Jean C S Rosa
email: jean.rosa@ufba.br

Ecivaldo Matos
email: ecivaldo@ufba.br

Multicultural Interaction Redesign Using a Semio-Participatory Approach

Keywords: Interaction design, Multiculturalism, Human-computer interaction, Education, Cultural aspects, Participatory design

This paper presents a research in progress about an interaction redesign of an educational software based on a new semio-participatory approach. Brazil is a multicultural country, and its diversity may affect the educational and interactive processes. With the increase of digital technologies use into classroom, the impact of the people culture on interaction with that technologies should be consider. Particular cultural context makes for the people use solely specific signs of their signification systems, ignoring possible signs that are unknown. Based on the Semiotic Engineering and Participatory Design, this study aims to develop a multicultural interaction design approach which support end-users' diversified needs. An action research is adopted to drive an interaction redesign. Using the Semio-participatory approach is expected to be possible to introduce the cultural and pedagogical characteristics of subject-users on the interface, developing a multicultural interaction.

Introduction

Basing this research on Semiotics can understand that interaction is a process of communication and that communication has conducted through the exchange of signs. The Semiotics Engineering theory (a theory of HCI) considers interaction as a communication between a designer and a user. The interface is a collection of signs. Thus, the culture can influence the interpretation of the signs that are in the system interface causing a problem of communication [START_REF] De Souza | The Semiotic Engineering of Human-Computer Interaction[END_REF].

Our research work adopts a semio-participatory approach of interaction design. The semioparticipativas practices carry messages, highlighting the role of the subjects and their understandings through their effective participation in the design. The first part of the expression, the particle "semio" refers to Semiotics. The "participatory" particle refers to participatory approaches. Participatory approaches have as a principle user participation in the product construction process (e.g. Participatory Design, Metadesign, Design Thinking, Codesign) [START_REF] Baranauskas | O modelo semioparticipativo de design[END_REF]. The use of this interaction design approach generates two questions: a) the semio-participatory design can contribute to the educational and cultural redesign of the interaction of socio-educational networks; and b) given the multicultural context of the school, the semio-participatory role of interaction (re)design can advantage the school's multicultural profile?

Proposed of Semio-Participatory Approach

With the third wave of IHC, researchers have trying to understand the daily life and culture of users. According to Bødker [START_REF] Bødker | When second wave HCI meets third wave challenges[END_REF], the Participatory Design (PD) can contribute to resolution of these challenges. Participatory practices aim to bring users to center of the product construction process. Thereby, the solution may emerge from users [START_REF] Spinuzzi | The methodology of participatory design[END_REF]. Baranauskas [1] originated the term "semio-participatory" considering design like a semiotic and social process. According to De Souza [START_REF] De Souza | The Semiotic Engineering of Human-Computer Interaction[END_REF], the interaction process also is an semiotic process. In our approach, the particle "Semio" relates to Semiotic Engineering. The particle "participatory" concerns the participation practices. The semio-participatory design approach are participatory practices that carry messages to build the meta-communication by interaction design.

The approach is composed of Communication-Centered Design associated with the Contextual Inquiry, BraiStorm, BrainDraw, and Think-Loud techniques (Table 1). The experiment data showed that use of semio-participatory approach can give voice to users speak out problems in accordance with their experience, enabling the end-user development of the interaction causing the signs of the users' signification systems to be inserted in interface.

Next Steps

In the next steps, we aim to develop a high-fidelity prototypes based on BrainDraw. To do this, students and teachers will be invited to evaluate the interaction of an educational software using Think-Aloud technique.

Table 1 .

 1 Methods and Techniques used in the novel approach

	Semiotic	Participatory
	Communication-Centered Design Contextual Inquiry
		BrainStorm
	Semiotic Inspection Method	BrainDraw
		Think-Aloud


Wang Wanting

Qin Zheng
email: qinzheng@mail.shufe.edu.cn

A Semantically-Based Big Data Processing System Using Hadoop and Map-Reduce

Keywords: Big data, Semantics, Data integration, Distributed computation

In financial industry, a wide range of financial systems generate vast amount of data in different structures, which change with compliance rules change and hard to manage due to their heterogeneity. This paper introduces a semantically-based big data processing system to integrate the data from different sources, which realizes the query and computation in semantic layer. The system provides a new data management way for the financial industry. With Semantic Web, the information can be managed, integrated, and collaborated in a more fluent way than it in traditional ETL. In order to clear the complex logical relationship among data, the system uses SPARQL to query. Through Map-Reduce, this system, based on Hadoop and Hbase can improve the processing speed for big data.

Introduction

There are some characteristics in financial big data, which bring lots of problems of data management in financial field, including cross-regional and cross-system distribution [START_REF] Madnick | From VLDB to VMLDB (Very MANY Large Data Bases): dealing with large-scale semantic heterogeneity[END_REF], multiple structured and non-standardized data formats, and rapid change in the analysis strategy of big data [START_REF] Rabl | Solving big data challenges for enterprise application performance management[END_REF]. This paper presents a new semantically-based big data processing system, which connects data through linked data to integrate the heterogeneous data. 1

Model Design

The big data in financial field is so huge-scaled and multi-structured that traditional ETL cannot integrate data efficiently. On the one hand, by using semantic analysis the data can be connected and the system can realize data sharing with RDF based on semantic data queries. On the other hand, distributed computation can provide efficient big data processing [START_REF] Bizer | Linked Data on the Web (LDOW2008)[END_REF]. An experiment of distributed semantics queries is tested in order to validate the practicability of semantic mapping of relational data. The semantically-based big data processing system is a vertical structure (Fig. 1), which is based on Hbase storage. The data collected from the data sources are uploaded to central system and permanently stored in Hbase after corresponding conversions. All the data can be connected through Linked Data, and then generate RDF data sets. With Hadoop platform, after semantic analysis and distributed computation, the results can be delivered to every application terminal in cloud.

Conclusion

The experiment illustrates that the system based on semantics can solve the problem of the integration of heterogeneous data to some extent. With semantics and distributed computation, the efficient process and integration of complex big data are able to be realized.

This research is supported by National Natural Science Fund of China (71302080) and Ministry of Education Research of Social Science Youth Foundation Project (13YJC630149). © IFIP International Federation for Information Processing

Published by Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016. All Rights Reserved M.C.C. Baranauskas et al. (Eds.): ICISO 2016, IFIP AICT 477, pp. 246-247, 2016. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-42102-5


Llanos Cuenca
email: llcuenca@cigip.upv.es

Angel Ortiz
email: aortiz@cigip.upv.es

Andres Boza
email: aboza@cigip.upv.es

Business and IS/IT Strategic Alignment Framework

Keywords: strategic alignment, framework, business, IS/IT, enterprise engineering

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The current economic conditions and the high level of market uncertainty, forces the companies to be in a continuous adaptation to respond constant changes. Information systems and information technology (IS/IT) are crucial, bringing added value to business or even changing the way we carry them out. Enterprise architecture, considered as the foundation of enterprise systems engineering, has emerged as a 'tool' to help stakeholders to manage system engineering and changes. It is not only an IT issue, but first of all a strategic and organizational challenge [START_REF] Chen | Architectures for enterprise integration and interoperability: past, present and future[END_REF]. Aligning IS/IT and business strategy is a key in maintaining business value [START_REF] Henderson | Strategic alignment: Leveraging information technology for transforming organizations[END_REF], [START_REF] Hirschheim | Detours in the Path toward Strategic Information Systems Alignment[END_REF], [START_REF] Sabherwal | Alignment between Business and IS Strategies[END_REF], [START_REF] Peppard | Beyond Alignment: A coevolutionary view of the information systems strategy process[END_REF]. This alignment is not easy, neither in its conceptualization [START_REF] Ciborra | De profundis? Deconstructing the concept of strategic alignment[END_REF], [START_REF] Scott | Still not solved: the persistent problem of IT strategic planning[END_REF], [START_REF] Silvius | Business and IT alignment in theory and practice[END_REF], nor in its accomplishment [START_REF] Scott | Still not solved: the persistent problem of IT strategic planning[END_REF]. In fact, the lack of this alignment has been the reason for not achieve the improvement expected through their investments in IS/IT [START_REF] King | Strategic Planning for Management Information Systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Henderson | Strategic alignment: Leveraging information technology for transforming organizations[END_REF], [START_REF] Papp | Business-IT alignment:productivity paradox payoff?[END_REF], [START_REF] Bleistein | B-SCP: A requirements analysis framework for validating strategic alignment of organizational IT based on strategy, context, and process[END_REF].

The main purpose of this research is to improve the alignment between business and IS/IT strategies, making use of enterprise engineering. Modeling IS/IT by building blocks allows facilitating alignment with the business since the early phases of life cycle and incorporating the building blocks in enterprise architectures.

Contribution to Technological Innovation

Technological innovation can improve competitiveness of a company. This competitiveness improves when add value is included in all business process. IS/IT allows making better this value chain improving the enterprise processes or defining new processes changing the way companies do business. In this sense, it is important to define and to align business and IS/IT strategy. In this paper two disciplines are combined, IS/IT strategic planning and enterprise architecture.

Related Work

Enterprise Engineering (EE) allows understanding, defining, specifying, designing, analyzing, and implementing business processes for the entire life cycle, so that the enterprise can achieve its objectives [START_REF] Vernadat | Enterprise Modeling and Integration[END_REF], [START_REF] Berio | Enterprise modelling with CIMOSA: Functional and organizational aspects[END_REF]. Enterprise Architecture (EA) is the discipline of designing enterprises guided with principles, frameworks, methodologies, requirements, tools, reference models and standards. EA is a set of descriptive representations that are relevant for describing an enterprise such that it can be produced to management's requirements and maintained over its period of useful life [START_REF] Zachman | Concepts of the framework for enterprise architecture[END_REF], [START_REF] Zachman | Enterprise architecture -a framework[END_REF]. The alignment is the degree of fit and integration among business strategy, IT strategy, business infrastructure, and IT infrastructure [START_REF] Henderson | Strategic alignment: Leveraging information technology for transforming organizations[END_REF]. The works analyzed in this research include enterprise architecture (Zachman [START_REF] Zachman | Concepts of the framework for enterprise architecture[END_REF], TOGAF [START_REF]TOGAF The Open Group Architecture Framework[END_REF], EAP [START_REF] Spewak | Enterprise Architecture Planning: Developing a Blueprint for Data, Applications, and Technology[END_REF], DoD AF [START_REF]DoD Architecture Framework. Version 1.5. Volume I: Definitions and Guidelines[END_REF], CIMOSA [START_REF]CIMOSA: Open System Architecture for CIM. 2nd extended revised version[END_REF], GERAM [START_REF]IFIP-IFAC Task Force, GERAM: Generalized Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology, Version 1.6.2[END_REF] e IE-GIP [START_REF] Ortiz | IE-GIP. A proposal for a Methodology to Develop Enterprise Integration Program[END_REF]), strategic alignment models (Henderson y Venkatraman [START_REF] Henderson | Strategic alignment: Leveraging information technology for transforming organizations[END_REF], Luftman [START_REF] Luftman | Assessing business-it alignment maturity[END_REF], Maes [START_REF] Maes | A Generic Framework for Information Management[END_REF], Santana [START_REF] Santana | Towards a business-IT alignment maturity model for collaborative networked organizations[END_REF]) and works on both subjects [START_REF] Wilton | The Relationship Between IS Strategic Planning and Enterprise Architectural Practice[END_REF], [START_REF] Wegmann | A Method and Tool for Business-IT Alignment[END_REF], [START_REF] Pereira | Enterprise Architecture: Business and IT Alignment[END_REF], [START_REF] Lindström | An Approach for Developing Enterprise-Specific ICT Management Methods -from Architectural Principles to Measures[END_REF], [START_REF] Versteeg | Business architecture: A new paradigm to relate business strategy to ICT[END_REF], [START_REF] Plazaola | An Approach to Associate Strategic Business-IT Alignment Assessment to Enterprise Architecture[END_REF], [START_REF] Gammelgård | An IT management assessment framework: evaluating enterprise architecture scenarios[END_REF], [START_REF] Wang | A method of business and IT alignment based on enterprise architecture[END_REF].

Critical Analysis

Enterprise architecture frameworks organize, manage and interrelates a wide variety of models used to structure and operate an enterprise by taking into account all possible views. A modeling view is a representation of a whole system from the perspective of a related set of concerns [START_REF] Martin | Frameworks: comparison and correspondence for three archetypes[END_REF], [START_REF]IFIP-IFAC Task Force, GERAM: Generalized Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology, Version 1.6.2[END_REF]. All the analyzed Enterprise Architectures contain views in their frameworks, however, life cycle, building blocks, and how the building blocks fit together, is not defined by all of them. Life cycle is related to the life cycle of the entity being modeled. The life cycle of an enterprise model is the result of the model development process by which models are created, made operational and finally discarded [START_REF]EN/ISO 19439 Enterprise integration -Framework for enterprise modeling[END_REF]. A building block is a primitive component (with syntax and semantics) of a modeling language [START_REF] Vernadat | Enterprise Modeling and Integration[END_REF].

This analysis has allowed defining different views: Business, Resource, Organization, Information, Data, Application and Technological Views. The proposal maintains, in most cases, a definition according to the architectures analyzed. In case of differences between similar views of different architectures its redefinition has been necessary. Business View contains business process and business entity in a company; Resource View contains capabilities and resources; Organization View includes organization levels, authority and responsibility; Information View contains input and output process; Data View defines types and data sources needed to support the information view; Application View identifies the application needs and data presentation; Technological View determines the technology to use and defines how this technology should be used. The starting point for the analysis of the life cycle phases was CIMOSA, IE-GIP, EAP and TOGAF, because they are the most complete. CIMOSA and IE-GIP do not provide concepts related to information systems and technologies in earlier phases. Neither do they include aspects related to the conceptualization of IS/IT. Moreover, the business model of EAP does not include TO-BE process definition and does not establish an action plan. In this sense, IE-GIP is more complete. This action plan is partially covered in TOGAF but is mainly directed by business strategy.

Formal definition is less common in strategic alignment models, in this sense; they do not include building blocks nor life cycle phases. Hence, it is not possible its definition under the enterprise engineering approach, which is solved in this proposal.

Business and IS/IT Strategic Alignment Framework

The proposed business and IS/IT strategic alignment framework has been included in the CIMOSA [START_REF]CIMOSA: Open System Architecture for CIM. 2nd extended revised version[END_REF] and IE-GIP [START_REF] Ortiz | IE-GIP. A proposal for a Methodology to Develop Enterprise Integration Program[END_REF] modeling framework, new life cycle phases and building blocks. Three new phases have been defined: Business and IS/IT conceptualization, Business Process and IS/IT definition and Business and IS/IT master plan. New building blocks are defined for these phases and integrated with the other building blocks [START_REF] Ll | Marco arquitectónico para la propuesta IE-GIP[END_REF] (Fig. 1). The definition of the building blocks of CIMOSA and IE-GIP is detailed in [START_REF]CIMOSA: Open System Architecture for CIM. 2nd extended revised version[END_REF] and [START_REF] Ortiz | IE-GIP. A proposal for a Methodology to Develop Enterprise Integration Program[END_REF]. The new building blocks are:  Role: Represents the profile required to undertake a task. It can be assigned to an organizational unit, a business process or an enterprise activity building block. The roles will be used in the modeling phases where these building blocks will be used.

The roles are assigned to the organization view.  IS/IT Conceptualization: Indicates whether the IS/IT strategy and its alignment with the business has been completed. The constructor is used in the conceptualization phase and it is associated with the information view.  Alignment heuristics: The purpose is to detect possible failures in the alignment.

The constructor is used in the conceptualization phase and it is associated with the technological view.  Strategic dependencies: It is based in I * framework [START_REF] Yu | Modeling Strategic Relationships for Process Reengineering[END_REF]. The purpose is to detect dependencies between actors, roles, organization unit, organization cell or set of roles that depends on another role. The constructor is used in the conceptualization phase and it is associated with the application view.  As-IS portfolio: The purpose of the as-is portfolio is to support the information associated with each application and its relationship with as-is business objectives. It is used in the business process and IS/IT definition phase. It is associated with the technological view.  To-Be portfolio: The purpose of the to-be portfolio is to support the information associated with each application and its relationship with to-be business objectives.

There must be at least a relationship with a business objective. It is used in the business process and IS/IT definition phase. It is associated with the technological view.  Maturity Model: It is based on the maturity models of Luftman [START_REF] Luftman | Assessing business-it alignment maturity[END_REF] and Santana [START_REF] Santana | Towards a business-IT alignment maturity model for collaborative networked organizations[END_REF] and allows you to define the maturity level of strategic alignment. It is used in the business process and IS/IT definition phase. It is associated with the application view. The alignment will be assessed using a rating scheme of five levels. Level 1: No Alignment, Level 2: Beginning Process, Level 3: Establishing Process, Level 4: Improved Process, Level 5: Complete Alignment.  Data properties: It defines the properties for the inputs and outputs of process, identifying the type and source of data and storage, retrieval and data availability. It is used in the business process and IS/IT definition phase. It is associated with the data view.  Application and services portfolio: The applications and services portfolio include those that have been identified in the to-be portfolio and those who remain in the as-is portfolio. It is used in the master plan phase and is associated with the application view.

Building Block Templates and Relations

Each building block is represented with a template [START_REF]EN/ISO 19439 Enterprise integration -Framework for enterprise modeling[END_REF], [START_REF]EN/ISO 19440 Enterprise integration -Constructor for enterprise modeling[END_REF]. Figure 2 shows the maturity model building block. In addition, to ensure the modeling framework integrity, the building blocks are related to each other. The following figure shows the relationship in the business and IS/IT conceptualization phase and the contents of some building blocks.

Case Study

The proposed modeling framework has been applied in a ceramic tile company. It was necessary several interviews with the managers appointed by the company, and the outcome of these interviews was concretized in the templates associated with each building block. The business entity selected was the collaborative order management because is a critical process for the company. Information systems and information technology are essential to support this process.

The business and IS/IT conceptualization was carried out after identifying business entity. With the definition of the alignment heuristic at this stage was possible to identify aspects that had not been well resolved in the conceptualization. The strategic dependencies model has helped to identify the dependencies between macro-level actors, which have allowed detecting bottlenecks and vulnerabilities. The business processes and IS / IT definition phase started when the conceptualization phase was concluded. Among other benefits, the application and services portfolio has enabled linking the enterprise business processes to applications and services at the macro level through goals. Also, this has allowed a prioritization of the applications. The maturity model has allowed a detailed analysis of the alignment between business and IS / IT, with an allocation of values from one to five, where one represents the lowest value. For the company, the result was less than two, which represents an emerging alignment. This encouraged the company to improve some aspects. An example of a template (the Portfolio application template) is shown below (Fig 4).

Conclusions and Future Lines

This paper puts forward the needs for a consistent and integrated modeling framework to incorporate the information, resources, data, and technological views in the early life cycle phase to facilitate strategic alignment. The analysis of strategic alignment models has allowed to identify the elements needed for strategic planning of IS/IT and its alignment with the business strategy. These elements have been defined by building blocks and incorporated into CIMOSA and IE-GIP modeling frameworks.

This research presents a significant contribution to enterprise architecture field. The application to a ceramic tile company has helped to validate the usefulness of the proposed modeling framework. This research is part of ongoing research in enterprise engineering field. Future lines of work are raised by the definition of ontology for the proposed modeling framework. A second line of work is proposed to integrate this proposal with the performance measurement architecture and its associated information system, ensuring alignment with business strategy. Finally life cycle phases can be extended to those aspects based on a cyclical methodology for business reengineering.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Business and IS/IT strategic alignment framework.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Maturity model template.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Building blocks relations in business and IS/IT conceptualization phase.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Portfolio application template.


Hesam T Dashti
email: dashti@wisc.edu

Mary E Kloc

Tiago Simas

Rita A Ribeiro

Amir H Assadi
email: ahassadi@wisc.edu

Keywords: Euler method for differential equation, clustering, network mapping, genetic algorithm, computational astronomy

à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction of Empirical Topology in Construction of Relationship Networks of Informative Objects

Introduction of Empirical Topology in Construction of Relationship Networks of Informative Objects 1 Introduction

Determining the interrelationships of objects belonging to either a given data set (clustering) or networks (network mapping) is a central problem in many fields, including data mining (web mining, unsupervised classification) [START_REF] Han | Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques[END_REF][2], computational biology (quantitative trait loci, analysis of gene expression profiles [START_REF] Hesam | InfoMax gene networks constructed from intervention in the animal models of Parkinson's disease[END_REF] and proteinprotein interaction networks [START_REF] Stelzl | A human protein-protein interaction network: a resource for annotating the proteome[END_REF]), and computational astronomy (clustering profiles of variable stars, determining types of planets by luminosity clustering [START_REF] Zheng-Zhong | The fuzzy classification and activity prediction of solar active regions[END_REF][5] [START_REF] Christlieb | Statistical methods of automatic spectral classification and their application to the Hamburg/ESO Survey[END_REF]). This motivates research groups in diverse areas to develop new practical methodologies. The process of clustering or network mapping requires a similarity measure for grouping individuals; this measurement should be defined on the space of attributes of the individuals. The manner in which databases are constructed and individuals are grouped is strongly dependent on the aim of the researchers; for example, for finding similar types of stars in computational astronomy [START_REF] Sarro | Comparative clustering analysis of variable stars in the Hipparcos, OGLE Large Magellanic Cloud and CoRoT exoplanet databases[END_REF] [START_REF] Simas | Knowledge Discovery in Large Data Sets[END_REF], the individuals could be the observed objects in the sky and the attributes could be the parameters that describe the individuals. Alternatively, for determining the most significant parameters (a feature reduction problem, in general), the individuals could be the parameters and the attributes could be the different types of stars. Hence, the similarity measure is strongly dependent on the types and roles of individuals and attributes in the given problem.

When analyzing data sets pertaining to individuals and attributes, two main issues must be considered: the level of noise in the data, and the size of the data sets. In general, noise reduction methods are database-dependent; there is no practical noise reduction algorithm for all types of databases and all types of noise. Some algorithms [START_REF] Peters | A new algorithm for image noise reduction using mathematical morphology[END_REF] [START_REF] Brailean | Noise reduction filters for dynamic image sequences: a review[END_REF] focus on specific kinds of databases (and associated noisy data), while others incorporate some flexibility in order to deal with different kinds of noisy data. Also, there are now many improved clustering algorithms that are suitable for use on very large data sets, as designing algorithms with lower time complexity has been a central focus in computer science from the beginning [START_REF] Thomas | Introduction to Algorithms Third Edition[END_REF].

In this paper, we propose a new method for Discovering Relationship Networks based on Empirical Topology (ET-DRN). The ET-DRN method is a procedure for grouping individuals (in both clustering and network-mapping problems) that can deal with many types of noisy data. It is a hierarchical clustering procedure that composed of three different algorithms: 1) the Euler algorithm is used to assign the individuals to groups, 2) a Genetic algorithm is used to increase density (as measured using the Shannon entropy) of individuals inside group and, 3) the dissimilarity of the groups is determined using the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence. One can easily generalize and adapt this procedure by replacing KL-divergence by a different informationtheoretic variant. The ET-DRN algorithm clusters a given data set by dividing it into groups of objects where elements of each group have minimum possible entropy and the groups have maximum distance between them.

We use an astronomy database to evaluate the suitability of the ET-DRN; in this case, the aim is to discover relationships between stars observed by the OGLE project [13]. The objects (individuals) are observed in a special period of time and positions of the objects rather than the earth construct a time series in its dynamic space. Based on the time series and the color of the objects in the sky, 13 attributes are determined for each object, as shown in Table 1. A comprehensive description of the attributes can be found in [START_REF] Soszynski | The Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment. Catalog of RR Lyr Stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud[END_REF]. As described in Table 1, the attributes are basically calculations of different layers (e.g. first frequency of first harmonic, first frequency second harmonic), so normalization of the data is necessary to obtain a single feature space. The ET-DRN algorithm uses heuristic algorithms that treat the individuals as a discrete collection of measurements and optimize various statistical criteria. It takes advantage of a system-theoretic measure of functional proximity (called empirical topology) and applies it to the computational astronomy case study by comparing the different observed objects with space-like snapshots (intervals) of the complex dynamical system. Each snapshot is determined by using the Euler method on one attribute a i . The Shannon entropy is computed for attributes a i+1 through a 13 . Then ET-DRN rearranges the objects of each snapshot to reduce the snapshot's system entropy. Finally, hierarchical clustering is performed on attribute a i+1 .

The empirical topology imposes an organization of the astronomical observations that is analogous to the subdivision of a topological space into its connected components. This allows the data to be organized into a network with far fewer nodes (snapshots), where each node encodes the measurements of a particular class of stars. Considering individuals in a high dimensional space and analyzing them as objects of a digital geometry allows us to construct a sensible mathematical structure (to which all of the approaches of computational geometry can be applied) where noisy data and outliers are clearly detectable. In a more general setting, digital geometries can be regarded as finer mathematical structures that are imposed on sets of points arising from discrete samples. Neighborhood relationships of collections of observations could be regarded as sets of points in a digital space.

The ET-DRN algorithm handles all objects in the database according to their positions in the space of features. As mentioned, ET-DRN is a hierarchical clustering algorithm that, in each step, reduces the entropy of the system to just one dimension of the feature space and finds intervals of similar objects in the corresponding feature space. Unlike other iterative hierarchical clustering algorithms, the ET-DRN algorithm iterates with attention to the distribution of objects in other dimensions, so in each step it is working on only a small part of the database, focusing on one of the features while paying attention to this feature's relationship with all other features. During the process of reducing the system entropy, the ET-DRN algorithm increases the distance of classes using the Kullback-Leibler divergence which incorporates the probability of connectivity of the objects to determine the more significant classes.

As mentioned before, we applied the ET-DRN algorithm to an astronomical data set, where Simas et. al. [START_REF] Simas | Knowledge Discovery in Large Data Sets[END_REF] had already performed comprehensive study on appropriateness and accuracy of several clustering algorithms to the same set. In their study, they examined the performance of the algorithms at hand based on testing six desirable features; but none of the outcomes of six algorithms could produce satisfactory results on tests of all six features. Here we show that beside precision of the ET-DRN algorithm, it satisfies all of the desired features, thus demonstrating a different level of performance that was not hitherto achievable. Therefore, the failure of previous algorithms on the proposed features in [START_REF] Simas | Knowledge Discovery in Large Data Sets[END_REF], is sufficient grounds that we need not compare our algorithm with the other ones, and just demonstrate the ET-DRN properties for satisfying those features.

The Methodology section describes the empirical topology and outlines each step of the algorithm in detail. Section 3 presents results using experimental data that demonstrate the suitability of the ET-DRN for this problem.

Contribution to Technological Innovation

Non-supervised clustering algorithms have proved to be of great value in the increasingly data-dependent technological advances. An illustration of this statement is in applications to new and improved medical instrumentation, especially in brain surgery as applied to devastating diseases such as Parkinson's Disease. One of the senior co-authors have two one US patent and another international patent for application of the unsupervised clustering of data formed from brain signals, such as spiking of neurons collected by multi-electrodes [18][19][20]. The specific applications to Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) are particularly noteworthy, and the results to relieve severe symptoms in Parkinson's patients are truly remarkable and highly praised in literature. Unfortunately, as in all other complex diseases of the nervous system, the applicability of the DBS for Parkinsonian patients through DBS is limited to individual circumstances of the patient and types of the insult to the brain. Nonetheless, such algorithms provide much more precise tools for the neurologists and neurosurgeons to utilize advanced medical instrumentation to advantage.

The unsupervised algorithms in the ET-DRN class presented in this article also fall in that category, as shown in the previously referenced algorithms [START_REF] Montgomery | Unsupervised Clustering Algorithm for N-dimensional Data[END_REF]. The advantages of the ET-DRN approach to design of biomedical data clustering algorithms are in versatility and applicability to massive data sets, thus opening the potential for on-line and real-time analysis of massive data sets that must use many more (neuronal signal) recording channels for improved biomedical applications.

Methodology

The ET-DRN algorithm considers objects as points in a digital geometry of the highdimensional space of their attributes. The process of the hierarchical clustering to reduce the dimension of the space is done by determining snapshots (intervals) of similar objects on each dimension. In other words, on each level of attributes, ET-DRN determines the groups of objects and then finds subgroups on higher levels of attributes. The snapshots are determined by using the Euler method. The Euler method of interpolating a function is applied to a given set of sample points (e.g. two dimensional) of a function and uses no apriori knowledge of the function. It starts from first sample node (start-point) and defines a straight line from the start-point to another point (end-point) where the line connecting these two points satisfies the constraint on slope change. Iteratively, the end-point then becomes the start-point for the next step, and the method is repeated until the last sample point. The groups of points between the start-points and end-points show snapshots (intervals) of the points. These groups, upon definition of the employed constraints, can represent clusters of objects in a given data base, where each sample point is associated with two attributes of an object. The following pseudocode describes the implementation of the Euler method and the employed constraints on it. As mentioned, the ET-DRN algorithm gradually reduces the dimension of the space of objects using the Euler method. The ET-DRN considers the influence of all attributes on the arrangement of objects (sample points in the Euler method). In each step of the hierarchical clustering, the ET-DRN rearranges the objects of the intervals calculated in the previous step. In each interval, the optimal arrangement is that closest objects settle beside each other, where the measure of closeness of two objects is the L 2 norm of their unreduced attributes. In order to find the best arrangement, ET-DRN assumes that the objects in their digital geometry are cities of the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) in high-dimensional space [START_REF] David | The Traveling Salesman Problem: A Computational Study[END_REF]. In fact, the ET-DRN reduces the problem to the TSP and tackles the TSP using the Genetic Algorithm (GA). GA is notable heuristic approach; its convergence was proven by [START_REF] Goldberg | Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning[END_REF]. The topology of the employed GA is described in the comments of the following GA pseudocode: The clustering process of ET-DRN is completely flexible and based on a selected threshold in the constraint of Euler method; this allows the clustering approach to find a wide range of numbers of clusters. Typically, this ability is mentioned as a benefit of clustering algorithms, where the algorithm does not need any apriori information about the number of clusters. However, finding an automated approach for monitoring the number of clusters is very important to avoid obtaining insignificant clusters. Cluster monitoring and the ability to merge insignificant classes in order to get a smaller number of meaningful clusters are considered in the ET-DRN algorithm by calculating the Amount of Weights of Relation (AWR) of the clusters.

program GA (
The AWR of the clusters is the same as distance of clusters from each other and could also be employed for network mapping problems, since this value is a measure of the connectivity of the clusters. In the case of clustering problems, this value is employed to find close clusters and merge them in order to discover significant groups of objects. The ET-DRN calculates the AWR by applying an alternative to the standard Kullback-Leibler divergence formula that we call "Entropic Kullback-Leibler" [Formula.1] to avoid confusion with the established terminology. The Entropic Kullback-Leibler uses entropy values where the traditional Kullback-Leibler formula utilizes probability values. The entropy value for each class comes from result of the GA procedure from previous step.

Divergence(i, j) = Entropy_i * log(Entropy_i/Entropy_j) (1)
The Kullback-Leibler formula is not symmetric, so the matrix of the AWR values is an asymmetric matrix. One can look at this asymmetric matrix as a weighted directed graph, and any kind of clustering algorithm can be employed for the network mapping problem.

In clustering algorithms, one problem that appears during the process of merging classes is deciding, when two classes are close together, which class should be merged to another one. In the ET-DRN algorithm, this problem is solved by using the attitude of the AWR matrix, where attractions of two classes differ from one class to another: the class more attractions will be absorbed by another class. The following pseudocode shows the method for constructing the AWR matrix:

program

Experimental Results

To evaluate the ET-DRN algorithm, we started by applying it to a labeled astronomical database [13]. The precision of the algorithm was computed based on the previous labels. In both databases, objects are represented by 13 attributes (Table 1), a discussion of which can be found in [START_REF] Soszynski | The Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment. Catalog of RR Lyr Stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud[END_REF]. The labeled database includes approximately 10,000 objects, categorized into 9 classes. The precision values were calculated using the well-known True Positive formula (Formula 2). In this formula, "True Positive" is the number of correctly clustered objects and "False Positive" is the number of objects that were clustered incorrectly. This value is computed for each class separately, as listed in Table 2

Conclusion

In this paper, we introduced a novel algorithm for constructing relationship networks of data sets of individuals based on a system-theoretic measurement of functional proximity (called empirical topology).

The method, called ET-DRN, uses heuristic algorithms and performs a hierarchical clustering process on the representative attributes of the individuals. The ET-DRN algorithm was applied to an astronomical database, and its calculated precision was very promising for the de novo clustering problem. In addition, this algorithm was able to discover new relationships within ambiguous and incomplete databases such as the astronomical database using its hierarchical clustering procedure.

The ET-DRN algorithm also allows for the merging of classes based on the value of the Kullback-Leibler divergence, thus increasing its usability and making it independent of any apriori information about the data base. We believe this method can be applied to any kind of database. Since it would be easy to transform into a parallel processing platform, the ET-DRN algorithm can be applied to very large databases, such as biological databases and future astronomical databases from European Space Agency (10 8 ) [17].

Table 1 .

 1 Name and description of the employed attributes.

	Name	Description
	Log-f1	log of the first frequency
	Log-f2	log of the second frequency
	Log-af1h1-t log amplitude first harmonic first frequency
	Log-af1h2-t log amplitude second harmonic first frequency
	Log-af1h3-t log amplitude third harmonic first frequency
	Log-af1h4-t log amplitude fourth harmonic first frequency
	Log-af2h1-t log amplitude first harmonic second frequency
	Log-af2h2-t log amplitude second harmonic second frequency
	Log-crf10	amplitude ratio between harmonics of the first frequency
	Pdf12	phase difference between harmonics of the first frequency
	Varrat	variance ratio before and after first frequency subtraction
	B-V	color index
	V-I	color index

Table 2 .

 2 . Precision values for each class.

	Precision = True Positive/(True Positive + False Positive)	(2)
	Class ID	Precision
	Class 1	0.987053
	Class 2	0.993354
	Class 3	0.956856
	Class 4	0.690141
	Class 5	0.861775
	Class 6	0.7625
	Class 7	0.520392
	Class 8	0.641975
	Class 10	0.8610

Acknowledgments. We gratefully acknowledge Luis Maro Sarro for discussions that led to an improved understanding of the problem characteristics, and for providing the database and permitting the comparison of our results with his excellent work. Amir Assadi gratefully acknowledges partial financial support through NSF Grants DMS-0923296 and DBI-0621702.

The author gratefully acknowledges partial financial support through NSF Grants DMS-0923296 and DBI-0621702.


Christopher Durugbo
email: c.durugbo@cranfield.ac.uk

Ashutosh Tiwari
email: a.tiwari@cranfield.ac.uk

Jeffery R Alcock
email: j.r.alcock@cranfield.ac.uk

Survey of Media Forms and Information Flow Models in Microsystems Companies

Keywords: Information flow, Modelling, Services, Product-service systems, Microsystems

The paper presents the findings of a survey of 40 microsystems companies that was carried out to determine the use and the purpose of use of media forms and information flow models within these companies. These companies as 'product-service systems' delivered integrated products and services to realise customer solutions. Data collection was carried out by means of an online survey over 3 months. The survey revealed that 42.5% of respondents made use of data flow diagrams and 10% made use of design structure matrices. The survey also suggests that a majority of companies (75%) made use of textual and diagrammatic media forms for communication, analysis, documentation and representation during design and development processes. The paper also discusses the implications of the survey findings to product-service systems.

Introduction

This study focuses on a sample of microsystems companies to consider accessibility issues for product-service systems (PSS) but in particular information flow by means of media forms and models. Determining the use and purpose of use of media forms and information flow models could be useful in improving the delivery of products and services realised from microsystems production. This is because a PSS applies 'social constructs' that require information flow to manage the delivery of value propositions based on closely linking and offering products and services [START_REF] Morelli | Developing new product service systems (PSS): methodologies and operational tools[END_REF]. Furthermore, information flow knowledge is key to the implementation of standards for quality, efficiency, and financial performance in the delivery of customer solutions as defined by ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 [START_REF] Fujita | Two decades of MEMS -from surprise to enterprise[END_REF].

The main aim of this paper is to capture industry practice in the use of media forms and information flow models for the delivery of product-service systems.

The remainder of this paper has been structured as follows. Section 2 describes the novelty of the research while Section 3 identifies common information flow models in literature. Section 4 outlines the methodology for the research. Section 5 presents the findings of the study while Section 6 discusses the implication of the study for PSS.

Contribution to Technological Innovation

As microsystems production moves from a 'surprise to enterprise' [START_REF] Durugbo | An Infodynamic Engine Approach to Improving the Efficiency of Information Flow in a Product-Service System[END_REF] phase, it is important to examine current applied tools. This paper investigates information flow modelling in microsystem companies that apply PSS and seeks to contribute to technological innovation by: 1) establishing if there are correlations in the information flow models for PSS proposed in literature and those actually employed in industry 2) comparing and contrasting the various media forms employed for information flow during microsystem production To the best of our knowledge, no previous study of this kind has been undertaken for the microsystems domain.

Information Flows for Product-Service Systems

A Product-Service System (PSS) has been defined as 'an integrated product and service offering that delivers value in use' [START_REF] Baines | State-of-the-art in product-service systems[END_REF]. Value in use for a PSS is realised in a function-oriented business model highlighting the importance of information flow for the delivery of products and services by a manufacturer to a costumer [START_REF] Durugbo | A Review of Information Flow Diagrammatic Models for Product-Service Systems[END_REF].

Information flow is based on information gathering [START_REF] Morelli | Developing new product service systems (PSS): methodologies and operational tools[END_REF] by means of textual, audio, video and graphical media forms [START_REF] Perry | Spaces, traces and networked design[END_REF]. These media forms are used for communication within an organisation [START_REF] Doumeingts | GRAI Approach to Designing and Controlling Advanced Manufacturing Systems in CIM Environment[END_REF], for description of processes [START_REF] Martin | Diagramming Techniques for Analysts and Programmers[END_REF], for analysis of systems [START_REF] Demarco | Structured Analysis and System Specification[END_REF] and for the documentation of ideas, activities and processes [START_REF] Katzan | Systems Design and Documentation: An Introduction to the HIPO Method[END_REF].

A useful way of representing information flow in a system or an organisation is by means of information flow models that depict system functions and architectures [START_REF] Durugbo | A Review of Information Flow Diagrammatic Models for Product-Service Systems[END_REF]. Diagrammatic tools in particular have been suggested for information flow modelling because these tools require less storage and are processed more efficiently in humans [START_REF] Hungerford | Reviewing software diagrams: a cognitive study[END_REF]. Function-oriented diagrammatical information flow models such as data flow diagrams (DFD), Integrated DEFinition (IDEFØ), Graphes à Résultats et Activités Interreliés (GRAI) grids, Petri nets, Input-Process-Output (IPO) charts and Design Structure Matrices (DSM), provide useful means for representing information flow in a PSS [START_REF] Durugbo | A Review of Information Flow Diagrammatic Models for Product-Service Systems[END_REF]. DFD can be used in organisations to propose information flow paths (logical view) and to represent actual flows (physical view). DFD depict processes, external entities, data stores and flows in sequential representations. Information flows in manufacturing can be highlighted by the IDEFØ approach by means of boxes that depict processes, and arrows that indicate inputs, controls, outputs, and mechanisms associated with a function. GRAI grids provide information flow descriptions to support decision making processes in an organisation or a system. Petri-Nets deliver representations of information flow in the development and simulation of event-driven and automated manufacturing systems. IPO charts offer information flow descriptions in programs but can also be extended to describe systems with varying complexity. DSM offer compact, visual, matrix representations for systems analysis to offer a roadmap of system level knowledge.

Research Methodology

This study was undertaken in four stages: literature review, state-of-the-art in industry, online questionnaire and data representation.

The research began with a literature review of function-oriented diagrammatic models for product service systems [START_REF] Durugbo | A Review of Information Flow Diagrammatic Models for Product-Service Systems[END_REF]. The second stage considered the state-of-theart in industry for product-service systems within the microsystems industry based on a sample of 100 microsystems companies [START_REF] Durugbo | State-of-the-art in Product-Service Systems based Microsystems Production[END_REF]. The sample was made up of a random selection of members of organisations (MEMS Industry Group, IVAM and SEMI) for companies aiming to carry out business transactions within the microsystems industry. These companies are headquartered at locations in Europe (56%), North America (38%) and Asia (6%). For the third stage, a questionnaire was developed and distributed with pre-defined responses (and the option of a user-defined response) from participants over a period of 3 months. The questionnaire inquired about the use and the purpose of use of media forms and information flow models in microsystems production through questions such as 'What are the major considerations in the choice of media forms?' and 'What modelling techniques have you used as part of your duties?' Responses to the questionnaires were solicited in three ways: firstly, via electronic mail containing the questionnaire, secondly, by means of an online survey site for which participants were allocated a unique ID to maintain traceability and confidentiality, and thirdly, by means of follow up telephone calls. 40 companies completed the questionnaire. A breakdown of the types of companies that completed the questionnaire is presented in Table 1. For the fourth stage, data representation was undertaken by means of column charts that show the results of the study. Responses to each question in the survey were aggregated and presented in a column chart that compared the aggregated responses.

Research Findings

In terms of media forms, the survey revealed that 40 of the respondents made use text formats (electronic mail, facsimile and text files) while 34 of the respondents applied graphical representations (diagrams and charts) for the flow of information. Audio and video formats, on the other hand, were used by 16 and 21 of the respondents respectively as shown in Fig. 1. 15% of the respondents noted the use of software based simulation and 3D simulation /animation by means of Computer-aided design (CAD) tools as key to information flow during design and development. 12.5% of the respondents noted that popular information technology formats especially slide presentations, video conferencing and internet/intranet websites were crucial to the flow of information for the design and development of microsystems. 1 of the respondents noted the use of physical prototypes as a means of information flow. 10% of the respondents also noted that information flow by face-to-face and word of mouth was applied to complement their companies' media forms because they were small and new companies to the microsystems industry. In terms of the purpose for using media forms (the question posed was 'When are these media forms used?'), 100% of the respondents chose various media forms based on use for communication, 77.5% for description of functions and processes, 72.5% for analysis of systems and 85.0% for documentation (as shown in Fig. 2). Other uses of media forms captured by 22.5% of the survey respondents included: for presenting results and for conversations to clarify concepts or rectify issue.

Fig. 3 Major considerations for selecting media forms during microsystems production

In relation to major considerations for selecting media forms, the study revealed that 75.0% of the respondents chose various media forms because of the nature of their business, 37.5% because of the domain of application, and 32.5% because of available capital. Other considerations for the choice of media forms include: standard industry practice, ease of communication, effort required to generate the material vs. the communication value, ease of use and convenience. These other considerations were noted by 25.0% of the survey respondents as shown in Fig. 3.

For information flow models, the survey showed that 17 of the respondents applied DFD as part of their duties, 4 respondents made use of DSM while 17 of the respondents did not make use of any of the information flow models identified in Section 2. All respondents that made use of DSM also made use of DFD. None of the respondents made use of IDEFØ, Petri Nets, GRAI or IPO charts as shown in Fig. 4. The study revealed that when asked what diagrammatic tools were used to model, 50% (20 from 40) of the respondents answered for products while 17.5% (7 from 40) answered for services. 12.5% (5 from 40) of the respondents made use of diagrammatic tools to model both products and service.

In relation to the purpose of using modelling tools, the study showed that 50% of respondents applied modelling tools for the design and development of products as shown in Fig. 5. 15% of respondents made use of modelling tools to design services while 17.5% of respondents made use of modelling tools to develop services. Other purposes of use identified by 12.5% of respondents include: for customer support, for quality planning, for managing the life of software development, to explain products and services to customers, for research and quality control, and for the delivery of services and products.

Implications for Product-Service Systems

The implications of this study are threefold: emphasis on business-driven information flows, simplicity of information flows and trade-offs between creativity/conformity in approaches to managing information flow.

With regards to business-driven information flows, the study suggests that most companies (75.0% of survey respondents) considered the nature of their business the major consideration for choice of media forms. The microsystem businesses studied included foundries, manufacturers, CAD developers, IP companies, consulting firms and distributors. Consequently, the decision by a microsystem company to make use of media forms is dependent on the type of products and services offered. For instance, a CAD developer could prefer information flow by means of software based simulation whereas microsystems distributors could lay greater emphasis on information flow by means of internet websites. Furthermore, the use of modelling tools as highlighted in the study, supports product/service design, product/service development and in one case product/service delivery.

In terms of simplicity of information flow, the study highlights two key themes: ease of use and informal information flows. As suggested by this study, text and graphical forms (the simpler media forms) scored higher among respondents. Furthermore, in Perry et al. [START_REF] Perry | Spaces, traces and networked design[END_REF] the use of face-to-face or word of mouth, though not media forms, are identified as common and informal forms of communications.

Consequently, although this was not asked as part of the questionnaire, it is assumed that this is the case for all participating companies for two main reasons. Firstly, information flow by face-to-face contact and word of mouth are natural forms of information exchange and secondly, these forms of communication offer useful avenues for informal flow of information.

The study also highlights the importance of considering trade-offs between creativity and conformity in approaches to managing information flow. This is because the study identified cases (5% of the survey respondents) in which information flow was individual-focused i.e. companies allowed designers and engineers to make use of intuitive and individual approaches for modelling information flow. This attitude for analysing and managing information flow on one hand could foster timely delivery of a PSS. This is because approaches based on individual initiatives may allow individuals to apply approaches best suited to their mode of operation thereby fostering timeliness in the individual's results or output. On the hand, issues of compatibility and continuity in functions of a PSS may require a company to impose standard information flow approaches. With regards to compatibility in the functions of a PSS, the use of common tools such as DFD could serve as a starting point for modelling information flow. This study suggests the popular use (42.5% of survey respondents) of DFD for modelling products and services. This is in comparison to the DSM approach which was used by 10% of respondents and IDEFØ, Petri Nets, GRAI or IPO charts which were not used by any of the respondents. This suggestion correlates with assertions in literature that highlight the common use and wide spread support for DFD by most Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools [START_REF] Durugbo | A Review of Information Flow Diagrammatic Models for Product-Service Systems[END_REF].

Conclusions

The paper presents the findings of a survey to capture information flow for productservice systems (PSS) based on a sample of 100 microsystems companies. In literature, textual, audio, video and graphical media forms of nature have been identified for maintaining information flow and for exchanging ideas among system developers and implementers. Furthermore, the use of modelling tools has been promoted in research for defining and representing information flow in organisations and systems.

As indicated by the results of 40 respondents to the survey, information flow in terms of communication, analysis, description and documentation of microsystem functions, is largely motivated by the nature of businesses. In addition, the survey showed that 17 of the respondents have used Data Flow Diagrams and 4 respondents have used Design Structure Matrices. None of the respondents made use of Integrated DEFinition (IDEFØ), Graphes à Résultats et Activités Interreliés (GRAI) grids, Petri nets or Input-Process-Output (IPO) charts. The study also highlights the importance of emphasis on business-driven information flows, simplicity of information flows and trade-offs between creativity/conformity in managing information flow.

Future work will focus on the implications of this study to propose techniques for simplifying and emphasising business-driven information flow for microsystem companies within the context of PSS. This study presents an initial attempt to investigate information flow modelling in microsystem companies. Further studies are therefore recommended to evaluate how the findings of the survey compare with other domains and the wider implications of modelling information flow for PSS in terms of promoting creativity and conformity in companies.

Fig. 1

 1 Fig. 1 Media forms for microsystems production.

Fig. 2

 2 Fig. 2 Purpose of use for media forms during microsystems production.

Fig. 4

 4 Fig. 4 Diagrammatic models for microsystems production. 32.5% (13 from 40) of the respondents noted the use of other forms of diagrammatic tools such as engineering block diagrams, Gantt charts, timing diagrams, software development tools, enterprise resource planning (ERP) tools and project management tools based on methodologies such as PRINCE2 (PRojects IN Controlled Environments). 5% of the respondents also noted the use of intuitive and individual approaches for generating diagrams to carry out tasks.

Fig. 5

 5 Fig. 5 Purpose of use for diagrammatic models during microsystems production.

Table 1

 1 Breakdown of survey respondents.

	Type of Company	Number of Survey Respondents
	Microsystems foundry	8
	Microsystems manufacturer	22
	Computer-Aided Design (CAD) developer	3
	Intellectual Property (IP) company	2
	Consulting firm	2
	Microsystems distributor	3

Acknowledgements. The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks to the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), for its support via the Cranfield Innovative Manufacturing Research Centre (IMRC), towards the work carried out in the preparation of this paper. Also the authors would like to thank all the participants that took part in the survey.


Ian Wakeman

Ann Light

Jon Robinson

Dan Chalmers

Anirban Basu

Bringing the Virtual to the Farmers' Market: Designing for Trust in Pervasive Computing Systems

Since pervasive computing applications are mostly designed to enhance existing social situations, such applications should take account of the trust relationships within the situation in their design. In this paper we describe the ethnographic approach we used to explore how trust is formed and maintained within a farmers' market, and how this understanding can be applied in the design of supporting applications. We then evaluate the applications using the same ethnographic approach, uncovering problems which would not have been visible with other evaluation techniques.

Introduction

In previous work we have developed computing support for a located shopping guide [START_REF] Robinson | The North Laine shopping guide: A case study in modelling trust in applications[END_REF], and an augmented reality system for commenting on poster presentations [START_REF] Robinson | Augmented reality support for poster presentations[END_REF]. The consequent research question that emerged was whether such technologies could be used to support located shopping areas, and in particular, whether such systems could be deployed with a limited fixed infra-structure such as a street market.

Street markets are commonplace all over the world. They are characterised by the temporary nature of the stalls, although particular stalls are regular attendees, and used by a diverse range of customers. Farmers' Markets are a particular form of street market, emerging from the movement to encourage local produce and connect food producers directly to their customers. The eponymous farmers run stalls providing vegetables, poultry, meat and other produce. Such markets are typically not restricted to farmers, but do emphasise local artisan producers such as chutney makers and pie bakers.

Whilst they have a long history within the US, and arguably most French markets are already farmers' markets, the first Farmers' Market in the UK started in 1997 in Bath. The Lewes Farmers' Market was started in 1998 by the Common Cause Co-operative 3 , and has continued successfully to the present day. Common Cause now also run a smaller farmers' market in Hove once a month and were enthusiastic when we contacted them about the potential for deployment of support systems for markets.

When we deploy ubiquitous computing systems, we are often deploying in situations which already function well. In such cases, we must ensure that the existing processes and interactions are supported and enhanced rather than interrupted and disturbed. The approach often promoted in the literature is to take an ethnographic approach, where the existing sets of interactions are observed, analysed and used as input to the design process. In developing our application we have taken a pragmatic approach to capturing qualitative data, utilising accompanied shopping trips with a researcher acting as participant/observer to gain an understanding of how the market functions, analysing this data to inform the design process, and then using more accompanied shopping to evaluate the effectiveness of our deployed applications.

From our observations, it emerged that trust was the fundamental concept underpinning the interactions between the consumers and the stall holders, and any applications would have to build and support trust at a number of different levels. In the rest of this paper, we will first provide a brief overview of the various theoretical approaches to describing trust. We will then discuss how trust relationships are manifested and developed within the farmers' market, based on the evidence from our observations. We will then describe the technologies we deployed within the market, and discuss the effectiveness of our deployments.

Theoretical Approaches to Trust

In general trust is required within a transaction when there is the possibility of consequent loss or harm and the other party can influence whether the loss or harm is suffered. If the transaction proceeds, then the party at risk is trusting the other party will not intentionally cause harm or loss. Of course, within a farmer's market, the loss or harm is either a perceived monetary loss in feeling that the purchased item has been oversold -the same item is found significantly cheaper in a local shop -or the damage done to the fabric of everyday life when an item is found to be unfit for purpose -the special joint of meat bought for dinner turns out to be rotten.

Following the model of McKnight et al [START_REF] Mcknight | The meanings of trust[END_REF], trust can be examined across a range of constructs: Dispositional Trust; Trusting Beliefs; System Trust; Situation Decision to Trust; Trusting Intention and Trusting Behaviour. Dispositional Trust refers to the intrinsic traits of an individual that predispose them to trust. Over the course of their experience, people develop expectations about how people behave in any given situation, and these expectations will be carried through into similar new situations, forming the basis for initial beliefs. As a particular situation unfolds, a person will develop from these initial beliefs into Trusting Beliefs about the other individuals. These trusting beliefs are themselves likely to be formed of judgments about the others' ability and competence to perform, the others' benevolence and good will to the believer's well-being, the others' integrity and principles on which the other acts, and the predictability and consistency of action in the given situation.

As well as the generation of trusting beliefs, an individual will be influenced by their beliefs about the systems and societal structures in place to support interactions. As long as the situation appears normal (as in Garfinkel's definition of "normality" [START_REF] Garfinkel | Studies in Ethnomethodology[END_REF]) and subject to such structures as the legal system, and local assurance criteria such as membership of trade associations, then the individual will also have system trust to support their trusting intentions. Further, if they have become accustomed to a particular sort of situation, and a particular trusting decision has become habitual, their intention will become affected by a situational decision to trust.

The combination of the above cognitive and affective states will influence the individual to decide whether to trust the other, and their intention to behave in a trusting manner. A trusting intention requires that the individual is willing to depend on the others with confidence, even though negative outcomes are possible, whilst the trusting behaviour is the actual act of committing to the transaction.

Methodology

We first approached the market organisers explaining that we had a toolkit that could support customers and stallholders in communicating to each other, and that we wished to experiment within the market. The market is held monthly, so our timetable was as laid out in Table 1. Our approach is grounded in ethno- 1. Deployment Timetable graphic study. Our initial visit consisted of conversations with all the stallholders and with the market organisers. In our second visit, an experienced ethnographic investigator accompanied two separate shoppers whilst they spent £25 in the market, followed by a debriefing interview. All the conversations were recorded, and interactions recorded through photos. In subsequent visits, the applications were deployed as described below, and our ethnographer again accompanied two separate shoppers. The shoppers were drawn from a pool of female volunteers (I 44 years old, W 41 years old, K 39 years old, H 22 years old), half of whom had H had previously worked on a food stall in a market. The market is laid out as in Figure 1, with a mixture of stalls, ranging from simple tables (Figure 2) through to refrigerated vans (Figure 3).

The Creation and Maintenance of Trust in the Farmers' Market

In this section, we have studied the recordings, photos and notes from our accompanied shopping expeditions to understand how trust is formed and utilised within the market, using the theory of trust described in Section 2. Quotes from our shoppers come from the first accompanied shopping trips except where noted. Farmers' markets emphasise the local nature of the products, and for the majority of the customers, this is the key attraction. As one of our participants claimed Real people who have put together their own stuff from farms, or stuff they've made. Authenticity is really important. (I) We have defined dispositional trust as the intrinsic likelihood that someone will trust in a particular situation. Given that an individual has to make an effort to actually attend a farmers' market, it would seem likely that they believe that local produce is worth the effort, and thus they are predisposed to trust the stalls within the market, unless stallholders provide counter-evidence. This follows similar arguments put forward by the studies on initial trust formation, such as those summarised by McKnight et al [START_REF] Mcknight | Initial trust formation in new organizational relationships[END_REF].

Our participants provided many insights into how the market and stall holders provide many different signifiers upon which to activate and build trust. Most significant was the development of conversations between the stallholder and their customers, both whilst negotiating at the point of sale, and from joining existing customers' conversations with the stallholder.

In one case, the stallholder of the pie stall invited other customers to join the negotiations of sale to provide bona fides of the quality of the product, and to discuss whether the product can be frozen. In consideration afterwards, the participant showed how these conversations can help induce trusting beliefs: "So if French people think its good food then it really must be a recommendation" (I). The other participant started a conversation with one of the couple currently being served by the butcher, exchanging tips about how to store roast beef. Such reassuring conversations help to generate trusting intentions about purchase decisions, developing trust that the decision will be well founded.

In Kirwan [START_REF] Kirwan | The interpersonal world of direct marketing: Examining conventions of quality at uk farmers markets[END_REF] there is an analysis of how markets are distinct from conventional shopping arenas in that they provide a temporary space for consumption. Indeed, they are often as much about theatre and participatory entertainment as about locating necessary items of consumption [START_REF] Holloway | Reading the space of the farmers' market: A preliminary investigation from the uk[END_REF]. In Gregson's analysis of car boot sales [START_REF] Gregson | The bargain, the knowledge, and the spectacle: making sense of consumption in the space of the car-boot sale[END_REF], the market space is described as: one where people come to play, where the conventions of retailing are suspended and where the participants come to engage in and produce theatre, performance spectacle and laughter.

Whilst the farmers' market is not quite so anarchic as a car boot sale, the interactions between stall-holder and customers can be viewed as creating a spectacle. For instance, as part of a conversation with four other customers, the stallholder selling pies started singing loudly to the tune of Don McLean's American Pie Bye, bye, my lovely steak pies. Have a pastie, have a pork pie, give my game pie a try They're really good and they're lovely to buy. . . Whilst this obviously entertained the immediate customers, it also generated interest from other passers-by, and thus attracted custom.

Overall, we found there were a number of subjects around which conversation formed. The most significant of these was the provenance of the produce, when customers would ask about the place and means of production. For instance, at a stall selling goats' cheese, we had the following exchange: Do you have your own goats? (W) Yes, its a full time goat dairy farm. . . with about 400-450 on the farm The stallholders understand that the key attraction of the farmers' market is that it's local. As one of our participant's commented, the farmer's market consists of "Real people who have put together their own stuff from farms, or stuff they've made. Authenticity is really important.". To that end, the stallholders not only discuss the provenance of the produce, but provide the history of how the company came to be. One stallholder proudly talked of this year being the "30th anniversary this year, and its our 8th year of doing farmers' markets", whilst another stallholder told a vignette of they came to be selling on the stall: I'll tell you a little story about how I came to work for them. I went to a charity event and bid £27 for three pies. I bought them, put them in the fridge, ate them, they were so nice, and phoned him up went up to the farm, buying off them ever since, and eventually he says what do you do at weekends . . . and now you know and I'm here and that's how it all started.

Besides contributing to the social nature of the market, such exchanges help to develop trusting beliefs in the customer, reassuring them that the products are local, and are produced in line with their expectations.

Another key set of topics for conversation is advice on what produce to choose, and how to prepare the produce for eating. At all of the stalls our participants visited, there was discussion about what they were looking for, whether the produce was for a special meal, and advice on cooking or how to present, whether the produce was venison, pork, chutneys or goats' cheese. Such conversations promote trusting intentions prior to purchase by showing that the stallholders are both interested in making sure the purchase decision is correct, and that they are knowledgeable about their products. As one of our participants reflected, "I trust them because they have investment in their produce" (W). However, there are differences in motivation across shoppers -our other participant reflected on how trust was engendered with a greater emphasis on the product: [There's a] . . . genuine sense of enthusiasm from stallholders, enables trust in the stallholder and by proxy to the product. But products come first -they look yummy and good and homegrown. The stallholders then back that up. (I) Such conversations have other positive effects. One participant noted that "My self-esteem has has gone up through having a conversation that we're both interested in" (W).

Determining the Quality of a product in food consumption is a subject studied by consumer behaviourists and others. Products from supermarkets rely upon the uniform standards of quality generated by marketing and the other trappings of a consumer society. However, within a farmers' market, these uniform standards don't apply, since the necessary signage is absent in packaging and other shop displays. Instead, as Kirwan describes [START_REF] Kirwan | The interpersonal world of direct marketing: Examining conventions of quality at uk farmers markets[END_REF], the quality of products in farmers' markets is negotiated contingent upon conversation and place:

In the case of FMs, the producers and consumers concerned are engaging in face-to-face interaction in order to create conventions of exchange which incorporate spatial and social relations that can replace 'uniform standards'.

The display of materials is set up to differentiate between the farmers' market produce and that available at conventional shops and supermarkets. Packaging is less sophisticated, emphasising the artisan nature of the product and the small scale production, in contrast to the slick packaging of supermarket produce. Produce such as cheeses and chutneys are all available to try, rather than solely those on special offer, encouraging the belief that the producer is confident you'll find something to like. Our shoppers found this to help in forming trusting beliefs -"You can try stuff out -its just all ere for you to have a go at" (I) -and indeed found the unsophisticated presentation a key piece of evidence for the products' quality.

A monthly street market is by definition a transient opportunity for consumers. The very appearance and presentation of the stalls signify the temporary nature of the stall. Stalls typically use a lightweight awning, and a covered table. Signage is attached to the awnings using market clips. Even the vans used by the meat suppliers, enabling the use of refrigeration equipment show the consumer that there is a time limited opportunity to get access to the stall. This can be seen as part of the "charm" of the market. Our accompanied shoppers displayed the same positions: You can get that feeling that its real people selling their produce, actually because it quite thin, the displays are relatively thin. Its not absolutely piled up like a commercial thing and that there are "Banners hanging behind stalls, there's a sense of homemade quality, the higgledy piggledy look." (I).

Kirwan also notes that the perception of quality is based upon "the build up of trust over time, which is facilitated by consumers being able to make direct connections with the place and nature of the good they are purchasing" [START_REF] Kirwan | The interpersonal world of direct marketing: Examining conventions of quality at uk farmers markets[END_REF]. In our observations, we found that customer I on her second visit to the stall was recognised and asked about how they had found the chutney they had bought previously, which was followed by the descriptions of similar chutneys.

Finally, there is an element of system trust. The norms of the farmers' market are primarily created by the organisers of the market. Producers who apply to run a stall within the market are required to fill out a form explaining their provenance chain, showing that their produce is primarily local 4 and are subject to inspections by the market organisers. The organisers also work closely with the local agricultural college to promote organic and ethical production. Producers admitted to the market are therefore aware that they are in the market because of the origin of their produce and production ethics. Although the organisers conscientiously place small flyers describing the organisation and ethos behind the market, these are almost always ignored. However, in our observations, one stallholder described how stalls had to be certified to be in farmers' markets to one of our participants. Such system trust is reinforced as shoppers become more aware of the origins of the stalls and the market.

Integrating Trust and Technology

As described in [START_REF] Robinson | Augmented reality support for poster presentations[END_REF], we have produced a toolkit for developing located applications for shopping environments. At the heart of our toolkit are the concepts of pseudonyms, groups, patterns and a pattern registry. A mobile phone is able to recognise a pattern such as a QRCode or a fiducial marker for augmented reality. The phone is then able to look up the pattern within the pattern registry, and retrieve data directly attached to the pattern and a list of associated comments. Each pattern or comment is owned by a pseudonym, allowing users to specify trust ratings on pseudonyms. Further, pseudonyms can belong to groups, allowing indirect policies to be specified based on group membership, using concepts from [START_REF] Wakeman | Reconciling privacy and security in pervasive computing[END_REF]. The system is designed so that authorisation of group membership happens offline and is subject to whatever checks are deemed necessary for the group's aims. Our system is designed to allow choice of a number of different approaches to order the list of comments returned for a pattern, based on whatever policy module is used for the application. The back end system is implemented within the Java EE framework, and is accessible over standard web services.

Given that the transient nature of the market stalls is integral to the perception of the farmers' market as local, we have adopted a low-tech approach to enabling the market for located computing applications by simply attaching A4 laminates of the patterns to the stalls by market pegs or Blu-Tack5 , as show in Figure 4. From Section 4, it can be seen that the formation of trusting beliefs comes primarily from conversations between the stallholders and the customers. To this end, we have formulated an "AskUsAbout" application for use whilst people are queuing for their turn with the stallholder. For each stall we create a pattern, a group and an initial pseudonym as group member. The stallholder then can add whatever information they wish to the pattern, and add comments designed to act as primers for conversation when the user takes their turn with the stallholder. The policies of the users were primed so as to maximise trust in the stallholder's group comments, and minimise trust in other comments. The comments came from interviews with the stallholders, such as:

We have pet mince and free bones available. These are excellent value and really loved by dogs. Just £1.50, with reduced prices for regulars.

We also introduced a Visitors' Book application, allowing customers to add their comments about the stall. In this application, the policies were more flexible, only ordering comments based on whether the user was in the same group as the comment owner. An example of a comment left by our users was:

We had some pork chops from David back in February, and they were delicious. Not only did they have the porkiest taste since we had Dotty down in Devon, they were cut so large that they were almost a roasting joint in their own right. This application was motivated by the way that customers interact, asking each for advice and building trust about the stalls based on their prior experience.

We take advantage of the dispositional trust within the participants that everything and everybody within the market are local, and are thus all part of a shared community to reduce the level of authentication needed to use the system. Pseudonym registration requires nothing more than the creation of a unique identifier. The system is thus open to a number of sybil and denial of service attacks. However, since our trust policies are based on group membership, and group membership does require authentication, these attacks should not be very damaging. We also believe that the located nature of the application reduces the likelihood that such attacks would be mounted.

We implemented two possible front ends, using augmented reality to build a customised Shopping Lense, and using QR Codes [START_REF] Iso | Information technology -Automatic identification and data capture techniques -QR Code 2005 bar code symbology specification[END_REF] to encode the relevant URL to the back-end application, which utilises a normal web browser to display the interface rendered in HTML.

The Shopping Lense is built on the AR Toolkit [START_REF] Billinghurst | Collaborative augmented reality[END_REF], a mature toolkit for overlaying graphics upon a stream of video. The toolkit uses fiducial patterns, which are pre-compiled into recognisable patterns that the ARToolkit can recognise within frames of video. The Shopping Lense interface is based around a video view, highlighting patterns that are recognised, and annotating the pattern with the name that was attached to the pattern by its owner. We then display the most trusted anchors according to the user's policy around the pattern. By trial and error, given the expected viewing distance of up to ten meters, we decided to limit the number of anchors displayed around a pattern to four.

When an anchor is selected, the mode of the viewer is changed to that of a standard list box, displaying the text or URL associated with the anchor. All the other anchors linked to the pattern are displayed in a list, ordered by the trust rating generated in the back end. The level of trust in an anchor is indicated through colour coding (green being most trusted, orange neutral and red least trusted), the font weight of the text, and the size of the text. For this experiment, the Shopping Lense ran on an ultra mobile PC, as shown in Figure 4.

Whilst our initial aim was to port the Shopping Lense to a mobile phone platform, this proved impossible with the state of the art phone of last year, so we also built the QR Code version. The QR Code interface displays the anchors directly in HTML designed for the limitations of mobile phone browsers, but is otherwise functionally equivalent to the Shopping Lense. It should be noted that QR Codes were still rare in the UK in the first half of 2009, but we expect them to become more widespread and thus allows the software to be used by a wider population base in the future.

To populate the application databases, we gathered comments for the Visitors' Books from an emailed survey to members of our university and from our own experiences, whilst the information supplied within the AskUsAbout survey came from directly talking to the stallholders and from their websites.

Evaluation

Our evaluation comes from observing two of our participant shoppers (I and K) using the Shopping Lense, and then one month later observing another two using the a mobile phone using a QR Code reader. Since we have no participants who used both the Shopping Lense and the QR Code reader, we will not make any direct comparison between the two interface approaches.

It appeared both applications worked. Across all four participants, conversations were cued from reading the AskUsAbout information. The pattern would typically be that the shopper would read out the information to their accompanying shopper, when the stallholder would overhear and confirm the information. Discussion would then ensue. One shopper believed that the information helped increase her confidence in talking to the stall by providing her with background -its the "Kind of thing that's useful when you don't really know [the stall] at all." (H).

For the Visitors' Book, both K and H were prompted to buy products they wouldn't otherwise have purchased:

And I would, as I said earlier I think, have probably bought chicken or sausages because thats what my son likes to eat, but the fact that the kit mentioned pork chops made me think he really likes pork chops and I dont very often buy pork chops, so, yeah, just raised that possibility like you say (K) and similarly Its good, if I go to that [the application] first before looking at this [stall], then I'm immediately drawn to the pork chops, which is something I wouldn't normally buy... I suppose this is really good marketing (H) H then reasoned that that the application worked because it was "A review at point of use which you wouldn't normally get in y other way.". Given that a trusting belief is generated from the comment that is converted to a trusting intention of the purchase, it can be argued that the applications directly influenced the cognitive trust of the shoppers.

There were usability issues with both the Shopping Lense and the QR Codes. Although the UMPC is small, it still requires both hands to manipulate. Once the shopper was encumbered with bags, using the UMPC or paying became a struggle to coordinate all the necessary placing of bags. Although this became easier as the shoppers became accustomed to the kit, But it didnt feel like a difficulty at that stall. I mean, I guess that was the third stall that Id bought something at and I think Id kind of.. I dont know why it was easier there, I cant remember now. Because that was the, the one stall where I didnt need to, I didnt think about it. (K) it was noticeable that the phone was easier to use -"This is really intuitive -I don't know this phone, but taking a photograph is really good " (H). Underhill noted in [START_REF] Underhill | Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping[END_REF] that when the hands are too full, the shopping spree is over. If we expect the shopper to then manipulate gadgets whilst holding bags, we will encounter problems. Indeed, the ballet of placing bags and kit on the stall to dive for the money to pay almost resulted in the being left behind.

We had problems with sunshine producing glare on the screen making it difficult to angle the UMPC so as to see the display -"I cant see anything here. Hmm, Im really struggling because of the sunlight to make it work." (K), with the shopper later referring to the need to move backwards and forwards to find a visible angle as "the dance". This may prove a major hurdle for the deployment of augmented reality in outdoors settings, since the UMPC has to be continuously pointed at the pattern to be viewed in real time. The QR Code deployment didn't suffer from these problems, since once the picture was taken, the returned HTML pages could be viewed in the shade of the stall, or by turning to position the body correctly.

Internet connectivity for our phones was occasionally problematic, and we were at the mercy of the idiosyncrasies of particular browser implementations. During the shop, one phone stopped getting 3G connectivity, so we had to switch to an alternative phone, with a different browser, and thus different approaches to scrolling the screen.

Whilst our focus has been on delivering the technical solution to facilitate communication between stallholders and queuing customers, it became obvious from our deployment that the content of the comments is all important.

Wasnt the [information] the cue for you to have a conversation with the stall holders? (interviewer) No, it wasnt... it felt like the information from the stall holder was, em, telling me something to persuade me to buy something, whereas I feel as though my conversations with stall holders usually are about, em, getting information that I want rather than information that they want to impart. (K)

The most successful comments contained the copy that was most informal, aligning itself with the authenticity of the market.

Positioning of the patterns could also present problems. The patterns had to be placed so that they were easily visible to the queuing customers, which could be difficult when queues would form irregularly.

One shopper raised a problem about whether the Visitors' Book was intended for comments about the experience of shopping and interacting with the stall, or about the experience of consumption. Our naive answer was that it was for both, but we plan to investigate in future work how to capture and provide comments at the appropriate time.

Finally, we saw several examples of the problems of combining the virtual world with a located market. Our shoppers wanted to talk to the stallholders and found the applications to be a hindrance, especially when they weren't accustomed to the gadget: Hmm, I guess it kind of it feels more awkward for me, yeah, em, normally I would, my focus would be to try something and then probably talk to the stall holder and em, be more interpersonally focused than elsewhere which I feel focused elsewhere today

We saw suggestions that this may be a digital divide between how the younger and older shoppers would use the kit, where the younger shoppers would naturally explore the virtual world before conversation -"I don't know what they sell -I'm going to check out the bar code thing to see if that's any help" (H)whereas the older shoppers all expressed a preference for conversation if possible -"My attention split between stallholder and and the kit".

Conclusion

Trust between people is fundamentally contingent on context and continually negotiated between people. The ways in which trust is signified and maintained are often implicit in a particular situation, and are not always obvious. If we build pervasive computing applications without regard for the subtleties of how peoples' relationships are supported, we run the risk of providing computing support that is at best ignored and may possibly break the existing trust relationships. In our investigation, we showed that conversations were the essential support for trust within the market. If our applications had attempted to replace conversation, we would have broken the social context of the market. A key lesson of this work is that the requirements for located computing require a deeper investigation of the social relationships, and that ethnographic investigation of some form is needed to explicate the context for design.

Further, evaluation of the effectiveness of the solution requires use of ethnographic techniques. Whilst our applications did work mostly as we expected, there were unforeseen problems that only emerged from the ethnographic analysis. The distinction between purchase and consumption experience was not clear from our first study, and would require further work to make the application work effectively. Whilst the AskUsAbout application provoked conversations with the stall holders, it only became apparent that some of the copy was alienating our participants through reflection with our ethnographer after the event.

Technically we found that adapting the toolkit to provide applications was relatively painless, and that it was essential to provide varying levels of technological sophistication for accessing the applications. Whilst augmented reality may become widespread in the coming years, the QR Code interface will remain much more accessible for the majority of the population without high powered mobile telephones.

In future work we are deploying the system as a communication channel for our university's catering service, where we hope to explore how a more digitally aware population will make use of a located application.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Farmers' market view

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Simple Stall

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Butcher's van

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. A participant using the ARToolkit browser.

http://www.commoncause.org.uk/

The emphasis is on locality of produce but obviously producers of chutney can make use of ingredients sourced outside of the locality.

Wikipedia describes Blu-Tack as " a versatile, reusable putty-like pressure-sensitive adhesive".