Cristiano Maciel
email: cmaciel@ufmt.br

Vinicius Carvalho Pereira
email: vinicius.carpe@yahoo.fr

Social Network Users' Religiosity and the Design of Post Mortem Aspects

Keywords: social networks, Internet Generation, post mortem, religion

Social networks increase the challenges of designing real-world aspects whose computational abstraction is not simple. This includes death and digital legacy, strongly influenced by cultural phenomena, such as religion. Therefore, it is important to analyze youngsters" concepts of death in the web, as the Internet Generation outnumbers other groups of social network users. Besides, due to their age, many of them face other people´s death for the first time on the web. This paper analyzes to what extent these users" religion and the belief in afterlife may signal guidelines for a social network project that considers volition towards digital legacy. The data herein analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively come from a survey-based research with Brazilian high school students. The contributions for Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) studies comprise design solutions that may consider aspects of religion, death and digital legacy, also improving users" and designers" understanding on these issues in system design.

Introduction

In the context of the diverse technological changes we face, especially the large use of social networks, many questions arise and make users and researchers think of their impacts on society. This challenge is bigger for software programs in which users connect, communicate and share content, because there are some real-world facts that migrate to the web and are difficult to undergo computational abstraction. Among these facts, users" post mortem aspects may be hard to design. Being born, growing up and dying are natural events in human beings" life cycle, but things are not that simple on the web. The misalignment between life and death in the "real" and the digital worlds makes it harder to design post mortem aspects for social networks [START_REF] Maciel | Issues of the social web interaction project faced with afterlife digital legacy[END_REF]. Software brings us to a new scenario, in which human beings can become immortal, even if involuntarily.

Considering the possibility of immortality on the web, which involves bereavement [START_REF] Brubaker | We will never forget you [online]": an empirical investigation of post-mortem Myspace comments[END_REF] [START_REF] Massimi | Technology and the human lifespan: learning from the bereaved[END_REF], posthumous interaction [START_REF] Maciel | The internet generation and its representations of death: considerations for posthumous interaction projects[END_REF] and the preservation of users" memory [START_REF] Hallam | Death, Memory and Material Culture[END_REF], it is also important to discuss the user"s volition about the destination of his digital legacy, so as to plan design solutions and provide legal basis for digital wills.

By means of a research with youngsters from the Internet Generation, [START_REF] Maciel | The internet generation and its representations of death: considerations for posthumous interaction projects[END_REF] studied how these users" social representations of death influenced their concepts and practices of posthumous interaction. This research helped to design applications that considered post mortem aspects, by discussing, among other issues: a) which resources in dead people"s social network (SN) profiles were most frequently accessed by these youngsters; b) what could be done to their SN accounts after their death, such as blocking some functionalities or password forwarding; and c) whether they would like their accounts to be removed from the SN after death. Other data therein collected are important to the present research, such as the fact that most of those youngsters had got in touch with someone"s death for the first time in social networks.

However, other cultural representations, such as religion and funeral rites, are also related to human interactions facing death, which makes it important to study these aspects in a research on digital legacy. As every culture is a sign system, and human practices are systems of signification [START_REF] Geertz | A Religião como Sistema Cultural[END_REF], one must investigate how these phenomena give new meaning to users" ideas about death and legacy. Therefore, we intend to understand in this research to what extent users" religious diversity, different belief systems and opinion about post mortem life can indicate guidelines for a SN project that consider users" volition, i.e. conscious choice, regarding their digital legacy.

In this research, we analyzed data from surveys answered by youngsters from the Internet (or Y) Generation, born between 1977 and 1997 [START_REF] Tapscott | A hora da geração digital: como os jovens que cresceram usando a internet estão mudando tudo, das empresas aos governos. Agir Negócios[END_REF], who study in a Brazilian state school. The data we collected are interpreted considering previous researches and theoretical background on culture, religion and death. According to data from the Pew Internet research institute [START_REF]"s Internet & American Life Project. Photos and Videos as Social Currency Online[END_REF] on SN users in the United States, Facebook was used by 66% of Internet users (63% of the men and 70% of the women) in 2012, followed in terms of popularity by LinkedIn (20%) and Twitter (16%), although the latter two networks are most used by young adults. On the other hand, 83% of Facebook users are between 18 and 29 years old. In Brazil, in 2011, data from the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (Comitê Gestor da Internet no Brasil -CGI) [START_REF]Survey on the use of Information and Communication Technologies -ICT Households and Enterprises[END_REF] also revealed that in 2011 83% of young people aged 16 -24 use social networking sites, such as Orkut, Facebook and LinkedIn.

For the HCI field, we contribute in terms of design solutions that may consider religion, death and digital legacy, so as to deepen users" and designers" understanding on the role of death in system projects. From an epistemological point of view, bringing religion as a cultural aspect to HCI discussions is an attempt to study, from a computational perspective, another lens through which humans see reality and their interactive processes. In this research, religious diversity is regarded as an analysis variable, although science and religion are traditionally considered opposite areas. Thus, we have adopted Einstein"s investigative paradigm: "science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind". This paper is structured as follows: after this introduction, we present some theoretical background on the main issues discussed herein (section 3). Then, the research methodology is described. In section 4, the case study is presented and discussed. Finally, the conclusions and references are enlisted.

Theoretical background

In order to analyze post mortem digital legacy, besides identifying the state of the art in this area, it is necessary to study culture, religion and death in our society.

Culture, religion and death

Religion is an inextricable part of life in society. [START_REF] Durkheim | As formas elementares da vida religiosa[END_REF], one of the first sociologists who studied religion scientifically, ascribes to religious practices the first human representation and symbolization systems, which determine abstract notions of time, space and causality. According to this sociologist, religion is a social fact, which makes it a common phenomenon to all human communities. This idea of religion as a human practice emerging from social interaction is closely related to Geertz"s view [START_REF] Geertz | A Religião como Sistema Cultural[END_REF]: religion as a cultural system. In this context, the concept of system also applies to Anthropological Semiotics, which understands every culture as a sign system, and human practices as systems of signification.

The same definition of culture is employed by researchers on Semiotic Engineering, in the HCI field [START_REF] Salgado | A Journey Through Cultures[END_REF], to discuss projects and design solutions that consider cross-cultural aspects in computer-mediated communication, either between users or among users and designers. Therefore, among many definitions of religion (profane and sacred ones), this research spouses Geertz"s view, as it is widely spread in HCI discussions and may bring some light to system projects facing digital legacy and cross-cultural religious diversity.

The connection between religion and death goes far beyond the comfort that sacred matter can bring to bereavers: religious funereal rites found culture [START_REF] Rodrigues | O Tabu da morte[END_REF], no matter if they are festive or mournful. This means that men abandon their state of nature and humanize in contact with someone"s death, by waking, celebrating or mourning the corpse, i.e. ascribing meaning to a body that ran out of biological function. Then, the corpse has become a pure support for symbols, interface where men place values, feelings and material objects. Regarding these farewell rituals, we can see how human beings try to keep in connection to the dear ones that are no longer alive, driven by their imaginary and using symbols such as candles and flowers.

Actually, "death is a natural and non-classist fact. But it is also a social and cultural fact. As a social fact, it is stratified; as a cultural fact, it is intertwined with values and meanings" [START_REF] Santos | Os profissionais de Saúde Enfrentam -Negam a Morte[END_REF]. This set of cultural meanings, organized into religious systems, works as guidelines for people in their interactive practices with the dead: oblations, prayers, bereavement or bequeathment. People"s beliefs determine who can interact with the dead, when, why and how to do it. [START_REF] Santos | Os profissionais de Saúde Enfrentam -Negam a Morte[END_REF] reinforces this idea by stating that "death entails the development of exclusion mechanisms, and their frontiers in different cultures are established by the limits between the sacred (the world of the dead) and the profane (the world of the alive). This duality lies underneath the collective imaginary and creates an invisible world parallel to the events of life.

In the Brazilian context, the three religions with greater amounts of believers are Catholicism (64,62% of the population), Protestantism (22,16%) and Spiritualism (2,01%), according to the data from the 2010 census [START_REF]IBGE: Censo Demográfico[END_REF], which quantified also the number of people with no religion (7.6%) and atheists (0,3%). In this discussion, it is not up to us to question God´s existence or post mortem life; instead, we focus on the fact that religion, as an element of culture, has its own meanings, possibly influencing the use and design of social software.

Based on these pieces of information and on the fact that most participants in this research are either Catholics or Protestants, it is necessary to understand how these religions deal with death. As they are both Christian religions, with a common historical background, Catholicism and Protestantism bare resemblance to each other when it comes to the understanding of death as a passage to an eternal life, denying reincarnation. However, whereas Protestants only believe in Heaven or Hell as afterlife destinies, Catholics consider also a third option: Purgatory. In terms of ritualism, the ceremonies of wake and burial in these religions are similar, although many Protestant groups do not employ candles as Catholics. Furthermore, whereas Catholics pray for the soul of the dead, Protestants tend to pray for those who are alive [START_REF] Costa | Pesquisando a escatologia da morte no imaginário católico e protestante[END_REF]. After the burial or cremation, it is common for Catholics to celebrate requiem masses seven days, one month and one year after the day of the death; on the other hand, such rituals do not exist in Protestantism [START_REF] Costa | Pesquisando a escatologia da morte no imaginário católico e protestante[END_REF]. This difference is related to the existence of a specific ritual for death among Catholics: extreme unction.

Some research has been done on religion and technology in the area of HCI. According to [START_REF] Wyche | Using sketching to support design research in new ways: a case study investigating design and charismatic Pentecostalism in São Paulo, Brazil[END_REF], although the design-oriented research examining religion is growing, only a handful of the world"s major faiths have been studied. The uses of technologies in religious practices are also studied by [START_REF] Wyche | Technology in spiritual formation: an exploratory study of computer mediated religious communications[END_REF], who presented results about the uses of technologies in three aspects of religious work: religious study and reflection, church services, and pastoral care. In another study, more focused on HCI, [START_REF] Wyche | Extraordinary computing: religion as a lens for reconsidering the home[END_REF] analyzed how topics of interest to HCI researchers (e.g., material artifacts, routines, and Information and Communication Technologies use) are used for religious purposes. In their related works section, these authors presented an overview of researches on similar issues, grouped into three major categories: religion online, design explorations, and studies of appropriation. The aforementioned studies present interesting contributions about the relation between technology and religion, but do not specifically address this topic from the perspective of death and its taboos.

Related Works

In the HCI field, researches on this subject are recent and study the relation among death, mortality, bereavement and technologies. Particularly [START_REF] Massimi | Matters of life and death: locating the end of life in lifespan-oriented HCI research[END_REF] have been doing research on HCI and the end of life in a lifespan-oriented approach. Other researchers, such as [START_REF] Brubaker | We will never forget you [online]": an empirical investigation of post-mortem Myspace comments[END_REF], investigate users´ behavior in social networks, based on their posts to dead people. In Brazil, researches have been done on post mortem data management.

In this sense, according to [START_REF] Maciel | Issues of the social web interaction project faced with afterlife digital legacy[END_REF], social software must comprise a volition element, that is, software planning must consider the user"s decision on the destination of his digital legacy. In his research, the author presented some possibilities that were considered in planning design solutions for posthumous digital legacy, such as:

1. attributing password power to third parties, while alive or in a will, attesting the wish for posthumous interaction. It is important to notice that password forwarding is a service that some specialized enterprises offer, studied by researchers like [START_REF] Carroll | Your Digital Afterlife: When Facebook, Fickr and Twitter Are Your Estate, What"s Your Legacy? New Riders Pub[END_REF]. 2. having a back-up copy of the digital legacy in some equipment or in a network, so that login and password are not necessary for access. Although this is an option to preserve digital legacy, this would be too demanding for users, because of the need for constant backup and software restrictions. 3. keeping a link with real-world institutions and documents to confirm one´s death, in the context of the social web. However, many changes would have to occur so that these processes were aligned, which would affect both governmental institutions and the laws of the jurisdiction where users live or the applications are hosted. 4. providing resources in the very social web applications to register users" volition.

In this case, the user could choose via software the destination of his digital legacy. This would have a strong impact on the terms of use developed by software enterprises and agreed with by users.

account owner, as there are no means to access them. The data of people who die, available on the web, permit posthumous interaction, that is, the system interaction with deceased people"s data, or between users and deceased people via system [START_REF] Maciel | The internet generation and its representations of death: considerations for posthumous interaction projects[END_REF]. These authors reinforce that it is worth stressing that the datum itself is not posthumous, as it was produced by the user when alive. Posthumous is the interaction occurring with data belonging to someone already dead, a process which is guaranteed by the asynchronous character permeating a large share of the communicative processes in the Internet. In that research, conducted with youngsters from the Internet Generation, it was discussed how the death representations of such generation influence their conceptions and practices on posthumous interaction.

There is evidence, however, that this posthumous interaction falls in frequency over time. [START_REF] Brubaker | We will never forget you [online]": an empirical investigation of post-mortem Myspace comments[END_REF] observed from empirical analyses on deceased users´ profiles on MySpace that comments on these pages reached a peak on the day of the death, decreased quickly within 10 days following this event and then reduced more slowly. The analysis of posthumous interaction is most often accomplished through empirical observations on websites than in interviews with the bereaved, given the emotional charge involving the death experience. The same applies to the study of real-world mourning practices, as it is more common to observe externally a funeral rite than to interview its participants [START_REF] Walter | On Bereavement: The culture of grief[END_REF].

Regarding the importance of semiotics in the design of systems that consider post mortem issues, it is necessary to discuss symbols or images related to this context. Proposing some useful guidelines for the development of systems that consider the possibility of digital mourning, [START_REF] Massimi | Matters of life and death: locating the end of life in lifespan-oriented HCI research[END_REF] mentioned the importance of permitting the bereaved to control and choose their death-related symbols, determined in part by their belief systems, taboos and religious diversity. These authors also warn that some mourning symbols are extremely private, while others are meant to be publicly viewed.

However, are the users" wishes on the fate of their digital legacy influenced by religious beliefs? This issue is discussed by means of a case study in Section 3.

Methodology

This research was conducted with teenagers taking integrated secondary and technical education at a public school in Cuiabá (Mato Grosso -Brasil), called Instituto Federal de Mato Grosso. The school has 442 students in this segment, 78 of which participated in the research. Because of their age, these users are part of the Internet Generation, born between 1977 and 1997, according to Tapscott [START_REF] Tapscott | A hora da geração digital: como os jovens que cresceram usando a internet estão mudando tudo, das empresas aos governos. Agir Negócios[END_REF]. Initially, during the period from June 1st to 12th, in 2012, one of the researchers went to these students" classrooms, to provide them with a brief explanation about the research and give them a Term of Consent for answering the questionnaire, according to Brazilian Legal Resolution 196/96 [2], which establishes regulating directives and norms for researches involving human beings. As they were underage, the Terms of Consent had to be signed by their parents or person in charge, so that, at a set date, these young people responded to the questionnaire. However, this procedure was harmed because many students failed to bring the Term signed, saying they had either forgotten to bring it, or failed to show it to their parents. Hence, it was not possible to assess how many had not been granted permission to participate in the research and how many failed even to tell their parents about it. Maybe the very application of the questionnaire was affected by taboos concerning death or religious issues, hindering a more systematic reflection on the theme.

220 Terms of Consent were delivered and 78 students brought them signed. They participated in the research, filling in an individual anonymous questionnaire in the classroom. Considering all users who have expressed interest in participating in the survey, we have an intentional non-probability sample, composed of a known and finite population, which admits a maximum error of 4.7%, and desired confidence level of 95%.

The questionnaire had 33 questions, open and closed ones, divided into general data, knowledge on computing and on the internet, religion, social networks and posthumous data, and representations of death. To create the questionnaire, issues raised in previous researches and theoretical background in the area were taken into account, including a research instrumented with a 404-question questionnaire [START_REF] Boukharaeva | Os valores educacionais dos estudantes nos limites da educação universitária -Questionário. Ijuí[END_REF], the social representations of death categorized by [START_REF] Coelho | Ensino científico e representações sociais de morte humana[END_REF], issues raised by software engineers as to the possibility of volition concerning the digital legacy [START_REF] Maciel | Issues of the social web interaction project faced with afterlife digital legacy[END_REF], and these professionals" taboos and beliefs about death [START_REF] Maciel | The influence of beliefs and death taboos in modeling the fate of digital legacy under the software developers[END_REF]. The planning of the data collection instrument was crucial to the research. It should be stressed that, before applying the questionnaires to the teenagers, a pilot research was conducted with the planned instrument. 19 students of a MSc program participated in it, who study education technologies and generational differences. The pilot questionnaire allowed significant adjustments to the instrument, especially in order to clarify some questions.

Initial data from this research were analyzed by [START_REF] Maciel | The internet generation and its representations of death: considerations for posthumous interaction projects[END_REF]. In that first analysis, the authors investigated how the Internet Generation´s social representations of death influenced their conceptions and practices of posthumous interaction in social networks. 15 questions were analyzed then, and 5 correlations were made among the questions, via software. Now, in the present research, the questions about religion were analyzed and correlated with those on users´ volition about the destination of their post mortem digital legacy. To do so, the data were fed into an Excel spreadsheet and tabulated in SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), for later quantitative-qualitative data analysis. The questionnaire questions were identified by the letter "P" for data analysis. From the total set of questions in the instrument, 18 were analyzed in this research, and 8 correlations were made among them, via software. That selection considered the focus of our proposal. In the qualitative analysis of the only open question, the teenagers were identified by the letter "J", followed by the questionnaire numbering. In the next section, these data are analyzed.

Data Analysis

In this section, the data tabulated are analyzed and discussed.

Demographic Data

Our research included 17.65% of the secondary education students of a federal school in Cuiabá (Mato Grosso -Brazil). All the teenagers belong to the "Internet Generation": 2.6% of them were born in 1993; 2.6% in 1994; 28.2 in 1995; 39.7% in 1996; 24.4% in 1997; and 2.6% in 1998.

Out of the teenagers participating in the research, 69.2% were female and 30.8% male. 93.6% answered they had a computer at home and 6.4% said they did not. About 73% of the teenagers declared to use the Internet for 1-4 hours a day. Among the most frequently accessed sites, 79% mentioned the SN Facebook, followed by Google (37.1%) and by Hotmail (25.6%), considering that each answer could contain up to three sites. Hotmail is observed to have the MSN communicator integrated to the system, which also constitutes a SN. 62 out of the 78 participants have Facebook accounts.

These sample data allow us to state that the great majority of the participant teenagers frequently use computers and the Internet frequently, making constant use of social networks. Thus, it can be considered that this research is really based on the opinion of the "Internet Generation".

Religion

The questionnaire had 5 specific questions that focused on religious issues and funeral rites. In question P8, 94.9% of the participants answered that they believed in God, whereas 3.8% do not share such belief and 1.3% did not answer the question. When asked about which religion they belong to, most students said that they are either Catholics or Protestants, among some other religions, as we can see in Table 1. Conversely to the Brazilian 2010 Census [START_REF]IBGE: Censo Demográfico[END_REF], this group of youngsters has more Protestants than Catholics, besides some Spiritualists and a single Jeovah´s Witness. Perhaps, this disparity is due to other demographic aspects, such as social classes, parental educational level, location of the school etc., which were not investigated in this research. Among the participants, there were no Jews, Buddhists or Muslims.

Question P10 asked if these youngsters engaged in religious rites. 38,5% answered "Yes, always"; 42,3%, "Yes, sometimes"; 7,7%, "No, never"; and 11,5% did not answer this question. Crossing the data from questions P10 and P9, the results suggest that most youngsters are not constant practitioners of their religions, as table 2 shows. Such data suggest that those who are not constant practitioners of their religions might not be strongly influenced by their rites and dogmas concerning death and legacy. This is in close relation to the fact that religious systems are not homogenous, so that Catholic practices may differ from parish to parish, as well as Protestant attitudes vary from pastor to pastor.

In question P11, when they had to answer about post mortem life, 61,5% of the respondents stated that they believed on it, whereas 38,5% said they don´t. This question, different from the others, was not left blank by any participant, which suggests some kind of conviction on this topic. However, it is interesting to notice that post mortem life is a dogma that Catholics, Protestants and Spiritualists spouse, although their understanding on this issue is different. The fact that a significant amount of youngsters said that they do not believe in post mortem life confirms the aforementioned interpretation that their beliefs do not necessarily match the dogmas of their religions.

The 48 participants who answered that they believed in afterlife were asked another question (P12) on the meaning of life after death. They were given three answer options: "the migration of the soul to another physical body", chosen by 3 respondents; "life in parallel worlds", chosen by 29 respondents; and "other", chosen by 16 respondents.

Those who answered "other" were asked to explain, with their own words, the meaning of "afterlife". Analyzing the answers, it is very clear that the meaning of afterlife for these youngsters lies on where this life takes place, rather than what it consists of. Locative expressions, such as "in Heaven" or "beside God" are repeatedly present in their answers, as for instance: "It means to go either to Heaven or Hell, according to how you lived on Earth" (J12), and "Living close to God after His return" (J56). We also emphasize the predominance of typically Christian images in their explanations on afterlife, such as "Heaven", "Hell", "Jesus Christ" and the "Last Judgment", confirming the religious profile identified in P9. Here are some of the responses containing these images: "Eternal life with God and His son Jesus Christ" (J32), and "When we die, we will wait for the final judgment" (J71).

If we compare the results of P11 (belief in afterlife) and P9 (users´ religion), the results show that 76,9% of the Catholic respondents believe in post mortem life, 47,4% of the Protestants, 100% of the Spiritualists and 62,5% of those with no religion. The distinction between the answers of Catholics and Protestants confirms, once more, that these youngsters´ beliefs do not necessarily match the dogmas of their doctrines, as afterlife is a common element for Catholicism and Protestantism, even if slightly different in certain theological aspects.

4.3

Procedures after the user's death

In question P30, the participants should choose up to three alternatives indicating what they wanted to be done to their SN accounts after death. It is important to recall here that, as explained in the methodology section, such alternatives consisted of procedures selected from previous researches on the subject [START_REF] Maciel | Issues of the social web interaction project faced with afterlife digital legacy[END_REF] [14], conducted with software developers.

Table 3 shows the correlation between the answers to P30 and users´ religions (P9). As respondents could choose more than one option in P30, 204 answers were deemed valid. The acronym NR means the amount of choices for each option. For a better analysis of these data, five categories were created, as described below.

a) Recording a posthumous message (item a1)

It is noticed that one of the most frequent options, chosen by 42 participants, expresses the desire to leave a posthumous message, displayed after the detection of the user"s death. This option was the most frequently chosen, regardless of the user"s religion, although it was more widespread among Catholics (61.5%). Then, communicating something can be seen as a last wish for most of these users, which confirms the use of social networks primarily for communication among people, even in the context of death. This seems to apply irrespective of religion, according to our sample.

Besides, confirming what [START_REF] Walter | On Bereavement: The culture of grief[END_REF] presented, the desire to leave a posthumous message shows that death on Social Networks is not a taboo issue that one should hide. This idea of death as an interdicted subject was also found by [START_REF] Maciel | The influence of beliefs and death taboos in modeling the fate of digital legacy under the software developers[END_REF] as an infrequent concern in software developers´ solutions for digital legacy projects, which seems to match users´ answers in this research.

b) Naming an executor for your digital will (items b1 and b2)

Another frequent option, chosen by 37 participants, entails naming an executor for a digital will, by forwarding the user´s password and login to someone else (b1). This was the second most frequent option among representatives of all religions, except Spiritualists. Those who stated to have no religion were the most inclined to such procedure (62.5%). However, such solution requires a further discussion on legal issues related to digital assets.

On the other hand, only 7 participants chose the option b2, which implied further concerns on caution and privacy of the data. This option was seldom chosen, regardless of the user´s religion. Forwarding passwords is an alternative discussed by [START_REF] Carroll | Your Digital Afterlife: When Facebook, Fickr and Twitter Are Your Estate, What"s Your Legacy? New Riders Pub[END_REF], but such action must not be disassociated from a will, as this could cause a series of problems analyzed by [START_REF] Maciel | Issues of the social web interaction project faced with afterlife digital legacy[END_REF], just like misappropriation of identity, for example.

Making a will is also somehow related to the locative concern of afterlife respondents showed in question P12. Defining where (or whom) the data go to may provide some certainty in an area where doubts are predominant. Besides, the writing of a will is a very common practice in real world, so that the Internet Generation users expect this phenomenon to be modeled for computational purposes too.

c) Deleting the social network account (items c1 and c2)

38 participants chose options that involved account deletion from social networks, either immediately after death (c1) or after a previously set period (c2). The immediate exclusion was mostly chosen by Catholics (30.8%), whereas Protestants (34.2%) and Spiritualists (50%) opted for deletion by the end of a predefined time span. Such variation might be due to the differences between the funeral rites of these religions. The fact that Catholics keep celebrating requiem messes after death, besides other more intimate rites, might lead them to feel more comfortable with an immediate exclusion of the account, as they are more familiar to rites that do not involve the presence of the deceased person.

d) Keeping the account active (items d1, d2 and d3)

Conversely, 36 participants indicated that their accounts should be kept active on the SN. Those who claimed no religion were the ones who most frequently chose the option d1, in which the account would remain active and could be viewed by any user. This shows an indirect desire to remain interacting with the alive, even if posthumously, possibly because the lack of religion reduced incidental taboos that might prevent this kind of interaction. When presenting some design solutions that support similar users´ decisions, [START_REF] Massimi | Matters of life and death: locating the end of life in lifespan-oriented HCI research[END_REF] affirm that "we can consider how systems might empower people who have died to maintain a digital identity that preserves their integrity and desires in this life; or, to deliver messages for loved ones into the future."

Among the three options in this category, d2 was the most frequently chosen, especially among Catholics (26.9% of these users) and Spiritualists (25%). Option d3, which demanded a more specific selection of users who would be allowed to see the dead user´s profile, was infrequent among the participants, regardless of religion, except for Spiritualists (25% of them). The unpopularity of this option might be due to the public nature of death in cyberspace, especially in social networks [START_REF] Walter | On Bereavement: The culture of grief[END_REF], so that users do not feel uncomfortable to share with their online friends the fact of death.

e) Preserving the digital legacy (items e1 and e2)

Another category of options indicated by the participants concerns data memory. 24 participants manifested the desire to have their data sent to a Virtual Cemetery or a profile memorial after death (e1), whereas 20 demanded that a backup copy of their data on the SN was sent to a previously selected heir (e2).

It was noticed that the preservation of the digital heritage is something desired by most respondents, regardless of religion: item e1 was the third most chosen option, selected by 30.8% of the participants. Item e2 was also chosen by 50% of the Spiritualists, and 50% of those who claimed no religion.

This data preservation is connected to the aforementioned locative concern about afterlife, as keeping the legacy entails the decision on where to keep it. Defining a place to store such data goes hand in hand with the religious concerns on where the soul is deemed to go after death, and with the legal concern about whom to give the legacy to. Therefore, most respondents preferred options in which the legacy was transferred to specific environments for this kind of data (as cemeteries and memorials), instead of keeping them like other data in the SN (as in items d1, d2 and d3).

The answers to question P30 were also correlated with those to P11, so as to investigate whether the belief in afterlife could influence users´ choices of procedures. However, this correlation did not present a significant difference between the choices of those who believed or not in post mortem life, especially when comparing Protestants and Catholics. Possibly, such similarities are due to the resembling interests and basilar doctrines of these Christian religions.

In question P22, users had to answer if they would like to set their SN accounts and determine their preferences about what should be done with their profile after death, as if making a will for digital assets. 67.9% of the participants answered "yes"; 29.5%, "no"; and 2.6% did not answer. Analyzing such data, it is clear that these young people intend to customize the destiny of their legacy, which confirms the customization characteristic [START_REF] Tapscott | A hora da geração digital: como os jovens que cresceram usando a internet estão mudando tudo, das empresas aos governos. Agir Negócios[END_REF] identifies with the Internet Generation. This is another option for social networks, which might prove useful in cases when the profile must be managed by an heir (as discussed in the items d1, d2 and d3, from P30).

Those who answered "yes" to question P22 were asked in question P23 to select from a list which resources they would like to block in their SN accounts after death. Notice that they could select as many options as they wanted. The data from P23 were correlated with those from P11, in order to analyze if the belief in afterlife could influence users´ choices on which resources to block. In general, we could see that those who believed in post mortem life opted to block more resources. Possibly, the idea of remaining somehow alive after death conflicted with the idea of not being able to manage their own account, so that these users opted for blocking most resources.

On the other hand, the two options of blocking most frequently chosen (blocking chats and blocking external applications) were slightly more popular among those who do not believe in afterlife. It is interesting that both functionalities would require some sort of response from the deceased user (even if in afterlife), so that those who do not believe in post mortem life tend not to consider relevant to keep these functionalities working. It is also noteworthy that the difference between the proportions of afterlife believers and non-believers was greater for the following options: blocking old messages visualization, blocking old notes liking, blocking content sharing and blocking access to the profile information. Table 4 presents these data in detail. By analyzing these data, we can see some common interests of Catholics and Protestants regarding which functionalities to block, possibly due to the similarities between these religions. There are only significant differences considering the options "blocking old messages visualization", mostly preferred by Protestants, and "blocking content sharing", mostly preferred by Catholics. Spiritualists also chose fewer resources to be blocked. Those who have no religion have chosen to block only 4 items, which suggests that the lack of religiosity might lead to fewer taboos regarding death, and therefore less fear from legacy profanation.

Symbols

When the choice on symbols to depict death (P32) is correlated with the users" religion (P9), there are some subtle differences between the signs chosen by each religious group, as shown in Table 6. The analysis of such data shows that the cross is a common symbol for these users" religions, representing Christ"s death and therefore common people"s death as well. On the other hand, there is an important difference regarding the second most frequent choice on these symbols: whereas Catholics tended to prefer the tomb, Protestants felt more inclined to choose the coffin. This might be a result from the fact that Protestants tend not to visit cemeteries as frequently as Catholics [START_REF] Costa | Pesquisando a escatologia da morte no imaginário católico e protestante[END_REF].

Spiritualists opted for less morbid symbols, such as the cross and the light, which might reflect their view on death and life as cyclical phenomena, instead of sad mishaps. The sky was not among their choices, maybe because it is too closely associated with Heaven, in opposition to Hell, and this dichotomy is traditionally not part of Spiritualist beliefs. Also regarding morbidity, the skull was the most infrequent choice in this question, suggesting that users do not want to face physical decay or destruction as a symbol on their social networks.

Although the sample consisted of too few Spiritualists, we cannot neglect that half of them opted for the alternative "others", a hint that the symbols proposed in the questionnaire were maybe too intertwined with Christianity and did not represent other religions. One of these users proposed the symbol of God moving toward the deceased, and the other chose the symbol of Ouroboros, a pagan myth of a serpent that devours its own tail.

Correlating question P32 with P11 (on users" belief in afterlife), the results showed that those who believed in post mortem life tended to choose the light (18,8% of the believers) and the cross (16,7%). On the other hand, those who do not believe in afterlife tended to choose the coffin (26,7% of the non-believers) and the cross (20%). As it was said before, the cross is a dominant symbol in the answers due to its importance in Christianity, no matter if users believe or not in post mortem life. The choice on the coffin by those who do not believe in afterlife and consider death as an end in itself can be related to the material sense this symbol brings to death, instead of a more transcendental one possibly related to afterlife and the symbolism of light.

Conclusions

Religion, along with gender and ethnicity, is part of the diverse ways of understanding the world and individuals. Thus it is paramount to do research on elements from these fields that may contribute to the design of more universal applications which respect cultural diversity and meet the needs of digital life, until its very end. However, many people are not comfortable with the idea of death, due either to fear of the unknown or to bonds of affection and friendship established by life in society and strongly influenced by culture. From the computational viewpoint, the treatment that is given to modeling users´ post mortem aspects requires further studies.

Regarding religion, there is an inextricable diversity that must be considered in cultural research. In the research presented herein, only the most popular religions in Brazil [START_REF]IBGE: Censo Demográfico[END_REF] are represented. However, there are different religious profiles in different countries, which have a strong influence on the design of computational systems, and sometimes on political and legal systems that may influence software use. Thus, there is a great challenge to the analysis on how these different expressions of culture can influence applications design.

As for the procedures to be done with the users´ accounts after their death, we realize that most respondents in this research chose options that imply moving the data to another location, such as sending data to a digital cemetery, or handing them to an heir. This choice is closely related to religiosity, since these users also defined afterlife by means of a locative change. By this choice, they expressed a desire to change either the way the data are displayed in the SN or the person in charge for managing them, in the case of a digital will.

Regardless of the options chosen by the users in this study, one notices that there are different desires concerning the fate of the digital legacy, which indicates that systems should not only provide functionalities to handle these assets, but also give users flexibility to configure their accounts according to their volition. Of course, these features must be designed according to the laws of each country, but one must not forget that laws are created to meet the demands of society. At this point, this research shows some possibilities to discuss and develop new norms and laws concerning digital legacy.

The discussion on symbols representing death may suggest some guidelines for icons that can be used along with functionalities in applications that deal with post mortem digital legacy, in order to permit the expression of different understandings of death in graphical interfaces.

One of the limitations of this research is its representativity for the whole Internet Generation. According to Tapscott [START_REF] Tapscott | A hora da geração digital: como os jovens que cresceram usando a internet estão mudando tudo, das empresas aos governos. Agir Negócios[END_REF], this generation comprises those who were born between 1977 and 1997. As this research addresses interviewees who were born between 1993 and 1998, this study represents only part of the Internet Generation time span.

For future works, it is necessary to have a larger and more representative sample of different religions, also considering users from other generations. Nevertheless, the method herein employed and the objectives of this research make clear that this study is significant for the design of more universal solutions. Considering religion as a lens to see the world and the interactive processes among people is a possibility that should not be ignored by designers and the HCI community.

Table 1 .

 1 : Users´ religion

	Religion	%
	Catholics	33,3
	Protestants	48,7
	Spiritualists	5,1
	Jeovah´s witnesses	1,3
	No religion	10,3
	No answer	1,3

Table 1 .

 1 Religion x Religious practices

	Answer	Catholics (%)	Protestants (%)	Spiritualists (%)
	Yes, always	34,6	48,6	50
	Yes, sometimes	53,8	43,2	50
	No, never	11,5	8,1	-

Table 2 .

 2 Procedures after the user´s death vs users´ religion

	Procedure after the user´s death (nr = 204)	Catho	Protes	Spiritua	No	%
		lics	tants	lists	religion
	a1) A farewell message written by you should be
	shown on your profile, as soon as your death is	61,5	55,3	50	37,5	53,8
	confirmed (nr=42)
	b1) A user previously selected by you should be
	given your login and password. However, he would have to obey the commands you left in a digital will	42,3	52,6	25	62,5	47,4
	(nr=37)
	b2) An heir previously selected by you should be
	given your login and password, but free to do	15,4	2,6	0	12,5	9
	whatever he wanted to your account and data (nr=7)
	c1) Your account should be immediately deleted, in case of official report of your death (nr = 17)	30,8	18,4	0	12,5	21,8
	c2) Your account should be deleted by the end of a
	pre-selected period after the official report of your death. Within this period, your contacts would be	15,4	34,2	50	12,5	26,9
	normally able to access your account (nr=21)
	d1) Your account should remain active on the SN, so that any user could see it (nr=14)	11,5	18,4	0	37,5	17,9
	d2) Your account should remain active on the SN, but only your friends would be able to see it (nr=17)	26,9	18,4	25	12,5	21,8
	d3) Your account should remain active on the SN,
	but only some previously selected friends would be	7,7	2,6	25	12,5	6,4
	able to see it (nr=5)
	e1) Your data should be sent to a virtual cemetery or
	a memorial profile, containing only some information you chose, such as date of birth and	26,9	34,2	25	25	30,8
	date of death (nr=24)
	e2) A backup copy of your data in the SN should be sent to an heir chosen by you (nr=20)	26,9	15,8	50	50	25,6

Table 3 .

 3 belief in afterlife vs. functionalities blocking

	Blocking resources in case of death	Belief in afterlife? (%)
		Yes	No
	1. blocking chats	66,7	71,4
	2. blocking external applications	39,4	42,9
	3. blocking old messages visualization	39,4	19
	4. blocking history updating	33,3	23,8
	5. blocking note posting	30,3	23,8
	6. blocking comments about photographs	27,3	23,8
	7. blocking comments about old notes	27,3	23,8
	8. blocking old notes liking	27,3	9,5
	9. blocking content sharing	24,2	9,5
	10. blocking access to the profile information	21,2	0
	11. blocking access to photographs	12,1	9,5
	12. blocking no resource	12,1	4,8
	However, new data arise when we correlate the choices on functionalities blocking
	(P23) with users´ religion (P9). Below, one can see Table 5, whose columns are
	numbered according to the caption of Table 4:

Table 4 .

 4 Religion vs. functionalities blocking (%)

	Religion	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
	Catholics	76,5	41,2 23,5 35,3 29,4 35,3 29,4 23,5 35,3 11,8 11,8 5,9
	Protestants	73,1	46,2 42,3 30,8 30,8 26,9 30,8 23,1 15,4 15,4 11,5 3,8
	Spiritualists	50	50	--	--	50	25	25	25	--	25	25	25
	No religion	40	20	40	40	--	--	--	--	--	--	--	20
	Global average 68,5	40,7 31,5 29,6 27,8 25,9 25,9 20,4 18,5 13	11,1 9,3

Table 5 .

 5 Symbols vs religions

	Symbol	Catholics (%)	Protestants (%)	Spiritualists (%)	No religion (%)
	Cross	23,1	18,4	25	25
	Tomb	19,2	10,5
	Gravestone	11,5	10,5
	Skull	3,8	7,9		25
	Light	7,7	10,5	25	25
	Coffin	15,4	23,7		25
	Sky	15,4	10,5
	Others	3,9	8	50

Such solutions came out of a research with 83 software engineers[START_REF] Maciel | Issues of the social web interaction project faced with afterlife digital legacy[END_REF]. That research also resulted in a list of requirements for social web applications that could provide users with volition functionalities for post mortem digital legacy (as in option d, from the aforementioned solutions).In an extension of that research,[START_REF] Maciel | The influence of beliefs and death taboos in modeling the fate of digital legacy under the software developers[END_REF] discussed how taboos and beliefs on death are an integral part of life in society and may affect, for instance, system development. To understand this phenomenon, software engineers" discourse was analyzed considering taboos and beliefs over death, which could condition the proposal of solutions to model digital legacy aspects for social networks. Seven categories of beliefs were generated and discussed, according to the software engineers" opinions: non profanable legacy, funeral rites, the immaterial beyond death, death as an end, death as adversity, death as interdiction, and the space required by death. In terms of results, that research found a predominance of the concepts of something immaterial beyond death and that death is an end in itself, two antagonist trends that might influence software development concerning death issues.With regard to managing dead users´ digital legacy,[START_REF] Zhang | Data After Death: User Requirements and Design Challenges for SNSs and Email Providers[END_REF] defined four possible destinations for such data in social networks: leaving (not doing anything to the account), deleting (removing the account), forwarding (giving the password or part of the assets to an heir) or archiving (keeping a backup copy of the data, maybe in material medium). Regarding the choice to leave passwords for an heir,[START_REF] Locasto | Security and privacy considerations in digital death[END_REF] have not identified clauses about password transfer in case of death in the terms of use of Facebook, Google+ and LinkedIn, in three different countries (USA, UK and Canada). Finally, there are data that become unmanageable after the death of the


Timo Göttel
email: tgoettel@acm.org

Avalanche! Reanimating Multiple Roles in Child Computer Interaction Design

Keywords: Child-centered design, users, informants, design partners

This paper values children as design partners in Child Computer Interaction to ensure building environments highly suitable for the target group. However, it appears beneficial to address underlying roles, align design processes on school activities or give considerations to the voluntary nature of such projects. We conducted eight projects with 75 pupils using initial learning environments. We found that starting design processes with pupils as users helps to identify further design steps that can be consequently tackled with the former users as informants and design partners. Thus, we suggest the Avalanche Design Cycle to engage children as fresh users at several stages asking them to become informants and design partners consecutively. The Avalanche Design Cycle is an iterative design process complying with school life allowing pupils to join/leave design teams. Thereby, it is aiming at sustained team sizes and more representative groups.

Introduction

Child Computer Interaction (CCI) is a subcategory of Human Computer Interaction with constant growth over the last decade 1 . Development of computer environments for children needs specific design methodologies because adult designers often hold misconceptions of child users based on fading individual childhood memories [START_REF] Antle | Child-Based Personas: Need, Ability and Experience[END_REF]. Additionally, children have specific requirements that for example cannot be associated with the goal to complete a task as it is done when designing for adult users [START_REF] Antle | Child-Based Personas: Need, Ability and Experience[END_REF].

Because of these profound differences current CCI research is focused on engaging children in design processes and accordant success stories. In this paper we highlight the need to open design processes for external user tests with children. Thus, we examine current CCI design methodologies based on a literature review and project observations to illustrate shortcomings in using these methodologies. Consequently, we 1

In the past eleven years, the CCI community has established the annual Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC), an IFIP TC13 group, and is "featured community" at the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems for the 3rd time in 2013.

present a prototyped design process allowing design teams to provide entry points, explicitly address roles, and consider school life.

Related Work

Harel [START_REF] Harel | Children Designers: Interdisciplinary Constructions for Learning and Knowing Mathematics in a Computer-Rich School[END_REF] first presented the idea of children designers. She enabled children to design learning environments on given educational objectives for younger children using a computer. Consequentially, Scaife et al. [START_REF] Scaife | Designing for or Designing With? Informant Design for Interactive Learning Environments[END_REF] pointed out that designing for or with children is an essential question. In this regard, Scaife et al. propose a hybrid form of User-Centered Design (UCD) and Participatory Design (PD) to respond to child characteristics. Yet, they identify issues in seeing children as adequate design partners because children cannot define their own learning goals. Therefore, Scaife et al. understand children as informants testing prototypes, verbalizing needs or ideas, and designing through scenarios or games.

Later Druin [START_REF] Druin | The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology[END_REF] reviewed PD with children and presents four roles to involve children in design (Figure 1): Users are observed while utilizing technology to get an understanding on how to improve it. Testers are requested to comment on prototypes while using them. Informants are involved at the design process at certain stages. Informants contextually switch roles between user and tester. Design partners are full members of a design team with adults. Druin does not see a universal role for every context but she states that these roles are building upon each other. In this connection, many reports on successful implementations of children as design partners appeared in recent years (e.g. [START_REF] Laughnan | The Organization of Inventing and Prototyping Activities with Children as Design Partners[END_REF][START_REF] Roussou | Children Designers in the Museum: Applying Participatory Design for the Development of an Art Education Program[END_REF]).

Accordingly, a recent review on CCI research acknowledges a highly regarded value in relying on design partners amongst the research community. Yet, the paper also reveals that in contradiction to these statements most papers presenting a system relied on testers to inform the design (59%) whereas only 31% were build upon projects with design partners [START_REF] Yarosh | Examining Values: an Analysis of Nine Years of IDC Research[END_REF]. This is surprising because design partners can theoretically be addressed as informants. The mismatch may be explained by a lack of reports in CCI literature on how to activate multiple roles with design partners. This may be in fact a large barrier considering that even experienced adult designers need strong and comprehensive tools as for example Personas to impersonate conventional users for evaluation sessions [START_REF] Adlin | The Essential Persona Lifecycle: Your Guide to Building and Using Personas[END_REF]. Accordingly, CCI researchers may need a model that allows to activate multiple roles when designing with design partners because they do not want to miss the chance to benefit from the other roles (e.g. informants).

When looking at CCI literature, iterative evaluations with external users are rarely presented. This is astonishing because UCD for example strongly relies on external testers throughout the entire process. An article by Kelly et al. [START_REF] Kelly | Bluebells: a Design Method for Child-Centred Product Development[END_REF] is a good example for CCI papers that present user tests with pupils without prior knowledge of the system or the design process: The evaluations mark the end of their project. Kelly et al. state that "the evaluation produced useful results for improvements, which were completely met at the second evaluation stage". This suggests that the tested environments can be seen as high-fidelity prototypes. Yet, literature shows that evaluating low-fi prototypes with external users during the whole design processes can provide more insights than revealing minor usability issues at the end of a project (cp. [START_REF] Nielsen | Paper Versus Computer Implementations as Mockup Scenarios for Heuristic Evaluation[END_REF]). Hence, current CCI design processes do not fully consider user tests with fresh users as recurring milestones. Thereby they miss the chance to share prototypes with external users to establish feedback loops that may produce more universal results. In a different context, Resnick [START_REF] Resnick | Sowing the Seeds for a More Creative Society[END_REF] promotes a "creative thinking spiral" that highlights the possibility to share preliminary outcomes with others as an essential component in technology that supports learning and user engagement (Figure 2). We confirm such requests by adding that sharing should also be present in design processes to facilitate a coherent experience for pupils. In fact, many CCI processes rely on sharing ideas amongst team members but fall short in sharing prototypes with externals (e.g. [START_REF] Laughnan | The Organization of Inventing and Prototyping Activities with Children as Design Partners[END_REF]). Hence, we want to expand sharing in CCI processes and understand this as a good motivation for recurring user tests in project layouts. Additionally, some authors mention that the findings of projects with design partners are hard to transfer to other contexts because of rather specific and small sample design teams [START_REF] Roussou | Children Designers in the Museum: Applying Participatory Design for the Development of an Art Education Program[END_REF][START_REF] Laughnan | The Organization of Inventing and Prototyping Activities with Children as Design Partners[END_REF]. In this connection, Moraveji et al. [START_REF] Moraveji | Comicboarding: Using Comics as Proxies for Participatory Design with Children[END_REF] present many contradicting results in literature on PD with children. They ascribe that to processes of "finding" qualified children raising the question: Does selecting the "right" participants really provide representative groups? Furthermore, while many projects are conducted in school settings (e.g. [START_REF] Kelly | Bluebells: a Design Method for Child-Centred Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Scaife | Designing for or Designing With? Informant Design for Interactive Learning Environments[END_REF]), CCI literature hardly describes the integration of design projects in school environments or obligations of the child participants. Only Horton et al. [START_REF] Horton | School Friendly Participatory Research Activities with Children[END_REF] acknowledge that sound descriptions and methodologies promoting the course of action are needed to help pupils, teachers, and researchers building sustainable relationships by choice. In summary, we understand design partners that produce good results. Yet, we argue that most CCI environments are build with informants because with design partners it is hard to benefit from insightful findings usually provided by the underlying roles of design partners mentioned by Druin [START_REF] Druin | The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology[END_REF]. Hence, we want to bring forward a model that understands design partners as a consecutive process from users to informants to (experienced) design partners. Furthermore, we reason that sharing with externals as proposed in the "creative thinking spiral" is often neglected during CCI design pro-cesses. Hence, we see a strong need to establish design processes that build upon multiple roles and can be embedded in school contexts. Thereby, we want to establish a design process that is constantly refreshed by new team members to ensure sustained team sizes in unsolicited projects and assemble representative groups.

Project Observations

In research on the Virtual Sandbox [START_REF] Göttel | Virtual Sandbox: Adding Groupware Abilities to Scratch[END_REF], we conducted seven projects using initial learning environments (ILEs 2 ) together with a total of 75 pupils (age 10-17). The participants were asked to design interactive stories acting as users on an ILE. During the projects external pupils playtested the scenarios. It helped the team members to get new perspectives and ideas. Moreover, it allowed the testers to become interested in the project and get into contact with the experienced designers. Although we did not find such remarks in CCI literature, we became aware that working with pupils on a voluntary basis often comes with uncertainties. Although the projects generally lasted only few days (1-5 days) we encountered pupils who simply did not show up after some sessions, or others who wanted to join later. The arrangement of the projects showed that pupils have different motivation or engagement levels during a school year. For example, test periods or some days prior to vacations can hardly be used to host intense design sessions. More likely, such times were used to play around or relax. It is stunning that established CCI methodologies do not reflect in detail on everyday life of pupils that turns out to be strongly taken by school and leisure activities. Hence, to some extent this everyday life is competing against additional design projects conducted by the CCI community. The article by Horton et al. [START_REF] Horton | School Friendly Participatory Research Activities with Children[END_REF] confirms this point of view.

To study role switching processes we asked 12 former users in a following eighth project to comment as informants on our observations on issues with ILEs when using them in teams. After an extensive discussion, we successfully engaged them as design partners in four sessions that were focused on supporting group work in ILEs applying brainstorming techniques, paper prototypes, and a variant of comicboarding (cp. [START_REF] Moraveji | Comicboarding: Using Comics as Proxies for Participatory Design with Children[END_REF]). Switching roles from users to informants to design partners appeared to be natural to the pupils. They were able to build their arguments on previous user sessions.

One topic clearly showed issues when designing with pupils. When asked how to document scripts for other team members they did not see sense in discussing documentation features at all. They were sure that everyone would understand their scripts. Furthermore, they did not consider approaches presented by adult team members. In such a situation introducing new test users to share current outcomes may highlight group thinking issues. Consequently, observing their peers instead of discussing with senior designers may help child designers to rethink their design or approach. In conclusion, engaging child users as informants and design partners afterwards provided a wide range of approaches and ways of thinking not influenced by prior design decisions. Nevertheless, based on our experiences and concerns of Scaife et al. [START_REF] Scaife | Designing for or Designing With? Informant Design for Interactive Learning Environments[END_REF] we argue that design partners do accurately support developing environments but cannot sufficiently assist in identifying important following steps. In spite of compliance with the idea of design partners, such situations require input by experienced (adult) designers based on shared observations available to all team members. Accordingly, we claim for a clear process that addresses users, informants and design partners at different stages of the design process. Furthermore, we see a need for aligning such approaches with school activities and offer chances to join or leave design projects.

Avalanche Design Cycle

Project observations showed that pupils find it easy to switch roles when offered clear reference points during design processes. Therefore, we argue that CCI design processes should be arranged in iterative phases including pupils in four consecutive steps as users, informants, design partners, and experienced design partners. Users allow researchers and designers to observe the actual usage of environments without prompting the users to evaluate their activities. Consequential, hypotheses can be developed and discussed with the users afterwards allowing them to switch from users to informants. This transition from user to informant offers many insights and reflections allowing to omit the tester role presented by Druin [START_REF] Druin | The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology[END_REF]. In a following step, the former informants should be encouraged to support the upcoming design process as design partners. Assuring an iterative character milestones should be arranged to get new users involved in evaluation sessions. New users should then be encouraged to join the existing design team to become informants and design partners themselves. Introducing new users is important because they provide new unbiased perspectives and represent various approaches in design and implementation. Fresh team members should be tutored by experienced design partners. Based on the results of Harel [START_REF] Harel | Children Designers: Interdisciplinary Constructions for Learning and Knowing Mathematics in a Computer-Rich School[END_REF], it is feasible to provide entry points during a design process allowing experienced pupils to tutor new design partners.

To meet these claims, we propose the Avalanche Design Cycle (ADC) which is incremental and open for new participants as drafted in Figure 3. It consists of recurring user tests to share outcomes with pupils who do not have prior knowledge on the system or the design process. After these stages the users are asked to become informants to discuss their ideas on the used environment and to suggest design ideas. Furthermore, they are encouraged to comment on observations and implications of the user tests and join the team as design partners. Thus, user tests enable design teams to set or shift focuses according to observations on user behaviors and provide opportunities to reflect on one's own activities. Additionally, the user test stages represent sound opportunities to motivate new pupils to become involved in a design process.

From our point of view, ADC should initially start with user tests on prebuilt prototypes or commercial systems. It helps building a common ground and allows pupils to influence further research directions by switching roles thereafter. After the initial user test all upcoming evaluations should be done on prototypes build by the design team.

An ADC process engages former users in succeeding sessions by asking them to comment on observations of the design team. This extensive discussion supports users in realizing that they actually could contribute design ideas build upon their experiences as users. This marks the point to ask the informants if they are interested in becoming a part of the design team. We suggest to apply brainstorming techniques, paper prototyping and further variants of PD that can be found in CCI literature (e.g. [START_REF] Kelly | Bluebells: a Design Method for Child-Centred Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Laughnan | The Organization of Inventing and Prototyping Activities with Children as Design Partners[END_REF][START_REF] Moraveji | Comicboarding: Using Comics as Proxies for Participatory Design with Children[END_REF][START_REF] Roussou | Children Designers in the Museum: Applying Participatory Design for the Development of an Art Education Program[END_REF]).

For design partners it is important to observe their peers in using the prototypes. These insights help to rethink design approaches and to support experienced design partners in tutoring informants or freshly recruited design partners. Additionally, ADC allows to conduct long term and large scale-projects fitting into dynamic scenarios at school life: By constantly introducing new team members during user tests a sustained team size is guaranteed. User tests mark a point in time that allows former members to conveniently leave a team at the end of a school year or when focusing on something else. Consequently, the concerns of Moraveji et al. [START_REF] Moraveji | Comicboarding: Using Comics as Proxies for Participatory Design with Children[END_REF] could be addressed because constantly attracting new users who can become design partners prevents from selecting only the "right" participants. Thus, it would give access to a wide range of pupils to act as users and let them decide afterwards if they want to become involved in the design of the respective system. Besides, school life has predefined times building on strong commitment by pupils. As we understand user tests they should be playful and fun with minimal time and effort for pupils. Thus, user tests should be aligned with known crunchtimes to keep on track in the design process while offering compensation to pupils during these times.

Discussion

In this paper we highlight a need for multiple consecutive roles in CCI design processes based on literature review and project observations implementing established CCI methodologies and roles. Yet, we derived ADC as a premise to identify issues, explicitly address roles, and rethink design processes with children as well as considering surrounding settings. In presenting ADC, we want to encourage other community members to reflect on their activities and connect it with ADC. Hence, we promote ADC as an ongoing "open source" prototyping process rather than being a final methodology. To open up this process, we put forward hypotheses on ADC that we hope will be challenged from different CCI community perspectives -in addition to our own research agenda on evaluating and refining the Avalanche Design Cycle: ADC may offer...

• lightweight project takeoffs by engaging children as users • several entry/exit points to consider unsolicited project layouts • recurrent milestones to share outcomes of design teams with externals • activation of insightful design roles (users, informants, design partners)

• alignment with school events and teachers projects • constant/growing design teams by constantly introducing fresh users Accordingly, ADC has to be comprehensively implemented and evaluated in long term studies at schools. Further adjustments are expected in alignment to school life and the transitions from user to informant to (experienced) design partner. Consequently, more concrete activities supporting the role transitions and interactions should emerge. Additionally, observations on a broad implementation of ADC should give insights on how to engage teachers, principles, and IT administrators to foster a smooth, fun, and engaging design cycle fully embedded in school life.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Design roles according to Druin [3].

2 For

 2 definition and instances of ILEs refer to correspondent special issue of ACM Transactions on Computing Education 10, 4 (November 2010).

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. "Creative thinking spiral" according to Resnick [11].

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. The Avalanche Design Cycle (ADC) aiming at a sustained growth of design teams by offering recurring new incentives. User tests provide entry/exit points for pupils and can be aligned to schools' test periods offering playful aspects with minimal time and effort for pupils during these crunchtimes.


Mo Kudeki
email: kudeki@uiuc.edu

Karrie Karahalios

Likeness and Dealbreakers: interpreting interpersonal compatibility from online music profiles

Keywords: Music, listening history, taste performance, impression formation, personality, social networking service

How much would a stranger know about you if they knew only the last song you listened to? Quite a bit, at least according to the stranger. Music taste often acts as proxy for our personalities, and we constantly perform this taste perception online. In our study, we find that good first impressions are common, bad first impressions are extreme, and that people pick up on many subtle cues about personality and whether they share common values based on data found in an online music profile. Similar motivations for listening to music and the perception of individuality are more highly valued than similar taste in genres or artists, suggesting that social media applications could benefit from incorporating these motivations in predicting compatibility between users.

Introduction

Describing one's music taste is typically a difficult task. However, we do so indirectly every day on social networking profiles, either by explicitly listing favorite bands, or simply by listening to music on a computer or mobile device and having its song data automatically uploaded ("scrobbled") to social network sites such as Last.fm. Up-to-the-minute information about what your friends are listening to is available on Facebook, or within music listening applications such as Spotify and Rdio. As music listening habits and histories become more public, people have the almost constant opportunity to pass judgmentsgood or bad -about their friends' and acquaintances' music taste.

People feel that knowing someone's music taste provides insight into them as a person [START_REF] Voida | Listening in: Practices surrounding iTunes music sharing[END_REF]. Likewise, users of Last.fm feel that their music taste "signifies aspects of their identity that their community of peers may read," [START_REF] Fitzpatrick | Scrobbling identity: Impression management on last. fm[END_REF]. It is not surprising then that careful impression management and profile work is pervasive on Last.fm; people deliberately manipulate their own profiles, deleting embarrassing songs, even going so far as to queue up a list of music, hit play, and then leave the room [START_REF] Silfverberg | I'll press play, but I won't listen": profile work in a musicfocused social network service[END_REF]. The purpose of this curation is to communicate to their peers on social networks a particular statement, often of prestige/expertise, association with a particular subculture, or to differentiate oneself from their friends [START_REF] Liu | Social network profiles as taste performances[END_REF].

Perhaps surprisingly, stereotypes about fans of different musical genres are quite accurate, down to predicting specific personality traits and drug preferences [START_REF] Rentfrow | The content and validity of music-genre stereotypes among college stu-dents[END_REF]. Listening to a CD of someone's favorite songs even provides a more accurate depiction of their personality than other zero-acquaintance methods [START_REF] Rentfrow | Message in a Ballad: The role of music preferences in interpersonal perception[END_REF].

There are many studies about impression management on social networks, and about music-based stereotypes (offline). People care about how others perceive their musical taste, and put significant time and effort into making sure their profiles signal the right impression. Less is known about how people interpret these curated music profiles online. This is where we focus our study.

Methods

Our goal in this study was to uncover how people understand each other's music taste and personalities based on the limited music preference information available on a social networking site profile. We chose Last.fm as the social media platform for our study for several reasons. First, the central focus of Last.fm is music taste and music discovery, so its users are familiar with viewing the music listening histories of other users. Second, Last.fm maintains a long listening history (it was founded in 2003) and collects a large amount of data about each user (every music listen scrobbled from a user's iTunes library, for example); we could easily collect months or years of listening history from actual users. Third, Last.fm's API and open privacy policy make user listening data publicly accessible [START_REF]Privacy Policy -Last[END_REF].

We created an online survey where subjects viewed and rated others' Last.fm profiles, in addition to answering a few questions about their own music-listening habits. We then showed the subject a series of five profiles filled with other, anonymous Last.fm users' listening histories. The data visible to the subject rating a particular profile is that person's: last 15 song listens, top artists over the past 3 months with playcounts, and top artists overall with playcounts. We chose to use the last 15 song listens because it gave the subject a slice-of-time view of actual listening historywhat songs are listened to together in one sitting, while the other two sections contain aggregate data. The intention was to provide insight to a profile owner's current taste (the 3-month window) alongside their longterm favorite artists. If the profile owner has only used Last.fm for a short time or has very constant taste, these two lists will be similar, whereas users with a longer account history or rapidly changing taste may have little to no overlap.

For each of the five profiles, the subject filled out a questionnaire where they described their perceived music taste and personality traits of the profile owner. Most questions were open-ended in short-answer format. Subjects did not have access to certain information that is typically present on a real Last.fm profile page, such as an avatar, username, age, location, and gender. We wanted to see what guesses subjects made about demographic information based solely on music listening history. Upon completion of the survey, the subject's own Last.fm profile information (the three sections listed above) was stored and rated later by four other study participants.

Design of Study Interface

Participants logged into the survey by authenticating with their Last.fm accounts. They first answered a few questions about themselves: their age, occupation, how often they log into Last.fm, and how many hours per day they spend listening to music. The subject then proceeded to rate and answer questions about each profile.

We made the design decision to show only a very limited amount of music listening history (up to 30 different artists and 10 song/artist pairs) in order to expose the subject to roughly the same amount of information one can glean by glancing at a real Last.fm profile. We limited the information presented to help simulate forming an immediate first impression as one would on Last.fm.

The survey interface (Figures 12) is designed to look as much like an actual Last.fm page as possible. The profile information is displayed using the same layout, styling, and images used on the Last.fm site, down to the rendering of the playcount bars' lengths. We wanted subjects to have a familiar browsing experience.

Survey Question Content

The questions about the profiles subjects rated focused on two main areas: tthe profile owner's music taste (three questions), and how they perceive the profile owner's personality, demographics, lifestyle, and whether they think they would get along with the profile owner (three more questions). Given the small number of artists present in a profile, it may be more difficult to make statements about a profile owner whose artists were unfamiliar. To provide context for this, we asked, "How many of the artists in this user's profile are you familiar with?"

Implementation

We built the survey using PHP with MySQL and handled the Last.fm API calls through a third-party library, PHP Last.fm API [START_REF] Oakes | PHP Last.fm API[END_REF]. When a subject logged into the survey with their Last.fm credentials, their profile was checked to verify they had enough data/activity to qualify as a sample profile for future survey participants. The survey requested that the subject rate the anonymous profiles of the five most recent survey participants. This assignment strategy wouldn't work unless there were already five profiles in the database, so seed profiles (selected by browsing Last.fm) were used at the beginning of the study. Subjects' responses about these profiles were discarded. When the survey was completed, we stored the five answer sets, as well as the current subject's listening history to show to future participants. We discarded the identifying username, making all the responses anonymous.

The survey ran for approximately one week. Advertising was done entirely online, on Last.fm forum pages, the Facebook page and SoundCloud group for Last.fm users, on Tastebuds.fm forums (a Last.fm-based dating website), and via email and Facebook amongst student groups at a large university. A total of 48 participants completed 225 profile ratings.

Response Coding

We used mixed methods to analyze our responses. We counted word frequencies for the listed genres and adjectives used to describe profile owners, and took averages of the questions with numerical responses (recognized artists, time per day spent listening to music). We qualitatively examined all 225 responses and performed an open-ended coding on the short-answer questions, sorting recurring ideas and patterns into categories. We focused specifically on comments about the profile owner's personality and presumed compatibility with the subject. The coding approach we used was similar to a University of Kansas study exploring stereotypes of Chinese international students, compiling an open-ended list of descriptors into a collection of stereotypes. This study used these participant-generated stereotypes as content for a later part of the study [START_REF] Ruble | Making Ourselves Understood: The Role of Previous Experience, Stereotypes, Communication Accommodation, and Anxiety in Americans' Perceptions of Communication with Chinese Students[END_REF]. The common genres, stereotypes, and descriptors we found could be used in a follow-up study investigating the accuracy of perceived personality traits based on music profiles.

Results

Participants ranged in age from 18-55, averaging 23.6 years old, and around 40% were students. They were avid music listeners and active Last.fm users, self-reporting an average of 4.85 hours spent listening to music per day. 40 out of 48 log into Last.fm multiple times per month 1 . Musical recognition of bands in others' profiles was high, with subjects recognizing at least 10 artists in a particular profile more than 60% of the time.

The four most common genres listed were "rock", "indie", "pop", and "electronic", which accounted for 117 out of 374 total genre mentions. However, out of 120 unique genres mentioned, 69 of them are only mentioned a single time, meaning just once by a single subject. Many of these genres were clearly chosen to sound either very unique ("dadrock", "library ghetto"), or to fill a gap where traditional genre names lacked sufficient nuance ("foreign synthpop", "post-rock ambienty"). If we count combination genres like these that include at least one of the top four genres (e.g. "indie-folk", "electronic ambient"), this accounts for roughly another third of genre mentions (103 out of 374). The wide range of these genre names suggests that participants may have been trying to display their own musical expertise and individuality in their evaluations of others.

Responses about the profile owners clustered into two major themes: whether or not the subject thought they would get along with the profile owner (compatibility), and a more holistic analysis of the profile owner's life experience, personality, and psyche, based on cues in the listening data.

Could we be friends? Subjects usually believed they would get along with an arbitrary profile owner 53% of the time, thought they wouldn't 32% of the time, and had a more lukewarm response ("maybe" or "unsure") just 15% of the time according to our coding. However, they tended to rate others' music taste as more different than similar to their own (an average rating of 2.41 out of 5). Subjects thought liking the same bands would give them something to talk about, or that they could relate to someone with similar taste to their friends:  "Most likely, at the very least we can bond over Muse."  "Yep. Sigur Ros, Andrew Bird and Radiohead? The bands I don't know sound pretty fun too."  "Yes. I know a few people that enjoy this genre; they're pretty wonderful." Some subjects believed that even if a friendship were unlikely, they may get along as casual friends and thought they could identify what drugs they could do together:  "They seem outgoing, bubbly, easy to converse with. They might move on before anything gets meaningful, though."  "I do like old school rap and can maybe get high with him" 1 Our sample may have been self-selecting, since the study was advertised as a survey about music taste. Our subjects were passionate about music, but this may not be representative of all Last.fm users.

The tendency to give others the benefit of the doubt is found often in Computer Mediated Communication studies. People rate others higher when fewer cues are present, assuming the person in question has similar attitudes to their own in the absence of more information [START_REF] Walther | Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction[END_REF]. However, even though the profiles in our study contain very few cues, certain "dealbreaker" bands evoke an intensely negative reaction. This happened in roughly 1/3 of cases, and the subject typically deemed these "dealbreakers" so repulsive that a friendship would be impossible:  "foster the people is unforgivable"  "No. This guy likes Kanye West and Ani DiFranco. Not even Ratatat saves that."  "He actually enjoys listening to James Blake whereas I just jump out the building whenever I hear his pretentious dickery."

Although negative impressions were less frequent, the character descriptions of these profiles were much stronger and harsher than the positive ones were positive:  "This is a load of mopey almost-emo indie bullshit with a couple older (much more decent) bands thrown in to help this listener justify their continued existence."  "this seems like the sort of person who gets their opinions from reddit and people like that are generally obnoxious."

Negative social stereotypes came up in these dealbreaker ratings, most frequently the "hipster" persona, often in conjunction with indie music. Comments often mentioned the gratuitous wearing of unnecessary apparel:  "Guy wears glasses, maybe a scarf when not completely necessary"  "Probably at college for film studies or some bullshit, works in the college coffee shop, likes taking shitty desaturated photographs on their DSLR camera and updating their microblog."

You are what you listen to. Cues in music profiles were used to make conclusions about a wide variety of traits, from organizational skills, to recent activities they'd done, to which relatives played an influential role on music taste during childhood:  "College student who recently has been studying for finals. the reason for the classical music."  "College age female whose parents had the common sense to introduce her to The Beatles before her identity was completely whitewashed."

One particularly important value to discern from a profile was whether or not this person valued seeking out new music for themselves. Participants in our study tended to be avid music listeners, and since music is an important part of their lives and identities, they reacted negatively when they saw profiles where that didn't seem to be the case. This was also assumed to be a shared value of members of the Last.fm community, and subjects appeared to prefer people who strive for individuality. They criticized profiles they saw as "mainstream" or only included the more well-known songs/artists of a particular genre:

 "To this person, music is about being entertained, to me music is an art that is appreciated."  "But seriously, a good indicator that I'll get along with someone is the amount of music they listen to that isn't on the billboard top 100. Nothing personal, but in general, liking lesser known music means one puts more thought into what they listen to, has a deeper taste other than 'catchy', and in general appreciates music more."

Similar motivations were more important than having bands in common, and lack of overlap can be an opportunity to learn from one another. Likewise, one could like the right band for the "wrong" reason:  "Totally different music-listening tasteeither this person would be my best friend after opening my mind up to new and wonderful things, or we will never get along because we'd both strongly believe the other should listen to our music."  "I really like arcade fire, so I guess we like all of these things for different reasons? my aversion to muse may stem from how mainstream it is? although arcade fire is preeeetty mainstream at this point? (OH gosh I hate that word)" Subjects were comfortable discerning specific personality traits from listening histories. Only a small minority (three responses) claimed that there would be no correlation between music taste and whether they would get along. The vast majority thought that personality came through loud and clear in the profiles:  "Organized; they appear to prefer to listen to music by albums based on their recent tracks."  "I don't like the bands I recognize, they sounds [sic] like a person from my same age group that I choose to not hang out with because there are too many cooler people out there"  "Fun; musical diversity tends to be an indicator of this."

Conclusion

We found several identifiable trends about how people interpret each other based on music listening histories. People were bimodal about whether they could get along with someone, being either cautiously optimistic, or having an extremely negative reaction triggered by a single "dealbreaker" artist. Second, people detect behaviors, habits, motivations, and shared/unshared values from music profiles. These results give validity to the curation efforts people put towards their online music profiles. In particular, individuality and uniqueness were valued amongst our participants, warranting further study of whether this applies to a broader population.

Recent work [START_REF] Baur | Listening Factors: A Large-Scale Principal Components Analysis of Long-Term Music Listening Histories[END_REF] shows a number of factors that play into music listening decisions, and found, as we did, a difference "between conservative listeners and those more keen on experimenting." Another study [START_REF] Hansen | Mixing it up: recommending collections of items[END_REF] points out that what makes a mix tape good is the collection of songs chosen and the relationships between those songs. Yet there are few systems that recommend collections rather than individual items. In our study, we found that having shared artists was only one facet of music taste compatibility, and perhaps not the most important. Suggesting similar users is a common feature of social media, whether it be "neighbors" on Last.fm or matches on a dating website. We believe representing music taste as a collection of features (including dealbreakers, breadth of taste, attitudes towards finding new music, etc.) could help in suggesting better matches. We can also imagine using these findings in the reverse direction to build new music-exploration interfaces to surface music enjoyed by like-minded people. The social traces we've found in this study could be leveraged to improve discoverability of both music and of people who are truly compatible, not just similar.

Fig. 1 .Fig. 2 .

 12 Fig. 1. Sample profile view in the survey (recent listens)