Andrea Knaut

Informed Strategies of Political Action in IP-based Social Media

Keywords: computerized activism, electronic civil disobedience, political Internet campaign, participatory campaign, social movement, IP-based social media

Political campaigning involves the intense usage of all possible media that the campaigners can afford to reach as many potential supporters as possible. Networked information technologies provide an endless source of applications and means of communication. When using computer technologies as a campaigning medium, it is essential to carefully assess the efforts concerning infrastructural and social requirements in consideration of the benefits gained. Therefore, the intertwined dimensions of political campaigning content, infrastructure, community, protection of activists, planning, and archivingare discussed as related to the involvement of IP-based media.

Introduction

In the late 1990s, Stefan Wray, member of The Electronic Disturbance Theater, divided Internet usage by extra-parliamentary grassroots social movements into five categories of "direct action Net politics": Computerized Activism, Grassroots Infowar, Electronic Civil Disobedience (ECD), Politicized Hacking (Hacktivism) and Resistance to Future War [START_REF] Wray | Electronic Civil Disobedience and the World Wide Web of Hacktivism[END_REF]. Networking technologies prior to the Internet Protocol, for example the Unix-to-Unix Copy Protocol (UUCP) or various bulletin-board systems, were already being used for political campaigns in the 1980s, yet it was the Internet Protocol (IP) that inspired the name Internet and which is now known for providing solutions to almost any problem. For example, concerning its capacities to be used as a political activist's medium, the "Internet allows for the convergence of meetings, debates, and research in one convenient and fast medium that greatly enhances not only activists' organizational capabilities but also the ability of activists to react to a constantly changing world in a timely manner" as the author metac0m states in the text 'What is Hacktivism? 2.0' [START_REF]metac0m: What is Hacktivism? 2.0[END_REF].

In this article I will take a closer look at the basic structural requirements for integrating IP-based social media or the Internet into political campaigns. Speaking of IP-based social media instead of the Internet in the title of this text is an attempt to explicitly connect media and social to Internet while still relating the technology and its history: Internet representsas a historical namethe central idea of the implementation of an open architecture, all of which could globally network any computers regardless of their being parts of different networks. It was meant as an "Internetworking Architecture" [START_REF] Leiner | Brief History of the Internet[END_REF]. Technically, IP is only one possible implementation of a certain part of this idea, which breaks down into several subconcepts such as the layer model of data transmission, packet switching, or end-toend principle. The IP is herein the technical realization of packet switching, and has established itself as the World Wide Web's underlying technology along with the Transport Control Protocol (TCP). IP-based social media are an implementationindependent computer network which underlies the constantly expanding plethora of media applications that allow for social interactions. Considering this, one could briefly pause to reflect on the triple tautology of IP-based social media and afterwards continue using the synonyms Internet, Net, Web.

The concept of political campaigning is understood according to Ulrike Röttger's definition: "Campaigns are dramaturgically constructed, thematically limited, terminable communication strategies to generate public attention using a set of different communicative tools and techniques [...]. Targets of campaigns are: raising awareness, building confidence in their own credibility and generating support for their own intentions and/or subsequent action" (my translation, [START_REF] Röttger | Kampagnen[END_REF]). Based on the idea of grassroots campaigning, according to Lohmeier, the actors of a campaign are to be included in the term: "A political campaign can be described as participatory if it can be influenced by everybody who should and wants to participate in it [...]" (my translation, [START_REF] Lohmeier | Inhalt braucht Form[END_REF]).

The structural problem areas of Internet-based participatory campaign politics, described below, are exemplified in the campaigns 'Initiative in Memory of Oury Jalloh' and 'Deportation.Class'. These are/were mainly German based extraparliamentary initiatives in the field of human rights policy that gained a lot of attention. Both involved the Web "in a timely manner," but quite differently. These grassroots movements are described briefly as follows.

'Initiative in Memory of Oury Jalloh'

"Break the Silence" is the motto of the 'Initiative in Memory of Oury Jalloh' [START_REF] Jalloh E | Break the Silence, Initiative in Gedenken an Oury[END_REF]. with police brutality and judicial arbitrariness to our contact address. We want to collect and document the cases to show that the case of Oury Jalloh is not an isolated one and that structural racism and police brutality exist" (my translation, [START_REF]Break The Silence, Inforeader Initiative in Gedenken an Oury Jalloh[END_REF]). Accordingly, activists of different groups and individuals persistently arranged memorial rallies, demonstrations and an intensive monitoring of the judicial proceeding [START_REF] Starb | Der Prozess[END_REF]. The case has received quite a lot of attention in the conventional mass media: there are numerous film, radio and press contributions. 1 The initiative's website is hosted by the blog-publishing service Wordpress.com and there are relatively well maintained records of Oury Jalloh in the German [START_REF] Jalloh | [END_REF] and English Wikipedia [11].

'Deportation. Class Campaign'

Since 2000 the Deportation.Class Campaign [START_REF]deportation-class[END_REF] has been supported by a broad antiracist, decentralized Europe-wide alliance "against the deportation business" [13]. It aimed at making it widely known that airlines earn money with forced deportations. The violent death of refugee Aamir Ageeb during deportation was the campaign's motive [START_REF]Dokumentationsseite Aamir Ageeb[END_REF]. A spectacular online protest explicitly based on the concept of Electronic Civil Disobedience was part of the campaign. On June 20, 2001 thousands of people paralyzed Lufthansa's servers for almost two hours with a distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack [START_REF]Kampagne Libertad! -Projekte: Online-Demo gegen Lufthansa[END_REF]. Their calculation of attracting a lot of public attention eventually reached the mass media. 2The campaign never ended officially but its online content is archived on [START_REF]deportation-class[END_REF] and has not been extended since 2003. The goal of stopping the deportation business was only partially achieved. I will return to both campaigns again in the following text which analyzes the cornerstones of an Internet-based campaign, the most important element of which concerns:

Content First

A problem and political demands connected to it need to be written out in full on many levels. It is necessary to address people with similar problems, to win supporters, to persuade others and to lead discussions with reproducible, solid arguments. These are usually published in brochures, leaflets, posters, press releases, and other publications with differing complexities of textual content. Additionally, there could be movies, sound files, perhaps even tactile elements, whole performances, in short: a campaign usually talks to all the human senses, its activists are looking for a broad multimedia implementation.

Initiators and supporters, however, should be encouraged to discuss principal aims, underpinning them with arguments. The reasons for participation and supportthe 1 The outstanding include the ARD documentary "Tod in der Zelle -Warum starb Oury Jalloh?", the Human Rights Film Award-winning movie "Oury Jalloh" [START_REF] Jalloh | [END_REF] and many press reports, partly documented in [START_REF] Starb | Der Prozess[END_REF] and [START_REF] Jalloh | [END_REF]. analysis, interpretation and implementation of ideasideally constitute a truly participatory campaign. "In the ideal case, the difference between the initiators of a campaign and dialogue groups dissolves in a process of mutual influence and involvement; the objects of a campaign become themselves the subject of the campaign and thus experience themselves as politically decisive persons" (my translation, [START_REF] Lohmeier | Inhalt braucht Form[END_REF]). In conventional models of political interactionwithout the Internet this is achieved through workshops or alliance meetings.

The Internet can now broaden this discussion and strongly modify spatial and temporal constraints. In part, this initially can be done as unidirectional content provision using communication channels such as blog entries, postings on mailing lists, forums, in social networks, newsletters, film or image hosting, or by creating one's own campaign website. Furthermore, research opportunities are linked to for background information. Most of the chosen content provided on the Net can easily become bidirectional if people use the functions to comment and reply. 3 The range of ways to present and discuss content on the Net is versatile, as still newer tools evolve and commercial content providers change. It needs to be structured beyond specific software labels, structured according to the degree of content processing on the Net; to the number of presentation channels being used, to the degree of the campaigner's creation of their own design; according to the accessibility by potential recipients including, of course, barriers of language, writing, reading, and physical access (see also the following section on 'infrastructure'); according to respectability of the resource being used; and according to the echo in those media not controlled by the campaigners. This echo might be influenced in an advantageous way, but to some extent negative dynamics may also develop because a campaign is always a part of a complex discourse. 4 The degree of influence on the shape and durability of Internetsupplied content is strongly linked to the infrastructure requirements described later. Smaller initiatives often rely on the many existing commercial and semi-commercial specific application providers, where content can be freely designed only in moderation, yet in most cases relatively intuitively. Especially popular are blog and wiki hosts, video and photo portals, social networks, and online petitions. The administrative structures of these providers are often opaque and impersonal. So too is the administration of the content, the servers, databases, and backups used. Usually one is required to register before being able to communicate and/or provide content. Preferably very creative information should be used as personal data to this end (see section 'protection of individual activists'). Moreover no one is liable for the great risk of sudden data loss or spying on surfers' behavior via cookies or static IP addresses. Posting and retrieval of content such as streaming media or images almost 3 There is also software like LiquidFeedback or Adhocracy that enhances political discussions by computer-based consultation and intervention processes. There is petition, bookmarking, calendar software and so forth. Discourses are interpreted here in the Foucauldian sense as "systems of knowledge formation, that control the conditions for exclusion and production of statements. They manifest as ensembles of statements, in which a subject is negotiated on a societal level." They always "depend [...] on platforms of social exchange, i.e. media" (my translation, [START_REF] Fraas | Diskurse -Medien -Mediendiskurse. Begriffsklärungen und Ausgangsfragen[END_REF]). always requires modern browsers and either large bandwidth or a lot of patience and the graphical complexity or inefficient programming of hosting systems can also lead to too much traffic.

If I consider the two example campaigns given above: there has been a huge dynamic in the content production accompanying the Oury Jalloh campaign. The 'Initiative in Memory of Oury Jalloh' provides its press releases and reports in an online blog. The movies, radio broadcasts, and the many press reports are an echo of good public relations through a diverse and widely-dispersed community. The actual website is kept minimal, probably maintained by very few people. The contents are easily accessible for everyone with Internet access. There are some multilingual presentations and moderated comments.

Ultimately, the campaign depends mainly on the on-site presence in real life, the commemoration marches, and the anti-racist lobbying. The blog entries are used by activists especially for getting information about where and when the next direct onsite actions will occur, besides the painstaking trial reports and the links to other reports.

The web content of the Deportation.Class campaign distinguished itself by the fact that the campaigners created a very professional specifically elaborate design and launched it on a domain labeled with the campaign's name. In keeping with the guerilla communication-like character of the campaign [START_REF] Autonome A.F.R.I.K.A. Gruppe | Infomappe zum Prozess Online-Demo 2001 gegen Lufthansa[END_REF], the design of the website and any printed materials strongly echoed the former Corporate Design of Lufthansa's advertising materials. One could order the printed materials through the online shop. Partial successes, reporting and links to reports have been documented in the campaign's log. The broad, pan-European network and the many decentralized activities of the alliance have been documented on the multilingual site http://www.deportation-alliance.com. Altogether the campaign thrived on the enormous ingenuity of the activists in how to circulate the central objectives. This included the purchase of Lufthansa' shares to facilitate protests at shareholder meetings against forced deportations tolerated by Lufthansa. Other activists regularly dressed in flight attendants' uniforms and distributed campaign materials at airports or tourism fairs. The online demonstration in the form of a DDoS attack against the Lufthansa website on June 20, 2001 was another central form of action. According to the district court of Cologne, the protest software was launched from 13,614 different IP addresses. Lastly, Lufthansa filed a complaint claiming to have suffered economic damage from the attacks [19]. The actual prior mobilization for the online demonstration had mainly been run off-line. The campaign Deportation.Class and its well-designed paper materials were extremely professional considering that it was a matter of autonomous extra-parliamentary activism.

Infrastructure

Both the creators of campaign content and the potential recipients most notably need access to a sufficiently modern computer with sufficiently fast network access and enough time online. If any of these core infrastructural components are not available for the initiators or the central target group, the use of the Internet medium is not a priority to take into consideration. Furthermore at this point, the accessibility of a website in terms of poor environmental conditions, including non-existent computer and/or network access or extremely outdated, slow, or unaffordable technology, rank among the main structural marginal conditions as well. Finally, the accessibility in accordance with the "Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0" is also concerned. "Following these guidelines will make content accessible to a wider range of people with disabilities, including blindness and low vision, deafness and hearing loss, learning disabilities, cognitive limitations, limited movement, speech disabilities, photosensitivity and combinations of these. Following these guidelines will also often make your Web content more usable to users in general" [START_REF]Web Content Accessibility Guidelines[END_REF].

The core infrastructure components of computerized activism thus correspond with the problem of the so-called digital divide, that spells out the Net's accessibility as a social privilege. Relating to above mentioned criteria Kling's two-level-model of the digital divide fits best: a computerized political campaign needs technological access: "the physical ability of suitable equipment, including computers that are of adequate speed and equipped with appropriate software for a given activity" as well as social access: "know-howa mix of professional knowledge, economic resources, and technical skillsfor using technologies in ways that enhance professional practices and social life" (as cited in [21, p. 96]). This view is appropriate here, though the term digital inequality is preferred and Zillien developed a more differentiated definition that resolves the inherent dichotomy of digital divide [p. 93]. Digital inequality includes the "technological, socio-economic and political realities of Internet use" (my translation, [21, p. 90]).

With regard to technological access, in the worst case there is neither a computer nor access to a network with high bandwidth availability. Confronted with that situation an activist can still useif availablepublic institutions, call shops, and asynchronous communication such as mail. On the basis of the given financially affordable and professionally usable time, time-consuming items in highly interactive, real time applications are rather discarded. Ultimately, even small, seemingly static and unidirectional communication draws further reactions: These may be requests for interviews, comments in forums, emails or calls. Some of it might already be anticipated in advance (e.g., text blocks or fact sheets could be prepared). Any communication tasks on the campaign should be delegated to as many supporters as possible. Everyone is also encouraged to take over responsibility in designing the campaign in regard to the participatory factor.

At best, it is possible to fall back on a volunteer provider with dedicated servers in a trusted environment connected to broadband access. The campaigners acquire their own domain names and possess full right of access to the web servers. This would allow for a lot of room to maneuver, but can cause delays with unnecessary tasks as well.

The aforementioned campaigning examples already necessitated various degrees of technical and social conditions on both the initiating side and the side addressed by activists. In particular, the Deportation.Class campaign required people with expertise in professional web design, programming the online-demonstration software, and in hosting everything. Especially for such a campaign, the use of a "friendly" host is recommended. A host like that offers reasonably protected areas if it comes to the interests of powerful institutions. Providing alternative medial infrastructure for noncommercial, self-organized extra-parliamentary grassroots movements is an old strategy comparable to the creation of free radios, small nonprofit printing shops and the like. This could be seen as politically conscious technological access provision. Examples in Germany are antira.info [START_REF]about antira[END_REF] and so36.net [23] that offer Internet services such as mailing lists, email, web space, online project management software for developers, or chat clients. Sometimes small companies also support such initiatives -for example, Chaos Computer Club seeing themselves as "Europe's largest hacker association and for over 25 years mediators in the stress field of technical and social developments" (my translation, [24]) lists sponsorship by medium-sized ISPs like HostEurope GmbH, Speedbone, Nessus GmbH, Inter.net Germany GmbH, and nonprofit associations like Individual Network Berlin e.V. [START_REF]CCC | Sponsoren[END_REF]. The voluntary association Individual Network Berlin e.V. offers modem or ISDN dial-up, leased lines, DSL connections, and Internet services [26].

Community

A supportive community is part of the social infrastructure. In the development of a community, perhaps even with organized allies, it is essential to the scope of a campaign to have people who support and disseminate information about the cause, who solve many of the issues mentioned above concerning physical infrastructure, and who discuss the topics and campaigning strategies. The community is made up of activists who join the activities, who raise money, who allocate offices, and who act protectively in cases of repression. They also use their online time to pass the concern to others. Word of mouth is very important whether online or offline. Talking about the campaign, linking it on and to the right spots is essential. In a truly participatory campaign, every contributor acts in an emancipated manner and the initiators of a campaign merge into the community.

Protection of Individual Activists

The Deportation.Class shows quite clearly the boundary between Computerized Activism and Electronic Civil Disobedience. As in the offline world, both of which can already have threatening consequences for the protesters. ECD is more likely to end up in small complaintsdepending on the legal status of a person or of the country even in big complaints, imprisonment, or deportation. As a consequence of the Deportation.Class online demonstration, for example, the offices of the organizing group Libertad! have been searched, and computers and volumes were seized. The domain holder of www.libertad.de was accused in a lawsuit [19]. The Federal Crime Police Office tried to pursue all IP addresses back to their users as part of their investigations. The programmers of the protest software were not implementing proxy usage by intention to underscore the legality of the venture. In addition, plans to conduct the online demonstration were announced to the regulatory authority in Cologne [START_REF] Libertad | Online-Demo vor Gericht. Ziviler elektronischer Widerstand oder Computersabotage? akanalyse & kritikzeitung für linke Debatte und[END_REF]. Fortunately, the publication of the personal data behind the IP addresses failed at the time due to the refusal of the Internet service providers (ISP) [START_REF] Autonome A.F.R.I.K.A. Gruppe | Infomappe zum Prozess Online-Demo 2001 gegen Lufthansa[END_REF]. Attempts by the authorities to acquire such IP addresses are less likely to fail now given the new telecommunications monitoring and surveillance regulation of 2002 in Germany and the consequent provision of the necessary interfaces to law enforcement authorities. However, the Federal Crime Police Office even then visited several institutions from which attacks were launched to try to get information about the users.

Anonymity as a means of protecting protesters is almost impossible to fully realize in the Net, especially if Internet services require mandatory registration and lots of social linking. A high degree of invisibility on the Net requires media literacy to ensure proper private browsing settings, usage of anonymizing services, and dataeconomical surfing. In addition, parts of the infrastructure would have to be housed by trusted providers who cannot be directly associated with initiators of ECD actions. Anonymous political action should be seen as impossible within the scope of the Internet. The protection provided for activists tends to come from the community acting in solidarity with activists facing repression. In every campaign, a real existing trust structure is essential for effective protection of endangered persons, and can probably not be fully built online.

Certainly, there may be a central disputable question, to what extent should communities account for political attitudes. Courageous people have to represent themselves as individuals, so that they display a level of persuasiveness. But ideas of justice, equality, or freedom from domination are universal and not tied to individuals. However, leaders, protagonists, or authors of important texts of a movement always play a key role. From religion to political ideologies to mass media discourses, both the author and the fictitious protagonist are important for the protest narratives. Thus, actors are formed with whom protesters would identify. An anarchistic approach to solving this problem results in the use of collective pseudonyms as Luther Blisset 5 or Guy Fawkes 6 .

Overall, the role in which individuals perform should always be balanced based on political goals and the circumstances. There are also intermediate solutions.

Responsible persons and participants of an activity do not always need to stand behind it with their name. At certain levels, pseudonyms, fictitious personal data can 5 "'Luther Blissett' is a multi-use name, an 'open reputation' informally adopted and shared by hundreds of artists and social activists all over Europe since Summer 1994. For reasons that remain unknown, the name was borrowed from a 1980's British soccer player of Afro-Caribbean origins" [28]. [START_REF] Jalloh E | Break the Silence, Initiative in Gedenken an Oury[END_REF] In 2008, 7,000 people protested against Scientology worldwide synchronously forming a "global protest movement known as Project Chanology, a concept devised by a leaderless, decentralised group calling itself Anonymous" [p. 96]. They wore masks -"Mirroring V For Vendetta, the Guy Fawkes masks are provided to the public by rebels in a dystopian fascist state, in order to enable the public to organise mass protests" [29, p. 102]. The Anonymous movement itself is, by the way, a very interesting object of study of current hacktivism or ECD. be useful; however, when it comes to the personal involvement of individuals, for example, who bring charges of injustice against someone who is representative of many other persons concerned, an individualized trial can encourage a huge amount of solidarity for protestors, which is possibly an effective form of protection for them.

Planning

Right from the start, it should be clear how long a political campaign should last and what its different milestones will be. Of course, this can be changed later on, but a timeline helps in assessing the effort that can and should be spent on online communication. The capacities of an alliance cannot be bound for many years to one special topic. The Deportation.Class campaign gives a good example on thisit clearly focused on core events such as the shareholders' general meeting in 2001. The memorial movement for the death of Oury Jalloh is strongly oriented to the course of the lawsuit as well as to the continuous goal of keeping awake the memory of this peak of racist violence by state organs. But the character of a commemoration is not the same as a campaign's. Campaigning is not thought to be that open-ended.

Archiving

Documenting the history of a campaign is, therefore, implicitly or explicitly part of the same. Daily newspaper articles; radio and television broadcasts; and a campaign's own text documents such as reports and logs, photos, interviews, books, and all of its virtual and material scraps have to be collected and structured. That makes a lot of work and the new media makes the matter a little more confusing.

Once the campaign has stopped, the feeds, tweets, and comments, briefly, the whole attention subsides and many sites become orphaned.

The problem of the transience of Web content is on the one hand a major challenge for libraries [START_REF] Rauber | Web Archivierung und Web Archive Mining: Notwendigkeit, Probleme und Lösungsansätze[END_REF]. But, on the other hand, the uncontrollability of what remains and what disappears and of how non-vanishing is related to other data are precisely the challenges for new media in relation to privacy [START_REF] Schaar | Der digitale Radiergummi und das Recht, vergessen zu werden[END_REF].

The non-profit organization Internet Archive, for example, crawls the web regularly automatically like a search engine for archiving purposes. The reliability of such services for documenting a campaign is questionable [START_REF] Rauber | Web Archivierung und Web Archive Mining: Notwendigkeit, Probleme und Lösungsansätze[END_REF]. The collection and archiving of remotely scattered reactions, and the various copies and comments in different contexts can only be partially automated. One who wants to be the historian of her campaign and the reactions to it, has to write her own story. The 'Initiative in Memory of Oury Jalloh' is an example of this; it is to some extent a documentation campaign, whose own changes would in turn only be documented by Internet Archive with a few snapshots. The Deportation.Class campaign, however, has been partly swallowed as a primary source already as the domain was put out of use. Instead, the 'No Border network' has archived the websites of the deportation-class domain.

To this meta-level archiving many archaeological problems are connected (e.g., the illegibility of website artifacts if the formats on the Web are changing).

Conclusion

A network-based, participatory campaign presupposes a freely usable Internet. So will the hacktivists be able to keep their self-set role as guards of a free network world?

"Hacktivism is a form of electronic direct action in which creative and critical thinking is fused with programming skill and code creating a new mechanism to achieve social and political change. Hacktivists are committed to securing the Internet as a platform for free speech and expression. This ensures that the Internet remains a medium for activism and an environment that facilitates the free flow of information" [START_REF]metac0m: What is Hacktivism? 2.0[END_REF].

The Internet is seen as an open space permanently threatened and monitored. A high level of expertise, such as programming skills, is needed for its preservation. The use of the Internet is to that effect and concerning the discussed infrastructural provisions a social privilege. In the quote above, creative and critical thinking was not forgottenfor all the knowledge of the technology may not help anyone if the Internet is not understood as social and as medium. IP is, as said before, a basically interchangeable technology and does not make THE mythical difference, as the title suggests, for the offline world [START_REF] Cannon | Will the Real Internet Please Stand Up: An Attorney's Quest to Define the Internet[END_REF]. The Internet is, on the contrary, in many respects similar to the offline world in its social complexity, regardless of the technology: "The forms of control the Internet enables are not complete, and the freedom we experience stems from these controls; the forms of freedom the Internet enables stem from our vulnerabilities, from the fact that we do not entirely control our own actions" [33, p. 3].

4

 4

  It was founded as a consequence of asylum seeker Oury Jalloh being burnt to death on January 7, 2005 while in Dessau police custody. Oury Jalloh's parents joined the prosecution in a lawsuit against two police officers for grievous bodily harm with fatal consequences and involuntary manslaughter. An entry on the website of the organization 'Caravan for the Rights of Refugees and Migrants' keeps a reader available on the Net, explaining to "all clubs, organizations, groups and individuals [how] to commit [...] publicly to the demands of the 'Initiative in Memory of Oury Jalloh' and to actively support it [...]". They propose, amongst other things, "making the demands of the initiative publicly known in your community (e.g., Internet, newspapers, magazines, mailing lists, etc.) [... and] sending your own experiences

Some reactions of the press have been documented at[16].


Wendy Cukier
email: wcukier@ryerson.ca

Valerie Fox
email: vfox@ryerson.ca

Hossein Rahnama
email: hossein@ryerson.ca

Building Human Infrastructure for the Digital Economy: Ryerson's Digital Media Zone

Keywords: digital economy, digital skills, Canada, ecological model, entrepreneurs, innovation, innovators, incubators 1 Digital Skills

Drawing upon the policy literature and empirical work, this paper proposes an ecological model in which entrepreneurial skills are a critical part of the human infrastructure needed to fuel national Digital Economy and Innovation strategies. While many countries around the world reference the importance of building a "culture of innovation" and some countries, such as Israel, are seen as having this deeply embedded, there are few definitions and fewer empirical studies assessing this. We suggest that the prevalence of individuals with entrepreneurial mindsets and a willingness to take risks will drive economic growth and development but that developing this is easier said than done, as complex factors shape values and aspirations. While University-based incubators have long been seen as important parts of the innovation ecosystem, we provide a case study of a unique incubator, Ryerson University's Digital Media Zone (Toronto, Canada), and suggest that it not only offers short term outcomes but also offers a model that is critical to fostering a culture of innovation. We conclude that more needs to be done in Canada to promote this culture of innovation and that it needs to begin long before students reach university.

strengthen the "culture of innovation" [START_REF] Federman | Creating a Culture of Innovation: Keynote Address[END_REF], [START_REF]Government of Canada: State of the Nation[END_REF], [START_REF] Kitagawa | Building and Sustaining a Culture of Innovation/Entrepreneurialism in Canada for Competitiveness and Growth [Case study 40[END_REF], [START_REF] Macaulay | Innovation Nation: Building a Culture and Practice of Innovation in Canada[END_REF], [START_REF] Mackay | Entrepreneurial Talent: How to Create a Culture of Innovation[END_REF], [START_REF] Manley | Creating Canada's Culture of Innovation: From Cradle to Career[END_REF], [START_REF]Innovation: Opportunities without Frontiers[END_REF], this is not well defined, nor has there been much attention to how it will be fostered.

Canada's Digital Skills Strategy stresses the importance of a technological infrastructure, the need to strengthen ICT markets, the need to promote applications, and the importance of developing the human infrastructure. However, critical digital skills tend to be defined as basic digital literacy (to enable access and use of the internet for example) or on Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Less attention has been paid to the importance of fostering entrepreneurial skills in order to grow digital companies [START_REF] Cukier | Improving Canada's Digital Advantage: Building the Digital Talent Pool and Skills for Tomorrow[END_REF].

Previous research [START_REF] Arechavala-Vargas | Globalization of Innovation & Dynamics of a Regional Innovation Network[END_REF], [START_REF] Davis | Applying an Innovation Cluster Framework to a Creative Industry[END_REF] [START_REF] Harrison | Entrepreneurial Activity & the Dynamics of Technology-based Cluster Development[END_REF], [START_REF] Niosi | The Competencies of Regions: Canada's Clusters in Biotechnology[END_REF] has also explored social networks that constitute innovation ecosystems and the geographical clustering of technology company entrepreneurs in innovation hubs. Universities often play a critical role in these ecosystems and university-based technology transfer centres and incubators have been successful in effectively mobilizing research knowledge [START_REF] Martinez-Gomez | Innovation Policy, Services and Internationalisation: The Role of Technology Centres[END_REF]. Stanford University in Silicon Valley and MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts are key players in well-known hot spots for digital innovation and fostered many wildly successful high-tech companies [START_REF] Bubela | Role in Reality: Technology Transfer at Canadian Universities[END_REF]. University-based and other incubators have a long history in many nations in promoting local economic development and the creation of new businesses. Canada, for example, is home to more than 200 distinct technology incubators and accelerators, including at least ten specifically focused on digital media. In some countries, national networks of small business incubators are an explicit part of national innovation strategies [START_REF]Report to the People[END_REF]. Yet there are still numerous unanswered gaps in understanding the process of startup success and the role that incubators may play [START_REF] Mian | University's Involvement in Technology Business Incubation: What Theory and Practice Tell Us[END_REF].

Our paper suggests that:

1. Entrepreneurial Skills and Entrepreneurship must be a critical part of national Digital Economy and Innovation strategies; 2. The prevalence of individuals with entrepreneurial mindsets and a willingness to take risks will drive economic growth and development, and are a critical aspect of a "Culture of Innovation"; 3. University-based incubators can not only offer short term outcomes such as the creation of technologies, companies and jobs, but are also a critical element in developing the skills and mindset needed to foster a culture of innovation.

We will first review the relevant research on entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial culture, building entrepreneurial skills and the role of incubators. We will then describe the Canadian context broadly and provide a case study of a Canadian digital media incubator at Ryerson University in Toronto, Ontario.

Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship

The 'entrepreneurial mindset' includes the ability to sense, act, and mobilize under certain circumstancescharacteristic of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial behaviour [START_REF] Haynie | A Situated Metacognitive Model of the Entrepreneurial Mindset[END_REF]. But the question of how this is defined and measured and, more importantly, where it comes from, is the subject of much debate.

There have also been efforts to define entrepreneurship and identify the characteristics of entrepreneurs through profiles [START_REF] Brody | Innovation Nation: Canadian Leadership from Java to Jurassic Park[END_REF], [START_REF] Schweikart | American Entrepreneur[END_REF] or psychographic testing and surveys [START_REF] Borghans | The Economics & Psychology of Personality Traits[END_REF], [START_REF] Koellingera | I Think I Can, I Think I Can: Overconfidence and Entrepreneurial Behaviour[END_REF], [START_REF] Petrof | Entrepreneurial Profile: A Discriminant Analysis[END_REF], [START_REF] Welsh | The Entrepreneur's Manual Master Planning Guide[END_REF]. Some scholars have focused on refining the measures and instruments used to assess entrepreneurial traits such as self-efficacy [START_REF] Mcgee | Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy: Refining the Measure[END_REF]. Various instruments purport to measure key entrepreneurial characteristics such as the need for achievement, a locus of control, and creative tendencies [START_REF] Carsrud | Social Psychology: Behavioral Technology for Understanding the New Venture Initiation Processes[END_REF], [START_REF] Cromie | Assessing Entrepreneurial Inclinations: Some Approaches and Empirical Evidence[END_REF], [START_REF] Morrison | Entrepreneurship: What Triggers It[END_REF]. Nonpsychological variables such as education, family, and life experience influence the tendency to behave entrepreneurially [START_REF] Cuervo García | Entrepreneurship: Concepts, theory and perspective[END_REF]. Donaldson [START_REF] Davidsson | Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intentions[END_REF] suggests that the single most important factor is an individual's belief that starting a business is a suitable course for them and this, in turn, is affected by many factors.

The prevalence of individuals with entrepreneurial mindsets and a willingness to take risks will drive economic growth and development [START_REF] Davidsson | Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intentions[END_REF], [START_REF] Uhlaner | Postmaterialism Influencing Total Entrepreneurial Activity Across Nations[END_REF]. Entrepreneurial culture is defined as a set of "values, beliefs and attitudes commonly shared in a society which underpin the notion of an entrepreneurial 'way of life' as being desirable and in turn support the pursuit of 'effective' entrepreneurial behavior by individuals or groups" [START_REF] Gibb | Creating an Entrepreneurial Culture in Support of SMEs[END_REF]. Social norms reflect the interplay of many variables including historical context, institutions [START_REF] Lee | Aspirations, Market Offerings, and the Pursuit of Entrepreneurial Opportunities[END_REF], and political and economic systems [START_REF] Lee | Culture, Entrepreneurial Orientation and Global Competitiveness[END_REF], [START_REF] Lumpkin | Clarifying the Entrepreneurial Orientation Construct and Linking it to Performance[END_REF], which have a significant impact on the decisions to pursue entrepreneurial activities [START_REF] Hansen | Cross-National Invariance of Entrepreneurial Orientation Scale[END_REF], [START_REF] Mitchell | To Thine Own Self Be True: Images of Self, Images of Opportunity, and Entrepreneurial Action[END_REF]. Similarly, national culture, as reflected in institutions, laws, and policies, may also influence the propensity towards entrepreneurship [START_REF] Jones | National Culture and Innovation: Implications for Locating Global R&D Operations[END_REF], [START_REF] Kreiser | Cultural Influences on Entrepreneurial Orientation: The Impact of National Culture on Risk Taking and Proactivness in SMEs[END_REF], [START_REF] Liñán | Development and Cross-Culture Application of a Specific Instrument to Measure Entrepreneurial Intentions[END_REF], [START_REF] Newman | Culture and Congruence: The Fit Between Management Practices and National Culture[END_REF], [START_REF] Perlitz | European Cultures and Management Styles[END_REF].

Some studies attempt to measure the national culture of innovation [START_REF] Hayton | National Culture and Entrepreneurship: A Review of Behavioral Research[END_REF] and entrepreneurship based on aggregate measures such as creation of new enterprises on a per capita basis or by national productivity [START_REF] Carree | The Relationship Between Economic Development and Business Ownership Revisited[END_REF], [START_REF] Iversen | Defining and Measuring Entrepreneurship[END_REF]. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) assesses country entrepreneurial attitudes and general societal attitudes towards entrepreneurship. Other studies consider the relationship between national culture and the characteristics of individual entrepreneurs, attempting to assess the values, beliefs, motivations, and cognitions of entrepreneurs across cultures [START_REF] Licht | The Social Dimensions of Entrepreneurship[END_REF], [START_REF] Thomas | A Case for Comparative Entrepreneurship: Assessing the Relevance of Culture[END_REF]. Building on Hofstede's [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's Consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations[END_REF] cultural indices, some scholars have attempted to link national culture with individual entrepreneurial characteristics. For example, Licht and Siegal [START_REF] Licht | The Social Dimensions of Entrepreneurship[END_REF] suggested that cultures that were ranked as more individualistic had a higher likelihood of an internal locus of control orientation, one characteristic often associated with an entrepreneurial orientation. This is also more likely in low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Rates of innovation are most closely associated with the cultural value of uncertainty acceptance, but a lack of power distance and individualism also are related to high rates of innovation. This research suggests that nations may differ in their rates of innovation because cultural and religious values [START_REF] Baum | Nationality and Work Role Interactions[END_REF], [START_REF] Buegelsdijk | Entrepreneurial Culture, Regional Innovativeness and Economic Growth[END_REF], [START_REF] Foreman-Peck | The Strength and Persistence of Entrepreneurial Cultures[END_REF], [START_REF] Mcgrath | Does Culture Endure or Is It Malleable? Issues for Entrepreneurial Economic Development[END_REF], [START_REF] Shane | Cultural Influences on National Rates of Innovation[END_REF].

There have also been a number of studies to assess whether or not, in addition to building knowledge and skills, entrepreneurial intentions are affected by education [START_REF] Soiutaris | Do Entrepreneurship Programmes Raise Entrepreneurial Intention of Science and Engineering Students? The Effect of Learning, Inspiration and Resources[END_REF]. The findings make logical sense when one considers the relationship between knowledge, skill and self-efficacy, which are important traits of entrepreneurs. Although research has been specifically directed at developing entrepreneurial skills for engineers, scientists, and physicians [START_REF] Elfenbein | The Small Firm Effect and the Entrepreneurial Spawning of Scientists and Engineers[END_REF], the impact of entrepreneurial training and education programs in promoting innovation is inconclusive [START_REF] Foreman-Peck | The Strength and Persistence of Entrepreneurial Cultures[END_REF], [START_REF] Scherer | Role Model Performance Effects on Development of Entrepreneurial Career Preference[END_REF], [START_REF] St | The Role of Mentoring in the Learning Development of the Novice Entrepreneur[END_REF].

Incubators

Specialized services and infrastructures (e.g., incubators, research centers, business parks, and technology transfer offices) can promote entrepreneurship and foster the commercialization of research and new ideas to stimulate scientific entrepreneurship [START_REF] Andersson | New Strategies for Innovation Support[END_REF], [START_REF] Chiesa | Industrial Clusters in Biotechnology: Driving Forces, Development Processes and Management Practices[END_REF], [START_REF] Rosenfeld | Over Achievers: Business Clusters That Work -Prospects for Regional Development. Regional Technology Strategies[END_REF], [77]. A business incubator is an organization designed to accelerate the growth and success of new entrepreneurial companies by nurturing them at their inception. Globally, there are high profile university-based incubators. For example, MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Imperial College, London; University of Houston, Twente University; University of Monterrey and many others [START_REF] Barrow | Incubators: A Realists' Guide to the World's New Business Accelerators[END_REF], [START_REF] Estrin | Closing the Innovation Gap: Reigniting the Spark of Creativity in a Global Economy[END_REF]. Case studies which have documented the impact of individual incubators at universities including the University of Central Florida [START_REF] O'neal | The Co-Evolution of the University of Central Florida's Technology Incubator and the Entrepreneurial Infrastructure of the University of Central Florida[END_REF], the United States Market Access Center (USMAC) at San Jose State University [START_REF] Mencin | Case Study: Silicon Valley's US Market Access Center: The Incubator as a Soft Landing Zone[END_REF], Northwestern and the University of North Carolina [START_REF] Mian | Assessing Value-Added Contributions of University Technology Business Incubators to Tenant Firms[END_REF], in Sweden [START_REF] Ollila | The Venture Creation Approach: Integrating Entrepreneurial Education and Incubation at the University[END_REF] and France [START_REF] Maxwell | Technology Incubators: Facilitating Technology Transfer or Creating Regional Wealth?[END_REF], an Irish Dublin-based university campus incubator [START_REF] Ahmad | Relationships matter: Case Study of a University Campus Incubator[END_REF] as well as two in Canada [START_REF] Maxwell | Technology Incubators: Facilitating Technology Transfer or Creating Regional Wealth?[END_REF].

Scholars have examined the evolution of incubators and research parks in the commercialization of research at universities [START_REF] Gibson | Economic Development: The University and Commercialization of Research[END_REF], [START_REF] Mian | Assessing Value-Added Contributions of University Technology Business Incubators to Tenant Firms[END_REF]. Many focus on their role in commercializing technology, nurturing firms and new products. However, incubators can also support broader objectives related to developing innovation ecosystems [START_REF] Mian | Building Knowledge Ecosystems through Science & Technology Parks. 26th IASP World Conference on Science and Technology Parks[END_REF]. Among the benefits to client firms are access to student and faculty talent. Discussions of "entrepreneurial universities" in developing skills and attitudes have also emphasized their role in fostering technology entrepreneurs.

While the definitions of success vary, several studies have attempted to address performance issues [START_REF] Lictenstein | The Significance of Relationships in Entrepreneurship: A Case Study of the Ecology of Enterprise in Two Business Incubators[END_REF], [START_REF] Rice | A Framework for Defining Levels of Intervention by Managers of Business Incubators in New Venture Creation and Development[END_REF]. There are different ways to approach the question of effectiveness, the goal of the approach, the system resource approach, the stakeholder approach, and the internal processes approach [START_REF] Mian | Assessing Value-Added Contributions of University Technology Business Incubators to Tenant Firms[END_REF]. The proposed University Technology Business Intelligence model included performance outcomes (program sustainability and growth, tenant survival and growth, contributions to the university mission, and community impacts). Management policies and their effectiveness particularly the effective use of resources (e.g. governance, finance and capitalization, operational policies, and target markets), services and their value added with a focus on the perceived value of the services provided (e.g. space, business assistance, human resources, and consulting) have also been studied. Sun et al. propose a framework of critical success factors [START_REF] Sun | Critical Success Factors for Technological Incubation: Case Study of Hong Kong Science and Technology Parks[END_REF] which includes environment-related, incubatorrelated and incubatee-related factors.

Bergek and Norma propose a model of incubator best practices that is contextual and goals-based [START_REF] Bergek | Incubator Best Practice: A Framework[END_REF]. They suggest that the incubator performs several functions 1) selection, 2) business support, and 3) mediation. In effect, the incubator is a mediator between the company and the external innovation system, acting as a bridge with the intention of leveraging talent and resources. Critical resources include knowledge and technology, capital, market-related resources, and human capital. Incubators may also engage in network mediation, matching incubatees with other actors, and institutional mediation by helping navigate and even shape laws, traditions, values, and norms.

One of the most important success factors to be considered for technology-based incubators is the selection of incubatees [START_REF] Somsuck | Tenant Screening Evaluation for Business Incubator: The Application of an AHP Methodology[END_REF]. Support in the development of markets and products are also key factors. However, other determinants of success lie within the incubatees and in their relationship with the incubator [START_REF] Sun | Critical Success Factors for Technological Incubation: Case Study of Hong Kong Science and Technology Parks[END_REF]. A common thread in the literature is that the major functions of an incubator, apart from subsidizing early stage growth, is to provide access to social networks, which in combination with intellectual capital, increase the chances of an entrepreneur's success [START_REF] Maalel | Intervention of Incubator and Its Impact on Entrepreneur's Success Through Social Capital View[END_REF].

Some studies have suggested that incubators simply prolong the survival of companies that would normally fail sooner. Rigorous evaluation early in the process by experienced entrepreneurs is the most effective way of increasing success rates by producing a survivor bias. This then raises questions about the role of the incubation process. Consequently, some research has focused on case control assessments of incubated versus non-incubated startups. The results, however, are ambiguous [START_REF] Ahmad | Relationships matter: Case Study of a University Campus Incubator[END_REF], [START_REF] Schwartz | A Control Group Study of Incubators' Impact to Promote Firm Survival[END_REF]. The evidence on the value of specialization in incubators is also mixed [START_REF] Schwartz | Cooperation Patterns of Incubator Firms and the Impact of Incubator Specialization: Empirical Evidence from Germany[END_REF].

Ryerson's Digital Media Zone

In Canada, there are more than 200 incubators that are members of the Canadian Association of Business Incubation. These incubators serve a range of sectors and purposes from general small business support, to fostering social enterprises in small communities, to large scale commercialization. They also operate across and within specific sectors. The Digital Media Zone (DMZ) was established in 2010, at Ryerson University, a former polytechnic based in Toronto, Ontario, with deep roots in experiential learning and applied research. With more than 30,000 undergraduate students, Ryerson has one of the largest undergraduate entrepreneurship programs in Canada's largest business school (with more than 8,000 students). A high percentage of faculty members bring business experience along with academic qualifications. The University also has active student entrepreneurship clubs and competitions including Students in Free Enterprise (SIFE), Advancing Canadian Entrepreneurship (ACE) Canada, and Students Advancing Global Entrepreneurship (SAGE), which involve a substantial proportion of students and promote entrepreneurial activity.

The Digital Media Zone (DMZ) was created by the President of Ryerson University, Sheldon Levy, in response to student requests. He invested in prime real estate and infrastructure with a clear focus on supporting students with ideas for new businesses. In April 2010, the University rented 6,400 sq. ft. at the busiest corner in Canada, Dundas Street East and Yonge Street. The location was then equipped with state of the art technology [START_REF] Bonas | Regional Research Intensive Clusters and Science Parks[END_REF] and a rigorous application processes for students to qualify for entry was established. The goals of the DMZ evolved beyond meeting student needs, however. It aspires to become a critical part of the downtown Toronto ecosystem:  To strengthen the collaborative community of entrepreneurs;  To improve and promote commercialization of technology;  To help build industry clusters (in areas such as context-aware computing, for example) that can compete globally; and  To help keep intellectual property and talent in Canada.

In less than two years, the size of DMZ has more than doubledit now consists of 16,450 sq. ft. with plans for further expansion. To date it has reported:  41 startups incubated and accelerated;  More than 64 projects initiated;  382 jobs fostered and created through newly formed startups and market-driven research, plus 56 new jobs at Ryerson itself;  Eight companies which have outgrown the space and since leased their own;  One company has more than 50 employees, while one has failed; and  Currently, the DMZ houses 161 innovators in 36 teams.

One of DMZ's principal differentiators is the focus on communications and outreach facilitated in part because of its location. In the past year, there have been approximately 430 tours to the DMZ including by government ministers and financiers as well as leading business people and industry associations. There has also been substantial press coverage, with over 600 instances of positive media coverage locally, nationally, and internationally. High profile presentations have been made at the Toronto Economic Club (a prominent business network) and at conferences and events around the worldincluding in India, Brazil, China and Russia.

The DMZ Approach

Like other incubators, the DMZ performs the three basic functions identified and proposed by [START_REF] Bergek | Incubator Best Practice: A Framework[END_REF]: 1) selection, 2) business support, and 3) mediation. Companies apply to enter the DMZ and must pass an initial evaluation, have a unique innovation in the prototype stage, and a strong business plan that demonstrates a clear market need. The selection committee consists of industry leaders, faculty experts, peers, and mentors.

Prior to entering the DMZ, prospective entrepreneurs typically have some experience with a project as well as coaching on basic business planning, provided via SIFE.

The DMZ provides open, flexible workspace, equipment, utilities, and services such as business plan counseling, mentoring, and workshops. It also provides training. While the typical DMZ company has entered the Zone with strong training and technical skills in their discipline, they receive support with business plan development and have ongoing access to coaching and training. Increasingly, there is a focus on progress monitoring with mandatory check-in meetings scheduled every few months to provide guidance and advice, monitor progress, and ensure companies are receiving the help they need to achieve their set milestones. Companies must submit monthly reports to ensure the DMZ has current information. The DMZ also helps provide human resources to companies including funded internship and student employees. Finally, as noted above, the DMZ provides extensive marketing and communications support including key marketing and communications materials such as sell-sheets, website pages, news releases, video pitches, and photoshoots.

In terms of "mediation", the DMZ actively promotes networking through special events, networking sessions, workshops, etc. for incumbent entrepreneurs. This helps companies tap into resources which include experienced serial entrepreneurs or men-tors, financing, customers, other incubators, and media (which fuels access to the others). The DMZ provides a directory of available mentors and profiles networking opportunities through a variety of events and tours. The DMZ identifies sources of funding and assists its companies with grant applications as well as with finding and securing other forms of financial support, such as Angel Investments. Given its high profile, the DMZ ensures a steady stream of prospective corporate customers. It also organizes joint events with other incubators as well as complimentary passes to startup related events in Toronto. Finally, a dedicated Media Relations Officer pitches stories, fields calls, and helps Zone companies with media training and PR strategies in order to build profile and fuel traffic. Apart from the formal services, there is ample anecdotal evidence of peer-to-peer mentoring and collaboration across companies.

The Results

Although a formal evaluation is yet to be undertaken, the DMZ has produced tangible results in a short time frame. Table 1 (next page) provides a brief description of some of the DMZ companies and results that they have achieved.

Conclusions

Based on a cursory assessment of the data, Ryerson's DMZ appears to produce a high number of companies and jobs relative to similar initiatives. While longer term tracking is needed, along with additional empirical analysis, it seems that among the key factors affecting positive outcomes are the rigour of the original screening process and the heavy emphasis on outreach and communications which, in turn, ensure that the companies are exposed to a wide range of investors and customers. This is also facilitated by the central location of the incubator site. However, beyond the specific results with respect to firm and job creation, the impact of the DMZ seems to be broader in terms of fuelling a culture of innovation. The importance of the educative effects of the experiential learning in the DMZ along with the influence of the DMZ in shaping entrepreneurial intentions among the broader Ryerson community (students and professors) should not be overlooked. Further research is needed to explore this in detail.

The research on entrepreneurship and a culture of innovation suggests that shaping entrepreneurial intention is a complex process. It is reasonable to assume that the publicity around the DMZ and its companies, as well as the competition to enter the DMZ, plays a critical role in building culture by shaping values and narratives of entrepreneurial successes (and failures). Culture is about stories and values and can, therefore, play an important role in broadening the aspirations of young people. We need to understand how this can be done earlier, as many students in the DMZ have self-selected themselves based on earlier experiences. More work is needed to push this experience upstream, so that young people are exposed to these opportunities earlier and see the full range of entrepreneurial opportunities. Exploring this will be the focus of further research.

Table 1 .

 1 The DMZ company summary Approximately 3,000 players play their game, Code of War, daily.  Has 12 staff. Founded in September 2010, Shape Collage is an online collage maker that optimally arranges photos into collages of different shapes.  The product has been downloaded more than five million times since 2009 and has been translated into 22 different languages.  Has five staff.

	Company	Outcomes
		(number of employees, sales etc.)
	500px	 Their iPad app is one of the top free photog-
	DMZ Graduate	raphy apps in iTunes.
	Founded in April 2011, 500px is a fast	 Voted the number one startup in Toronto in
	growing photography website.	January 2012 by Techvibes, Canada's leading
		technology media property.
		 Has 16 employees; left the DMZ in December
		2011.
	Bionik Labs	 Working with major hospitals in the United
	Currently Incubating	States and Canada on clinical trials related to
	Founded in March 2011, Bionik Labs is a	assisted technology for paraplegics.
	medical engineering research and devel-	 Has over 20 employees.
	opment corporation with a focus on
	prosthetics and rehabilitation devices.
	Finizi	 Recently completed a three month beta pilot
	Currently Incubating	for GICs during which it processed over $Can
	Founded in February 2011, Finizi is a	30M in auction requests and $Can 2M in
	free online platform where financial	completed sales.
	institutions bid for the business of cus-	 Finizi has been featured in the Financial Post,
	tomers in live auctions.	Investment Executive, Business News Net-
		work, Yahoo Finance, and several other
		online finance and technology publications.
	Flybits	 Developed Toronto's GO Transit's first offi-
	Currently Incubating	cial mobile application.
	Founded in April 2010, Flybits is a Ca-	 The app was downloaded over 150,000 times
	nadian leader in mobile context-aware	in its first eight weeks.
	computing.	 Their software solution running on Motorola
		Golden-I product, the world's first hands-free
		and wireless headset computer received
		Motorola's Golden-idea Award.
		 Developed the first Connected Vehicle Mo-
		bile Solution as part of a research project for
		the Ontario Ministry of Transportation.
		 Department of Foreign Affairs and the Minis-
		try of Economic Development and Innovation
		selected it as a top 10 Canadian company to
		present at the Mobile World Congress in 2012
		and CTIA Wireless in New Orleans in the
		United States; has 17 staff.





  Apple named ArtJam's Nursery Jam as one of its Top 10 apps for toddlers.  Has five staff. Select clients include: Sony, Ikea, Club Med, The Gap, Starbucks, Red Bull, L'Oreal, Adidas, and Pampers.  Has five staff. Partnered with Kijiji; both the Kijiji deal site and Daily Deals run on the TeamSave platform.  TeamSave operates in 20 cities in North America and has over 50 staff.

	Phosphorus Media
	Currently Incubating
	Founded in April 2010, Phosphorus
	Media specializes in high impact media
	systems and interactive displays.
	Teamsave
	DMZ Graduate
	Founded in April 2010, Teamsave is a
	social buying website and platform.
	Viafoura	 Currently partnered with 12 of the world's
	Currently Incubating	largest digital publishers.
	Founded in May 2011, Viafoura is a	 Expanded from two employees to 17 in only
	cloud-based plug-and-play commenting	six months.
	platform targeted to premium digital
	publishers.

 


Magda David Hercheui
email: m.hercheui@westminster.ac.uk

Diane Whitehouse
email: diane.whitehouse@thecastlegateconsultancy.com

William J Mciver

Jackie Phahlamohlaka
email: jphahlamohlaka@csir.co.za

ICT Critical Infrastructures and Society Introduction to the HCC10 Conference Proceedings

Keywords: citizens, computing, democracy, human choice and computers, information and communication technology (ICT), infrastructure, innovation, involvement, peace, policy, responsibility, rights, social media, sustainability, war

For 40 years, the academics and business executives who have attended the Human Choice and Computers international conference series have discussed human choices and social responsibility in relation to information and communication technology (ICT). At this 2012 conference, the focus is on ICT critical infrastructures, and the challenges they pose to governments, businesses and people. Several topics have emerged as relevant in this conference: ICT developments at international and national levels; sustainable and responsible innovation; dilemmas involving ICT, peace and war; and the implications of ICT and social media for citizens' involvement and citizens' rights. What should national computing associations be doing to explore these serious issues? How should the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) itself respond? Responses are needed that are flexible and durable enough to face the challenges of the coming four decades.

Introduction

The Human Choice and Computers (HCC) conferences have been organised by the Technical Committee 9 (TC9) 1 of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) ever since 1974. This series of conferences has offered an important setting in which to discuss the impact of information and communication technology (ICT) on society. The conference subjects have ranged from the ways in which ICT affects people's lives at home and in the workplace, to the impact that they have had on communities and institutions. The gatherings have offered fora where academics and practitioners have been able to discuss technology from a social, and even societal, perspective [START_REF] Berleur | What Kind of Information Society? Introduction to the HCC9 Conference Proceedings[END_REF].

TC9 concentrates on developing an understanding of how ICT innovation is associated with change in society, and having an influence on the shaping of socially responsible and ethical policies and professional practices. By holding its meetings in international locations, it acts globally. In particular, its last two conferences in 2008 and 2010 in South Africa and Australia reconfirmed this international reach. They stretched TC9's panorama geographically and thematically. Issues such as social dimensions of ICT policy [START_REF]Social Dimensions of Information and Communication Technology Policy[END_REF] and ethical and governance dimensions of privacy, surveillance, sustainable development, and virtuality [START_REF] Berleur | What Kind of Information Society? Introduction to the HCC9 Conference Proceedings[END_REF] were tackled. HCC10, which takes place in the Netherlands on 27-28 September 2012, is the tenth in this conference series. Some forty contributions bring a wealth of output and range to this conference. The attendees, and the countries they come from, cover cases and investigations from as far afield as Africa, Australasia, Europe, the Far East and Middle East, Latin America, and North America.

Overview of HCC10 2

Today, ICT critical infrastructures provide a basic foundation to society, increasingly regardless of location. Governments, businesses and individuals are more and more dependent on these pervasive ICT infrastructures that underpin diverse methods of governing, controlling and assuring security and safety in all spheres of human life. How people produce, trade and consume goods and services, and how people communicate, interact and collaborate in their political, professional and private lives are all affected by these technologies and infrastructures.

The Internet, mobile networks, and even social media, have become new critical infrastructures. Many documents of long-term importance are stored on ephemeral media and in digital formats. Major key data and communication centres exist in a limited number of locations around the globe. Human dependence on these infrastructures extends from business and commerce, finance, healthcare and public health, to the provision of servicespublic or private, and the organisation of communities. It also includes the continuous provision of such basic utilities as electricity, gas and water.

This reliance poses immense challenges in terms of sustainability, long-term provision, societal organisation, innovation, democracy, and the competences and resilience of human beings. New methods, tools and techniques, and ways of thinking, and particularly acting, will be needed to tackle these challenges. They may be required at many levels of society from policy-making to interactions occurring in people's local communities. ICT may facilitate new democratic activities of engagement [START_REF] Castells | Communication Power[END_REF], [START_REF] Shirky | The Political Power of Social Media; Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change[END_REF], but dependency or over-dependency on these technologies may also be problematic [START_REF]Facing the Challenge of Risk and Vulnerability in an Information Society[END_REF], [START_REF] Cameron | A Survival Kit for Resilient Citizens in the Information Society[END_REF].

HCC10's Conference Themes

HCC10 discusses the impact that these ICT critical infrastructures are having on society as well as the ways in which members of various social groups are responding to them. The conference reflects on the main challenges that governments, organisations and individuals are already facing, and are likely to face in the decades to come. The focus is dual: it is both on strategic directions, and on the effects on people's everyday and routine activitiesreactions that can be very different in the various parts of the globe. The conference also explores how to mitigate risks and reduce some of the potentially more negative outcomes of these developments.

A number of specific topics are covered. They include: national and international policies; sustainable and responsible innovation; ICT for peace and war; and citizens' involvement, rights, and the implications of social media. Each of these HCC10 conference themes is explained below in more detail.

National and International Policies

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and the European Union (EU) and its countries, international organisations such as the International Telecommunications Union, United Nations and World Bank, individual nations, and regional and municipal authorities, are all coming together to shape the character and foundations of ICT critical infrastructures. They are attempting to manage the development and deployment of more efficient, inclusive, resilient, and secure ICT critical infrastructures. As society is increasingly recognising, it can be hugely beneficial to explore the implications of successes as well as errors and failures in this field. Different perspectives on policies are emerging in both general and detailed forms as a result of these conference proceedings.

These HCC10 conference papers describe applications introduced in a range of countries worldwide (e.g., Dubai, India, Mexico and the United Kingdom), several of which are developing countries and/or emerging economies. The focus is on governance-related issues, and the domains covered are in government and the public sector. The types of applications involve eGovernment generally, identity mechanisms, a portal for foreign trade, and ration cards. While some of the initiatives have been applied in practice in the countries concerned, others are either in transition or on hold. The final paper in this section [START_REF] Padovani | International Norms and Socio-Technical Systems: Connecting Institutional and Technological Infrastructures in Governance Processes[END_REF] reminds us thatwhile it is always important to examine the grassroots and immediate implications of any development it is wise to keep an eye on the bigger picture: hence, a multi-dimensional analytical framework is presented.

Sustainable and Responsible Innovation

Globalisation and competition have rendered the topic of ICT innovation a major concern for any local, regional or national economy. Governments around the world are proposing policies to foster innovation in their digital industries and spread the successful adoption of these technologies. Not only national needs, but also the implications that innovations have for different countries, must be borne in mind at the international level. More in-depth discussion is also needed on the societal, social and ethical values underpinning the innovations that societies aim to pursue. HCC10 considers the innovations on which governments, organisations and society should focus, and which criteria should drive research and investment in innovation. HCC10's perspective is that technology is not neutral. Thus, it is important to discuss the explicit and implicit social and ethical aims, together with the real outcomes of innovation policies. The debate focuses on how economic, societal and environmental sustainability are to be taken into consideration in all investments in ICT critical infrastructures. The more specific subjects covered include environmentalism, green ICT and sustainability; the role of innovation in the economics of communities; healthcare; future post-Turing era challenges; and the role that can be played by education, training and skills development to forge sustainability and responsible innovation.

It is important to bear in mind a general overview of Green IT, and its argument that it is closely associated with innovation. New directions in ICT, especially in distributed computing are important, with a focus on what this means for e-waste management. Two corporate-related examples of energy management are introduced: one based on data mining and the other on a balanced scorecard. There are also community-based environmental concerns and innovative approaches to handling energy management through ICT.

How to encourage and attract responsible innovation is one of today's major societal and economic challenges. Three examples, two from Canadian cities and one from a European country's national research network, offer ideas for innovators that could be transferable to other social and geographical settings.

Responsible innovation is particularly vital in the field of healthcare. Three illustrations are introduced from different clinical areas: healthcare generally, home healthcare and chronic care. A range of ethical concerns is covered.

Various aspects of responsible innovation in the educational, research and corporate worlds emerge. The emphasis is very much on ethics and how they can be taught, researched, introduced and implemented in various educational, employment and social settings. Ultimately, the solutions range from some more technical and technological approaches to infrastructures, to law, philosophy and behavioural change. 3 The stakeholders concerned involve policy-makers at international or national levels as well as local inhabitants. They include people of all ages, from the eldest in our societies to young high school attendees.

ICT for Peace and War

Information is a vital element of post-modern society, and its safety and security is crucial. ICT critical infrastructures are fundamental to human beings' attempts to live in peace. On the one hand, cyber security is a key factor in the maintenance of international and national security, and in guarding many of the interests of citizens. On the other hand, cyber warfare can refer to politicallyor otherwisemotivated hacking to conduct sabotage and espionage against specific nation states. Countering the latter is important; but questioning undue interference by states is also an important exercise. There are many implications of ICT critical infrastructures for people's current and experiences of building peace in a world that is coping with many separate, yet often interlinked, wars and numerous other forms of violence and aggression.

HCC10 introduces these themes in a section on ICT for peace and war. This section of the conference proceedings explores how social media are used for a number of different purposes. Initially, three applications are introduced from two countries: one that is used for social engineering, another for measuring consumer trust, and another for modelling crowd control. Later, questions are raised about the relationship between war, violence and video or ICT-based games and the need for more in-depth investigation of the effects these can have on the young (and not so young) people who play them. The section ends with a proposal for agendas for research, discussion and action that cover all of these areas of concern.

Citizens' Involvement, Citizens Rights' and ICT

The Internet can enable citizens' participation in democratic social structures and governments. ICT critical infrastructures, such as eGovernment and social media platforms, can foster public debate and people's emancipation. Some countries have been successful in implementing social media interfaces so as to be more attentive to the views of their citizens. Events, in particular in 2011 during the so-called Arab Spring, have reinforced a positive belief that people can use ICT critical infrastructures to defend their rights and interests, and even to organise themselves against oppressive regimes. However, it is also known that governments have used these very same tools to monitor and control their citizens [START_REF] Castells | Communication Power[END_REF], [START_REF] Shirky | The Political Power of Social Media; Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change[END_REF].

The extensive diffusion of social media environments that has taken place over the last five years in particular, warrants greater attention and is receiving it in many academic and broadcasting circles. Social media tools, especially social networks, are disrupting the way people interact in society, in both their private and professional lives. The boundaries between private and public are blurring, with consequences for people's identity, privacy and security.

HCC10 discusses numerous aspects of this debate. The conference covers the necessary interrelationship between the technological and institutional infrastructures that are required to understand the outcomes of citizen participation mediated by ICT. This section of the book deepens the discussion on the implications of social media for society. It explores several instances of citizens' social media use in a number of countries including Brazil, China, Iran, Japan and South Africa. Examples of social media use in crisis situations, and what kinds of approaches are needed to support people in these circumstances, are also highlighted. This section also investigates how virtual relationships affect the social tissue of societies. It questions the ethics of organisations that use social media to investigate the personal lives of their employees, and profiling techniques to increase their sales and improve their brands. It discusses how society may be organised to defend citizen privacy and security. It also covers citizen's relationship with upskilling and decision-making.

Implications for International Computing Associations

This HCC10 conference topic stimulated the desire to bring together a number of TC9 representatives to take part in a panel discussion on how ICT infrastructures are perceived by their national computing societies. The aim is to debate ICT-related critical infrastructures, and various possible ways of handling their challenges. Prospective panellists represent computing associations in Canada, Japan, and South Africa. From Europe, the Dutch, German, Finnish, and Hungarian computing associations will offer their views. A representative of the international computing association, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) will also make a contribution. Participants have been invited to submit a short description of the problems posed by ICT critical infrastructures from the perspective of either their own country or computing society. As a result, TC9 members will be able to share their perceptions of a range of different infrastructural problems, face these concerns together, and search for solutions. These stakeholders will add their voice to those of policy-makers, industrialists, and civic society.

Current and Future Reflections

This book of HCC10 conference proceedings will be published in time for the conference. The proceedings are not, however, intended to pre-empt the conference's discussions and outcomes. These conversations will extend far wider than the book's contents. Indeed, the conference is intended to be a dynamic, fluid and interactive forum for debate. It is organised so as to place the emphasis on brainstorming, ideas exchange, discussion and dialogue.

These conference proceedings record the contributions delivered to the HCC10 programme committee as of July 2012. They offer a picture of the current state of thinking on ICT critical infrastructures from a number of stakeholders in terms of assumptions, attitudes, empirical evidence, and policies. The conference will highlight the main similarities and differences between the contributors' opinions. However, the conference will not privilege or prioritise specific methods or methodologies. Indeed, the techniques used by the authors of papers in this volume are diverse. Many of the papers are case study-based and delve in-depth into the experiences of countries, societies, and communities. Others are based on literature searches, questionnaire surveys, or assessments of software applications. Other papers are either position papers or reflection papers.

Among the outcomes of the conference is likely to be a growing awareness of new directions for international non-governmental organisations, such as IFIP and its technical committees and working groups, in relation to ICT infrastructures and society. New ideas and perceptions could also arise for civic society. These may affect how policy-makers, business executives, researchers and teachers interact in the future. Such collaborative approaches will help them in various ways: to analyse historical circumstances and contexts that have affected ICT infrastructures, to overcome any persistent barriers, to prepare for new challenges, and to promote improved foresight into future developments.

Such envisioning is particularly necessary to face not only the challenges of this second decade of the twenty-first century but also at least several further decades to come. Flexible yet durable, resilient, responses are needed.

The IFIP Technical Committee 9 (TC9) is dedicated to the study of the relationship of Computers and Society http://www.ifiptc9.org/.

This overview is based on two sets of ideas: the first expressed in the description of this conference and the second in a call for a workshop held by IFIP's working group 9.2 at Middlesex University, United Kingdom, on 4 February 2012.

This section of the conference has an affinity with the 2012 IFIP WG9.2 Namur Award ceremony. This international award for an outstanding contribution with international impact to the awareness of social implications of information technology is to be given in 2012 to Prof. Stefano Rodotà of Italy.