Fontaine Geneviève

Keywords: Communs, capabilités, émergence, développement durable, conditions favorables

modèles juridiques et d'indicateurs ?

Susciter l'émergence de communs comme outils du développement durable.

Elinor Ostrom a défini un cadre d'analyse de la diversité des arrangements institutionnels permettant de caractériser des communs institués autour des ressources locales et d'étudier les conditions favorables à leur pérennité. Peu d'analyses portent sur le processus d'émergence des communs et sur les éléments favorisant leur construction. Pourtant, la question des conditions favorables à l'émergence des communs est belle et bien présente dans les travaux d'Ostrom. L'approche d'A Sen du développement durable qui s'appuie sur la base informationnelle des capabilités, dépassant ainsi le cadre des besoins pour englober celui de la liberté tant en termes d'opportunités que procédural, permet d'articuler le développement durable autour du processus délibératif et du débat public. Dans cette perspective et sans remettre en cause l'approche institutionnaliste des communs proposée par Ostrom et reprise par [START_REF] Coriat | Le retour des communs -sources et origines d'un programme de recherche[END_REF], nous tenterons de déduire du cadre d'analyse théorique et des études empiriques d'Ostrom des éléments pour accompagner l'émergence de communs comme outils du développement durable au sens de Sen. Après avoir étudié les conditions favorables à l'émergence de commun, issues directement ou indirectement du cadre ostromien, nous proposerons un croisement entre l'analyse institutionnaliste des communs et l'approche par les capabilités du développement durable [START_REF] Sen | l'idée de justice[END_REF] pour caractériser des communs de capabilité comme outil du développement durable. Nous reviendrons ensuite sur les conditions favorables à l'émergence de ces communs de capabilité. Nous l'illustrerons par l'utilisation d'une grille construite pour accompagner l'émergence de communs locaux s'inscrivant dans une perspective de transformation globale dans le cas de l'action collective du Pôle Territorial de Coopération Economique TETRIS (Transition Ecologique territorial par la Recherche et l'Innovation Sociale) sur le Pays de Grasse (France, 06).

I -Un terrain de recherche : La construction intentionnelle d'un commun au sein de la dynamique collective de TETRIS

La dynamique de coopération économique TETRIS regroupe des acteurs de l'Economie Sociale et Solidaire (ESS) qui développent individuellement des activités socio-économiques liées aux Objectifs de Développement Durable et s'inscrivent dans notre hypothèse puisqu'ils cherchent à expérimenter des cadres institutionnels basés sur la coopération, la réciprocité et la confiance favorables au développement durable à l'échelle locale. Le projet s'est structuré, de 2013 à 2015, autour de 4 axes complémentaires et directement inspirés de l'approche par les capabilités du développement durable. Un aller-retour permanent est réalisé entre les activités socio-économiques, l'accompagnement de projets incubés et les activités de recherche-développement en sciences sociales. Cette place centrale de la recherche trouve son origine dans le rôle leader d'Evaléco, association qui développe depuis 2008 une méthodologie participative de diagnostic des pratiques effectives de développement durable et d'accompagnement à la transition écologique, basée sur l'approche d'A. Sen. Au-delà du développement local durable, les acteurs partagent aussi une réelle difficulté d'accès à la ressource foncière en raison des prix de marché de l'immobilier d'activité sur le territoire. L'implication de structures aux statuts juridiques divers (association, SCIC, SAS), de la collectivité locale et de personnes physiques (bénévoles et chercheurs) les a amenés à créer une Société Coopérative d'Intérêt Collectif (SCIC) pour porter les activités en coopération et les locaux mutualisés, approchés comme un commun au sens où les surfaces ne sont pas réparties par structure mais par usage. Pour construire intentionnellement ce commun, les acteurs de TETRIS s'appuient, avec l'aide de leur centre de recherche, sur les travaux d'Ostrom. Ces acteurs poursuivant un idéal transformateur, la construction intentionnelle d'un commun autour des locaux est approchée comme une expérimentation qui prélude à d'autres constructions reposant sur d'autres ressources du territoire, devant notamment permettre le développement des capabilités.

Peut-on repérer dans l'histoire des acteurs, du territoire et de la dynamique collective de TETRIS des conditions favorables à l'émergence de ce commun ? Bien que très peu de travaux universitaires portent sur ce sujet, peut-on plus généralement définir à partir des travaux d'Ostrom des conditions propices à l'émergence de communs, afin d'en favoriser la construction intentionnelle sur les territoires ? Dans sa description des attributs de la ressource (conditions matérielles et biophysiques), de la communauté et des participants, Ostrom présente des éléments qui relèvent de sa théorie des comportements et d'autres que l'on peut qualifier de structurels. S'y adjoignent des conditions favorables portant sur les règles exogènes qui nous donnent des indications sur la place et la posture des pouvoirs publics pour favoriser l'émergence de communs. Il est important de noter qu'Ostrom envisage ces variables comme étant interdépendantes et formant un système dynamique.

Nous pouvons regrouper ces conditions favorables à l'émergence de communs [START_REF] Fontaine | Analyser les conditions favorables à l'émergence des communs, le cas d'un PTCE d'économie solidaire[END_REF] issues directement ou indirectement du cadre d'analyse d'Ostrom dans la grille d'analyse suivante :

Attributs structurels de la ressource Vulnérabilité L'idée de vulnérabilité renvoie à une dimension de protection du caractère durable de la ressource en lien avec une solidarité intergénérationnelle mais aussi à la dimension de sa non accessibilité effective et équitable.

Contexte d'incertitude

Les contextes d'incertitude, les changements rapides dans les caractéristiques physiques de la ressource (Ostrom, 2013), la non prévisibilité des bénéfices générés… incitent à la coopération.

Accès à l'information sur la ressource

La coopération se construira si l'information sur les caractéristiques de la ressource, sur son histoire et sur les bénéfices locaux de son maintien ou => sera facilité par l'existence d'espaces publics de proximité développement, est accessible et partagée [START_REF] Ostrom | Plaidoyer pour la complexité[END_REF].

Attributs structurels des acteurs

Dépendance

La notion de dépendance n'est pas uniquement centrée sur la ressource faisant l'objet du commun mais recouvre une triple interdépendance [START_REF] Sabourin | Action collective et développement », actes du séminaire permanent Action Collective[END_REF] des acteurs vis-à-vis de la ressource, de la ressource par rapport à des ressources complémentaires et des acteurs entre eux. Forte préférence pour le futur C'est l'introduction du facteur temps qui permet la communication, le dialogue constructif et l'apprentissage. La présence d'acteurs s'inscrivant dans une temporalité longue est un facteur favorable à l'action collective [START_REF] Sabourin | Action collective et développement », actes du séminaire permanent Action Collective[END_REF].

Attributs structurels du groupe

Proximité

Ostrom conserve l'idée de la taille réduite du groupe comme une prédisposition à l'action collective mais face à la diversité des situations où paraissent pouvoir se développer aujourd'hui des communs [START_REF] Weinstein O | Comment se construisent les communs : question à partir d'Otsrom[END_REF], c'est la notion de proximité dans ses différentes acceptions (géographique, cognitive, de ressources) que nous retenons (Bouba-Olga, 2008).

Homogénéité

Renvoie davantage à l'idée de perception commune qu'à une caractéristique commune intrinsèque des commoners. = perception commune de la ressource, des autres usagers, des règles de fonctionnement des institutions extérieures.

=> nécessite l'existence d'espaces publics de proximité Règles et normes externes en vigueur Influençant la vulnérabilité de la ressource en permettant ou même en organisant sa surexploitation [START_REF] Fattori | Biens communs, justice sociale et environnementale[END_REF] et son accessibilité. Permettant l'existence d'espaces publics de proximité afin de développer des schémas de pensée partagés.

Variables issues de l'analyse comportementale

Favorisant les prédispositions individuelles à la coopération Favorisant la responsabilisation et l'autonomie Geneviève Fontaine, 2016

Retour sur TETRIS

Appliquée au contexte de Tetris [START_REF] Fontaine | Analyser les conditions favorables à l'émergence des communs, le cas d'un PTCE d'économie solidaire[END_REF] [START_REF] Dacheux | Cohésion sociale et richesse économique : compléter l'apport d'Elinor Ostrom par une étude empirique de l'ESS[END_REF] pour aller vers une solidarité démocratique fondée sur la reconnaissance de l'autre comme différent mais égal en dignité, présente chez Sen (Dubois, 2013). Pour Sen, la liberté procédurale (les personnes doivent être associées aux décisions qui les concernent) repose sur le développement de la capacité de voice (prise de parole) des agents et est une condition de la liberté d'opportunité (Bonvin et Farvaque, 2007). -En suivant Sen lorsqu'il récuse le sens de l'établissement d'une liste des capabilités humaines fondamentales par M. [START_REF] Nussbaum | Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach[END_REF], et en considérant que la ressource dans un commun de capabilité doit faire l'objet d'une délibération sur ce qui compte et ce qui vaut la peine d'être fait en commun [START_REF] Cordonnier | Eclairages sur la notion de biens communs[END_REF]. Ainsi, si l'on peut se baser sur la définition des «biens communs sociaux» dans la tradition juridique italienne (Bersani, 2011) pour énoncer des exemples de ressources pouvant faire l'objet d'un commun de capabilité (l'emploi, la santé, la culture, l'éducation, le logement, la justice environnementale…), on doit éviter d'enfermer les communs de capabilité sur une liste de ressources qui ne seraient pas le fruit d'une délibération située. -Enfin, la nécessaire reconnaissance méta-institutionnelle des règles définies par les commoners présente chez Ostrom doit être complétée par la prise en compte de la responsabilité des pouvoirs publics vis-à-vis de la liberté procédurale des personnes [START_REF] Sen | l'idée de justice[END_REF].

En tenant compte de ces remarques et apports, nous pouvons poser les éléments de caractérisation de commun de capabilité comme outil du développement durable :

Critères additionnels de tous communs selon Ostrom 1) la production et la gestion d'une ressource (considérée comme vulnérable) mise en commun 2) l'établissement de droits distribués (de propriété, d'usage…, etc.) qui régulent notamment l'accès à la ressource par les commoneurs.

3) la gouvernance collective de la ressource qui inclut la résolution des conflits.

Critères additionnels des communs de capabilité 4) l'aspiration sociale, au développement équitable d'égales capabilités pour toutes et tous, des commoneurs/personnes fonde leur responsabilité ex-ante et motive l'action collective 5) l'objectif est l'accessibilité réelle à la ressource à partir d'une finalité d'équité et une attention portée aux plus démunis et vulnérables. L'accessibilité se traduit notamment dans les droits distribués qui régulent l'accès à la ressource.

6) un mode de gouvernance local et délibératif associant les personnes concernées (liberté procédurale) et leur assurant la possibilité d'exit, de voice ou de loyalty et qui repose sur une solidarité démocratique fondée sur la reconnaissance de l'autre comme différent mais égal en dignité. (Laurent Cordonnier,2012) 8) Des pouvoirs publics qui, en sus de la reconnaissance méta-institutionnelle des règles du communs (Ostrom, 1990), favorisent la liberté procédurale des acteurs.

Les capabilités, tout comme l'approche du développement durable qu'elles sous-tendent, nous invitent à penser les communs de capabilité dans une logique d'amélioration continue. Les communs qui, en plus des trois critères additionnels définis par Ostrom, tendent vers les cinq caractéristiques énoncées ci-dessus peuvent donc être appréhendés comme des outils du développement durable au sens donné par A Sen à ce terme.

IV -Des conditions complémentaires favorables à l'émergence des communs de capabilité

Cette caractérisation des communs de capabilité nous amène à compléter la grille proposée sur les conditions favorables à l'émergence de communs avec les éléments suivants : Attributs structurels du groupe Une proximité de projet forte Le groupe se constitue autour de l'objectif d'agir sur les facteurs de conversion [START_REF] Sen | l'idée de justice[END_REF] individuels, sociaux et environnementaux pour permettre aux individus un accès réel à la ressource sociale. Cet objectif partagé dessine une proximité de projet forte qui permet d'envisager une organisation polycentrique des communs de capabilité et leur imbrication sur plusieurs niveaux.

Variables issues de l'analyse comportementale Solidarité Les acteurs basent leurs relations réciprocitaires sur l'expression d'une solidarité fondée démocratique sur la reconnaissance de l'autre comme différent mais égal en dignité. Recherche de l'hétérogénéïté. Valorisation des actions collectives multi-partenariales.

Règles et normes externes en vigueur

Des pouvoirs publics adoptant une posture de partenaires L'émergence de communs comme outils du développement durable repose sur des conditions fortes concernant la posture des pouvoirs publics en tant que partenaires alors que dans l'analyse d'Ostrom, les pouvoirs publics n'interviennent qu'au niveau méta-institutionnel -en amont, par des règles favorables à l'émergence des communs [START_REF] Fontaine | Analyser les conditions favorables à l'émergence des communs, le cas d'un PTCE d'économie solidaire[END_REF] et en aval, par la légitimation des arrangements institutionnels construits au niveau local [START_REF] Nyssens | ESS et ressources communes : vers la reconnaissance d'une diversité institutionnelle. Interpellations croisées[END_REF]. Pour [START_REF] Ostrom | Crossing the great divide: Coproduction, synergy, and development[END_REF], la coproduction de biens et services par des administrations et des citoyens organisés dans des systèmes polycentriques est essentielle pour améliorer le bien-être des populations, ce qui rejoint l'analyse de Sen sur le développement des états de bien-être. Dans le cas des communs de capabilité, cette posture de coproduction que l'on retrouve dans le principe de subsidiarité horizontale présent dans le droit italien, ne signifie pas que la société civile se substitue à la collectivité mais plutôt que les acteurs dont les pouvoirs publics partagent le choix et la définition des objectifs, la conception et la mise en oeuvre des activités autour des ressources sociales.

Retour sur TETRIS

Nous retrouvons plusieurs de ces conditions additionnelles au sein de TETRIS. L'approche du développement durable en termes de capabilité constitue le fondement culturel de l'association évaléco qui par son rôle de leader permet l'alignement des acteurs de TETRIS autour d'une aspiration sociale transformative orientée vers la réalisation des Objectifs du Développement Durable au sens de Sen. Cette aspiration se matérialise par leurs activités et par la place donnée à la délibération au travers du choix du statut de Société Coopérative d'Intérêt Collectif. Ce choix institutionnel témoigne de leur recherche de l'hétérogénéité et de liens réciprocitaires basés sur une solidarité démocratique. La collectivité locale en décidant de devenir sociétaire de la SCIC TETRIS a adopté une posture partenaire ouverte aux propositions d'expérimentation. Si aucun processus délibératif local n'a encore été mis en oeuvre pour délimiter les ressources sociales devant faire l'objet d'un commun de capabilité, on peut considérer que certains projets en lien avec les conseils citoyens (Politique de la Ville) ou la Monnaie Locale Complémentaire en portent des ébauches.

A l'aide de ces éléments d'analyse, nous pouvons questionner l'émergence de communs de capabilité au sein de TETRIS en considérant que les règles de fonctionnement du commun foncier, permettant à chaque individu présent sur les lieux d'agir et d'interagir avec les autres, renforcent leurs capabilités en agissant sur : -les ressources formelles dont ils disposent qu'elles soient relationnelles (personnes avec lesquelles il est possible d'interagir) ou cognitives (savoirs et savoir-faire observables et appropriables) ; -les facteurs de conversion sociaux et individuels des personnes : les règles d'accessibilité, les espaces de convivialité et les nombreuses activités d'éducation populaire proposées sur le lieu constituent des espaces d'émancipation.

-leur capacité de voice : les temps formels et informels d'échange rendus possibles par les règles de fonctionnement dessinent des espaces de délibération où la voice est valorisée.

Nous pouvons donc poser l'hypothèse que le lieu est une ressource foncière gérée en commun dont les règles contribuent à la révélation d'une ressource de type sociale venant renforcer les capabilités des individus et qui peut être abordée comme un autre commun en construction. En ce sens, la construction d'un commun foncier au sein de TETRIS contribue au développement local durable au sens de Sen.

Conclusion

En partant du constat que la question des conditions favorables à l'émergence des communs est présente dans les travaux d'Ostrom et que certains de ses écrits tardifs témoignent d'une prise en compte des enjeux du développement durable, nous avons dégagé des éléments opérationnels permettant d'analyser l'émergence de communs comme outils du développement durable. Pour ce faire, nous avons cherché à caractériser les communs de capabilité en croisant l'approche de la justice sociale de Sen qui fonde sa conception du développement durable [START_REF] Sen | The ends and means of sustainability[END_REF] et l'approche d'Ostrom sur les communs. Cet effort nous a amené à élargir et enrichir mutuellement ces deux approches pour définir cinq critères qui, en plus des trois critères additionnels définis par Ostrom, permettent de caractériser des communs de capabilité. A l'aide de ces critères, nous avons pu revenir sur notre grille des conditions favorables à l'émergence des communs issues directement ou indirectement du cadre ostromien pour les préciser dans le cas des communs de capabilité.

L'application de cette grille d'analyse à la dynamique collective TETRIS sur le Pays de Grasse (France) nous a permis de comprendre les éléments ayant joué favorablement dans l'émergence de leur commun foncier et de mettre en évidence des freins que les acteurs devront surmonter pour construire un commun durable. Cet outil nous a également permis de poser l'hypothèse que la construction du commun foncier par les acteurs de TETRIS dans un écosystème rassemblant des conditions plutôt favorables, permet l'émergence d'un commun de capabilité imbriqué.

  II -Les conditions favorables à l'émergence de commun, issues de l'analyse d'Ostrom et leur application au cas de TETRIS. L'analyse d'Ostrom ne se limite pas, comme on le dit souvent, à la recherche des conditions de réussite de l'action collective d'un groupe permettant d'assurer la production, l'usage, la préservation voire le développement de la ressource par l'élaboration d'arrangements. Dès 1998, elle définit ainsi des variables clés qui expliquent le degré de capacité d'autoorganisation d'un collectif. En 2005, elle en propose la schématisation suivante : Les « arènes d'action » sont vues comme l'unité de base de l'analyse institutionnelle au sens d'espace de production des règles (Chanteau & Labrousse, 2013).

  « self governed » employé par Ostrom reflète, selon nous, un sentiment de légitimité des acteurs à définir des règles qui rendent possible le développement du commun. => dépend des règles externes et normes en vigueur Expérience = attitude positive vis-à-vis des apprentissages = pratiques coutumières de coopération ou d'entraide => existence préalable de pratiques réciprocitaires Confiance La confiance est la condition de la décision initiale de coopérer. Elle repose pour Ostrom sur la réputation des participants, sur l'existence d'un système de sanctions, au moins informel, positives et négatives qui rejailliront sur la réputation et enfin sur une anticipation positive de réciprocité néanmoins porteuse d'un risque de nonréciprocité. Leader charismatique Ostrom souligne que les actions collectives façonnant les communs sont facilitées par des leaders charismatiques ou par un noyau actif à l'interface entre le groupe et son environnement.

  7) la ressource faisant l'objet d'un commun de capabilité (« ressource sociale ») concoure aux capabilités et fait l'objet d'un jugement partagé d'utilité, de désirabilité et d'un voeu de dotation équitable construit par la délibération.

  en commun est sociale au sens par exemple des « biens communs sociaux ». L'accès effectif à cette ressource renforce les capabilités individuelles et concoure à la réalisation des Objectifs de Développement Durable (ODD). Elle fait l'objet d'un jugement partagé d'utilité, de désirabilité et d'un voeu de dotation équitable construit par la délibération locale. => renforce la nécessité de l'existence préalable d'espaces publics de proximité Attributs structurels des acteurs Aspiration sociale transformative Les acteurs sont mus par une finalité qui dépasse la recherche d'un intérêt mutuel pour viser le développement équitable d'égales capabilités pour chacun (ou d'atteinte des ODD). Cette aspiration renforce la préférence forte pour le futur des acteurs. Responsabilité ex-ante Les acteurs sont des « personnes capables » au sens de Ricoeur (2004) c'est-à-dire des agents capables de ressentir et d'exercer une responsabilité ex-ante à la fois locale en tant que citoyen d'un territoire et universelle vis-à-vis d'autrui et des générations futures.

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III -Des communs de capabilité comme outil du développement durable Bien

  cette grille permet d'expliquer les conditions favorables au processus d'émergence du commun foncier, à partir des documents internes et d'une observation participante. La politique de soutien à l'ESS et la posture de l'EPCI ont permis de créer un espace de proximité, permettant aux acteurs de se reconnaître, renforçant, par le faire-ensemble, les proximités géographique et cognitive et la prise de conscience des interdépendances. La pression foncière a créé l'opportunité de la mutualisation des locaux, mais les acteurs sont allés au-delà en décidant d'approcher un commun : rédaction des baux et définition des règles permettant l'accessibilité de tous les espaces à toutes les personnes (salariés, bénévoles, volontaires), répartition des espaces par usages (plateaux techniques, tertiaire, stockage…) et non par structure… Enfin, fixation des loyers selon ses capacités et non selon l'espace occupé, ce qui suppose confiance et transparence.Bien que les acteurs aient tous une préférence pour le futur matérialisée par la finalité du projet, celle-ci est très variable (très forte pour les individuels ou l'éducation populaire, plus faible pour l'IAE ou la collectivité). L'émergence du commun s'est appuyée sur un petit nombre de leaders ayant des positions stratégiques et une perception commune mais celle-ci reste insuffisamment partagée au sein des structures. TETRIS se heurte régulièrement à cette hétérogénéité qui reste un enjeu majeur pour la suite de l'action collective autour de la construction de communs de capabilité. Au-delà de ces difficultés, le sentiment de légitimité des acteurs à porter l'expérimentation repose sur leur culture (éducation populaire, recherche), mais aussi sur le cadre institutionnel créé par l'EPCI qui joue un rôle de tiers de confiance, voire d'arbitre en rappelant l'intérêt général. La présence de leaders individuels ou collectifs dont en particulier l'association évaléco joue un rôle décisif dans l'émergence du commun foncier. qu'Ostrom ne s'inscrive pas directement dans les débats théoriques autour du développement durable, ces enjeux sous-tendent ces derniers écrits sur les perspectives qu'offre le polycentrisme pour faire face aux grands défis environnementaux et sociétaux tel que le réchauffement climatique (2010). Par ailleurs, si les théoriciens et praticiens du développement local durable mobilisent souvent la notion de communs, ils soulignent également (Ballet, 2008) l'insuffisance de réflexion sur la justice sociale dans la pensée d'Ostrom. Ils considèrent donc les communs, en tant qu'action collective instituante, comme un outil pertinent du développement durable à condition d'y introduire une visée normative sur la justice sociale. Or c'est précisément son approche comparative de la justice sociale fondée sur les capabilités qui permet à Amartya Sen de proposer une conception du développement durable qui dépasse la question des besoins pour appréhender celle des libertés[START_REF] Sen | The ends and means of sustainability[END_REF].-en dépassant le cadre de réflexion d'Ostrom centré sur la recherche d'un intérêt mutuel pour y adjoindre une visée d'équité universaliste présente chez Sen dans sa vision du développement durable comme devant assurer une répartition équitable des capabilités au sein de chaque génération et leur transmission équitable aux générations à venir(Dubois et Rajaonadaka, 2008). -en enrichissant l'approche de Sen de la liberté individuelle, comme moyen et finalité du développement, avec une responsabilité prospective des agents que l'on trouve chez Ostrom dans la préférence forte pour le futur des commoners mais qui doit être complétée par l'introduction d'une réflexion phénoménologique sur l'aspiration sociale des personnes comme fondement de leur motivation à agir en commun. -En introduisant, dans l'approche des communs, une exigence d'attention portée à l'accessibilité réelle et équitable à la ressource et donc aux plus démunis et vulnérables vis-àvis de cette ressource. Cette condition d'accessibilité, garant de la liberté d'opportunités des individus et donc de leur capacité à choisir les fonctionnements qu'ils jugent la peine d'être vécus, influence directement l'établissement des droits distribués qui régulent l'accès à la ressource (faisceau de droits de propriété). Elle fait ainsi des communs de capabilité, des communs « ouverts » pour lesquels la communauté des commoneurs évolue au cours de la pratique. -En renforçant, dans la réflexion sur les communs, la prise en compte de l'hétérogénéité des acteurs : dépasser la recherche d'une solidarité mécanique entre les commoneurs proposée par Ostrom

L'analyse des conditions d'émergence de ce commun foncier mais également des premières étapes de définitions des règles de son fonctionnement, nous amène à nous questionner sur la capacité de ce type de commun à contribuer à la finalité affirmée par les acteurs de TETRIS de concourir, par leurs activités, au développement durable. Nous devons pour cela tenter de caractériser les communs comme outil du développement durable.

La caractérisation des communs de capabilité comme outil du développement durable peut donc emprunter la voix d'un croisement entre l'approche de la justice sociale de Sen qui fonde sa conception du développement durable et l'approche d'Ostrom sur les communs, en élargissant et enrichissant mutuellement ces deux approches :


Nicole Maarse
email: nicole.maarse@leangovresearch.org

Marijn Janssen

The need to adjust Lean to the public sector

Keywords: E-government, organizational change, organization theory, structuration theory, multidisciplinary approach

Over the last decade all kinds of e-government processes have been developed. Governments are seeking rationalization of these processes in order to save money while maintaining or improving service levels. In the private sector Lean methods have been used to achieve these goals, whereas these are hardly explored for egovernment. The goal of this paper is to translate the concept of Lean to the field of government. An in-depth case study was conducted in which Lean was applied. Lean concepts like value stream and removing of waste proved to be useful. Some public sector characteristics impede the direct use of Lean concepts. We recommend to adjust Lean to the nature of e-government. Attention should be given to public values, fragmentation, financial aspects and culture when applying the concept of Lean in the public sector and e-government.

Introduction

After having developed all kinds of processes driven by technology development, governments are seeking rationalization of their processes in order to save money while maintaining or improving service levels. Many of those processes have been developed and evolved over the years without specific attention given to the improvement. A concept that is currently embraced for improving business processes is Lean. Originally Lean was developed in and for manufacturing environments [START_REF] Womack | The Machine That Changed the World[END_REF] and during the last decade Lean has been adopted by the services industry [START_REF] George | Lean Six Sigma for Service: How to Use Lean Speed and Six Sigma Quality to Improve Services and Transactions[END_REF]. Lean inherently possesses viewpoints and terms that do not immediately ring bells in or are applicable to governmental environments, such as measuring of lead times/takt-time, upstream -downstream or a constant awareness of operational costs. The management concept of Lean is ill-defined [START_REF] Hines | Learning to evolve A review of contemporary lean thinking[END_REF]. Depending on perspective, Lean can both be described as a set of tools, an approach, a system, and a philosophy [START_REF] Graban | Lean Hospitals -Improving Quality, Patient Safety and Employee Satisfaction[END_REF]. The absence of a clear view on Lean makes it difficult to translate the concept, but gives leeway to modify the concept to other domains, such as e-government. The challenge will be to find analogies that allow us to use the Lean methodology and tools in governments settings and ultimately identify areas and ways for improvement. The most direct transfer of Lean from manufacturing environments supposedly are voluminous production processes of tangible products in the public sector (e.g. army trucks). More generally, Lean is said to work best on repeatable tasks of a certain volume [START_REF] Hines | Learning to evolve A review of contemporary lean thinking[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Determinants of lean success and failure in the Danish public sector A negotiated order perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Radnor | Evaluation of the Lean Approach to Business Management and Its Use in the Public Sector[END_REF], tasks found in administrative and e-government spheres.

Lean is not without criticism and the impacts remain much debated [see for example [START_REF] Radnor | Lean in the public services: panacea or paradox?[END_REF][START_REF] Mehri | The darker side of lean: an insider's perspective on the realities of the Toyota production system[END_REF][START_REF] Hines | The Seven Value Stream Mapping Tools[END_REF]. Lean is also associated with high levels of failure [START_REF] Pedersen | Determinants of lean success and failure in the Danish public sector A negotiated order perspective[END_REF]. The translation of the Lean principles to practice is often complicated [START_REF] Wu | Lean Manufacturing: A Perspective of Lean Suppliers[END_REF]. Lean models need to be adapted to the public sector [START_REF] Erridge | The application of lean supply in local government: the Belfast experiments[END_REF]. Current literature about Lean in the public sector does not focus on translating the concept and capturing the nature of government and often remains generic [START_REF] Pedersen | Determinants of lean success and failure in the Danish public sector A negotiated order perspective[END_REF]. Our goal is to translate the concept of Lean to e-government and understand the idiosyncratic nature of this field. We will conclude that public value fragmentation, financial aspects and culture influence the core concepts of value creation and waste.

Background

Principles of Lean

The concept of Lean was spread by Womack, Roos and Jones [START_REF] Womack | The Machine That Changed the World Rawson and Associates[END_REF]. They visited and studied several Japanese businesses to find out why they did so well on the global market.. They concluded that the Toyota Production System was successful because the core processes were organized in such a way, that all activities where done in the exact right way, in de right order and at the right time, to create ultimate value for the customer. Lean production was at that time in sharp contrast with traditional mass production systems, typically characterized by batches of identical products and queues. The Lean methodology identifies five core principles or phases; Value, Value Stream, Flow, Pull and Perfection. We will use these core concept as a starting point for our research.

1. Specify value from the standpoint of the end customer, define value in terms of a specific product with specific capabilities offered at a specific time.

2. Identify all the steps in the value stream, eliminating whenever possible those steps that do not create value.

3. Make the value-creating steps occur in tight sequence so the product will flow smoothly toward the customer. 'Flow' enables the organization to deliver more "customer value for resources". A flow is perfect when there are no stops between the order and the delivery to the customer, unless the customer might want it differently.

4. As flow is introduced, let customers pull value from the next upstream activity; design and provide what the customer wants, only when the customer wants it. 'In a pull system, the allocation of resources (humans, materials, finance) follows the customer demand' ( [START_REF] Jones | Lean thinking for the NHS[END_REF], p. 16).

5. As value is specified, value streams are identified, wasted steps are removed, and flow and pull are introduced, begin the process again and continue it until a state of perfection is reached in which perfect value is created with no waste.

Taiichi Ohno, one of the creators of the Toyota Production system, stated that it was extremely important to differentiate value for the customer, from muda -the Japanese term for waste. Within the context of manufacturing systems he identified seven types of waste [14]. Womack and Jones [START_REF] Womack | Lean Thinking: Banish waste and create wealth in your organization[END_REF] added an eighth. For the services sector ten forms of similar waste are identified [START_REF] Bonaccorsi | Service Value Stream Management (SVSM): Developing Lean Thinking in the Service Industry[END_REF]. We will use these ten waste categories to analyze our case study.

1. Overproduction -Results in an excess of products, products being made too early and increased inventory. 2. Waiting -Any idle time or period of inactivity (because an upstream activity has not delivered on time). 3. Extra processing or duplication -Any activity that does not add value to the product or service, e.g. rework, reprocessing, handling or storage that occur because of defects, overproduction or excess inventory. 4. Transport and motion -Any movement of materials, people, employees and equipment. Motion takes time and adds no value to the product or service. 5. Inventory (incorrect) -Any product or work (whether finished or not) that is not immediately used or required by the customer. Such inventory or 'storage' can result in extra processing and requires space. 6. Defects -Any product or service that is not according to the needs or specifications of the customer, resulting in rectification or rework and/or customer dissatisfaction. 7. Underutilization of people -Also referred to as 'a waste of talent', this happens when people are not 'used' to their full talent, skills or knowledge.. 8. Lack of customer focus -Poor attention to the customer resulting in dissatisfaction because of defects or treatment. 9. Unclear communication -Use of incorrect information or an unclear workflow, which can result in defects. 10. Variation -Lack of procedures or standard formats Hines et al. [START_REF] Hines | Learning to evolve A review of contemporary lean thinking[END_REF] discuss the four main criticisms of Lean; the lack of contingency and ability to cope with variability, the lack of consideration of human aspects (see also [START_REF] Carter | Lean and mean in the civil service: the case of processing in HMRC[END_REF]), the narrow operational focus on the shop-floor and not considering the strategic level. They conclude that Lean has evolved and different applications and contingencies have been explored, while maintaining the Lean principles developed by Womack and Jones [START_REF] Womack | Lean Thinking: Banish waste and create wealth in your organization[END_REF]. On that account the mentioned criticisms are less relevant these days. They state that a contemporary version of Lean consists of two levels; operational and strategic, whereby the operational level is about eliminating waste and the strategic level is about understanding value. Their comparison of Lean thinking to the stages of organizational learning emphasizes 1) that Lean has evolved and 2) that Lean is more than a tool but rather a mindset for which a level of 'organizational internalization' is required. "As such, this development is one of testing the boundaries of Lean thinking and the contingent modifications of the approach (within sectors, across businesses etc.) rather than any fundamental change to the Lean enterprise "design logic" (p.1005). We adopt this thinking in this paper and when translating the concept of lean to e-government.

Application of Lean and the public sector

For the services industry it has been concluded that Lean has the potential to contribute to aspects such as efficient production processes, increased product variety and customer focus/satisfaction. But that attention should be paid to the reinterpretation of Lean tools and concepts such as value [START_REF] Bonaccorsi | Service Value Stream Management (SVSM): Developing Lean Thinking in the Service Industry[END_REF][START_REF] Bowen | Lean' Service: In defense of a production line approach[END_REF][START_REF] Piercy | Lean transformation in the pure service environment: the case of the call service centre[END_REF]. In egovernment many public organizations deliver services to accomplish social values and to serve administrative goals and their processes inherently reflect this. Since Lean has been used in the services sector, we might assume the application of Lean in the public sector could be a legitimate and worthwhile one but might require adaptions.

Over recent years public organizations have applied Lean, although only for a limited type of processes. Often Lean projects were implemented in only a sub-part of public organizations [START_REF] Pedersen | Negotiating Lean; The fluidity and solidity of new management technologies in the Danish public sector[END_REF]. Apart from health care and maintenance of army trucks, little application and research with regard to Lean in the public sector has taken place, although some organizations have adopted a so called 'Lean services approach' [START_REF] Radnor | Evaluation of the Lean Approach to Business Management and Its Use in the Public Sector[END_REF]. Some of these adoptions have explicitly gone under the New Public Management heading, which over the last two decades has strived to bring more control, efficiency and performance than the traditional Weberian view, by implementing more marketoriented elements into the public sector. Recently however, research in public management is debating how to address the supposed weaknesses of NPM. Two examples of research in typical public sector organizations identify critical success factors and potential barriers for successful adoption and implementation of Lean thinking in public sector environment [START_REF] Pedersen | Determinants of lean success and failure in the Danish public sector A negotiated order perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Radnor | Evaluation of the Lean Approach to Business Management and Its Use in the Public Sector[END_REF][START_REF] Radnor | Learning to Walk Before We Try to Run: Adapting Lean for the Public Sector[END_REF]. These include: organizational culture and ownership, organizational readiness and employee support, objective (cost cutting/lay-offs or improvement of process), management commitment and capability, need for change, link between improvement programs and strategy, adequate amount and skills of resources, training and knowledge transfer, communication, clear customer focus, people working and thinking in silos or whole systems thinking, too many procedures and targets, awareness of strategic direction, general belief that staff are overworked and underpaid, rewards, 'identifiability' of impact and realistic time plan/natural pace of change. Womack and Jones [START_REF] Womack | Lean Thinking: Banish waste and create wealth in your organization[END_REF] describe Lean as a philosophy which should be adopted throughout the whole organization. Radnor and Walley [START_REF] Radnor | Learning to Walk Before We Try to Run: Adapting Lean for the Public Sector[END_REF] emphasize that Lean works best when both senior management and employees are trained and involved.

The public sector has characteristics that may impose barriers for the application of Lean. Bharosa et al. [START_REF] Bharosa | Rethinking Service-oriented Government: is it really about services?[END_REF] identify a list of relevant differences between the public and the private sector including equal access and rights, lack of choice and no competitors, legislations, transparency and accountability, fragmented decisionmaking and public values. Rainey et al. [START_REF] Rainey | Comparing Public and Private Organizations[END_REF] present an extensive and detailed list of differences between the public and private sector, such as degree of market exposure, political influences, breadth of impact, public scrutiny, complex objectives and decisions criteria and personal characteristics of employees. Challenges for Lean application in the public sector described by Bhatia et al. [START_REF] Bhatia | Applying Lean production to the public sector[END_REF] include 'taking the customer's perspective' and Rainey et al. [START_REF] Rainey | Comparing Public and Private Organizations[END_REF] list 'less focus on customer as a characteristic stemming from/ finding its cause in less market exposure in the public sector'.

Research approach

By striving to understand the nature and specific nature of Lean within government, we opted for a qualitative approach based on a case study research [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research: Design and methods[END_REF]. Case study research is a common qualitative method used in the information systems (IS) field [START_REF] Orlikowski | Studying Information Technology in Organizations: Research Approaches and Assumptions[END_REF]. The case study research methodology is particularly well-suited to IS research, since the object of the discipline is the study of IS in organizations, and the 'interest is shifted to organizational rather than technical issues' [START_REF] Benbasat | The Case Research Strategy in Studies of Information Systems[END_REF]. This research was based on interviews, document collection and evaluation in a qualitative setting. Ten interviews and several workshops were organized with over 20 administrative staff and public managers. One of the authors was involved in the process improvement and conducted process modeling and analysis tasks and presented these in workshops to gain feedback. Both feedback concerning the process improvements as well as the method was collected. Documents relating to the initiation of Lean projects, decisionmaking, implementation, use and improvement were investigated in the first half of 2012.

A case study was conducted within a large Dutch governmental service agency, that was considered a frontrunner in the application of Lean. Its processes have different levels of complexity and often include many instances of interaction with citizens. Armistead et al. [START_REF] Armistead | Strategic business process management for organizational effectiveness[END_REF] identify five types of processes within organizations; operational, support, direction-setting, managerial and change processes. Much of the existing research on Lean concentrates on operational processes. Our case study concerns a support process within a large public organization with typical complexities of the public sector, as the procurement is constrained by legislation, heterogeneous stakeholders are involved and the activities are fragmented over several departments. In this we confront the Lean approach with the public sector characteristics.

Case: Lean in practice

Tender process

In order to translate the concepts of Lean to the public sector a case of the 'tender process' in a large Dutch government administrative agency was investigated. This case study was conducted during the first half of 2011. This administrative body has nearly 20.000 employees of many different blood types, due to mergers in the last 7 years. One of the more extensive and complex Lean projects concerned the 'tender process'. The deputy director responsible for purchasing was keen on reducing the lead times of tenders, as public procurement laws stipulate strict terms for contracting authorities for contracts above a certain financial threshold. Not complying with these can lead to legal actions and financial and reputational damages. The time squeeze would allow suppliers to be in the driver's seat. Also actors within the process would complain that the process itself was difficult because 'everyone wanted to say something about it'.

The tender process consists of three phases; Specification, Selection and Contracting. The average lead time of a tender turned out to be 452 days, whereas the process was designed under the assumption that it would take a maximum of 365 days; the trigger of the process is a sign (from system or responsible purchase manager) that a contract will expire within a year, or an internal client/department requesting the purchase of a certain product or service. So the organization would have a year to conclude a new contract. The specification phase took about half of the 452 days. For scoping purposes, the three phases were further researched separately. The specification phase consists of five main process steps (Fig. 1). The result of this phase is a Request for Proposal (RfP), which is published and serves as an invitation for potential suppliers to be a candidate in the tender and send in their proposals. The RfP contains the selection criteria used in the selection phase to select a contractor.

The five principles of Lean in case study

Value: the customer in our case was the department in need of a certain product or service. This internal customer valued a signed contract, delivery of the product on time, and a product that was according to their needs. Of value in the specification phase is an RfP containing complete, correct and specific formulation of the needs and selection criteria, on which a selection can adequately be based.

Value stream: For this project, we engaged a group of employees that were part of this process and fulfilled various roles. Together we mapped all 35 tasks within this process. This exercise gave us an insight into the order of activities, the time they took, who executed them and what kind of problems the employees encountered during execution. This process overview allowed us to identify the waste in the process. Table 1 shows that all of the waste categories were identified. In general, we concluded that about half of the steps did not add to the value of the desired output, e.g. waiting time, procedural/formal steps, steps not used to their purpose or another tool could provide more value.

Flow; First of all, many moments of transfer impede flow, because people of many different departments were involved usually one after the other. Secondly, the ideal tender process was not clear, nor was it in control in terms of steering progress and quality. In general cooperation between departments was difficult, due to internal focus (vs. seeing the whole) and focus on the content of laws and policies (vs. process view).

Pull; The customer did not act as a customer in defining exactly what was wanted or valued (not in terms of product that was the subject of the tender, nor in terms of what he needed the purchase department to do to help him get it). The process was not designed to have a trigger from 'the end of the line'/ downstream. Perfection; Previous steps were not fulfilled. During the improve and control (implementation) phases aspects of culture and change proved to be crucial (skepticism of change or drive for improvement, ownership/responsibility). Management commitment was lacking in the sense that managers were not keen on being transparent about the fact that their process could be done quicker and on a smaller budget (that would reduce their budget and power) and or an employee would be assigned to the Lean project, but in practice would not be given the time.

The measures implemented to reduce the lead times to less than a year and implement a controlled process with a higher quality outcome included the set up of multidisciplinary teams, designing a process in such a way that waiting times were significantly reduced and more activities executed simultaneously, more understanding of the tender process, redesign of formats, use of system throughout organization, paying special attention the quality of the product by for instance implementing quality checks/ go-no go decisions and training both purchasing and internal customers to be more specific on formulating needs and specs. Even though the implementation of these measures took time (and the lead times of tender did not allow a quick evaluation), the first results showed shorter lead times, more flow and a boost of employee and management sense of improvement, process view and morale.

Discussion; Translation Lean to e-government

In the case the five Lean principles were used as a diagnostic tool. Assessment using the five principles of Lean showed that this process was 'far from Lean'. Hence, Lean can contribute to the identification of areas for improvement. The definition of value, visualization of the value stream and the identification of waste (the first two principles of Lean) was a valuable exercise, though purely diagnostic. Assessing the other three principles of Lean (flow, pull and perfection), resulted in the conclusion that there was no flow, no pull and no perfection. When attempting to translate the Lean concept to this new domain, we also need to consider (next to its use for assessment or diagnostic purposes) its potential to actually eliminate waste and how Lean could be fully implemented (i.e. all five principles fulfilled); or how both Hines' operational and the strategic level are translated [START_REF] Hines | Learning to evolve A review of contemporary lean thinking[END_REF]. We are inclined to identify a 'diagnostic' and 'holistic' purpose or level at which Lean can be considered.

Our findings suggests that a number of (interdependent) factors stand in the way of successful elimination of waste and establishment of flow, pull and perfection. Some of which are characteristic for e-government or fundamental to government structure, some are related to culture, public values and democratic system. Challenges and tensions include the following:  System of appropriations and top management commitment; we see that adverse aspects play a role (e.g. a manager may be keen on improving his/her process but not on being transparent about the fact that this process can be done on a smaller budget, because that would mean a smaller budget would be appropriated in the following year. Such a change is also perceived as a loss of power or importance;  Lack of cost-efficient and cost-effective awareness and behavior; sense of urgency or commitment to quality, few triggers to formulate needs and specs adequately, no clear customer focus or recognition of customer. The fact that nor customer nor supplier in the tender process acted as such may be more typical for support processes as the customer is internal. Nevertheless improvements are possible by taking the customer into account, including a better specification of the needs and selection criteria;  Conflict between customer wishes (fast and low cost) with public values (transparent, correct and accountable);  Waste from one view might not be waste from another view. Efficiency is favored over sound and transparent decision-making processes as is common in the public sector. The solely focus on waste and value from a customer perspective neglects the requirements coming from the broader social and democratic context;

 Emphasis on content of laws and policies and formalities, resulting in inward focus and lack of process view. Law is dominating the process and not the objective for having these laws;  Bear-garden of decision-making; lack of effective control or means to effectuate decisions, activities fragmented over many departments, no culture where performance and renumeration/position management are linked;

Culture is crucial to successful improvement with Lean. It encompasses a wide range of factors seen in our case study, such as ownership, sense of whole and process, breadth of focus, commitment to quality or confidence in improvement and attitude towards change. It is also a factor that is manifest and specific for the public sector, likely to present the biggest impediment for successful implementation of Lean if not enough attention is paid to communication, motivation, empowerment, involvement and drivers.

Policies and legislation themselves do not necessarily have to constrain the possibilities of identifying and reducing waste; public procurement law was a main driver of the adoption of Lean and not an impediment, Lean helped to identify opportunities for improvement and contributed to the reduction of lead times of this support process, without compromising any regulations. However in the case it was not assessed whether the stipulations of public procurement law themselves where Lean, rather we took them as a given. We mostly identified formalities as 'not lean' since they did not contribute to the value materially. However, such legal constraints do have a value at a higher level of abstraction (in maintaining legality and legitimacy) and should therefore not always be counted as waste, or on the contrary are core to the role of government. Characteristics of government and its structures find their base in phenomena such as democracy, rule of law and separation of powers, which are generally valued greatly, or embed greatly valued aspects of life. Many structures (such as bureaucracies) and procedures have been built upon these phenomena and are firmly embedded in today's public sector. Even though, these are always subject of public debate, especially when fuelled by financial crises and public/societal discontent with governments. In our case, the supplier and customer were easily identified (despite the fact that they did not act as stereotype suppliers and customers) and so was the identification of 'value', which is the first principle of Lean. In general however (and potentially in further research into other kinds of government processes), it could prove to be difficult to identify who is the customer and what is of value to the customer. For collective goods in general there is no direct link between the demand and supply, nor signs for customers or citizens to 'value' a product or service. Instead, there is more push than pull and the supplier of services (the government) decides what is offered and when. This assertion brings us to the phenomenon of 'public value'; the customer of government in general is not only the citizen, but also a society as a whole. Lean puts the customer in front and do not consider other factors coming from the democratic system. In the quest to find the limits of Lean thinking and stretching its principles in order to find ways to improve public sector performance, what is of value and to whom needs to be determined, which is a much more complex exercise. Since NPM has failed to bring about a panacea for managing the public sector, the paradigm of Public Value Management has become increasing popular. The value then, comes in the form of enhanced safety, less poverty or better services and is determined by citizens. In this perspective citizens are the shareholders in how their tax is spent [START_REF] Horner | Adding public value[END_REF]. The focus is not primarily on efficiency, but also on creating social values like safety and accountability. Barking up the tree of public value for a useful interpretation of 'value', as the public sector equivalent to customer value in the private sector, needs further research.

Not all characteristics of the public sector need necessarily form impediments for successful implementation of Lean, rather different characteristics ask for different (management, change and process design) solutions. Some might even prove to be, if used appropriately, opportunities. For instance the fact that a sense of importance is present in culture ('we fulfill an important societal role') might be used to the advantage of improvement, when people are motivated by the fact that they contribute to the creation of public value.

Conclusions and further research

The concept of Lean was investigated in the setting of e-government in order to find out how and whether the application of Lean would be a valuable exercise. Whereas Lean is mainly used for operational processes, we conclude that Lean can also identify areas and solutions for improvement, especially waste, in a support process within a large public organization. It can contribute to the reduction of waste or the 'design-in' of flow and pull. In that sense Lean is a valuable diagnostic tool. But several tensions were found. The primarily focus on efficiency and customer does not take public values into account. Also the focus on customer (citizen) value creation does not consider the value for the democratic system. When adopted at a strategic level and implemented fully, it can optimize processes, stimulate culture and lead to continuous improvement. However, characteristics of government permeate all sorts of government process and greatly impede both the adoption, implementation and application of Lean in e-government settings. These specifics require adjustment of Lean tools and interpretations for better fit of application and solutions. In particular the following concepts should be given attention.  Waste categories; some are less applicable or recognizable (transport), others may come in a particular form, such as the added 'incorrect' to inventory for use in service settings. Some aspects are not waste and necessary for the proper working of the democratic system  Value; Government is about creating public value. Therefore the concept of Lean with its focus on customer (citizens) value should be complemented with public values. Opportunities for Lean in the public sector may lie in the concept of creating public value; where traditional Lean thinking is about creating customer value, Lean thinking for the public sector could be more holistic, by focusing on creating public value.  Customer; in public settings customers in the actual sense of the word hardly exist.

So they are harder to identify. In the Lean philosophy they are crucial, as they are the starting point for all other principles. We suggest that taking public value as a base can be useful.

Since aspect of culture such as both employee and management commitment are crucial, much attention must be paid to the establishment of a culture that recognizes the potential of Lean, improvement and joint creating of value. Further research should answer how management and employee commitment in government settings specifically can be realized.

For the translation of the concept of Lean, we suggest that it could be valuable to make a clear distinction between 1) factors that determine the applicability of Lean in new settings (the applicability itself is enhanced by the evolution, broader interpretation or translation of Lean), 2) the factors that are relevant for the adoption and acceptance of Lean as a methodology and 3) impediments for successful implementation and improvement (of which 2. is a part). Such a distinction may help to ultimately separate the 'controllable variables' from 'unchangeable factors' and identify successful ways to improve government processes. In our case it was not assessed whether the stipulations of public procurement law themselves where Lean. The leanness of legislation and policy should be further researched.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Tender process: specification phase

Table 1 .

 1 -Waste identified in tender process

	1. Overproduction	Activities executed before the content has been agreed upon by other
		actors (adjustments), documents that are not read (format not
		suitable, formalities)
	2. Waiting	Documents waiting to be accorded, waiting for meetings to be
		planned, full agendas , no priority, many actors, conflicting and
		inexplicit interests
	3. Transport/Motio	Collecting signatures
	n
	4. Extra processing	Adjustments to documents, rewriting in other format , signatures
	and duplication	needed for (formal) approval, unnecessary reporting (formalities)
	5. (incorrect)	Looking for the right document, unnecessary paper copies made
	Inventory
	6. Defects	Unclear or lacking selection criteria (which would cause delays
		during the selection phase), top management adjustment in end of
		process, incomplete documents, late input
	7. Under-	Purchase manager printing documents or collecting signatures,
	utilization of	inadequate forms or system, limited authority/ dependence on formal
	people/talent	functions
	8. Lack of	Poor understanding of customer, skills /knowledge for clear
	customer focus	specification
	9. Unclear	Incorrect or incomplete information, lack of standard formats/
	communication	common language and ground, unclear work flow (mainly across the
		departments), inadequate cooperation, no clarity on responsibilities
		and mandates
	10. Variation	Lack of procedures or standard formats, standard time not defined,
		procedures and standard formats exist but not used or not adequate
		for the purpose they needed to serve.


Yvon Van Den Boer
email: y.vandenboer@utwente.nl

Lidwien Van De Wijngaert
email: l.vandewijngaert@utwente.nl

Willem Pieterson
email: wpieterson@northwestern.edu

Rex Arendsen
email: r.arendsen@utwente.nl

On the Interaction of Source and Channel Choice in the Government-to-Business Context

Keywords: channel and source choice, interactions, information seeking, government-to-business. 2Yvon van den Boer, Lidwien van de Wijngaert, Willem

Communication processes between governments and businesses are increasingly networked. This paper increases our understanding of the information seeking behavior of businesses in the Government-to-Business domain. We conducted a quantitative study among Small and Medium-sized Enterprises in the Netherlands to discover source-channel interaction. The results provided several interactions regarding nature of relationships with sources, channel and source choice. This proves that it is important to consider source and channel choice together to gain an important insight regarding information seeking behavior of businesses. Today's networked environment implies that besides having direct contact with governments, businesses make use of other sources to get governmental information. In addition, they use various channels to contact these sources, suitable to the type of relationships. This is vital information for governments, because it helps to optimize their service delivery strategy towards businesses.

Introduction

Governments frequently interact with citizens and businesses. Citizens and businesses seek government information and use public services while governments send information to these groups. One first major call to improve these processes was made in the early 1990s when advocates of the New Public Management argued for a more 'customer' centric approach under the assumption that governments were too bureaucratic and inefficient in their process [START_REF] Osborne | Reinventing government: How the entrepreneurial spirit is transforming the public sector[END_REF]. A second call came with the arrival of new electronic communication channels in the 1990s. This not only led to new ways of communication, but also to questions about how to manage the increasing number of channels to make service and communication processes more efficient without suffering in quality [START_REF] Ebbers | Electronic government: Rethinking channel management strategies[END_REF]. Moreover, the Internet has also changed the patterns of

Theoretical Background

This section provides some theoretical background, and thereby propositions, regarding the G2B-context and is built on three elements: [START_REF] Osborne | Reinventing government: How the entrepreneurial spirit is transforming the public sector[END_REF] changes in the external environment, (2) source and channel choice and (3) nature of the relationship, which partly explains the interaction between channel and source choice.

Building blocks for interactions: sources, channels and relationships

Sources. During the last decades organizations underwent rapid and revolutionary changes [START_REF] Fulk | Articulation of communication technology and organizational form[END_REF]. Major developments in the organizational landscape are the changing connection between firms [START_REF] Fulk | Articulation of communication technology and organizational form[END_REF] and the emergence of (global) network forms of organizations [START_REF] Monge | Communication Technology for global network organizations[END_REF]. Information exchange is now fundamental to relationships [START_REF] Castells | The rise of the network society[END_REF].

Monge and Contractor [START_REF] Monge | Theories of Communication Networks[END_REF] argue that network organizations are organized around complex webs of exchange and dependency relations among multiple organizations. This implies that the organization turns into a superorganization with strong links to other organizations and whose main function is to link organizations and coordinate their activities. Some [e.g. 13] even argue that network organizations create so-called boundary-less organizations whereby the boundaries of the internal organizational network and the external network become increasingly blurry. One of the main components of a (global) network organization is that external (communication) relationships are flexible, according to organizational needs and are not bounded by horizontal or vertical structures [START_REF] Monge | Communication Technology for global network organizations[END_REF].

Other major developments that turned the organizational landscape into a network society are changes in technology [START_REF] Dijk | The Network Society: Social aspects of New Media[END_REF]. The rise of the Internet has facilitated media such as websites, and now social media (e.g. Twitter and Facebook), that are often labeled web2.0 [START_REF] Estabrook | Information searches that solve problems. How people use the internet, libraries, and government agencies when they need help[END_REF]. However, these new media are not replacing the old media, but are an addition to the existing channels [START_REF] Pieterson | The use of service channels by citizens in the Netherlands: Implications for multi--channel management[END_REF]. For example, young people often use multiple sources at the same time [START_REF] Roberts | Trends in Media Use[END_REF] and many people often use sequences of media rather than isolated choices [START_REF] Stephens | Discrete, Sequential, and Follow--Up Use of Information and Communication Technology by Experienced ICT Users[END_REF]. Finally, people often switch between receiving information passively and seeking it actively in one search process [START_REF] Ramirez | Information--seeking strategies, uncertainty, and computer--mediated communication: Toward a conceptual model[END_REF]. Hence, multi-directional flows via electronic and interpersonal media (partly) replace unidirectional flows via the mass media. This phenomenon is labeled "mass selfcommunication" [START_REF] Castells | Communication, Power and Counter-power in the Networks Society[END_REF]. Hence, organizations increasingly use sophisticated communication technology to coordinate and communicate in these structures [START_REF] Monge | Communication Technology for global network organizations[END_REF]. The growing importance of information exchange and relationship building is likely to impact the media chosen to communicate within and between organizations. Structural changes in the organization, due to network effects, will for example impact the physical proximity of employees; an increase in distance leads to decreased probability of communication [e.g. 20].

This implies that the position of government in relation to businesses is changing and thereby affects the distance between the two. Research shows that intermediaries become increasingly important in the G2B-context [START_REF] Arendsen | Geen bericht, goed bericht[END_REF]. They fulfill different roles in G2B-interaction and can be seen as important partners in optimizing services towards businesses [START_REF] Arendsen | On the Origin of Intermediary e-Government Services[END_REF]. Reasons to bring in intermediaries from the business point of view are complexity in the issuing of laws, rules and technology [START_REF] Jaffee | Organization Theory: Tension and change[END_REF], but also an increasing focus on primary products and processes and increasing efficiency [25; 23]. For governments, the reasons to use intermediaries are reducing the amount of contact and data collecting points [START_REF] Allers | Administrative and Compliance Costs of Taxation and Public Transfers in the Netherlands[END_REF]. In these cases, intermediary organizations act as formal intermediaries (e.g. accountants who mediate the G2B-interaction). However, not only formal intermediaries, but also social intermediaries (e.g. friends, colleagues) seem to fulfill an important role in G2B-interaction [START_REF] Jansen | Channel choice and Source choice of Entrepreneurs in a Public Organizational Context: The Dutch Case[END_REF].

The information source in the organizational context refers to human or organizational sources and can be divided into two major categories [START_REF] Saunders | Temporal Sequences in Information Acquisition for Decision Making: A Focus on Source and Medium[END_REF]: external and internal. An internal source is located within the organizational boundaries (however blurry) either at levels above, below, or equal to the actor. External sources are those outside the organization. External sources in our context of research can be governmental agencies, expert organizations and personal network of employees [START_REF] Jansen | Channel choice and Source choice of Entrepreneurs in a Public Organizational Context: The Dutch Case[END_REF].

So as a consequence the business context is getting more complex and networked and technology facilitating closer links between organizations, we can infer that businesses search for information in their external network instead of contacting the government directly. Moreover, other parties in the external network have an increasing important role to fulfill in G2B-interaction. This leads to the following proposition: #1 Besides having direct contact with governments, businesses make use of intermediaries to get governmental information.

Keeping in mind that (1) businesses make use of both governmental agencies and intermediaries to get governmental information and that (2) the growing importance of information exchange in a relationship is likely to impact the media chosen, we can infer that the choice of a channel relates to the chosen source to have contact with.

The next paragraph provides some existing theoretical findings.

Channels. The channel refers to: "the means by which a message is sent by a source or obtained by a receiver" [30, p.13]. In this case channels are equal to media.

Examples of channels are face-to-face, e-mail, website and mail. There are different perspectives on channels and channel choice in the existing literature. According to the Media Richness Theory (MRT) [START_REF] Daft | Information richness: A new approach to managerial behavior and organizational design[END_REF] employees make rational channel choices during information processing. They make channel choices by taking their tasks in consideration, because channels vary in capacities and some channels are more suitable for certain tasks than other channels (e.g. task/medium fit). Other theories (e.g. Social Influence Model, Symbolic Interactionist Perspective) argue that channel and task characteristics are socially and subjectively constructed and less rational, but influenced by factors such as context (e.g. distance, time) and the symbolic meaning conveyed by the channel [32; 33], and finally communication capability constraints (e.g. communicator, recipient and organizational characteristics) and normative contingencies (e.g. cultural norms and role and institutional expectations) [START_REF] Sitkin | A dual-capacity model of communication media choice in organizations[END_REF]. Moreover, we can infer that businesses use different channels for contacting different sources. This leads to the following proposition:

#2. Businesses use different channels to contact sources.

Characteristics of relations with sources.

Given that organizations are operating in an increasingly relational context of interconnectedness, one can imagine that organizations establish connections and exchanges with other organizations in order to survive [START_REF] Oliver | Determinants of Interorganizational Relationships: Integration and Future[END_REF]. Oliver [START_REF] Oliver | Determinants of Interorganizational Relationships: Integration and Future[END_REF] pointed out that there are several different contingencies for relationship formation between organizations: necessity, asymmetry, reciprocity, efficiency, stability and legitimacy. Applying this to the G2B-context it is likely that businesses establish relations with governmental agencies because of necessity; the relationships are required. For example, businesses must pay taxes in order to meet regulatory requirements; the relationship with the Tax Office is non-voluntary. In contrast, it is likely that the relation with a personal source is perceived as voluntary; it is not a required relation. This leads to the following proposition:

#3.

Businesses have different types of relations with different sources.

Summarizing, we can infer that businesses contact different sources, through different channels and have varied types of relations with the contacted sources. The next section focuses on possible interactions between these three building blocks.

Interactions between sources, channels and relations

So far, we pointed out that: (1) businesses use different sources while searching for governmental information, (2) businesses use different channels to contact varied sources, and (3) businesses have different types of relations with these sources. In this section we look for interactions between these three building blocks. First, not only characteristics of the employee and its environment are vital factors of channel choice, but also characteristics of the other party (in our context is the other party an information source) are important influencers regarding channel choice [START_REF] Sitkin | A dual-capacity model of communication media choice in organizations[END_REF]. This implies that the channel choice of an employee partly depends on the (perceived) characteristics of the chosen source. Hence, we propose that channel choice interplays with source choice. This leads to the following proposition:

#4. Businesses use different channels to contact different sources.
Keeping in mind that environmental factors (e.g. social influence, recipient and organization characteristics, and expectations) influence channel choice [e.g. 32 -34], we can infer that also nature of a relationship could influence channel choice. For instance, the relationship between a business and the Tax office is a required one (the business has to pay taxes) whereas the relation between a business and a (financial) advisor is likely to be of a more strategic nature. Subsequently, we postulate the following proposition: Third, regarding the MRT [START_REF] Daft | Information richness: A new approach to managerial behavior and organizational design[END_REF] people choose a channel suitable to their task. In our context, the task can be considered as type of a relation with a source. For instance, an employee wants to contact an external colleague. They have an informal, voluntary type of relation. It is likely that an employee who is contacting a personal source chooses a suitable channel, for instance the telephone. It seems very unlikely that this employee chooses a more formal channel (e.g. a letter). Therefore, we propose that type of relation relates to channel choice: #6. Businesses use different channels to contact different sources with different relationships.

Research Method

In order to examine the propositions we conducted a survey among Dutch SMEs (from self-employed up to businesses with a maximum of 249 employees). We gathered data in February 2011 by using an electronic questionnaire. The respondents for this study needed to be involved in the strategic issues of their business, because external sources tend to become more important at higher levels in the organization [e.g. 28]. We invited 6850 respondents from a commercial online panel to fill out the questionnaire and 1284 respondents started the survey, some respondents (N=263) were filtered out based on the fact that they were not involved in the strategic issues of their business, others (N=348) didn't complete the questionnaire and finally 10% of all invited respondents completed the survey (N=673). 39% of the respondents were women and 61% men. 28% were self-employed, and 47% of the sample were small businesses and 25% medium sized businesses. Compared to information from the Dutch Statistical Office, there is a slight overrepresentation of the medium sized businesses. Results should be interpreted accordingly. The thirteen sources that were mentioned most often were included in the analysis. Furthermore, we used the following channels: face-to-face, telephone, e-mail, mail and Internet (WWW).

Regarding nature of the relationship we formulated four different natures: (1) required, (2) voluntary, (3) practical and (4) strategic. For each source we asked the respondents for their channel use and their perception of the nature of the relationship.

Results

General Overview

Figure Thickness of the line also refers to this.

Formal sources Mediating and Lobby organizations Personal contacts

Fig. 1. The most important sources for businesses to gain governmental information

We can deduce from these results that besides having direct contact with governments, businesses also make use of other kinds of sources (e.g. lobby. intermediary and personal sources). This supports our first proposition. In addition, some sources (e.g. Tax Office) are often mentioned by businesses; a lot of businesses contact these sources for information. On the other hand there are sources (e.g. internal colleagues), which are frequently used; few businesses contact these sources but when they use these sources they make extensive use of them. Hence, businesses use different sources in varied ways. This implies that sources have different functions or roles.

Next, which channels do businesses use while searching for governmental information? Table 1 presents the channels businesses use when they contact sources. Most businesses use e-mail (31%) to contact their sources. Another channel that is often used is the telephone (28%). Face-to-face (16%) and the Internet (18%) are in the middle and the mail (4%) is the least often used channel. Table 2 below shows how businesses describe their relationships with sources in terms of nature. Most relationships can be described as practical (43%) or required (34%). Very few relationships in the G2B-context can be described as strategic (6%) and some relationships are voluntary (17%). So, the results show that businesses use different channels and have different types of relations with sources. These findings support both the second and third propositions. The next section focuses on interactions between channels, sources and relations.

Interactions between channels, sources and relationships

Channels and Sources. Table 3 shows which channels businesses choose regarding to their source choice. Concerning the formal governmental sources the telephone is often used to have contact with these sources; for instance, 36% uses the telephone to contact the Tax Office and 28% for contacting the Municipality. Besides, 27% have contacted the Municipality by face-to-face. In contrast, 25% use WWW when they choose the Tax Office as a source. Remarkably, both intermediaries and personal sources (e.g. family) are relatively often contacted by F2F (respectively 33% and 49%) and telephone (respectively 28% and 29%). The same channels are used to contact the Union: face-to-face (30%) and telephone (26%).

To summarize, we found that businesses use different channels to contact sources in their information seeking process in the G2B-context. This supports the fourth proposition. In general we observe that, for instance, face-to-face is more used during interaction with personal sources compared to the more formal sources. This observation implies interplay between channel and source choice. Hence, the next paragraph focuses on this interplay by looking at interactions between nature of the relationship and channel and source choice.

Type of Relationships and Sources. Table 4 shows how businesses describe their relationships with different sources in terms of nature. It is obvious that the relationship with the Tax Office, as well as with the Municipality is described as practical (43% and 42%) and required (46% and 38%). The relationship with personal sources, for instance with external colleagues, is described as practical (45%) and voluntary (39%). Contact with the Chamber of Commerce (Lobby) and the Intermediaries are described as practical (44%, 46%) and required (40% and 33%). We can deduce from the results above that businesses have varied perceptions of nature regarding their relationships with different sources. Especially relationships with personal sources are perceived as practical and voluntary. In contrast, relationships with other kinds of are perceived as practical and required. Alltogether, we found support for the fifth proposition that businesses choose sources because of the nature of their relationship with a source. Channels, Sources and Type of Relationship. In order to gain insight into how the nature of the relationship and channel choice are related to each other, we looked at similarities between relationship characterization and channel preferences for each source. In order to establish the degree of similarity we used Dice (also known as Czekanowski or Sorenson) as a proximity measure. This measure compares the number matches to the number of non-matches while joint absences are excluded from consideration. The measure varies between 0 and 1, where 0 signifies no similarity at all and 1 signifies perfect similarity. When many respondents combine e.g. face-to-face with a practical relationship for the sources they use, the proximity level is high. As such we abstract from the specific sources that respondents use. By comparing the proximity measures between each channel and type of relationship we are able to identify interactions with regard to the information seeking process.

The results of the analysis are presented in Table 5. The results show when a relationship with a source is described as practical or required, face-to-face is the channel which businesses use, with a value of respectively 0.55 and 0.49. E-mail (0.49 and 0.41) and WWW (0.38 and 0.40) also are used to some extent in practical and required relationships. In addition, businesses use the telephone when a relationship with a source is described as practical (0.63) or voluntary (0.55). Mail is sometimes used in a required relation (0.37). Interactions were found regarding nature of the relationship and source and channel choice. This supports our last proposition (#6). In summary, practical and required relationships with sources (e.g. formal government and intermediaries) interact with the telephone and to some extent also with e-mail and WWW. Practical and voluntary relationships with sources (e.g. personal network) show proximity with face-to-face as a channel. In general, as expected the interaction concerning mail is relatively low. However, it is remarkable that the interaction for WWW is relatively low and, in contrast, the interaction regarding the telephone is relatively high.

Discussion and Conclusions

This paper examined the information seeking behaviour of businesses in the G2Bdomain. Instead of focusing on the interplay between task and technology characteristics we focused on the interrelation between sources, the nature of the relationship with the source and the channel that is used to communicate. By doing that, this paper takes a new approach towards the understanding of information seeking behavior of SME's in a G2B-context.

Limitations. Before we will present our final conclusions we would like to mention some of the limitations of this study. Because we asked one person per organization we get information from that specific person within the organization. Another person in the same business, even in the same management, could have other contacts regarding the G2B-context. So even though we asked managers responsible for the strategic management issues, we should be careful when interpreting results. A second limitation is that we looked at differences between sources, channels and relations only. More factors may be at play. Although channel choices may be more complex than what we studied here, we do feel that our approach towards contingent choices does shed a new light towards understanding the information seeking behavior of businesses in a G2B-context. A final limitation is that we studied the situation in one country. Hence, differences between countries remain unsearched.

Discussion and Conclusions. The first three propositions focused on the variation in the choice of channels (#1), the use of channels (#2) and the nature of the relationship between a business and a source (#3). We conclude that besides having direct contact with governments, businesses make use of intermediaries to get governmental information. We found, in accordance with previous studies [22; 23], that the intermediary (e.g. advisor) is a very versatile and therefore notable source in the network of businesses in the G2B-context. Thus, for governments the intermediary is the party in the network of G2B-interaction to focus on and to work with. Others already argued that intermediaries can be seen as a new kind of service delivery channel and are of great value in optimizing G2B-interaction [START_REF] Janssen | The role of Intermediaries in Multi-Channel Service Delivery Strategies[END_REF]. However, not only formal parties seem to fulfill an important role here, but also informal parties (e.g. personal sources) are vital information sources for businesses. This implicates that governments should also focus on and work with informal intermediaries. We also found support regarding the second and third proposition. The results in this study show that businesses use various channels to contact sources. Besides, we found that businesses have different relationships with sources, which is in line with Oliver [START_REF] Oliver | Determinants of Interorganizational Relationships: Integration and Future[END_REF].

The second set of three propositions focused on the interaction between the building blocks. Results of the empirical study show that business choose different channels for different sources (#4), have different types of relations with different sources (#5) and use different channels to communicate with sources they have a different type of relation with (#6). Thus, we can conclude that there is interplay between source, channel and type of relationship in the information seeking process of businesses in the G2B-context. These interactions are important because together they provide an important insight in the information seeking behavior of businesses nowadays. Moreover, the findings imply that the choice of channels not only depend on the factors found in earlier research, but that the choice of sources is a crucial factor that interacts with channel choice. From a theoretical standpoint the results of this research offer the possibility for further exploration. The mechanism of interaction turns out to be more complex than a simple task-technology fit. Further research can provide insight into the factors that make the relation between a business and their sources contingent.

We made a first step towards the understanding information seeking behaviour of businesses in the G2B-context by looking at the interaction between channels, sources and nature of a relationship with a source. The finding that source and channel choice interact is vital information for governments to improve their service provision towards this complex target group. More specifically, taking into account that the context of G2B-interaction is very complex and networked, and that businesses use various sources to gather governmental information, it sounds wise for governments to integrate both channel and source choice in their service provision strategies towards SMEs. However, more research on this topic is needed before a well-balanced and effective strategy can be implemented. Our study is among the first researches in the context of businesses itself and that elucidates the importance of the interplay between channel and source choice in the G2B-context.

# 5 .

 5 Different sources are characterized by different types of relationships.

1 ]

 1 Average frequency of contact (on a 1-7 scale).

  1 below shows the thirteen most mentioned sources in our research. Regarding formal government sources the Tax Office (57%) and the Municipality (33%) were most mentioned by businesses to have contact with. Both were contacted a few times in the last several years, respectively with an average frequency of 3.2 and 3.0. The Chamber of Commerce (36%) with an average frequency of 2.3, which is sporadic, is the most mentioned source concerning Lobby sources. Besides, the Advisor (22%) also is a relevant source for businesses and is contacted a number of times. Last, regarding the personal network 22% of the businesses mentioned family/friends, 15% external colleagues and 12% mentioned internal colleagues. All personal sources have a high average frequency compared to other sources (respectively 4.5. 4.1 and 5.1).

		Chamber of		Center for Work & Income (CWI)
		Commerce	Social Insurance	8%	12%!	Institute for Employee Insurance (UWV)
			36%	(SVB)				9%	NL Agency
	Financial advisor	34%			[2.6]	[2.7]	[3.1]	10%	Municipality
								[2.6]	33%
	Union 4%							[3.0]
				Company
								[3.2]
								Tax office
	Industry 9%
	Organization
								57%
	Family/	24%
	Friends
			Colleagues	19%	15%
			within organization	Colleagues
				outside organization
	Legend
	36% Percentage companies that mention source.
	Circle size also refers to this.
	If percentage is not mentioned, it is less than 10%.

Table 1 .

 1 The channels businesses use while searching for governmental information

		Channels (%)
		Face-to-face	Telephone	WWW	E-mail	Mail
	General channel use	16%	28%	18%	31%	4%

Table 2 .

 2 Perceived

		nature of relationships with sources
		Natures (%)
		Practical	Strategic	Voluntary	Required
	Described natures	43%	6 %	17%	34%

Table 3 .

 3 Source

	-Channel Selection
	Source	Channels (%)
		Face-to-face Telephone	WWW	E-mail	Mail
	Formal government
	Tax office	7%	36%	25%	15%	18%
	Municipality	27%	28%	15%	20%	10%
	CWI	13%	30%	24%	23%	11%
	UWV	7%	41%	23%	16%	14%
	SVB	8%	39%	20%	18%	16%
	NL Agency	10%	22%	21%	26%	21%
	Intermediaries
	Advisor/Accountant	33%	28%	2%	28%	9%
	Personal network
	Internal colleagues	52%	23%	1%	23%	1%
	External colleagues	38%	27%	6%	27%	2%
	Family/Friends	49%	29%	2%	18%	3%
	Lobby
	Chamber of Commerce	25%	25%	21%	17%	12%
	Union	30%	26%	12%	19%	14%
	Industry Organization	13%	25%	21%	29%	12%

Table 4 .

 4 Nature of a relationship regarding source choice

		Natures (%)
		Practical	Strategic	Voluntary	Required
	Formal government
	Tax office	43%	7%	5%	46%
	Municipality	42%	7%	13%	38%
	CWI	43%	7%	21%	29%
	UWV	42%	8%	10%	41%
	SVB	42%	5%	11%	42%
	NL Agency	35%	15%	24%	26%

Table 5 .

 5 Proximity matrix regarding nature of a relationship and channels

		Channels
		Face-to-face Telephone	WWW	E-mail	Mail
	Nature of relationship
	Practical	.55	.63	.38	.49	.30
	Strategic	.14	.17	.14	.15	.12
	Required	.39	.55	.40	.41	.37
	Voluntary	.49	.40	.22	.38	.11

4Yvon van den Boer, Lidwien van de Wijngaert, Willem Pieterson, and Rex Arendsen

10Yvon van den Boer, Lidwien van de Wijngaert, Willem Pieterson, and Rex Arendsen