Richard Heeks
email: richard.heeks@manchester.ac.uk

P J Wall
email: wallp2@tcd.ie

Critical Realism and ICT4D Research

Keywords: ICT4D, critical realism, philosophy, methodology

There is little overt engagement with research paradigms in ICT4D research but what there is shows a dominance of positivism and interpretivism. In this paper we explore the value of a "third way" research paradigm: critical realism. We concisely review the main features of critical realism: its ontological realism combined with epistemological relativism; its iterative, pluralist and reflexive methodology; and its emancipatory values. Alongside the general value of explicit use of any research paradigm, we argue two particular types of value of critical realism for ICT4D research. First, generic values including exposure of context, a contingent causality that reflects real-world ICT4D experiences, legitimisation of different stakeholder views and reduction of research bias, and support for ICT4D's interventionist approach and its goal of delivering international development. Second, specific value in addressing current trends in ICT4D research: the growing search for causal links between "ICT" and "D", and the political and ethical turns in ICT4D that are spurring researchers to engage more with issues of power, rights and justice. We conclude that delivery of critical realism's utility will require the ICT4D research community to take actions that enable this emergent research paradigm to flourish.

Introduction

From the turn of the 21 st century, there has been an ever-growing body of research and publication examining the role of information and communication technologies in socio-economic development (ICT4D). 1 Within this body of work, explicit consideration of research philosophy generally and of specific research paradigms is rare [START_REF] Gomez | Research questions, paradigms and methods in ICT for development[END_REF]. However, analysis has been undertaken to infer the paradigms being used which finds that interpretivist and positivist approaches dominate the cur-rent body of ICT4D research [START_REF] Walsham | Research on information systems in developing countries[END_REF], Gomez & Day 2013) 2 . Alongside generic concerns about the limitations imposed by this philosophical duopoly, each of these two paradigms individually has a number of limitations which constrain ICT4D (and other) research. Recognition of these limitations many years ago within social science overall resulted in a revisiting of the realist paradigm, and its development into a particular body of philosophical thought that has come to be known as "critical realism" (e.g. [START_REF] Bhaskar | A Realist Theory of Science[END_REF][START_REF] Bhaskar | The Possibility of Naturalism[END_REF]. From these philosophical origins, critical realism has spread into use in a number of academic disciplines including one of ICT4D's main cognate disciplines, information systems (e.g. Mingers 2004a, Mingers 2004b). 3Given the relative absence of explicit critical realism in ICT4D research, and the lack of discussion about research philosophy, we perceived a knowledge gap. In this paper our aim is therefore to explore the relevance of critical realism as a philosophical paradigm for ICT4D research. In Section 2 of the paper, we outline the main features of critical realism. We then compare these to features of ICT4D research looking for both the generic, enduring value of critical realism in ICT4D research, and also for specific fit with current trends in the field. After noting challenges of applying critical realism, we draw final conclusions and thoughts about possible actions.

The Features of Critical Realism

It is possible to trace a historical trajectory within social science that is dominated first by positivism which is then joined by interpretivism.

2.1

The Ontology of Critical Realism Critical realism adopts a three-level "stratified ontology", as summarised in Fig. 1 (Mingers 2004a). Within the domain of the real lie generative mechanisms: "causal structures that generate observable events" (Henfridsson & Bygstad 2013:911). These mechanisms have an "intransitive" objective reality independent of human thought or belief: they are not merely social constructions. An example of an ICT4D-related mechanism would be an information infrastructure of technology and people in a country that attracts digital service providers, who create new services and thus attract more users, thereby strengthening the information infrastructure and creating a virtuous circle [START_REF] Bygstad | In search of mechanisms[END_REF].

Within the domain of the actual lie events: "specific happenings resulting from causal mechanisms being enacted in some social and physical structure within a particular ... context" (Williams & Karahanna 2013:939). An example of ICT4D-related events might be appointment of an ICT4D champion, formation of an ICT4D strategy group, or design of an ICT4D app. However, critical realism rejects linear notions of causality between mechanisms and events. It takes an open systems view of the world in which multiple mechanisms intersect, thus creating a "contingent causality" that is context-dependent [START_REF] Smith | Testable theory development for small-n studies[END_REF].

Social structures underlie and create the mechanisms within the domain of the real. There is therefore a danger that critical realism might be seen as structuralist: focusing on social structures as explanations and ignoring or downplaying the role of human agency. But this is inherently not so [START_REF] Njihia | The broader context for ICT4D projects: a morphogenetic analysis[END_REF]. One of the most explicit explanations has come from Archer (e.g. 1995) and the notion of morphogenesis; a cycle of three phases: "(a) the existing structure that shapes but does not determine actions that are about to take place; (b) social interaction, which in turn leads to; (c) structural elaboration that either changes ["morphogenesis"] or reproduces ["mor-phostasis"] the social structure" (Ram et al. 2014:465). We can understand this as a rolling iteration between structure and agency; between the real and the actual.

The Epistemology of Critical Realism

Within the domain of the empirical lie human experiences and observations of the events generated within the actual. The underlying, intransitive structures and mechanisms of the real domain cannot therefore be directly experienced; hence they cannot be directly measured by research [START_REF] Danermark | Explaining Society: Critical Realism in the Social Sciences[END_REF]. But, as Fig. 1 indicates, the empirical is contained within the actual and the real. Thus, any experience is shaped by the context of that experience: it is not objective but is contingent and transient. Different observers will give different accounts of events depending on, for example, their own historical experiences and their own position within social structures (Dobson 2001).

The Methodology of Critical Realism

Three methodological features of critical realism will be identified here: iterative retroduction, pluralism, and reflexivity. Retroduction -literally meaning leading backwards -is a "…mode of inference in which events are explained by postulating (and identifying) mechanisms which are capable of producing them…" (Sayer 1992:107). It therefore means moving back across the domains from the empirical via the actual to the real, and represents the way by which the domains are connected within active research. Though potentially a one-time movement, in practice, retroduction is more generally understood as part of an iterative cycle in which mechanisms are postulated from existing data, evidenced or otherwise through gathering of new data, and supported or revised or rejected iteratively during the analysis of that data [START_REF] Easton | Critical realism in case study research[END_REF]).

Given the transitive relation between the empirical and the actual, critical realism requires pluralism of methods in order to improve the validity of insights into events (and, hence, into underlying mechanisms) [START_REF] Downward | Retroduction as mixed-methods triangulation in economic research[END_REF]. This is typically understood in terms of two types of triangulation. Data triangulation is most often operationalised by gathering data from different stakeholders, thus allowing for multiple perspectives and inter-subjective insights into the events of the actual. Method triangulation means critical realism is associated with mixed-methods research: combining qualitative and quantitative methods [START_REF] Zachariadis | Methodological implications of critical realism for mixed-methods research[END_REF]: see Fig. 2).

Because the empirical is subject to the influence of context then data gathered will be value-laden. And this will also be true of the research process itself. Critical realism therefore asks of its researchers that they and their research participants be reflexive: "a dynamic process of interaction within and between ourselves and our participants, and the data that inform decisions, actions and interpretations at all stages of research" (Etherington 2004:36). This process can also be retroductive: seeking to expose the underlying mechanisms that can explain the events of the research process.

2.4

The Axiology of Critical Realism So far our explanation has been more realist than critical. The extent and nature of the critical within critical realism is debated [START_REF] Klein | Seeking the new and the critical in critical realism: déjà vu?[END_REF]): for example, it could just mean critique of prior research paradigms. But there is a central thread within many writings on critical realism that associate it with critical theory [START_REF] Bhaskar | Reclaiming Reality[END_REF]). From this outlook, critical realism contrasts itself to positivism's notions of value-free research in two ways. Like interpretivism its epistemology recognises observation and research to be value-laden: shaped by experience and context. But additionally, it seeks research to be values-driven: specifically driven by the values of emancipation. This means recognising the way in which the social structures and mechanisms of the real domain can sometimes serve to generate events and processes that are oppressive and outcomes that are unequal. But beyond merely understanding the world, the critical of critical realism inspires changing the world through engagement with practice: "developing ways of working with practitioners to help them understand their situation, identify barriers and opportunities for change and implement solutions" (Ram et al. 2014:465).

Critical Realism and ICT4D Research

In this section, we will look at the potential value that critical realism can bring to ICT4D research. We will also acknowledge some challenges.

Generic Value of Research Paradigms in ICT4D Research

We have previously noted that explicit consideration of research paradigms is rare in ICT4D publications. Is this a problem? There are certainly arguments, beyond use of any specific approach, about the general value of such consideration. Beyond the direct contribution to a particular ICT4D research project or publication, "explicit recognition of research philosophies can help researchers' self-development, their capacity to analyze the work of themselves and others, and the academic credibility of a research field" (Heeks & Bailur 2007:252). There is also a current value to ICT4D as a research sub-discipline. If it is to achieve greater maturity and academic recognition then there will need to be greater attention to, and use of, research paradigms.

Ontological Value of Critical Realism in ICT4D Research

There is widespread agreement in ICT4D research on the importance of context; for instance, the way in which the outcome of ICT4D projects is influenced by the interests of stakeholder groups [START_REF] Bailur | Using stakeholder theory to analyze telecenter projects[END_REF] We can identify two further values that the contextualist ontology of critical realism brings to the current state of ICT4D research. The first is its incorporation of causality. The open systems view taken by critical realism is one that does not provide for causal mechanisms that operate in the same way at all times and in all contexts; but it does develop an understanding of causality. As Njihia and Merali (2013:866) explain, critical realism "should tell us with good reason why things are as they are now and where they could be heading, based on the causal tendencies of identified generative mechanisms". This is especially relevant in ICT4D today. The focus of ICT4D research has been shifting over time from issues of readiness and availability through adoption to development impact (Heeks 2014b). But the current interest in development impact has been hampered by lack of research that investigates or demonstrates a causal connection between technology and development [START_REF] Andersson | What are we doing?[END_REF]. Critical realism helps engage with that causal connection.

The second timely value of critical realism is its relevance to what we might call the "political turn" in ICT4D. This has arisen to reflect the growing role of ICTs in politics in developing countries (e.g. Breuer & Welp 2014), the length and depth of diffusion of ICTs such that they are starting to impact structures of power in developing countries (Heeks 2016), and the greater salience of politics within international development and development studies [START_REF] Hickey | Thinking about the Politics of Inclusive Development[END_REF] Critical realism, unlike other research paradigms, has particular features that facilitate political research. Political theory often conceives power in terms of underlying structures and mechanisms that shape but do not determine (e.g. Hearn 2012). This is, of course, precisely the ontological perspective of critical realism. It contrasts with the determinism of positivism (and its logical impossibility of denying the politics of research and observation while researching politics) and interpretivism's struggles to recognise social structure or the way in which power constitutes beliefs [START_REF] Torgerson | Between knowledge and politics[END_REF][START_REF] Bevir | Interpretation and its others[END_REF]. In addition, the critical aspect of critical realism means it has a central concern with the ways in which power structures society. Hence we find examples of explicitly critical realist research on issues of power and politics (e.g. Patomaki 2002).

Epistemological Value of Critical Realism in ICT4D Research

Critical realism's understanding of the empirical domain allows for different perceptions of common events within an ICT4D project. This legitimises an observed reality of such projects: that different individuals and groups will express different views [START_REF] Chib | Multi-stakeholder perspectives influencing policyresearch-practice[END_REF]); something which positivism at least can labour to encompass. Further, of course, through reference to the mechanisms of the real domain, critical realism allows for an explanation of why those differences occur. Alongside the methodological requirement for triangulation of multiple perspectives, critical realism therefore facilitates use of stakeholder theory in ICT4D research (and use of stakeholder analysis in ICT4D practice); something which has been advocated as a means to provide greater insights into the trajectories of ICT4D projects [START_REF] Bailur | Using stakeholder theory to analyze telecenter projects[END_REF]).

Methodological Value of Critical Realism in ICT4D Research

Concerns about lack of rigour in research can be found in every academic discipline. As already discussed, ICT4D research is seen to suffer from a lack of credible investigation into causality (May & Diga 2015), something which undermines internal research validity. Both positivism and critical realism address this but critical realism has an arguable additional value because its iterative retroduction forces ongoing contemplation and critique of the relation between causes and effects. And, as again noted, its contingent approach to causality provides a better reflection of the varied cause-effect patterns seen in ICT4D in practice.

There are also frequent concerns about bias in ICT4D research and the way in which it can undermine both reliability and validity. These include biases of case and respondent selection [START_REF] Burrell | What constitutes good ICTD research?[END_REF], biases of the researchers themselves (Krauss 2012), and biases of individual research methods [START_REF] Dearden | See no evil? Ethics in an interventionist ICTD[END_REF]. Interpretivism seeks to address respondent and researcher bias by embracing them as integral to its worldview, but it struggles to deal with the other biases. By contrast, critical realism's methodological pluralism and triangulation force multiple viewpoints and data sources and methods to be incorporated. More generally, critical realism's mandated reflexivity forces ongoing introspection about the nature of the research process and its overall rigour including biases of context, respondents and researcher. In sodoing, it may be able to improve rigour and mitigate biases. Critical realism also forces reflection on the value of ICT4D research; something, again, that is a concern from those seeking to develop the field (ibid., Krauss & Turpin 2013).

Axiological Value of Critical Realism in ICT4D Research

Some academic disciplines lend themselves to theorisation and abstraction. ICT4D is not such a field: from its very definition it is oriented to practice and it centres around ICT-based interventions in developing countries [START_REF] Marathe | In search of missing pieces: a re-examination of trends in ICTD research[END_REF]). In a general way, critical realism's concern with engagement and change is supportive of practiceoriented disciplines. But the role of ICT4D goes beyond the unspecific notion of practice. As the "4D" element directly indicates, it is seeking to achieve progressive social change; seeking to deliver specific development goals. While individual goals vary, foundational orientations of the Sustainable Development Goals are towards transformation: changing underlying systems of development; and towards inclusion: addressing both symptoms and causes of inequality (Heeks 2014a). The congruence of critical realism can therefore be argued given its fit with at least these main goals of development. As discussed above, critical realism is values-driven and orients not only towards understanding how structures and mechanisms constrain development, but also towards interventions that bring about emancipatory change. Dodson et al. (2013:27) argue that the additional concerns of ICT4D, relating to both practice and change, create a problem: "the [ICT4D] research community is not unified on how to harmonize the difficult and sometimes competing goals of conducting experiments, producing social change, and studying the phenomena of ICT use in developing countries". Critical realism emerges as a basis for this harmonisation given that it encompasses research, practice, and developmental social change. This is particularly timely because of its relevance to what we might call the "ethical turn" in ICT4D. This has been advanced by the growing use of Amartya Sen's work -with its focus on justice [START_REF] Sen | The Idea of Justice[END_REF]) -within ICT4D, and by the growing interest in ethics and social justice within wider development [START_REF] Oosterlaken | ICT4D and ethics[END_REF]. It is reflected by literature on ethics in ICT4D research and practice [START_REF] Traxler | Ethics and ICTD research[END_REF], Mthoko & Pade-Khene 2013). The exact relation of critical realism to ethics and justice is debated [START_REF] Norrie | Dialectic and Difference[END_REF]. At a basic level, the emancipatory impulses of critical realism resonate with the ideas of ethics, and critical realism would thus be supportive of work on ICT4D and ethics. But at a deeper level, one might argue that the foundations of rights, ethics and justice in the ICT4D field lie within the structures of society: that these all derive from and are largely determined by social structures [START_REF] Heeks | Data justice for development: what would it mean?, Information Development[END_REF]. If that argument is accepted, then critical realism becomes uniquely appropriate for work on ICT4D and ethics given its combined desire to both understand and progressively change the social structures that envelop ICT4D.

Challenges of Using Critical Realism in ICT4D Research

Critical realism faces challenges:

• Philosophical challenges: from a positivist perspective, critical realism is criticised due to its lack of objectivity; the limitations it places on the generalisation of findings; and the "provisional, fallible, incomplete, and extendable" nature of its explanations (Dobson 2009:808). From an interpretive perspective, it is the realism of critical realism that is misguided. • Practical challenges: critical realism has been criticised as hard to understand and "difficult, time-consuming and resource-intensive" to operationalise (Reed 2009:436).

Well-supported ICT4D doctoral researchers may have the time and training to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to address these challenges, but for most ICT4D researchers, they will present important barriers.

These are issues facing any user of critical realism but we can also reflect on challenges specific to the ICT4D research domain: the lack of ICT4D academic culture and capabilities around critical realism means a lack of both drivers and enablers to greater use of critical realism. In practical terms, for example, there are few supervisors and reviewers who demand use of critical realism, and few supervisors and reviewers who are able to guide and comment on critical realism. This in turn perpetuates the lack of culture and capabilities. It will require express intervention, say of ICT4D journal editors, to encourage greater engagement with research paradigms; developing a more fertile ground for critical realism -among other paradigms -to flourish.

Conclusions

There is general value of direct engagement with any research paradigm in enhancing ICT4D researchers' analytical capacity and the overall credibility of themselves and our sub-discipline. But our specific interest was one particular paradigm -critical realism -and its potential value in ICT4D.

There is a generic ability of critical realism to address issues seen as concerns for ICT4D research. It engages with underlying structure: helping to expose causal mechanisms and, for example, facilitating use of theoretical frames that connect ICTs to development impact. It encompasses difference: reflecting the contingent and contextualised link between cause and effect seen in ICT4D practice, and legitimising the views of different stakeholders on ICT4D phenomena. It triangulates: reducing the bias of individual ICT4D respondents, researchers or methods. It asks for reflexivity: pressing the ICT4D researcher for deeper insights into their work. And it seeks progressive social change: supporting ICT4D's intervention-orientation and its goal of delivering international development.

We also identified particular value of critical realism to current trends in ICT4D research. It supports the recent and growing search for causality within ICT4D. It supports the "political turn" in ICT4D: exposing the structures and mechanisms of power that underpin application of ICTs in development contexts, but still allowing space for consideration of human agency. And it supports the "ethical turn" in ICT4D: seeking the outcome of a more just and equitable society, and necessitating investigation of the social structures that underpin rights, ethics and justice.

There are both general and domain-specific challenges to further use of critical realism within ICT4D research; not least the orientation of many ICT4D researchers towards alternative paradigms. But for those who share recognition of critical realism's value there can be a number of enabling actions. These could be critical realism-specific or relate more generally to research paradigms with specific incorporation of critical realism. Examples include: commissioning of special issues and conference tracks; training and development activities for researchers such as workshops; and pressure from conference chairs, editors and reviewers for more explicit incorporation of research paradigms within the methodology sections of papers.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Stratified Ontology of Critical Realism

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Methodology of Critical Realism

  . It is reflected in conference tracks and journal special issues dealing with political perspectives on ICT4D (Andrade & Urquhart 2012a, Heeks et al. 2016) and by calls for more political analysis in ICT4D research and practice (Andrade & Urquhart 2012b, Roberts 2015).

  Methodology: what research strategy, methods and techniques the paradigm uses in order to gather and analyse data.• Axiology: what the paradigm does and does not value in research.

Both paradigms have been subject to various criticisms (e.g. Kanellis & Papadopoulos 2009, Bevir & Rhodes 2005, Smith 2005). These criticisms of interpretivist and positivist approaches have led a number of scholars to search for a "third way" (Allen et al. 2013:835). Critical realism has been put forward as one such, and in the following sections we will give a very brief overview based on the four main differentiators of research paradigms (Cresswell 2013):

• Ontology: what the paradigm understands to be the nature of reality.

• Epistemology: what the paradigm understands about how we construct and evaluate knowledge about that reality. •

299 publications during

2001-2005; 1,840 during 2006-2010; and 4,150 during 2011-2015 (Google Scholar: English language only; excluding patents and citations).

With some sub-domain differences: e.g. IFIP WG9.4 conferences tend more towards interpretive work; ICTD conferences tend more towards positivist work (Gallivan & Tao 2013, Gomez & Day 2013).

[START_REF] Andrade | Special issue on the politics of ICT for development[END_REF] There is much less discussion of research philosophy in the other main cognate disciplinedevelopment studies -and little or no explicit discussion of critical realism.


Fathul Wahid
email: fathul.wahid@uii.ac.id

Øystein Saebø
email: 2oystein.sabo@uia.no

Bjørn Furuholt
email: bjorn.furuholt@uia.no

Tensions in Information System Artefacts: Explaining Land Information Systems' Sub-Optimal Impact in Indonesia

Keywords: eGovernment, Land information systems, Tension, Information system artefact, Indonesia, Developing country

Despite the advancement of more integrated land information systems (LIS), conflicts and disputes over land in Indonesia remain. Our study seeks to explain this situation. Using an interpretive case study conducted in Eastern Indonesia and framed within the concepts of information system (IS) artefacts, we find that tensions within and between information, technology, and social artefacts help to explain the sub-optimal LIS impacts. Inconsistent information, unsuitable technology, and conflicting social arrangements are examples of such tensions. Unless the tensions are properly resolved, LIS use cannot fulfil its potential for more appropriate management of land administration.

Introduction

Information concerning land and land ownership is of critical importance for the development developing countries, facing severe challenges related to land management, including unclear responsibility distribution between the involved stakeholders [START_REF] Bennett | On the need for national land administration infrastructures[END_REF], conflicting legal arrangements [START_REF] Bakker | The space between: Land claims and the law in Indonesia[END_REF], and non-transparent systems [START_REF] Chawla | Online delivery of land titles to rural farmers in Karnataka, India[END_REF]. Modern land information systems (LIS), consisting of a database containing spatially referenced data and procedures and techniques for the systematic collection, updating, processing and distribution of the data, are arguably a basic infrastructure for environmental management as well as economic and social development, particularly in developing countries [START_REF] Arko-Adjei | A conceptual approach for enhancing customary land management: Case from Ghana. 5th FIG Regional Conference: Promoting Land Administration and Good Governance[END_REF]. Despite the advancements of more integrated LIS, conflicts over land [START_REF] Arko-Adjei | A conceptual approach for enhancing customary land management: Case from Ghana. 5th FIG Regional Conference: Promoting Land Administration and Good Governance[END_REF], specifically uncontrolled land use and conversion [START_REF] Firman | Major issues in Indonesia's urban land development[END_REF], remain, with large areas of land remaining unregistered. While LIS play an important role within this field, research focusing on such issues has so far been rather incomplete [START_REF] Furuholt | Land Information Systems for Development (LIS4D): A Neglected Area within ICT4D Research?[END_REF].

We aim at contributing to this important field of interest by exploring LIS use in Indonesia. In 1997, Indonesia initiated the use of IS within their land management. However, the aforementioned problems remained unresolved [START_REF] Bakker | The space between: Land claims and the law in Indonesia[END_REF][START_REF] Firman | Major issues in Indonesia's urban land development[END_REF], and there have been a significant number of disputes reported over land. In 2007, for example, the National Land Agency (Badan Pertanahan Nasional [BPN]) recorded more than 7,000 cases of land conflicts covering almost 608,000 hectares of land [START_REF] Winoto | Taking land policy and administration in Indonesia to the next stage and National Land Agency's strategic plan[END_REF]. By 2013, there were still more than 4,000 cases [START_REF] Pertanahan | [END_REF]. These conflicts occur for various reasons [START_REF] Pertanahan | [END_REF], such as illegal occupancy, border disputes, inheritance disputes, multiple sales, double certificates, false transaction letters, and overlapping borders. Until 2013, only around 45% of private ownership land parcels had been formally registered [START_REF] Pertanahan | [END_REF], which equals 5% of Indonesia's land area [START_REF] Yusuf | Land administration system in Indonesia[END_REF].

Given these considerations, it is clear that the effectiveness of LIS needs to be better understood. As will be further elaborated below, we found only sub-optimal use of LIS while conducting our fieldwork. Here, we aim to explore why by reflecting on the following research question: What can explain the sub-optimal impact of LIS use in Indonesia? To explore this, we conducted an interpretive case study in rural Eastern Indonesia (in the district of Nagekeo).

In order to fully understand the use and potential of introducing LIS, we need to understand technical, human [START_REF] Orlikowski | Research commentary: Desperately seeking the "IT" in IT research-A call to theorizing the IT artifact[END_REF], and contextual issues [START_REF] Davison | Context is king! Considering particularism in research design and reporting[END_REF]. One way to do so is to introduce the concept of an ensemble artefact, which has been a core issue of concern within IS research [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF]. We introduce the IS artefact concept, [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF] which consists of three subsystems: the technology part, or the tools used to solve a problem, achieve a goal, or serve a purpose defined by humans; the information part, or the information instantiation occurring through a human act; and the social part, or the nature of the relationships or interactions between individuals (hence social) in attempts to solve problems, achieve goals, or serve one's purposes [START_REF] Spagnoletti | Design for Social Media Engagement: Insights from elderly care assistance[END_REF].

While Lee et al. [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF] make an important theoretical contribution by clarifying the use of the term and emphasising IT artefacts' socio-technical elements, empirical work is still needed in order to further explore the IS artefact way of thinking. For instance, they argue that the 'whole IS artefact is greater than the sum of its subsystem' without really discussing how or why it is so. The framework talks about the three components as single entities, while in real-life examples there are several analysis units within each of these. Therefore, empirical work is still needed in order to better understand the connection between the three subsystems.

The IS artefact concept allows us to elaborate on the informational, technological, and social aspects of an ensemble artefact, but more emphasis is needed in order to understand potential conflicts between these subsystems, as well as how such conflicts could influence projects. We also introduce the concept of tensions to identify the challenges, internal or external, that must be managed so that the community can achieve the intended aims [START_REF] Ågerfalk | Outsourcing to an unknown workforce: Exploring opensurcing as a global sourcing strategy[END_REF][START_REF] Hutter | Communitition: the Tension between competition and collaboration in community-based design contests[END_REF][START_REF] Kozinets | Networked narratives: Understanding word-of-mouth marketing in online communities[END_REF]. Tensions will lead to unstable conditions, oscillating between two different and competing states; this must be managed to ensure community survival over time [START_REF] Faraj | Knowledge collaboration in online communities[END_REF]. Specific tensions should be carefully managed. As argued below, the identification of tension within the IS artefact subsystem allows us to further elaborate the understanding of why studied LIS achieved only a suboptimal impact. This work's main contribution is twofold. First, we contribute by developing a more detailed understanding of LIS introduction by identifying tensions between IS artefact subsystems and their influence on LIS success (or otherwise). Second, by identifying these tensions, we contribute theoretically by providing a better explana-tion of tension's role between IS-artefact subsystems, a perspective so far being unexplored.

The rest of the paper is organised as follows: first, we introduce the theoretical premises for our works; then, before introducing our results, we briefly present the research context and approach. We conclude by discussing our findings and providing avenues for practice and future research

Theoretical Premises

The IS artefact concept is introduced here to provide a more detailed understanding of the technological, informational, and social aspects of the introduced LIS. The notion of 'artefact' has been highly debated within IS research [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF] ever since the desperate call for more information technology (IT) artefact knowledge was raised by Orlikowski and Iacono [START_REF] Orlikowski | Research commentary: Desperately seeking the "IT" in IT research-A call to theorizing the IT artifact[END_REF]. The ensemble artefact view has its roots within the interpretation of IS being a socio-technical construction that ensures equal consideration of technical and human factors in the design process [START_REF] Mumford | The story of socio-technical design: Reflections on its successes, failures and potential[END_REF]. The socio-technical design's objective, 'the joint optimisation of the social and technical systems' [START_REF] Mumford | The story of socio-technical design: Reflections on its successes, failures and potential[END_REF], guides the idea of the ensemble view of an artefact [13] [22], as well as the IS artefact [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF]. Scholars have recently criticised the artefact concept for being too broad and therefore no longer of value for IS research [START_REF] Alter | The concept of 'IT artifact' has outlived its usefulness and should be retired now[END_REF], while others argue for the need for more detailed exploration of IT artefacts [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF][START_REF] Goldkuhl | The IT artefact: An ensemble of the social and the technical?-A rejoinder[END_REF][START_REF] Silver | Conceptualizing the SocioTechnical (ST) artifact[END_REF]. The latter argument resonates with our view and is introduced here in order to explore LIS use within Indonesia, which allows for understanding the sub-optimal usage of such systems. Introducing the IS artefact perspective allows for focusing on how the system is dynamically shaped by the contextual dependencies of its context of use, adoption, and implementation [START_REF] Spagnoletti | Design for Social Media Engagement: Insights from elderly care assistance[END_REF].

The technology subsystem, the human-made tool created to solve a problem, achieve a goal, or serve a purpose, has several characteristics [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF]. The technological subsystem does not include only digital or electronic components, but can also include non-digital parts of the system, such as face-to-face meetings, books, or paperbased library systems. Moreover, it might not be about information but still contain the technology, like the computer or the mobile phone. A technological subsystem does not need to have a physical representation [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF]. The information subsystem is an information instantiation that is based on a direct or indirect human act [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF]. Information can include numbers, letters, or symbols, or even relationships between such information tokens. Information is processed or adapted by an actor in order to achieve (or otherwise) the intended outcome. The social subsystem focuses on the relationships and interactions between individuals [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF]. By focusing on interactions and relationships, this subsystem necessarily involves more than one individual, focusing instead on the social aspect. The social artefacts can include stable and established social relationships or more dynamic and fluid interactions.

According to Lee et al. [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF], the IS artefact represents the technological, informational, and social subsystems and is more than the sum of its part, since part of the artefact relates to the relationship between its sub-systems. The features of both the technology and information subsystems are mainly seen as necessary conditions that render possible the social features through which users are linked to other content creators [START_REF] Kaplan | Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media[END_REF].The three subsystems are clearly assembled so that each component relates to the presence of the other. The three IS artefact subsystems, as well as how they are related, are summarised in Figure 1. While the IS artefact perspective is useful in analysing various IT artefact characteristics and the relationships between them, less emphasis is placed on how these subsystems can conflict with each other, or how such conflicts potentially influence the success or otherwise when introducing ICT. We explore this perspective by looking at tensions between these subsystems. Tensions need to be managed; the question is how to combine 'sub-artefact' elements (internally and externally) to address these tensions.

Tensions can be defined as a state of contrast between opposite forces, each one leading an entity to a different -opposite -condition or state, or as a relationship between ideas and qualities with conflicting demands or implications. Out of these conditions, one could be the desirable while the other the undesirable. This concept is used by the literature in order to identify difficulties, internal or external, that could lead to an unstable oscillating condition between two different and competing states, which needs to be managed [START_REF] Salem | The seven communication reasons organizations do not change[END_REF]. Focusing on tensions reveals the participants' conflicting goals, purposes, and motivations. They are not hidden; rather, as a form of sense-making, participants regularly discuss their problems as tensions [START_REF] Ribes | The long now of technology infrastructure: articulating tensions in development[END_REF].

Research Context and Approach

Indonesia, comprised of approximately 17,000 islands, covers an area of 1.9 million square kilometres (km) supporting a population of more than 225 million people.

During the 350-year period before its independence in 1945, Indonesia was constantly under some form of colonial rule. Land law was dualistic, representing Western-style systems -to meet the colonial governments' interests -and traditional unwritten laws based on customary rights to land, which exist in Indonesia's diverse cultural groups. This dualism in land law was expected to end in 1960 with the enactment of the Basic Agrarian Law (Undang-Undang Pokok Agraria). This national law recognises traditional concepts and institutions, while at the same time provides for the registration of individual land rights. Within this framework, Indonesia operates a complex land management system [START_REF] Heryani | Land administration in Indonesia. 3rd FIG Regional Conference[END_REF].

The legal issues are complex, as land administration is managed under two national government agencies, BPN and the Ministry of Forestry (MoF). These government agencies refer to different laws in determining land borders under their jurisdiction [START_REF] Kabinet | [END_REF]. To some extent, this policy leads to conflicts and power struggles between land management officials and Indonesian administration [START_REF] Bakker | The space between: Land claims and the law in Indonesia[END_REF][START_REF] Kabinet | [END_REF].

Our study site is the district of Nagekeo located in the province of East Nusa Tenggara (see Figure 1). Approximately 110,000 people inhabit this area, which covers 1,417 square km. This newly established district was part of the district of Ngada until 2007. A large proportion of this district's land is community land (tanah ulayat) without certificates. That often triggers land conflicts, either between tribal groups or between tribal groups and the local government [START_REF] Pembaruan | Sengketa tanah ulayat di Nagekeo, NTT: Bupati diduga pakai polisi sebagai beking[END_REF][START_REF] Rahalaka | Pendekatan budaya, solusi penyelesaian masalah tanah di Nagekeo[END_REF]. Nagekeo was selected in order to represent an area where conflicts concerning community land ownership are prevalent. Nagekeo's local BPN office was officially founded in 2010. One year later the office introduced Larasita, a mobile land office (a modified van) that services remote areas and is equipped with laptops connected through a virtual private network to the national BPN office's main databases. They use a LIS called Geo-KKP, which is a web-based system that connects textual and spatial land data. Technically, a LIS is already in place, to some extent, in order to support certification and other related services.

One of the flagship programmes established by BPN and the national government intended to speed up asset legalisation (i.e. certification of lands). To this end, BPN launched the Prona scheme, which offered free block registration to certain disadvantaged communities. In Nagekeo, the local BPN office expects to issue 1,200-1,400 land certificates annually. Of these, 800 certificates were through the Prona scheme (where 75 certificates were allocated to fishermen). This number is considered low, since only 5% of Nagekeo land has been certified to date.

Research Approach

In this interpretative case study, data were collected primarily through interviews with actors from different backgrounds: farmers, fishermen, BPN service users, the heads of tribal groups, members of cooperatives, financial institutions (i.e. bank), and government officers from district, sub-district, and village levels. These informants represent the various stakeholders involved in land-related issues, representing both the people and the government. Stakeholders from the people's side include the head of tribal groups, (migrant/local) farmers, (migrant/local) fishermen, and local businessmen. On the government's side, there is BPN, a local planning agency, and various departments responsible for forestry, settlement, city planning, and the development of the fishery sector and small and medium-sized enterprises.

In total, we conducted 25 interviews with 31 informants, whereof 20 interviews were carried out in Nagekeo including 24 informants. In order to provide a broader national perspective, the rest of the interviews were done with Jakarta BPN officers at the Geospatial Information Agency (Badan Informasi Geospasial [BIG]) in Bogor and Jakarta's WWF Indonesia. All of the interviews were either recorded or extensively noted.

In analysing the data, we used the concepts depicting the artefact relationships (i.e. information, technology, and social) composing the IS artefact as the coding template. We identified all of the tensions that happened in all of the relationships and mapped them into specific relationships. When the tensions involve at least two different instantiations at the same artefact, we termed them as 'tensions within artefacts'. Otherwise, when more than one composing artefact is involved in the tensions, we named them 'tension between artefacts'.

Findings

Before presenting the main findings on the tensions within and between IS artefacts, it is necessary to identify examples of each composing artefact (i.e. information, technology, and social) in play within the LIS uptake context. Information artefact (IA) examples include land-related laws, information on procedures for land certification application, costs that may be incurred, the consequences of having certified land (e.g. paying annual land tax, securing land ownership), and the land certificate itself. The technology artefacts identified included all technologies that constitute the LIS, such as Internet, virtual private network (VPN), a modified van for Larasita, laptops, other network infrastructure, land measurement tools, and the information system applications (e.g. Geo-KKP). The social artefacts comprised of all possible relationships and interactions among the involved actors (e.g. citizens, BPN, local government agencies, head of tribal groups).

Tensions within artefacts

First, we present the findings indicating the tensions found within each composing artefact.

Within information artefact. This artefact manifest in various forms. Unclear or conflicting information on many aspects can create tension. For example, one village official says, 'Prona is prioritised for those with low economic status, and it's free of charge'. But in the field, we found that some informants are expected to pay certain amounts of money. One BPN official says in defence, 'Well, the village might charge something. But that's their village's regulations. The thing is, BPN doesn't charge anything'. One informant further asserts, 'The payment [for BPN employees in the field during the measurement process] is unclear which may result in corruption and manipulation. It is because of unclear payment for transport, food, and accommodation. This type of payment for land certification tends to be expensive. This discourages people to certify their land'. Another tension within information artefact is illustrated by one national BPN office director, who asserts, 'There are 13 laws related to land which are not harmonised, either horizontally among the laws or vertically with their references, namely the constitution'.

Within technology artefact. The modified Larasita van was originally designed to provide mobile land certification services directly to the citizens, especially those residing in remote areas. But, as one BPN official tells us, 'It's because we moved the office and there were problems with Internet network. We have no network at all. ... I think Larasita's van hasn't had it yet. The van is just an operational vehicle when we need to go to the field. ...We haven't been able to run Larasita properly'.

Within social artefact. Land certification is not available for everyone, since many fishermen do not own their lands -a landlord (the tribal group) does. Potential land ownership conflicts can also hinder land certification. We found that many of the land certification applications sent to BPN were going nowhere, even after many years, because indigenous people are claiming back the land. In such cases, BPN never issues certificates over those lands. One informant illustrates, 'Well here, the problems related to lands are usually among the society, related to the tribal groups, within the tribal groups, among individuals, and the most frequently is related to the government'. Another informant adds, 'The government wants to do something, but the society feels that the lands are their living sources so they refuse it. Conflicts happen then'. Further, another informant asserts, 'Sometimes the government is not neutral, they are not strict. And related to the border problems, there hasn't been one solved so far'.

Table 1 summarises examples of tensions between instantiations within a composing artefact.

Tensions between artefacts

Next, we present the identified tensions between instantiations from two different artefacts. These tensions happen when the involved artefact's relationship goes in an unexpected direction. Each of the identified tensions is presented below.

Between technology and information artefact.

A technology artefact can engage, or make possible, the existence of an information artefact. As the main LIS application, Geo-KKP provides and connects textual and spatial land data. However, it only records the already certified private lands; it does not provide information about uncertified land borders. These lead to land disputes. One local BPN office official coments: 'For measurement, the common problem is any claims related to the land borders among the society. ... For the measurement workers, they should clear the problems right away. We look for win-win solution. We set the border both sides agree to it'.

Between information and technology artefacts. An information artefact can impose requirements on a technology artefact. Even though the national government enacted a law in 2011 concerning geospatial information to provide legal support for the 'One Map Policy' initiative, Geo-KKP does not have an integrated map, which is managed by the Ministry of Forestry (MoF). Both BPN and MoF refer to different laws in determining land borders under their jurisdiction, which is substantiated by tales from the field. An official from the local government states, 'There should be a proposal from village people for land certification. With the proposal, BPN will investigate in the field for issuing the land certificate. However, BPN always coordinate with the Department of Forestry, especially to get recommendation that the lands for certification are not within the government forests'.

Between technology and social artefacts. The use of technology can either further improve or hurt social artefacts. As one informant says, 'By having technology, there are many references that can be searched, so there will be plenty of sources that can be adopted. Moreover, there will be new insights. Therefore, if they know the technology better, they may be able to clear the facts'. However, he later adds, 'It may create the problem ... if the people actually do not play an important role, but they know technology very well. Finally, they can manipulate the truth. And actually, the problems here are because the acknowledgement among the tribes does not get stronger'. In a different fragment, another informant tells us, 'The previous BPN officials were not good and worked very slow. If people want to speed up their land certification process, they just give some money as greasing oil'.

Between social and technology artefacts. The social artefact can place demand for the technology artefact. Moreover, lack of education restricts the use of technology. When asked about the conflict's nature, one informant asserts, 'So far, it is the personal conflict, because all people obey the head of tribal group, when it is customary conflict. The difficult part is the informal claim, such claiming certain lands, which belong to other people. This is basically related to the technology and educational level of the community. For example, people who are well educated, they sometimes even become the one who start the problem. The real owner can lose the case because they have lower education'. In this case, social relation problems cannot always be resolved by the help of technology.

Between social and information artefacts. The social artefact can also place demand for an information artefact. However, this is not always the case in practice. When discussing land certification challenges, one informant clearly explains, 'There are two main challenges. The first one relates to administration where people could not provide with administrative proof of owning the lands. The second one is that different claims over the same land that is proposed for land certification. This disputed claims over lands use to occur in the customary lands'. Here, the tribal group's social arrangement does not allow the group members to certify their lands.

Between information and social artefacts. An information artefact can democratise a social artefact, such as by providing accessible and symmetric information. In our case, however, this relation is disrupted. One migrant farmer states, 'The certificate for the land of this house has been issued. ... But the land of rice field [certificate] has not been issued yet. ... Although measurement had been conducted'. When asked for the reason behind this, he says, 'I don't know, as it is the government's responsibility. We do not know because we are only stupid people'. However, he should pay land taxes for both parcels of land. He further tells us, 'Fifty thousand for the yard [the house]. ... For the rice fields, it is 100 thousand per year'. In fact, in 2014, the national BPN office launched a SMS service that enable the land certification applicants to obtain a variety of information, such as measurement cost, land rights transfer cost, and complaints. The informants that we interviewed did not use this service. The un-informed people have no choice other than doing what government officials should do. Table 2 summarises the composing artefact tensions.

Discussion

The findings presented above support our projection that tensions emerge when LIS' social and technical aspects interact. The concept of the IS artefact, with its composing artefacts that we used as an analytical lens, helps us in unveiling these tensions.

We also found that each composing artefact is not a single uniform entity, but rather another smaller ensemble consisting of a variety of artefact instantiations from the same class. These instantiations do not always go hand in hand or interact without any problem. We found, for example, that information artefacts can manifest in various forms and versions. If these versions are not congruent, tensions can occur. Another example is within the social artefact, such as when different tribal groups fail to find agreement on certain land borders. We also found tensions between composing artefacts. These happen when an artefact cannot play its role, or when the relationships do not develop as expected. For example, LIS as a technology artefact cannot provide information about uncertified lands (such as between forestlands and community lands), as the information is not readily available. This is beyond LIS capabilities because the social artefacts in question (such as between tribal groups and the department of forestry) have not yet agreed on the disputed land borders. This tension will hinder LIS in fulfilling its promises to speed up land certification. Figure 2 illustrates the identified tensions both within and between the three composing artefacts.

The findings indicate that if tensions within and between artefacts are not properly resolved, they will limit the ability of an IS artefact (in this case, LIS) to be optimally harvested. In our study site, land-related problems are very prevalent or even escalating, which may trigger long lasting social conflicts [START_REF] Pembaruan | Sengketa tanah ulayat di Nagekeo, NTT: Bupati diduga pakai polisi sebagai beking[END_REF][START_REF] Rahalaka | Pendekatan budaya, solusi penyelesaian masalah tanah di Nagekeo[END_REF]. Theoretically, the IS artefact concept equips us with vocabularies for identifying the building blocks of LIS and their relationships, but this does not provide further possibilities for explaining possible problems when the relationships do go in the expected directions. Using just the IS artefact concept, we can only draw a foggy picture. By bringing in the concept of tensions, we sharpen the analytical lens and make the picture clearer. From a conceptual viewpoint, our study contributes to extending the IS artefact concept [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF] by introducing the concept of tensions in order to explain unexpected results that occur when the composing artefacts interact. We can then explore how the relationship between instantiations within and between composing artefacts are dialectical and therefore not always moving in positive directions. By this improved analytical lens, we contribute practically to the field development of eGovernment within ICT4D research by providing a clear explanation for the emerging problems when a nationally designed initiative is implemented in various local contexts.

Conclusion

We have here discussed a case study that explore the LIS´ sub-optimal impact in Indonesia. In so doing, we developed a sharper analytical lens by introducing the concept of tension in order to extend the IS artefact concept [START_REF] Lee | Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact[END_REF]. Our study found that tensions within and between the technology, information, and social artefacts (the composing artefacts) restrict the optimal impact LIS may have.

Our study offers two main contributions. First, it offers a more detailed understanding of LIS introduction within Indonesia by identifying tensions between the composing IS artefacts, as well as their influence on LIS success (or otherwise). Second, it proposes to incorporate the concept of tensions into the IS artefact concept to provide a better explanation of tension's role between the composing artefacts.

More work is needed to further elaborate on the findings introduced here, which is based on one single case study and therefore has only limited possibilities for provide all possible explanations. Future studies should go more into detail by unpacking each composing artefact and exploring other important composing artefacts. For example, the social artefact can be broken down into various artefacts, including political and legal artefacts, as already called for [START_REF] Winner | Do artifacts have politics?[END_REF]. Scrutinising a phenomenon using more granulated artefacts could reveal a richer picture and more detailed practical insights, providing avenues for further research.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. The 'triangle' relationships among IS artefacts (based on [15])

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Map of Nagekeo: The study site

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Tensions within and between the composing IS artefacts

Table 1 .

 1 Tensions within artefact

	No. Artefact	Example of identified tension
	1	IA x IA	Inconsistent information about the cost for certifying a land parcel.
	2	TA x TA	The national BPN office's designed technology does not fit the availa-
			ble local infrastructure.
	3	SA x SA	Disputes between tribal groups over land claims.

Table 2 .

 2 Tensions between artefacts

	No. Relationship	Example of identified tension
	1	TA x IA	The existing LIS does not provide information on borders of uncer-
			tified lands.
	2	IA x TA	The requirement to have information on the border between private
			lands and government forestlands is not readily available in the
			existing LIS.
	3	TA x SA	The existent LIS does not always speed up the certification process.
	4	SA x TA	The problems in social relations that create land ownership disputes
			cannot be resolved by the technology in place.
	5	SA x IA	The tribal group's social arrangement does not allow the group
			members to certificate their lands.
	6	IA x SA	The un-informed people have no choice other than doing what
			government officials should do.