Bjørn Furuholt
email: bjorn.furuholt@uia.no

Maung Kyaw

Grounded Analytic Research: Building Theory from a Body of Research

Keywords: Theory building, analytical research, grounded theory, digital divide, demand, sustainability, ICT for development

In this paper, we present Grounded Analytic Research (GAR) as a method to build theory by synthesizing empirical findings from multiple studies that has been conducted by a single researcher. GAR incorporates concepts from grounded theory, analytic research and systematic literature review. The method was applied in a doctoral dissertation work to build the theoretical concept of Demand Sustainability of public Internet access in the context of bridging the digital divide. We describe GAR and compare it with existing theory building methods that are similar to it in epistemology and ontology.

Introduction

The call for theory building in the Information Systems (IS) discipline has been a sustained one. Successive editors-in-chief of MIS Quarterly, the prime journal in IS, have stressed the need for developing theories indigenous to the field [START_REF] Zmud | Editor's Comments[END_REF][START_REF] Weber | Theoretically Speaking[END_REF]. In its wake, came encouragements and inducements to develop new and innovative methods for theory building. A concrete example is the expansion of the journal's "Theory and Review" department in 2007. In an impassioned plea for theory development the incumbent editor-in-chief and the department senior editor called for submissions that, among others, were [3:iv]:

• Comprehensive syntheses (using qualitative, grounded theory, meta-analytic, set-theoretic, or text mining methods) of previously published research with strong theoretical implications, and, • Pure theory papers with strong grounding in prior empirical research and/or practice "Highly valued characteristics" of such submissions included [3:v] • Theoretical statements enriched by relevant findings from previously published qualitative and quantitative research • Research syntheses that consider relevant qualitative, as well as quantitative, studies

• Research syntheses that employ set-theoretic or text mining methods as well as those that employ qualitative or meta-analytic techniques

Clearly, the message was to develop theory through synthesizing prior work and building on it. Specific methods and approaches were mentioned. This has helped IS researchers in their quest of theory [START_REF] Te'eni | Review: A Cognitive -Affective Model of Organizational Communication for Designing IT[END_REF]. Yet, there are instances where no existing method is exactly appropriate to capture the nuances and the context of the data collected in a research endeavour which subsequently affected the process of theory building. The only alternative left is to develop a completely new method either from scratch or by tweaking and integrating existing methods.

Such was the case with the challenge we faced in developing a theory in the context of Information and Communication Technologies for Development (ICT4D) on the sustainability of public internet access points (PIAPs) as a way to bridge the so-called Digital Divide. The research was the doctoral dissertation work of the first author (FA). Our search for an appropriate method resulted in an innovative method which we term Grounded Analytic Research (GAR).

In the rest of the paper, we will first narrate the story that led to GAR through a confessional account of FA's dissertation work. Since the topic of the dissertation is inextricably intertwined with the search, this account also briefly describes the state of the art in the literature of the topic. We then move on to describe how our search led to GAR. Throughout, we use the dissertation as illustration. We end the paper by discussing GAR vis-à-vis existing methods and by reflecting on its implications.

2

The Background Story

Like in many cases, GAR was born out of necessity. FA was working on his dissertation under the supervision of the second author (SA) at a Scandinavian university. 1 The thesis was to be "paper-based": comprised of a series of published articles, tied together in a "kappa" or an extended report (typically 70 to 100 pages). The kappa is not a summary. It presents the core of the intellectual and theoretical contribution to knowledge that determines whether the work deserves a PhD degree. The papers provide the support and the evidence for such theorizing. Typically, a PhD candidate conducts his/her research under a planned and structured program. The research questions are first articulated in the thesis proposal, then refined as the dissertation work progresses. Data collection and the writing of the individual articles follow a pre-defined plan and route although deviations and detours are not uncommon.

Our case, however, was not typical. FA had been conducting research in the ICT for development (ICT4D) area under the overarching theme of "Bridging the Digital Divide" with a specific focus on "Public Internet Access Points (PIAP)". He was not a doctoral student, nor was he planning to be one. Other than staying within the overarching theme, the ten papers from this body of work had little in common at first glance. After a decade or so of this work, FA was encouraged by colleagues and peers (the co-supervisors among them) to leverage his work into a doctoral degree. After all, such a lengthy body of work ought to have created new knowledge and made enough contribution to the field to be worthy of a PhD.

Suitably enthused, FA entered a doctoral program and dove with much gusto into the process of working towards a PhD. When he got down to the daunting task of writing the "kappa", he ran into a hurdle. He did not have a predefined research question for the kappa because his individual papers had their own research questions He had to essentially come up with his contribution to knowledge in the form of a theory or a theoretical concept to add to the body of knowledge. Over several discussions with his co-supervisors, such a concept emerged. It was "Demand Sustainability". 2PIAPs have been the traditional mode for bridging the digital divide in developing countries through physical access. A model for their sustainability had remained elusive. The vast majority of the ICT4D literature had focussed on the supply side of internet access while relegating the demand side to appropriate noises in the "Discussion" and "Conclusion" segments of articles. Ironically, the need to look at the demand side had been a major refrain of researchers and practitioners in ICT4D. Opinions such as "the demand is driving the whole thing" or "sustainability could only be demand-driven" were actually heard at conferences and gatherings.

A more basic question was: "What is sustainability?" While several conceptualizations exist in the literature (such as financial social, organizational), none could adequately explain why some form of PIAPs survive while others fade away. It gradually dawned on us that sustaining demand itself could lead to viability of PIAPs. So, above all forms of sustainability, the core concept is Demand Sustainability.

The conceptualization of Demand Sustainability became the core research question for FA's dissertation work. He now needed empirical grounding. He could of course go back to the field and gather fresh data. That would have meant essentially throwing away all the empirical work he had done already. A more reasonable way was to go back to these papers and "mine" them to come up with the required empirical underpinning for the theoretical concept . The problem was that there was no existing method that precisely described how to do it.

After searching the research method literature, personal communication with well-known IS scholars, and constant deliberations with SA, a new research method was born. We call it Grounded Analytic Research (GAR)3

The Search for an Appropriate Method

The search problem could be formulated thus: find a method to integrate the empirical findings from research conducted by the same researcher (FA) and insights from a number of articles resulting from this research that had their own research approaches and synthesize a theoretical concept called Demand Sustainability where none of the individual papers had sustainability as the central focus.

The first method we examined was the grounded theory method (GTM), a classical method for theory generation. After studying basic GTM literature [START_REF] Bryman | Social Research Methods[END_REF][START_REF] Glaser | The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research[END_REF][START_REF] Strauss | Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques[END_REF], literature on use of GTM in IS research [START_REF] Baskerville | Grounded Action Research: A Method for Understanding IT in Practice[END_REF][START_REF] Sarker | Using an Adapted Grounded Theory Approach for Inductive Theory Building About Virtual Team Development[END_REF][START_REF] Urquhart | The Evolving Nature of Grounded Theory Method: The Case of the Information Systems Discipline[END_REF], and some practically oriented papers [START_REF] Borgatti | Introduction to Grounded Theory[END_REF][START_REF] Warburton | What are Grounded Theories Made of? In[END_REF], one central question emerged: "Is it possible to start the GTM process (coding etc.) from the existing articles, and not from the primary data?" (see Figure 1). The literature provided some cues. Apart from the traditional and explicitly recognised forms of contemporaneous observation and interview, it was unclear what kinds of data are acceptable in GTM [START_REF] Warburton | What are Grounded Theories Made of? In[END_REF]. Personal communication with two prominent researchers (Cathy Urquhart and Richard Baskerville), confirmed that GTM is too closely linked to primary data and to certain coding techniques. What we needed was a method to synthesize prior research which in our case comprised of FA's ten articles.

An obvious choice was a "normal" literature review. Several guidelines exist in the literature [e.g. 13]. While these are useful and help in unearthing concepts and ultimately contribute to theory building, and while this method is at first glance appropriate in FA's case, it misses out on one vital aspect: reflection arising not just from the papers, but more importantly, the first-hand and intimate knowledge FA has about the data. Typical literature review papers do not provide any guidelines on how to bring in the primary data that FA had collected but were not part of the findings reported in the published articles. Consequently, an important ingredient of theory building is lost. We needed a method to go beyond simply integrating past findings. We needed an additional process to add the data itself.

The search then led to a closer look at a research strategy known as Analytic Research [START_REF] Buckley | Research Methodology & Business Decisions[END_REF] or Philosophical Research [START_REF] Jenkins | Research Methodologies and MIS research[END_REF]. This methodology defines a purely mental pursuit. The researcher thinks and logically reasons causal relationships. The process is intellectual and the aim is for the flow of logic to be explicit, replicable and testable by others". [15:112]. Analytic research relies on the use of internal logic on the part of the researcher who has the resources required for solving the problem within him/herself. No explicit reference to external data sources is necessary: the problem may be solved logically or philosophically. The emphasis is on cerebration which distinguishes it from the others.

However, GTM was not totally abandoned because of its theory building potential and suggestions that we need to be far more flexible as to what a unit of analysis might be [10:7]. Some of the principles and working methods from GTM were retained. Examples include practical oriented guidelines [START_REF] Urquhart | The Evolving Nature of Grounded Theory Method: The Case of the Information Systems Discipline[END_REF], and the iterative process described as: "The basic idea of the grounded theory approach is to read (and re-read) a textual database (such as a corpus of field notes) and 'discover' or label variables (called categories, concepts and properties) and their interrelationships" [11:2].

The theory building process was also informed by a number of other sources: on getting started and defining the research problem [START_REF] Eisenhardt | Building Theories from Case Study Research[END_REF], the building blocks of theory development [START_REF] Whetten | What Constitutes a Theoretical Contribution?[END_REF], and the process of analytic induction [START_REF] Buckley | Research Methodology & Business Decisions[END_REF]. The overall method for theory building was based on a research methodology framework proposed by Buckley et al. [START_REF] Buckley | Research Methodology & Business Decisions[END_REF] which we describe next (See Figure 2. Our path through the framework is highlighted).

4

Placing GAR in a Research Methodology Framework

In our walk through the framework, we illustrate each step by referring to our case. As we have already described the genesis of the problem, we begin with the second step.

The Research Problem

Problems may be generated formally or informally. The most productive formal approach is reviewing prior research. Our literature review revealed that a broad area of the sustainability issue was not covered This was combined with an informal approach, where the intuitive feeling and experience of FA aroused his interest and curiosity in studying the demand side of sustainability for Internet access in developing countries. Conjecture is frequently used as a useful, informal tool in problem-finding, where the researcher has an intuitive feel regarding a potential problem area, and has a sense that the existing fund of knowledge is insufficient to solve the problem.

In Grounded Theory research, the theory-building process begins as close as possible to the ideal of no theory under consideration. In Analytic Research and general theory building research, however, problem definition up front paves the way for selecting an appropriate research strategy. An initial definition of the research question, in at least broad terms, is considered to be important in building theory from case studies [START_REF] Eisenhardt | Building Theories from Case Study Research[END_REF]. Analytic induction begins with a rough definition of a research question [START_REF] Bryman | Social Research Methods[END_REF]. A literature review is often preliminary: "on the understanding that it is the generated theory that will determine the relevance of the literature. The literature review is revisited, and extended, once the theory has been generated from data". [10:351]. In our case, the research problem arose from a combination of FA's own experiences and literature reviews conducted by him.

4.2

The Mode: Primarily Inductive An essential consideration is to decide whether the project is primarily inductive or deductive. We say 'primarily' because both modes are present to some degree in all research. In our case, the mode was primarily inductive.

The Strategy: Analytic Research

Strategy refers to the essential nature of the data and the process by which it is found and analysed. Of the four suggested avenues [START_REF] Buckley | Research Methodology & Business Decisions[END_REF], we found analytic to be most appropriate for our case. In analytic strategy, problems are solved by breaking it down into its component parts to discover its true nature and the causal relationships among its variables. The solution lies within the interface between the researcher and the problem. This strategy best fits our research problem. The individual articles had been written by FA himself, he knew the research context intimately and had the insights to search for meaningful relationships among the available data through an orderly and disciplined investigation based on logical reasoning.

The Domain: Internal Logic

The domain, or data source, of analytic research is the researcher's own knowledge and experience. In our case, the theoretical concept was not developed solely by cerebration; the process got support from FA's 'extended memory', namely articles written from his own research. Since this is his own work, it is not in conflict with the intention of Analytic Research "The researcher has the resources required for solving the problem within himself" [14:26].

The Technique: Informal Argument

A variety of formal and informal techniques can be used for data analysis. The most appropriate informal technique in our case was philosophical argument because it relies on inductive reasoning. This technique is in accordance with this observation from the literature [16:532]: "Traditionally, authors have developed theory by combining observations from previous literature, common sense, and experience". For building theory, "the building blocks of theory development" [17:49] was used: § What are the essential variables and parameters of the problem situation? § How are these factors related? § Why does a given condition exist? § Who, where, when. These temporal and contextual factors set the boundaries of generalizability, and as such constitute the range of the theory. Logical reasoning and an analysis of the findings from the ten articles were used to find factors (What) influencing the public Internet access' sustainability in both a positive and a negative direction, and relations between the factors (How). After that, the relations and the connection to the sustainability issue was explained and reasoned (Why) and the contextual factors were filled in (Who, Where, and When).

To illustrate let us suppose that in Lombok (Where) users (Who) with some IT competence (What) visit Internet cafés more frequently than users without such competence (How) because they get more benefits from the Internet use (Why). If this is true, the users' IT competence is one of the demand side elements playing a role in Internet café sustainability.

5

The Resultant Theory

As we stated earlier, the objective of the research was to conceptualize Demand Sustainability of PIAPs in developing countries. Using GAR, findings and concepts from ten published articles (based on research conducted by FA) were analysed. The resultant conceptualization is depicted in Figure 3. 4 The concepts and their interrelationships came from different papers. For example, "Economic capacity" and its link to "Demand Sustainability" were based on two papers on internet café use in Tanzania and Indonesia respectively.

Discussion

Grounded Analytic Research was born when we needed a method to build theory through a two-step process.

Step 1 was conducting a number of empirical studies not explicitly related to one another other than being all carried out under the rubric of "bridging the digital divide".

Step 2 was going through the resultant published research articles to unearth concepts not explicitly focused on in these articles, but has lain latent in the material. The aim was to develop a theoretical concept called Demand Sustainability. We found Grounded Theory Method to be useful but inadequate for our purpose. Neither of the two conventionally acceptable sources for data in GT studies -first person observations and face-to-face interviews -fit with our data sources which were the articles. We therefore developed GAR which combines pure reasoning with empirical data. An obvious advantage of GAR is obviation of the need to search for additional data. Instead there is a search for meaningful relationships among the data which are already available. The articles represent the researcher's memory trace -an essential aspect of GAR -and the basis of reasoning. This distinguishes GAR from GTM. While we did use the coding procedure of GTM, it was not from raw or primary data. Rather it was "smaller ideas as a premise for a grander idea" (to quote Baskerville in a personal communication).

It may be argued that GAR's analysis process is not primarily inductive. That is because individual papers employed both inductive and deductive approaches. As such, perhaps abductive is a better description of the process. Yet, we hesitate to categorize GAR as such. The main reason is that reflection and reasoning are vital ingredients of GAR. Deductive approaches in individual papers simply provide the "raw material" for such reflection.

At the same time, GAR also differs from extant Analytic Research or Philosophical Research. The premise for these methods is pure reasoning and reflection. Data is not needed. In GAR the reasoning and reflection is grounded in empirical data. Although the data are seemingly secondary because they come from articles, they were actually gathered by the researcher himself and thus have the characteristics of primary data. His close proximity to the research context gave him the insights that only primary data can give. GAR does not preclude drilling down to the original data, an aspect that distinguishes it from "meta-analysis" of qualitative studies.

Thus, it differs epistemologically from literature reviews that often result in developing concepts or conceptual models by integrating multiple studies [START_REF] Webster | Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review[END_REF].

Unlike GAR, such literature reviews build on the findings and the reflections of multiple authors which the reviewer interprets and thus brings in her own thought processes and reflections into theory building. The process is purely based on secondary data. By contrast, GAR has the advantage of being based on a single author's thought processes.

We began the paper by citing the call by Markus and Saunders [START_REF] Markus | Editor's comments: Looking for a Few Good Concepts…and Theories…for the Information Systems Field[END_REF] for submissions to the revamped Theory and Review department of MIS Quarterly. In citing them, we listed a number of methods and formats suggested by them. It is appropriate at this point to check how well GAR has heeded this call.

GAR is a method for comprehensive syntheses (using qualitative, grounded theory, meta--analytic, set--theoretic, or text mining methods) of previously published research with strong theoretical implications. Use of qualitative, grounded theory and meta--analytic methods are commensurate with GAR. It can generate pure theory papers with strong grounding in prior empirical research and/or practice. It also has some of the "highly valued characteristics" listed in their call: GAR can generate theoretical statements enriched by relevant findings from previously published qualitative and quantitative research through syntheses that consider relevant qualitative, as well as quantitative, studies and employs meta--analytic techniques such as analytic reasoning and reflection.

We see that GAR meets several of the listed criteria [START_REF] Markus | Editor's comments: Looking for a Few Good Concepts…and Theories…for the Information Systems Field[END_REF] simultaneously. In doing so, our paper contributes towards the search for appropriate and innovative methods for theory building in IS. We demonstrated the usefulness of GAR by building a theoretical concept called Demand Sustainability which is a meaningful contribution to the knowledge on ICT4D. We claim it is meaningful because this theory building was done as the main contribution of the successful doctoral thesis of the first author.

In the methodology landscape, these are exciting times for an IS scholar. Design research [START_REF] Hevner | Design Science in Information Systems Research[END_REF] is now widely accepted belying the accusation that the IS community is unwilling to accept innovative forms. Variations to established methods such as Action Design Research [20 and Grounded Delphi Method [21] are also being proposed. We offer GAR in this spirit.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig.1. Thesis structure: The Summary (Kappa) from[START_REF] Furuholt | Bridging the Digital Divide: Sustainable Supply and Demand of Internet Access in Developing Countries[END_REF]

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. A Framework for Research Methodology from[START_REF] Buckley | Research Methodology & Business Decisions[END_REF]

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig.3. Demand sustainability from[START_REF] Furuholt | Bridging the Digital Divide: Sustainable Supply and Demand of Internet Access in Developing Countries[END_REF]

There was also a co-supervisor who contributed valuable insights to the dissertation work but was less involved in the development of GAR.

The thesis also studied and refined the concept of "Supply Sustainability".

In FA's dissertation, the method was called Analytic Research. On reflection and to avoid confusing it with the existing method called "Analytical Research" we chose to rename it.

A full description of the theory building process is provided in FA's dissertation work[START_REF] Furuholt | Bridging the Digital Divide: Sustainable Supply and Demand of Internet Access in Developing Countries[END_REF].

Acknowledgments

We thank the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments. In the abstract, we took the liberty of incorporating a sentence from one reviewer's comments because it was perfect! We gratefully acknowledge this "help" and seek the reviewer's indulgence.


Ulrike Schultze
email: uschultz@smu.edu

Using Photo-Diary Interviews to Study Cyborgian Identity Performance in Virtual Worlds 1

Keywords: cyborg, photo-diary method, performative identity, material and discursive practices

People's identities (i.e., who they are) are increasingly performed in both physical and digital spaces. Individuals become cyborgs as they extend their presence and bodily senses through digital bodies (e.g., social media profiles, blog posts and avatars). To gain insight into how people make sense of who they are in the face of their digital extensions, a photo-diary method is advanced in this paper. Using a single photo-diary entry and its associated interview, this short paper illustrated empirically the material and discursive practices a user of the virtual world, Second Life, enacted to dynamically draw boundaries to construct her and her avatar's identities.

Introduction

People's identities (i.e., who they are) are increasingly hybrid, simultaneously performed in physical and digital spaces with physical and digital material. Using technological platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and virtual worlds, more and more people rely on digital material to present themselves in multiple settings. They are cyborgs, that is, human beings whose presence and senses are extended through technology [START_REF] Borer | The Cyborgian Self: Toward a Critical Social Theory of Cyberspace[END_REF] and whose identities are entangled with it [START_REF] Introna | Towards a Post-Human Intra-Actional Account of Socio-Technical Agency (and Morality). Moral Agency and Technical Artefacts[END_REF][START_REF] Nyberg | Computers, Customer Service Operatives and Cyborgs: Intra-actions in Call Centres[END_REF]. The type of cyborg that is particularly prevalent in our contemporary computermediated world is the individual extended by digital bodies, ranging from traces of online transactions through blog posts and social media profiles to 3D avatars. As cyborgs many users find themselves entangled with these digital bodies and operating in a space where distinctions between the on-and the off-line and between the "real" and the virtual are increasingly blurred [START_REF] Hardey | Life Beyond the Screen: Embodiment and Identity through the Internet[END_REF].

The purpose of this research is to gain insight into how people make sense of who they are in the face of their digital extensions. To this end, a study of users of the virtual world, Second Life (SL), was conducted using a photo-diary interview method. The purpose of this short paper is to illustrate the photo-diary method and its application in the study of cyborgian identity performance.

Cyborgian Identity

Even though identity is typically seen as the answer to such questions as "who am I?"

and "what am I like?" [START_REF] Chatman | Identity Negotiation in Everyday Settings[END_REF], there are different theoretical perspectives on what identity is. Broadly speaking, identity is either conceptualized in representational or performative terms [START_REF] Gregson | Taking Butler Elsewhere: Performativities, Spatialities and Subjectivities[END_REF]: the former regards identity as a more or less stable object (i.e., a self) that is carefully performed for others in an act of impression management [START_REF] Goffman | Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings[END_REF], whereas the latter regards identity as an ongoing process of identification in which an individual is performed by (and subjected to) the material and discursive conditions that are operating it a given social space [START_REF] Butler | Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity Routledge[END_REF].

In the context of computer-mediated communication, much prior research has adopted a representational lens, separating on-line from off-line identity [START_REF] Turkle | Life on the Screen: Identity in the Life of the Internet[END_REF][START_REF] Bessiere | The Ideal Elf: Identity Exploration in World of Warcraft[END_REF]. Virtual bodies are conceptualized as passive, disembodied signifiers that refer toand are separated from -the 'real' thing, namely, the user's physically embodied self [START_REF] Bardzell | Intimate Interactions: Online Representation and Software of the Self[END_REF]. This suggests a unidirectional relationship in which the user controls his/her virtual re-presentation.

In contrast, the cyborgian notion of identity implies a performative orientation in that it regards the physically and digitally embodied user as entangled. This means that the two interacting bodies -one flesh and blood, the other digital -that constitute the cyborgian user, form a single system, or assemblage [START_REF] Barad | Posthumanist Performativity: Toward an Understanding of How Matter comes to Matter[END_REF]. However, the bodies in this entanglement "are not objects with inherent boundaries and properties; they are material-discursive phenomena" [12: 823]. In other words, the boundaries between them are always in the making and the result of material-discursive practices.

To illustrate the boundary-drawing practices through which cyborgian identities are performed, Nyberg [START_REF] Nyberg | Computers, Customer Service Operatives and Cyborgs: Intra-actions in Call Centres[END_REF] presents an example from a call center. To a customer, the components that comprise the service delivery (i.e., the telephone system, the computer systems, the customer service representative, etc.) are experienced as an entangled whole until customer service representatives distance themselves from the (failing) technology with such utterances as "the computer has a mind of its own" or "it is not happy." By means of such performative utterances, identities, properties and agency are materialized.

Photo-Diary Interview Method

Diaries that are solicited for research purposes are not so much intimate journals as contemporaneous, personal records kept by individual research participants themselves [START_REF] Alaszewski | Using Diaries for Social Research Sage[END_REF]. Diarists essentially take on an adjunct-ethnographer role, observing and recording their own performances and well as those of the people around them at or close to the time that events unfold [START_REF] Zimmerman | The Diary:Diary-Interview Method[END_REF]. As such, diary methods are particularly useful in situations where first-hand observations are not possible [START_REF] Czarniawska | Shadowing and Other Techniques for Doing Fieldwork in Modern Society[END_REF], e.g., in computer-mediated environments where participants are simultaneously physically sitting in front of the computer and present in a virtual space. Diary methods address some of the shortcomings of interview research. Retrospective interviews are subject to the vagaries of memory and thus frequently generate abstracted biographical narratives, idealized accounts and general opinions [START_REF] Alaszewski | Using Diaries for Social Research Sage[END_REF]. Because diaries are kept contemporaneously, diary-based research is better able to capture the specificity of decisions made and actions taken by individuals. They tend to make visible experiences that are often hidden, thus producing more complete and honest accounts than other methods [START_REF] Kenten | Narrating Oneself: Reflections on the Use of Solicited Diaries with Diary Interviews[END_REF]. Thus, like ethnographic methods, diaries are conducive for studying practices.

By recording everyday incidents in their diaries, participants' consciousness is raised about the things that happen, their surroundings and their interactions with others. Making sense of these events frequently entails the kind of self-reflexive identity work Giddens [START_REF] Giddens | Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age[END_REF] describes, as diarists narrativize what they did and why in an effort to construct an authentic, coherent self [START_REF] Riessman | Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences[END_REF]. As such, diaries can be seen not only as a contemporaneous record of events, but also a situated, storied construction of the diarist and the social reality around him/her [START_REF] Alaszewski | Using Diaries for Social Research Sage[END_REF]. They provide insights into the linguistic, cultural and material resources on which diarists draw in their narrativization, thus making diaries conducive for studying identity performatively.

The "photo-diary: diary interview" method [START_REF] Latham | Research, Performance and Doing Human Geography: Some Reflections on the Diary-Photograph, Diary-Interview Method[END_REF] -referred to here simply as the photo-diary interview method -combines visual representations (photos), diaries (written text), and interviews (verbal interactions), in an effort to elicit as complete an account possible of diarists' experiences. In particular, images can make different parts of human consciousness, such as tacit knowledge, accessible to both the researcher and the interviewee because they address the limitations of language [START_REF] Bagnoli | Beyond the Standard Interview: The Use of Graphic Elicitation and Arts-Based Methods[END_REF].

Furthermore, by incorporating snapshots of the space in which events took place, the material conditions of incidents (e.g., the configuration of the space, how people were positioned vis-à-vis objects and others, their gestures and what they were wearing), which are frequently left out of textual diary descriptions, become part of the record. In this way, the role of material resources and practices in the performance of identities can be investigated more readily.

Studying Cyborgian Identity Performance in Second Life

In order to illustrate the photo-diary method, this paper relies on data from a single photo-diary entry drawn from a study of the avatar-self relationship in Second Life (SL), for which 35 participants were interviewed between July 2008 and March 2010. Each participant lived in the southwestern United States and spent at least 10 hours a week in-world. The data collection method was intended to gain maximal insight into the participants' own understanding of their identity performance in-world. It proceeded in two phases:

• Initial 2-hour, face-to-face interview: This interview was held in a wi-fi equipped bookstore so that the interviewee could log into SL. A key objective of the faceto-face meeting was to acknowledge the role of physical embodiment in cyborgian identity. Furthermore, this in-person encounter was intended to build rapport and trust between the researcher and each participant. • Weekly photo-diaries (for 3 weeks), which provided the basis for interviews:

Photo-diary interviews [START_REF] Latham | Research, Performance and Doing Human Geography: Some Reflections on the Diary-Photograph, Diary-Interview Method[END_REF] were conducted by phone and took about 1 hour each. Participants were asked to proceed with their SL activities as they normally would, but to take at least five snapshots a week of incidents that were in some way meaningful, significant or important to them. These snapshots were then pasted into a researcher-supplied photo-diary template, which outlined the annotation questions, i.e., the when, what, why, who, and how for each incident. The incidents documented in the photo-diary were then used as the basis for intensive interviewing. Participants were recruited via SL groups that had some association with the targeted geographic area. Participants were paid $150 after completion of the interviews. With the participants' permission, all interviews were tape-recorded.

Data Analysis: Dialogic Narrative Analysis

Viewing the interview as a dialog in which narratives that construct and reconstruct the teller's cyborgian identity are co-created by the investigator and the participant, a dialogic narrative analysis approach was adopted. Dialogic narrative analysis focuses not purely on the content and structure of the text (i.e., "what" was said and "how"), but also on "to whom" it was said and "why" [START_REF] Riessman | Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences[END_REF]. Furthermore, it regards the interview as a local accomplishment within a given interview scene in which situated and morally adequate accounts of the interviewee are produced [START_REF] Alvesson | Beyond Neopositivists, Romantics, and Localists: A Reflexive Approach to Interviews in Organizational Research[END_REF].

Empirical Illustration: Abigail as Independent Agent

As Abigail 2 and Ozman, their avatars, Terry and Daniel had met, fallen in love and married in SL. They then married in real life (RL) also. They both worked in ITrelated jobs in RL and ran businesses in SL. Abigail had a photography studio, specializing in profile images and promotional material. She was forty and had been in SL for 22 months at the time of the interview.

The photo-diary entry (Figure 1) was part of her second photo-dairy. The entry focuses on Terry's experience of her avatar, Abigail, as an independent being. This incident was prompted by the material conditions of the technology: Abigail appeared on the screen as a virtual body independent of Terry's control at the keyboard. Thanks to the animations embedded in SL objects, Abigail looked alive as she was sitting on the swing, playing with her necklace and gazing in different directions.

Looking at this image in Figure 1, it is not surprising that Terry attributed a cognitive and emotional life world to her avatar. Indeed, she sensed that her avatar was deep in thought and, drawing an analogy between this serendipitous encounter with Abigail and a RL "sweet moment" in which one observes another without being noticed, she wanted to "cherish" the moment rather than disturb her. Terry experienced a deep sense of love for and emotional connection with her avatar. She believed that she could read Abigail's mind and sense her emotional state.

Discursively Terry made a clear distinction between herself and Abigail by referring to herself in the first person ("I"), while referring to Abigail by name and in the third person. Additionally, she referred to the Abigail's life-world as "SLife," thus materializing a cut between "real" and "second" life.

She also relied on the third person ("you" as a surrogate for "one") to universalize the experience of 'capturing someone in a sweet moment.' In this way, she turned this very personal encounter with her avatar and her feelings of love for and connectedness with her digital body into an experience potentially shared by everyone. This discursive strategy normalizes what might otherwise be a contestable claim, making this assertion more credible to both Terry and others. Abigail was just sitting there at her favorite tree, playing with her necklace, patiently waiting for me to return. It just seemed "sweet" to me. Abigail looked as if she was just contemplating "SLife" -the new studio, Ozman [Abigail's husband], the happiness she feels, etc. How: I felt like I was sneaking up on Abigail -you know, as you do in real life when you capture someone in a sweet moment…you don't want to disturb them, but you look at them and feel emotionally connected -loving -cherishing a moment with a loved one.

The photo-diary interview revealed additional insights into how Terry made sense of her cyborgian identity. The first part of the interview related to Figure 1is presented in its totality below, albeit in sections for ease of interpretation. In line with the tenets of dialogic narrative analysis, the interviewer's utterances, identified by initials, are included in the transcripts. Notable about Terry's narration of the events that led up to the photo-diary entry (Figure 2), is that the boundaries between RL and SL, as well as between herself and Abigail were ambiguous. Initially, she used "I" to refer to herself acting through Abigail in SL ("I was sitting on a tree"). However, she quickly moved to describing her interaction with her avatar in more technical terms. She referred to "sitting" Abigail "on a pose ball" and "zooming" the camera into "that general area" where Abigail was seated. This suggests that the extent to which such material practices as clicking "sit" options on pose balls and training the camera on a certain scene are salient to the user, they enact boundaries between users and their avatars. In these material practices, the avatar is a technological artifact.

However, the separation between her and Abigail deepened when Terry saw the avatar acting ("looking in different directions, playing with her necklace") without Terry "controlling" either the virtual body or "the shot" (i.e., camera). At this point, Terry acknowledged "Abigail was Abigail, in herself." In addition to bestowing a self U.S.:

So, your first picture really, really stunned me. … Tell me about it.

Terry: Well, I thought it was interesting because, you know, Daniel and I were in Second Life. I was doing something. I was just sitting on the tree. I think I was actually talking with someone before then and I just left Abigail sitting on the pose ball, and I had zoomed in on that, just in that general area, and then walked away. We walked away, had some dinner, spent some time together. I said, "Okay, well I think I'm gonna go back to my computer now." It just seemed like she was just sitting there, just patiently waiting, just looking in different directions, playing with her necklace. And it really did seem like I was kinda sneaking up on her. I didn't want to disturb her (laughing).

U.S.: (laughing) So, was that the first time you sort of really saw her as this, I mean, it seems like an independent person? … or, is that not how you felt in this picture? Terry: Yes. As a matter of fact, Abigail is --well I guess. I mean, it just seemed like at that moment, Abigail was Abigail, in her self. And I had, you know, I really had nothing to do with controlling her avatar at that point or you know, controlling the shot, or anything like that. It just seemed like she was just sitting there, patiently waiting for me to come back (laughing).

to the avatar, she suggested that as an independent, living being, Abigail had a digital body through which she manifested herself (i.e., "I really had nothing to do with controlling her avatar"). In other words, Abigail was accorded a mind, body and identity distinct from Terry's. In the next section of the interview (Figure 3), Terry tried to make sense of her connection to an avatar that she has just described as an independent being. She drew on the mother-child relationship ("sweet" and "full of pride") to describe the emotional connection with her avatar. However, instead of being proud of her child Abigail's accomplishments, she was proud of their joint accomplishments in SL (i.e., "we've really come a long way"). In other words, the mother metaphor allowed her to own some of Abigail's accomplishments -and the pride that went with it --for herself. As the interview continued (Figure 4), Terry shifted attention away from Abigail onto herself for a while. She acknowledged that she, Terry, was contemplating her life U.S.:

(laughing) And how did that make you feel? in SL and that she felt proud of growing her business by building a new photographic studio, which was about to open. However, she again relied on the discursive strategy of the third person "you" to universalize the experience of 'feeling pride for something you created.' Thus, through the course of the interview she was working her way towards legitimating the pride she felt of her own accomplishments, by first attributing this pride to her child Abigail and then universalizing it.

At the end of this excerpt, Terry re-introduced Abigail as an independent agent. Albeit laughingly, she indicated that the avatar approved of Terry's business decisions (i.e., "I think I've done the right thing, and Abigail thinks so too"). This might be seen as an attempt to return to the identity narrative of Abigail as a living, thinking and feeling being. In this final section of the interview (Figure 5), the interviewer pressed Terry on agency, especially to whom she attributed ownership of the creative content in SL. After initially wavering ("I sometimes feel like I'm the onlooker … and Abigail is the one doing all the creation"), Terry later conceded that she was "a creative person" with "all of these thoughts in my head." SL served as her outlet because she "can't draw for anything." Being able to see her creativity materialize in 3D then allowed her to acknowledge that her ideas are "pretty cool." Again, Abigail disappeared during this narrative as Terry's identity as the creative power behind her SL business emerges.

Conclusion

The objective of this short methodology paper was to illustrate the utility of the photo-diary interview method for studying cyborgian identity performance. Adopting a performative rather than a representational conceptualization of identity U.S.: So is it almost like you're feeling that you as Terry, are in some ways the owner of all that you have created in Second Life, and Abigail just sort of being an onlooker in this sense?

Terry: Yes, it could be. I think that I sometimes feel like I'm the onlooker (laughing) and Abigail is the one doing all the creation. But yes, I mean, I guess for the real part of me is just --I'm a creative person anyway and to be able to have an outlet for creativity in this way, it allows me to think more in terms of just, you know, not a 2D image. I can't draw for anything but I have all of these thoughts in my head and to be able to actually create something in 3D and say, "This is what I wanted it to look like." It just really brings a lot of really good thoughts and good moments for me to sit back and say, "Wow! That's pretty cool!" (laughing)

performance, this paper focused on identifying the material and discursive practices through which situated and dynamic distinctions are made between the user's physical and virtual embodiments, between reality and virtuality and between human an nonhuman agency. The empirical illustration demonstrates users' ongoing negotiation of these boundaries as they try of make sense of who they are in light of their increasing entanglement with virtual bodies. The photo-diary interview method is conducive for identifying both the digital materiality and their meanings that users relied on to enact an identity in Second Life, as well as the material and discursive practices through which identities were performed.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: "Sneaking up on Abigail" Photo-Diary Entry

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Photo-Diary Interview Excerpt 1

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Photo-Diary Interview Excerpt 2

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Photo-Diary Interview Excerpt

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Photo-Diary Interview Excerpt 4

  Terry: Oh! I just thought it was sweet. It's endearing to me. Because I have, you know, obviously, I have connected with the avatar, Abigail. And you know, it's almost as if she's my child or something. And when I walked up and saw Abigail just sitting there, I really didn't want to disturb her. I just felt like, "Oh!" you know, "how sweet!" (laughing) So, I really just kinda felt full at the moment. I felt, you know, full of pride. It just kind of helped me to think about all of those things that are going on in Second Life and just started thinking about, you know, "Wow! We've really come a longway on the studio" and Abigail is just so happily married to Ozman. And, it just broadened my thinking a little bit, I think. Yes, it was just a reflective thought, I think. Just reflecting on the time that I've spent in SL. The time that has gone into building this new island and the new studio and everything. And you know, there comes a pride with something that you create and you get so close to being finished, and you just have to stand back and look at it and say, "Wow! This really turned out nice." I think that in that moment for me, it was "Okay, we're about to open the studio and I think I've done the right thing, and Abigail thinks so too." (laughing)

U.S.:

You're thinking on what, specifically? I mean, just her life in general or …?

Terry:

Funding from the National Science Foundation, Grant IIS-0848692, made this research possible. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. I am also deeply indebted to the research participants for fully embracing this study and sharing their experiences and insights openly.

To protect the participants' identities, all names are pseudonyms and the photo-diary image was converted to a line drawing using an image editor.


Sungyong Um
email: sungyong.um@temple.edu

Youngjin Yoo
email: youngjin.yoo@temple.edu

Nicholas Berente
email: berente@uga.edu

Kalle Lyytinen

Digital Artifacts as Institutional Attractors: A Systems Biology Perspective on Change in Organizational Routines *

Keywords: Digital Artifact, Institutional attractor, Institutional change, system biology

Digital artifacts have become fundamental elements of organizational change. Such change is not frictionless, since routines and associated structures are deeply embedded-or institutionalized. Though, organizational institutionalism has been traditionally concerned with stability and change in routines and underlying structures, it has so far meagerly theorized the role of digital artifacts in balancing stability and change. To address this gap, we draw on systems biology to understand how introduction of new digital artifacts can influence routines in organizations. In particular, we approach digital artifacts as institutional attractors and examine the role of such attractors within gene regulatory networks. In this view institutional attractors become endogenous to sociomaterial systems and are keys to simultaneously promoting stability and inducing change. Just as attractors are implicated in changes to established gene regulatory networks within cells, so too are digital artifacts implicated in the efforts of institutional entrepreneurs to bring about change to organizational routines (behaviors). Based upon this analogous reasoning we outline elements of a research agenda and .conclude with a discussion of methodological directions to deal with digitally induced endogenous sociomaterial change.

Introduction

Striking a balance between change and stability has been one of the fundamental concerns of contemporary organizational thinking [START_REF] Farjoun | Beyond dualism: Stability and change as a duality[END_REF]. "Organizational institutionalism" [START_REF] Powell | The new institutionalism in organizational analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Greenwood | Organizational Institutionalism[END_REF] has a long and rich tradition of heeding to the simultaneous interplay of stability and change. On one hand, organizational actors internalize and continually reproduce established routines in their institutionalized practices thus shaping identities and erecting cultures (Berger & Luckman 1967;[START_REF] Zucker | The role of institutionalization in cultural persistence[END_REF]. Being institutionalized, these routines are difficult to change. On the other hand, organizational actors are under constant pressure to comply with new regulations and normative demands that arise in society that drive change in their routines (DiMaggio & Powell 1983;[START_REF] Scott | Lords of the dance: Professionals as institutional agents[END_REF]. So, organizational actors face constant dilemma of reinventing their organizations without fully divorcing themselves from the institutional logics in which they are deeply embedded.

This 'structurational' [START_REF] Giddens | The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration[END_REF][START_REF] Bourdieu | The economics of linguistic exchanges[END_REF] position underlies the bulk of recent thinking on institutional change and institutional entrepreneurship [START_REF] Powell | The new institutionalism in organizational analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Seo | Institutional contradictions, praxis, and institutional change: A dialectical perspective[END_REF]. As a result, organizational institutionalism is one of the most robust theoretical positions for understanding organizational stability and change [START_REF] Farjoun | Beyond dualism: Stability and change as a duality[END_REF]). However, institutionalism has largely ignored the role of digital artifacts in this process [START_REF] Jones | Giddens's structuration theory and information systems research[END_REF]. In fact, Orlikowski and Scott (2011) note that in organizational research, "technology is largely missing in action." Digital artifacts can be defined generally as software-based information technology (IT) that has the capability to mediate and present semiotic relationships (Leonardi and Barley 2012). Therefore digital artifacts are not comprised primarily of matter but signs. Yet, their existence is not entirely defined in the conceptual domain as their behaviors are founded on material properties of some substrata (such as silicon) and these material features influence their use and applicability. Being sign based digital artifacts are unique in that they are editable, interactive, open, and distributed (Kallinikos et al. 2010;Leonardi 2010). This lack of interest has become recently increasingly problematic, because digital artifacts are deeply embedded in contemporary organizational practices [START_REF] Baxter | The process of embedding new information technology artifacts into innovative design practices[END_REF][START_REF] Gaskin | Digital Technology and the Variation in Design Routines: A Sequence Analysis of Four Design Processes1[END_REF] and constitute essential elements of change in organizational practices [START_REF] Yoo | From organization design to organization designing[END_REF][START_REF] Zammuto | Information technology and the changing fabric of organization[END_REF].

Institutional theory generally characterizes digital technologies in terms of exogenous forces for change. They can be triggers for social change [START_REF] Barley | Technology as an occasion for structuring: Evidence from observations of CT scanners and the social order of radiology departments[END_REF]); a form of structure that (weakly) enables and constrains new routines [START_REF] Desanctis | Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive structuration theory[END_REF]; or as carriers of institutional scripts [START_REF] Scott | Lords of the dance: Professionals as institutional agents[END_REF]. In each of these institutionalist conceptualizations, digital artifacts remain exogenous to the practices and go under-theorized and researched. This exogenous characterization of digital artifacts stands also in stark contrast to recent calls to attend to concrete technologiesin-practice [START_REF] Orlikowski | Using Technology and Constituting Structures: A Practice Lens for Studying Technology in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Leonardi | Materiality and change: Challenges to building better theory about technology and organizing[END_REF] where digital artifacts are viewed as endogenous to the practices. Yet, this thinking has not been reconciled within the dominant institutional discourse.

In this paper we begin to take some steps reconcile this insight of digital artifacts as endogenous to organizational routines with scholarship on institutional change. In so doing, we draw on recent models of systems biology [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF][START_REF] Crombach | Evolution of evolvability in gene regulatory networks[END_REF]. Because the field of systems biology is concerned with conditions of endogenously triggered probabilistic (and often chaotic) change, it provides an appropriate analogue for investigating organizational change [START_REF] Kitano | Systems biology: a brief overview[END_REF]. The way the systems biology field combines the study of sequence patterns (described by proteins) with the study of networks (genes) [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF]) is quite similar to task faced by an institutional theorist grappling with the way the role of digital artifacts in institutional change. The presence of simultaneous change and stability is enabled through the interactions of digital artifacts with organizational structures (networks) and routines of actions (sequences) [START_REF] Contractor | Multidimensional networks and the dynamics of sociomateriality: Bringing technology inside the network[END_REF][START_REF] Pentland | Designing routines: On the folly of designing artifacts, while hoping for patterns of action[END_REF].

In systems biology, a gene regulatory network offers the main explanation for how the same DNA sequence can produce variety of differently functioning cells and their mutations. In particular, genetic regulatory networks coordinate how genes are activated in cells. This perspective is based on the notion of attractors which 'tip' the activation of genes to specific trajectories and lead to changes in cell behaviors. An attractor, a type of 'rogue' or 'heterogeneous' gene, triggers a mutation of a gene structure, and the structure then stabilizes around that attractor. In viewing organizational change as a highly dynamic process, conceptualizing digital artifacts as attractors offers a powerful way of accounting for endogenous change in organizations. Therefore, rooted in this analogue of genetic regulators, we conceive of digital artifacts as institutional attractors. Institutional attractors initiate shake ups in organizational routines and catalyze configurations of how 'social' and 'technological' elements become meshed in organizational routines.

The idea of an institutional attractor combines two distinct elements of digital artifacts that simultaneously explain both the generativity of that artifact in a particular context (Avital et al 2008) and the regularities it expresses across contexts [START_REF] Robey | Accounting for the contradictory organizational consequences of information technology: Theoretical directions and methodological implications[END_REF]. Generativity is defined here as the capacity of digital artifacts to trigger unprompted changes driven by varied and uncoordinated behaviors [START_REF] Zittrain | The generative internet[END_REF]. Institutional attractors in the form of digital artifacts within organizational networks can thus enable generativity that leads to unprompted changes in activity by forming unexpected connections between actors and activities. Thereby generative artifacts become new attractors that can contribute to the explication of change both symbolically and materially [START_REF] Leonardi | Materiality and change: Challenges to building better theory about technology and organizing[END_REF] in ways that create different practices. The attractors can also be enacted in ways that are consistent with existing pluralistic logics thus reinforcing institutions [START_REF] Berente | Institutional Contradictions and Loose Coupling: Postimplementation of NASA's Enterprise Information System[END_REF]. The generativity can thus reinforce certain elements of institutional structures, while at the same time bringing about new practices that can result in a maelstrom of changes in the institutional order over time. In an organizational context, an institutional attractor can be an artifact whose affordances are enacted by organizational actors in order to bring about either change or stability in organizational routines in a manner consistent with particular institutional logics. The idea of attractors places the focus on complex, chaotic and probabilistic changes enabled by various local interactions with the digital artifacts and broader institutional elements.

The goal of this paper is to introduce the idea of digital artifacts as institutional attractors and discuss the consequences of such approach in the study of organizational change enabled by digitalization. First, we will review the literature on institutional change and the ways organizational institutionalism has accounted for digital artifacts. Second, we introduce the idea of gene regulatory networks and discuss how they can be used to explain endogenous organizational change. Then we combine these two streams and analyze the digital artifact as an institutional attractor. We conclude with a discussion on the implications of this perspective on research into organizational change -particularly the recent work on sociomateriality and sociomaterial routines.

Institutional Change and Digital Artifacts

An institution is a reproduced pattern of activity that is both objectified and internalized by actors in a given context (Berger & Luckman 1967;[START_REF] Jepperson | Institutions, institutional effects, and institutionalism[END_REF].

Institutions are objectified when their representations have meaning (i.e. the institution has a name like "marriage," "army" or "handshake"). An institution is internalized when it is chronically reproduced by actors enacting established scripts through their practices [START_REF] Giddens | The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration[END_REF]. Thus actors reinforce existing institutions with their actions, leading to stability [START_REF] Zucker | The role of institutionalization in cultural persistence[END_REF]. However, as institutions are reinforced in certain contexts, at the same time, they are diffused to other contexts, bringing about change to those other contexts (DiMaggio & Powell 1983). Thus, institutional analysis is centrally concerned with the both stability and change.

Organizational institutionalism is concerned with stability in that it emphasizes the way established institutions are difficult to change [START_REF] Zucker | The role of institutionalization in cultural persistence[END_REF]. When a pattern of action is well-established, alternative patterns of action may be less legitimate or deemed inappropriate (Selznik 1996). Legitimate courses of action enable access to resources and often protect the actor from external scrutiny. Therefore, actors may enact established, legitimate institutions no matter how poorly they are served by the institutions (DiMaggio & Powell 1983;[START_REF] Meyer | Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony[END_REF]. Further, it requires effort to create new courses of action, and actors economize by enacting ready-made scripts and typifications that come complete with social meaning [START_REF] Goffman | Strategic interaction[END_REF]. Finally, much of human activity is unreflected-upon and actors enact institutions habitually [START_REF] Giddens | The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration[END_REF].

At the same time, organizational institutionalism is concerned with change in that it emphasizes the way institutions diffuse across a field and put pressure on organizational actors to change existing patterns of activity to be isomorphic with others in the field (DiMaggio & Powell 1983). Different contexts are different, and actors must continually translate existing institutional scripts into novel, idiosyncratic environments -resulting in change and bifurcation of those institutions over time (Czarniawska & Sevon 1996). Further, situated actions and accidents can lead to unintended consequences that result in change to the existing institutional order [START_REF] Giddens | The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration[END_REF]. In addition, society is institutionally plural (Kratz & Block 2008) in that it is comprised of multiple levels of institutions whose guiding logics may be more or less congruent with each other [START_REF] Friedland | The new institutionalism in organizational analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Thornton | The handbook of organizational institutionalism[END_REF]. As the salience of logics ebb and flow across contexts, and as contradictory institutions collide, the result is change to institutions over time [START_REF] Seo | Institutional contradictions, praxis, and institutional change: A dialectical perspective[END_REF]. Institutional entrepreneurs reflectively draw upon logics different than those established in a given domain to bring about change to that domain [START_REF] Garud | Institutional entrepreneurship in the sponsorship of common technological standards: The case of Sun Microsystems and Java[END_REF]. Institutional entrepreneurs can thus mobilize various resources such as structures and technological standards in order to change the very institution in which they are deeply embedded [START_REF] Rao | Power plays: How social movements and collective action create new organizational forms[END_REF][START_REF] Garud | Institutional entrepreneurship in the sponsorship of common technological standards: The case of Sun Microsystems and Java[END_REF].

While it is generally understood that institutional entrepreneurs can play significant roles in bringing about changes in organizations, not every individual action leads to a large change. We still lack a clear theoretical understanding when and how actions taken by institutional entrepreneurs lead to large-scale organizational changes. This, in particular, is an important question for information systems scholars as digital technology is often introduced as a potential catalyst for organizational change (Teece 1994). For example, Garud and associates (2002) show that atechnological standard can define how heterogeneous product components are combined together to work in an integrated system within an existing institutional space.

There are three broad ways that institutional theory characterizes digital technologies and their role in change. The first and classic response is to bypass deterministic thinking about technology induced change and looks at digital artifacts as "triggers" structural social change [START_REF] Barley | Technology as an occasion for structuring: Evidence from observations of CT scanners and the social order of radiology departments[END_REF]. In this conception, IT artifacts becomes a change catalyst, but the change itself happens idiosyncratically in the social domain -outside the world of technologies. In another, more recent conception, digital artifacts can act as a form of structure that 'softlydeterministically' brings about change in agent's behaviors when augmented with complementary practices [START_REF] Desanctis | Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive structuration theory[END_REF]. Finally, digital artifacts can be considered to be "carriers" of institutions -in that they symbolically represent institutional change and embody scripts for new patterns of action [START_REF] Scott | Lords of the dance: Professionals as institutional agents[END_REF]. Organizational actors can then adopt, resist, or loosely couple their practices from those scripts implied by particular digital artifacts based upon the (in)congruence of multiple and competing institutional logics [START_REF] Berente | Institutional Contradictions and Loose Coupling: Postimplementation of NASA's Enterprise Information System[END_REF]. In each conceptualization, digital artifacts are exogenous factors that cause an institutional change. As a result, technology and institutional entrepreneur's actions are kept separate (Orlikowski 2009).

What we need is an evolutionary perspective that embraces digital technology and actions by organizational actors as institutional entrepreneurs endogenously. In this way we can understand how certain changes emerge within organizations that lead to large-scale institutional reconfigurations (Van de Ven and Poole 1995). As organizations always inhabit contested fields [START_REF] Dunn | Institutional logics and institutional pluralism: The contestation of care and science logics in medical education, 1967-2005[END_REF], these changes will only emerge from multiple events and related elements that sometimes complement, and other times compete with one another [START_REF] Berente | Institutional Contradictions and Loose Coupling: Postimplementation of NASA's Enterprise Information System[END_REF]. Therefore, a theoretical perspective that explores how organizational actors can skillfully deploy digital technology to bring about large-scale change in organizations must embrace the multiplicity of competing logics and heterogeneity of elements involved with the change. Further, this perspective should also conceptualize digital technologies as endogenous to the existing practice -simultaneously generative and stable -not as external forces for change. In this paper, we therefore propose a systems biology perspective inspired by the recent developments to address this gap in the literature.

System Biology on Change and Stability

An organization is comprised of various actors interacting with one another. Each actor engages in a series of actions over time and space. A change in an activity by an actor requires the actor to be adaptive to feedback from the activity. Change in the activity can influence other actors and their activities which, in turn, interact with that actor. Through this feedback, a change of an activity is occasionally amplified and can lead to the emergence of a new set of activities by a group of interconnected actors. Furthermore, the outcome of such an emergent process can often lead to unexpected and unintended consequences that can affect organizations and institutions. However, existing theories fail to offer precisely how the unexpected and novel ideas stem out from such network of actors and tools. Furthermore, a largescale institutional change rarely occurs when new technology-enabled change is introduced. Instead, new institutional orders emerge in a much more sporadic and chaotic fashion [START_REF] Boland | Wakes of innovation in project networks: the case of digital 3-D representations in architecture, engineering, and construction[END_REF]).

To account for this observation we adopt a systems biology perspective [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF][START_REF] Kitano | Systems biology: a brief overview[END_REF]. Systems biology is an attempt to systematically understand how the biological system exhibits structural stability and generativity (endogenous change) at the same time. One of the key fundamental questions that systems biology is trying to answer is how the same DNA sequence can produce many different cells that provide different functions. And, how can a single cell's behavior be affected by another cell? A systems biology perspective provides two important concepts that offers insights on how a biological system maintain a stability and generativity at the same time: gene regulatory networks and attractor.

A gene regulatory network is a collection of DNA segments (genes) in a cell that interact with each other as to govern the rate at which genes are expressed in the cell. A gene provides both structure through DNA sequences and dynamisms by regulating cellular behaviors. A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the basic genetic information of cellular behaviors to produce different proteins. Each gene has its own unique genetic information. Therefore, a gene forms the basic unit by which genetic information is inherited from one generation to another. At the same time, a gene provides another vital function as it sends instructions to produce proteins that become the basic building blocks of observed characteristics of organisms. In this process, genes are networked with other genes as they interact together to express particular functions of cells. The cell regulates each gene function, because all the genes in the network that form the phenotype function (observed characteristics) at the same time are used to express the cell behavior [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF]. Therefore, a change in a gene triggers a sequence of changes in other genes that eventually lead to the changes in the behavior of the cells.

In this process, a gene regulatory network plays an essential role in determining how different genes are expressed and thus produce proteins. A gene regulatory network is based on a binary function of a gene that indicates "on" if an activity is expressed and "off" if an activity is inhibited within the system. It can express a dynamic network, determining if the gene function is related to prior activity of an element in the network. [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF] also proposes that gene regulatory networks are well-defined ensembles having both structural and behavioral features at the same time. They are based on the collective order of genes in the system. Thus, from a gene regulatory network perspective, the generativity of an organism can be understood when genes react to the environmental change by mutating.

Another important concept from a systems biology perspective is attractor [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF]). An attractor is an element that drives a certain trajectory of change from the interaction with other elements, thus disrupting the stability of a system. [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF] argues that an attractor can be introduced into or generated by a gene regulatory network as the system of a cell that is deterministic and repeats the recurrent state cycle. When a set of attractors are generated by the system, they can constitute a basis of attractors that can become an alternative pattern of activities in the system. To be generative, the cell system needs an attractor that coordinates the behaviors other genes in reaction to the stimulus. Therefore, an attractor in the system is a 'rogue' gene that instigates the increase of internal energy in the system [START_REF] Aldana | Dynamics of Boolean networks with scale-free topology[END_REF]. Once an attractor instigates changes in a cell system, the impact of stimulation is transferred to the other genes in the cell system. The energy transferred to others can amplify the perturbation of other genes that can in turn lead to unexpected change. Corresponding to such amplification, change can be differentiated in order to express the function as the genes are inter-dependent with one another. The expression in the gene regulatory system depends on which gene is expressed and which gene is inhibited [START_REF] Crombach | Evolution of evolvability in gene regulatory networks[END_REF]. The expressed genes form a new gene regulatory network to determine the cell behaviors stemming from their functional interdependency.

Systems Biology Perspective on Institutional Change

Inspired by the model of systems biology, we propose a new theoretical perspective anchored on institutionalism to understand changes enabled by new digital artifacts. We first conceptualize institutionalized domain of organizations to be established configurations of sociomaterial practices that involve routines of activities performed by individual actors and the repetitive patterns of interactions among actors (and also, their routines). As early as 1950, Eric [START_REF] Trist | The relations of social and technical systems in coal-mining[END_REF] argued that organizations comprise of nested socio-technical systems consisting of human and technological elements "intertwined in a complex web of mutual causality" (p.13). A routine is "a repetitive, recognizable pattern of interdependent actions, involving multiple actors" (Feldman and Pentland 2003, pg. 96). More recently, [START_REF] Pentland | The (N) Ever-Changing World: Stability and Change in Organizational Routines[END_REF] argues that actions in an organization are distributed over time and space, thus forming a network of activities. As such, routines that involve multiple actors performing different actions can be modeled as a system of actions. To be more precise, we see institutionalized practices as an equivalent of a cell system and individual routines as individual genes. A routine is further made up of individual actions and tools that are used in those actions. The performative aspect of institutionalized practices then is regulated in the way that individual routines are expressed or inhibited in an organization or a project, just like behaviors of a cell are regulated by gene expressions through a gene regulatory network.

Once we conceptualize institutionalized practices as a kind of gene regulatory network, it allows us to model the generativity resulting from the introduction of digital artifacts by treating these artifacts as attractors. That is, a modified (or mutated) routines resulting from a newly adapted digital tool as a part of it can cause a systemic change in organizations, in the same way a change in a singular rogue gene can bring about changes in a cell system. The recombinatorial nature of organizational processes from the modified routines can also create multiple connections among distributed practices. Such recombination of routines for institutionalized practiecs is possible, because of the presence of multiple actors, who have multiple views and objectives in performing those practices [START_REF] Pentland | Narrative networks: Patterns of technology and organization[END_REF]. This multiplicity makes the routine system generative. During the generative process, any action (technology-in-practice) can become an attractor that can change the overall organizational process in multiple directions, whereby other actions are changed to varying degrees depending on the degree of stimulus created by the 'gene'.

This way of conceptualizing sociomaterial routines and the role of digital artifacts allows us ask a number of questions that we were not able to answer in the past. First, we are able to locate precise micro mechanisms by which an endogenous change in digital-artifacts-supported-actions by individuals in organization bring about a larger systemic change in institutionalized practices. Scholars have explored the process of such institutional entrepreneurship using varying rich metaphors such as "path creation" (Garud and Karnoe 2011) or "wakes of innovations" [START_REF] Boland | Wakes of innovation in project networks: the case of digital 3-D representations in architecture, engineering, and construction[END_REF]). Yet, we still do not know exactly how an action taken by an organizational actor can lead to a larger scale institutional change. Longitudinal empirical studies based on such theoretical view can provide us detailed accounts of how such processes take place. Thus, the first research question that we propose is:

Research Question 1: What are the micro mechanisms by which individual endougeous actions enacting new digital artifacts instigate larger institutional change?

We can also explore why certain routines become more generative than others, causing wider range of institutional changes. In systems biology, some attractors are more effective at transforming a system, while other attractors are not. The size of such perturbation of an attractor in a cell affects the degree of impact on another genes. The answer to this question will let us know the reasons for differential attractor impact within a cell. When an attractor starts an activity, a certain amount of counter energy is generated to maintain a state of equilibrium (Pregogine andStengers 1984, Kauffman 1993). As the activity of an attractor increases, the tension between the attractor and the other genes increases. The tension remains until an attractor's energy leaps over a certain critical threshold. Then the energy dissipates to the other genes throughout the system. Thus, a new order of genes is established by expressing and inhibiting genes to achieve a new equilibrium given the increased energy. The determination of which attractor is more effective can be derived from the degree of energy needed to overcome the tension. If an attractor cannot overcome the tension, the impact is limited only to the nearby genes, which will be reordered to meet the original status quo.

Similarly, each organization shares a level of isomorphism across an institutional field, with its pervasive, or dominant, institutional logic [START_REF] Thornton | The handbook of organizational institutionalism[END_REF]. This isomorphism is expressed in a certain set of rules that govern the organization's responses to make them fit to its resources. Each organization has therefore a certain institutional resistance that obstructs the interrelated components to be involved in change [START_REF] Zucker | The role of institutionalization in cultural persistence[END_REF]. Put it in a systems biology language, an established order of a 'gene regulatory network' directly resists the creation of novel actions. If a routine does not have potential for enough impact on other actors interconnected with it, it will not carry 'enough energy' to amplify the change among other actors. If a routine reaches sufficient energy level to overcome the conflict with the other actors, the new action will lead to broader change among the existing order leading to a larger systemic change. Unlike the systems in nature, however, the destabilization of institutionalized practices does not directly lead to a state of non-equilibrium. Routines have sedimentary traits in that the existing order is layered in practices within an institution [START_REF] Seo | Institutional contradictions, praxis, and institutional change: A dialectical perspective[END_REF]. Consequently, a dominant institutional logic in a field cannot account for every situation. In such cases, alternative, even contradictory, logics may be drawn upon by actors [START_REF] Berente | Institutional Contradictions and Loose Coupling: Postimplementation of NASA's Enterprise Information System[END_REF]. This lead to the following research question:

Research Question 2: What are the conditions under which the introduction of digital artifacts will modify existing action, or introduce a new action, within existing routines that leads to larger systemic change in the routine system? Finally, our conceptualization invites us to explore co-evolution of digital artifacts, actions, routines and institutional order at the same time. While new genes such as digitally enabled new actions embedded in artifacts work as instructions to produce proteins that determine observable behaviors of cell systems, genes also carry genetic information over generations. This is how digital artifacts achieve their power to institutionalize existing order. In that process, however, 'digital' genes constantly mutate and recombine bringing changes to the observable traits of organizations. Like a gene's interaction with other genes, a single cell interacts all the time with other cells in an organism. For example, intercellular substances, the substances in which tissue cells are embedded, continuously interact with other cells to balance the metabolic work. The attractor can amplify the impact through the connection of other cells that causes them to show homogenized features within the organism. Once the attractor affects the other cells, the dynamic interactions among the cells are determined by the level of impact that an attractor and the feedback have on other genes and cells. The impact of change is related to the attractors' possibility to be reacted to by other cells [START_REF] Kauffman | The origins of order[END_REF]. The attractors thus have a similar nature in other cells so that the impact of the original attractor can stimulate to perturb the status quo. This happens in reactions that instigate genes near them to change the cells' expression by spontaneously organizing the order. In this regard the gene network enables the cells to sporadically respond to possible attractors spread across various cells on the impact of an attractor. This process amplifies the activity of an attractor to others by broadening the scope of change extensively.

Similarly, a gene regulatory network approach to routines allow us to model coevolutionary patterns of digital artifacts, actions, routines, and institutional orders. [START_REF] March | Continuity and change in theories of organizational action[END_REF] argued that an activity of an actor can affect the actions of others through network structures that impact the dynamics of change. In other words, the actions within an organizational process cannot only be confined to a single boundary, but can reach out to other parts of the organization and outside to other organizations that interact with the focal organization (Orlikowiski and Scott 2008). Similar to the sporadic responses of genes through a network, this expansive activity needs to be understood in a broad sense. The impact of action variation is not only confined within an organization but should be examined across organizations. How an organization can be changed through the impact of other actors is related to the evolution of organizational learning in institutional fields. Actions, which can impact the others, have also exogenous features linked through networks across the organizations. This idea is aligned with that of Pentland and associates (2011) who suggest that an atypical action leading to the change of routine shows typically exogenous characteristics. [START_REF] Zucker | The role of institutionalization in cultural persistence[END_REF] argues that all the interconnected components in organizations are not resistant to change, but accept it as legitimate if it is 'institutionally' necessary (i.e. legitimate and viewed to have positive impacts). However, if the change is consistent with a legitimate, alternative institutional logic, actors may adopt changes if they represent valuable improvements [START_REF] Powell | The new institutionalism in organizational analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Seo | Institutional contradictions, praxis, and institutional change: A dialectical perspective[END_REF]. This leads us to propose the research question:

Research Question 3: What are the underlying patterns of co-evolution of digital artifacts, individual actions, routines and institutional orders?

Discussion

Consistent with the emerging intuition in information systems research that rejects to treat digital artifacts as exogenous factors, [START_REF] Leonardi | Materiality and change: Challenges to building better theory about technology and organizing[END_REF], digital artifacts are to be understood being embedded into routines and institutionalized practices (Orlikowski 2009). However, institutional views of organizations typically conceive technologies as exogenous to practice (if they conceive of them at all). So, the purpose of this paper is to explore how we can conceive of digital artifacts in an institutional approach whereby those artifacts are endogenous to institutionalized practice. In characterizing organizations as dynamic, evolutionary systems, we draw on systems biology to characterize institutional routines as gene regulatory networks and technologies-in-practice as institutional attractors. Digital artifacts as institutional attractors emerge from within an institutional practice: they are not foreign objects introduced from without, but internal reactions to either endogenous or exogenous shifts and thus drawn from within -motivated, anchored, and embedded in practice [START_REF] Baxter | The process of embedding new information technology artifacts into innovative design practices[END_REF]. The digital artifacts are reinvented in practice and generate derivative innovations around that then become institutionalized. Even if digital artifacts are forced from outside of practice -the practice can loosely couple from these artifacts [START_REF] Berente | Institutional Contradictions and Loose Coupling: Postimplementation of NASA's Enterprise Information System[END_REF] and reinvent them over time (Bourdieu & Robey 2005). An institutional attractor is consistent with a particular institutional logic that is available in a pluralistic field [START_REF] Dunn | Institutional logics and institutional pluralism: The contestation of care and science logics in medical education, 1967-2005[END_REF]. O one hand this attractor generates change to salient practices that were previously consistent with an alternative logic, while on the other hand the attractor aids stabilizing and reinforcing the logic consistent with the attractor. From a systems biology standpoint, an institutional logic is expressed through a gene regulatory network-established patterns by which different routines interact with one another. This view of digital artifacts as institutional attractors has implications methodologically. Historically researchers have looked to understand social change through either a structural lens or a sequential lens. Structural analysis involves cross-sectional analysis of relationships between elements of social systems -what [START_REF] Sandberg | Grasping the logic of practice: Theorizing through practical rationality[END_REF] refer to as "entity-based approaches." This could involve variance theories of relationships between latent factors (Van de Ven 2007), or social network analyses of relationships between social actors [START_REF] Monge | Theories of communication networks[END_REF]. In either case, change is accounted for by contingency variables and comparison of cross-sectional structures. An alternative way of viewing social activity is by expressly attending to temporal elements of activities -as processes described by patterns of events (Van de Ven & Poole 1995) or sequences of activities (Abbott 1995). These methods capture patterns of change, but do so at the expense of rich contextual attention [START_REF] Pentland | Narrative networks: Patterns of technology and organization[END_REF]. Emerging sociomaterial approaches are adding cross-sectional context to sequence approaches [START_REF] Pentland | Dynamics of organizational routines: a generative model[END_REF][START_REF] Gaskin | Digital Technology and the Variation in Design Routines: A Sequence Analysis of Four Design Processes1[END_REF], or adding temporal elements to multimodal networks (resulting in "multidimensional" networks, see [START_REF] Contractor | Multidimensional networks and the dynamics of sociomateriality: Bringing technology inside the network[END_REF].

Essentially we need to combine "zooming in" to practice and "zooming out" to regularities across practices [START_REF] Sandberg | Grasping the logic of practice: Theorizing through practical rationality[END_REF]Latour 2010). By thinking of digital artifacts as institutional attractors, we enable this zooming in and out using the multilevel device of an institutional logic [START_REF] Friedland | The new institutionalism in organizational analysis[END_REF]. Institutional attractors embedded in practice work to co-constitute the stabilization and change associated with those practices in a way consistent with particular logics that are rooted in society's broader institutions [START_REF] Berente | Institutional Contradictions and Loose Coupling: Postimplementation of NASA's Enterprise Information System[END_REF].

By drawing on a systems biology perspective, our approach also offers ways to utilize contemporary computational techniques that are often used to analyze largescale genetic information. Our approach necessitates new forms of methodological tools and analytical frameworks that simultaneously consider both sequential and structural data. Combined with increasingly available digital trace data from organizations, we can explore how seemingly chaotic and random changes of sociomaterial routines in organizations emerge from recombinations of relatively small set of abstract genetic elements. Recently, scholars offer an idea of computational social science that combines the availability of 'big data' from digital archives and computational network science (Lazer et al 2008). Our view suggests an alternative approach to computational social science that focuses on the genetics and evolution; one that embraces both sequence analysis and network analysis simultaneously.

Conclusion

IFIP 8.2 has historically been a venue for novel theoretical combinations and alternative research methodologies [START_REF] Boland | Information systems research as design: Identity, process, and narrative[END_REF]. In this paper we look to draw on and extend this tradition by juxtaposing concepts from system biology and organizational institutionalism. In doing so we look to add one perspective in the emerging movement in IS research to go beyond idiosyncratic local practices, while not falling victim to decontextualized universal generalities [START_REF] Leonardi | Materiality and change: Challenges to building better theory about technology and organizing[END_REF][START_REF] Pollock | The sociology of a market analysis tool: How industry analysts sort vendors and organize markets[END_REF]. This paper argues for an evolutionary view of how an activity can lead endogenous changes to routines within an organization through networks of influence. Here in particular, the digital artifact can become a tool that both stabilizes patterns of action and at the same time generates changes in organizational routines through diverse enactments of various scales. This view implies a combined sociomaterial routine and multidimensional network view of organizational practice which would call for combined sequence and network methods that include digital artifacts as key actants -a theoretical foundation for some of the emerging methodological innovations of recent years [START_REF] Contractor | Multidimensional networks and the dynamics of sociomateriality: Bringing technology inside the network[END_REF][START_REF] Pentland | Designing routines: On the folly of designing artifacts, while hoping for patterns of action[END_REF][START_REF] Gaskin | Digital Technology and the Variation in Design Routines: A Sequence Analysis of Four Design Processes1[END_REF]. It is our hope that this initial step can provide the scaffolding for future researchers to explore and extend theoretically and with novel methodological applications.

* This paper is based on work supported, in part, by the National Science Foundation under grants VOSS-0943157 and VOSS-0943010. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.