Emmanuel Broussolle1
email: emmanuel.broussolle@chu-lyon.fr

Jacques Poirier2

François Clarac3

Jean-Gaël Barbara4

Armand Trousseau

Guillaume Benjamin

Amand Duchenne

Jean-Martin Charcot

Alfred Vulpian

Désiré-Magloire Bourneville

Paul Richer

Henri Parinaud

Albert Pitres

Jules Joseph Dejerine

Mrs Augusta Dejerine-Klumpke

Edouard Édouard Brissaud

Pierre Marie

Georges Éedouard

Brutus Gilles De La Tourette

Joseph Babinski

André Thomas

Goeorges Marinesco

Alexandre Achille

Geoerges Souques

Charles Guillain

Foix

Mrs Augusta Dejerine- Klumpke

Éedouard Brissaud

Nous présentons ci-après les biographies résumées de

Keywords: histoire, Paris, neurosciences, anatomie, physiologie, neurologie, psychiatrie, psychologie

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

A special account should be credited should be given to to German speaking universities from Central Europe, institutions in Great Britain and North America, French and Italian neurological schools, and also medical universities from Belgium, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Southern Europe, Russia and South America.

The purpose of the present article is to highlight the role of several physicians from Paris to the build-up of neurology. Of particular importance is Tthe emblematic Jean-Martin Charcot (1825Charcot ( -1893) ) is of particular importance, as hewho left his mark on French Neurology and became one of the most important world neurologists of the XIXth century. His works at the Salpêtrière hospital (Figure 1), the lectures he regularly gave, the renowned patients he treated, and his mundane activities made him a man "du tout Paris" (Parisian smart set). By When describing his work, one takes the full measure of the international impact the Salpêtrière School of Neurology and of the international impact it had at that time [START_REF] Bogousslavsky | Following Charcot : a forgotten history of neurology and psychiatry[END_REF]. We wish now to present below -without being exhaustive -a biographical sketch of the most important masters who contributed to the reputation of Paris neurology.

Armand TROUSSEAU (1801-1867)

Trousseau (Figure 2) began his medical studies in his native city of Tours under the guidance of Pierre Bretonneau (1778-1862) [START_REF] Bariéty | Eloge Éloge d'Armand Trousseau (14 October 1801-23 June 1867)[END_REF][START_REF] Lyons | Contribution à l'étude et au diagnostic des formes frustes de la maladie de Basedow[END_REF][START_REF] Massie | Babinski: au-delà de la simple relation professeur-élève[END_REF]Pearce, 2002a;[START_REF] Peumery | médecin français par excellence[END_REF]. Together with Bretonneau and Alfred Velpeau (1795-1867), they founded the medical school of Tours. Trousseau continued his studies in Paris and became a docteur en médeicine (M.D.) in 1825. He was successively appointed professeur agrégé (1827), médecin des hôpitaux de Paris (1830) and professor of therapeutics (1839). He acceded to the chair of Clinique Médicale (Clinical Medicine) at the Hôtel-Dieu hospital in 1852 and was elected at the Académie de médecine (French National Academy of Medicine) in 1856. With his student Hermann Pidoux (1808-1882), Hhe wrote Traité de thérapeutique et matière médicale (Treatise on Therapeutics) in 18365 with his student Hermann Pidoux (1808-1882) [START_REF] Trousseau | ordre : 170. 315.283. Vulpian A. Note sur la sclérose en plaques de la moelle épinière[END_REF], and then with Belloc Traité pratique de la phtisie laryngée, de la laryngite chronique et des maladies de la voix (A Ppractical Ttreatise on Llaryngeal Pphthisis, Cchronic lLaryngitis, and Ddiseases of the Vvoice, 1837), on his own. [START_REF] Trousseau | Traité pratique de la phitisie laryngée, de la laryngite chronique et des maladies de la voix[END_REF]. Trousseau recommended and practised tracheotomy in croup and thoracocentesis in pleural effusion. His Cliniques médicales de l'Hôtel-Dieu (Lectures on Cclinical Mmedicine, delivered at the Hôtel-Dieu, Paris, 1861), in which Trousseau made several and greatly accurate clinical descriptions of neurological syndromes such as aphasia [START_REF] Landouzy | De la myopathie atrophique progressive, myopathie sans neuropathie, débutant d'ordinaire dans l"enfance la face[END_REF], tetany (Trousseau sign), movement disorders and tics, have been translated and re-edited many times (Trousseau, 1861;[START_REF] Rickards | Trousseau's disease". A description of the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome 12 years before 1885[END_REF].

Guillaume Benjamin Amand DUCHENNE (1806-1875)

Duchenne, also known as Duchenne de Boulogne (Figure 3), did his medical studies in Paris, then came back to work in his native town of Boulogne, and thereafter moved back again to Paris for familial reasons [START_REF] Borg | The man behind the syndrome: Guillaume Duchenne[END_REF][START_REF] Clarac | Duchenne, Charcot and Babinski, three neurologists of La Salpêtrière Hospital, and their contribution to concepts of the central organization of motor synergy[END_REF][START_REF] Cuthbertson | Duchenne de Boulogne[END_REF][START_REF] Hillemand | Duchenne de Boulogne and facial expression[END_REF]Parent, 2005aParent, , 2005b;;[START_REF] Pearce | Armand Trousseau --some of his contributions to neurology[END_REF][START_REF] Rondot | Duchenne de Boulogne (1806-1875)[END_REF]. In order to relieve his the patients' pain, he took an interest in electropuncture, but realized that this method was especially useful for analyzing the most complex muscle contractions. Without receiving any advice, he went around the Parisian hospitals "with an electric box and a battery" and two rheophores (electrodes) to cause perform a very specific stimulation patterns (?) in patients.

He bonded with Trousseau at the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, with Pierre François Olive Rayer (1793-1867) at the Charité hospital and -above all -with Charcot, who received him at the Salpêtrière hospital and on whom he had a great influence. His procedures on localized electrical stimulation with faradic current were published at the Académie des Sciences (French Academy of Sciences) in 1847. Using this technique as well as muscle biopsy, Duchenne thus described numerous neuromuscular pathologies [START_REF] Mollaret | Hommage à la mémoire de Josef Babinski à l'occasion du 100ème anniversaire de sa naissance[END_REF][START_REF] Polonovski | Rascol A, Clanet M. La sclérose en plaques. De Charcot et Vulpian à nos jours[END_REF]. In 1861 he commented on the medical history of a young boy suffering from congenital hypertrophic paraplegia and described it with more accuracy in 1868 [START_REF] Duchenne | Recherches sur la paralysie musculaire pseudo-hypertrophique ou paralysie myosclérotique[END_REF]Brody and Wilkins, 1868), coining and coined the term "pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy" for this pathology "pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy", known today as Duchenne muscular dystrophy. As early as 1850 -at the same time as François Amilcar Aran (1817-1861) -he studied progressive muscular atrophy (later to be named Aran-Duchenne syndrome) and distinguished it from other paralyses ? (pluriel) In 1858 Duchenne described a type of progressive locomotor ataxia, better known today as tabes dorsalis or neurosyphilis, thanks to the reference work of Moritz Heinrich Romberg (1795-1873) [START_REF] Duchenne | Duchenne G. De l'ataxie locomotrice progressive. Recherches sur une maladie caractérisée spécialement par des troubles généraux de la coordination des mouvements[END_REF].

Duchenne contributed in quite an original way to the analysis of the muscles involved in facial expressions and drew a complete explanation of emotions out of it [START_REF] Cuthbertson | Duchenne de Boulogne and human facial expression[END_REF]Duchenne, 1862b;[START_REF] Hillemand | Duchenne de Boulogne and facial expression[END_REF]. Few were interested in his results in France, whereas in England Charles Robert Darwin (1809Darwin ( -1882) ) used used photographs from Duchenne in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals published in 1874 [START_REF] Darwin | L'expression des émotions chez l'homme et les animaux[END_REF]. Duchenne developed a passion for photography from the very beginning of his career [START_REF] Cuthbertson | Duchenne de Boulogne and clinical photography[END_REF]. He used collodion negatives and albumen prints. He photographed all the effects of electrical stimulation with faradic current of the facial muscles as well as the pathological responses and put them together in an album published in 1862 (Figure 2 34) (Duchenne, 1862a). He also made microscope photographs and produced a detailed atlas of the human brainstem that he presented at the Académie Nationalde de Médecine in 1869. He published two major works on muscular activity : De l'électrisation localisée et son application à la physiologie, à la pathologie et à la thérapeutique (A Treatise on Llocalized eElectrization) in 1855 [START_REF] Duchenne | Duchenne G. De l'ataxie locomotrice progressive. Recherches sur une maladie caractérisée spécialement par des troubles généraux de la coordination des mouvements[END_REF] and his major book Physiologie des mouvements démontrée à l'aide de l'expérimentation électrique et de l'observation clinique et applicable à l'étude des paralysies et des déformations (Physiology of Mmotion Ddemonstrated by Mmeans of Eelectrical sStimulation and cClinical Oobservation and Aapplied to the sStudy of Pparalysis and Ddeformities) in 1867 [START_REF] Duchenne | Duchenne G. De l'ataxie locomotrice progressive. Recherches sur une maladie caractérisée spécialement par des troubles généraux de la coordination des mouvements[END_REF][START_REF] Ostini | Parent A. Duchenne De Boulogne: a pioneer in neurology and medical photography[END_REF]. Of particular interest Iin this book, is the description of focal spasms such as the writer's cramp and musician cramps is of particular interest as well as the description of other focal spasms (which are currently described as examples of task-specific dystonias). Jean-Martin CHARCOT (1825-1893)

Charcot (Figure 4) is universally recognized as the founder of French neurology [START_REF] Clanet | 1825 to 1893[END_REF][START_REF] Gelfand | Gilles de la Tourette G. Étude sur une affection nerveuse caractérisée par de l'incoordination motrice accompagnée d'écholalie et de coprolalie (jumping, latah, and myriachit)[END_REF][START_REF] Goetz | History of tic disorders and Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Part 5 of the MDS-sponsored history of movement disorders exhibit, Barcelona[END_REF][START_REF] Massie | Babinski: au-delà de la simple relation professeur-élève[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893): pathologist who shaped modern neurology[END_REF][START_REF] Wechsler | L. Augusta Dejerine-Klumpke (1859-1927) and her eponym[END_REF]. He was a médecin des hôpitaux de Paris and headed a department at the Salpêtrière hospital in 1862, at the same time as his friend Alfred Vulpian. He succeeded Vulpian as a professor of pathology at the Faculty of Medicine of Paris in 1872 and then became the first professor holding to hold the chair of the diseases of the nervous system, created for him at the Salpêtrière hospital in 1882. He was a member of the Académie Nationalde de Médecine and of the Académie des sciences (1883). Charcot advocated the anatomical-clinical method in neurology (Charcot, 1879), contributing to the description or delineation of several syndromes and diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease [START_REF] Charcot | Histologie de la sclérose en plaques[END_REF]Charcot and Vulpian, 1862a) and described eponymous conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-also known as Charcot's disease- [START_REF] Charcot | De la sclérose latérale amyotrophique[END_REF][START_REF] Charcot | Deux cas d'atrophie musculaire progressive : avec lésions de la substance grise et des faisceaux antéro-latéraux de la moelle épinière[END_REF][START_REF] Charcot | Deux nouveaux cas de sclérose latérale amyotrophique[END_REF] and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease [START_REF] Charcot | Sur une forme particulière d'atrophie musculaire progressive souvent familiale débutant par les pieds et les jambes et atteignant plus tard les mains[END_REF]. He later mostly focused on hysteria and hypnosis [START_REF] Bogousslavsky | Crime, hysteria and belle époque hypnotism: the path traced by Jean-Martin Charcot and Georges Gilles de la Tourette[END_REF][START_REF] Ellis | DP. Jean-Martin Charcot and the epilepsy/hysteria relationship[END_REF][START_REF] Goetz | Charcot and simulated neurologic disease: attitudes and diagnostic strategies[END_REF][START_REF] Lhermitte | L'école de la Salpêtrière : J.M. Charcot, psycho-physiologiste[END_REF] and developed organicist conceptions that the School of Nancy strongly opposed.

While holding his chair at the Salpêtrière, Charcot had the meritone, -and not the least, of his merits was to-of surrounding himself with major collaborators such as Alix Joffroy (1844-1908), Albert Gombault (1844-1904), Paul Richer (1844Richer ( -1933) ) [START_REF] Charcot | Les malades dans l'art[END_REF]), Georges Debove (1845[START_REF] Richer | Richer P. Nouvelle anatomie artistique du humain. I[END_REF]), Fulgence Raymond (1844[START_REF] Dejerine | Contribution à l'étude des fibres aberrantes de la voie pédonculaire dans son trajet pontin. Les faisceaux aberrants bulbo-protubérantiels internes et externes. Fascicules aberrants médio-pontins. Pes lemniscus interne[END_REF], Albert Pitres (1848Pitres ( -1928)), ÉEdouard Brissaud (1852Brissaud ( -1909) ) [START_REF] Charcot | Traité de médecine[END_REF]) Gilbert Ballet (1853[START_REF] Guillain | Sur un syndrome de radiculonévrite avec hyperalbuminose du liquide céphalo-rachidien sans réaction cellulaire. Remarques sur les caractères cliniques et graphiques des réflexes tendineux[END_REF], Pierre Marie (1853Marie ( -1940)), Joseph [START_REF] Bailey | The man and his works[END_REF]Babinski ( -1932)), Georges Gilles de la Tourette , Alexandre Achille Souques (1860Souques ( -1944) and many others. IIt is difficult, today, today to take the full measure of what the glory of the neurologist of the Salpêtrière hospital was like at the end of the XIXth Century. His reputation on both national and international levels came from the lectures he gave on Tuesdays (the less technical and more for theaimed at general public) (Charcot et al., 1887;Charcot andBourneville, 1872, 1876), on the side ofas well as from his private Friday lectures. Eexclusively for scientists,: they attracted the tout Paris (Parisian smart set). The famous painting from André Brouillet (1857-1914) Une leçon clinique à la Salpêtrière (A clinical Llecture at the Salpêtrière) displayed at the salon of 1887 immortalized them (Figure 5). On this painting we can see the "master" Alfred VULPIAN (1826-1887) Vulpian (Figure 6) began his medical studies under the influence of Pierre Flourens [START_REF] Breathnach | Biographical sketch. Vulpian[END_REF][START_REF] Cousin | Vulpian and not Claude Bernard first proposed the hypothesis of the motor end-plate as the site of action of curare[END_REF][START_REF] Dejerine | Contribution à l'étude des fibres aberrantes de la voie pédonculaire dans son trajet pontin. Les faisceaux aberrants bulbo-protubérantiels internes et externes. Fascicules aberrants médio-pontins. Pes lemniscus interne[END_REF]Pearce, 2002b;Vulpian, 1880). His MD thesis dealt withwas about the origin of cranial nerves, from the 3rd to the 10th (Vulpian, 1853). He became successively interne des hôpitaux de Paris and associate professor. In 1862, he was named he along withand his friend Charcot, were named Head of two different departments at the Salpêtrière hospital. Vulpian was named full professor of the chair of pathology in 1866, succeeding Jean Cruveilhier (1791-1874). In 1872 he let the chair of pathology to Charcot and took hold of the chair of experimental and comparative pathology [START_REF] Vulpian | Leçons sur la physiologie générale et comparée du système nerveux : faites au Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle[END_REF]. His work, although slightly overshadowed by the glory of his student Dejerine and that of Charcot [START_REF] Bogousslavsky | Alfred Vulpian and Jean-Martin Charcot in each other's shadow? From Castor and Pollux at La Salpêtrière to neurology forever[END_REF], is extensive in the field of clinical anatomy and physiology of nervous diseases.

In 1859 Vulpian was the first to have the idea of growing animal tissues by isolating tadpole tail fragments, thus obtaining the survival of cells without any proliferation. Vulpian described the conjugate deviation of the head and eyes in apoplectic ictus in 1864, and the clinical spectrum of multiple sclerosis in 1866 (Rascol and Clanet, 1982;[START_REF] Vulpian | Leçons sur la physiologie générale et comparée du système nerveux : faites au Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle[END_REF] with Charcot, by distinguishing it from other forms of tremor such as paralysis agitans.. They also studied this latter condition and (which they named it Parkinson's disease) (Charcot and Vulpian, 1862c), as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Vulpian was the first to demonstrate that tabes dorsalis -contrary to the general opinion of that time -does not primarily affect the posterior columns of the cord (Charcot and Vulpian, 1862b). He was a refined clinician and coined, for example, the term syncinésie (synkinesia). He was elected to the Académie des Sciences and was the dean of the Paris Medical Faculty from 1875 untill 1881.

Désiré-Magloire BOURNEVILLE (1840-1909) Bourneville (Figure 7) was born in Normandy, in north-western France and studied medicine in Paris [START_REF] Anonymous | L'oeuvre méedico-pédagogique du docteur Désiré Bourneville[END_REF]Poirier and Chrétien, 2000a;Poiret andSignoret, 1991a, 1991b;Poisson, 2008). He became intern/ resident of Charcot in 1868 and, from then on, had a huge impact on him, in particular for his works on hysteria [START_REF] Bourneville | Recherches cliniques et thérapeutiques sur l'épilepsie et l'hystérie : Compte rendu des observations recueillies à la Salpêtrière de 1872 à 1875[END_REF]Bourneville and Voulet, 1972). He was appointed médecin-aliéniste des hôpitaux de Paris and developed new methods for the management of the mentally retarded, at the Bicêtre hospital (Bourneville, 1905a(Bourneville, , 1905b;;[START_REF] Reubi | une tentation d'emprise de l'aliénisme sur le champ scolaire[END_REF]. His name remains associated with the discovery of the sclérose tubéreuse de Bourneville (Bourneville's tuberous sclerosis) (Bourneville, 1880a(Bourneville, , 1880b) ) and the description of the myxoedème congénital (congenital myxedema). Bourneville was a republican, a freethinker, a freemason, an anticlerical [START_REF] Brais | Désiré Magloire Bourneville and French anticlericalism during the Third Republic[END_REF] and was very involved in the major political struggles of the French Third Republic. He was successively conseiller municipal (municipal councillor) of Paris, député du département de la Seine (deputy of the Seine County) and belonged to the extreme left-wing of the parti radical (French radical party). Bourneville founded the municipal nurse schools (Bourneville, 1881;[START_REF] Collière | Le legs de Désiré Bourneville à la profession infirmière[END_REF] and vigorously fought for the laicisation secularisation of hospitals and for the promotion of cremation. He founded the journals Archives de Neurologie and Le Progrès Médical.

Paul RICHER (1849RICHER ( -1933) ) Intern resident of Charcot in 1878, Richer (Figure 8) was both a physician and an artist. In 1888 and under the direction of Charcot, he founded the Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpêtrière with Georges Gilles de la Tourette and Albert Londe (1858-1917), which replaced the previous Iconographie Photographique de la Salpêtrière. The main interest of this scientific journal lay in the numerous photographs, coloured lithographs and drawings by Paul Richer which illustrated the articles on the neurological cases observed at the Salpêtrière hospital (Charcot andRicher, 1888, 1900;[START_REF] Richer | Richer P. Nouvelle anatomie artistique du humain. I[END_REF][START_REF] Richer | Étude morphologique sur la maladie de Parkinson[END_REF].

Richer published two brillantly illustrated books in collaboration with Charcot entitled : Les Démoniaques dans l'art (Demoniacs in art, 1887) [START_REF] Charcot | Les démoniaques dans l'art[END_REF] and Les Difformes et les malades dans l'art (The Deformed and the dDiseased in art, 1889) [START_REF] Charcot | Les difformes et les malades dans l art[END_REF]. He was also a sculptor and described human postures at rest and in motion (Richer, 1890) (Richer, 1920a(Richer, , 1920b) ) where Henry Meige (1866-1940) succeeded him. He was also the president of the Société française d'Histoire de la Médecine (French Society for the History of Medicine) (1907)(1908).

Henri PARINAUD (1844-1905) Parinaud (Figure 9) was born in Bellac (Haute-Vienne French département/ County in the center ofr France) and began his medical studies in Limoges (Ouvrier, 1993) [START_REF] Charcot | Contribution à l'étude des localisations dans l'écorce des hémisphères du cerveau. Observations relatives aux paralysies et aux convulsions d'origine corticale[END_REF] and was admitted to the agrégation (French civil service competitive examination for positions in the public education system, either in secondary or higher education) in 1878. He studied the different brain areas with Charcot, who was very much influenced by the British neuroscientist David Ferrier . He defended the doctrine of the "localizationism" and supported the idea of autonomous centres with specific functions [START_REF] Charcot | Contribution à l'étude des localisations dans l'écorce des hémisphères du cerveau. Observations relatives aux paralysies et aux convulsions d'origine corticale[END_REF], 1878a, 1878b, 1883, 1895). Albert Pitres witnessed the beginning of hypnosis during the lectures of Charcot in 1877-1878. Pitres then returned to Bordeaux where he became a professor of anatomy and histology in 1880 and then of internal medicine the next year. In 1884 he was the first to describe a clinical case of pure agraphia, and showed that an acquired motor ability could also be localized (Pitres, 1884a;[START_REF] Lisowski | I. The history of written language disorders: Reexamining Pitres' case (1884) of pure agraphia[END_REF]. Pitres also contributed to the study of aphasia and described amnesic aphasia (Pearce, 2005;Pitres, 1894[START_REF] Charcot | Les centres moteurs corticaux chez l'homme[END_REF][START_REF] Pitres | Pitres A. L'aphasie amnésique et ses variétés cliniques. Leçons faites à l'hôpital Saint André de Bordeaux[END_REF]. He continued his works on hysteria by following the ideas of Charcot's ideas. His book Les Lleçons cliniques sur l'hystérie et l'hypnotisme (Clinical lLectures on Hhysteria and Hhypnotism) was published in 1891 (Pitres, 1891). However, he gave up this study topic after Charcot's death and resumed his works on memory and peripheral nerves. He was the dean of the Faculty of Medicine of Bordeaux. His name is associated with two signs: the signe du sou de Pitres (Pitres' coin sign) in pneumothorax and the signe de Pitres (Pitres' sign) in tabes dorsalis (hypoesthesia or anesthesia of the scrotum) (Pitres, 1884b).

Jules Joseph DEJERINE (1849-1917)

Dejerine (Figure 110) was a student of Vulpian but not of Charcot [START_REF] Anonymous | Joseph Jules Dejerine (1849-1917[END_REF]Basseti and Jagella, 2006). He was a médecin des hôpitaux de Paris, an associate professor and headed a department at the Bicêtre hospital (1887), before moving to the Salpêtrière hospital in 1895. He then became pProfessor of Medical history (1901) then of Medical Pathology (1907), he succeeded Fulgence Raymond at the chair of the diseases of the nervous system in 1911. In 1888, Dejerine married Augusta Klumpke (see next biography)., an American medical student and the first woman to pass the competitive examination to become an intern/ resident of the Paris hospitals in 1886. She would remain an effective collaborator to her husband. Among Dejerine's numerous publications, the most famous are the Landouzy-Dejerine syndrome or facio-scapulo-humeral muscular dystrophy (1885) [START_REF] Landouzy | De la myopathie atrophique progressive, myopathie sans neuropathie, débutant d'ordinaire dans l"enfance la face[END_REF], the Dejerine-Sottas hypertrophic neuropathy (1893) [START_REF] Dejerine | Sur la névrite interstitielle, hypertrophique et progressive de l`enfance[END_REF], and in collaboration with André [START_REF] Dejerine | L'atrophie olivo-ponto-cérébelleuse[END_REF] the sporadic form of the olivo-ponto-cerebellar atrophy (OPCA) [START_REF] Dejerine | L'atrophie olivo-ponto-cérébelleuse[END_REF] and most importantly the Dejerine-Roussy syndrome caused by a lesion in the posterior thalamus (1906) [START_REF] Dejerine | Le syndrome thalamique[END_REF][START_REF] Ostini | Parent A. Duchenne De Boulogne: a pioneer in neurology and medical photography[END_REF]. Dejerine did also important contributions on reading and writing, and particularly on word blindness [START_REF] Bub | Jules Dejerine and his interpretation of pure alexia[END_REF][START_REF] Dejerine | Dejerine J. Contribution à l'étude anatomo-pathologique et clinique des différentes variétés de cécité verbale[END_REF]Henderson, 1984). Three of his books remain especially important today: the Traité des maladies de la moelle épinière (Treatise on sSpinal Ccord Ddiseases) in collaboration with André Thomas [START_REF] Dejerine | L'atrophie olivo-ponto-cérébelleuse[END_REF] [START_REF] Dejerine | Dejerine J. Contribution à l'étude anatomo-pathologique et clinique des différentes variétés de cécité verbale[END_REF], which is today considered as one of the greatest classics of the francophone French neurological literature. Although the major part of his work deals withis about organic neurology, Dejerine turned to a new field in the later stages of his career. Like many eminent neurologists of that time he became interested in psychology, functional disorders and hysteria. He published Les mManifestations fonctionnelles des psychonévroses, leur traitement par la psychothérapie (The Ppsychoneuroses and Ttheir tTreatment by Ppsychotherapy) with E. Gauckler in 1911 [START_REF] Dejerine | Les manifestations fonctionnelles des psychonévroses, leur traitement par la psychothérapie[END_REF].

Augusta DEJERINE-KLUMPKE (1859-1927) Augusta Klumpke, Dejerine's wife (Figure 110) was born in San-Francisco and studied at the Faculty of Medicine of Paris [START_REF] Bauer | Letter: Augusta Dejerine-Klumpke[END_REF]Bogousslavsy, 2005;[START_REF] Ellis | DP. Jean-Martin Charcot and the epilepsy/hysteria relationship[END_REF][START_REF] Sanders | R. Augusta Dejerine-Klumpke. First woman intern in Paris hospitals[END_REF][START_REF] Schurch | The 'Dejerines': an historical review and homage to two pioneers in the field of neurology and their contribution to the understanding of spinal cord pathology[END_REF][START_REF] Wechsler | L. Augusta Dejerine-Klumpke (1859-1927) and her eponym[END_REF]. After a long struggle against the unwillingness of the the medical body profession and the hospital administration unwillingness, she obtained the authorization to take the hospital competitive examination. She was appointed extern/ non-residential student in 1882 and became the first woman female resident of the Paris hospitals in 1886. As an extern/ non residential student she published -on her own -the princeps article on the lower brachial plexus paralysis in Revue de médecine, today known as the Klumpke's paralysis, or Dejerine-Klumpke syndrome [START_REF] Anonymous | Klumpke's paralysis. 1885[END_REF][START_REF] Dejerine | Contribution à l'étude des fibres aberrantes de la voie pédonculaire dans son trajet pontin. Les faisceaux aberrants bulbo-protubérantiels internes et externes. Fascicules aberrants médio-pontins. Pes lemniscus interne[END_REF][START_REF] Klumpke | Contribution à l'étude des paralysies radiculaires du plexus brachial, paralysies radiculaires totales, paralysies radiculaires inférieures. De la participation des filets sympathiques oculo-pupillaires dans ces paralysies[END_REF][START_REF] Trousseau | ordre : 170. 315.283. Vulpian A. Note sur la sclérose en plaques de la moelle épinière[END_REF] Brissaud (Figure 121) was successively resident of Paul Broca (1824-1880), Ernest-Charles Lasègue (1816-1883) and Charcot (Freeman, 1953;[START_REF] Poirier | un neurologue d'exception dans une famille d'artistes[END_REF][START_REF] Poirier | un neurologue d'exception dans une famille d'artistes[END_REF][START_REF] Tatu | Fulgence Raymond and the Succession of Charcot[END_REF]. He became médecin des hôpitaux de Paris, agrégé, professor of the history of medicine (1899) then of medical pathology (1900). He dedicated many of his works among others to infantilism (and described its thyroid form) [START_REF] Brissaud | De l'infantilisme myxoedémateux[END_REF] and, gigantism (Brissaud and Meige, 1895a), asthma [START_REF] Brissaud | L'hygiène des asthmatiques[END_REF], Llittle disease [START_REF] Brissaud | Maladie de Little et tabes spasmodique[END_REF], intonation in aphasia [START_REF] Brissaud | Aphasie d'articulation sans aphasie d'intonation[END_REF], herpes zoster, spinal metamerism and, tabetic arthropathy. Brissaud did two famous lectures on Parkinson's disease and on, tics and spasms (Brissaud, 1895a(Brissaud, , 1895b)). Brissaud He notably studied hemifacial spasm and torticollis, with photographic illustrations (Brissaud, 1895b;[START_REF] Colosimo | An early image of hemifacial spasm: Édouard Brissaud contribution[END_REF]. He proposed the term torticolis mental ("mental torticollis") on the basis of the description of an important feature (Brissaud, 1895b) hemifacial spasm and mental torticollis, the later of which presenting an important sign subsequently denominated as geste antagoniste ("antagonistic movement") by his pupils Henry Meige (1866-1940) and Eugène Feindel (1862-1930). He demonstrated the automatic-voluntary dissociation between the voluntary expression and facial expression in pseudobulbar palsy. In 1896, a few months after Roentgen's dis-covery of X-rays, Brissaud andAlbert Londe (1858-1917) used this new method to localize set an intracranial projectile and on the radiographlocalize its image, with awhose fixture time was then of one hour and a half! Brissaud was the project initiator of Charcot and Bouchard famous Traité de médecine (Treatise of Medicine) [START_REF] Charcot | Traité de médecine[END_REF] and of Pratique Médico-Chirurgicale (Medical-Surgical Practice) published in collaboration with Paul Reclus and Adolphe Pinard (1844-1934) [START_REF] Brissaud | Pratique médico-chirurgicale : médecine et chirurgie générales et spéciales; obstétrique, puériculture, hygiène, médecine légale, accidents du travail, psychiatrie, chimie et bactériologie cliniques[END_REF]. In 1893, he published an atlas on human brain anatomy [START_REF] Brissaud | Anatomie du cerveau de l'homme : morphologie des hémisphères cérébraux, ou cerveau proprement dit[END_REF]. The same year, hWith Pierre Marie he founded the Revue Neurologique journal with Pierre Marie, which was supported by Charcot who published its very first article. After the death of Charcot in 1893, Brissaud replaced him at his Chair during for one year and published his Leçons sur les maladies du système nerveux (Lectures on the Ddiseases of the Nnervous Ssystem) (Brissaud and Meige, 1895b). Brissaud was one of the founding members of the Société de Neurologie de Paris (1899).

Pierre MARIE (1853MARIE ( -1940) ) Pierre Marie (Figure 132) was appointed interne des hôpitaux de Paris in 1878 and was a brilliant student of Charcot [START_REF] Anonymous | Classics in neurology: Pierre Marie. Leçons sur les maladies de la moeëlle[END_REF][START_REF] Cohen | 1853-1940[END_REF][START_REF] Goetz | Charcot and simulated neurologic disease: attitudes and diagnostic strategies[END_REF]Pearce, 2004aPearce, , 2004b;;Poirier and Chrétien, 2000). At the end of his residency, he defended his M.D. thesis on Graves's disease [START_REF] Lyons | Contribution à l'étude et au diagnostic des formes frustes de la maladie de Basedow[END_REF] and became chief resident under the direction of Charcot.

Together they described progressive muscular atrophy, later known as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease [START_REF] Charcot | Sur une forme particulière d'atrophie musculaire progressive souvent familiale débutant par les pieds et les jambes et atteignant plus tard les mains[END_REF]. He was associate professor and head of a department at the Bicêtre hospital and then at the Salpêtrière hospital, in 1895 and 1911 respectively. He was also was a professor of pathology in 1907 and a member of the Académie Nationale de Médecine. He described acromegaly (Pierre Marie disease) (Marie, 1886), cerebellar tonsil herniation [START_REF] Simonetti | About the original description of cerebellar tonsil herniation by Pierre Marie[END_REF] and hereditary cerebellar ataxia [START_REF] Marie | De l'ostéo-arthropathie hypertrophiante pneumique[END_REF]. He contributed to the study of bone and joint pathology [START_REF] Ryckewaert | Principaux apports de Charcot et de Pierre Marie à la pathologie ostéo-articulaire[END_REF], and described hypertrophic pulmonary osteo-arthropathy [START_REF] Marie | De l'ostéo-arthropathie hypertrophiante pneumique[END_REF],, hereditary cerebellar ataxia, hereditary cleidocranial dysostosis [START_REF] Marie | Sur la dysostose cléidocrânienne héréditaire[END_REF] and rhizomelic spondylosis [START_REF] Benoist | Pioneer investigator in ankylosing spondylitis[END_REF][START_REF] Marie | De l'ostéo-arthropathie hypertrophiante pneumique[END_REF]. His work on aphasia [START_REF]Révision de la question de l'aphasie: que faut-il penser des aphasies sous-corticales (aphasies pures)?[END_REF] was opposed to that of Paul Broca andKarl Wernicke (1848-1905), which resulted in famous and intense debates with Dejerine in 1908 [START_REF] Brais | The third left frontal convolution plays no role in language: Pierre Marie and the Paris debate on aphasia (1906-1908)[END_REF][START_REF] Lecours | Aphasie : querelles[END_REF]. Along wWith Édouard Brissaud, he founded the journal Revue de Neurologie in 1893, and the Société de Neurologie de Paris in 1899, of which he was the first General Secretary. He published various works dedicated to the neurological sequels of due to World War I, in collaboration with Charles [START_REF] Hillemand | Duchenne de Boulogne and facial expression[END_REF]Foix ( -1927) ) and Henry Meige (1866Meige ( -1940)), among others [START_REF] Marie | Les aphasies de guerre[END_REF]. At the age of 64, he replaced Dejerine at the chair of the diseases of the nervous system, which he held for six years, from 1917 to his retirement in 1923.

Georges ÉEdouard Brutus GILLES DE LA TOURETTE (1857-1904) Gilles de la Tourette (Figure 143) was intern/ resident (1884) then chief resident (1887-1889) of Charcot, médecin des hôpitaux de Paris ( 1893) and agrégé of medicine and forensic medicine (1895) (Goetz et al., 2001;[START_REF] Konofal | Two early descriptions of restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movements by Boissier de Sauvages (1763) and Gilles de la Tourette (1898)[END_REF][START_REF] Landouzy | De la myopathie atrophique progressive, myopathie sans neuropathie, débutant d'ordinaire dans l"enfance la face[END_REF][START_REF] Rickards | Gilles de la Tourette: the man behind the syndrome[END_REF][START_REF] Walusinski | Living his writings: The example of neurologist G. Gilles de la Tourette[END_REF][START_REF] Walusinski | Living his writings: The example of neurologist G. Gilles de la Tourette[END_REF]. He is mostly famous for the maladie des tics (tic disorder) he described in 1885 and that which is named after him (Gilles de la Tourette, 1885, 1899; [START_REF] Goetz | G. Les polyradiculonevrites avec dissociation albumiambinocytologique et à évolution favorable (syndrome de Guillain-Barré)[END_REF]Lajonchère, 1996;[START_REF] Stevens | Gilles de la Tourette and his syndrome by serendipity[END_REF]. He also worked on hysteria and hypnotism [START_REF] Bogousslavsky | Crime, hysteria and belle époque hypnotism: the path traced by Jean-Martin Charcot and Georges Gilles de la Tourette[END_REF] and published two works on hypnotism and hysteriathis topic : L'Hypnotisme et les états analogues au point de vue médico-légal (Hypnotism and Aanalogous Sstates Ffrom the Mmedico-Llegal Ppoint of Vview, 1887) (Gilles de la Tourette, 1887) and Traité clinique et thérapeutique de l'hystérie d'après l'enseignement de la Salpêtrière (Clinical and Ttherapeutical Ttreatise on Hhysteria Bbased on the Salpêtrière Llectures 1891) (Gilles de la Tourette, 1891). Other medical publications are a treatise on the diseases of the nervous system, a study on gait and early description of restless legs syndrome (Gilles de la Tourette, 1886, 1898 ; [START_REF] Konofal | Two early descriptions of restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movements by Boissier de Sauvages (1763) and Gilles de la Tourette (1898)[END_REF]. He also wrote a lot,was also a prolific writer, and notably produced numerous works on the Poitou Province in the centre of France and a biography of Théophraste Renaudot (1586-1653), a physician native from Loudun (as well aswas Gilles de la Tourette) and the founder of the very first French journal in 1631, La Gazette. Gilles de la Tourette suffered from a general paralysis caused by a tertiary syphilis and his mental condition gradually worsened. He died at the age of 47 in the psychiatric hospital of Lausanne where he had been confined.

Joseph [START_REF] Bailey | The man and his works[END_REF]BABINSKI ( -1932) ) Babinski (Figure 145) was born in Paris to Polish parents who had fled Varsaw [START_REF] Ambrosius | Joseph Babinski --French neurologist of Polish descent[END_REF]Bayley, 1961;Gasceki and Kwieciński, 1995;[START_REF] Mollaret | Hommage à la mémoire de Josef Babinski à l'occasion du 100ème anniversaire de sa naissance[END_REF][START_REF] Philippon | Recherches sur les lésions du centre ovale des hémisphères cérébraux étudiées au point de vue des localisations cérébrales[END_REF][START_REF] Pitres | Da Hemiplegia syphilitica[END_REF][START_REF] Poirier | histologist and anatomo-pathologist[END_REF][START_REF] Skalski | Joseph Jules François Félix Babinski (1857-1932[END_REF]. He studied medicine in the French capital, where he became resident of Vulpian and of Victor Cornil, and was chief resident of Charcot (1885-1887) [START_REF] Massie | Babinski: au-delà de la simple relation professeur-élève[END_REF]. Babinski was appointed médecin des hôpitaux de Paris in 1890, but failed the agrégation in 1892, because of some quarrel between Charcot and the president of the jury, Charles Bouchard (1837Bouchard ( -1915)). As a consequence Babinski would never be a professor. He remained head of the Neurologya medical department at the Pitié hospital during for his entire career, first in the old Pitié hospital until 1912 and then in the new Pitié hospital which was opened the same year, in a contiguous area ofwith the Salpêtrière hospital.

Babinski did considerable contributions to the study of diseases of the nervous system [START_REF] Babinski | Exposé des travaux scientifiques du Dr J. Babinski[END_REF][START_REF] Babinski | OEuvre scientifique[END_REF]. He was above all a semiologist and his constant aim was to discover characteristic signs that allowed allowing to make the distinction between organic pathology and functional, hysterical disorders. During a presentation of 28 lines at the Société de Biologie (French Society of Biology) Iin 1896, he showed during a presentation of 28 lines at the Société de Biologie (French Society of Biology) that stimulation of the sole of the foot caused an extension of the great toe in patients with a lesion of the pyramidal tract whereas it resulted causedin a flexion in normal subjects [START_REF] Babinski | Sur le réflexe cutané plantaire dans certaines affections organiques du système nerveux central[END_REF]. This inversion of the cutaneous plantar reflex sign would very quickly be called Babinski sign (Goetz, 2002;[START_REF] Konofal | Two early descriptions of restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movements by Boissier de Sauvages (1763) and Gilles de la Tourette (1898)[END_REF]. After the death of Charcot, Babinski reconsidered the position of his master on hysteria and suggested to rename it pithiatisme (pithiatism) in order to show that it is a disorder caused by suggestion and that can be treated by persuasion (Allilaire, 2007;[START_REF] Babinski | Hysteria or pithiatism and reflex nervous disorders in the neurology of war[END_REF]. Thanks to the long observation of his patient Henri Mouninou, Babinski refined the cerebellar semiology and decribed asynergia (i.e cerebellar ataxia), hypermetria and adiadochokinesia [START_REF] Babinski | De l'asynergie cérébelleuse[END_REF](Babinski, , 1902a(Babinski, , 1902b(Babinski, , 1902c[START_REF] Babinski | Quelques documents relatifs à l'histoire des fonctions de l'appareil cérébelleux et de leurs perturbations[END_REF][START_REF] Babinski | Syndrome cérébelleux[END_REF][START_REF] Babinski | Premier rapport; Symptômes des maladies du cervelet[END_REF]. Babinski finally was at the origin of the birth of French neurosurgery by encouraging his students Clovis Vincent (1879-1947) and Thierry de Martel (1876Martel ( -1940) ) to become accomplished neurosurgeons [START_REF] Babinski | Tumeur méningée; Paraplégie crurale par compression de la moeëlle; Extraction de la tumeur, guérison[END_REF]. Babinski lived all his life with his older brother Henri Babinski (1855Babinski ( -1931)), who was an engineer but was mostly famous as a distinguished cook.

As "Ali Bab", he wrote a classic cookbook entitled Gastronomie Pratique: études culinaires (Practical gGastronomy: Cculinary sStudies) [START_REF] Babinski | Gastronomie pratique[END_REF]. Joseph Babinski suffered from Parkinson's disease at the end of his life and died one year only after his brother.

André [START_REF] Duckett | -1963[END_REF]THOMAS ( -1963) ) André Thomas (Figure 165) made spent his entire medical career in Paris (De [START_REF] Ajuriaguerra | L'oeuvre scientifique du docteur André-Thomas[END_REF][START_REF] Duckett | -1963[END_REF][START_REF] Guillain | Examen anatomopathologique d'un cas de myoclonies vélo-pharyngo-oculodiaphragmatiques associées à des myoclonies squelettiques synchrones[END_REF][START_REF] Polonovski | Rascol A, Clanet M. La sclérose en plaques. De Charcot et Vulpian à nos jours[END_REF]Sigwald, 1967;[START_REF] Skidmore | Souques A. Rapports sur les syndromes parkinsoniens[END_REF]. He was first an intern/ resident at the Bicêtre hospital, where Dejerine was his mentor, then worked at the Salpêtrière and later at the Saint-Joseph Hospital. It is noteworthy that when he retired, he focused on the study of child neurology (Thomas and Saint Anne Dargassies, 1952;[START_REF] Teive | Little-known scientific contributions of J-M Charcot[END_REF]. Although André Thomas did numerous publications in neurology, as for example on spinal cord with Dejerine [START_REF] Dejerine | L'atrophie olivo-ponto-cérébelleuse[END_REF], Hhis most important research was on the study of the cerebellum. In parallel with Babinski in France andGordon Morgan Holmes (1876-1965) in Great Britain, he was one of the main contributors to the study of cerebellar disorders at the turn of the XIXth and XXth centuries [START_REF] Teive | Little-known scientific contributions of J-M Charcot[END_REF][START_REF] Teive | Little-known scientific contributions of J-M Charcot[END_REF][START_REF] Thomas | Sur la nature des troubles de la motilité dans les affections du cervelet[END_REF][START_REF] Thomas | Sur la nature des troubles de la motilité dans les affections du cervelet[END_REF]. While Babinski reported asynergia, hypermetria and adiadochokinesia, André Thomas added dysmetria, dyschronometria [START_REF] Teive | Little-known scientific contributions of J-M Charcot[END_REF] and passivité (i.e. hypotonia) with the pendular reflexes. Gordon Holmes further characterized hypotonia (Stewart-Holmes maneuver), delayed initiation or arrest of movement and action tremor, and identified rubral tremor (now called Holmes tremor). In 1900 Dejerine and Thomas described a new syndrome:, olivopontocerebellar atrophy (OPCA) [START_REF] Dejerine | L'atrophie olivo-ponto-cérébelleuse[END_REF]. This degenerative disease occurreds sporadically at middle or elderly age. The main pathological feature was is a severe atrophy of the cerebellum, inferior olives and protuberancepons. OPCA was subsequently recognized by others with in some cases, an akinetic rigid syndrome.

In the 1960s Shy-Drager and striatonigral degeneration syndromes were described by others. Important histopathological data in the late 1980s showed that these two entities and OPCA shared common oligodendroglial inclusions with different anatomical distributions. These three syndromes were later coalesced under the term multiple system atrophy (MSA).

Georges MARINESCO (1864MARINESCO ( -1938) ) Georges Marinesco (Figure 176), also known as Gheorghe Marinescu, was born in Romania and received most of his medical education at the Brâncoveanu (Brancovan) Hospital and worked at the laboratory of histology and bacteriology of Victor Babes (1854-1926) [START_REF] Buda | Georges Marinesco and the early research in neuropathology[END_REF][START_REF] Chudley | Genetic landmarks through philately: Georges Marinesco (1863-1938)[END_REF][START_REF] Petresco | promoteur de l'histochimie du système nerveux (A l'occasion du centenaire de sa naissance, 1963)[END_REF]. (Blocq et al., 1892). Marinesco's contribution to science is outstanding. He had indeed the ingenuity to put to use new methods in practice, as soon as they were available, especially roentgen rays, film camera and Nissl method. The book he published on this latter topic dealt with the study of normal nerve cells and reparative processes in neurofibrils in the degenerated cells following nerve section (Marinesco, 1905a(Marinesco, , 1905b[START_REF] Marinesco | Marinesco G. Recherches anatomo-cliniques sur les névromes d'amputations douloureux. Nouvelles contributions à l'étude de la Régéneration nerveuse et du neurotropisme[END_REF](Marinesco, , 1920)). With Blocq, he reported a peculiar case of parkinsonian tremor related to tuberculosis abcesses of the mesencephalon [START_REF] Blocq | Sur un cas de tremblement parkinsonien hémiplégique symptomatique d'une tumeur du pédoncule cérébral[END_REF], and discovered the senile plaques [START_REF] Marinesco | Marinesco G. Sur la structure des plaques dites séniles dans l'écorce cérébrale des sujets atteints d'affections mentales[END_REF][START_REF] Marinesco | Du mécanisme physico-chimique des lésions de la sclérose latérale amyotrophique[END_REF]. . Marinesco was the first to carry out hypophysectomy in animals in order to demonstrate that they could live for a few weeks without pituitary gland [START_REF] Marinesco | Marinesco G. Sur la structure des plaques dites séniles dans l'écorce cérébrale des sujets atteints d'affections mentales[END_REF]. He also studied a new form of familial spastic paraplegia with extrapyramidal motor symptoms, clinical-anatomical aspects of the thalamic syndrome, juvenile form of familial amaurotic idiocy and degenerative changes in of the spinal cord following amputations (Marinesco-Sjögren syndrome) [START_REF] Marinesco | Sur une variété spéciale de paraplégie spasmodique familiale caractérisée par des crises paroxystiques d'hypertonie, probablement d'origine extra-pyramidale, et par des troubles végétatifs[END_REF]. He maintained close academic relationships with his colleagues in Paris. In 1909 he published a voluminous work on the nerve cell entitled La cCellule nerveuse (The Nnerve Ccell) that was later overshadowed by Ramón y Cajal's works [START_REF] Marinesco | Marinesco G. Sur la structure des plaques dites séniles dans l'écorce cérébrale des sujets atteints d'affections mentales[END_REF].

Achille Alexandre SOUQUES Achille Alexandre Souques (Figure 187) studied medicine in Paris, went toworked at the Salpêtrière Hospital, became Charcot's last interne (resident), then Brissaud's chef de clinique (assistant professor) [START_REF] Alajouanine | Achille Souques (1860-1944[END_REF][START_REF] Alajouanine | The Founders of Neurology[END_REF][START_REF] Broussolle | Achille Alexander Souques (1860-1944)[END_REF]Société Française de Neurologie, 1945). In 1898 he became a hospital consultant and worked successively at the Charité, the Hôtel-Dieu, the Ivry and the Bicêtre hospital. Souques described several important neurological signs. One sign bears his name: Signe des cils de Souques (i.e. Souques' eyelashes sign) in formes frustes of facial paralysis. In this case, the involvement of the upper facial nerve territory can be detected when the patient is asked to strongly close his eyes strongly: the eyelashes are less covered by the eyelids and thus appear longer compared to those of the non-paralysed side. Souques also studied speech and language and described palilalia in 1908 (Souques, 1908). PI this syndrome, patients affected by this syndrome cannot help repeating the same word or sentence. This speech disorder is frequently seen in stroke patients, especially in case the course of pseudobulbar palsy and in parkinsonian syndromes. In 1915, Souques coined the term camptocormia with Mrs Rosanoff-Saloff to describe the abnormal curve of the trunk in injured trench warfare soldiers (Souques and Rosanoff-Saloff, 1915). Some soldiers had a camptocormia due to the stress of the anticipation of the battle, whereas others were afraid to suffer again from a previous spinal cord injury. Nowadays, camptocormia is considered not only as a psychogenic disorder, but is also described as part of Parkinson's disease, dystonia, myopathic processes and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [START_REF] Djaldetti | Camptocormia (bent spine) in patients with Parkinson's disease-characterization and possible pathogenesis of an unusual phenomenon[END_REF][START_REF] Skidmore | Souques A. Rapports sur les syndromes parkinsoniens[END_REF].. (Souques, 1921) he updated the scientific knowledge on Parkinson's disease and postencephalitic parkinsonian syndromes. Souques considered that post-encephalitic parkinsonism was indistinguishable from idiopathic Parkinson's disease and added two original contributions: first, abolition of automatic and associated movements, as the loss of the automatic swinging of the arms while walking; second, kinésie paradoxale (paradoxical kinesis). Souques used this term to refer to patients who generally could not move and were suddenly able to walk, or even to run. This phenomenon could can also be seen in speech.

After his retirement, Souques did an important contribution to the study of neurology in the ancient Greece (Souques, 1936).

Georges GUILLAIN (1876[START_REF] Mollaret | Hommage à la mémoire de Josef Babinski à l'occasion du 100ème anniversaire de sa naissance[END_REF] Guillain (Figure 198) succeeded his teacher Pierre Marie at the chair of Charcot, which he held from 1923 to 1947 [START_REF] Alajouanine | (1876-1961[END_REF][START_REF] Bonduelle | 1876-1961[END_REF][START_REF] Bonduelle | Histoire de la médicine: Georges Guillain (1876-1961)[END_REF][START_REF] Mollaret | Hommage à la mémoire de Josef Babinski à l'occasion du 100ème anniversaire de sa naissance[END_REF]. He was a mMember of the Académie Nationale de médecine and of the Académie des sciences, and he was Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur (Commander of the Legion of Honor). With P. Léchelle, physician of Paris hospitals, he discovered the colloidal benzoic reaction [START_REF] Guillain | La réaction du benjoin colloïdal et les réactions colloïdales du liquide céphalorachidien[END_REF](Guillain et al., , 1926) ) and participated in the description of numerous eponymous syndromes. The most famous is the syndrome of acute polyradiculoneuritis or Guillain-Barré syndrome (also known as Guillain-Barré-Strohl) [START_REF] Asbury | Guillain-Barré syndrome: historical aspects[END_REF][START_REF] Goetz | G. Les polyradiculonevrites avec dissociation albumiambinocytologique et à évolution favorable (syndrome de Guillain-Barré)[END_REF][START_REF] Guillain | Sur un syndrome de radiculonévrite avec hyperalbuminose du liquide céphalo-rachidien sans réaction cellulaire. Remarques sur les caractères cliniques et graphiques des réflexes tendineux[END_REF].

Guillain also wrote many articles on various affections of the nervous system such as myoclonus, notably palatal myoclonus with the description of the Guillain-Mollaret-Bertrand myoclonus triangle (1933) (Guillain andMollaret, 1931, 1936;[START_REF] Guillain | Examen anatomopathologique d'un cas de myoclonies vélo-pharyngo-oculodiaphragmatiques associées à des myoclonies squelettiques synchrones[END_REF] and heredodegenerative diseases of the spinal cord [START_REF] Cestan | La paraplégie spasmodique familiale et la sclérose en plaques familiale[END_REF]. He published several books such as the Travaux neurologiques de guerre (Wartime nNeurological Wworks) with Jean Alexandre Barré (1880Barré ( -1967) ) [START_REF] Guillain | Travaux neurologiques de guerre[END_REF], Ll'Anatomie topographique du système nerveux central (Topographic Aanatomy of the Ccentral Nnervous Ssystem) with Ivan Bertrand (1893-1965) [START_REF] Guillain | Sur un syndrome de radiculonévrite avec hyperalbuminose du liquide céphalo-rachidien sans réaction cellulaire. Remarques sur les caractères cliniques et graphiques des réflexes tendineux[END_REF]. He also wrote aA monograph on the Salpêtrière hospital with Mathieu [START_REF] Guillain | La Salpêtrière[END_REF], and a biography of Charcot (Guillain, 1955). His student Théophile Alajouanine (1890Alajouanine ( -1980) ) succeeded him at Charcot's chair of the diseases of the nervous system in 1947.

Charles [START_REF] Hillemand | Duchenne de Boulogne and facial expression[END_REF]FOIX ( -1927) ) Charles Foix (Figure 2019) did his medical internship in Paris (1906) where he studiedalong with Pierre Marie and headed his laboratory at the Salpêtrière hospital [START_REF] Breathnach | Biographical sketches no. 24 -Foix[END_REF][START_REF] Caplan | Charles Foix, the first modern stroke neurologist[END_REF][START_REF] Caplan | Charles Foix (1882-1927[END_REF][START_REF] Hillemand | Duchenne de Boulogne and facial expression[END_REF]. Foix served during World War I in the neurological center of Salonica in Greece and was successively médecin des hôpitaux de Paris and associate professor in 1919 and 1923, respectively. He succeeded Clovis Vincent at the Ivry hospice (1924), where his reputation attracted many foreign visitors. His scientific contribution is considerable, both in terms of quantity and quality. One may especially mention his works on the anatomical lesions of Parkinson's disease (Foix, 1921), Lewy bodies and on palatal myoclonus [START_REF] Foix | Spasme rythmique vélopharyngolaryngé. Nystagmus du voile[END_REF]. He also made an accurate description of the brain arteries and their territories (Foix andHillemand, 1925a, 1925b;[START_REF] Foix | La sclérose cérébrale centro-lobaire à tendance symétrique. Ses rapports avec ľencéphalite périaxiale diffuse[END_REF][START_REF] Tatu | The discovery of encephalic arteries. From Johann Jacob Wepfer to Charles Foix[END_REF] and of the vascular syndromes depending on their pathology, with several original descriptions [START_REF] Caplan | Charles Foix, the first modern stroke neurologist[END_REF]Foix, 1911;Foix et al., 1925;Foix andHillemand, 1925c, 1925d). Charles FoixHis other important publications with his contemporary colleagues are: on a fine anatomy of the mesencephalon sub-optic area (with Jean Nicolesco, 1895-1957) [START_REF] Foix | Anatomie cérébrale : les noyaux gris centraux et la région mésencéphalo-sous-optique ; suivie d'un appendice sur l'anatomie pathologique de la maladie de Parkinson[END_REF], a cranial-cerebral topography (with Pierre Marie and Ivan Bertrand), several studies on cerebellar syndromes (with Pierre Marie and Thiers)and, late cerebellar atrophy with cortical predominance (with Pierre Marie and Alajouanine) [START_REF] Marie | De l'atrophie cérébelleuse tardive à prédominance corticale[END_REF],. Among other contributions are his work on aphasia (with Pierre Marie) (Marie andFoix, 1917), necrotic myelopathy (Ferrel et al., 2009;[START_REF] Foix | La myélite nécrotique subaiguë. Myélite centrale angéio-hypertrophique à évolution progressive. Paraplégie amyotrophique lentement ascendante, d'abord spasmodique, puis flasque, s'accompagnant de dissociation albuminocytologique[END_REF] and anterior opercular syndrome (known as Foix-Chavany-Marie syndrome) (Foix et al., 1926). Charles Foix was also an author of prose and poetry.

Figures

  Figures and institutions of the neurological sciences inParis from 1800 to 1950. Part III: Neurology

  and the two masterpieces that are Anatomie des Centres Nerveux (Anatomy of the Nnervous Ccenteres, 1895-1901) (Dejerine and Dejerine-Klumpke, 1895), a monumental piece of work with a rich iconography established fromof large anatomical sections and for which the participation of Mrs Dejerine-Klumpke was of critical importance, and Sémiologie des affections du système nerveux (Semiology of the Ddiseases of the Nnervous Ssystem, 1914)

  . and hi His works include Premier Artiste (First Artist, 1890), Le Bûcheron de la forêt de La Londe (Lumberjack of the La Londe woods, 1899), Le Monument de Pasteur (A new Monument toPasteur, 1903) and Tres In Una (Three in One, 1913), among others. Richer was a laureate of Institut de France, member of the Académie de Médecine (1898) and the holder of the chair of artistic anatomy of the École des Beaux-Arts (Paris Fine Arts School)(1903)

  . He then studied in Paris, where he was successively externe and interne des hôpitaux de Paris (extern/ non residential student and intern/ resident of the hospitals of Paris), and served in the Red Cross ambulance corps during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. Parinaud defended his MD thesis on optic neuritis in pediatric acute meningitis (Parinaud, 1877a) and Charcot handed him the direction of the service of ophtalmology thatwhich was belonged to his chair of the diseases of the nervous system. Parinaud published numerous works, notably on optic neuritis and

strabismus

(Parinaud, 1879a(Parinaud, , 1879b[START_REF] Ostini | Parent A. Duchenne De Boulogne: a pioneer in neurology and medical photography[END_REF]

. His name remains associated with upgaze paralysis (Parinaud's syndrome, which is caused by lesions of the mesencephalic area)

(Parinaud, 1877b[START_REF] Ostini | Parent A. Duchenne De Boulogne: a pioneer in neurology and medical photography[END_REF]

, to with the Parinaud's oculoglandular syndrome he described in 1889 (and that has subsequently been associated with the cat-scratch disease) (Parinaud, 1889), as well as to with the optometric scale (Parinaud scale) for the assesssment of visual acuity (Parinaud, 1888), which is still in use today. Parinaud is considered as one of the pionneers of French ophthalmology and particularly neuro-ophthalmology (Parinaud, 1898). Albert PITRES

Pitres (Figure

10

) was born in Bordeaux and received his medical training in Paris, where he became resident of

Charcot and[START_REF] Dejerine | Dejerine J. Contribution à l'étude anatomo-pathologique et clinique des différentes variétés de cécité verbale[END_REF] attended at ÉEtienne Jules Marey's (1830- 1904

) and Ranvier's respective laboratories. In 1877 he defended his MD thesis presided over by Charcot and entitled :entitled: Recherches sur les lésions du centre ovale des hémisphères cérébraux étudiées au point de vue des localisations cérébrales (Researches on the Llesions of the Ccerebral Hhemispheres Ooval Ccentres with Pparticular Ffocus on Ccerebral Llocalizations)

  . As When she was an intern/ resident of Professor Alfred Hardy (1811-1893) at the Charité hospital, her chief resident was Jules Dejerine who became her husband in 1888. She defended her MD thesis on Les Polynévrites en général, les paralysies et les atrophies saturnines en particulier (About Ppolyneuritis in Ggeneral and Ssaturnian Ppalsies and Aatrophies in Pparticular) in 1889[START_REF] Dejerine | Contribution à l'étude des fibres aberrantes de la voie pédonculaire dans son trajet pontin. Les faisceaux aberrants bulbo-protubérantiels internes et externes. Fascicules aberrants médio-pontins. Pes lemniscus interne[END_REF]. Mrs Dejerine-Klumpke did important works on neuroanatomy[START_REF] Dejerine | Contribution à l'étude des fibres aberrantes de la voie pédonculaire dans son trajet pontin. Les faisceaux aberrants bulbo-protubérantiels internes et externes. Fascicules aberrants médio-pontins. Pes lemniscus interne[END_REF][START_REF] Landouzy | De la myopathie atrophique progressive, myopathie sans neuropathie, débutant d'ordinaire dans l"enfance la face[END_REF] Schoja and Tubbs, 2007) and took an active part in the writing of Anatomie des centres nerveux ("Anatomy of the Nnervous Ccenteres"), co-signed with her husband[START_REF] Dejerine | Anatomie des centres nerveux[END_REF]. She was the president of the Sociéte Société de Neurologie de Paris in 1914 and 1915. During World War I she headed a a service consisting of 300 beds unit, ofcaring for wounded patients at the Salpêtrière hospital. She became Officier de la Légion d'Honneur (Officer of the Legion of Honor) in 1921.

	Édouard BRISSAUD (1852-1909)

  Marinesco later came to Paris to receive further education in neurology with Charcot at the Salpêtrière hospital, where he was in close contact with Pierre Marie, Babinski and Raymond. He also worked in Germany with Karl Weigert (1845-1904) in Frankfurt and Emil Du Bois Reymond (1818-1896) in Berlin. Back in Romania he holded held the very first chair of neurology in Bucharest and founded the Romanian School of Neurology. He published an atlas on of the pathological histology of the nervous system with Victor Babes and Paul OskarBlocq (1860Blocq ( -1896) )

  He returned to the Salpêtrière Hospital in 1917 where he was appointed Professor of Neurology. With Pierre Marie, Joseph Babinski and others, Souques founded the Paris Neurological Society in 1899, with Pierre Marie, Joseph Babinski and others. He was elected at the Académie Nationale de Médecine in 1918 and retired in 1925.

  Souques' work on parkinsonian syndromes is remarkable. During an International Congress in Paris in 1921, he updated the scientific knowledge on Parkinson's disease and postencephalitic parkinsonian syndromes with In his famous 1921 exhaustive review during an International Congress in Paris,

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank for their tremendous help Chloé Loiraud, Yann Bregeras, Sandrine Jamen and Jessica Moreau from Bibliothèque Médicale, Hôpital Neurologique Pierre Wertheimer, Lyon, France, Chantal Barbara, Marjorie Lorch (ISHN), the École des Neurosciences de Paris, the Club d'Histoire des Neurosciences from the Société des Neurosciences and the BIU Santé (Bibliothèque Inter Universitaire de Santé de Paris) and the Académie Nationale de Médecine and Académie des Sciences for the reproduction of photographs.

Conflicts of interest : none