[END_REF]Kuenzi, Brown, Myer, & Priesemuth, 2019;[START_REF] Lawrence | Ain't misbehavin: Workplace deviance as organizational resistance[END_REF]. Alongside, previous work suggests that ethical decision making is influenced by a variety of cognitive processes and individual differences (Kligyte, Connelly, Thiel, & Lynn, 2013). Although we assume that fear of goal failure causes employees' ego-depletion, the nature of this relationship may vary depending on the individual's personality trait such as conscientiousness. There are several reasons to expect that consciousness will affect the relationship between fear of goal failure and ego-depletion. For example, [START_REF] Perry | Coping with the constraints of selfemployment: A person-situation model of entrepreneurial burnout[END_REF] stated that conscientiousness enables individuals to cope with multiple demands. Moreover, [START_REF] Mccrae | A five-factor theory of personality[END_REF] reported that individuals who are high in conscientiousness have a strong level of achievement motivation, and they are driven to succeed in what they do. Thus, we suggest that the relationship between fear of goal failure and ego-depletion will be weaker among employees who are highly conscientious. Also, [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF] found a strong link between moral attentiveness and individual's behavior.

Moral attentiveness refers as the "extent to which an individual chronically perceives and considers morality and moral elements in his or her experiences" [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF](Reynolds, , p. 1028)). In particular, results show that highly moral attentive individuals tend to prefer moral behaviors [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF]. Thus, we suggest that an individual's moral attentiveness serves as a buffering factor that mitigates the negative relationship between ego-depletion and unethical behavior.

BASIC PURPOSE AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY

Through our research, we intend to make a number of important contributions to the literature. First, in this research expands the extant business ethics research by not only enhancing our understanding of antecedent (fear of goal failure) of unethical behavior but also broadening our theoretical perspectives for understanding such behavior. Second, based on samples of sales professionals our integrated model (see Figure 6) adds to investigate that how and when employees' fear of goal failure leads to their ego-depletion and unethical behaviors. Towards this end, the present study is a response to the call for identifying the ways to reduce unethical behavior in organizations [START_REF] Barsky | Understanding the ethical cost of organizational goal-setting: A review and theory development[END_REF]Kuenzi et al., 2018;[START_REF] Lawrence | Ain't misbehavin: Workplace deviance as organizational resistance[END_REF]. Following the logic of conservation of resources (COR) theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF], we specifically, identified two individual differences variables (conscientiousness and moral attentiveness) that may serve as personal resources to handle the fear of goal failure and avoiding to behave unethically.

Since past research showed evidence that culture has significant effects on individuals' ethical decision-making [START_REF] Rashid | The effect of culture and religiosity on business ethics: A cross-cultural comparison[END_REF], thus, we investigate whether the fear of goal failure effects on employees' unethical decisions differ between the US and Pakistan. This is specifically important as different cultures have varying interpretations of what is considered right and wrong.

THEORY AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

Fear of Goal Failure and Workplace Unethical Behavior

Various past studies investigated the role of emotions on an individual's ethical decision making and behavior [START_REF] Kouchaki | Anxious, threatened, and also unethical: How anxiety makes individuals feel threatened and commit unethical acts[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchell | Cheating under pressure: A self-protection model of workplace cheating behavior[END_REF], Specifically, the notion "fear of failure" has been widely studied in the fields of sports, education, and entrepreneurship and found related to individual's behavior [START_REF] De Castella | Unmotivated or motivated to fail? A crosscultural study of achievement motivation, fear of failure, and student disengagement[END_REF][START_REF] Morgan | Aspiring to succeed: A model of entrepreneurship and fear of failure[END_REF][START_REF] Sagar | Coping with the effects of fear of failure: A preliminary investigation of young elite athletes[END_REF] but its role in determining employee behavior while striving towards goal attainment has been rarely explored. According to early theorists, fear of failure is a "disposition to avoid failure and/or a capacity for experiencing shame or humiliation as a consequence of failure" (Atkinson, 1966 p.13).

But the contemporary theorists conceptualized the multidimensional construct of fear of failure, most notably [START_REF] Conroy | Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The performance failure appraisal inventory[END_REF] multidimensional model. Based on this concept fear of goal failure is a tendency towards threat appraisal while striving to achieve personal goals. Failure in performance is perceived as threatening specifically being a person who relates aversive consequences with it [START_REF] Conroy | Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The performance failure appraisal inventory[END_REF].

Fearing goal failure, individuals may embark on counterproductive activities to privilege self-protection over success attainment. The actual intention of these self-protectors is not to avoid failure but to minimize the implications of that failure [START_REF] Covington | Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform[END_REF]. Similarly the loss aversion concept of conservation of resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF] suggests that people choose a preventive strategy to ward off the possible threat to valued resources. In the work context, real or perceived threats may lead to the individual using unethical behavior as a protection against the anticipated onslaught of organizational aggressions.

COR theory explains human motivation from the perspective of an evolutionary based drive for preservation. Fundamentally, the theory posits that individual motivation is primarily conditioned by the conservation of valued motivational factors known as resources, including individual, social, tangible and symbolic resources [START_REF] Halbesleben | Getting to the "COR" understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory[END_REF]. Hence, and while wishing to develop such resources, the individual's main motivation is to preserve them all from possible loss and exhaustion. So making unethical choices relate to a protective strategy of resource preservation.

Individual's decision to opt unethical choices has been explained by various other mechanisms. [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues[END_REF] proposed a neurocognitive model arguing that ethics-related decisions are made by individuals through a deliberative process as well as a pattern-matching strategy so that they make moral judgments and behave or they rationalize after behaving. But [START_REF] Haidt | The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment[END_REF] contradicted the traditional deliberative approach and suggested that an individual's reaction to ethical (controversial) situations is emotional and automatic. Individuals make instant judgments of things being right or wrong.

The notion of decision frames has been suggested by previous researchers to be significantly related to ethical decision making. Specifically, arguing that when an individual frames the situation as a potential loss (e.g. having fewer chances of achieving work goal or losing monetary benefits associated with it) s/he is more likely to show unethical behavior [START_REF] Kern | Bounded ethicality: The perils of loss framing[END_REF]. A similar concept named bottom-line mentality (BLM) suggests that people think about preserving bottom-line outcomes by ignoring competing priorities [START_REF] Greenbaum | Bottom-line mentality as an antecedent of social undermining and the moderating roles of core self-evaluations and conscientiousness[END_REF]. Such behaviors to secure financial bottom-line has been found significantly related to employee's unethical behavior [START_REF] Kouchaki | Seeing green: Mere exposure to money triggers a business decision frame and unethical outcomes[END_REF].

Previous research suggests that in threatening situations, the cognitive resources shift to facilitate defense mechanism. So in such situations, individual focus more on preserving selfinterest instead of allocating resources to moral reasoning or ethical principles [START_REF] Hermans | Stress-related noradrenergic activity prompts largescale neural network reconfiguration[END_REF][START_REF] Kouchaki | Anxious, threatened, and also unethical: How anxiety makes individuals feel threatened and commit unethical acts[END_REF]. Based on this we propose that people experiencing fear of goal failure are more likely to get engaged in self-interested unethical behavior self-protection.

Hypothesis 1. Fear of goal failure is directly and positively related to workplace unethical behavior.

The Mediating Role of Ego-Depletion

Individuals may down regulate fear in order to achieve their desired goals because fear responses and tendencies have a possible impact on other current actions [START_REF] Gross | Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations[END_REF]. Like task-irrelevant thoughts as an outcome, fear interrupt goal planning and resulting reduced performance [START_REF] Wood | Anxiety and cognitive inhibition[END_REF]. So, fear regulation is essential for goal attainment but on the other side exerting effort to regulate fear may result in depleted self-control resources. Self-control is "the capacity to alter or override dominant response tendencies, and to regulate behavior, thoughts, and emotions" (De Ridder et al., 2012, p. 77). According to control perspective, all acts of self-control draw from a single, common, psychological resource that they subsequently deplete [START_REF] Baumeister | The strength model of self-control[END_REF]. Depletion can be a result of various situations which require self-control, emotional regulation or information processing [START_REF] Hagger | Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: a meta-analysis[END_REF]. So fear of goal failure may lead to ego-depletion following assumption of limited self-control resource.

Another perspective to look at how fear emotions lead to self-control depletion is the compensatory model of work motivation and volition [START_REF] Kehr | Integrating implicit motives, explicit motives, and perceived abilities: The compensatory model of work motivation and volition[END_REF]. According to this concept, an individual needs self-control to deal with conflicting responses generated by the aroused fear motive and the responses generated by the actual goal. It argues that individuals who experience interpersonal conflict choose the volition mode, thus engaging in self-control to inhibit fearinduced impulses as well as supporting their actual goal. Similarly, the attentional control theory [START_REF] Eysenck | Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory[END_REF] suggests that emotions like fear disrupt goal striving through drawing an individual's attention towards fear-inducing stimuli instead of the actual goal. These stimulus-driven impulses are suggested to compete for the limited attentional resources with goal-directed tendencies [START_REF] Knudsen | Fundamental components of attention[END_REF].

Evidence regarding the role of ego depletion as "a state in which the self does not have all the resources it has normally" (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007, p.2) plays an important role in shaping behavior. Specifically, it has been previously linked with unethical decision making like cheating [START_REF] Muraven | Self-control depletion and the general theory of crime[END_REF], overstated performance [START_REF] Mead | Too tired to tell the truth: Self-control resource depletion and dishonesty[END_REF] etc. According to the ego-depletion theory [START_REF] Baumeister | Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource[END_REF], self-control is a finite resource which can deplete over time. When individuals engage in acts of volition, their self-control resources become depleted, which impairs their ability to resist impulsive behavior and increase the propensity to take ethical risks. Thus self-control is necessary to overcome the tendency towards short-term outcomes (e.g. monetary benefits) by involving in unethical behavior at the cost of long-term goals (e.g. good reputation) [START_REF] Yam | Ego depletion and its paradoxical effects on ethical decision making[END_REF]. So in the situations of diminished self-control resources, it is difficult to comply with one's behavior with moral standard [START_REF] Welsh | The dark side of consecutive high performance goals: Linking goal setting, depletion, and unethical behavior[END_REF].

Self-regulatory behaviors make individuals to bypass immediate desires. People high in capacity for volition are better in exercising self-control by making ethical choices. They can control cognitive processes which are linked with their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors through self-regulation [START_REF] Baumeister | Self-regulation as a key to success in life[END_REF]. So lacking in such resource i.e. self-control may lead to choosing negative behaviors. Thus we hypothesize that, Hypothesis 2. Ego-depletion significantly mediates the relationship between fear of goal failure and workplace unethical behavior

The Moderating Role of Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a broad range of constructs that describe individual differences in the tendency to be self-controlled, responsible to others, hardworking, the involvement in an active process of planning, organizing and carrying out tasks [START_REF] Roberts | Conscientiousness[END_REF]. It has been argued as the most important among personality traits [START_REF] Barrick | Conscientiousness and performance of sales representatives: Test of the mediating effects of goal setting[END_REF]. Taken the perspective of COR theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], the resources can be defined in terms of conditions and attributes that are valued. Accordingly, individual differences variables can be considered under this definition as, these traits often affect how people react to the resource-based processes of loss, threat, and investment [START_REF] Grandey | The conservation of resources model applied to work-family conflict and strain[END_REF].

Conscientiousness has been linked with positive performance and more effective behavioral responses in a number of studies [START_REF] Brown | Social cognitive career theory, conscientiousness, and work performance: A meta-analytic path analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Lapierre | Trait conscientiousness, leader-member exchange, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviour: A test of an integrative model[END_REF][START_REF] Judge | Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis[END_REF] thus, it can be considered a valuable resource. Specifically, individuals who are high in conscientiousness have a strong level of achievement motivation, less fear of failure and they are driven to succeed in what they do [START_REF] Mccrae | A five-factor theory of personality[END_REF][START_REF] Richardson | Conscientiousness and achievement motivation predict performance[END_REF]. Additionally, because of their motivation to excel in situations with multiple demands and their strong sense of personal responsibility [START_REF] Mccrae | An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications[END_REF], those high in conscientiousness are less likely to be afraid for not achieving their goals. Conscientious employees tend to be more strategic in their thinking and more proactive in handling difficult situations [START_REF] Witt | The interactive effects of conscientiousness and agreeableness on job performance[END_REF]. They are more effective in setting and pursuing work goals because employees those are emotionally unstable are more depressed and hopeless, so less likely to have goal orientation [START_REF] Malouff | Development and evaluation of a measure of the tendency to be goal oriented[END_REF].

Based on the personal resource allocation framework [START_REF] Grawitch | Rethinking the work-life interface: It's not about balance, it's about resource allocation[END_REF], conscientiousness can be helpful in the effective allocation of available resources for better achievement in stressful situations. So instead of working as a resource itself conscientiousness may help individuals to show resistance against the negative effects of work stressors [START_REF] Lin | A double-edged sword: The moderating role of conscientiousness in the relationships between work stressors, psychological strain, and job performance[END_REF]. Thus, we presume highly conscientious individuals should be more likely to predict future attainment and will take steps to achieve them and ultimately, will reduce the negative effect on the individual's ego depletion. Accordingly, we predict as under:

Hypothesis 3. Conscientiousness moderates the relationship between fear of goal failure and employees' ego depletion such that, the relationship between fear of goal failure and ego depletion will be stronger among less conscientious employees and weaker among employees who are more conscientious.

The Moderating Role of Moral Attentiveness

People vary in their ability to judge moral issues and providing attention to such matters [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues[END_REF][START_REF] Whitaker | The antecedents of moral imagination in the workplace: A social cognitive theory perspective[END_REF]. Several individual differences like Machiavellianism [START_REF] Roeser | The Dark Triad of personality and unethical behavior at different times of day[END_REF], negative affectivity [START_REF] Penney | Job stress, incivility, and counterproductive work behavior (CWB): The moderating role of negative affectivity[END_REF] and positive reciprocity beliefs [START_REF] Umphress | Unethical behavior in the name of the company: The moderating effect of organizational identification and positive reciprocity beliefs on unethical pro-organizational behavior[END_REF] have been significantly

found related to individual's unethical behavior. Furthermore, the role of such differences based on morality e.g. moral identity, moral courage is also evident linked to employee's unethical behavior in depleted self-control situations [START_REF] Gino | Unable to resist temptation: How self-control depletion promotes unethical behavior[END_REF]Hannah, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2011b;[START_REF] Treviño | Un) ethical behavior in organizations[END_REF]. Following this in the current study we suggest the moderating role of moral attentiveness on the linkage between ego-depletion and unethical behavior.

Moral attentiveness defined as "the extent to which an individual chronically perceives and considers morality and moral elements in his or her experiences" [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF](Reynolds, , p. 1028) is a trait like characteristic, without relating to some specific situation. It is distinct from moral sensitivity and moral awareness and can help one to perceive and interpret moral situations [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF].

People do vary in their level of moral attentiveness based on how they frame moral cognition [START_REF] Sturm | Decreasing unethical decisions: The role of morality-based individual differences[END_REF]. The moral cognition concept stems from the social cognitive theory which suggests that attention received by moral cues depends on the saliency, vividness, and accessibility (Bandura, 1986;[START_REF] Fiske | McGraw-Hill series in social psychology[END_REF]. Moral attentiveness has two dimensions i.e.

perceptual moral attentiveness: the extent to which an individual recognize morality in his/her daily experiences and reflective moral attentiveness: the extent to which an individual considers and ponders about moral matters. Moral attentiveness not only helps an individual to judge own behavior but also in the assessment of other's behavior by comparing it with moral standards [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF]. This specific characteristic enables an individual to detect immoral behavior by processing information from moral cues (cf. [START_REF] Tversky | Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability[END_REF]. Moreover, it makes him/her act morally because it goes along with the perception of the "right thing to do" [START_REF] Van Gils | Ethical leadership and follower organizational deviance: The moderating role of follower moral attentiveness[END_REF][START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF]. This may suggest that individuals high in attentiveness may not have difficulty in resolving ethical dilemmas by expanding their cognitive resources. On the other side, those who lack in this characteristic may have to rely on resources in order to resist temptations of behaving unethically. Therefore, in situations of already depleted resources, low morally attentive people are more likely to make unethical choices.

Based on the current knowledge we hypothesize that high moral attentiveness can help people to act ethically in the situations of reduced self-control.

Hypothesis 4. Moral attentiveness moderates the relationship between ego-depletion and unethical behavior such that, the direct relationship between ego-depletion and unethical behavior will be weaker when moral attentiveness is high and conversely.

Culture, Fear of Goal Failure and Proximal Reactions

As presented above, this research is grounded in COR theory which stresses that resource dynamics be understood from the perspective of interactions between the individual and his environment. As such, goal processes are grounds for testing such interrelationships. Recently, COR theorists [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF] have highlighted the role of national cultures in shaping preservation processes with, for instance, differences between collectivist vs individualist cultures. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 5. Individualism/collectivism levels, typical of our selected samples from Pakistan (collectivist) and the US (Individualist), impact our preservation model (Fig. 1).

METHODS

Procedure

A time-lagged study was conducted using two surveys with the gap of around one month.

Questionnaires were administered using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and Turk Prime, online panels of crowdsourcing, to recruit sales professionals working in the USA and through personal contact in Pakistan after setting the criteria of monthly sales goals. Aggregate results of the study were shared with only those participants who requested for it. The participants who took part in the first wave were invited to complete the second questionnaire through Turk Prime for the USA and by email for Pakistan. In order to keep diversity, we didn't restrict participants to some specific industry instead we allowed employees working in different sectors like telecommunication, healthcare, banking, transport, and real estate etc. But with special consideration that the participant must be having sales role in current work position and working on monthly sales target.

The initial questionnaire sent out was comprised of items related to fear of goal failure, ego-depletion, conscientiousness, and demographics. At time 2 the same pool of participants was invited to complete the second questionnaire that was comprised of items related to unethical behavior and moral attentiveness.

Measures

Fear of Goal failure. In order to measure fear of goal failure we used 5 items modified short version of Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory [START_REF] Conroy | Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The performance failure appraisal inventory[END_REF]. Responses ranged from (1) Do not believe at all to (5) Believe 100 % of the time. The sample items are "When I am failing in work goals, it upsets my "plan" for the future" and "When I am failing in work goals, important others are disappointed".

Ego Depletion. We assessed ego-depletion with 5 items scale adapted from Twenge, [START_REF] Twenge | Measuring state self-control: Reliability, validity, and correlations with physical and psychological stress[END_REF] which has been validated by [START_REF] Ciarocco | The state self-control capacity scale: Reliability, validity, and correlations with physical and psychological stress[END_REF]. This self-report measure of ego depletion has been used in previous psychological and organizational research. Sample items are "I feel drained" and "I feel like my willpower is gone". The 5 items Likert scale ranged from (1) Not true to (5) Very true was used.

Unethical Behavior. The 12 items unethical behavior scale adopted from [START_REF] Barsky | Investigating the effects of moral disengagement and participation on unethical work behavior[END_REF] was used to measure participants' unethical behavior at work. Responses were collected on the 5 items Likert scale (1= Never, 5= Seven times or more) asking how often the employee remain engaged in the list of unethical behaviors in last month.

Moral Attentiveness. We adopted 12 items self-report measure from [START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF] to assess moral attentiveness. The sample items are "I regularly think about the ethical implications of my decision" and "I frequently encounter ethical situations". The 5 points Likert scale ranging from ( 1) Strongly disagree to (5) Strongly agree was used.

Conscientiousness. Conscientiousness was measured using 10 items International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) measure of Big Five factor markers [START_REF] Goldberg | The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure[END_REF]. The scale includes items like "I pay attention to details" and "I am exacting in my work" and were measured on 5 points Likert scale (1= Very inaccurate, 5= Very accurate).

Demographics. We included age and gender in the study. Age was measured in the number of years. Gender was coded as 0= Male and 1= Female.

RESULTS

Descriptive Analysis

The means, standard deviations, correlations and scale reliabilities related to each study variable for both countries individually and pan-culturally are presented in Table 8. According to the results, the mean score for moral attentiveness in the United States showed the highest scale value while the mean value for gender in Pakistan appears to be the minimum. All study variables like fear of goal failure, ego-depletion, unethical behavior, moral attentiveness, and conscientiousness showed correlations in the expected direction for both study countries. conscientiousness and moral attentiveness) was a good fit for the US as well as Pakistani sample.

All items showed significant loadings to their respective constructs. Our hypothesized model showed the best fit when comparing with all four constrained models thus confirming all study variables as distinct constructs. The results of confirmatory factor analysis also showed that the single factor model was a poor fit in both samples confirming that common method bias doesn't exist for all relationships among study variables. Then, we conducted the multigroup CFA for this five factor model in order to cross validate it across both study countries. As seen in Table 10, this five factor model (M1) showed the good fit thus validating that factor structure is equal in both groups. As recommended by Aiken, West, and Reno's (1991), we plotted the interaction effects of conscientiousness and moral attentiveness for the US sample by incorporating slopes having +/-1 S.D (standard deviation) above and below the mean scores. The results of slope analysis i.e. one S.D above and below the mean scores of conscientiousness and moral attentiveness also confirmed the moderating role (Figure 7, & 8). Specifically, when conscientiousness is low then the relationship between fear of goal failure and ego depletion is positively significant (β = .32, p < .05) and when conscientiousness is high this relationship becomes insignificant (β = .04, p = n.s).

Figure 7

Moderating role of conscientiousness on the relationship between fear of goal failure and ego depletion in the US sample. Similarly we plotted (Figure 9) interaction between moral attentiveness and ego depletion for the Pakistani sample. Results showed that higher availability of moral attentiveness makes the relationship between ego depletion and unethical behavior insignificant (β = .13, n.s) and when moral attentiveness is low this relationship becomes positively significant (β = .39, p < .05).

Figure 9

Moderating role of moral attentiveness on the relationship between ego depletion and unethical behavior in Pakistani sample.

DISCUSSION

From the results of multigroup SEM, it is evident that, our hypothesized linkages proposing direct role of fear of goal failure on employee's unethical behavior as well as indirect relationship through mediation of ego-depletion were significantly positive across different countries. Furthermore, our results also supported the moderating effect of moral attentiveness in the USA as well as in Pakistani sample. But the study findings suggested the moderating role of conscientiousness appears to be significant only for USA sample. And it shows no significant impact on the relationship between fear of failure and ego-depletion for Pakistani sample. Our empirical evidence confirms the positive role of resources during goal pursuit. In addition to this, our findings also confirm the existence of differences in hypothesized relationships based on cultural environment. As such, this contributes to existing research that suggests culture to have an impact during stressful situations [START_REF] Hobfoll | The impact of communal-mastery versus self-mastery on emotional outcomes during stressful References-Article 3 conditions: A prospective study of Native American women[END_REF]. Following this, our findings confirm that some cultures may produce more resilient personalities so people may differ in terms of their reactions when exposed to stressful situations. In our case higher level of unethical behavior showed by Pakistani sample as compared to its US counterpart. The reason behind this might be the higher unemployment rate which is 6.1% in Pakistan as compared to 3.7% in the U.S (IMF, 2019). Threats of getting fired as a result of underperforming and fewer chances of getting reemployed can motivate individuals to preserve themselves, even to the cost of unethical choices.

Additionally, stressful conditions like fear of goal failure may have more impact on collectivistic culture as compared to individualistic nations. A main reason might be dependency of other family members on the working individual who is therefore motivated to use any channel to fulfill their needs. Collectivistic cultures such as in Pakistan have more strength in terms of ties (family and friends) as compared to individualistic societies, e.g. the U.S. People in collectivistic cultures are more likely to break the rules and regulations to fulfill such expectations [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind[END_REF]. Such findings could also be justified by other cultural dimensions. For instance, uncertainty avoidance that guides individuals in their response to daily uncertain situations [START_REF] Husted | Culture and international anti-corruption agreements in Latin America[END_REF]. In cultures with high uncertainty avoidance, e.g. Pakistan, people opt for organizations with wellestablished rules and procedures. But such conditions can also lead to motivate unethical practices because people think that it's necessary to work through alternate routes to accomplish their personal agendas [START_REF] Getz | Culture, perceived corruption, and economics: A model of predictors and outcomes[END_REF]. Similar relationships of workplace corrupt behaviors and uncertainty avoidance has been previously validated [START_REF] Davis | Perceptions of country corruption: Antecedents and outcomes[END_REF].

Practical Implications

As a practical matter, documenting the annual costs of unethical behavior on the American economy has been estimated to be as high as $120 billion for workplace violence [START_REF] Deyle | Global retail theft barometer[END_REF], $44 billion for theft [START_REF] Shively | Theft cost retailers $44 billion last year[END_REF], and up to $200 billion for delinquent behavior [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF]. Our research suggests that employees having perceptions of negative outcomes about their work goals could make unethical choices to protect themselves. This discomforting finding suggests that special attention to be rendered when setting employee goals and also on-time support should be provided to deal with difficulties relating goal pursuit. Moral attentiveness has been appeared as a valuable resource to help individuals make ethical decisions in stressful conditions so management should consider moral attentiveness as a valuable asset and provide trainings for the enhancement of employees' morality level. Our results insist the significant role of culture which makes an individual's psychological resource like conscientiousness useful so special attention to be provided when facilitating the enhancement of such individual characteristics.

Limitations

A number of limitations can be considered regarding the current study. First, although twowave study, the limited time-lagged nature of design didn't allow for testing causal inferences.

Second, no doubt we find strong evidence of the moderating role of conscientiousness in the US sample, but its non-significant role in Pakistani sample suggests that more complex theory-grounded models are needed. Third, there may be concerns about common method bias affecting the data but we made certain cautions in procedures and statistical methods to overcome this issue. First, the data were collected at two-time points i.e. with the gap of one month. Second, we tested the common latent factor during the confirmatory factor analysis to confirm that common method variance does not exist in our case. Thirdly, we conducted Harman's single factor analysis which also confirmed the non-existence of common method bias.

Goal striving has always remained the focus of interest in research, but this dissertation presents three empirical studies to deal with the demands concerning issues related to motivational dynamics in work settings. Specifically, the first study targets the goal valuation mechanism to elaborate on how resource dynamics can play a key role during goal-striving. As previously mentioned most of the arguments were built on the static nature of resources, so this dissertation focused to explore them as dynamic aspects of the goal striving process.

Additionally, these resources have been assumed to be available in the form of the bucket where Findings of the second study suggest possible reversible nature of resources which has been mostly ignored especially in the goal-striving process. It suggests that psychological resources may not always be heading in the direction of goal-attainment. But the role of such resources might be contrary in certain conditions thus hurting the goal-striving process. Validating previous suggestions [START_REF] Credé | Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature[END_REF][START_REF] Vancouver | The changing signs in the relationships among self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance[END_REF] this study finds the support of curvilinear role played by resources in making progress at work settings. Additionally, certain environmental conditions may also complicate this process. Although the curvilinear role of environment has not been validated but the results confirm the environment as a significant player helping individuals to make progress towards goals by interacting with psychological resources. The study results contribute to the previous always beneficial knowledge of psychological resources during goal-striving.

First and third studies explain resource dynamics based on values by incorporating evidence from different cultures. Specifically, the first study suggests that striving for valued resources employees in the USA make an effort for their accumulation through goal-attainment while their

French counterparts remain more focused on their commitment towards goals to get such benefits.

But in cultures like Pakistan, employee values end as well as means equally for their resource development. Similarly, using cultural differences our third study explores how people may behave differently in stressful conditions during goal-striving. Based on cultural differences the study findings suggest that some people are more prone to make unethical choices, as well as their resource dynamics, differ significantly. Although previously culture has been tested to have an impact on ethical decision making [START_REF] Husted | The impact of national culture on software piracy[END_REF][START_REF] Vitell | The effects of culture on ethical decision-making: An application of Hofstede's typology[END_REF] but this study explains such role in terms of resource preservation during goal-striving.

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

Findings from these three studies bring valuable insights for organizations. First, these results provide empirical support regarding the adoption of customized performance appraisal in the workplace. Alder et al. ( 2016) have argued about the entire existence of performance appraisals to evaluate employees. By utilizing the findings of the present research which suggest individual differences during goal pursuit, one can argue about its benefits when introduced in a more customized form. Such kinds of appraisals (personalized performance appraisal PPA) have been previously suggested by I/O psychologists like [START_REF] Rabenu | Performance appraisal in a constantly changing work world[END_REF]. Based on findings it could be suggested that uniform and preplanned sets of evaluations may not suit each individual and should be replaced by introducing more customized tools. Such performance appraisals fitting each employee's needs can enhance his/her perceptions regarding organizational justice. Thus, individual's belonging to each category (whether preferring striving experience or the end results) will assume that he/she has been evaluated fairly.

As the main goal of organizational behaviorists and human resource managers is to enhance positive attitudes and behaviors in organizations, so PPA might be the best option as it can serve each individual by respecting his/her needs for achievement. Such focus on employee development instead of just rating them for administrative purposes (promotion, annual bonus etc.) can result in better employee experience, enhanced motivation and in turn can improve organizational performance [START_REF] Macfarlane | Reimagining performance management: A failure of the dual purpose system and the innovative company's way forward[END_REF]. Another advantage of such personalized performance appraisals is the reduced bias associated with them. As such evaluations rely on more complex and dynamic parameters like employee's cooperation with colleagues, information sharing with coworkers, etc. thus incorporating dynamic performance instead of limiting the focus to average performance assessment based on pure productivity like number of units produced or products sold etc. Managers aren't able to consider every aspect of performance in traditional evaluations, but personalized performance appraisals provide an opportunity to utilize various sources of information resulting into better appraisal process.

Results of this dissertation enrich management by objectives (MBO) approach (Drucker, 1954). According to which organizations should involve employees in goal setting as well as assigning rewards to these set objectives. The adoption of this approach has been evident in private as well as public sector [START_REF] Rodgers | Impact of management by objectives on organizational productivity[END_REF]. Although MBO has been highly prevalent in work settings but critics remain to limit the focus on goal setting. The research suggests adopting a modified version of such strategy with more focus on the process instead of just setting the objectives through employee participation. Employee inclusion might not be enough as findings suggest the high significance of commitment during goal pursuit, so management should consider the level of employee commitment to the set goal. Furthermore, this research highlights the importance of the environment in which goals are set and pursued which has been mostly overlooked by the management by objectives approach.

Findings also suggest that organizations should not consider employees as motivated by incentives that possess a predetermined value [START_REF] Jeffrey | The motivational properties of tangible incentives[END_REF]. Instead of rewards being assumed equally, supporting [START_REF] Kohn | Punished by rewards[END_REF] propositions of possible reversibility, findings suggest that rewards should be considered relative to employee values and perceptions. These rewards should be guided by the individual's intrinsic need to preserve their valued resources during the striving process for work goal achievement. For instance, in multinational corporations with employees from different geographical locations and representing sometimes contradictory cultural value system, special care to be rendered in developing and implementing motivational policies as the findings suggest various patterns of goal pursuit based on national culture.

Results can guide managers to remain cautious when assuming certain dispositions always helpful for employees to perform better at the workplace. As personal resources can behave differently and even in reverse direction, so the development of such traits should be considered by incorporating the context. This warns organizations to remain cautious when promoting enhancements of such resources by suggesting environmental conditions as a key element. Because employees having resources in abundance may not be able to adjust/control resource investment properly thus hurting their goal striving process. Furthermore, findings suggest organizations to provide favorable work conditions in addition to relying on employee's personal resources because it's the environment which can determine the usefulness of such resources for attaining work goals. In line with previous suggestions of considering resources along with the ecology (Hobfoll, 1998[START_REF] Hobfoll | Social and psychological resources and adaptation[END_REF][START_REF] Morelli | Not all resources are created equal: COR theory, values, and stress[END_REF], this dissertation emphasizes the beneficial role of interventions enhancing psychological resources but coupled with the environment in which they exist.

In summary, this research can guide managers who normally assume that psychological resources have universal positive impact on the work outcomes. Findings from this research suggest that special attention is required when introducing workplace interventions/training focused on enhancing employee's motivation. As all resources are not equal as well as every individual doesn't behave in a similar way so tailor-made programs concerning self-regulation and appraisal etc. might be the best choice.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

An early-stage evolution of the goal-striving process can be observed. Most of the arguments in this area are based on evidence acquired through experimental techniques that confirms its nascent nature. Although research presents different or sometimes contradictory conceptualizations relating to goal-striving but at least all are focused to explore the dynamics underlying this process. The current research is an attempt to contribute to this discussion by providing evidence from work settings based on COR conceptualizations. Still, this research has a certain number of limitations that might be considered when conducting future research in this area.

First, although several resources has been used to test theoretical models but still the question remains the same whether all resources behave similarly or not? Findings of studies confirm the role of psychological resources can vary significantly. This suggests the need to test additional resources with various goal-related outcomes. Similarly, other possible goal-related constructs like goal stress, etc. could be introduced in such models in addition to goal attainment and goal progress. The main focus of this dissertation remains to explore the dynamics of an individual's work goals. But due to changes in the nature of work settings like more group work with interdependent goals it would be worth exploring how individual resources, as well as team level resources, can be crucial during such goal-striving. In the same line, individuals with multiple goals may behave differently and resource allocation towards each goal can account for more complex goal pursuit which needs to be considered in future research.

Second, this research considers the role of environment i.e. culture in shaping goal process but limitations remain in terms of testing various other cultures. Because of data access to countries like France, Pakistan and the USA, differences in cultural values has been tested, but more diverse cultural samples might be considered for possible replication of these findings. This will help in the generalizability of these results to other nations and could help organizations operating in different regions of the world. In the same line, these studies limit by considering national culture only but this could influence findings as certain regions within a country might have different or even contradictory value systems. This can be a possible avenue for future research to compare such differences within a country concerning goal-striving. In uncertain times, I usually expect the best.

I'm always optimistic about my future.

Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad.

4

Please mention how you think about the following statements.

(1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree)

In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

The conditions of my life are excellent.

I am satisfied with my life.

So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.

If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

5

Consider how well the following statements describe your feelings on a scale.

Please select the answer that best reflects you.

( C'est important pour elle/lui de développer ses points de vue de façon autonome.

C'est important pour elle/lui de se forger ses propres opinions.

C'est important pour elle/lui de comprendre les choses par elle/lui-même.

C'est important pour elle/lui de prendre ses propres décisions à propos de sa vie.

C'est important pour elle/lui de planifier ses activités de façon indépendante.

C'est important pour elle/lui d'être libre de choisir par elle/lui-même ce qu'elle/il fait.

C'est important pour elle/lui de chercher toujours à faire des choses différentes.

C'est important pour elle/lui de prendre les risques qui rendent la vie passionnante.

C'est important pour elle/lui de faire toutes sortes de nouvelles expériences.

C'est important pour elle/lui de passer du bon temps.

C'est important pour elle/lui de jouir des plaisirs de la vie.

C'est important pour elle/lui de profiter de toutes les occasions de s'amuser.

C'est important pour elle/lui de ne jamais penser qu'elle/il mérite plus que les autres.

C'est important pour elle/lui d'être humble.

C'est important pour elle/lui de se contenter de ce qu'elle/il a et de ne pas demander davantage.

C'est important pour elle/lui d'éviter de contrarier les autres. 1. New ideas and projects sometimes distract me from previous ones.

2. Setbacks don't discourage me.

3. I have been obsessed with a certain idea or project for a short time but later lost interest.

4. I am a hard worker.

5. I often set a goal but later choose to pursue a different one.

6. I have difficulty maintaining my focus on projects that take more than a few months to complete. 9. The organization values my contribution to its well-being.

10. The organization fails to appreciate any extra effort from me.

11. The organization would ignore any complaint from me.

12. The organization really cares about my well-being.

13. Even if I did the best job possible, the organization would fail to notice.

I

  shouldn't forget my two friends cum proofreaders i.e. Matt and Rachel. Being nonnative, I bothered them a lot of times to proofread my research (that might has no interest for them!  ). I respect them for their support and time dedicated to my Ph.D. work. My research laboratory IAE-CREG and doctoral school ED-SSH deserve huge respect as they were always there whenever I needed them. Without their support, it was not possible to complete this research work. VII REFERENCES -ARTICLE 2............................................................................................................

FIGURE 1 :FIGURE 2 : 42 CHAPTER 3 :FIGURE 3 :FIGURE 4 :FIGURE 5 : 4 :FIGURE 6 :FIGURE 7 :FIGURE 8 :FIGURE 9 :

 1242334546789 FIGURE 1: Structural overview of the dissertation …..……………………….………..….. 10

  différences significatives sont trouvées pour la plupart des valeurs culturelles lorsque les scores moyens sont testés séparément. Par exemple, les valeurs liées à l'ouverture au XXX changement, à savoir l'hédonisme et la stimulation, sont plus fortes pour l'échantillon français que pour celles du Pakistan et des États-Unis. De la même manière, lorsque nous examinons les différences culturelles entre pays, nous trouvons des preuves convaincantes du fait que, à quelques exceptions près, les trois pays sont distincts. Par exemple, le Pakistan occupe le premier rang des valeurs de conservation, tandis que la France est la plus basse.

  correspondantes dans les trois pays. Les résultats T1 du modèle d'invariance de configuration sans contraintes ont montré un bon ajustement du modèle. Ensuite, le modèle d'invariance métrique a été testé avec des chargements de facteurs contraints. La comparaison entre les modèles sans contrainte et les modèles sous contrainte montre une invariance significative, validant ainsi une invariance métrique complète. Comme suggéré par Meredith (1993), un modèle scalaire comportant des contraintes d'interception supplémentaires a été mis en oeuvre. Il a été constaté qu'il variait par rapport au modèle non contraint. Conformément aux recommandations de Byrne (2004), une procédure d'invariance partielle a été réalisée, suivie d'une comparaison de l'invariance scalaire partielle entre les trois pays. Des preuves d'invariances métriques et scalaires partielles ont été trouvées en T2 pour tous les pays de l'échantillon.

  Chiffres entre parenthèses = France, avec étoile = Pakistan et souligner = États Unis Les résultats des trois pays suggèrent que, quelles que soient les différences d'intensité, toutes les relations réciproques entre les ressources personnelles, l'engagement et l'atteinte des objectifs professionnels sont positives.

  l'ego des employés, la nature de cette relation peut varier en fonction du trait de personnalité de l'individu, comme la conscience professionnelle. Il y a plusieurs raisons de s'attendre à ce que la conscience affecte la relation entre la peur de l'échec et l'appauvrissement de l'ego. Par exemple, L[START_REF] Perry | Coping with the constraints of selfemployment: A person-situation model of entrepreneurial burnout[END_REF] ont déclaré que la conscience professionnelle permet aux individus de faire face à des demandes multiples. De plus, McCrae et Costa (1999) ont signalé que les personnes qui sont très consciencieuses sont très motivées pour réussir et qu'elles sont motivées pour réussir dans leur travail. Ainsi, nous suggérons que la relation entre la peur de l'échec et l'appauvrissement de l'ego sera plus faible chez les employés qui sont très consciencieux. De plus, Reynolds (2008) a trouvé un lien étroit entre l'attention morale et le comportement de l'individu. L'attention morale se réfère à la "mesure dans laquelle un individu perçoit et considère de façon chronique des éléments moraux et moraux dans ses expériences "[START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF](Reynolds, , p. 1028)). En particulier, les résultats montrent que les individus très moralement attentifs ont tendance à préférer les comportements moraux[START_REF] Reynolds | Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the moral aspects of life[END_REF]. Ainsi, nous suggérons que l'attention morale d'un individu sert de facteur tampon qui atténue la relation négative entre la déplétion de soi et un comportement contraire à l'éthique. Pour explorer ces relations, nous proposons un modèle interculturel de comportement non éthique au travail (figure1).

Figure 1 Modèle

 1 Figure 1 Modèle interculturel de la peur de l'échec d'un objectif menant à un comportement contraire à l'éthique au travail.

Hypothèse 5 :

 5 entre l'individu et son environnement. En tant que tels, les processus d'objectifs sont des raisons pour tester de telles interrelations. Récemment, les théoriciens du COR (Hobfoll et al., 2018) ont souligné le rôle des cultures nationales dans l'élaboration des processus de préservation avec, par exemple, des différences entre les cultures collectivistes et individualistes. Par conséquent, nous émettons les hypothèses suivantes: Les niveaux d'individualisme/collectivisme, typiques de nos échantillons sélectionnés au Pakistan (collectiviste) et aux États-Unis (individualiste), ont un impact sur notre modèle de préservation (figure 1).

  l'ego. Nous avons évalué la déplétion de l'ego à l'aide d'une échelle à 5 items adaptée de Twenge, Muraven, & Tice (2004) qui a été validée par Ciarocco, Twenge, Muraven, & Tice (2007).

4 . 3 .

 43 constructions pour chaque pays étudié, nous avons testé un modèle de mesure comprenant cinq facteurs par rapport à divers autres modèles. Notre modèle hypothétique a montré le meilleur ajustement en comparant avec les quatre modèles contraints, confirmant ainsi toutes les variables de l'étude comme des constructions distinctes. Les résultats de l'analyse factorielle de confirmation ont également montré que le modèle à facteur unique n'était pas bien adapté aux deux échantillons, ce qui confirme qu'il n'existe pas de biais de méthode commun pour toutes les relations entre les variables d'étude. Ensuite, nous avons effectué l'ACC multigroupe pour ce modèle à cinq facteurs afin de le valider par recoupement entre les deux pays de l'étude. Le modèle à cinq facteurs (M1) a montré le bon ajustement, validant ainsi que la structure factorielle est égale dans les deux groupes. Invariance de mesure L'invariance des mesures a été réalisée en comparant les modèles de mesure des États-Unis et du Pakistan aux niveaux métrique et scalaire. Les résultats de l'invariance métrique ayant des saturations factorielles limitées entre les groupes ont montré que le changement de modèle était insignifiant et nous avons donc trouvé un soutien pour l'invariance complète au niveau métrique. Plus tard, l'invariance scalaire a été testée en imposant des contraintes supplémentaires sur les interceptions correspondantes et les résultats ont montré la différence significative, de sorte que nos échantillons ont été variés au niveau scalaire. Au moins, nous n'avons trouvé aucune différence significative au niveau métrique et nous avons supposé que les échelles sont comparables entre les pays étudiés. 4.4. Modélisation d'équations structurelles multigroupes LVII Une modélisation par équation structurelle multigroupe a été effectuée pour tester le modèle hypothétique dans tous les pays. Les résultats ont montré que le modèle incorporant toutes les relations hypothétiques était bien adapté, c.-à-d. χ2 = 38,85, df = 16, p < 0,05, RMSEA = 0,045, CFI = 0,94. D'après nos résultats, nous avons trouvé une médiation partielle dans notre modèle. Le rôle modérateur de la conscience sur le lien entre la peur de l'échec et l'appauvrissement de l'ego était significatif (β= -.15, p<.05) pour les États-Unis seulement et il semblait insignifiant (β= -.05, p>.05) pour le Pakistan. L'effet tampon de l'attention morale sur le lien entre la déplétion de soi et le comportement contraire à l'éthique a existé aux États-Unis (β= -.13, p<.05) ainsi qu'au Pakistan (β= -.14, p<.05). Les résultats de l'analyse des pentes, c'est-à-dire un S.D. supérieur et inférieur aux scores moyens de conscience et d'attention morale, ont également confirmé le rôle modérateur. Plus précisément, lorsque la conscience consciencieuse est faible, la relation entre la peur de l'échec d'un but et l'appauvrissement de l'ego est positivement significative (β = .32, p < .05) et lorsque la conscience consciencieuse est élevée, cette relation devient insignifiante (β = .04, p = n.s). De plus, lorsque l'attention morale est faible, la relation entre l'appauvrissement de l'ego et un comportement contraire à l'éthique est plus forte (β = .49, p < .05) et lorsque l'attention morale est élevée, cette relation devient plus faible (β =.30, p < .05), ce qui confirme le rôle tampon de la conscience et de l'écoute morale. De même, nous avons tracé l'interaction entre l'attention morale et l'appauvrissement de l'ego pour l'échantillon pakistanais. Les résultats ont montré qu'une plus grande disponibilité de l'attention morale rend insignifiante la relation entre l'appauvrissement de l'ego et un comportement contraire à l'éthique (β = .13, n.s.) et lorsque l'attention morale est faible, cette relation devient positive (β =.39, p < .05).

1 :

 1 Do individuals allocate their resources differently based on the value they place on their goals (the ends) and the striving process (the means)? 2: Do the beneficial roles of psychological resource and supportive work environment are universal or it may have a negative side in certain situations during goal pursuit? 3: How and why fear emotions relating to goal failure can lead to unethical behavior at work? And does national culture can play a certain role during such deviated striving?

1 . 7 . 1 . 1 . 7 . 2 . 1 . 7 . 3 .

 171172173 presented arguments. Studies are presented in the form of three independent chapters, each focusing on a different perspective of resource-based goal-striving process. Each study is discussed in detail. The worth of a goal: Reciprocal relationships between work goal attainment, psychological resources, and goal commitment This study explores the reciprocal relationships between work goal attainment, psychological resources i.e. self-efficacy, optimism, subjective well-being, and goal commitment based on COR conceptualizations and Kruglanski's valuation model. The sample comprises sales professionals working in Pakistan, France and the U.S.A. Multigroup cross-lagged path analysis is used to test longitudinal data for observing resource dynamics in goal pursuit. Additionally, cultural values such as openness to change (self-direction-thought, self-direction-action, stimulation, hedonism) and conservatism (humility, conformity-interpersonal, conformity-rules, tradition, security-societal, security-personal, face) are compared and assumed to play key role in such processes. Is grit hurting you? The dark side of psychological resource in goal pursuit The second study of this dissertation presents the non-linear relationships of grit and perceived organizational support with the work goal progress. In addition to this, interactive role of grit resource with its environment i.e. perceived organizational support in shaping dynamics of goal pursuit remains the key focus of this study. Theoretical concepts like COR theory and too-much-of-a-good-thing help us to understand such non-linear relationships. Time-lagged data of this study consist of university professors working in the U.S. The quantitative techniques like polynomial regression and response surface modeling are applied to test the possible curvilinear relationships between the constructs. Don't be scared! Understanding the role of psychological resources in goal pursuit This chapter focuses the mechanism through which fear emotions relate to unethical behavior at work. Specifically, it tests the mediating role of ego-depletion in the linkage between fear of goal failure and unethical behavior. Furthermore, it explores the attenuating role of conscientiousness when employees get ego-depleted because of fear relating to their work goals. The moderating role of moral attentiveness on the relationship between ego-depletion and unethical behavior also remains another key part of this study. COR based understanding in addition to limited self-control concept are used to justify such relationships. Time-lagged data collected from sales professionals working in Pakistan and the USA are tested using multigroup SEM to observe relationships across countries. a goal: Reciprocal relationships between work goal attainment, psychological resources, and goal commitment This paper is currently under consideration for possible publication in the Journal of Organizational Behavior and has been presented at the following conferences:  The 32 nd annual conference of British Academy of Management, Bristol, September 4-6, 2018.   The 13th European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology Conference, Lisbon, September 5-7, 2018.   The 79th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Boston, August 9-13, 2019.

(

  Numbers in brackets = France, with star = Pakistan and underline = USA Results from all three countries suggest that, regardless of the differences in intensity, all reciprocal relationships between personal resources, goal commitment and work goal attainment are positive.

  our hypothesized three factor model i.e. (χ2/df = 1.172, CFI = 0.991, TLI = 0.990, IFI= 0.991, RMSEA = 0.024) appeared to be the best fit. Findings of all two factor models i.e. grit and perceived organizational support collapsed (χ2/df = 5.313, CFI = 0.773, TLI = 0.751, IFI = 0.775, RMSEA = 0.122), work goal progress and perceived organizational support collapsed (χ2/df = 9.003, CFI = 0.574, TLI = 0.537, IFI = 0.576, RMSEA = 0.166), grit and work goal progress collapsed (χ2/df = 8.814, CFI = 0.584, TLI = 0.548, IFI = 0.586, RMSEA = 0.64) as well as of the single factor model (χ2/df = 13.071, CFI = 0.356, TLI = 0.302, IFI = 0.359, RMSEA = 0.203) having all the items loaded on a common latent factor showed the poor fit thus ruling out the possibility of common method bias and confirmed the discriminant validity of the study variables.

  FIGURE 3Curvilinear role of grit in predicting work goal progress

  statistical evidence presented in Tables 7, we observed the non-linear linkages between study variables using response surface modeling depicted in Figures 5. The

  visual presentation confirms that work goal progress is at lowest when the individual's level of

  Figure 6Cross-cultural model of fear of goal failure leading to unethical behavior at work.

  = Fear of goal failure; Cons = Conscientiousness Furthermore, when moral attentiveness is low then the relationship between ego depletion and unethical behavior is stronger (β = .49, p < .05) and when moral attentiveness is high this relationship becomes weaker (β = .30, p < .05), hence confirming the buffering role conscientiousness and moral attentiveness.

Figure 8

 8 Figure 8

  an individual utilize them when needed. This study extends this understanding by linking resource investment and preservation with goal valuation. Then the second study contributes by observing the possible dark side of such psychological resources in certain conditions during goal pursuit. This study adds to current literature concerning the linear role of resources in predicting work-related outcomes. Finally, the third one explores how employees may end up making unethical choices which may not be the option when having certain resources available to guide them. Findings in all three of these studies help us to make several important conclusions relating goal-striving process in organizational settings.The results of the first and third studies focus on the resource investment/preservation dynamics during goal-striving. The first one presents a resource-based model to explore how resource dynamics relate to an individual's valuation during the goal-striving process. Similarly, the results of the third study highlight the resource preservation mechanism and how such conditions predict employees behaving inappropriately. The availability of resources to help individuals to keep striving on the right track towards goals remains the key focus of this study. It tries to answer how certain emotions related to goals with limited access to additional resources can motivate employees to conduct deviant behavior for securing/preserving existing resources.

  Third, the current research tried utilizing various methodologies to explore the goal-striving mechanism that previously mainly relied on the experimental nature of techniques. Specifically, by collecting data from employees on multiple times and testing it with compatible statistical techniques this research contributes to the previous knowledge. But limitations still exist in terms of methodology like in the first study data collected in two waves cannot be utilized to observe resource gain/loss spiral conceptualizations of COR theory. Additionally, this puts limit to perform growth curve analysis i.e. a more sophisticated technique to observe longitudinal dynamics. Similarly, in the second study, time-lagged data collected to test the hypothesized model but it cannot be utilized to test any possible reciprocity which could have extended our current understanding of non-linearity. Such possible dynamics of longitudinal non-linearity could be explored by coupling it with appropriate methodologies in the future research. In the same study, the environmental construct i.e. perceived organizational support appeared to be linear, so future research could explore whether other such environments behave in a similar way to goal-related outcomes or linear impact of perceived organizational support might be dependent on the nature of work settings i.e. academia in our case. Similarly, taking limitations concerning the third study into account, we can argue about the possible reciprocity as opting for unethical behavior may have an impact on future goal-related fear emotions. This might be an interesting line of investigation for future research to test the reciprocal model on a longitudinal basis. Additionally, testing this model across multiple cultures on different levels of morality could be another possibility for future direction. Such future studies may also consider testing psychological resources other than moral attentiveness that may have an impact on such behavioral choices at work. research I'm studying impact of psychological resources on goal striving of sales professionals working in France, Pakistan, & the USA. Your participation in this survey will help to better understand the employees' attitude at work. As it's a longitudinal study so you are expected to complete same questionnaires in the next month also. Additionally it's an anonymous study so you aren't required to provide any personal information. You won't be individually identified and results will be presented in aggregate. As your participation will help explore future directions in the field of I/O Psychology so you're requested to contribute in this study.Participation in the survey is completely voluntary. Your response is important and greatly appreciated. Attention: You are requested to use the same Nickname which you mentioned in the previous responses. If you have any questions about this research, please contact me through this email address: khan.rahman@etud.univ-pau.fr Thanks for your participation. manage to solve difficult problems at work if I try hard enough. If someone opposes me at work, I can find means and ways to get what I want. It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my work goals. I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events at work. Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations at work. I can solve most problems at work if I invest the necessary effort. I can remain calm when facing difficulties at work because I can rely on my coping abilities. When I am confronted with a problem at work, I can usually find several solutions. If I am in a bind at work, I can usually think of something to do. No matter what comes my way at work, I'm usually able to handle it.

  7. I finish whatever I begin. 8. I am diligent. Listed below are statements that represent possible opinions that you may have about working at current university. Please indicate the degree of your agreement or disagreement with each statement by choosing the option that best represents your point of view about organization.

TABLE 1 :

 1 Means, standard deviations and scale reliabilities between all study variables for all countries, France, Pakistan and U.S.

A ….………………...……………………….…...…

TABLE 2 :

 2 Mean cores of 11 culture values and mean differences across countries ……...…

TABLE 3 :

 3 Goodness-of-fit indices of all alternate measurement models ………..…..…...… 37

TABLE 4 :

 4 Measurement invariance results for corresponding waves among countries …..,..

TABLE 5 :

 5 Multi

-group SEM cross lagged path analysis results …………..………...……… CHAPTER 3:

TABLE 6 :

 6 Means, standard deviations and scale reliabilities between all study variables ….

TABLE 7 :

 7 Grit and perceived organizational support as predictors of work goal progress …

	CHAPTER 4:

TABLE 8 :

 8 Means

, standard deviations and scale reliabilities between all study variables for Pakistan and the U.S.A ………..………………………………………….………....……..… 87

TABLE 9: Confirmatory factor analysis of measurement models ……………………….…. 89

TABLE 10 :

 10 Measurement invariance results for corresponding waves among countries …

.. 91 XIV List of Figures CHAPTER 1:

  Halbesleben, Neveu et Westman, 2018 pour des commentaires récents), nous devrions souligner certaines de ces implications en termes de ressources et d'objectifs.Premièrement, la théorie du COR suggère que les ressources existent par rapport à un processus de poursuite d'un objectif. Une ressource est synonyme de pertinence. Comme les individus peuvent ne pas être pleinement conscients de leurs propres potentiels, ils peuvent sousestimer (sous-évaluer) leurs ressources. Dans la perspective du COR, les ressources sont des moyens de premier niveau. Ce sont des vecteurs de besoins les plus fondamentaux parmi

	2.	Développement d'hypothèses
		2.1. Auto-efficacité
		Définie comme « la conviction que l'on a la capacité d'organiser et d'exécuter le plan
	d'action nécessaire pour atteindre un objectif donné » (Bandura, 1997, p. 3), la notion d'auto-

soulignent deux problèmes majeurs qui affectent la recherche sur les objectifs et la motivation, par exemple les interactions entre les processus affectifs et cognitifs, et les valeurs. Les auteurs soulignent que la poursuite d'objectifs reste conditionnée par des schémas auto-définis et des constructions identitaires valorisées par l'individu. Le lien entre intrant / ressources et extrant / objectifs se transforme en processus d'évaluation. Les ressources sont donc identifiées comme des potentialités plutôt que comme des moteurs de motivation universels fixes. La théorie COR fournit un cadre utile pour une analyse plus poussée et des tests empiriques. Bien que notre but ne soit pas d'énoncer une autre présentation des principes de base XXIV du COR (voir Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdhal et Westman, 2014, Hobfoll, lesquels la préservation est primordiale. À cet égard, la théorie du COR est une théorie de la motivation valorisée, avec des ressources correspondant aux facilitateurs de la réalisation des objectifs (Halbesleben et al., 2014), et des objectifs aux extensions / résultats / réalisations de ce qui est valorisé. Deuxièmement, et comme rappelé avec force (Hobfoll, 2001), la nature et la dynamique des ressources doivent être comprises dans le contexte de demandes environnementales en constante évolution. Par conséquent, le lien entre ressources et objectifs reflète la dynamique d'un ajustement écologique, dont la qualité détermine la valeur à la fois de la ressource et de l'objectif. Nous présentons maintenant une approche, basée sur la théorie COR, de la réalisation d'objectifs en tant que processus d'évaluation. Nous suggérons que la modélisation des relations entre les ressources et les objectifs intègre les notions de complexité et de valeur. Trois propositions principales vont donc structurer et guider notre enquête. Premièrement, la valeur d'un objectif doit être comprise par rapport à sa relation avec les ressources investies. Deuxièmement, la valeur d'un objectif est conditionnée par la compatibilité / pertinence des moyens indispensables à la réalisation. Troisièmement, la valeur d'un objectif ne se limite pas au jeu d'interactions réciproques. Il est aussi redevable à son enracinement dans un environnement culturel. En résumé, nous proposons un modèle réciprocité de poursuite d'un objectif qui inclut un processus d'évaluation à deux niveaux : interne, et relatif à la structure nomologique de sa dynamique ; externe, et limité par des caractéristiques situationnelles qui définissent les attitudes et comportements des individus. En cohérence avec les principes du COR, des variables ont été XXV sélectionnées pour donner corps au modèle. Celles-ci incluent des ressources psychologiques, par exemple l'auto-efficacité, l'optimisme et le bien-être subjectif, l'engagement envers les objectifs (moyens) et les valeurs culturelles (environnement). efficacité est intimement liée à celle d'atteinte d'un objectif. Dans une perspective agentique liée à l'espérance d'effort, l'auto-efficacité fournit des mécanismes de régulation de motivation qui déterminent l'investissement dans l'effort et la persistance pendant le processus de poursuite d'objectif

objectif basé sur les ressources dans des contextes interculturels

	un mauvais ajustement. Deuxièmement, nous avons introduit un modèle de causalité M2 avec
	des chemins supplémentaires à partir des ressources personnelles T1 et l'engagement envers
	l'atteinte d'objectifs pour atteindre les objectifs de travail T2. Les résultats n'ont pas Temps 1 Temps 1
	sensiblement amélioré le modèle M1. Troisièmement, nous avons trouvé un ajustement (.47) .25* .31
	acceptable d'un modèle de causalité inversée M3, de l'atteinte de l'objectif de travail T1 aux
	ressources personnelles T2 et à l'engagement de l'objectif de travail.
	Ressources	Ressources
	Enfin, nous avons testé le modèle réciproque M4 incluant tous les chemins d'accès de M2 personnelles (.36).37*.37 (.44).36*.29
	M3, et deux chemins additionnels, le premier allant des ressources personnelles T1 à l'engagement
	Engagement	Engagement
	d'objectif	d'objectif
	Atteinte des	Atteinte des
	objectifs de travail
	XXXI

Premièrement, nous avons testé le modèle de stabilité M1 avec des autocorrélations et des corrélations synchrones. Les résultats ont donné aux objectifs de travail T2 et le second, passant de l'engagement aux objectifs de travail T1 aux ressources personnelles T2. Le modèle réciproque a montré des résultats d'ajustement supérieurs à tous les autres modèles. La figure 1 présente les autocorrélations et les poids de trajectoire structurels pour les trois pays. XXXII Figure 1 Modèle d'évaluation d'personnelles (.39) .21* .34 R2= (.41) .35* .29 (.24).37*.39 R2= (.38) .41* .34 (.30).29*.34 R2= (.25) .50* .43 (.33).32*.29 (.31).40*.36

  Plus précisément, les résultats montrent que la valeur perçue des ressources personnelles doit être attribuée à la réalisation des objectifs, dont la valeur elle-même est liée de manière significative à l'engagement envers la réalisation d'objectifs mais également à l'impact des ressources psychologiques. De même, l'engagement envers la réalisation des objectifs ne se limite pas à jouer un rôle fondamental dans la réalisation ultérieure des objectifs, car il a également un impact sur les ressources. Une telle interaction complexe de réciprocités est encore plus claire lorsqu'elle est contrôlée par des valeurs culturelles. Les résultats ont montré des différences marquées entre trois échantillons de professionnels employés, (américains, français et pakistanais), en ce qui concerne l'intensité des relations réciproques entre les variables du modèle.

En utilisant la théorie du COR comme cadre, elle cherche à mieux comprendre le processus d'évaluation qui anime la dynamique de la recherche d'objectifs. La validation de toutes les hypothèses a présenté la vue d'un réseau complexe d'interactions qui se détache d'une vue linéaire déterminant-résultat XXXIII de l'atteinte d'un objectif. Nos résultats suggèrent un certain nombre de commentaires et d'implications. Globalement, les résultats correspondent aux recherches précédentes sur la nécessité d'une modélisation alternative pour mieux comprendre la complexité de la dynamique des ressources. Nos résultats suggèrent que la modélisation de la réciprocité peut apporter un éclairage nouveau sur le rôle des ressources dans le processus de recherche d'objectifs. Plus précisément, ils indiquent une alternative possible à la modélisation par chemin linéaire, car le rôle de l'engagement envers un objectif n'est pas nécessairement celui d'une étape intermédiaire reliant des ressources antécédentes à des objectifs de réalisation. La réciprocité estompe la distinction entre états et transitions. Cela suggère un flux d'interactions complexes, un ensemble de dynamiques où les causes et les conséquences se combinent et où le processus crée son propre objectif.

Est-ce que ça vous fait mal? Le côté obscur de la ressource psychologique en poursuite d'objectif

  des variables dépendantes et indépendantes est une autre limite majeure. L'atteinte des objectifs de travail a été testée à l'aide d'autodéclarations de ventes mensuelles, de produits, de contrats, etc. Les répondants ont néanmoins été invités à répondre sur la base de chiffres objectifs, c'est-à-dire. revenus, unités et autres données pertinentes. Une plus grande objectivité pourrait être assurée grâce à des registres administratifs rassemblant des données individuelles et des données de performance. Cela nécessiterait toutefois un accès aux documents internes de l'organisation, accès pour lequel la présente étude n'était pas conçue. En ce qui concerne les variables de ressources, nous suggérons d'étendre la mesure du soutien social (ressource interpersonnelle) et du temps (ressource énergétique). En ce qui concerne le soutien social, des

	ARTICLE 2
	Les objectifs individuels tels que les bonnes performances sportives, la réussite au travail ou
	le maintien de sa santé constituent des aspirations personnelles précieuses. Cependant, les individus
	modifient également, voire abandonnent leur poursuite d'objectif. Transcendant les théories
	originales sur la fixation d'objectifs
	Money et Nevins, 2006; Hofstede et Minkov, 2010).
	XXXVI

. Nous proposons donc que les recherches futures atteignent d'autres échantillons avec des versions d'échelles traduites en Ourdou. Cela permettrait une comparaison avec nos résultats actuels et pourrait approfondir les recherches sur l'impact d'une double contrainte culturelle sur le processus d'évaluation des objectifs.

XXXV L'opérationnalisation enquêtes interculturelles ont en effet mis en évidence l'impact des valeurs collectivistes par rapport aux valeurs individualistes sur la dynamique de présentation des ressources

[START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences[END_REF]

. Un développement innovant consisterait donc à intégrer ces résultats dans un cadre de recherche de processus d'évaluation des objectifs. Quant au temps, son inclusion dans une étude de réalisation d'objectifs pourrait mettre en évidence l'impact de la dynamique interculturelle. Par exemple, nos recherches auraient pu donner des résultats plus approfondis, car les États-Unis, la France et le Pakistan se distinguent nettement par leurs orientations respectives à long / court terme

(Bearden,

. Méthode 2.1. Participants et procédure

	Une étude différée a été réalisée en deux temps (T1 et T2). Les professeurs d'université
	travaillant aux États-Unis ont été invités à remplir des questionnaires d'enquête aussi bien en
	(T1) qu'en fin (T2) du semestre universitaire. Au total, 293 participants ont renvoyé un
	questionnaires pour chacun des deux temps de collecte des données, et les différentes réponses
	d'un même participant ont été appariées à l'aide de son adresse électronique.
	Toutefois ces résultats sont obtenues en utilisant des techniques analytiques linéaires, limitant
	ainsi notre compréhension. Nous n'avons pas connaissance d'examens similaires, non linéaires de ces
	questions dans la littérature relative aux objectifs. Compte tenu de cette lacune, et en cohérence avec
	les relations attendons décrites dans les H1 et H2, nous nous attendions à ce que les progrès des
	objectifs ne soient pas seulement le produit des effets principaux non linéaires de la force et du
	soutien organisationnel perçu, mais soient surtout conditionnés par leur interaction. Nous suggérons
	qu'un niveau élevé de grit peut entraîner de l'obstination, ce qui, combiné à un engagement
	organisationnel élevé (en tant que contrepartie d'un soutien organisationnel perçu) peut entraîner une
	pression supplémentaire qui peut être préjudiciable à la performance. En outre, dans les situations où
	il est très peu probable que les objectifs soient atteints, l'individu ne veut pas «lâcher prise et accepter
	l'échec », ce qui peut devenir une poursuite d'objectif coûteuse (Alaoui et Fons-Rosen, 2016, p.12).
	En conséquence, nous avons anticipé :
	Hypothèse 3. Le support organisationnel perçu (POS) modère la relation non linéaire
	entre le courage et la progression des objectifs de travail, telle que la progression des objectifs de
	travail atteint son maximum avec un niveau de grit et un soutien organisationnel perçu modérés
	cette progression atteint son niveau le plus bas lorsque ces efforts et le soutien organisationnel
	perçu sont en excès ou en insuffisance.
	2XLI

Tableau 1 Moyennes, écarts-types et fiabilités d'échelle entre toutes les variables de l'étude les variables signifier écart-type

				1	2	3	4	5
	1. Âge	39.36	8.62
	2. Le sexe	0.48	0.50	-.07
	3. Durée de service dans l'organisation	6.13	5.11	.72*	-.08
	4. Grit ( temps 1)	3.58	0.93	-.04	-.11 -.03 (.92)
	5. Le soutien organisationnel perçu (temps 1)	3.31	0.91	.01	.02	.01	.07	(.93)
	6. Progression vers les objectifs de travail (temps 2)	3.24	0.84	.14*	-.03	.10 -.06	.34	* (.93)

What are the dynamics of motivational resources that shape goal pursuit?

  a pas permis de tester les inférences causales. Deuxièmement, il ne fait aucun doute que nous trouvons des preuves solides du rôle modérateur de la conscience professionnelle dans l'échantillon américain, mais son rôle non significatif dans l'échantillon pakistanais suggère que des modèles théoriques plus complexes sont nécessaires. Troisièmement, il peut y avoir des préoccupations au sujet du biais des méthodes courantes qui affecte les données, mais nous avons pris certaines précautions dans les procédures et les méthodes statistiques pour surmonter ce problème. Premièrement, les données ont été recueillies à deux moments, c'est-à-dire avec un écart d'un mois. Deuxièmement, nous avons vérifié le facteur latent commun au cours de l'analyse factorielle de confirmation pour confirmer qu'il n'existe pas de variance de méthode commune dans notre cas. Troisièmement, nous avons effectué l'analyse factorielle unique de Harman qui a également confirmé l'absence de biais dans les méthodes communes. of disruptions and competition, analyzing individuals' behavior when striving to achieve their personal as well as work goals remains highly crucial. A story published by The New York Times about suicide of an employee representing a reputed healthcare company highlights the importance of goal striving at work[START_REF] Anand | Driven to Suicide by an 'Inhuman and Unnatural' Pressure to Sell[END_REF]. It describes how a top performer of Abbot Laboratories having sales operations in India decided to leave this world with a handwritten note in his pocket, saying, "I'm going to commit suicide because I can't meet my company's sales targets and my company is pressuring me." His act brought stir in the society by public demanding more regulations concerning industry. One of the main reasons Striving for goals always existed in human life. From the very start, people struggled to get more by making use of what they already possess. In daily life setting goals of buying a new car or at the workplace struggling to get a promotion/annual bonus can be seen on everyone's todo list. And all such goals can be achieved by making different plans and performing on it. When successful attainment of such goals remains highly desirable, the ineffective pursuit accompanies In turn, this may predict employee turnover and higher unemployment statistics. It can motivate an individual to make such choices as we discussed before, which aren't acceptable in normal situations. Similarly, in the education sector, it can result in poor performance of students which may force them to quit studies causing a higher level of illiteracy. When considering at sports level, failure seen in athlete's performance can bring economic and moral losses. Even fear of failure can motivate an athlete to conduct immoral practices like the memorial (unethical) act of Mike Tyson biting Evander Holyfield's ear during the fight is still being considered by some

		GLOSSAIRE
	COR	Conservation des ressources
	SWB	Bien-être subjectif
	POS	Le soutien organisationnel perçu
	CFA	Analyse factorielle confirmatoire
	CFI	Indice d'ajustement comparatif
	TLI	Indice de Tucker-Lewis
	IFI	Indice d'ajustement incrémentiel
	RMSEA	Racine résiduelle moyenne standardisée
	RSM	Modélisation de surface de réponse
		LX

étude. Premièrement, bien qu'il s'agisse d'une étude à deux phases, la nature limitée du délai de LIX conception n'LXI In this era behind his suicide was the immense pressure to pursue sales in a highly competitive drug market at almost any cost. Furthermore, a highly unsupportive manager with a threat to lose a job or getting transferred to another far-flung area was among other reasons behind his decision. This portrays the harshness of goal striving when it goes wrong. During later investigation, it appeared that colleagues of the departed soul were also struggling to make ends meet by choosing other unethical options. They were bribing doctors to prescribe medicine and reporting fake sales on discounted prices etc. Another employee working in the same company confessed that once he bought products by himself to help his team meet the sales target.

Such edifying stories of individual's behavior during goal-striving justifies the significance of further exploration in workplace research. To investigate these motivational dynamics and predicting employee's behavior during goal-striving we rely on the conservation of resources framework. By doing so the key focus of this research is the following question: certain disturbing consequences. In an organizational context, goal non-attainment may lead to loss of company resources or may cause conflicts arising among supervisors and subordinates.

  By coupling goal striving with such theorizing this research contribute towards previous literature where such areas are studied on a limited level or anomaly exists in empirical findings.

	As various possible dimensions exist in goal striving, this dissertation is comprised of
	three empirical contributions. The first study explores reciprocal relationships between
	psychological resources, goal commitment and work goal attainment on a longitudinal basis.
	Based on COR framework and Kruglanski et al.'s (2018) model this study investigated how the
	end results (work goal attainment) and the striving experience (goal commitment) can motivate
	individuals to invest their valued resources, including self-efficacy, optimism, and subjective
	well-being during goal pursuit. Furthermore, how much resource investment may vary

depending on cultural contexts (France, Pakistan, and the USA). Previously, none of the studies tested such dynamics on employees working in different cultural environments.

  The empirical nature of present research contributes to the existing conceptualization of COR theory by combining it with the process-oriented view of goal-striving. First, it accounts for the complexity of human behavior dynamics. Instead of limiting the focus on the "what" of goal-striving, this research explores the "why" and "how" of the goal-striving process by considering it as complex dynamics. Second, it extends the empirical validation of COR theory by suggesting its use to explain discrete or discontinuous phenomena of goal-striving. Previously which has remained limited to conceptualizing resources as scaled variables in models of causal relationships. Third, we believe that the time is ripe to use currently available sophisticated methodologies. By incorporating different techniques, we test our proposed COR based goal-striving model.

  How dedicated are you to the monthly sales goal". Measurement was a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1, Not at all to 5, Extremely.

	were used. It consists of 5 items
	measured on a 5-point Likert format from Strongly disagree to Strongly agree. Sample item is
	"In most ways my life is close to my ideal".
	Goal Commitment. Measurement of goal commitment consisted in a 4-item modified

version of the Klein et al.'s Unidimensional Target (K.U.T) neutral commitment scale

[START_REF] Klein | The assessment of commitment: Advantages of a unidimensional, target-free approach[END_REF]

. French and English versions were used that included such item as "

TABLE 1 Means, standard deviations and scale reliabilities between all study variables for all countries, France, Pakistan and U.S.A

 1

	Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
	All countries (n = 407)
	1. Gender	1.20	0.40
	2. Marital Status	1.62	0.57 .06
	3. Self-efficacy T1	3.88	0.84 -.05	.10 * (.93)
	4. Self-efficacy T2	3.88	0.85 -.10 *	.03 .56 ** (.92)
	5. Optimism T1	3.91	0.88 -.03	.02 .51 ** .45 ** (.90)
	6. Optimism T2	3.93	0.79 .00	.01 .47 ** .46 ** .48 ** (.89)
	7. Sub. Well-being T1	3.77	0.84 -.08	.17 ** .37 ** .35 ** .42 ** .32 ** (.84)
	8. Sub. Well-being T2	3.72	0.86 .02	.10 .40 ** .35 ** .33 ** .37 ** .41 ** (.90)
	9. Goal Commitment T1	4.07	0.85 -.01	.06 .46 ** .41 ** .51 ** .43 ** .44 ** .36 ** (.92)
	10. Goal Commitment T2	4.12	0.83 -.07	.00 .49 ** .42 ** .44 ** .44 ** .40 ** .42 ** .60 ** (.93)
	11. Goal Attainment T1	4.80	1.29 -.16 **	.11 * .53 ** .42 ** .48 ** .37 ** .46 ** .36 ** .51 ** .53 **
	12. Goal Attainment T2	4.79	1.32 -.09	.04 .48 ** .43 ** .42 ** .41 ** .37 ** .38 ** .54 ** .57 ** .66 **
	France (n = 139)
	1. Gender	1.20	0.40
	2. Marital Status	1.63	0.58 .04
	3. Self-efficacy T1	3.78	0.90 -.10	.00	(.93)
	4. Self-efficacy T2	3.83	0.85 -.19 *	-.04 .65 ** (.93)
	5. Optimism T1	3.91	0.89 -.07	-.00 .56 ** .57 ** (.89)
	6. Optimism T2	3.86	0.89 -.06	-.10 .54 ** .57 ** .57 ** (.87)
	7. Sub. Well-being T1	3.66	0.86 -.07	.20 * .37 ** .37 ** .42 ** .30 ** (.87)
	8. Sub. Well-being T2	3.83	0.94 .00	.09 .44 ** .42 ** .40 ** .40 ** .63 ** (.90)
	9. Goal Commitment T1	4.02	0.77 .00	.04 .41 ** .47 ** .54 ** .47 ** .42 ** .42 ** (.91)
	10. Goal Commitment T2	4.09	0.85 -.09	-.07 .45 ** .49 ** .48 ** .50 ** .38 ** .52 ** .63 ** (.94)
	11. Goal Attainment T1	4.58	1.56 -.13	.07 .48 ** .40 ** .49 ** .34 ** .43 ** .46 ** .44 ** .54 **
	12. Goal Attainment T2	4.57	1.53 -.10	.03 .37

** .36 ** .38 ** .37 ** .26 ** .39 ** .44 ** .51 ** .60 **

TABLE 2 Mean scores of 11 culture values and mean differences across countries

 2

	Culture Values

TABLE 3 Goodness-of-fit indices of all alternate measurement models

 3

	Model	χ 2	df	p	RMSEA a CFI b	Model	∆χ 2	∆df	p	∆CFI
						Comparison
	A1 FR Uncorrelated Factors T1	181.112	114 .001	.065 .960
	B1 FR Correlated Factors T1	124.233	113 .221	.027 .993	A1 vs. B1	56.879	1	.001	.033
	A2 FR Uncorrelated Factors T2	174.020	113 .001	.063 .968
	B2 FR Correlated Factors T2	112.373	112 .472	.005 1.00	A2 vs. B2	61.647	1	.001	.032
	C1 PK Uncorrelated Factors T1	217.326	112 .001	.078 .944
	D1 PK Correlated Factors T1	128.108	111 .128	.032 .991	C1 vs. D1	89.218	1	.001	.047
	C2 PK Uncorrelated Factors T2	185.586	112 .001	.066 .963
	D2 PK Correlated Factors T2	139.274	111 .036	.041 .986	C2 vs. D2	46.312	1	.001	.023
	E1 US Uncorrelated Factors T1	153.937	100 .001	.069 .961
	F1 US Correlated Factors T1	127.856	99	.027	.051 .979	E1 vs. F1	26.081	1	.001	.018
	E2 US Uncorrelated Factors T2	162.306	100 .001	.074 .952
	F2 US Correlated Factors T2	123.431	99	.049	.047 .981	E2 vs. F2	38.875	1	.001	.029
	Note. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2.
	FR = France; PK = Pakistan; US = U.S.A.

a Root-mean-square error of approximation. b Comparative fit index.

TABLE 4 Measurement invariance results for corresponding waves among countries

 4

	Model	χ 2	df	p	RMSEA a	CFI b	Model	∆χ 2	∆df	p	∆CFI
							Comparison
	M1 Configural invariance T1 544.879	426	.001	.026	.979
	M2 Metric invariance T1	590.532	464	.001	.026	.977	M1 vs. M2	45.653	38	.184	.002
	M3 Scalar invariance T1	598.676	466	.001	.027	.976	M1 vs. M3	53.797	40	.071	.003
	M4 Configural invariance T2 576.526	423	.001	.030	.973
	M5 Metric invariance T2	608.837	453	.001	.029	.972	M4 vs. M5	32.311	30	.353	.001
	M6 Scalar invariance T2	612.496	455	.001	.029	.972	M4 vs. M6	35.970	32	.288	.001
	Note. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2.

a Root-mean-square error of approximation. b Comparative fit index.

TABLE 5 Multi-group SEM cross lagged path analysis results

 5 , we tested M4 reciprocal model that includes all paths from M2 M3, and two paths, first from T1 personal resources to T2 work goal commitment, and second from T1 work goal commitment to T2 personal resources. The reciprocal model showed fit results superior to all other models. Autocorrelations and structural path weights for all three countries are presented in Figure2. At T2, the reciprocal model explained 29% of resources variance, 34% of work goal commitment variance, and 43% of work goal attainment variance.

	Model	χ 2	df	p	RMSEA a	CFI b	Model	∆χ 2	∆df	p	∆CFI
							Comparison
	M1 Stability Model	392.395	18	.001	.228	.712 M1 vs. M4 373.907	12	.001	.278
	M2 Causality Model	306.303	12	.001	.247	.774 M2 vs. M4 287.815	6	.001	.216
	M3 Reversed Causation Model	109.736	12	.001	.143	.925 M3 vs. M4	91.248	6	.001	.065
	M4 Reciprocal Model	18.488	6	.005	.072	.990
	Note.

a Root-mean-square error of approximation. b Comparative fit index.

Finally

Resource based goal valuation model in cross-cultural settings

	Goal	Goal
	Commitment	Commitment
	Work Goal	Work Goal
	Attainment

(.47) .25* .31 R2= (.41) .35* .29 Personal Personal Resources (.36).37* .37 (.44).36* .29 Resources (.39) .21* .34 (.24).37*.39 R2= (.38) .41* .34 (.30).29*.34 R2= (.25) .50* .43 (.33).32*.29 (.31).40*.36

TABLE 6 Means, standard deviations and scale reliabilities between all study variables

 6 Note. *p < .05; N = 293. Alpha reliability estimates are presented diagonally.By keeping correlation results in consideration (Table. 6), it seems plausible that traditional perspective of COR theory suggesting a linear linkage between psychological resources and individual's work goal progress may not be clear-cut. Besides significant correlations with respondent's age, work goal progress has a significant correlation with only perceived organizational support.

	Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6
	1. Age	39.36	8.62
	2. Gender	0.48	0.50	-.07
	3. Tenure in Organization	6.13	5.11	.72*	-.08
	4. Grit (Time 1)	3.58	0.93	-.04	-.11	-.03	(.92)
	5. Perceived Organizational Support (Time 1)	3.31	0.91	.01	.02	.01	.07	(.93)
	6. Work Goal Progress (Time 2)	3.24	0.84	.14*	-.03	.10	-.06	.34 *	(.93)

Table 8 Means, standard deviations and scale reliabilities between all study variables for Pakistan and the U.S.A

 8

	Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6
	Pan Cultural (n = 715)
	1. Age	36.32	8.62
	2. Gender	0.38	0.49	.05
	3. Fear of Goal Failure	2.49	1.02	.03	-.04	(.92)
	4. Ego Depletion	2.40	0.93	.00	.01	.27** (.93)
	5. Conscientiousness	3.66	1.02	.01	.04	-.08*	-.23**	(.95)
	6. Moral Attentiveness	3.76	1.00	.00	.05	-.01	-.18**	.17** (.95)
	7. Unethical Behavior	2.57	0.98	.02	.00	.26**	.39** -.21** -.30 **	(.95)
	Pakistan (n = 381)
	1. Age	35.47	7.17
	2. Gender	0.30	0.48	-.04
	3. Fear of Goal Failure	2.57	0.97	.14** -.04	(.93)
	4. Ego Depletion	2.50	0.88	.08	.10*	.35**	(.92)
	5. Conscientiousness	3.49	1.02	-.07	.02	-.14**	-.22** (.94)
	6. Moral Attentiveness	3.56	0.95	-.01	.04	-.03	-.15** .14**	(.95)
	7. Unethical Behavior	2.72	0.93	.11* .01	.27**	.31** -.24** -.27** (.95)
	USA (n = 334)
	1. Age	37.30	9.95
	2. Gender	0.49	0.50	.10
	3. Fear of Goal Failure	2.40	1.07	-.03	-.01	(.91)
	4. Ego Depletion	2.29	0.98	-.03	-.03	.18**	(.93)
	5. Conscientiousness	3.85	0.98	.04	-.01	.02	-.20**	(.94)
	6. Moral Attentiveness	3.98	1.01	-.03	-.02	.04	-.18**	.14** (.95)
	7. Unethical Behavior	2.39	0.99	-.01	.06	.24**	.46** -.13* -.28**	(.94)
	Note. *p < .05; ** p < .01. Reliability coefficients alpha of scales are presented on diagonal
	4.5.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis
	Before conducting multigroup CFA, in order to check distinctiveness of constructs for each
	study country we tested measurement model comprising five factors against various alternate models
	i.e. four factor model-(fear of goal failure and conscientiousness combined), three factor model-
	(fear of failure, conscientiousness and moral attentiveness combined), two factor model-(fear of
	failure, conscientiousness, moral attentiveness and ego depletion combined) and single factor model

having all items loaded on a common latent factor. The results (Table

9

) confirmed that our proposed five-factor model (i.e. fear of goal failure, ego depletion, unethical behavior,

Table 9 Confirmatory factor analysis of measurement models

 9

	Models	χ2 *	df	χ2/df	Δχ2	TLI CFI RMSEA
	Pakistan
	Hypothesized five-factor model 1325.14	769	1.72		.95 .96 .044
	Four-factor model	2861.79	773	3.70 1536.65	.82 .83 .084
	Three-factor model	5244.16	776	6.76 3919.02	.62 .64 .123
	Two-factor model	6558.02	778	8.43 5232.88	.51 .53 .140
	One-factor model	9284.20	779	11.92 7959.06	.28 .31 .170
	USA
	Hypothesized five-factor model 1337.64	769	1.74		.94 .95 .047
	Four-factor model	2436.51	773	3.15 1098.87	.83 .84 .080
	Three-factor model	4483.13	776	5.78 3145.49	.63 .65 .120
	Two-factor model	5844.80	778	7.51 4507.16	.50 .52 .140
	One-factor model	8046.44	779	10.33 6708.80	.28 .32 .167
	Note. TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean
	square error of approximation.

*All chi-square values were statistically significant (p < .05).

Table 10 Measurement invariance results for corresponding waves among countries

 10

	Model	χ 2	df	p	RMSEA	TLI	CFI	Model	∆χ 2	∆df	p
								Comparison
	M1 Configural Model	2662.81	1538	.001	.032	.948	.951
	M2 Metric Model	2707.00	1579	.001	.032	.949	.951	M1 vs. M2	44.19	41	.338
	M3 Scalar Model	2838.50	1620	.001	.032	.946	.947	M1 vs. M3	175.69	82	.001

Note. RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; CFI = comparative fit index.

The moderating role of conscientiousness on the linkage between fear of goal failure and ego-depletion was significant (β= -.15, p< .05) for the US only and it appeared to be insignificant (β= -.05, p> .05) for Pakistan. The buffering effect of moral attentiveness on the linkage between egodepletion and unethical behavior did exist for the US (β= -.13, p< .05) as well as for Pakistan (β= -.14, p< .05). The variance explained in our model for the US sample and Pakistani sample was 9.8% and 14.0% in ego-depletion, 29.4% and 19.2% in unethical behavior respectively.

briefly describe different people. Please read each description and think about how much that person is or is not like you. Kindly choose the option that shows how much the person described is like you.

  1. Not at all 2. Slightly 3. Moderately 4. Quite a bit 5. Extremely) How committed are you to the monthly sales goal? To what extent do you care about this goal? How dedicated are you to the monthly sales goal?To what extent have you chosen to be committed to this goal?It is important to her/him to form her/his views independently.

	6 Here I (1. Not like me at all	2. Not like me	3. A little like me	4. Moderately like me
	5. Like me	6. Very much like me)

mentioned examples and this nickname will help me to combine your future responses with the current one.

  …………………………………………………………………………………….................

11 In the last month, how successful have you been in attaining your sales goal?

	Annex 2.
	1. 0%	2. 20%	3. 40%	4. 60%	5. 80%	6. 100%

Questionnaire of Article 1 (French Version) Questionnaire d'atteinte des objectifs

  'étudie l'impact des ressources psychologiques sur l'objectif des ventes pour les professionnels en France, Pakistan, et aux Etats Unis. Votre participation à ce sondage m'aidera à mieux comprendre l'attitude des employés. Comme il s'agit d'une étude longitudinale, vous devrez remplir les mêmes questionnaires le mois prochain. De plus, il s'agit d'une étude anonyme, vous n'êtes donc pas censés à fournir des informations personnelles. Vous ne serez pas identifié individuellement et les résultats seront présentés globalement. Comme votre participation aidera à explorer les orientations futures dans le domaine de la psychologie du travail, vous êtes invité à contribuer à cette étude. La participation à l'enquête est entièrement volontaire. Votre réponse est importante et grandement appréciée. Attention: Vous êtes invité à utiliser le même pseudonyme de l'enquête qu'ils ont mentionné dans les réponses précédentes.Si vous avez des questions sur cette recherche, contactez-moi via cette adresse email: khan.rahman@etud.univ-pau.fr Merci pour votre participation.

	6.	Ici,
	Madame, Monsieur,
	Rahman Khan
	Doctorant
	IAE-CREG
	Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour
	Bayonne, France.

J

je décris brièvement différentes personnes. Veuillez lire chaque description et réfléchir à combien vous êtes. Veuillez choisir l'option qui montre à quel point la personne est comme vous.

	(1. Pas du tout comme moi	2. Pas comme moi	3. Un peu comme moi 4. Moyennement comme
	moi)	5. Comme moi	6. Tout à fait comme moi

Annex 3. Questionnaire of Article 2 Questionnaire of Goal Striving

  In my PhD research I'm studying impact of psychological resource and work environment on goal striving of university professors working in the USA. Your participation in this survey will help to better understand the employees' attitude at work. As it's a time-lagged study so you are expected to complete two questionnaires i.e. one during university semester and the other at the end of it. You won't be individually identified and results will be presented in aggregate. As your participation will help explore future directions in the field of I/O Psychology so you're requested to contribute in this study.Participation in the survey is completely voluntary. Your response is important and greatly appreciated.If you have any questions about this research, please contact me through this email address: khan.rahman@etud.univ-pau.fr Thanks for your participation.

	Madam, Sir,
	Rahman Khan
	PhD student
	IAE-CREG
	Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour
	Bayonne, France.

Please indicate how you feel about the following statements.

  (1. Not like me at all 2. Not much like me 3. Somewhat like me 4. Mostly like me 5. Very much like me)

are projects and concerns that people think about, plan for, carry out, and sometimes (though not always) complete or succeed at. They may be more or less difficult to implement; require only a few or a complex series of steps; and be more or less time consuming, attractive and urgent. 17

  14. The organization cares about my general satisfaction at work. 15. The organization shows very little concern for me. 16. The organization takes pride in my accomplishments at work. . Please list the four most important work-related goal (e.g. teaching, research project/publication, research supervision) that you have for the current academic semester.

	Goal 2…………………………………………………………………………………... Goal 3…………………………………………………………………………………... Goals Goal 1…………………………………………………………………………………... Goal 4…………………………………………………………………………………...

Please answer the following questions for each goal you mentioned in the first wave of study.

  18. Please rate the extent to which you have progressed on your goal. 19. Please rate the extent of your own satisfaction with progress made on your goal. 20. I progressed easily on this goal. Please rate the extent to which you have progressed on your goal. 22. Please rate the extent of your own satisfaction with progress made on your goal. 23. I progressed easily on this goal. 24. Please rate the extent to which you have progressed on your goal. 25. Please rate the extent of your own satisfaction with progress made on your goal. 26. I progressed easily on this goal. 27. Please rate the extent to which you have progressed on your goal. 28. Please rate the extent of your own satisfaction with progress made on your goal. Annexes 29. I progressed easily on this goal.

	Please
	Goal 1:
	(1. Not at all	2. Very little	3. Somewhat	4. To a great extent	5. Totally)
	Goal 2:
	21. Goal 3:
	Goal 4:
			-120 -

complete the following demographic information, giving your knowledge where exact answers are not known. Your information will be kept strictly confidential and will only use by the researcher for academic purposes.

  Kindly mention your email address that will be used to send reminder and match your responses at different time points.

	30. Gender
	0. Male	1. Female
	31. Age (Years)
	………………………………………………………………………………………
	32. Experience in current organization (Years)
	………………………………………………………………………………………
	33.

………………………………………………………………………………………

Annex 4.

Questionnaire of Article 3 Questionnaire of Goal Striving

  In my PhD research I'm studying role of psychological resources in goal striving of sales professionals working in Pakistan & the USA. Your participation in this survey will help to better understand the employees' attitude at work. As it's a time-lagged study so you are expected to complete two questionnaires with a gap of approx. one month between waves. You won't be individually identified and results will be presented in aggregate. As your participation will help explore future directions in the field of I/O Psychology so you're requested to contribute in this study.Your response is important and greatly appreciated.If you have any questions about this research, please contact me through this email address: khan.rahman@etud.univ-pau.fr Thanks for your participation. Kindly provide your MTurk/ Turk Prime ID that will be used to send reminder and combine your other responses with the current one. (FOR U.S. SAMPLE) ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 47. Kindly provide your email that will be used to send reminder and match your other responses with the current one. (FOR PAKISTANI SAMPLE) …………………………………………………………………………………………………

	45. Please indicate your gender.
	0. Male	1. Female
	46. Kindly mention your age (Years).
	Madam, Sir, …………………………………………………………………………………………………
	47.
	Rahman Khan
	PhD Student
	IAE-CREG
	Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour
	Bayonne, France.

2.2. RESOURCES AND GOALS ............................................................................................... -22-2.3. A RECIPROCAL MODEL OF GOAL ATTAINMENT..................................................... -24-2.4. HYPOTHESES.................................................................................................................... -24-

X efficacy provides motivational regulatory mechanisms that determine effort investment and persistence during the goal pursuit process (Bandura, 2001;Laguna, Razmus, & Żaliński, 2017;Tolli & Schmidt, 2008). COR theory incorporates efficacy beliefs as a significant personal resource (Halbesleben et al., 2014;Hobfoll, 2001). To the extent that self-efficacy associates to beliefs on performance, it has also been considered a significant personal resource in COR-based research (Halbesleben et al., 2014;Hobfoll, 2001). For instance, Vinokur and Schul -24-

Chapter 2: Article 1

ABSTRACT

The present research is concerned with the goal valuation process. Grounded in Conservation of Resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | The ecology of stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], it explores the dynamics of selected resources,

ABSTRACT

Concerning debate regarding the positive role of psychological resources during goal striving, this study presents the interactive model linking work goal progress to the valued resource.

Specifically, we explored non-linear relationships of grit and perceived organizational support with work goal progress. We hypothesized that the employee's goal pursuit is not merely contingent on the excessive availability of the selected resources, but it might be an outcome of non-linear interaction between personal resources with the environment. Our sample comprised of 293 university professors working in the USA completed questionnaires at two-time points.

The study findings confirmed the curvilinear role of grit in predicting work goal progress, but the linkage between perceived organizational support and goal-related outcome appeared to be linear. Furthermore, we found that these relationships were well explained while keeping interactive effects into consideration. We discuss the theoretical implications for industry concerning performance and self-regulation based on current findings.

Keywords: Grit, perceived organizational support, work goal progress, non-linearity suggested as both dispositional as well as situational, handsome evidence confirms its developmental nature when considered as a trait and argue about its responsive to incentives, persuasion, training and behavioral modeling [START_REF] Duckworth | Grit: The power of passion and perseverance[END_REF][START_REF] Jordan | Toward a Work Motivation Conceptualization of Grit in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Jordan | The roles of grit in human resources theory and research[END_REF]Von Colin et al., 2014). "Nature matters, and so does nurture" in deciding one's grittiness level (Duckworth, 2016, p.80) so instead of just relying on already existed level, the programs necessary for its enhancement should be implemented. Management should consider grit as a valuable asset and try to provide opportunities that add up to employee's level of grit.

Finally, the last managerial implication is to consider the supportive role of favorable work environments in an employee's goal pursuit. Our results insist the significant role of work environments which translates an individual's psychological resources into fruitful goal outcomes.

Integrated multi-level interventions, coupling individual's traits with the enhanced perceptions of organizational support availability could be more time and cost-effective resulting into employee's work attainments. The current theorizing and findings may help organizations to better understand when certain organizational strategies could cause harm to employee's goal striving.

Limitations and Future Directions

A number of limitations can be considered regarding the current study. First, although two-wave study, the limited time-lagged nature of design didn't allow for testing causal inferences. Nevertheless, the main purpose of this research was to explore possible non-linear and interactive effects of certain variables on work goal progress instead of investigating an actual resource accumulation process. Furthermore, the longitudinal analysis may face methodological challenges as keeping incoherent with non-linear theorizing. The regular multiwave longitudinal modeling seems contradictory because it implies linear evolution between variables, but future research may still consider such relationships on a longitudinal basis by coupling it with appropriate methodology to observe such dynamics.

Second, no doubt we find strong evidence of the non-linear role of grit as well as the significant interactive effect of such resource with perceived organizational support, but the nonsignificant curvilinear role of organizational support suggests that more complex theory-grounded models are needed. Furthermore, additional samples might be integrated to investigate the non-linear role of perceived organizational support. Results, however, may also reflect the inherent limitations on polynomial-based response surface modeling to give predictive indications of the surface of experimentation. Further research along these lines can benefit considering alternate constructs that may capture a greater range of variability in relation to goal progress.

Third, there may be concerns about common method bias affecting the data but we made certain cautions in procedures and statistical methods to overcome this issue. First, the data were collected at two-time points i.e. during and at the end of the university semester. Specifically, predictors and information about work goals were asked during the first wave and the same participants responded to items relating work goal progress in the second wave. Second, we tested the common latent factor during the confirmatory factor analysis to confirm that common method variance does not exist in our case. Thirdly, we conducted Harman's single factor analysis which also confirmed the non-existence of common method bias. Future research may consider testing goal-related outcomes using multi-sources such as supervisor evaluations, performance reports from the organization that will improve the reliability of findings.

CONCLUSION

Our study examined the curvilinear interactive role of grit and perceived organizational support in addition to their direct non-linear relationship with work goal progress. Grit resource has a significant inverted U-shaped relationship with work-related goal outcome. Furthermore, the existence of a supportive environment adds value to such relationships. Together, our findings emphasize not only that individual's psychological resource have an impact on work goal pursuit but also such strivings for attainment are contingent on the perceptions of work environments. Second, in order to further check the common method bias (CMB) we conducted

Harman's single-factor analysis. The findings confirmed that all factors yielded by rotation have eigenvalue greater than 1, and explained 65.84% and 66.71% of the variance for the US and Pakistani sample respectively. From results 25.84% and 26.61% of the variance was found explained by the first factor in the US and Pakistani sample respectively which is quite less than the cutoff i.e. 50% suggested by [START_REF] Harrison | Context, cognition, and common method variance: Psychometric and verbal protocol evidence[END_REF]. This reconfirms that our study has no concern regarding common method bias.

Measurement Invariance

Measurement invariance was conducted by comparing measurement models of the US and Pakistan at metric and scalar levels. Results of the metric invariance having factor loadings constrained across groups showed that model change was insignificant (Table 10) thus we found support for full invariance at metric level. At later stage, scalar invariance was tested by imposing additional constrains on corresponding intercepts and results showed the significant difference so our samples were variant at scalar level. At least finding no significant differences at metric level we assumed that scales are comparable across study countries.