Kay Behrenbruch
email: k.behrenbruch@uni-kassel.de

Matthias Söllner
email: soellner@uni-kassel.de

Jan Marco Leimeister
email: leimeister@uni-kassel.de

Ludger Schmidt
email: l.schmidt@uni-kassel.de

Understanding Diversity -The Impact of Personality on Technology Acceptance

Keywords: Technology acceptance, personality traits, trust

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

On the one hand, many people publish and discuss detailed data of their lives on internet platforms like "quantifiedself.com", and millions of people share their daily activity in online social networks. On the other hand there are others who feel uncomfortable with using their smartphones, because they want to protect data concerning their movement profile. Again others avoid e-commerce or e-banking to protect sensitive data. Some people are trying many new apps on their smartphones that seem in some way useful to them. Many others avoid new technology because they fear not to be able to operate it or even to damage it. Summing up, there is a great diversity in reactions to new technology in terms of acceptance. For the developers of new technology it is of high interest to understand those differences to be able to address them in their design. Ideally research should provide reliable information on the topic in the form of types of users with different characteristics that are matched with concrete needs for specific design features. The base of such an approach is to build a user model that combines characteristics of the potential users with their tendency to ac-cept or reject new technology. This model needs to be scrutinised and checked to provide trustworthy information and to avoid undue stigmatisation of the users. The presented work contributes to improve and extend models that consider the influence of personality on acceptance.

In the beginning, research on technology acceptance concentrated on new occupational software in organizations and institutions [START_REF] Davis | User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models[END_REF]. Research presented in this paper focuses on web-enabled software in private use, with private data being processed and stored. In our paper, we focus on the influence of personality traits on technology acceptance. Many new products are not only unfamiliar or evoke resistance just because things are different than before. Furthermore, there is an increasing risk to lose privacy or money. That is why we pick up approaches that integrate trust in models for technology acceptance [START_REF] Gefen | Trust and TAM in online shopping: an integrated model[END_REF].

After presenting related work we develop hypotheses and a research model for the influence of personality traits on technology acceptance. We present results on basis of an empirical study with a social software that is open for integrating adaptive services for smartphones and discuss those results.

Related Work

The effect of personality on technology acceptance has been demonstrated by various authors. Especially, the use of social networks has been a major focus of research [START_REF] Amichai-Hamburger | Social network use and personality[END_REF]. Another field of attention has been personality in acceptance of E-commerce [START_REF] Zhou | The Effects of Personality Traits on User Acceptance of Mobile Commerce[END_REF]. Many aspects of personality were considered in HCI-research such as the need for recognition and sociability [START_REF] Hughes | A tale of two sites: Twitter vs. Facebook and the personality predictors of social media usage[END_REF], computer anxiety, innovativeness, computer selfefficacy, and resistance to change [START_REF] Nov | Personality and Technology Acceptance: Personal Innovativeness in IT, Openness and Resistance to Change[END_REF], [START_REF] Nov | Users' personality and PEOU of digital libraries: The case for resistance to change[END_REF], as well as interest in the application domain [START_REF] Svendsen | Personality and technology acceptance: the influence of personality factors on the core constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model[END_REF]. The most used characterization of personality in this context is the five factor model FFM [START_REF] Devaraj | How Does Personality Matter? Relating the Five-Factor Model to Technology Acceptance and Use[END_REF]. FFM encompasses five personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to new experience, and emotional stability [START_REF] Mcadams | Five factor model in personality[END_REF].

The most used and tested model for technology acceptance is the technology acceptance model TAM [START_REF] Davis | User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models[END_REF]. Within this model two beliefs have causal effects on the intention to use technology: perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU). For the case of applications that put their users to some kind of financial or privacy risk, Gefen et al. [START_REF] Gefen | Trust and TAM in online shopping: an integrated model[END_REF] expanded TAM by another belief that affects the intention to use, namely trust.

Model Development

Devaraj et al. [START_REF] Devaraj | How Does Personality Matter? Relating the Five-Factor Model to Technology Acceptance and Use[END_REF] developed and tested a research model that integrates TAM with personality traits for collaborative technology. This model incorporates FFM and computer self-efficacy. In this paper we adapt and extend this approach for a new class of technology: web-enabled software in private use, with private data being processed and stored. We integrate trust as an important believe influencing intention to use in accordance with authors [START_REF] Gefen | Trust and TAM in online shopping: an integrated model[END_REF]. Also we integrate the renowned concept of computer anxiety [START_REF] Bozionelos | Computer anxiety: relationship with computer experience and prevalence[END_REF] as an additional personality trait. The relationship of the two concepts computer self-efficacy and computer anxiety is controversial in the literature. Some authors argue for causal influence of computer anxiety on computer selfefficacy [START_REF] Bennett | An Empirical Examination of Individual Traits as Antecedents to Computer Anxiety and Computer Self-Efficacy[END_REF] others the other way round [START_REF] Compeau | Computer Self-Efficacy: Development of a Measure and Initial Test[END_REF]. Our research model concentrates on the causal relationships between the three believes trust, PEOU and PU with intention to use and abstracts from the interdependency of the three beliefs specified in prior literature [START_REF] Davis | User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models[END_REF], [START_REF] Gefen | Trust and TAM in online shopping: an integrated model[END_REF], [START_REF] Devaraj | How Does Personality Matter? Relating the Five-Factor Model to Technology Acceptance and Use[END_REF]. Some authors discuss a direct influence of personality traits on Intention to use [START_REF] Sim | Influence of Personal Innovativeness , Self-efficacy and Subjective Norm in Mcommerce Acceptance?: A Conceptual Review[END_REF], [START_REF] Amichai-Hamburger | Internet and personality[END_REF]. In accordance with the theory of reasoned action [START_REF] Fishbein | Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behaviour: An Introduction to Theory and Research[END_REF], that was used in the development of TAM, we hypothesize an influence of personality traits on the beliefs that determine the intention to use. Corresponding to our argumentation we hypothesize direct influence of personality on the beliefs or moderating effect on the causal relationship between beliefs and intention to use. Concerning trust it has to be kept in mind, that our research model is not addressing the influence of personality traits on trust in general, but on trust in a special kind of technology.

Hypothesis and Research Model

Below we develop hypotheses and a structural model. We did not find equally strong and plausible arguments for an influence of conscientiousness and agreeableness on the integrated beliefs as for the other three concepts of FFM. For example Svendsen et al. [START_REF] Svendsen | Personality and technology acceptance: the influence of personality factors on the core constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model[END_REF] do not integrate agreeableness in their model and restrict the hypothesized influence of conscientiousness on acceptance to a subset of the user group. Thus, we did not integrate conscientiousness and agreeableness into our research model. Emotional Stability. A person who is emotionally stable would remain calm in many situations and would feel secure even when risks occur. An emotionally instable person shows the tendency to experience vulnerability. Feeling secure supports trust while feeling vulnerable makes it much more difficult to bring oneself to build up trust. Zhou and Lu [START_REF] Zhou | The Effects of Personality Traits on User Acceptance of Mobile Commerce[END_REF] argue that a person with low emotional stability feels a lack of control and will not readily build trust in e-commerce.

H1. Emotional Stability will be positively associated with trust.

Extraversion. The surgency of extraverted people supports a trusting attitude because there is a lot of energy and readiness to overcome doubts and use technology for social interaction. Persons with low extraversion show the tendency to be more reserved and bringing about little motivation for building up trust for new technology and to open up ways for new kinds of social interaction. Zhou and Lu [START_REF] Zhou | The Effects of Personality Traits on User Acceptance of Mobile Commerce[END_REF] argue that mobile services are a possibility for extroverted people to communicate with their friends at anytime from anywhere. Thus they will more readily give trust.

H2. Extraversion will be positively associated with trust.

Innovative software, especially on smartphones, has a high potential to foster social interaction. Extroverted people who are talkative and keen on social interaction with others will see much more benefit and use in getting in touch with such kind of technology than introverted ones who are happy with being on their own. Rosen and Kluemper [START_REF] Rosen | The Impact of the Big Five Personality Traits on the Acceptance of Social Networking Website Acceptance of Social Networking Website[END_REF] are in line with this argumentation: "Social networking sites would be another way for extroverts to assert themselves and thus could be considered quite useful (p. 4)."

H3. Extraversion will be positively associated with PU.

Openness. Interest in novelty fosters the willingness to build up in intention to use new technology on bases of a certain level of PU. People who prefer familiarity over novelty will possibly reject to use the technology with the same level of PU. "People who exhibit this personality trait [openness] seek out new opportunities to exhibit their creativity, and social networking websites are one way to do so. Also since these individuals are more intellectually curious than their peers, a novel way to communicate with friends and associates should be appealing to these people (p. 4)." [START_REF] Rosen | The Impact of the Big Five Personality Traits on the Acceptance of Social Networking Website Acceptance of Social Networking Website[END_REF]. H4. Openness will moderate the relationship between PU and intention to use such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher openness.

Closed people prefer the simple, plain and straightforward things. Using new technology is not easy right from the start. With lacking interest in the variety of new software a certain level of PEOU won't be enough to build up an intention to use the technology. Open people like to spend time reflecting on things, they enjoy unusual interaction and are willing to overcome some possible challenges by learning when using new technology. Svendsen et al. [START_REF] Svendsen | Personality and technology acceptance: the influence of personality factors on the core constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model[END_REF] argue for a positive relation of openness to PEOU: "Openness to experience is an obvious candidate as this personality trait characterises an individual's approach to new situations (p. 5)."

H5. Openness will moderate the relationship between PEOU and intention to use such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher openness.

Computer self-efficacy. People who are confident in interacting with computers and information technology are in a better position to get along with a low level of trust concerning new applications. They probably will feel the ability to compensate the perceived lack of safety. When people have doubts about their capability to use such systems a small risk will probably prevent them from building up on the intention to use this system.

H6. Computer self-efficacy will moderate the relationship between trust and intention to use such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher Computer self-efficacy.

Furthermore, related research findings show that users anchor their perception of ease of use to computer self-efficacy [START_REF] Venkatesh | Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a Research Agenda on Interventions[END_REF]. Computer self-efficacy has a major impact on an individual's expectations towards using computers. Contrary to Venkatesh and Bala [START_REF] Venkatesh | Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a Research Agenda on Interventions[END_REF] we do not expect computer self-efficacy to influence PEOU directly, but to moderate the effect of PEOU on intention to use. The belief that one will be able to perform a task with the system in question will alter the willingness to use a system at a given level of PEOU in the first place. From our point of view computer selfefficacy is not a major factor for PEOU. The reason for this is that individuals with high computer self-efficacy will feel to be able to deal with expected problems rather than expecting not to have problems at all.

H7. Computer self-efficacy will moderate the relationship between PEOU and intention to use such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with higher computer self-efficacy.

Computer anxiety. The anxiety about the implications of computer use such as the loss of important data or fear of other possible mistakes, like damaging something prevent people from deciding to use a technology [START_REF] Bozionelos | Computer anxiety: relationship with computer experience and prevalence[END_REF]. This factor is important for the level of the PEOU. With software that seems very easy, there may be a chance to overcome computer anxiety. When things seem very complicated the probability of rejection is very high. People with a low computer anxiety should be much more likely to build up an intention to use with different levels of PEOU. Nov and Ye [START_REF] Nov | Users' personality and PEOU of digital libraries: The case for resistance to change[END_REF] postulate that computer anxiety will be negatively related to PEOU of a digital library. The authors do not bring forward arguments for this notion. We prefer to hypothesize a moderating effect, because we claim that the perception of the usability of the system is not altered by anxiety: It is the assessment of the PEOU in comparison to fears of doing something wrong that is the expectable effect.

H8. Computer anxiety will moderate the relationship between PEOU and intention to use such that the relationship is stronger for individuals with lower computer anxiety.

To some people interacting with software is a threat. They fear to do something wrong. The higher perceived risk of something bad to happen will diminish the tendency to trust the software.

H9. Computer anxiety will be negatively associated with trust.

Methodology

We used a laboratory experiment with 344 undergraduate business students. The participants used a mobile application that was developed within a multi-disciplinary research project and supports mobile social networks, group interaction and mobility. It was designed for the group of 20-to 35-year-olds. The application supports its users in organizing meetings with friends at events. Events can be public or private happenings like concerts or parties. The application helps to plan the event, navigate the user to the event, and supports the user at the event itself. It proposes events to the users that fit their individual interests as well as their personal calendars. The application suggests means of transport and informs about possible delays, e.g. when using public transport. At the event, information concerning the location, the program, and tickets can be retrieved from other services that can be integrated. If desired by the user the application is able to suggest new friends based on the user's settings and interests. Within the laboratory experiment, the students received information on the idea of the system, how it works, and how to interact with the application. Afterwards, all students were asked to complete four predefined tasks using the mobile application, ensuring that participants recognized all functionalities of the system. Then all participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire, including items for FFM [START_REF] Gosling | A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains[END_REF], Computer Anxiety [START_REF] Bozionelos | Computer anxiety: relationship with computer experience and prevalence[END_REF], Computer Self-Efficacy [START_REF] Compeau | Computer Self-Efficacy: Development of a Measure and Initial Test[END_REF], Trust [START_REF] Söllner | Understanding the Formation of Trust in IT Artifacts[END_REF], PEOU and PU [START_REF] Venkatesh | User Acceptance of Information Technology: Toward a Unified View[END_REF]. Responses were recorded on a bipolar 9-point Likert response format. To achieve high quality results, we implemented several reverse coded items into the questionnaire, and checked all cases regarding the consistence of the answers given to the items relevant for our data analysis and the reverse coded control items. Furthermore, we dropped all cases that included missing data to ensure high data quality. In the end, 272 data sets were included in our analysis. We relied on SPSS 20 and SmartPLS 2.0 [START_REF] Ringle | [END_REF] to analyse our data. We used the approach of Chin [START_REF] Chin | The Partial Least Squares Approach to Structural Equation Modeling[END_REF] to model and evaluate the moderating effects in PLS.

Results

Before discussing the results regarding our hypotheses, we first need to assess the quality of our reflective measurement models. Consequently, we check the average variance extracted (AVE), the composite reliability, the indicator loadings, crossloadings and correlations among our constructs as quality criteria [START_REF] Chin | The Partial Least Squares Approach to Structural Equation Modeling[END_REF]. Summing up, all values were above the required quality criteria. The lowest AVE was observed for PEOU (0.7640 > 0.5). The lowest composite reliability was observed for trust (0.9266 > 0.6) and the lowest indicator loading was 0.868 (> 0.7). Regarding the crossloadings, all indicators showed the highest loading on their desired construct and the AVE for each construct was higher than any correlation with another construct. Consequently, our measurement models are reflective and reliable, and we thus can now confidently turn towards the evaluation of our hypotheses. Overall, we found support for five of our nine hypotheses. We could show that there is a significant impact of extraversion on trust (H2, path coefficient 0.203, p < 0.01) and PU (H3, 0.132, p < 0.05). Furthermore, we could show that there is a significant negative impact of computer anxiety on trust (H9, -0.282, p < 0.001). Additionally, we could show a negative moderation effect between computer anxiety and PEOU (H8, -0.051, p < 0.05) and a positive effect between computer self-efficacy and PEOU (H7, 0.092, p < 0.05). We could not find a significant impact of emotional stability on trust (H1, -0.075, not significant). Furthermore, we did not find empirical support for three of our supposed moderation effects. In particular the moderation effects between openness and PEOU (H4, 0.002, n.s.), between openness and PU (H5, -0.002, n.s.), and between computer self-efficacy and trust (H6, -0.010, n.s.). A graphical illustration of the results regarding our hypotheses is presented in Fig. 1.

Discussion

With respect to the general personality traits of FFM our results support the elevated position of extraversion with respect to technology acceptance. Both hypotheses for extraversion could be validated in our study.

Concerning the technology related item computer anxiety we found a new and significant relationship with trust (H9). The approved moderating effect of computer anxiety and computer self-efficacy on the causal relationship of PEOU and intention to use (H7 and H8) contradicts with the formation of hypotheses and the findings of Venkatesh and Bala [START_REF] Venkatesh | Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a Research Agenda on Interventions[END_REF]. In accordance with Venkatesh and Bala [START_REF] Venkatesh | Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a Research Agenda on Interventions[END_REF] we did not expect an influence of the two technology related items on PU. Our findings concerning PEOU can contribute to another current research topic: Gefen and Straub [START_REF] Gefen | The Relative Importance of PEOU in IS Adoption: A Study of E-Commerce Adoption[END_REF] ask for the reason of the changing importance of PEOU for intention to use in different studies and state that this varying importance of PEOU may be related to the nature of the task. Derived from our research results also the user group might be important with respect to the expression of characteristics for computer anxiety and computer self-efficacy. Our ongoing research will focus on verifying our findings for diverse user groups. The findings concerning relationship of PEOU and personality traits (H7, H8) needs to be attuned and further developed with respect to other research findings [START_REF] Venkatesh | Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a Research Agenda on Interventions[END_REF], [START_REF] Gefen | The Relative Importance of PEOU in IS Adoption: A Study of E-Commerce Adoption[END_REF]. In this context the following concepts will be also considered: personal innovativeness [START_REF] Sim | Influence of Personal Innovativeness , Self-efficacy and Subjective Norm in Mcommerce Acceptance?: A Conceptual Review[END_REF], computer playfulness and perception of external control [START_REF] Venkatesh | Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a Research Agenda on Interventions[END_REF].

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Research model with results for hypotheses H1 to H9

Acknowledgment: We thank Hesse's Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and the Arts for funding our work as part of the research funding program LOEWE.


Ko Mizoguchi

Daisuke Sakamoto
email: sakamoto@is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Takeo Igarashi

Overview Scrollbar: A Scrollbar Showing an Entire Document as an Overview

Keywords: user interface, scrollbar, document navigation

A scrollbar is the most basic function of a graphical user interface. It is usually displayed on one side of an application window when a displayed document is larger than the window. However, the scrollbar is mostly presented as a simple bar without much information, and there is still plenty of room for improvement. In this paper, we propose an overview scrollbar that displays an overview of the entire document on it and implemented four types of overview scrollbars that use different compression methods to render the overviews. We conducted a user study to investigate how people use these scrollbars and measured the performance of them. Our results suggest that overview scrollbars are more usable than is a traditional scrollbar when people search targets that are recognizable in overview.

Introduction

People can access many documents easily by using computers, but they also face various problems inherent to electronic devices, so there is strong demand for improvements to electronic document interfaces. As an example of one such improvement, we redesigned the scrollbars of the computer application window.

Traditional scrollbars are drawn compactly on one side of applications in order to not reduce the main document space. However, since the resolution of displays is getting higher nowadays, users would be able to see main documents in a comfortable size without the need for making scrollbars smaller.

In this paper, we propose an overview scrollbar, which is a wide scrollbar that shows an overview of an entire document. Users can browse through a document by using an overview of the document, which is placed on one side of the application window, and the scrollbar enables the users to quickly grasp an overview of a full document and jump to any location immediately by clicking the overview. We implemented four types of overview scrollbars (uniform scaling, vertical compression, fisheye, and perspective) that use different methods to compress the overviews. The first two scrollbars compress the overviews by using a constant ratio. When a document is very large, the compression ratio gets very high, so recognizing detailed contents from the overview may become difficult. The latter two scrollbars compress the overviews by spatially varying the ratios with focus and context areas. The compression ratio is low in the focus area and high in the context area. We conducted a user study to investigate the usability and the problems of the overview scrollbars. Results show that they were more usable than were the traditional scrollbars when the search targets can be recognized only by overviews; however, we found some problems, especially with the fisheye and perspective ones.

Related Work

Shneiderman suggested basic improvements to scrollbars in 1992, such as placing marks on scrollbars or drawing page numbers on sliders [START_REF] Shneiderman | Designing the user interface: strategies for effective human-computer interaction[END_REF]. On the basis of these improvements, much research was done afterwards [START_REF] Björk | The scrollsearcher technique: Using scrollbars to explore[END_REF][START_REF] Byrd | A scrollbar-based visualization for document navigation[END_REF][START_REF] Alexander | Revisiting read wear: analysis, design, and evaluation of a footprints scrollbar[END_REF][START_REF] Laakso | Improved scroll bars[END_REF], but most of it was simple functions added to traditional scrollbars and did not mention drastic modifications such as our wider scrollbar. Document visualization research has been done in the field of HCI. The Reader's Helper [START_REF] Graham | The reader's helper: a personalized document reading environment[END_REF] is a document navigation system that uses Thumbar, which shows an overview of an entire document. Likewise, the Popout Prism [START_REF] Suh | Popout prism: adding perceptual principles to overview+detail document interfaces[END_REF] uses an overview panel to do so. These pieces of research used interfaces similar to our overview scrollbars, but they did not examine how to scale the overview in depth. Thus, we examined the scaling methods that are used in these pieces of research with our novel methods.

Hornbaek et al. conducted an experiment to compare the usability of linear, fisheye, and overview+detail interfaces on a reading environment [START_REF] Hornbaek | Reading of electronic documents: the usability of linear, fisheye, and overview+detail interfaces[END_REF][START_REF] Hornbaek | Reading patterns and usability in visualizations of electronic documents[END_REF]. Baudisch et al. implemented Fishnet, which is a web browser that uses a fisheye view [START_REF] Baudisch | Fishnet, a fisheye web browser with search term popouts: a comparative evaluation with overview and linear view[END_REF], and compared the usability between that and other interfaces. The purpose of the former study was to investigate which interfaces were suitable for enhancing a reader's degree of comprehension, and the purpose of the latter was to investigate which interfaces perform well when readers search text based targets in a document by using highlighted annotations. In this paper, we investigate the performance of scrollbars when readers search targets in a large document by using its full overview.

Overview Scrollbar

We propose four types of scrollbars showing document overviewsuniform scaling, vertical compression, fisheye, and perspective. The area users see in the main view is highlighted on the scrollbar. Users can scroll the document to any location by left clicking or dragging on the scrollbar. Although the methods for compressing the overviews are different in these scrollbars, there are basic rules in compression.

The width of the overview scrollbar is limited to 20% of the application window. When the height of the document is too short, the overview is scaled so that the width fits its maximum size, preserving the aspect ratio. In this case, the height of the overview is shorter than that of the application, so the overviews are arranged on the top and nothing is drawn under the overviews. In the case that the height of the document is too large, the overview is compressed as follows. shows the vertical compression scrollbar. When the vertical size of the document is too large to maintain the aspect ratio of the overview, the overview is simply compressed vertically so that the height matches that of the application.

(c) Fisheye Scrollbar: Figure 1(c) shows the fisheye scrollbar. When the overview needs to be compressed vertically, a focus lens appears whose height is 70% that of the application. Within the lens, the compression ratio is low and constant with the preserved aspect ratio but gets higher as the distance from the lens increases. In this scrollbar, the width outside of the lens is compressed as well as the height. The user has to control two entities in this scroll bar: the focus lens and the knob (position of the contents shown in the main view). Users respectively move the knob and the lens by holding down the left or right buttons and dragging with the mouse. The user can also move them simultaneously by dragging with both mouse buttons held down.

User Study

We conducted a user study to investigate the performance and problems of the traditional scrollbar (called "standard scrollbar" below) and the overview scrollbars. We measured the task completion time, the distance scrolled by dragging the scrollbar, and the distance scrolled with the mouse wheel. Nine students participated in this study. All participants were computer science department students who were familiar with the standard scrollbar and had never used the overview scrollbar.

4.1

Tasks

Participants performed four types of tasks on each scrollbar. The same types of tasks were created so that they would all have the same of difficulty. All tasks required the participants to search for and click objects on a vertically long document. The documents were created beforehand as an image by processing the screen captures of real websites or source code.

(a) Image search task: Participants were asked to search an image on a large document (Figure 2(a)). The document size was about 1000 × 7000 pixels and had about 60 images on it. Before the task began, we specified an image of about 190 × 140 pixels, whose instances appeared only once in the document.

(b) Product search task: Participants were asked to search for a product on a large document (Figure 2(b)). The document size was about 1000 × 6500 pixels and had 60 products on it. The products were arrayed in 3 columns and 20 rows and had one image representing the product and its title below the image. Before the task began, we specified a product that is unique in the document by using text. The text did not contain product specifications such as maker, model, or name but visual features such as color or form.

(c) Round trip task: Participants were asked to search for two links on a large document (Figure 2(c)). The document size was about 1000 × 6000 pixels and was mainly composed of text. There were two links highlighted in red and located near the top and bottom of the document. The participants were required to click these links Participants were asked to search for a specified line on a large source code (Figure 2(d)). The source code contained approximately 300 lines written in Java. We chose words that appeared roughly 20 times in the code and highlighted them in yellow. The participants were asked to locate a line in which the word was used in a specific way, for example, a line where the highlighted word is substituted by a value or a word that appears in a conditional "if" statement.

Questionnaire

Participants were asked to answer a questionnaire after completing all trials. The questionnaire consisted of four Likert Scale questions (5 pts.) and three freeform questions (Table 1). In the Likert scale questionnaire, the participants were asked to answer a questionnaire item by using a five point scale (5 was the most positive).

Table 1. Questionnaire Type # Question Likert 1 I felt that it was easy to get used to this method (get-used-to). 2 I thought that this method was easy to use (easy-to-use).

3 I thought that this method was suitable for displaying documents (suitability). 4 I want to use this method in practice (want-to-use).

Freeform 5 Please write any good points and bad points in using this method. 6 Please write any improvements for this method. 7 Please write anything on your impressions or findings.

Results

Performances

A one-way within-subject ANOVA was conducted to compare the scrollbars. In the distance scrolled by dragging the scrollbar and with a mouse wheel, there were no statistical differences between all of them. However, there were significant differences in the task completion time. Figure 3(a) shows the average completion times for each task. In the round trip task, there were significant differences between the scrollbars (F = 12.75, p < .01). The vertical compression, uniform scaling, and perspective scrollbars were significantly faster than was the standard one (p < .05).

Likewise, the uniform scaling and the vertical compression ones were significantly faster than was the fisheye one (p < .05), and the vertical compression one was significantly faster than was the perspective one (p < .05). In the image search task, there were no significant differences. However, there was a tendency for the standard scrollbar to be faster than any of the others. In the source code search task, two participants got lost in the source code for a long time when using the standard and perspective scrollbars. Therefore, the average completion times for these two seemed very slow, but there were no statistical differences.

Preferences

A one-way within-subject ANOVA was conducted in the questionnaire. Figure 3(b) shows the average scores of the participants for each task. In the first question, there were significant differences between the scrollbars (F = 4.33, p < .01). In pairwise comparisons, the uniform scaling scrollbar had a significantly higher score than did the fisheye one (p < .05). In the second question, we also found significant differences between the scrollbars (F = 3.54, p < .05). In pairwise comparisons, the vertical compression scrollbar had a significantly higher score than did the standard one (p < .05). In the third and forth questions, there were no significant differences. However, the standard scrollbar tended to be rated lower than any of the others.

Freeform Comments

We collected several comments for each scrollbar. For the standard scrollbar, some participants said, "It was very unstable to search for something in a document." We considered that they could not grasp an overview of the documents immediately, and they could not see where the targets were likely to be placed. Some participants said, "I felt little difference between the uniform scaling and vertical compression scrollbars." The round trip task was easy with both of the scrollbars because participants could see where the red links were placed in one glance by looking at the overview even if it was highly compressed. However, most participants noticed that identifying detailed contents only by seeing the overview was difficult. Thus, in the image search and the product search tasks, these scrollbars might have been used simply as a wide scrollbar.

For the fisheye and perspective scrollbars, some commented that the images within the focus area were relatively easy to recognize, although it seemed to still be difficult to recognize contents completely. Likewise, almost all of the participants had difficulties in getting used to these scrollbars. They said, "The method of moving the focus lens by right-clicking was not intuitive and difficult to get accustomed to," and some of them commented that it would be better to integrate the right button function into the left button.

Observations

We observed how the participants performed the tasks. In the image search and product search tasks, most participants looked at the overview first and tried to find the target objects only from the overview. However, once they noticed that they could not recognize the contents only from the overview, they started to search targets mainly by looking at the main document. In the end, they used the overview scrollbars only for scrolling (although there were a few participants who could search images only from the overview when using the fisheye and perspective scrollbars.) Furthermore, we found that many participants seemed to have difficulties in getting used to the fisheye and perspective scrollbars. The successful participants tended to use these scrollbars by clicking the left and the right mouse buttons simultaneously, moving the focus lens and scrolling the document at the same time. They seemed to search for the targets efficiently.

Summary of Results

Our results suggest that there were significant differences in the average completion times in the round trip task. In this task, we found that the overview scrollbars were significantly faster than was the standard one. When the participants performed this task, unlike any other tasks, they were not required to recognize the detailed contents.

Because of this feature, the advantages of the overview scrollbars that the participants can grasp an overview of the documents immediately and jump to the location they wanted immediately might have been emphasized. However, there were little differences except for in the round trip task. We guessed the reason for this result by checking the feedback and by observing the participants. Many participants suggested that the overview scrollbars (even the fisheye and perspective ones) were not powerful enough to let them completely grasp the detailed contents in a document. Therefore, as we observed, the participants tended to cope with the tasks by simply seeing the main document after a short trial of identifying the contents only with the overviews. Or rather, such a meaningless trial might produce some delays in image search and product search tasks, which might be one of the reasons why the standard scrollbar seemed to perform better.

Conclusion

We presented four types of overview scrollbars, conducted a user study, and analyzed study results. The result of the study and the feedback from the participants revealed to us many aspects for improvement in usability and for solving the problems of the overview scrollbars. First, we think that uniform scaling and vertical compression are already acceptable methods for document navigation systems because they marked a relative superior result to the other scrollbars both in performances and evaluations. Second, the user interfaces of the fisheye and perspective scrollbars were not perfect. If these two are implemented in a more sophisticated way, these methods might become more useful interfaces for navigating documents.

However, there are some limitations on this research. First, our user study was conducted in a small sample group so that a formal user study is necessary to verify usability of the interface. Likewise, comparison studies between not only the scrollbars but also the scrollbars and the other types of methods that were useful when showing long documents such as Perspective-Drag or Zoom-and-Drag mentioned in [START_REF] Guiard | Quantifying degree of goal directedness in document navigation: application to the evaluation of the perspective-drag technique[END_REF]. Finally, we didn't use eye-tracking systems to analyze the user's behavior through the study. How users switch visual attentions between scrollbars and contents and how they interact with the scrollbars are both interesting. By quantifying these interactions, there may arise valuable results and discussions.

  (a) Uniform Scaling Scrollbar: Figure 1(Left) and Figure 1(a) show the uniform scaling scrollbar. The aspect ratio of the overview is maintained regardless of the vertical size of the document. Thus, if the vertical size of the document is too large, the width of the overview may become too narrow. (b) Vertical Compression Scrollbar: Figure 1(b)

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Vertically large document with the uniform scaling scrollbar and the overview scrollbars: (a) uniform scaling, (b) vertical compression, (c) fisheye, and (d) perspective.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Sample task execution screens. Search targets are surrounded by green rectangles. (a) Image search task, (b) Product search task, (c) Round trip task, and (d) Source code search task.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. (a) Average task completion times, (b) Average scores (error bars indicate 90% confidence intervals.)


Stephen Kimani
email: stephenkimani@gmail.com

Eunice Njeri
email: njeri.eunice@gmail.com

John Njue
email: njuejohn@gmail.com

Online Requirements and Portal Design for Female University Science & Technology Students in Kenya 1

Keywords: Online user requirements, user interface design, online portals, science and technology, female students

In science and technology (S&T) career progression, women drop out at virtually every step until extremely few are found in positions of influence and recognition. Although this is a global problem, it is even more critical in Africa. The number of female university S&T students in Africa has remained low for the past about three decades. There is thus a dire need to encourage/support such students especially in African countries, including Kenya. Online portals have the potential to motivate/support Kenyan female university S&T students. It is however critical to understand the characteristics and requirements of these students. While there exists literature on the differences between online female users and male users, women in S&T in African countries (including Kenya) face rather unique challenges. This paper reports a study that indicates the characteristics and online requirements of Kenyan female university S&T students, and then describes a corresponding online portal design.

Introduction

In science and technology (S&T) career progression, women drop out at virtually every step until extremely few are found in positions of influence and recognition. Although this is a global problem, it is even more critical in Africa [START_REF] Kabeer | Building Women's Capacity in Science and Technology in the South -A Study for the Millennium Science Initiative / Science Institutes Group[END_REF]. Kabeer and Magnus [START_REF] Kabeer | Building Women's Capacity in Science and Technology in the South -A Study for the Millennium Science Initiative / Science Institutes Group[END_REF] go on to say that in Africa unlike other regions of the world, the number of women pursuing S&T studies at university has remained low and stagnated for the past about three decades. According to Karanja in [START_REF] Karanja | Kenyan women hit out at male hold on science[END_REF], the relatively lower number of S&T female students in Kenyan universities is attributed to factors such as: gender stereotyping; early pregnancies, heavier domestic workloads, etc. There is thus a dire need to encourage and support women who are pursuing S&T in universities especially in African countries, including Kenya.

On the same note, research suggests that Internet-based interventions, such as online portals, can lead to positive changes in motivation, perception and behavior (e.g. [START_REF] Baghaei | Engaging Families in Lifestyle Changes through Social Networking[END_REF], [START_REF] Liebeskind | Social Networks, Learning, and Flexibility: Sourcing Scientific Knowledge in New Biotechnology Firms[END_REF]). Online portals therefore have the potential to motivate and support Kenyan female university S&T students. One of the key prerequisites to designing appropriate online portals for Kenyan female university S&T students is to gain a deeper understanding of: their background, the challenges they face, their rating of potential interventions to the challenges, their Internet access and usage, their experience with and preferences for online portals. Various studies have been conducted in order to understand systematic differences between online female users and their male counterparts (e.g. [5], [START_REF] Komathi | Influence of gender role on internet usage pattern at home among academicians[END_REF], [START_REF] Joinson | Looking at', 'Looking up' or 'Keeping up with' people? Motives and uses of Facebook[END_REF]). While it is possible to glean from such studies the characteristics and requirements of online female users, it is however worth reiterating that women in S&T in African countries (including Kenya) face challenges that are rather unique from those faced by women in other parts of the world [1] [START_REF] Karanja | Kenyan women hit out at male hold on science[END_REF].

There exist a number of females and technology websites (e.g., wigsat.org, awis.org, etc), but they do not take into account the unique contextual challenges and specific needs of female university S&T students from Kenya. It should also be noted that gender-disaggregated data pertaining to women in S&T in Kenya is largely unavailable [START_REF] Mohest | Gender Workplace Policy[END_REF]. There is therefore the need to conduct a study that illuminates our understanding of the characteristics, needs, and online requirements of Kenyan women in S&T. This research work in particular characterizes Kenyan female university S&T students, describes their online portal requirements, and presents a corresponding online portal design. The contribution of this paper is therefore two-fold:

 It describes the specific online user requirements of Kenyan female university S&T students.  It proposes and describes an online portal user interface design appropriate for Kenyan female university S&T students. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the online requirements study in terms of the methodology, findings and emanating requirements; Section 3 describes the realized portal design; and Section 4 concludes the paper.

Online Usage and Requirements Study

This describes the study methodology, findings and emanating requirements.

Methodology

The study was aimed at determining online usage and requirements of Kenyan female university S&T students. We designed and administered a questionnaire targeting female university S&T students in Kenya. The questionnaire had questions on:

 Demographics of Kenyan female university S&T students The questions/items included in the questionnaire were informed by literature review on relevance of ICT in empowering women and promoting gender equality (such as [START_REF] Ramilo | Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women through ICT. Women2000 and Beyond[END_REF][10]), common services/features in existing S&T portals, and also by preliminary interviews we had previously conducted with successful women in S&T in Kenya. Participants were recruited using: direct emailing, snowballing sampling, and class mailing lists. The questionnaire was made available online and in hardcopy. It was sent to 104 Kenyan female university S&T students. It was administered August-October 2012. Out of the 104 students contacted, 35 completed the questionnaire.

Findings and User Requirements

This subsection reports the findings and the emanating user requirements.

Demographics and Gender-related Issues. Most of the respondents (86%) were undergraduate students. Female university students in S&T highlighted many challenges that they have personally faced as females students in S&T. The most highlighted challenge was financial constraints. The female university students also highlighted challenges that they know other female S&T students have faced. The most cited challenge was again financial constraints. From both the challenges that the students personally faced and the challenges they knew others faced, the top challenges were: Financial constraints, Stereotypes related to women, Lack of mentoring, Academic programme is sometimes not relevant to the real-world, Lack of exposure, Lack of networks, Isolation/male-dominated environment, Discrimination, Lack of recognition, Family didn't have confidence in them, Lack of assertiveness. The highlighted challenges echo what Kabeer and Magnus in [START_REF] Kabeer | Building Women's Capacity in Science and Technology in the South -A Study for the Millennium Science Initiative / Science Institutes Group[END_REF] have highlighted as Africaspecific gender-related obstacles and what other researchers have highlighted as Kenya-specific gender-related obstacles. For instance: lack of access to good quality S&T education for females [START_REF] Kabeer | Building Women's Capacity in Science and Technology in the South -A Study for the Millennium Science Initiative / Science Institutes Group[END_REF] (an obstacle related to Lack of exposure); failure of the formal S&T education to demonstrate the relevance of S&T to the females' day-to-day lives and challenges [START_REF] Kabeer | Building Women's Capacity in Science and Technology in the South -A Study for the Millennium Science Initiative / Science Institutes Group[END_REF] [START_REF] Chetcuti | Girls' Attitudes Towards Science in Kenya[END_REF] (an obstacle related to Academic programme is sometimes not relevant to the real-world); and socio-cultural obstacles such as: gender stereotyping and customs, heavier domestic workloads for daughters than sons, etc [START_REF] Karanja | Kenyan women hit out at male hold on science[END_REF] (obstacles related to Stereotypes related to women and discrimination).

As for the female S&T students' rating of interventions for addressing the challenges women in S&T face, the percentages can be seen in Fig. 1. The female S&T students reported on the importance of specific Internet activities as seen in Fig. 3. Browse and search for information for their research and class work was leading and closely followed by Send and receive emails. It is worth mentioning that the Internet activities that female S&T students perform largely correspond to those that they consider of high importance. For instance: Email, Browse and search for information for research/class work, Access current news, Keep in touch/ catch up with friends, Career advice, Browse and search for information for personal tasks. Online portal services and features. The female S&T students also reported on the importance of specific services and features if they were to be included in portals for female university students in S&T as seen in Fig. 4. We give a summarized description of the services/features that were rated as the most important in Table 1.

Table 1. Most important services/features

Service/feature

Relationship with other findings Scholarships Financial constraints were earlier on highlighted as the challenge most of the female S&T students had faced, and knew other female S&T students who had faced it.

Job search

This is closely related with Career advice, which was also rated as an Internet activi-ty of relatively high importance as a general Internet activity.

Career advice

As noted in the row above, this was also rated as an Internet activity of relatively high importance as a general Internet activity. It is also worth noting that this could be due to lack of mentoring, lack of exposure and lack of networks, which were previously highlighted as some of the top challenges that female S&T students face.

S&T news

This too had been rated as one of the most important general Internet activities.

Technical support -Expert advice

This could be due to lack of exposure and lack of networks, which were earlier highlighted as some of the top challenges that female S&T students face.

S&T articles and journals

It was earlier on reported that Publishing the contributions of women in S&T was one of the top interventions that the female S&T students had proposed.

Contests and awards

This could be due to lack of recognition, which was earlier on reported as one of the top challenges female S&T students face. It was earlier on also reported that Awards for female students was one of the top interventions these students had proposed.

Links to other sites -Grants

Financial constraints had been rated as the female S&T students' topmost challenge.

Connecting and catching up with friends

This was also rated as an Internet activity of relatively high importance as a general Internet activity. Moreover, lack of networks was earlier on reported as one of the top challenges female S&T students face. Instant messaging This is related to lack of networks, one of the female S&T students' top challenges.

Summary of the Findings and User

Requirements. There were various specific portal services and features that were rated as important by respondents. The proposed portal should particularly seek to support the following services and features: Scholarships, Job search, Email support, Career advice, S&T news, Technical support, Expert advice, S&T articles and journals, Contests and awards, Links to other sites (e.g. library catalogs), Grants, Connecting and catching up with friends, and Instant messaging. The proposed portal should also have services and features for addressing the main challenges that female S&T students face. Moreover, the proposed portal should have services and features for supporting the outstanding interventions for addressing challenges that women in S&T face. For instance: information about financial/funding opportunities; online discussion forums where female S&T students can manage discuss and educate one another on stereotypes; providing the correct or accurate information about women; information about female role models or successful women in S&T; enable female S&T students to interact with mentors; etc.

3

StoreRooms User Interface Design

In this section, we describe the preliminary user interface design of an online portal for Kenyan female university S&T students based on the findings of our study. The online portal is referred to as StoreRooms (Science and Technology Opportunities and Resources Portal for Kenyan Female University Students). The primary target users of the online portal are Kenyan female university S&T students. Toward ensuring that the proposed online portal addresses the requirements emanating from Section 2, the services/features are categorized/structured as seen in Fig. 5. Under each item in that level, we have the corresponding sub-items (e.g. Fig. 6 for sub-item Opportunities). We have realized the preliminary user interface design based on the foregoing service and feature categorization/structuring. The corresponding design for the high level items is as seen in Fig. 7. An example of the design of the user interface for lower level layers can be seen in Fig. 8 (for Scholarships under sub-item Opportunities). Note in the lower level layers of the user interface, there is a home menu item to take the user back to the high level.

Conclusions and Future Work

In this paper we have described a study that was carried out in order to gain a deeper understanding of the characteristics and online requirements of Kenyan female university S&T students with regard to online portals. We have also described the emanating user requirements and the preliminary user interface design for an online portal intended for the Kenyan female university S&T students.

We noted in Sections 2 and 3 that the portal needs to have a service for supporting interaction between students and mentors. Based on that, we have consequently recently conducted a study involving potential mentors of Kenyan female university S&T students. We are analyzing the data collected from the potential mentors. The online portal is being developed using user-centered design. The current preliminary design will be subjected to heuristic evaluation. The results of the evaluation and the study with the potential mentors will be used to inform subsequent refinements of the design in order to realize an improved user interface design. After that we will conduct a user-based evaluation. Besides assessing the design, the user-based evaluation will investigate user access privileges and roles, and also determine strategies for user attraction and retention.

The main Internet access methods for the female S&T students suggest that these students rely largely on laptops and mobile devices for Internet access/use. It would thus be recommended to also consider developing a mobile version of the portal.



  Barriers and interventions related to Kenyan female university S&T students  Internet access and usage of Kenyan female university S&T students  Services and features that are desirable in online portals for Kenyan female university S&T students

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Interventions for addressing the challenges.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Specific Internet activities.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Importance of specific Internet activities.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Importance of services/features in future portals for female S&T students.

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Categorization and structure (high level layer).

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Sub-items for menu item Opportunities.

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Preliminary user interface design (high level layer).

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. Preliminary user interface design (Opportunities > Scholarships).

Research funded by Strengthening Information Society Research Capacity Alliance, SIRCA II


Claudia Stockhausen
email: stockhausen@gdv.cs.uni-frankfurt.de

Justine Smyzek
email: smyzek@gdv.cs.uni-frankfurt.de

Detlef Krömker
email: kroemker@gdv.cs.uni-frankfurt.de

Beats Down: Using Heart Rate for Game Interaction in Mobile Settings

Keywords: Physiological Interaction, Mobile Games, Game Interaction

Mobile devices allow integration of different sensors, offering new possibilities for interaction. Integrating heart rate into a mobile game offers several possibilities for enhancing gameplay. In our work we implemented a game prototype on a mobile device with different game modes. Increasing and decreasing heart rate is used for game interaction. The mobile scenario allows involving the environment to influence the heart rate. We conducted a first user experience study for evaluation of the integrated interaction methods in mobile scenarios and conclude with our future work.

Introduction

While physiological data has a fast growing influence in computer control, as well as in games and evaluation [START_REF] Mandryk | Physiological Measures for Game Evaluation[END_REF], the mobility aspect seems to be neglected. Even though mobile platforms inherit several possibilities to connect and to implement measurement sensors, the aspect of using physiological data for control and interaction within games is yet to be explored in mobile scenarios. Many games using physiological data adapt game elements or game difficulty based on the measured data. Game mechanics can be enhanced by direct or indirect physiological control [START_REF] Nacke | Biofeedback game design: using direct and indirect physiological control to enhance game interaction[END_REF]. [START_REF] Dekker | Please biofeed the zombies: enhancing the gameplay and display of a horror game using biofeedback[END_REF] describes a way to integrate different measured data into a commercial computer game engine. During gameplay different game elements and effects were adapted based on the players' physiological signals like e.g. shader effects, volume of the environment and movement speed.

An Adaptation engine, described in [START_REF] Duarte | Coupling interaction and physiological metrics for interaction adaptation[END_REF], uses physiological data for evaluation of user performance. Based on the user performance and several other parameters, like e.g. motor activity, the way of interaction can be adapted Another field of application for physiological signals which focus more on health aspects are exertion games. In [START_REF] Nenonen | Using heart rate to control an interactive game[END_REF] heart rate is used for an exercising biathlon computer game, where the heart rate is used to control the skiing speed. "Heart Burn" [START_REF] Stach | Heart rate control of exercise video games[END_REF] uses heart rate scaling to adapt game performance to the fitness level of the player.

The mentioned examples are stationary and do not take advantage of interaction with physiological data in mobile scenarios.

Only few examples exist using physiological data and taking advantage of the mobile aspect of mobile games. One example is "HeartBeat" [START_REF] Magielse | HeartBeat: an outdoor pervasive game for children[END_REF], which is an outdoor pervasive game for children, in which two teams play against each other. Players wear heart rate sensors and a small device, while trying to capture members of the opposing team. Heart rate is integrated and transmitted to the small device which plays a sound, when an opponent is near and the heart rate of the opponent exceeds a given limit.

Another example is "Zone of Impulse" [START_REF] Reitz | Zone of impulse: physiological data enhanced gaming[END_REF], a simple multiplayer space shooter developed for mobile devices. Galvanic skin response and heart rate are used to conclude on the user state and adapt the game difficulty to allow balancing gameplay. Both games were developed for mobile devices but does not allow to directly control the game by physiological signals or the possibility of integrating/addressing the mobile aspect/using the environment.

The game prototype, we present, uses heart rate as a means of game interaction. Gameplay can be influenced directly by increasing or decreasing the own heart rate. The novelty in our work is the aspect of taking advance of the mobility. This mobility allows the player more flexibility on how the game is played. It offers the possibility to influencing the heart rate by movements and expansive use of the environment to get a deeper gaming experience. One of the important aspects during development was to make sure the connecting devices allow a high mobility range and the minimization of user constraints and boundaries.

Prototype

The game is named "Beats Down". In order to reach a broad audience we based the game on a simple principle. The game field (figure 1) consists of 12 fields that flash randomly in red for a short time. To collect points, the gamer has to hit the flashing fields. The goal of the game is to get as many points as possible within a given time frame.

There are different ways to use the heart rate as an input for the game. Heart rate can increase, decrease or be held in a certain zone. Heart rate can even be used for further analysis of heart rate variability, which allows concluding on the mental effort of a person [START_REF] Rowe | Heart rate variability: indicator of user state as an aid to human-computer interaction[END_REF]. We decided to focus on the way a player´s heart rate fluctuates, because the fluctuation can be influenced very easy by the player. Therefore, we distinguished between two game modes:

 challenge: elevate gamer heart rate to speed up game play  relax: lower gamer heart rate to get bonus points Furthermore one game mode without heart rate has also been integrated. In this simple mode without physiological sensing, the game only consists of hitting the flashing fields without any other input elements.

Figure 1: Layout of Beats Down

At the beginning, the player can choose between these three game modes. If a game mode with heart rate is chosen, the heart rate is displayed at the top of the game field as an additional visual element, next to game speed or point multiplier.

Challenge Mode

In the challenge mode the speed of the flashing elements is controlled by the gamer´s heart rate. An elevated heart rate correlates with a higher gaming speed. The elements flash up faster, but they also disappear faster. The gamer requires a faster reaction time in order to select the flashing elements, but has increased opportunities of collecting points.

The escalation of the heart rate can be achieved by physical activity or faster breathing. Due to the mobility of the game platform the player is able to engage in various physical activities to increase the heart rate.

Relax Mode

In the relax mode, the gamer acquires a bonus if the heart rate is decreasing. The more the heart rate is decreased in comparison to the starting heart rate, the more the point multiplier rises, resulting in a higher score for each hit. Each lowering of the heart rate by 10% in comparison to the start value is rewarded with a point multiplier bonus of 1. For example, should the heart rate be lowered by 10% in comparison to the start heart rate, the points will double. To lower the heart rate for the relaxing mode, the gamer can take slow deep breaths or sit/lay down.

Implementation

The game is developed for Android 4.0.3 devices and optimized for a resolution of 470dp x 320dp. To allow mobile scenarios a sport heart rate monitor is integrated for heart rate measurement. The Zephyr HxM heart rate monitor (figure 2) transmits the data from the chest strap to the game directly via Bluetooth.

Preliminary User Test

To evaluate the game's interactivity, participants played all of the different modes of the game. The focus of the test was on the use of heart rate in the game and the aspect of mobility during gameplay. One of the goals was to monitor reactions of the participants upon using the freedom of movement for influencing the heart rate. Furthermore we wanted to find out how fun are these interactions perceived to be. The user tests started in a usability lab, designed as a living room. Participants had enough space for complex movements and relaxing. Furthermore participants had the possibility to go outside the lab and move freely through the building or campus while playing the game modes with physiological sensing. In both situations, the participants were video recorded and all activities participants choose, were recorded.

Experimental Procedure

The user test is designed as a three-parameters test per test subject. The three evaluated parameters were: challenging, relaxing and a game mode without heart rate integration. The parameters were set in a randomized order. Each version of the game was played for 2 minutes and after each game session, players had a 2 minute break.

Activities for increasing or decreasing heart rate in the different game modes were recorded.

Before the test, participants had to fill out a demographic questionnaire, answering questions about their previous gaming experience. After each session they had to fill out a questionnaire related to the current game mode and their gaming experience in that particular mode.

Participants

13 participants took part in the tests (11 male and 2 female). The age of the participants was between 18 and 36 with an average age of 24. Because of health concerns, one person could not play the challenge mode. Therefore we decided to exclude this participant from the analysis of the data. On a scale from 1 to 5 (1=very bad, 5=very good), participants rated their gaming experience on average with 3.9 and their fitness level with 3.5.

Results

Analyzing the results of the questionnaire, a Friedman test showed differences in the enjoyment ratings of the participants for the different game modes (χ2(2)=16.263, p=0.000). Figure 3 shows the ratings for the different game modes concerning gratification levels experienced through the gameplay. The challenge mode was rated the highest, closely followed by the relax mode.

Investigating the ratings of game enjoyment further, a t-test between challenge and relax mode shows no significant difference (p=0.1645). A t-test shows a significant difference between normal mode and the challenge mode (p=0.00) and between normal mode and relax mode (p=0.0025). During the test, participants proved to be highly creative concerning their freedom of movement. Various activities of the participants for increasing or decreasing heart rate were recorded during the test (examples in figure 4). Several test subjects decided to run up and down the stairs while playing the challenge mode. Other activities in the challenge mode were: push-ups, running in the building, knee bends, running on the spot. In the relax mode one participant did yoga to raise the points multiplier. Other relaxing activities were: sitting, breathing exercises, lying down and meditation.

Questioned if they would integrate or use their environment in a mobile game, e.g. running up stairs, the mean rating was 4.07 on a five-point-scale (1=would not integrate/use it, 5= would integrate/use it). During the user study the participants made several comments and recommendations concerning the different game modes and game usability. Most participants asked for a multi-player function, especially for the challenge mode. One participant asked to integrate different options for a bonus in the challenge mode besides game speed.

The participants were overall very interested and enthusiastic towards the implied activities and mobility aspects of the game. Furthermore they would use the offered interactions based on heart rate and enjoyment during gameplay was rated positively; specifically during the challenge mode the results showed an increase in communication and engagement.

Conclusion & Future Work

We implemented a first prototype of a mobile game, integrating different forms of interaction based on heart rate. In this game we focused only on two possible interactions but we plan to integrate several different game modes in an upcoming version of the game. A first short study showed that mobility can enhance physiological data integration for interaction into gameplay. Participants showed creativity regarding the use of the environment for interaction. The offered interactions based on heart rate were positively rated in the first user study. Many possible application areas arise. For example, the mobile aspect of the integration of heart rate for interaction offers the possibility for the development of new exergames, which can be played independently from stationary devices or in combination with location based tasks. Furthermore it would be interesting to investigate further application areas, not only restricted to games.

Future game modes

After analyzing the experiment results, we would like to increase the heart rate degree of interactivity with the gameplay, giving more variation on point rewards and additional game variables. For example rewarding heart rate increases in challenge mode based on percentage with a multiplier for points, similar to the relax mode or other features in future game concepts. While in relax mode incentivize players with visual motivation even for small heart rate reductions and earn time based points for holding such achievements. Furthermore other physiological data (like electrodermal activity) can increase optional information for the challenge and relax mode. This might result in additional modes of physiological feedback and interactivity a player can choose from.

A multiplayer function can increase the challenge level between participants and give us more information about mobility and player interaction. Communication and interaction between player devices can be used for achievement, ranking or feedback purposes.

Additionally, gameplay can be combined with location based tasks, restricting the interaction based on heart rate to specific locations. For example, it can be restricted to a park or a building where you can go for a run or use the stairs.

Future studies

To achieve best results and in order to find the optimal game modes, more assessments are necessary. Not only testing with single player modes but also the multiplayer options should be evaluated to verify our current findings. As an additional aspect we would like to attempt using different environments to determine player mobility limits and to expand their range of activities.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Zephyr HxM heart rate monitor

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Results of game enjoyment rating of the different game modes

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Participant during relax mode (left) and during challenge mode (right)


Zerrin Sungur
email: zsungur@anadolu.edu.tr

Özlem Alpu
email: oalpu@ogu.edu.tr

Özlem Oktal

Berna Yazıcı

The Profile of Law Clerks Using Judiciary Informatics in Turkey 

Keywords: law clerks, e-government, judiciary informatics, Turkey

The automation of judicial services got it's start in 1998 in Turkey. In order to increase performance and productivity of these services many regulations have been made in parallel with the innovations and improvements realised in the sector of information technologies. There are many internal users using the judiciary informatics such as chief judges, judges, attorneys general, solicitors, prison officers and law clerks. The aim of this study is to analyse the profile of the law clerks using judiciary informatics in Turkey and evaluate their uses of judiciary informatics in terms of the dimensions of performance and effort expectancy, attitude toward using technology, security and risk and anxiety. Web based questionnaire, which was prepared as a five-point Likert type scale including 4898 law clerks, was analysed through factor analysis. The empirical research was carried out between July and August 2012 in Turkey.

Introduction

Judicial services have been undergoing a rapid transformation in late 1990s due to the impact of the technological changes. They enabled the delivery of services over the Internet. The automation of judicial services got it's start in 1998 in Turkey. In order to increase performance and productivity of these services many regulations have been made in parallel with the innovations and improvements realised in the sector of information technologies. Information systems that are scalable, multi-user and workbased systems came into question in order to increase performance and productivity of institutions. The automation of judicial services is an important step among the e-government practices. Some of the contributions of judiciary informatics can be sited as speed, accuracy, consistency, transparency, effectiveness and efficiency and saving [START_REF] Baier | The Law Clerks: Profile of an Institution[END_REF] .

The Job of Law Clerks

Some studies indicate that the early practice was very largely against the emergence of the law clerks as a constantly changing group of inexperienced but bright and welltrained young law-school graduates [START_REF] Belanger | Trust and Risk in E-government Adoption[END_REF] . The first official reference to the idea of employing assistants for the Supreme Court justices occurred in 1885 [START_REF] Compeau | Social Cognitive Theory and Individual Reactions to Computing Technology: A Longitudinal Study[END_REF] . The job of law clerk has evolved in name as well as in substance as up from 'secretary', for the 'law clerk', 'law assistant', 'research aide', 'legal assistant' and also 'law examiners' [START_REF] Crump | Law Clerks: Their Roles and Relationships with Their Judges[END_REF] . Knowledge, experience and education are required for a law clerk. He/she has to be knowledgeable about laws, court procedures and government regulations. Also he/she to be knowledgeable about administrative and clerical procedures and systems such as word processing, managing files and records, stenography and transcription, designing forms, and other office procedures and terminology. Knowledge of circuit boards, processors, chips, electronic equipment, and computer hardware and software, including applications and programming are also crucial skills for law clerks.

Job duties of law clerks vary between countries, but some common tasks are;

─ preparing affidavits of documents and maintain document files and case correspondence, ─ searching for and studying legal documents to investigate facts and law of cases, to determine causes of action and prepare cases, ─ researching and analyzing law sources to prepare drafts of beliefs or arguments for review, approval, and use by attorney, ─ reviewing and filing pleadings, petitions and other documents relevant to court actions, ─ serving copies of pleas to opposing counsel, ─ communicating and arbitrating disputes between parties.

3

The aim of the study

The aim of this study is to analyze the profile of the law clerks using judiciary informatics in Turkey and evaluate their uses of judiciary informatics in terms of the dimensions of performance and effort expectancy, attitude toward using technology, anxiety, and security and risk.

Sampling and Obtaining Data

Prepared web based questionnaire was applied to all of internal users including law clerks by The Ministry of Justice General Directorate of Information Technologies and 8840 internal users replied. The population size is 76 592. The internal users, chief judges, judges, attorneys general, solicitors, prison officers and law clerks, were assigned to the questionnaire. The empirical research was carried out between July and August 2012 in Turkey. The sample size of law clerks was 4898. Data were analysed by SPSS 21.0.

Findings and Evaluation

The profile of law clerks based on their demographic characteristics was shown in Of the sample 0.16 % have graduated from a secondary school, 26.23 % have graduated from a high school, 70.76 % have graduated from a university, 2.83 % have an MBA degree and over. Of the sample, 15.67 % have less than 1 year work experience, 42.93 % have 1-5 years work experience, 27.74 % have 6-10 years work experience and 13.63 % have 11 years and over work experience. Of the respondents 50.80 % have 1-3 years experience of the use of information system, 40.20 % have 4-6 years experience of the use of information system, and 9 % have 7 years and over experience of the use of information system. The scale was subjected to principal components analysis with varimax rotation. The KMO values was 0.92 and Barlett's Test of Sphericity reached statistical significance (p< .001), supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix. Principal component analysis revealed the presence of four components, explaining 32.88 per cent, 11.29 per cent, 7.07 per cent and 6.41 per cent of the variance respectively. The responses of law clerks were analysed by factor analysis and four main dimensions were obtained. These are namely; performance and effort expectancy, attitude toward using technology, anxiety, and security and risk. These four factors that eigenvalues higher than 1 are explaining 57.49 per cent of total variance. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.72 for 20 items in our questionnaire. Statements about variables were prepared in 5 point Likert type scale (1= strongly disagree,…,5= strongly agree). The statements used in the questionnaire were adapted from various studies. [START_REF] Davis | Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology[END_REF] These statements are presented in Table 3. [START_REF] Davis | Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology[END_REF] 0.73 Unauthorized entry to information system is not possible. 0.72 There is no danger of leaking information from information system. 0.70 Information system is reliable. 0.63 Violations of security in information systems are determined by judicial competent authorities. 0.47

Conclusion

In this study, the profile of law clerks using judiciary informatics in Turkey was examined. And also their uses of judiciary informatics in terms of the dimensions of performance and effort expectancy, attitude toward using technology, security and risk and anxiety were analysed. The demographic findings indicate that it is a job that men prefer more, and 96 % of them under the age of 44. Most of them have graduated from a university. Of the sample 70 % have 1-10 years work experience and half of them have 1-3 years of experience of the use of information systems. The responses of law clerks were analysed by factor analysis and as a result four main dimensions were namely; performance and effort expectancy, attitude toward using technology, security and risk and anxiety. These four factors that eigenvalues higher than 1 are explaining 57.495 per cent of total variance. It can be said that law clerks are one of the most active users of judiciary informatics in Turkey. In order to increase performance and productivity in judicial services it seems necessary to know the profile of the internal users especially law clerks in judiciary informatics. In this meaning, the contribution of the findings of this study to HCI can be taken into account.

  Mahoney, J. D.: Law Clerks: For better or for Worse? Brooklyn Law Review. 54 323 (1988).[START_REF] Crump | Law Clerks: Their Roles and Relationships with Their Judges[END_REF] Baier, P. R.: The Law Clerks: Profile of an Institution. Vanderbilt Law Review. 26 1130(1973).

1 http://www.uyap.gov.tr/tanitim/tarihce.html 2 Newland, C. A.: Personal Assistants to Supreme Court Justices: The Law Clerks. Oregon Law Review. 40 316 (1961). 3

Table 1 .

 1 The demographic findings indicate that 61.55 % of law clerks are male and 38.45 % are female respectively. Of the respondents, 16.90 % are between 18-24 years of age, 62.62 % between 25-34, 16.39 % between 35-44, 4.09 % 45 years and over.

Table 1 .

 1 Law clerks' demographic characteristics

	Variable	Variable level	Frequency	%
			(n= 4898)
	Gender	Female	1883	38.45
		Male	3015	61.55
	Age	18-24	828	16.90
		25-34	3067	62.62
		35-44	803	16.39
		45 years and over	200	4.09
	Educational status	Secondary school	8	0.16
		High school	1285	26.23
		MA degree	3466	70.76
		MBA degree	137	2.79
		Doctorate	2	0.04
	Work Experience	Less than 1 year	768	15.67
		1-5 years	2103	42.93
		6-10 years	1359	27.74
		11-15 years	323	6.59
		16 years and over	345	7.04
	Experience of the use	1-3 years	2488	50.80
	of information system	4-6 years	1969	40.20
		7 years and over	441	9.00

Table 2 .

 2 Results of factor analysis

		KMO and Bartlett's Test
	Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.	0.92
	Bartlett's Test of Sphericity	Approx. Chi-Square	36371.35
		df	190
		Sig.	0.001

Table 3 .

 3 Thomson, R. L., Higgins, C. A., Howell, J. M.: Personal Computing: Toward a Conceptual Model of Utilization. MIS Quarterly. 15 125--143 (1991); Davis, F. D.: Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology. MIS Quarterly. 13 319-340 (1989); Compeau, D., Higgins C. A., Huff, S.: Social Cognitive Theory and Individual Reactions to Computing Technology: A Longitudinal Study. MIS Quarterly. 23 145-158 (1999); Moore, G. C., Benbasat, I.: Development of an Instrument to Measure the Perceptions of Adopting an Information Technology Innovation. Information Systems Research. 2 192--222 (1991); Venkatesh, V.: Determinants of Perceived Ease of Use: Integrating Control, Intrinsic Motivation, and Emotion into the Technology Acceptance Model. Factor loadings, variance percents of factor analysis with varimax rotation

	In-

 This study was supported by Anadolu University Scientific Research Projects Commission under the grant no: 1203E045.