Eric-Oluf Svee

Constantinos Giannoulis
email: constantinos@dsv.su.se

Jelena Zdravkovic
email: jelenaz@dsv.su.se

Modeling Business Strategy: a Consumer Value Perspective

Keywords: Consumer value, strategy maps, balanced scorecards, requirements engineering

Business strategy lays out the plan of an enterprise to achieve its vision by providing value to its customers. Typically, business strategy focuses on economic value and its relevant exchanges with customers and does not directly address consumer values. However, consumer values drive customers' choices and decisions to use a product or service, and therefore should have a direct impact on business strategy. This paper explores whether and how consumer values influence business strategy, and how they might be linked to IS solutions that support the implementation of such strategies. To address these questions, the study maps consumer values to a business strategy approach via a meta-model commonly used for such purposes, based on strategy maps and balanced scorecards (SMBSC). Additionally, the applicability of the mappings is illustrated via a case scenario where the mappings are applied and the business strategy conceptualization captures them. Finally, based on these mappings, high level guidelines for linking consumer values to requirements for the development of IS solutions through business strategy conceptualization are proposed.

Introduction

The ability of an enterprise to attain its vision is dependent primarily on its capability to efficiently marshal and align its resources, compete within a sustainable environment, and strive for innovation to aid in executing its business strategy. However, while the basis for much of this work is related to the interactions with the enterprise's customers, this vital and necessary connection between the two often lacks the rigor and structure necessary to elicit the desires of the customer and deliver them to the enterprise.

The importance of customer desires has long been acknowledged, as Morris [START_REF] Morris | The Theory of Consumer Demand[END_REF] claims that all products provide services in their capacity to create the need of wantsatisfying experiences. Drucker [START_REF] Drucker | Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices[END_REF] claims that in addition to harmonizing the utilization of its resources, an enterprise should focus on the opportunities to create revenue by re-shaping the characteristics of existing services and products to satisfy its customers. Such customer desires have been typically addressed as economic values such as goods, services, money, and information. However, another perspective of customer desires, namely consumer value, has not been explored. A consumer value is a personal norm: a belief about what is needed, wanted, or ought to be, which serves as a guide to consumers in making decisions [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF].

Therefore, any disconnection between consumer value and business strategy can prove problematic. For example, a bank might provide a robust e-banking system which is unappealing and unusable to the end-user. However, while the system satisfies the bank's needs, but not those of its customers, it will not be successfully adopted. Unfortunately, current approaches to business strategy do not explicitly capture the values regarding products and services that come directly from consumers.

The goal of this paper is to explore whether and how consumer values influence business strategy and consequently how this influence reflects on IS solutions that are operationalized to support business strategy implementation.

Given the numerous business strategy approaches available (e.g. Strategy Maps and Balanced Scorecards [START_REF] Kaplan | Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes[END_REF], the Value Chain [START_REF] Porter | Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance[END_REF], Blue Ocean Strategy [START_REF] Mauborgne | Blue Ocean Strategy: From Theory to Practice[END_REF], etc.) and the different approaches on consumer values (e.g. Holbrook's Typology [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF], Quantification of values [START_REF] Frondizi | What is Value? An Introduction to Axiology[END_REF], Rokeach's Value Survey [START_REF] Rokeach | Beliefs, Attitudes and Values. A Theory of Organization and Change[END_REF], Schwartz's Value Survey (SVS) [START_REF] Schwartz | Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries[END_REF], etc.), in this study we choose to explore prevalent approaches in both areas and, particularly for business strategy, approaches that include some level of conceptualization or formalism that can support traceability. Therefore, we use Holbrook's Typology of Consumer Values for capturing and structuring the desires and aspirations of consumers [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF], and Strategy Maps and Balanced Scorecards as a business strategy approach [START_REF] Kaplan | Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes[END_REF], which is conceptualized in the means of a meta-model [START_REF] Giannoulis | Modeling Business Strategy: A Metamodel of Strategy Maps and Balance Scorecards[END_REF].

This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 provides an overview of Holbrook's Typology of Consumer Values as well as Strategy Maps and Balanced Scorecards (SMBSC). Section 3 presents our contribution, the mappings of Holbrook's consumer values to Strategy Maps and the SMBSC meta-model. Section 4 illustrates our contribution using a case scenario of a shopping mall. Section 5 outlines the links of our contribution to requirements engineering and Section 6 summarizes our conclusions and indicates the steps forward.

Related work

Consumer Values

Holbrook refines the value concept, focusing on those held by individuals during a value exchange: consumer values. Consumer values are "an interactive, relativistic preference experience" [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF]. Unpacking this definition, one finds that interactive entails an interaction between some subject and an object. Next, relative refers to consumer values being comparative, involving preferences among objects, varying across people, and they are situational, or context specific. Preferential refers to consumer values embodying the outcome of an evaluative judgment, where something is more or less desirable in comparison to something else, and finally experience refers to consumer values not residing in the product purchased, brand chosen, or object possessed, but in the consumption experience. This allows for a rather expansive view of value, because all products provide services in their capacity to create need-or want-satisfying experiences. Dimensions of Consumer Values. Holbrook identifies three dimensions in consumer values [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF]. Extrinsic/Intrinsic. Extrinsic is a means/end relationship wherein consumption is prized for its functional, utilitarian ability to serve as a means to accomplish some further purpose, aim, goal, or objective. For example, hammers are generally prized for their utility and not their beauty. Intrinsic occurs when some consumption experience is appreciated as an end in itself-for its own sake-such as listening to music. Orientation. Self-oriented is when some aspect of consumption is cherished, either selfishly or prudently, for the individual's sake; a sweater has value partly because it keeps its owner warm. Other-oriented is where the consumption experience or the product on which it depends is valued by others, either beyond the subject, for its own sake, for how they react to it, or for the effect it has on them. For example, a Ferrari might be purchased to impress someone's co-workers. Activity. Active entails a physical or mental manipulation of some tangible or intangible object, involving things done by a consumer to or with a product as part of some consumption experience: driving a Ferrari is part of what makes owning one desirable. Reactive results from apprehending, appreciating, admiring, or otherwise responding to an object, when the object acts upon the subject. Similar to the example given for intrinsic, listening to music can also be reactive, when the consumptive act is driven by the object and not the subject.

Typology of Consumer Values. Based on these three dimensions, Holbrook creates his Typology of Consumer Values where each archetype (author's term) represents a distinct type of value in the consumption experience [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF].

Efficiency results from the active use of a product or consumption experience as a means to achieve some self-oriented purpose. This is a utilitarian value: recall that hammers are generally prized for their usefulness and not their beauty. Often, Efficiency is measured as a ratio of outputs to inputs. For example, the Efficiency of an automobile can be assessed as some ratio of distance traveled to volume of fuel used. Another view of Efficiency-convenience-is often a measure of utility derived versus time or energy expended. With Excellence, one admires some object or prizes some experience for its capacity to accomplish some goal or to perform some function: a Ferrari is a wonderful choice for a high-quality automobile, though a poor choice for a delivery truck. Status is sought by adjusting consumption in a manner that affects those whom one wishes to influence, consuming products or engaging in consumption experiences so as to project a particular type of image one wishes to portray. In other words, consumption is about communicating about ones' self to others in ways that contribute to success. Status and Esteem are intimately interrelated, with Esteem the reactive counterpart to Status. Esteem tends to result from a somewhat passive ownership of possessions appreciated as a means to building one's reputation with others. In other words, Esteem is about the reactive appreciation of consumption or lifestyle in a somewhat passive way as a potential extrinsic means to enhancing my other-oriented public image. Play is a self-oriented experience-actively sought and enjoyed for its own sake -and as such, typically involves having fun. Aesthetics refers to an appreciation of some consumption experience valued intrinsically as a self-oriented end in itself. The hallmark of this value is that it is enjoyed for its own sake, without a need for external justification. Ethics involves doing something for the sake of others-that is, with a concern for how it will affect them or how they will react to it-where such consumption experiences are valued for their own sake as ends in themselves. Donating blood is an activity that is not often done for selfish benefits, but rather is most often motivated by selfless reasons. Spirituality entails an intrinsically motivated acceptance, adoption, appreciation, admiration, or adoration of an Other where this "Other" may constitute some Divine Power, or some otherwise inaccessible Inner Being. Such an experience is sought not as a means to an ulterior end but rather as an end in itself prized for its own sake. People often donate money to churches for the sole purpose of feeling closer to just such an Other.

Strategy Maps and Balanced Scorecards

A strategy map is a general representation of the four organizational perspectives of the balanced scorecards in a cause-effect manner and facilitates the communication of direction and priorities across the enterprise according to [START_REF] Kaplan | The strategy map: guide to aligning intangible assets[END_REF].

Fig. 1 The Strategy Map template [START_REF] Kaplan | Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes[END_REF].

Strategy balances long-term financial commitments aims at profitable revenue growth and short-term financial commitments aiming at cost reductions and productivity improvements (financial perspective). Strategy is based on a differentiated and clearly articulated customer value proposition (customer perspective). Value is created through focused, effective, and aligned internal business processes grouped into four clusters: operations management, customer management, innovation, and regulatory-social (internal perspective). Strategy consists of simultaneous, complementary themes highlighting the most critical processes supporting the customer value proposition. Strategic alignment determines the value and role of intangible assets, which includes human, information, and organization (learning and growth perspective).

A strategy map serves as a mediator between the mission, core values, the vision, and the strategy of an enterprise to the work performed. Kaplan and Norton have proposed a template for strategy maps representing how an organization can create value (Figure 1). Starting from a mission statement and core values, a strategic vision is defined, which should project the organization's overall goal. A set of goals are defined and initially grouped within the financial and customer perspectives. For the internal perspective, as well as the learning and growth perspective, we consider that both processes and capital appear in a strategy map in the form of goals, which through cause-effect relationships, support goals at the customer perspective. Similarly, goals are set for all groups of capital referring to particular asset categories defining desired competencies, capabilities needed to support internal processes [START_REF] Kaplan | Having trouble with your strategy? Then map it[END_REF].

Scorecards consist of strategic objectives and related measures, which include concrete targets and initiatives towards their achievement [START_REF] Kaplan | The Balanced Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action[END_REF] and are structured with cause-effect links/assumptions whose monitoring and assessment is essential for identifying interdependencies across an organization. According to [START_REF] Olve | Making Scorecards Actionable: Balancing Strategy and Control[END_REF], a balanced scorecard presents an organization's business activities through a number of measures, typically from four organizational perspectives: financial, customer, internal, learning and growth, and provides a language to communicate priorities within an enterprise. When the four perspectives are addressed, providing complete coverage of business processes, a scorecard is considered balanced. While the time aspect is addressed indirectly via short-term targets set and also via the bottom up view of the four perspectives suggesting that what lies on the bottom is the outcome of planning at the top and is a prerequisite. Additionally a scorecard is also considered balanced because it covers both the internal as well as the external aspects of an enterprise.

Enriching Business Strategy with Consumer Values

In this section we present how strategy maps can be enriched by consumer values. In the first part we link strategy map goals to Holbrook's consumer value typology while in the second part we extend the SMBSC meta-model to incorporate goals reflecting consumer values.

Relating Consumer Values to Strategy Maps

Anticipating customers' needs is addressed in the customer perspective of strategy maps, where the customer value proposition is defined. Kaplan and Norton identify four generic strategies for defining the customer value proposition [START_REF] Kaplan | Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes[END_REF]. These are: Low Total Cost, where products and services are offered that are consistent, timely, and low-cost; Product Leadership, which offers products and services that expand existing performance boundaries into the highly desirable; Complete Customer Solutions, designed to provide the best total solution to our customers; and System Lock-In, where high switching costs maintain end-users as customers. Additionally, for each customer value proposition strategy a set of generic goals is defined.

In this study, we analyze Complete Customer Solutions as a possible example of a customer value proposition, which emphasizes building long-lasting relationships with customers [START_REF] Kaplan | Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes[END_REF].

The customer value proposition of Complete Customer Solution aims to provide the best total solution to customers, and it includes the following general goals (originally named objectives): Quality of Solutions Provided to Customers, Number of Products and Services per Customer, Customer Retention, and Lifetime Customer Profitability. Therefore, we analyze them one by one and identify which consumer values are relevant to the enhancement of strategy maps, and those which are not. As an example, the utilitarian focus of Efficiency can be found in the time savings a customer would accrue by shopping via the new online portal of a business as opposed to the brick-and-mortar location of a competitor. For example, Amazon grew to prominence by being the prime mover in a retail space (book selling) that had not undergone a shift to online sales. Amazon now offers many products for sale, and has numerous purchasing and delivery options from physical goods to music downloads. It offers a complete, individually tailored solution to its customers, one that continues to grow and evolve over time.

Excellence is also utilitarian, but, according to Holbrook's dimensions, it is reactive rather than active. In comparing the actual experience with the expectations for that experience, Excellence relates closely to the concept of satisfaction and appears to constitute the essence of what is generally understood as quality [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF]. In the case of a purchasing a book from Amazon, the customer could experience an innate sense of satisfaction based on the quality of the entire shopping experience, taking into account the efficiency-accrued time savings, among other benefits.

Play and its counterpart Aesthetics could also be related to high performance products. Product enjoyment, either based on direct use of the product or via an appreciation of its overall design, is seen as relating to these. Apple products command a premium in the marketplace, to a large extent because consumers derive pleasure both from using their well-designed products, as well as having a general appreciation for their appearance and Aesthetics.

Esteem is an internally directed idea, whereby the consumer has a selfcongratulatory moment for having purchased a particular item, similar to the saying that "No one was ever fired for hiring IBM". Although the veracity of the statement might be questioned, the general premise is that, while IBM is not known for producing the most technologically advanced, the most powerful, or the fastest products, it is widely respected for providing a complete customer solution-from hardware, to software, to training-delivered in a customized solution.

Customer Retention. As Kaplan and Norton state, this objective is about the quality of relationships. Exceptional service is involved, making it critical that the organization has access to a diverse array of capabilities to develop the best means to serve their customers. Thus, all eight consumer values are needed to acquire and develop new customer segments, as well as to enrich and deepen those relationships. In addition to the five that have been previously discussed (Efficiency, Excellence, Play, Aesthetics and Esteem), the three remaining (Status, Ethics, Spirituality) can also play an important role in the process.

Status is important to this segment, as early adopters are one of the primary targets for customer engagement. By displaying the latest and greatest, consumers are often seeking to display various personal characteristics (intelligence, success) through the medium of the object.

Ethics and Spirituality can be very powerful consumer values, but they can be difficult to work with and must be handled with great care and delicacy, particularly Spirituality. And while it might be considered a great leap to include them in this objective, it is important to view them solely as possible means to achieve it. Whereas Ethics is driven by a selfless motivation, Spirituality is self-directed.

Consumer Value-enhanced SMBSC Meta-model

In [START_REF] Giannoulis | Modeling Business Strategy: A Metamodel of Strategy Maps and Balance Scorecards[END_REF] the conceptualization of strategy maps and balanced scorecards in the means of a meta-model was presented, accompanied by a set of constraints. To support the mappings of consumer values to the four strategies of the customer value proposition proposed by Kaplan and Norton, the SMBSC meta-model must be updated.

The updates refer to the substitution of the GroupType class into concrete groupings found in the template and Kaplan and Norton's original writings and refer to sub-groups of perspectives (e.g. for the customer perspective sub-groupings include the four customer value propositions). These sub-groupings are accompanied by additional constraints. For example an instance of CustomerValueProposition can only be a sub-group of Perspective:Customer, while an instance of the Processes can only be a sub-group of Perspective:Internal, etc. Figure 2 constrained through the IsSubGroup association of the Group class to be sub-group of a group which is a Perspective and particularly of the type Customer.

In accordance to the strategy map template, the generic goals proposed by Kaplan and Norton reflect the customer value proposition chosen and constitute a grouping of goals within the customer perspective. In the meta-model, this is captured by each generic Goal belonging to the group CustomerValueProposition, which can be of type of one of the four strategies defined. Moreover, the group CustomerValueProposition, through the IsSubGroup association, is a sub-group of the group Perspective which is of type Customer. Therefore, similarly to the previous section, we examine product leadership, which includes three generic goals: First to Market, High Performance Products, and New Market Segments. Each of these goals are instances of the Goal class belonging to the instance of Complete Customer Solution of the Customer Value Proposition class which is a Group, and through the IsSubGroup association it is a sub-group of Customer, which is an instance of Perspective which is a Group.

Based on the mappings of consumer values to customer value proposition strategies provided in 3.1, the SMBSC meta-model provides traceability of consumer values from strategy maps (goals) to balanced scorecards. A Goal is expressed as an Objective when an appropriate Measure to demonstrate its achievement can be defined. An Initiative encompasses all actions identified as required towards the achievement of the objective, within the constraints of given Milestones and Targets. Additionally, mapping consumer values to goals in strategy maps makes them potentially measurable (not all goals are measurable), allowing the derivation of initiatives through balanced scorecards.

Case Scenario

In this section a case scenario is used to illustrate our contribution: a general strategy map of a shopping mall that has been enhanced by Holbrook's Typology of Consumer Values. To accomplish this, the customer objectives for Kaplan and Norton's strategy map template for Product Leadership are applied to a scenario that explores the development of a shopping map [START_REF] Prasad | Strategic Management: Text and Cases[END_REF] along with and their related consumer values and mappings as proposed in earlier. The strategy map from the shopping mall (Figure 3) is used to illustrate the proposed mappings, and more specifically to So what exactly would a strategy map look like for a shopping mall that wanted to become a product leader by adopting Kaplan and Norton's strategy map? According to the case scenario the mall's developers already plan to change their value proposition from an operational experience to one of customer convenience and intimacy. The updated customer value proposition for such a shopping mall would be that "the mall differentiates itself by offering a unique shopping experience, built on customer convenience and intimacy, occurring under one roof". However, the developers of the property did not made any provisions for incorporating what consumers actually want their experience to be in the shopping mall into the strategy map that they are creating.

Mapping Consumer Values to the Case Scenario

For the shopping mall case, we are mapping the consumer values from [START_REF] Kim | Consumer Value: an application to mall and Internet shopping[END_REF] to the Complete Customer Solution goals found in [START_REF] Prasad | Strategic Management: Text and Cases[END_REF]. Table 2 first displays a consumer value from Holbrook, followed by a shopping value that exemplifies it. This in turn is supported by examples from marketing research, and these in turn are compared to the strategy map provided in the scenario. These were then judged on their level of implementation with three possible marks: a '-' was given if the shopping value was completely missing from the strategy map, a '*' was given if a shopping value was partially missing from the strategy map, and a '+' was given if there was a complete implementation within the strategy map.

Of the 31 shopping values presented, nine were found to have been completely implemented in the strategy map (29%), 14 were partially implemented (45%) and eight were not implemented at all (26%). This leaves 71% as an area for at least partial improvement, a significant number. And as shown previously, the close linkage between consumer values and consumer intent provides a compelling case for implementing a consumer value driven strategy; if their values are taken into account, consumers are more likely to make purchases. The ability to convert these values into concrete goals and objectives which the business can deliver on, often through improved alignment with IT, is enhanced through the use of the new meta-model.

Example of a value completely missing from the Strategy Map. Consumers were clear that, in terms of an efficient use of their resources (time, effort, money, etc) a key concern was access to the mall. Issues such as transportation to the mall, traffic encountered in the journey, and parking, were all important issues that the research highlighted. These are not addressed anywhere in the original strategy map.

Example of a value partially missing from the Strategy Map. The scenario speaks to high levels of staff training and has an explicit goal of Friendliness. While a laudable goal, details found in the consumer research reveal the 'right' way to implement such a strategy. Consumers stated that they did not want to spend energy dealing with pushy salespeople. However, unless this value is captured and populated further in the development process, this valuable detail could be lost. There is a fine line between friendly and obsequious, and care must be taken to ensure that the true intentions of the consumer are addressed. Example of a value completely implemented by the Strategy Map. Ideas about Quality, Selection, and Price cut across many aspects of the shopping mall strategy map, and are also directly applicable to the generic Complete Customer Solutions map. In fact, these are some of the primary drivers behind each of the three customer objectives found in that map: First to Market, High Performance Products, and New Customer Segments.

Esteem is closely related to Status, differing only slightly in its perspective. In the scenario, the customer experience is designed to be one that the customer appreciates deeply on several levels: the shopping mall is family-friendly environment in which to easily and efficiently acquire high-quality items at competitive prices. This complete experience is something that the consumer could appreciate reflectively, taking pleasure from the superior physical environment as well as their own business acumen: how smart of them for getting such a good deal. The developer of the shopping mall could decide to build on this experience, perhaps adding components to the experience that could develop Status (e.g., higher end retailers).

4.2

Instantiating the Meta-model for the shopping mall.

The shopping mall strategy map (Figure 3) is in accordance to Kaplan and Norton's template and its conceptualization, the SMBSC meta-model [START_REF] Giannoulis | Modeling Business Strategy: A Metamodel of Strategy Maps and Balance Scorecards[END_REF] Once a SMBSC model is created, it can be used to guide activities for an IS department via high-level requirements for new software solutions that will support the operationalization of the created strategy model. One possible approach here is to map the strategy concepts to those of a certain Requirements Engineering (RE) technique, such as Goal-Oriented Requirements Engineering, (GORE) [START_REF] Van Lamsweerde | Goal-oriented requirements engineering: a guided tour[END_REF], Scenario-Oriented RE (SCORE) [START_REF] Anton | A Representational Framework for Scenarios of System Use[END_REF], among others.

In the SMBSC framework the notion of goal is used to capture the aims of a company from the four different perspectives. In some of the requirements engineering techniques, such as in GORE, the notion of system goal stating the intent underpinning a system service, or a quality/constraint on the service provisioning, is used as a starting point when discovering system requirements. Thereby, even the goals are considered differently in business strategy and requirements engineering approaches, a possible starting point for propagating the results of a SMBSC model to a requirements engineering model is through goals. The effect of the alignment is two-fold: from the business strategy perspective, the outlined strategies are aligned with IS projects, and from the IS development perspective, requirements are associated with both system and business strategy goals, allowing either to establish and trace the rationales behind IS projects.

Within the scope of SMBSC, a Goal is expressed as an Objective when an appropriate Measure to demonstrate its achievement can be defined (see Figure 2). An Initiative then encompasses all actions identified as required towards the achievement of the objective, within the constraints of given Milestones and Targets. After having identified initiatives, they could be analyzed for the realization through ICT, that is, consider how an initiative can be facilitated completely or to a certain extent by an IS solution. These considerations are defined as the system goals in GORE approaches, expressing stakeholders' needs and intentions, particularly for the early phases of requirements engineering [START_REF] Yu | Towards Modeling and reasoning Support for Early-Phase Requirements Engineering[END_REF].

After having identified initiatives by means of SMBSC, there is a need to decompose them and elicit system-related goals. We suggest a set of the following guidelines to be used to carry out the decomposition: 1. Elicit system goals concerning the planning of an initiative 2. Elicit system goals concerning the execution of an initiative 3. Elicit system goals concerning the control of the execution of an initiative Any of the guidelines above may result in the elicitation of zero or more system goals supporting a given initiative from a SMBSC model. As an illustration, for the shopping mall case described in the previous section, the initiative Malls use modern technology in inventory management stems from goals derived from mapping to the consumer value of efficiency, which itself is mapped to the shopping value is convenience and addresses the desire for one-stop shopping [START_REF] Kim | Consumer Value: an application to mall and Internet shopping[END_REF]. This initiative can be supported, by following Guideline 2, via the IS goal Facilitate automated inventory management, which may be further operationalized with the functional system requirement The system shall store and retrieve the information on the available good items. In addition, the given initiative can be supported, by following Guideline 3, by the IS goal Facilitate an automated control of the minimal stock-level.

The above outlined approach constitutes a basis to identify goals for IT projects aligned with the outcomes of a SMBSC analysis. In addition, two other aspects of SMBSC can be considered when linking a consumer-centric strategy to a requirements engineering context: a) in SMBSC, objectives are related to measures, targets and milestones, which can be used to ensure and control the results of related IT projects, and b) the cause-and-effect links (i.e. dependencies) among the organizational perspectives in SMBSC propagate through Goals toward Objectives and further to Initiatives, and as such allow tracing the inter-and intra-dependencies of IT projects.

Conclusions and Future Work

To address the necessary link between consumers and the businesses that serve them as acknowledged in the introduction, we have proposed an integration of consumer values with business strategy. Particularly we have set an effort to relate Holbrook's Typology of Consumer Values [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research[END_REF] with Kaplan and Norton's Strategy Maps and Balanced Scorecards [START_REF] Kaplan | Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes[END_REF]. Holbrook's consumer values were mapped to the generic goals of a particular customer value proposition, Complete Customer Solutions, supported by the extended version of the SMBSC meta-model. Moreover, we have illustrated the applicability of the proposed mappings using the case scenario of a shopping mall. A strategy map, adhering to the complete customer solutions customer value proposition, was enriched with consumer values collected for shopping mall. Supported by the extended SMBSC meta-model and the traceability it provides, we have proposed guidelines for linking the initiatives derived from the refined strategy map requirements for the development of relevant IS solutions.

Steps forward in our research include exploring all four customer value proposition alternatives identified within the consumer perspective of strategy maps. We aim to explore other consumer value typologies and develop mappings to more business strategy approaches, while also evaluating their benefits within requirements engineering.

  Quality of Solutions Provided to Customers and Lifetime Customer Profitability. These objectives entail a deep understanding about what customers value, and combine it with the ability to bundle products into individually customized solutions. These objectives speak to the completeness of a solution, and are most closely related to the Holbrook's archetypes Efficiency, Excellence, Play, Aesthetics, and Esteem.

  presents the updated SMBSC meta-model. The four different strategies for defining Customer Value Proposition [4] -Low Total Cost, Product Leadership, Complete Customer Solution and System Lock-in]are introduced in the SMBSC meta-model through a specialization of the class Group, the Customer Value Proposition class. The Customer Value Proposition class is

Fig. 2

 2 Fig.2The updated SMBSC meta-model.

Fig. 31 .

 31 Fig. 31. Excerpt from the shopping mall strategy map found in [15].

Table 1 .

 1 Customer Perspective Goals for Complete Customer Solutions and their related Consumer Values

Number of Products and Services per Customer.

  Superior product functionality, relating to matters such as speed, accuracy, and power, lies at the heart of high quality products. Two of Holbrook's consumer values are directly related to this: Efficiency and Excellence. From the consumer perspective, such a product is most likely to be both Efficient, where its active use allows for accomplishing some self-oriented purpose, as well as Excellent, where the product is admired for its intrinsic abilities to accomplish some end. An automobile allows someone to travel more quickly (Efficient) but the experience of driving one of high quality has a different level of appreciation for the consumer (Excellent) than driving one of lower quality.

	Consumer Value	Number of Products & Services per Customer	Customer Perspective Goals Quality of Solutions Provided to Customers

Table 2 .

 2 Mapping Consumer Values to the Shopping Mall Case Scenario

	Consumer	Shopping	Mall Shopping	Shopping Mall	Complete Customer
	Value	Value	Value	Strategy Map	Solutions
	Efficiency	Convenience One stop shopping	+	# of Products
			Comparison shopping	*	# of Products
			Multi-purpose shopping	*	Quality
		Resources	Transportation	-	Quality
		(Time/Effort Traffic	-	Quality
		Money)	Parking	-	Quality
			Time spent in mall	*	Quality
			Pushy Sales people	*	Quality
			Finding desired product	+	Quality
			Waiting in check-out	*	Quality
			lines
	Excellence	Customer	Human contact	*	Retention
		Service	Safe & secure shopping	+	Quality
		Product	Quality	+	Quality
		Performance Selection	+	# of Products
			Price	+	Quality
	Play	Sensory	Appeal to five senses	+	Retention
		stimulation	Instant gratification	*	# of Products
			Entertainment centers	*	Retention
			Cinema	-	Retention
			Games	-	Retention
			Eateries	+	Retention
			Special events/exhibits	*	Retention
			Walking for exercise	-	Retention
			Window shopping	*	Quality
		Social	People watching	*	Quality
		Interaction	Socializing with friends	*	Quality
			Talking with other	*	Quality
			shoppers
			Escaping from routine	+	Quality
	Aesthetics	Ambience	Architecture	-	Retention
			Interiors	-	Retention
			Visual display	*	Retention

  adhering to the constraints defined. For example, the New Thoughts/Concepts, which is a group of goals (product/service attributes in the original SM template) within the customer perspective, then each goal on Quality, Quantity, Value, Friendliness, Hygiene & Health, Prevent security & safety hazards belongs to the group New Thoughts/Concepts of GroupType Service Attribute (one of the groupings identified within the original SM template), which is a sub-group of the Perspective Customer Perspective. Each of these goals belongs to the shopping mall strategy map. To illustrate how the meta-model can instantiate the mappings of section 4.1 we use a concrete example of a consumer value. Therefore, based on[START_REF] Kim | Consumer Value: an application to mall and Internet shopping[END_REF] and table 3, one stop shopping is identified as a mall shopping value, related to the shopping value of Convenience which is mapped to the consumer value of Efficiency and it is related to the generic goal of Number of Products per Customer. Therefore, one stop shopping is a goal:  belonging to the shopping mall strategy map, through the BelongsTo association to StrategyMap,  influencing the goal Number of Products per Customer, through the Influences association to Goal,  belonging to the group Customer Value Proposition of type Complete Customer Solution, which through the IsSubGroup association to Group, is a subgroup of the group Perspective of type Customer.


Fiona Tulinayo
email: f.tulinayo@science.ru.nl

Patrick Van Bommel

Erik Proper
email: e.proper@acm.org

Grounded System Dynamics: A Procedure for Underpinning System Dynamics with a Domain Modeling Method

Keywords:

In this paper, we present a procedure Grounded System Dynamics (GSD) which we use as a guide to underpin a System Dynamics (SD) model with a domain modeling method called Object-Role Modeling (ORM). GSD is a combination of two existing methods (SD with ORM). By combining these two methods we generate synergy effects by using already existing modeling methods and by so doing we overcome some of the weaknesses of SD model building. Secondly, transformation of information from an ORM model of dynamic domains into an SD model is achieved. To apply the GSD procedure to a real-life case (Mukono Health Center (MHC), we use SD-ORM mapped constructs. As a result from the GSD procedure application, is an SD model to which we define quantitative foundations that result into simulations. Our approach(GSD) has been validated using case studies one of which is described in this paper. From this conclusions are drawn.

Introduction

System Dynamics as a method was developed by Jay Forrester and dates as far back as 1961. A review and history can be found in [START_REF] Forrester | Industrial Dynamics[END_REF]. It combines both quantitative and qualitative aspects [START_REF] Pidd | Tools for Thinking: Modelling in Management Science[END_REF] to explore complex models. In SD qualitative models, the structural features of the process are made explicit through casual loop diagrams [START_REF] Melao | A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Business Processes and Business Process Modelling[END_REF]. In this paper however, we draw our attention to the quantitative aspect where stock and flow diagrams [START_REF] Elf | Using System Dynamics for Collaborative Design: a Case Study[END_REF] are created and sets of equations input into the stock and flow diagram resulting into simulations. These simulations allow a modeler to provide quantitative estimates of system effects [START_REF] Melao | A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Business Processes and Business Process Modelling[END_REF]. There have been earlier comparative studies between SD and other methods [START_REF] Scholl | Agent-based and System Dynamics Modeling: A call for cross study and joint research[END_REF][START_REF] Duggan | A Comparison of Petri Net and System Dynamics Approaches for Modelling Dynamic Feedback Systems[END_REF][START_REF] Borshchev | From System Dynamics and Discrete Event to Practical Agent Based Modeling: Reasons, Techniques[END_REF][START_REF] Chang | Attempt to Integrate System Dynamics and UML in Business Process Modeling[END_REF][START_REF] Burmester | Combining System Dynamics and Multidimensional Modelling -A Metamodel Based Approach[END_REF]. In these studies, a number of views on how SD relates or can work with these methods are given. In the context of enterprise modeling SD is typically used in process analysis design and optimization.

Consideration of many variables and complication in untangling the question of causation makes complex [START_REF] Zhang | A New Kind Methodology for Controlling Complex Systems[END_REF] system dynamics models hard to conceptualize and describe. Richardson [START_REF] Richardson | Problems for the future of system dynamics[END_REF] particularly states that; ".....of the three tasks-model conceptualization, model formation and model understanding. Unquestionably the two most difficult are the two that are least formal-conceptualization and understanding. The future of the field needs software support for understanding the links between stock and flow/ feedback structure and dynamics behavior." From this statement we note that, model conceptualization is one of the main issues in SD modeling. This issue is further emphasized in [START_REF] Morecroft | A Critical Review of Diagramming Tools for Conceptualizing Feedback System Models[END_REF][START_REF] Richardson | Problems for the future of system dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Lane | The Emergence and use of diagramming in system dynamics: a critical account[END_REF][START_REF] Papageorgiou | New Planning Methodologies in Strategic Management; An Inter-Paradigm System Dynamics Approach[END_REF]. Sharif [START_REF] Sharif | Industrial Viewpoint can systems dynamics be effective in modeling dynamic business systems?[END_REF] also states that; "....there is a strong case for starting to apply systems dynamics methods more openly in the BPM and MIS research fields, as I feel the tools and techniques available are vastly under-rated in terms of their applicability and capability to provide novel representations of real-world situations.....". In Sharif's statement, he justifies why SD should be combined with other methods. In this research therefore, we contribute to addressing the issue of SD model conceptualization by adding domain modeling as a support in the creation of SD models. This is because domain modeling identifies relationships among all entities within the scope of the problem domain and provides a structural view of the domain hence, improving model conceptualization. As an example of a domain modeling language, we use ORM in particular because of its conceptual focus and roots in verbalization. Underpinning of SD with ORM will not only improve SD model conceptualization but also make input data reusable and transferable (from one system to another or from one organization to another).

ORM is a fact-oriented approach for modeling information and querying the information content of a business domain at a conceptual level [START_REF] Halpin | Modeling Reactive Behavior in ORM[END_REF]. ORM is comparable to Entity Relationship (ER) Diagrams in use [START_REF] Chen | The Entity-Relationship Model-Towards a Unified View Data[END_REF]. It has a graphical constraint notation that is claimed to be far more expressive for data modeling purposes than, for example, Unified Modeling Language (UML) class diagrams or industrial Entity Relationships (ER) diagrams [START_REF] Halpin | Modeling Reactive Behavior in ORM[END_REF]. ORM takes a static perspective on the domain in the sense that it aims to capture the fact types and entity types that play a role in the (dynamic) domain, while SD takes a dynamic perspective in which the dynamic behavior of the domain is captured. When modeling ORM only, the information for the dynamic perspective (the richness of an SD model in this regard) is missing.

In figure 1 we present a logical framework where we show the strengths and gaps in both ORM and SD. We also show why grounding SD with ORM is necessary and of what impact it is to the domain of enterprise modeling and strategic decision making.

To underpin SD with a domain modeling method, we use the design science approach because it focuses on first clarifying the goals of the artifacts (which in this case is GSD) and then on building and carefully evaluating the utility of the artifacts, and to a lesser degree, their reliability and validity [START_REF] Hevner | Design Science in Information Systems Research[END_REF]. Design science approach further places additional emphasis on the iterative construction and evaluation of artifacts which in this case are; the GSD procedure and its resulting

Strategic Decision Making and Enterprise Modeling

Offers a basis for underpinning a dynamic method (SD) with a static method (ORM) on a domain

Has a conceptual focus and roots in verbalization

Powerful in behavior analysis and policy design Fig. 1. Research problem and underlying principles model(s). Design science approach also aims to ensure that the artifact (GSD procedure) is well grounded in both theory and empirical evidence to establish its validity, reliability, and practical utility. In this study we have so far identified the extent to which features of ORM static models can be transformed into SD models [START_REF] Tulinayo | Integrating System Dynamics with Object-Role Modeling[END_REF]; mapped ORM and SD concepts [START_REF] Tulinayo | Integrating System Dynamics with Object-Role Modeling and Petri Nets[END_REF] and presented an investigation on the update behavior of the two methods [START_REF] Tulinayo | Complementing System Dynamics with Object-Role Modeling[END_REF].

The aim of this paper therefore, is to use the mapped SD-ORM concepts presented in [START_REF] Tulinayo | Integrating System Dynamics with Object-Role Modeling and Petri Nets[END_REF] as a basis for this procedure. This procedure is what we follow while underpinning SD model(s) with a domain modeling method. We also apply this procedure (GSD) to a case where we input quantifications that lead to simulation results. These simulation results provide information about the prob-lem domain, allow continuous testing of assumptions and sensitivity analysis of parameters [START_REF] Morecroft | System Dynamics and Microworlds for Policymakers[END_REF].

The rest of the paper proceeds as follows; In sections 2 and 3 respectively brief introductions to SD and ORM are given. In section 4, a GSD outline is given and applied with the help of a case. In subsection 4.3, snapshots of some of the simulation results are presented and discussed. Finally, in section 5 conclusions plus hints for further work are given.

Brief introduction to SD Stock and Flow Diagrams

The system dynamics stock and flow diagram3 elements include: stocks, flows, feedback loops (connectors or information links) and converters. In fig 2 we have stock 'Admitted patients' depicted as a box and defined as a container (reservoir) containing quantities describing the state of the system. The value of a stock changes overtime [START_REF] Burmester | Combining System Dynamics and Multidimensional Modelling -A Metamodel Based Approach[END_REF] through flows. Flows can be imagined as pipelines with a valve that controls the rate of accumulation to and from the stocks. They are represented as double solid lines with a direction arrow. The arrow indicates the direction of flow into or from a stock see 'patient' in fig 2. Flows are influenced by stocks and converters. Converters either represent fixed quantities (constants) or variable quantities (Auxiliaries). Auxiliary variables are informational concepts having an independent meaning that contain information inform of equations or values that can be applied to stocks, flows, and other converters in the model [START_REF] Leaver | System Dynamics Modeling of Spring Behavior in the Orakeikorako Geothermal Field[END_REF]. An example of an auxiliary in fig 2 is 'Patient arrival '. Constants are state variables which do not change [START_REF] Burmester | Combining System Dynamics and Multidimensional Modelling -A Metamodel Based Approach[END_REF] for example PatientName. On the STELLA SD software which we are using, both auxiliary variables and

Admitted Patients

Patient

Patient name

Patient arriv al Fig. 2. SD basic building blocks constants are depicted as small circles. Information from auxiliaries, constants and flows, is shared through connectors (information links). Two types of connectors exist, the action connectors (depicted as solid wires) and information connectors (depicted as broken wires) [START_REF] Tan | Sustainable Enterprise Modelling and Simulation in a Warehouse Context[END_REF] see connectors from 'Patient arrival to patient' and from 'Patient to patient Name' respectively. These connectors are immaterial and link inputs to decision function of a rate. The underpinned meaning to these connectors is that information about the value at the start of the connector influences information at the arrow tip of that connector. Connectors can feed information into or out of flows and converters but only extract information out of stocks [START_REF] Leaver | System Dynamics Modeling of Spring Behavior in the Orakeikorako Geothermal Field[END_REF]. Lastly, we have the sectors which are subsystems or subcomponents within a system. They hold/handle all decisions, stocks, information about a particular element or area and contain different information that is used in an information system. Sectors have not been represented in fig 2, but can be seen in fig 9 .   3 Brief introduction to ORM 4 Grounded System Dynamics (GSD)

After mapping the SD-ORM constructs [START_REF] Tulinayo | Integrating System Dynamics with Object-Role Modeling and Petri Nets[END_REF], we now present a procedure which we are to follow while underpinning SD models with ORM. To achieve this, we conducted multiple discussions, read various scholarly works and in a step by step manner, we were able to come up with this procedure which we refer to as Grounded System Dynamics (GSD). GSD is a combination of two existing methods (SD with ORM). By combining these two methods we generate synergy effects by using already existing modeling methods and by so doing we overcome some of the weaknesses of SD model building. Secondly, transformation of information (data) from an ORM model of dynamic domains into an SD model is achieved. Underpinning of SD with ORM is done by following five steps which outline is subsection 4.1. In these steps we map different SD constructs to ORM constructs and explain how they relate to one another. For a clear guide and explanation, we apply this outline to a case study of Mukono Health Center (MCH) in subsection 4.2.

GSD procedure outline

In this subsection we describe the steps followed in transforming ORM model concepts into SD model concepts.

1. Identify all possible stocks. 2. Identify all relevant flows. 3. Identify possible converters. 4. Identify possible connectors (information links). 5. Create sectors.

Case Study

At MHC we looked at the process pregnant women go through on their due dates. MHC receives an average of 250 deliveries per month. It has a total of sixteen maternal employees that is; two doctors who are available on phone in case of any emergency, nine nurses and five volunteers. There are eleven beds in total, available for admissions. Most of these beds are given to patients who have caesarian birth because they require a lot of attention and tend to stay longer at the health center. The process: A patient comes to the labor ward with her antenatal card from the antenatal clinic. She queues up. Her waiting time depends on a number of factors including; her arrival time, the number of patients around and number of nurses on duty. When her turn comes, the nurse on duty takes her history and then examines her. This examination takes approximately 30 minutes. The nurse also establishes the patient's labor stage. If the patient is 4cm dilated, she is admitted to the general ward. She only returns for examination if there is any complication or after 4 hours. During this time, after every 30 minutes monitoring of the labor progress, status of the mother and cervical dilation is done. When the patient is 8cm dilate, she is taken to the delivery room which has only two beds. While there, the nurse monitors descending of the head 2 hourly and the sticker. For normal progress the liquor is clear. When the patient has 10 cm dilate, she is ready to give birth. After delivery, she is taken back to the general labor ward. Normal delivery patients stay at the labor ward for a maximum period of 24 hours and patients who have had caesarian birth stay for a period of 4-7 days. On discharge, the baby is taken for immunization. From this given information, we now construct an ORM model shown in fig 4. [Step 1:] Identify all possible stocks In order for us to generate stocks, we identify an ORM element that has similar characteristics to a system dynamics stock; that is it holds items, accumulates and can be measured. The element found to have these characteristics is a role. But not all roles are mapped to a system dynamics stock. It's only the unary fact types that are mapped to a SD Stock. This is because they relate to one object type and contain objects from that particular object type. The total number of unary fact types therefore is equal to the total number of stocks in an SD model.

The identified unary fact types from fig 4 are; newborn baby, medical personnel, admitted patient, Patient History and Labor ward and are depicted as stocks in fig 5 . Note that all unary fact types have words like 'is a', 'has' and 'is in' at the beginning of each unary fact type predicate but when represented as stocks these prepositions are removed. This enables us make the stock name clear. Secondly, for some stocks for example; newborn and admitted we concatenate (join two character strings end-to-end) the unary fact type name with the object type name they relate with to get the stock name newborn baby and admitted patient respectively.

This makes identification of the object type connecting to the unary fact type (stock) plus its quantification easy. Note that in fig 4, each object type has a unary fact type. This may not be the case with all ORM models but we ] Identify all relevant flows The element identified to be similar to an SD flow in ORM is an object type. This is because it connects different roles. That is, for each role connection, objects held by that object type play a unique role. Flows in SD connect to different stocks and converters through connectors. [Step 3:] Identify possible converters Converters include constants and auxiliary variables. Auxiliary variables from a conceptual point of view are informational concepts having an independent meaning. They are similar to fact types that have more than one role. 5 This is because they combine two or more variables consistently that cause change to the recipient, have an independent meaning and relate to more than one element. The roles contained by these fact types have predicate names.

We use these predicate names to name the auxiliary variables. This is done by concatenating the object type name with the fact type name. For example; roles 'examines' and 'is examined by' make a fact type which we refer to as 'examination', this fact type name is concatenated to object type name patient giving us a flow name, 'patient examination' see fig [START_REF] Elf | Using System Dynamics for Collaborative Design: a Case Study[END_REF]. We also include value types which we map to constants in SD. This is because a value type is identified solely by its value and it never changes its state (i.e. it is a constant). On the other hand, constants in SD are state variables which do not or change slowly [START_REF] Burmester | Combining System Dynamics and Multidimensional Modelling -A Metamodel Based Approach[END_REF] that they could be assumed constant for the time scope of the model. Note that the [Step 4:] Identify possible connectors (information links). After Identifying the converters, we now introduce the connectors. connectors are immaterial and connect inputs of a decision function to a rate. They are similar to predicators in ORM since they both act as connectors of two elements which are; object types to roles in ORM and, converters to flows and stocks in SD. With the help of ORM verbalization, the direction of the connectors is determined, that is from an object type to a role. Using some of the verbalization in fig 4 as examples, we show how these verbalizations help in identifying the direction of some connectors in fig 8. For example:

-We have verbalization "Patient delivers baby". In this verbalization, we have two object types which are mapped to SD flows. Here our focus is on the connector connecting auxiliary 'Patient delivery' to flow 'baby'. The direction of the arrow is determined by the way a modeler reads from role 'delivers' to object type (flow) 'baby'. Not forgetting that an auxiliary is made up of more than one role. Therefore, this implies that an auxiliary may have more than one connector either connecting to or from it. -As a second example let us look at verbalization "Antenatal card is recorded by Attendant". In this verbalization we have object types (flows) 'Antenatal card ' and 'Attendant'. In fig 8 we see that flow 'Antenatal card ' has a connector directional arrow facing auxiliary "Antenatal card recording". This is because the verbalization is read from object type 'Antenatal card ' to role 'is recorded by'. We also have another connector coming from flow 'Attendant' to "Antenatal card recording" which comes from verbalization 'Attendant' records 'Antenatal card.

We note here that, the verbalization alone cannot give us all the necessary connectors (it can only give us links from one direction but not feedback). We therefore advise the modeler(s) to further identify the feedback.

[Step 5:] Create sectors In [START_REF] Halpin | Data modeling in UML and ORM: A comparison[END_REF][START_REF] Bloesch | Conceptual queries using ConQuer-II[END_REF] it is stated that ORM conceptual object types act as semantic 'glue'. This means that an ORM model is a network of allied object types and relationship types [START_REF] Halpin | Data modeling in UML and ORM: A comparison[END_REF]. Sectors on the other hand are SD elements and are subcomponents within a system that handle all information about a particular element. If they are subcomponents that means they contain different elements and when put ('glued') together they make a complete system. Therefore, object types plus their 'glued' roles are similar to SD sectors because when both are 'glued' or put together they make up a complete model (either ORM or SD) and contain more than one element. The total number of sectors therefore, is equal to the total number of object types in fig 4 . In each sector we have an object type plus roles connected to it. The sectors identified from fig 4 are as follows:

Sector Empty bed which comprises of object type Empty bed plus roles; 'Is occupied by', 'is allocated to' and 'is in labor ward '.

Sector Attendant which comprises of object type Attendant plus roles; 'Is a medical personnel', 'monitors', 'records', 'examines', 'discharges', 'is waited for by' and 'immunizes'.

Sector Patient which comprises of object type Patient plus roles; 'is examined by', 'is discharged by', 'is admitted ', 'is monitored by', 'occupies', 'is allocated ', 'is arrives', 'has', 'delivers', and 'waits for '.

Sector Baby which comprises of object type Baby plus roles; 'is a newborn', 'is immunized by', and 'is delivered by'.

Sector Antenatal Card which comprises of object type Antenatal Card plus roles; 'has patient History', 'is recorded by', and 'is for '.

Here we note that, fact types that make an auxiliary variable have more than one role. Therefore, auxiliary variables relating to more than one flow are put in one of the sectors with the flow it connects too.

In conclusion, having applied the GSD procedure to a case, the modelers achieved two main things: One, better conceptualization of the underlying SD model concepts. And two, an SD model that is underpinned with an ontology domain modeling method. For variables patient arrival and patient discharge in figure 10 a), we have oscillations. This is so because the quantitative measure to these variables has no defined limit. In fig 10 b), we see that over a period of time the gap between variables medical personnel and admitted patients keep on increasing. Secondly, in fig 10 b), we see that delivering patients are consistently increasing over a period of time and at the 51 st week they rise above the newborn babies. The increase of delivering patients above new born babies at week 51 is an indicator that these simulation results are not completely reliable. This may be due to lack of outflows which drains the stocks.

From the input SD simulation algorithms whose choice depended on variables involved in the MHC labor suite SD/ORM model. In conclusion, the final simulation results in fig 9 do not give conclusive results. This is because some of the system dynamics construct e.g. outflows are not represented in the model. We believe that with more studies and application of the GSD procedure to different case domains, better simulation results will be achieved.

Conclusions and further work

This study is a work in progress and as such it is not possible to draw any firm conclusions on the end results. At the current stage it is possible to say that the GSD procedure is a good guide in transforming ORM models into SD models. This procedure gives the modeler better conceptualization of different variables plus reasons as to why a particular SD element is mapped to that ORM element.

Secondly, much as we have followed a GSD procedure to transform ORM model concepts into SD model concepts, we note here that, not all ORM and SD elements have been represented. For example; in SD we have elements like Conveyors, queues, decision process diamonds and Biflows missing and in ORM we have all constraints missing. Therefore, for further research we recommend that an investigation on how these missing elements can be used (mapped) to improve the GSD transformed SD model.

In step 2 of the GSD procedure, we realize that outflows are not represented in fig 6, yet in a system dynamics stock and flow model, a stock has both an inflow and outflow to drain the stock. Stocks accumulation is dependent on their flows and are mathematically calculated as the integration of net inflows:

Stock(t)
Therefore, we suggest that some auxiliary variables be referred to as out flows for example; Patient discharge can be used as an outflow from admitted patient and a new variable like death could be introduced in the model to act as an outflow from newborn baby. That way we have both inflows and outflows represented in the model. So far, the GSD procedure has been applied to one case already and we will continue to apply it to other case studies. We will further refine the procedure and also devote more attention to coming up with a generic meta-model. Finally, a comparison of the SD model development process with the GSD procedure using various case studies will be done.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. ORM basic building blocks

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. MHC Labor suite developed ORM model

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Identified stocks from MHC Labor suite ORM model

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Flows from MHC labor suite ORM model are connected to stocks

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Auxiliary variables identified from binary and ternary fact types

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. Information Links introduced in SD MHC Labor suite SD model

Fig. 9 .Fig. 10 .

 910 Fig. 9. Sectors identified from MHC Labor suite ORM model

t 0 [

 0 Inf low(s) -Outf low(s)]ds + Stock(t 0 ) (1) with Inf lows and Outf lows denoting the values of the outflow at anytime s between the initial time t 0 and the present time t [23]. The net flow determines the rate of change of any stock: d(Stock)/dt = Inf low(t) -Outf low(t)

For SD terminologies used in this paper we use[START_REF] Sterman | Business Dynamics-Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World[END_REF] and all SD models are drawn using an SD STELLA 9.0.2 software. This is because STELLA is easy to use and offers a practical way to dynamically visualize and communicate how complex systems and ideas really work.

For ORM terminologies in this paper, we use[START_REF] Halpin | Information Modeling and Relational Databases[END_REF] and to model ORM models we use Microsoft Visual Modeler 2005.

In this paper we only consider binary and ternary fact type to be similar to auxiliary variables but all fact types with more than one role are referred to as auxiliary variables