A M Collin

M Andel
email: mark.andel@digitalglobe.com

D James

Joachim Claudet
email: joachim.claudet@gmail.com

THE SUPERSPECTRAL/HYPERSPATIAL WORLDVIEW-3 AS THE LINK BETWEEN SPACEBORNE HYPERSPECTRAL AND AIRBORNE HYPERSPATIAL SENSORS: THE CASE STUDY OF THE COMPLEX TROPICAL COAST

Keywords: WorldView-3, Hyperion, UAV, Superspectral, Coral Reefs, Moorea Island

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Space-Spectrum-Time prism

Coastal fringes host complex social-ecological systems facing global changes (sea-level rise and cyclone/storm intensification) and local pressures (unprecedented urbanization and ecosystem services degradation), thus requiring specific imagery sensors to be used. Ad hoc sensors are expected to capture coastal processes at the scale at which they act, that is to say over regional extents (> 1000 km 2 ) but with high spatial resolution (1 m). Furthermore, sensors need to monitor a sufficient number of wavebands (> 10 bands) in order to disentangle spectrally-close coastal features, both within marine and terrestrial realms [START_REF] Collin | Bridging ridgeto-reef patches: Seamless classification of the coast using very high resolution satellite[END_REF]. In addition, the revisit or tasking time should be short enough to match the temporal frame in which coastal mechanisms occur, from days to months. However, a sensor delivering daily-tomonthly, hyperspectral images over regional extents at hyperspatial resolution does not exist, because of the hardware-based limitations. Judicious trade-offs between temporal, spectral and spatial resolutions have to be considered.

Airborne and spaceborne hyperspectral platforms

Even if handborne hyperspectral sensors provide very satisfactory results to retrieve inherent optical properties of the * Corresponding author waters [START_REF] Keller | Hyperspectral Data and Machine Learning for Estimating CDOM, Chlorophyll a, Diatoms, Green Algae and Turbidity[END_REF], the spatial coverage of coastal regional extents cannot be reached in a cost-effective manner, hindering monthly iterative acquisition.

Leveraging higher footprints, airborne hyperspectral sensors revealed great performance to classify coastal areas [START_REF] Zhou | Classification of coastal areas by airborne hyperspectral image[END_REF], discriminate seagrasses [START_REF] Peneva | Seagrass mapping in the northern Gulf of Mexico using airborne hyperspectral imagery: a comparison of classification methods[END_REF], or macroalgae [START_REF] Dierssen | Hyperspectral discrimination of floating mats of seagrass wrack and the macroalgae Sargassum in coastal waters of Greater Florida Bay using airborne remote sensing[END_REF]. The integration of LiDAR data was also strongly validated for species distribution [START_REF] Jones | Assessing the utility of airborne hyperspectral and LiDAR data for species distribution mapping in the coastal Pacific Northwest, Canada[END_REF], agricultural and urban features (Tuia et al., 2016). Hyperspectral sensors mounted on unmanned airborne vehicle (UAV) recently showed suitable results for monitoring trees [START_REF] Honkavaara | Band registration of tuneable frame format hyperspectral UAV imagers in complex scenes[END_REF]. Covering regional extents at high spatial resolution, those surveys are good candidates for coastal issues, but the time-consuming mission planning and the costly aircraft pricing [START_REF] Collin | Mapping VHR water depth, seabed and land cover using Google Earth data[END_REF] make the temporal resolution too coarse to capture coastal processes.

Benefiting from a greater agility, concomitant with affordability, thus temporal resolution, spaceborne sensors have demonstrated their efficiency in estimating water quality [START_REF] Brando | Satellite hyperspectral remote sensing for estimating estuarine and coastal water quality[END_REF][START_REF] Van Mol | The Compact High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS): the future of hyperspectral satellite sensors. Imagery of Oostende coastal and inland waters[END_REF][START_REF] Lucke | Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal Ocean: instrument description and first images[END_REF], mapping coastal wetlands [START_REF] Pengra | Mapping an invasive plant, Phragmites australis, in coastal wetlands using the EO-1 Hyperion hyperspectral sensor[END_REF], coral reefs [START_REF] Kutser | Mapping coral reef benthic substrates using hyperspectral space-borne images and spectral libraries[END_REF], soil parameters [START_REF] Anne | Modeling soil parameters using hyperspectral image reflectance in subtropical coastal wetlands[END_REF], and land cover/land use when fused with Sentinel-2 [START_REF] Weinmann | Investigations on the potential of hyperspectral and Sentinel-2 data for land cover/land use classification[END_REF]. Conciliating high spectral and temporal resolution with regional extents, the downside of those sensors (CHRIS, 19 bands at 17 m or 63 bands at 34 m; Hyperion, 220 bands at 30 m; HJ-1, 128 bands at 30 m; HICO installed in the international space station, 128 bands at 90 m) lies in their spatial resolution, mismatching coastal processes. Even PRISMA (220 bands), launched this year, or EnMAP (228 bands, [START_REF] Müller | The processing chain and Cal/Val operations of the future hyperspectral satellite mission EnMAP[END_REF], will provide coastal images, relatively too coarse (30 m).

Spaceborne superspectral and hyperspatial sensor

In parallel with the newly launched Venμs micro-satellite (12 bands at 5 m), the WorldView-3 (WV3) sensor can capture, at the daily rate, 1 panchromatic band at 0.31 m (hyperspatial), 8 multispectral (5 visible, VIS, and 3 near-infrared, NIR) bands at 1.24 m, surpassing its predecessor, WorldView-2, provided with 0.46 and 1.84 m, respectively [START_REF] Collin | What is the value added of 4 bands within the submetric remote sensing of tropical coastscape? Quickbird-2 vs WorldView-2[END_REF]. In addition, WV3 has the capabilities for collecting 8 short-wave infrared (SWIR) at 3.7 m. The increase in spatial resolution improved the bathymetry extraction [START_REF] Collin | VHR coastal bathymetry using WorldView-3: colour versus learner[END_REF], and the addition of spectral bands meliorated the classification of minerals [START_REF] Kruse | Mineral mapping using simulated Worldview-3 short-wave-infrared imagery[END_REF] and salt marshes (Collin et al., 2018a). WV3 VIS, NIR and SWIR showed the potential to be Gram-Schmidt pansharpened [START_REF] Belfiore | Application of different Pan-sharpening methods on WorldView-3 images[END_REF], resulting in 16 spectral bands at 0.3 m.

We hypothesize that the superspectral (16 bands), hyperspatial (0.3 m) WV3 can both compete with satellite hyperspectral performance and UAV spatial segmentation, for detecting complex coastal features. Classification of Moorea generic coral reefscape (Figure 1) will be examined to confront WV3 and Hyperion (30 m with 220 bands) spectral data, using artificial neural network (ANN) modelling. A spatial analysis will be tackled to compare WV3 and UAV (0.1 m with 3 bands) fine-scale patterns.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study site

The study area is located on Moorea Island (17°32′S, 149°50′W) in South Pacific French Polynesia (Figure 1). Tahiti's sister island, 1.6-million-year-old Moorea tops at 1 207 m and extends over 187 km 2 , composed of 134-km 2 terrestrial and 53-km 2 lagoon realms (Collin et al., 2018b). Rich of its ecological land and marine diversity, as well as exposed to growing urbanization, Moorea embodies a scientific hub addressing global changes in the Anthropocene era, through a nexus of French and USA researchers (Davies et al., 2015). The area of interest stretches over 3.5 km 2 , and encompasses typical features of tropical reefscapes, such as outer, barrier and fringing coral reefs, lagoon with channel, and forests.

Air truth using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

The variety of studied habitats has been examined using a consumer-grade UAV, DJI Mavic Pro, provided with 3 naturalcoloured bands (red-green-blue, RGB), and 0.1 m pixel size. Fixed at 35 m altitude, the automatic flight covered a 0.08-km 2 transect (Figure 2). A series of 86 geolocated and overlapped photographs were processed using a photogrammetric approach, resulting in a RGB orthomosaic. Given the centimetre scale, this by-product was fine enough to be considered as air-truth (Collin et al. 2018a) and discriminate 7 classes: deep outer reef, shallow outer reef, barrier reef, pavement with reef, shallow lagoon, deep lagoon and fringing reef (green disks in Figure 2). Deep ocean, wet forest and dry forest were selected directly based on the satellite imageries (red disks in Figure 2).

Spaceborne hyperspectral Hyperion

Launched in 2000, Hyperion imager, borne on Earth Observing-1, was the first civilian spaceborne sensor, offering 220 calibrated bands. Characterized by a low temporal resolution (200 days), Hyperion acquired imagery fitted a 30 m pixel size, what could be deemed as moderate spatial resolution (Table 1). Hyperion imagery was collected on May 5, 2003 at 19 h 52 min 14 s UTC. The study area (Figure 2A), composed of 65 × 66 pixels, was orthorectified using ground control points and bilinear resampling (datum WGS84, UTM 6 South). The radiometric correction included three steps: the factor calibration of the digital number to the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance, the TOA radiance to the down-of-atmosphere (DOA) radiance considering atmosphere absorption, and the DOA radiance to the DOA reflectance, accounting for solar irradiance. Out of 220 initial bands, 167 bands were further investigated taking into account both water vapour transmission windows and overlap regions of both spectrometers.

Table 1. Hyperion and WorldView-3 specificities

Spaceborne superspectral / hyperspatial WorldView-3

The WV3 instrument was orbited in 2014 and is still the finest civilian VIS, NIR and SWIR sensor. The spatial enhancement of 5 VIS, 3 NIR and 8 SWIR wavebands thanks to the 0.3 m panchromatic resolution makes the WV3 very attractive to the scientific community tasked with submeter-, day-scale processes (Table 1). WV3 imagery, obtained on July 12, 2018 at 20 h 35 min 39 s UTC, was subset to the study area in the form of 6243 × 6379 pixels (Figure 2B). Like Hyperion, WV3 imagery was processed to be geometrically corrected, then radiometrically standardized to DOA reflectance.

Spectral-based classification

The first assumption of this work pointed out upfront that superspectral WV3 could classify as satisfactorily as hyperspectral Hyperion. This hypothesis has been tested across 10 coral reefscape classes, chosen for their structural, thus spectral, complexity but also their representativeness of tropical coasts. A great challenge to be overcome lay in the highly contrasted spatial resolutions of 30-m Hyperion and 0.3-m WV3, but also 0.1-m UAV data.

Classes investigated:

Based on UAV air truth and natural-coloured inspection, 10 spectrally-homogeneous areas were selected over Hyperion imagery (1 pixel per class), corresponding to 10 000 pixels per class over WV3 imagery (Table 2). Benefiting from the correction up to the DOA reflectance level, natural-coloured patterns between Hyperion and WV3 were conspicuously recognizable across the 10 classes, irrespective of their marine or terrestrial nature (see ad hoc columns in Table 2). Dry Forest

Hyperion WV-3 UAV h( X ) k w n ( X ) (1)
i i i
Beyond overall accuracies derived from confusion matrices, a generalization of the R 2 was adopted to compare fitting performances (1000-fold validation, keeping the best model) of Hyperion/WV3 spectral combinations to categorize the 10 classes of interest. The statistic uses the 2/n root of the likelihood. It ranges from the value 0, for a model as good as a constant model, to the value 1 for a perfect model.

Spatial-based segmentation

In addition to its superspectral specificities, WV3 has the potential to provide information at 0.3 m, leading the civilian spaceborne optical imagery. The second assumption of this research relied on WV3 hyperspatial capacity to discriminate complex spatial patterns as suitable as centimetre-scale UAV. This conjecture has been evaluated by segmenting both imageries using the edge algorithm (objects with sharp edges), and the full lambda schedule for merging small objects within larger, textured ones. The selected texture kernel size has been fixed at 3 pixels.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Our results, firstly, focused on the bridge between spaceborne hyperspectral Hyperion and superspectral WV3, and secondly dealt with the linkage between hyperspatial WV3 and UAV.

Hyperion and WV3 spectral classification

Prior to show ANN results of the classification, DOA reflectances of the 8 marine and 2 land classes were plotted for Hyperion and WV3 (Figures 3 and4). 2), overreflecting water classes within absorbing NIR and SWIR, due to sun glint integration in the coarse pixel.

Results of the ANN modelling, classifying the 10 classes based on combinations of Hyperion and WV3 spectral wavebands, were significant (Figure 5). RGB (3 bands), RGBNIR (4 bands), RGB-Coastal-yellow (5 bands) and RGBNIRs (8 bands) classifications showed greater performances for Hyperion than WV3 (0.06 difference in R 2 ). The combination, including 16 WV3 bands, and corresponding 16 Hyperion bands, was still better for Hyperion, but with a reduction in deviation (0.04 difference in R 2 ), due to the rise trend of WV3 and a slight decrease of Hyperion. The latter sensor's score further declined when all 167 bands were integrated into ANN modelling, making the 16-band WV3 combination a better predictor than Hyperion. Hyperion counter-performance might be justified by the spectro-statistical noise conveyed by too many bands, thus the need for dimensionality reduction [START_REF] Keller | Investigation of the impact of dimensionality reduction and feature selection on the classification of hyperspectral EnMAP data[END_REF].

on UAV, and barely detected on WV3. The segmentation could be enhanced using the intensity algorithm, leveraging 16 WV3 information, compared to 3 UAV one. Beyond the physical limitations of pixel size, WV3 pansharpening procedure, producing halo-like artefacts, might be improved using a dedicated hypersharpening technique [START_REF] Kwan | Blind quality assessment of fused worldview-3 images by using the combinations of pansharpening and hypersharpening paradigms[END_REF].

CONCLUSIONS

Complex scenes, such as coastal tropical systems, require sensors provided with high spectral, spatial and temporal resolution.

We propose here to bridge hyperspectral 30-m spaceborne instruments, such as Hyperion, and hyperspatial 3-band UAV, such as DJI Mavic Pro. The 0.3-m WV3 sensor has Figure 5. Hyperion and WorldView-3 comparison of the classification performances using one-layered artificial neural networks for the 10 classes investigated

WV3 and UAV spatial segmentation

Comparisons of segmentation applied to WV3 and UAV subsets were informative (Figure 6). relying on edge algorithm and full lambda schedule fusion, produced similar outcomes in a qualitative perspective: pavement/sand patches over WV3 imagery were as successfully delineated as UAV one within the fringing reef matrix. The main difference resided in the refined delimitation of small pavement/sand patches, visible demonstrated that its 16-band combination rivalled 167-band Hyperion for classifying 10 classes using ANN modelling, while competing with 0.1-m UAV for segmenting fringing coral reefs. Conciliating spectral and spatial requirements needed for coasts, the WV3 benefits from an hypertemporal resolution, namely a daily revisit, as good as UAV's one.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Natural-coloured WorldView-3 imagery of Moorea Island (French Polynesia)

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Natural-coloured (A) Hyperion (30 m × 30 m) and (B) WorldView-3 (0.3 m × 0.3 m) imageries of the study site in Moorea Island (French Polynesia), over which is draped the unmanned aerial vehicle natural-coloured Mavic Pro imagery (0.1 m × 0.1 m). Green and red points represent geolocations of the classes investigated, provided with and deprived of UAV

  Table2. Hyperion, WorldView-3 and unmanned aerial vehicle Mavic Pro images of the 10 classes investigated2.5.2 Artificial neural network modelling:The ANN, a machine learner, builds non-linear models, h, by minimizing least squares using a one-layer perceptron feed-forward technique, approximating the i (here, i=2) training responses with a constant, k, and Hyperion/WV3 combinations of spectral predictors, X, through weighted functions, wi, adjusting neurons, ni, that are based on the hyperbolic tangent activation function[START_REF] Heermann | Classification of multispectral remote sensing data using a back-propagation neural network[END_REF]):

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Hyperion spectral signatures of the 10 classes (A: 8 marine, B: 2 terrestrial). 167 bands out of 220 were operable

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. WorldView-3 spectral signatures of the 10 classes (A: 8 marine, B: 2 terrestrial). 16 bands were operable

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. Comparison of a fringing reef subset of naturalcoloured (A) WorldView-3 (0.3 m pixel size) and (B) UAV (0.1 m pixel size), as well as segmented (C) WorldView-3 and (D) UAV imageries Despite a 3-fold factor separating WV3 and UAV spatial resolution, the segmentation processing, relying on edge algorithm and full lambda schedule fusion, produced similar outcomes in a qualitative perspective: pavement/sand patches over WV3 imagery were as successfully delineated as UAV one within the fringing reef matrix. The main difference resided in the refined delimitation of small pavement/sand patches, visible

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fieldwork and UAV survey was carried out into the "Reef I Were" project supported by the CNRS PEPS TOHMIS, and spaceborne imagery was delivered by DigitalGlobe Foundation.


Alexander Sachse

Javier Garcia Martinez

A Brief Guide for the Chemistry Entrepreneur

"When starting a company, you can listen to everyone's advice, but oftentimes, it does not matter. If you do not live it, you will not learn it". This is generally the answer that we get when asking a chemistry entrepreneur the question: what does it take to bring an invention to the market? Yet, there exist many valuable tools designed to support successful business creation and to identify its key steps.

The first and one of the most important things we need to bear in mind when aiming at creating a company is the capacity of self-assessment, i.e. the ability to know and to evaluate oneself. It is indeed crucial to be aware of one's skills, strengths and expertise as well as to own a precise idea of our envisaged business and its implementation. Whilst, appropriate work experience in the area we want our industry to produce in is fundamental, we should not be afraid to venture out into the unknown. Essential business skills can be learned with the appropriate diligence. The most important concern to become a chemistry entrepreneur is that we should know what we want to do with the rest of our lives.

It is crucial to have a good business idea, which should identify a key niche and satisfy a need by its realization. There should exist no ambiguity whether our idea presents what it requires to becoming a real market opportunity. We should hence be in measure to define a given target market. Equally, it is fundamental to identify potential competitors and to assure the intellectual property that covers our business idea.

Once these initial issues are clarified the establishment of a versatile business plan is of upmost importance. A business plan is an extremely useful tool as it permits to bundle our ideas whilst generating an efficient business strategy leading to success. The business plan allows to determine the course of action, assessment of responsibilities and formulation of the company's milestones. This is a time consuming and exhausting process, yet crucial if we aim at the success of the realization of our idea.

Finally and most importantly, we need to determine the financial structure of our company, as most chemical entrepreneurs cannot realize their invention without an efficient funding strategy.

In this article we will fathom the most essential concepts for realizing an invention to become a business idea from its beginnings to setting-up the company and to highlight its substantial key requirements. Further we will depict Rive technology as case study to successful business creation.

The birth of the business Idea: The Eureka Moment

One of the best things of being a chemist is the feeling of joythis is the sensation we have when we achieve something new for the first time; the wellknown Eureka effect. Yet, an even better and by far more fascinating adventure is to bring the invention to the market. Along this intriguing journey many new concepts have to be learned and applied, such as cost, ownership of intellectual property and prior art, government regulations; concepts to which chemists are oftentimes not very familiar with. Many constraints arise throughout this challenge and we need to be prepared in order to circumvent major inconveniences that could hinder and infringe commercial success of our invention.

Key factors for a successful business idea

If we have in mind of commercializing an invention we need to stop to think as a researcher. What we need to commercialize our invention is not a research proposal but a vision. It is worth emphasizing that proposing a single product is not enough for creating a company. This is a typical mistake for academic entrepreneurs. A vision can be represented by a concept such as a technology platform that permits us to realize various products allowing to resolve a need that market has yet not done. To have a vision furthermore supports us to be versatile and to adapt to rapid market changes. Competition is vigorous and it is not because we produce the best product that competitors will not put something on the market that works even better at a keener price. It is essential to sediment in our minds that it is the clients that determine our business strategy. A vision is hence crucial to have a greater picture beyond our product.

To have an idea is definitely the first step in any entrepreneurs' life. Yet, we should bear in mind that the business world is regardless of any beauty of a given invention. What really matters is if the idea has the potentiality to generate profit. The availability of a market opportunity is a key aspect that needs to be considered. Researchers frequently are troubled of not being sure whether a company can be created around a given product. To remedy this dilemma we merely need to be in the possibility of answering the question: how much of my product do I need to sell and to what cost in order to establish a strong company? The size and strength of the company we aim to create depends mainly on the prize we can sell our product and to how many purchasers there exist.

Having an idea and knowing the market are essential attributes that need to be assessed before of any realistic consideration of company realization. Yet, the process of building up the company is tricky as many unforeseeable trap doors exist. A typical mistake many academic entrepreneurs slip up with is to believe that they are self-sufficient. Yet, nobody is capable of knowing everything. It is thus important to recognize our limitations and to share duties by forming an efficient team. This can go as far as hiring a CEO who himself has nothing to do with the conception of our initial idea, but who becomes part of our vision.

An additional key factor is determinant for the development of our company which is money. No business can be created without money. We need money in order to generate profit and we should be aware how funding works on all levels.

Reasons why many companies fail

The above-mentioned key factors are essential for the successful growth and development of our company. A majority of industries fail in their infancy mainly due to the fact that the above mentioned key features are not fully respected. Many researchers have an idealized idea of the commercialization of their technology or product and are not aware of the wind that blows out in the business world.

Under no circumstances should we aspire to creating a company out of love for the technology or for the mere desire of advancing technology. Launching a company is not a research proposal. An important amount of time academics spend with, is fundraising, yet by no means should we try to fund a research project through investors. We must be aware that investors need to be paid back several times the amount of money they have invested, hence we should be convinced that our product has the power to generate profit.

Another typical pitfall is the idea that launching a company could be beneficial to improve our CV. This is not the case. Starting a company represents years of academic sacrifice in which we will hardly publish scientific papers. If our goal is to boost our CV then we should do this by writing high quality papers and books.

Becoming an independent researcher becomes more and more difficult nowadays and many especially young scientists fell frustrated of being unable of attaining a fixed position within academia. In this respect, creating a company represents a way out of this quandary and permits furthermore to be one's own boss. Yet, we should be aware that the conception of the term boss does no longer apply to modern companies. Being the founder of a company rarely feels like being its chief. It's the team that shapes the business.

How to assess if our business idea is promising for setting up a company?

Researchers oftentimes have the doubt of not knowing whether an idea has what it takes to be converted into a successful business. The first question we need to be able to answer is: is there a demand for our product? In other words, are customers willing to pay for our product? To answer this question we need to identify a target market, to understand if our product is unique and if our product we aim at producing is free of any legal implications. If we are not completely sure of being able to find the right answer to the question we need to realize that what we are offering is not strong enough and the best thing we can do is to work on our idea or to develop a new one.

Business plan: on the way to creating our business

The concept of the business plan has evolved essentially during the past decades. Previously a business plan was meant to be highly developed and was represented by a lengthy document to which the company had to adhere rigorously and that would not be altered after its approval. This rigorous conception of the plan did not enable any possibility to flexibility. In the fast moving times we live in this conception is no longer valid as it represents a major drawback.

Nowadays, the notion of the business plan has radically changed, and provides versatility to our idea to adapt to the market. A successful business plan is meant to clarify our idea, define the long term objectives and provide a blueprint for funding our business. The business plan must include a valid business concept, disclose markets and competitors, define sales and marketing strategy, draft the management team and the financial requirements and finally assess possible risk our company runs to fail.

Setting up the business plan generally follows the principles of The Chemistry Lean LaunchPad (4). This Pad consists out of nine distinct elements that determine the development of the business plan and concretely consist to: (i) identify the customer segment (i.e. who are our clients); (ii) define the value proposition (i.e. our vision); (iii) determine the channels through which the customer segments should be reached; (iv) determine the type of the expected relationship with each of our customer segments; (v) determine the revenue stream (i.e. to define the value for which our customers are willing to pay); (vi) determine our key resources that our value proposition requires (i.e. workforce, technology, Intellectual Property rights); (vii) determine our key activity that our value proposition requires to be successful; (viii) identify our key partners (i.e. who are our business associates that are required to commercialize our product); (ix) determine the cost structure (i.e. establish which are the most important costs inherent to our business model).

The Chemistry Lean LaunchPad can be well conveyed through the concept of "pivoting." This merely implies to create hypothesis, which need to be verified with our clients. It is essential to realize customer needs and to validate the invention with our customers. By doing so, we are enabled to going back to the original idea and to refine it as many times as possible potential customers can be established before creating the company. This is a fundamental key step as it is the clients who decide on the success of our business.

Communication: An indispensable key skill of the chemistry entrepreneur

Communication is a key skill that allows us to approach customers and permits for successful negotiations. Communication further enables us to inquire about market needs and to identify those how are willing to purchase our product. Thus, continuous communication with customers to refine our value proposition is of upmost importance.

A great variety of tutorials exist that explain the principles of efficient communication. We here merely aim at emphasizing some of the most important aspects of business-minded communication. It is always smart to keep in mind to the nature of the audience we are referring. Therefore, we need to determine and to adapt our speech. It is not equal exposing our idea to a research colleague or to an investor. The vulgarization of our vision is of extreme importance, i.e. to put it in very simple terms, yet to be able to distill the essence of the innovative aspects our product we aim at commercializing presents. We should bear in mind that potential customers and investors will try to destabilize us on purpose to grasp the strength of our arguments as well as our determination to realize our company. Therefore, eye contact and body language are of upmost importance as we do not merely communicate through oral language. A reposed yet dynamic attitude is important to make an impact. Finally we should be prepared and we should know exactly at all times about what we are talking. The loss of confidence represents a major risk when planning at creating a business.

Identifying the market: who are our customers and how to approach them?

A chemical company can produce a great variety of different products, such as services, technology or devices. Despite the nature of our product, we need to identify customers and potential customers that are willing to pay for it.

The best way of identifying potential customers is to focus to a specific customer group, which can generally be easily disclosed by market survey. Once we establish a group of potential customers we should find out their opinion on the product we are trying to offer. Key questions here are: is our product a valid alternative the potential consumer would buy? And if yes, under which conditions?

It is further important to realize that generally the first contact with a potential customer will not allow to make a deal. The firs contact will hardly lead to an appointment for presenting our product and to make a sales presentation. We need to be insistent, yet without being too obtrusive. We will barely be invited to present our product if we show no credibility right from the first contact.

When invited by a potential customer, we should prepare the best possible presentation and arguments why our product should be purchased. We should exactly know the customers' business and its reality. A good tactic can be to ask customers in which way we can help to maintain and grow their business by our product or technology.

A good strategy to understand customers' decisions is to ask for feedback. This allows us to learn and improve the way we approach and negotiate with consumers. This approach further helps us to realize limitations our product may feature.

Who are our competitors?

Whether our company will be successful depends in many cases on the competition there is out on the market. If our product proposes a unique solution, than our company will be the sole that produces it. Yet, this is an idealization too many researchers do. Generally alternatives to our product exist and we have to distinguish our product importantly to the one of competitors. An essential step before any business creation is to disclose any competitors and potential competitors.

There are two ways that allow for the determination of competitors. The first and most obvious way is to search for companies producing similar products or those that have similar know-how. The second strategy is to disguise competitors by their customers. This leads to a wide view of existing competitors and to realize the threat they present for our company. Under no circumstance should we underestimate the number of potential rivals. For getting a clear picture of our competitors we should exactly know which technology or product they are selling.

If our idea is to bring a new catalyst for a given reaction on the market than we should understand which commercial alternatives to our catalyst exist. Competitors may produce a similar catalyst but to a different scope, how can we assure that they will not sell their catalyst to the same scope as ours once we are on the market? Hence it is of upmost importance to grasp what our competitors are up to in order to be at the forefront. The strategy to that is that we should try as best as possible how our closest rivals will react to the creation of a new competitor (i.e. our company) and how we can foresee the market strategy they will apply.

Hinder others to realize our invention: Protection through Intellectual Property

We can set up a business producing the best alternative available on the market. Yet we must prevent by all means that other enterprises (i.e. competitors) copy our product. Therefore Intellectual Property rights exist and it is important that we know how to protect our invention through a maximum of claims.

We can demand Intellectual Property rights for any invention that presents well defined characteristics fulfilling the patentability criteria's. Our invention must present novelty and needs to rely on an inventive step (i.e. beyond the state-of-the-art). An invention further needs to present industrial applicability. The Intellectual Property right is granted as a patent. A patent provides its applicant with exclusive rights to prevent others from possessing, using, selling, manufacturing and importing the patent invention or offering it to do any of these means within a defined geographical area. Patents may be granted for any invention concerned with the functional and technical aspects of products and processes, i.e. product patents and process patents. Yet, it is important to be conscious that we are not allowed to apply a process-patent to a given product if the product is covered by Intellectual Property by a third party.

The geographical extension of the Intellectual Property extends to the national borders of the countries in which protection has been claimed. Intellectual Property for a given invention can be sought at national patent offices, the European Patent Office (EPO), or by solicitation an international patent through a so called PCT (patent cooperation treaty) application.

It is furthermore important to be aware that patents have an important cost that varies in function of the geographical area for which protection is sought and duration of the patent. Indeed patent maintenance costs increase exponentially throughout the life of a granted patent, within a limit of 20 years. Once this time period elapsed anyone can use our technology and produce liberally our product to offer it on the market. It is important to be ahead of other. Once our Intellectual Property rights expire we need to adapt our product in order to stay at the forefront. This highlights the importance of creating the company around a vision instead as on a single product.

Life cycle of the entrepreneurship project

Most companies develop essentially throughout time. Generally we talk about the company's life cycle. Some companies have developed efficient strategies and perdure throughout decades and even centuries. Figure 1 represents a typical life cycle of a chemical company. In the beginning of the creation important cost arise related to production and development of the product. Yet revenues take some time to ingress. This situation generates a negative cash flow. Hence, this stage is frequently referred as the Valley of Death. It is the depth of this valley that decides on the survival of our company. Indeed many companies do not manage to overcome this crucial stage.

Eventually, sales increase by finding new customers willing to pay for our product. During this stage our company grows essentially, yet cash flow is still negative and it is important to develop an efficient growth strategy. Once sales exceed costs a positive cash flow is registered, which means the company is generating a surplus. This stage is designed as the maturity phase of our company. Yet, our industry is not protected from decline, which is the case when income drops to or below the level of costs. This can for example be the case when a patent expires and a competitor brings the same, a similar or a better product on the market and eventually to a lower price.

Especially in the chemical sector the costs related to development and production correspond to an enormous cost effort, which means that the duration in which we require funding is particularly extended. Funding is essential throughout the entire time period the company registers a negative cash flow. It is important to be conscious that the Valley of Death is especially deep in the chemistry sector. Efficient fundraising is required to survive this stage and must then adapt to the growth phase of the company.

Fundraising

No company can be created without the appropriate financial structure. During the introduction and growth phase of our company we need to survive without registering any positive cash flow. This can only be achieved through efficient fundraising, as represented in figure 2. The nature of the financing institution depends particularly on the company's situation and is strongly connected to the notion of risk. By achieving essential milestones the risk to fail decreases. A milestone is represented by a major achievement that can be registered. In the chemical sector the first milestone is oftentimes constituted by the granting of the first patent (an important prerequisite to protect our product or technology). Once the first milestone achieved we can start with searching for funds. Typically, in this first instance of business creation investment is assured by so called Business Angels (i.e. affluent individuals who provide capital for a business start-up, usually in exchange of convertible debit or ownership equity). This first financial injection needs to permit us to achieve a subsequent milestone which generally presents a portfolio of clients. At this stage our company overcomes the Valley of Death, which means that the risk of our company to fail has substantially diminished. At this point more important investment can be sought through so called Venture Capitalists, who permit our company to grow at a steady state up to the stage of industrial production. Venture Capitalists are usually formed by institutions that invest other people's money which they manage for them.

Once our company established itself as well-working profit producing industry our risk to fail is substantially low and further investment through e.g. Investment Banks can be sought which permits to establish a big and leading chemical company.

How to find funding?

The precedent section highlighted the requirement for funding throughout an important time period our company gets started and grows. It is important to convince investors of your vision. This can only be done by presenting a clear, transparent and satisfying business strategy. We should be aware that potential investors have the choice between an important number of business plans, hence we should make sure that ours sticks out of the lot. Though the principal idea should be clear from the first glance, the plan must be sufficiently completed and throughout convincing. Therefore, we should present a strong management structure, ideally by proving previous experience. Furthermore, we should make sure that our idea is covered by Intellectual Property rights, as no investor will be willing to invest in a company which product can readily be copied by anyone.

When presenting our idea to a potential investor we should expose our full vision, as investors are oftentimes interested to a window of opportunities instead as in financing a one-product company. We should also highlight the market potential of our product, for this a strong and clear objective is essential. It is of upmost importance that the business plan reveals our background, our experience and our drive to launch the company.

Throughout the creation of our company we should be aware that nobody is willing to give us money without receiving a counterpart. Two basic types of financing exist independent of the financing source. These are equity financing and debt financing. Whilst in equity financing we receive capital in exchange of a part of the ownership of our company, in debt financing we need to pay back the loan we obtain. A chemical company is usually funded through equity financing.

This means that we will have to cease share of stocks of our company. A share is indeed defined as a unit of account for investment. In other words we as founder of our company have to realize that an essential part of the company does no longer belong to us but is disposed to the integrity of shareholders. Another possibility is that the investor becomes a partner of the company and will be concerned with its managing structure.

Case Study: Rive Technology; an exemplary example of successful business creation

Rive Technology was founded in 2006 and is headquartered in Boston with a research-and-development branch in Princeton, N.J. The MIT Executive Summary Report from February 2009 depicted Rive Technology as young and fast-growing company, funded by the MIT alumnus Dr. Javier Garcia Martinez. At that time, Rive Technology was still in its experimental stages, employing merely two people and working hard to determine whether the designed technology could be effectively translated into a business opportunity. Today, Rive Technology is a large company producing structured catalysts for separations processes, such as those used to refine petroleum, produce chemicals and biofuels, and purify air and water for increase process efficiency.

Rive commercializes its technology through W.R. Grace. In mid-2010 Rive and Grace entered into a joint development and commercialization program to combine Rive's innovative technology with Grace's capabilities in catalyst formulation and manufacturing. The companies are jointly developing and marketing breakthrough fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) catalysts. Since 2013, the technology is commercialized [START_REF] Garcia-Martinez | The Third Way: Becoming an Academic Entrepreneur[END_REF].

Rive has raised more than $67 million in venture capital. After successful scale-up and extensive pilot plant study, the prepared catalysts are being used in commercial refineries providing enhanced flexibility, better selectivity, and profitability that we are using to expand our technology to new processes.

Molecular Highway Technology Technical context and understanding the problem

Most catalysts used in the refining industry are constructed out of zeolites. These are crystalline inorganic materials characterized by an open framework of atoms including silicon, aluminum and oxygen. When taken together, they form an open structure of micro-pores (with dimensions below 1 nm). This structure makes zeolites very effective catalysts providing access to reactants, or feed molecules. In petroleum refining, long hydrocarbon chains, or feed molecules, enter the zeolite crystal through the micro-pores and are channeled to the active sites inside the zeolite crystal. Once inside the pores, the long hydrocarbon chains are converted, or "cracked", into small, more valuable product molecules, such as gasoline, diesel, or other products.

Yet, current zeolites suffer from a performance limitation due to the size of their micro-pores. As a result, longer hydrocarbons cannot fit through the small openings of the micro-pores and are blocked, preventing them from being cracked into more valuable products. Furthermore, the hydrocarbons that do make their way into the micro-pores are at risk of over-cracking, which can result in the production of undesirable byproducts, such as light gases. This limitation in diffusion decreases product yields, product efficiency, and ultimately, profits.

Rive's product solution

Understanding the problem with existing zeolite catalysts, Rive Technology offers a nano-engineered solution with its Molecular Highway Technology. When applied to the zeolite structure, Molecular Highway Technology creates larger mesopores (2-50 nm in diameter), or "molecular highways", in the latticework of the zeolite. These molecular highways improve diffusion into and out of the structure, allowing feed molecules improved access to the zeolite structure, where they are converted. This allows for the longer hydrocarbons, which previously could not access the structure, to diffuse through the catalysts and be cracked into the desired products. Moreover, the molecular highways are large enough that the product molecules exit the structure rapidly before over-cracking can occur into undesirable byproducts. With the Molecular Highway Technology, it is possible to control and optimize the concentration and size of the mesopores across a wide range of zeolite structures for specific applications. This technology is applicable to many zeolite processes that are diffusion-controlled, which improves product yields, efficiency, and economic performance [START_REF] Li | Realizing the Commercial Potential of Hierarchical Zeolites: New Opportunities in Catalytic Cracking[END_REF][START_REF]Mesoporous Zeolites: Preparation, Characterization and Applications[END_REF].

Company Evolution

In the beginning, the company operated very cheaply, moving to Oklahoma to scale up the technology. Since then, however, Rive Technologies has raised a significant amount of money and is nearing closure on a fifth round of funding for a total of $100 millions. This is a serious amount of money, but it comes with the territory. If you want to change how gasoline and diesel are made on a global scale, spending large amounts of money is inevitable.

In keeping with its large financial scale, the company has a range of very good investors, such as Blackstone, Mitsui Chemicals, and Saudi Aramco.

Since its modest beginning in Oklahoma, Rive has scaled up significantly and become an international company. Headquartered in Boston, MA, the company has its R&D headquarters in Princeton, NJ, and additional domestic offices in Denver, CO, and Houston, TX. Some of Rive's global partners are from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, with a portion of production in China. As a result, issues revolving around logistics, intellectual property, and working well with international partners are of critical importance.

The global scale of Rive is a natural evolution of its industry. When attempting to change how energy is produced, the company cannot be limited to just one market and thus needs to have a presence all around the world. This is critically important. Naturally, it is necessary to have partners. However, when advising up-and-coming entrepreneurs who want to make a global impact, the importance of having a real presence with your own employees in the countries in which you have operations should be stressed.

Figure X. Rive's vision.

Concluding Remarks

There is an important amount of outrageous research being done at universities and research centers around the world, and there are huge market needs that still need to be met. The missing links are the business ideas that allow the research to actually hit the market. Moreover, the products and solutions need to be put in the hands of the public. Once products are on the market and begin to capture value, this value can then be funneled back into research to create more new products and services. But in order to do this, we need more entrepreneurs-people who know the research, know how to solve the problems, are aware of market demands, and who can find ways to commercialize the market, produce the product and create a company around it. The challenges are summarized graphically in Figure 1.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Example of the life cycle of a chemical company.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Financial life cycle of a chemical company.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Rive's proposed product solution.

When considering whether to become an employee or an entrepreneur, think about this quote from Tony Gaskins: "If you don't build your dream, someone will hire you to help build theirs."


Sylvaine Giakoumi
email: sylvaine.giakoumi1@gmail.com

Virgilio Hermoso

Silvia Carvalho

Vasiliki Markantonatou

Mindaugas Dagys

Takuya Iwamura

Wolfgang N Probst

Robert J Smith

Katherine L Yates

Vasiliki Almpanidou

Tihana Novak

Noam Ben-Moshe

Stelios Katsanevakis

Joachim Claudet

Marta Coll

Alan Deidun

Franz Essl

José A Garcia-Charton

Carlos Jimenez

Salit Kark

Milica Mandić

Antonios D Mazaris

Wolfgang Rabitsch

Vanessa Stelzenmüller

Elena Tricarico

Ioannis N Vogiatzakis

Conserving European biodiversity across realms

Keywords: Birds Directive, conservation planning, funding priorities, EU Biodiversity Strategy, Habitats Directive, integrated management, multi-realm species, Red List, threats

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Recent research has highlighted the importance of identifying and quantifying links among the terrestrial, freshwater, and marine realms when planning for conservation and managing ecosystems (e.g. [START_REF] Álvarez-Romero | Integrated Land-Sea Conservation Planning: The Missing Links[END_REF][START_REF] Saunders | Simple rules can guide whether land-or ocean-based conservation will best benefit marine ecosystems[END_REF]. Multiple biophysical and ecological processes connect realms, allowing for the movement of species and the transfer of energy and matter across them [START_REF] Beger | Conservation planning for connectivity across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial realms[END_REF]. Concurrently, there are numerous cross-realm threats to ecosystems, such as agricultural effluents impacting freshwater and marine ecosystems [START_REF] Álvarez-Romero | Integrated Land-Sea Conservation Planning: The Missing Links[END_REF]. Thus, the persistence of species in one realm can be jeopardized by human activities occurring in another [START_REF] Stoms | Integrated coastal reserve planning: making the land-sea connection[END_REF]. To avert such risks, threat management and prioritization of conservation actions require an integrated approach spanning all realms [START_REF] Tallis | Linking Terrestrial and Marine Conservation Planning and Threats Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Adams | Planning Across Freshwater and Terrestrial Realms: Cobenefits and Tradeoffs Between Conservation Actions[END_REF][START_REF] Saunders | Simple rules can guide whether land-or ocean-based conservation will best benefit marine ecosystems[END_REF].

The need for integrated conservation efforts is further pronounced when dealing with organisms that use habitats in more than one realm during their daily activities or life cycle (hereafter referred to as multi-realm species). For example, diadromous fishes that migrate between freshwater and marine ecosystems, and dragonflies that move daily between freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Identifying connections between ecosystems within different realms is critical for the persistence of multi-realm species. For migratory animals, such as several shorebird species, these connections can extend over broad spatial scales and cross borders [START_REF] Iwamura | Migratory connectivity magnifies the consequences of habitat loss from sea-level rise for shorebird populations[END_REF], making international collaboration necessary to ensure cross-boundary species conservation [START_REF] Kark | Crossboundary collaboration: key to the conservation puzzle[END_REF].

Despite this, connections among realms have been broadly ignored when managing ecosystems and conservation efforts have mainly focused on one particular realm [START_REF] Álvarez-Romero | Integrated Land-Sea Conservation Planning: The Missing Links[END_REF]2015a). This is partly because collaboration between the various governmental and non-governmental organizations that are responsible for the implementation of management actions in different realms is poor (Álvarez-Romero et al. 2015a;[START_REF] Reuter | Integrated land-sea management: recommendations for planning, implementation and management[END_REF]. Consequently, some threatened multi-realm species have only been protected in one realm that is associated with one stage of their life or daily cycle. For example, most conservation efforts targeting sea turtles have primarily focused on protecting nesting sites on land [START_REF] Mazor | The value of migration information for conservation prioritization of sea turtles in the Mediterranean[END_REF]). Although such conservation initiatives have been successful, the current decrease of some sea turtle populations (e.g. Eastern and Western Pacific leatherbacks) may be associated with the challenge of protecting these species across their habitats (Mazaris et al. 2017a, Klein et al. 2017). Likewise, conservation efforts for wetland-breeding amphibians that focused on wetlands without considering adjacent terrestrial habitats have been ineffective (Dodd & Cane 1998).

Moreover, the lack of coordinated conservation actions across political boundaries has often been an obstacle in conserving effectively threatened species including multi-realm species [START_REF] Dallimer | Why socio-political borders and boundaries matter in conservation[END_REF][START_REF] Runge | Protected areas and global conservation of migratory birds[END_REF]. Barriers to international collaboration can be removed when countries coordinate their conservation efforts through intergovernmental institutions, such as the European Union (EU), which funds and supports trans-national conservation initiatives across Europe. The EU has set policy targets to halt and reverse the loss of biodiversity by 2020 (EC, 2011). Although the EU´s 2020 Biodiversity Strategy is explicitly linked to fisheries, agricultural, and forestry policies, the integration of these policies and thus the explicit consideration of connections among realms is still lacking. Key steps towards the effective conservation of multi-realm species, in Europe and elsewhere, include: the identification of multi-realm species, the assessment of their threats, and the evaluation of funding dedicated to cross-realm conservation actions as a measure of adequacy at covering the special needs of the species.

Identifying multi-realm species of European conservation concern and their threats

We reviewed information on the habitats of 1,124 threatened species in Europe, i.e. species classified in the European Red List (up to April 2016) with one of the following categories:

Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) or Vulnerable (VU), to identify multi-realm species (see Appendix S1 and Table S1 in Supporting Information). Funded by the EU since 2006, the European Red List is compiled by the IUCN's Global Species Programme, in collaboration with experts. The list identifies those species that are threatened with extinction at the European level, so that appropriate conservation action can be taken to improve their status. Additionally, we reviewed information on the habitats of 1,284 non-threatened species that are listed in the EU Habitats (92/43/EEC) and Birds (2009/147/EC) Directives.

Threatened species listed in the Directives are also included in the European Red List, thus, information on these species had already been reviewed. The two directives are the cornerstones of Europe's nature conservation policy and guide the designation of the EU wide Natura 2000 network of protected areas. Species listed in their annexes should receive protection or be maintained in a favourable conservation status. Major threats for each multirealm species were identified by accessing the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species database.

Nearly a third (n=778) of the species of European conservation concern assessed were multi-realm species, belonging to three plant and 15 animal taxonomic groups (Appendix S1). Species living in ecosystems at the intersection of multiple realms, e.g. vascular plant species in estuaries, were also identified as multi-realm species. The largest group of multirealm species were birds (37%; n=289), with the vast majority of them (89%) being identified as migratory birds. Freshwater molluscs were the second largest group (n=171) followed by vascular plants (n=98). Μore than half of the multi-realm species (62%) depend on terrestrial and freshwater habitats (n=481), 10% depend on terrestrial and marine habitats (n=79), and 8% require freshwater and marine habitats (n=65). About 20% of the species (n=153) depend on habitats across all three realms.

A large number of multi-realm species were subject to common threats. Roads and other "transportation and service corridors" impacted approximately 70% of the species (Table S2). Other major threats were "energy production and mining" (affecting 56% of the species), "agriculture and aquaculture" (56%), and "invasive and other problematic species, genes and diseases" (47%).

Assessing European investment in multi-realm species conservation

Several funding sources are available to support biodiversity conservation in the EU, (e.g. the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development and the European Fisheries Fund) but only the LIFE Program earmarks funds for actions directly related to the implementation of biodiversity conservation [START_REF] Kettunen | Biodiversity and the EU budget[END_REF][START_REF] Kettunen | Biodiversity and the EU budget[END_REF]. Consequently, LIFE has become the main financial tool for the implementation of conservation projects in Europe [START_REF] Hermoso | EU's Conservation Efforts Need More Strategic Investment to Meet Continental Commitments[END_REF]. Here, we used data from LIFE-Nature projects to estimate the extent of the investment made for the conservation of multi-realm species at a continental scale.

Information on each of the 1,567 LIFE-Nature projects that were funded during the period 1992-2016 was sourced from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/. We identified all the projects with at least one multi-realm species a beneficiary. Projects were further analysed only when they included explicit conservation actions in multiple realms or interface habitats, i.e. habitats in the intersection of realms (Table S1), because we considered that these projects are more likely to conserve effectively the species in the highly human-dominated EU environment. Acknowledging that some multi-realm species may face threats in a single realm, we repeated the analysis with all projects targeting multi-realm species, including projects whose actions were confined to a single realm.

Less than one third (n=537) of the LIFE-Nature projects covered multiple realms and incorporated any of the 778 multi-realm species we identified. Moreover, within those 537 projects less than 30% of these species (n=229) were covered. Certain groups of multirealm species, e.g. beetles, were relatively well covered whereas others, such as mammals and marine fishes, were among the least funded groups (Fig. 1). In particular, multi-realm species belonging to the groups of marine molluscs, bees, grasshoppers, and medicinal plants were not covered by any LIFE-Nature project. The vast majority (91%) of the species funded under LIFE-Nature were listed in the annexes of the Habitats or Birds Directives. The species that received the largest budget for protection (~56 million €) was the Eurasian bittern (Botaurus stellaris Linnaeus, 1758; Fig. 2). This species was funded almost twice as much as the second most funded species, the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758).

The Eurasian bittern is listed as a priority species for funding under the LIFE program but has an IUCN conservation status of "Least Concern (LC)".

In fact, more than half of the LIFE-Nature projects' budget (61%) was allocated to species classified as "LC" (Fig. 3a). Although the average budget allocated to threatened species belonging to the categories "EN" and "VU" was higher than the one allocated to nonthreatened species (Fig. 3b), the vast majority of projects targeted very few "CR" multi-realm species and focused on "LC" species (Fig. S2). Only 7% of multi-realm "CR" species received funding, whereas funds were allocated for the conservation of 41% of the "LC" species. About 65% of the projects benefiting a single species (n=115) targeted nonthreatened species.

Species that depend on terrestrial and freshwater habitats, representing 61% of the multirealm species assessed herein, received about 80% of the total budget (Fig. 3c). On average, the 118 funded species belonging to this realm combination received ~3.9 million €. Species requiring freshwater and marine habitats (n=18) on average received larger budgets in comparison to species related to other realm combinations (Fig. 3d). However, more than half the budget (57%) was dedicated to only two fishes, S. salar and Alosa fallax (Lacepède, 1803). Species depending on terrestrial and marine habitats (n=21) received on average the smallest budget, equivalent to ~2.2 million €. Nearly one third of the total budget for this realm combination was allocated to the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758), which is a priority species for funding under the LIFE program.

Even when considering all projects targeting multi-realm species (n=753), including those projects whose actions were confined to a single realm, the percentage of multi-realm species covered increased only slightly (34%). The total investment in multi-realm species conservation increased from around 800 million to 1.2 billion Euros. The patterns of investment revealed were similar to those found when only considering projects that incorporated multiple realms, with more than half the projects' budget (57%) was allocated to species classified as "LC" (Fig. S1). Species that depend on terrestrial and freshwater habitats still received the highest proportion of the total budget (51%; Fig. S1).

The allocation of LIFE-Nature funds for the conservation of multi-realm species across EU member states and across realm combinations varied greatly among countries (Fig. 4). In Croatia and Lithuania, more than 80% of the total LIFE funds were allocated to projects that targeted multi-realm species whereas in Cyprus, France, the Czech Republic, Italy and the UK, the respective proportion was less than 15%. In Spain, LIFE funds dedicated to the conservation of multi-realm species for all dual realm combinations (freshwater-terrestrial, marine-terrestrial, marine-freshwater) were greater than in other member state. Species depending on habitats in all three realms received the most coverage in Sweden. Similar patterns were revealed when funds were adjusted using country-level purchasing power parity (PPP) as in [START_REF] Lung | Biodiversity Funds and Conservation Needs in the EU Under Climate Change[END_REF] (Appendix S1;Fig S3). The most remarkable difference being the substantial funds devoted in the combination of freshwater and marine ecosystems in the UK.

Overall, our findings demonstrate that 1) LIFE-Nature projects have been covering a small proportion of multi-realm species of conservation interest, 2) conservation effort is skewed towards specific taxonomic groups, and 3) species that are most in need of conservation effort receive disproportionally less funding.

Reinforcing EU's integrated conservation efforts

While the scientific recognition of the need for integrated conservation across realms gains ground, the practical implementation of integrated conservation actions lags. To date, more than 800 million Euros have been invested in LIFE-Nature projects targeting multi-realm species and including conservation actions across realms. Although this is a substantial contribution towards integrated conservation efforts, only 30-34% of multi-realm species of conservation concern (i.e. multi-realm species listed in the European Red List and/or in the Habitats and Birds Directives) have benefitted to date from LIFE-Nature funds. Whilst acknowledging that other sources of funding exist and may benefit multi-realm species, the LIFE-Nature programme remains the main financial instrument for biodiversity conservation in the EU. Species action plans and funds from national sources of member states that could contribute substantially to the conservation of multi-realm species have not been captured

here. Yet, species action plans often present taxonomic bias [START_REF] Sitas | What are we saving? Developing a standardized approach for conservation action[END_REF], and nationally or locally funded actions often miss coordination at larger spatial scales, even though this is critical for ensuring the persistence of multi-realm species across national borders. The EU provides a platform to coordinate conservation efforts across borders and identifies priorities for conservation at a continental level. To reinforce integrated conservation efforts across Europe we provide the following recommendations.

Policy recognition for the need of integrated conservation

The EU, as a Party to the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), developed a biodiversity strategy to meet its international commitments. The EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy is directly linked to the Common Agricultural Policy, the Common Fisheries Policy, the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD; 2008/56/EC). Yet, in none of these policies are connections of species populations and human activities across realms explicitly considered. To date, most EU policy documents, such as the MSFD, refer to activities and management measures that are confined to a single realm. An exception is the recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council for integrated coastal zone management (2002/413/EC). In this policy document the connections among the terrestrial and marine realms are explicitly stated as well as the need for integrated management to ensure the sustainability of coastal ecosystems and their services. Furthermore, with the EU Marine Spatial Planning Directive (2014/89/EU), a framework for marine spatial planning and integrated coastal management was established which considers the interaction between land-and sea-based activities. This is an important step towards integrated conservation but coastal ecosystems are not the only systems that can benefit from integrated management and planning across realms. [START_REF] Adams | Planning Across Freshwater and Terrestrial Realms: Cobenefits and Tradeoffs Between Conservation Actions[END_REF] highlighted numerous benefits of applying integrated conservation planning and actions across terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. Therefore, we recommend that policy-makers consider a broader array of ecosystems and their connections when formulating integrated management policies and strategies.

Recurrent revision of conservation funding priorities

The first target of the EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy is to fully implement the Habitats and Birds Directives. More specifically it is stated that: "These two Directives are the cornerstones of the EU's biodiversity policy, enabling all 27 EU Member States to work together, within the same legal framework, to conserve Europe's most endangered and valuable species and habitats across their entire natural range within the EU". Yet, our findings, in accordance with evidence from previous studies (e.g. [START_REF] Maiorano | On how much biodiversity is covered in Europe by national protected areas and by the Natura 2000 network: insights from terrestrial vertebrates[END_REF][START_REF] Hermoso | EU's Conservation Efforts Need More Strategic Investment to Meet Continental Commitments[END_REF][START_REF] Jeanmougin | Mismatch between Habitat Science and Habitat Directive: Lessons from the French (Counter) Example[END_REF], demonstrate that even the full implementation of the two directives would not benefit the most endangered species. The allocation of LIFE-Nature funds has been mainly driven by the Habitats and Birds Directives but most of the species benefitting from these funds are "Least Concern" species. When considering only the species listed in the two directives, we found that funds were not allocated in respect to the species conservation status and the urgency of their conservation needs. Moreover, many threatened species included in the European Red List (as CR, EN, or VU) are missing from the directives' annexes. Therefore, we join the voices of our colleagues and call for an adaptive revision of the conservation priorities set by the two directives and their harmonization with the European Red List. Revisions should be conducted periodically to capture the effectiveness of the actions financed by LIFE-Nature projects and other conservation funding initiatives [START_REF] Hochkirch | Europe needs a new vision for a Natura 2020 network[END_REF]. Effective conservation actions may drive changes of species' status. Moreover, these periodic assessments will allow the increase or decrease of threats to biodiversity to be reflected. These changes should be taken into account when revising conservation priorities and allocating the scarce conservation resources. Funds should be prioritized but not exclusively dedicated to the conservation of threatened species as some non-threatened species play important ecological roles in ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services.

Implementation of integrated conservation planning and management

The EU's network of protected areas, Natura 2000, aims to ensure the long-term survival of Europe's most valuable and threatened species and habitats, listed under the Habitats and Birds Directives. Besides the urgent need for the revision of the species listed in the two directives, we suggest that an integrative approach is adopted when designating new Natura 2000 sites across realms. Currently, the vast majority of Natura 2000 sites that include a marine area are either extensions of terrestrial sites into the sea or cross-realm sites whose coverage is highly biased towards land [START_REF] Mazaris | Gaps and challenges of the European network of protected sites in the marine realm[END_REF]. The selection of these sites has often been driven by terrestrial rather than marine conservation needs [START_REF] Giakoumi | Could European marine conservation policy benefit from systematic conservation planning?[END_REF]. Similarly, the conservation of freshwater ecosystems has been peripheral to conservation goals developed for terrestrial ecosystems [START_REF] Hermoso | The role of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation: challenges and opportunities in a rapidly changing world[END_REF]. Integrated conservation planning allows to meet conservation needs in multiple realms in a more balanced fashion and explicitly considers the trade-offs among alternative plans (e.g. [START_REF] Álvarez-Romero | Advancing Land-Sea Conservation Planning: Integrating Modelling of Catchments, Land-Use Change, and River Plumes to Prioritise Catchment Management and Protection[END_REF]). To effectively implement integrated conservation planning, species ranges across realms should be considered. Moreover, adopting cross-realm management actions could benefit the conservation of multi-realm species and even species whose activities are confined to one realm but face threats originating from multiple realms.

Our results show that many multi-realm species face common threats, thus, mitigating the impacts of these threats may have positive conservation outcomes for many species simultaneously.

In conclusion, the EU has invested substantial financial resources on conservation projects for species that use multiple realms during their daily or life cycle. However, EU conservation efforts should be reinforced and prioritized to conserve more species that need protection across realms and that are most threatened. To do so, recognition of the need for integrated policies across realms is needed as well as the implementation of integrated conservation planning for multi-realm species. LIFE-Nature investment (including single realm projects) per IUCN category and realm combination.

Figure S2

Species benefitting from increasing number of projects.

Figure S3

Distribution of LIFE-Nature investment across EU member states adjusted using PPPs.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Proportion of multi-realm species within each taxonomic group targeted for

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Multi-realm species that received the most LIFE-Nature funds per realm

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Proportion of (A, C) and average (B, D) LIFE-Nature budget of projects spent for

Figure 4 .FiguresFigure 1 :

 41 Figure 4. Distribution of LIFE-Nature investment across EU member states. For each

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Multi-realm species that received the most LIFE-Nature funds per realm combination. The overall estimated budget allocated for the conservation of: (a) the Eurasian bittern (Botaurus stellaris Linnaeus, 1758), a bird species using terrestrial & freshwater habitats, was 56,363,932 euros; (b) the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758), a marine fish using freshwater & marine habitats, was 30,607,947 euros; (c) the common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis Linnaeus, 1758), a bird using terrestrial & freshwater & marine habitats, was 13,921,416 euros; and (d) the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta Linnaeus, 1758), a reptile using terrestrial & marine habitats, was 11,405,033 euros. Photo credits: (a) Mike Barth, https://www.mikebarthphotography.com, (b) Hans-Peter Fjeld, (c) Andreas Trepte, (d) Konstantinos Papafitsoros

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3 : Proportion of (a, c) and average (b, d) LIFE-Nature budget of projects spent for multi-realm species in each IUCN category (a, b) and realm combination (c, d). The projects included in the analyses are those including actions in more than one realm

Acknowledgements

This article is based upon work from the COST Action 15121 'Advancing marine conservation in the European and contiguous seas (MarCons)' (Katsanevakis et al. 2017) supported by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology. SBC was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia through a post-doctoral grant (SFRH/BPD/74423/2010).

Supporting Information

Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher's web site:

Appendix S1

Methods.

Table S1

Habitat classification.

Table S2

Threats to multi-realm species.

Figure S1