Bastien Durand
email: bastien.durand@lmt.ens-cachan.fr

Franck Delvare

Patrice Bailly

Didier Picart

A SPLIT HOPKINSON PRESSURE BAR DEVICE TO CARRY OUT CONFINED FRICTION TESTS UNDER HIGH PRESSURES

Keywords: friction parameter, identification, confinement, split Hopkinson pressure bars

Numerical simulations of mechanical loadings on pyrotechnic structures require the determination of the friction coefficient between steel and explosives. Our study focuses on contact pressures of around 100 MPa and sliding velocities of around 10 m/s. Explosives are brittle materials which fracture when submitted to such pressures in uniaxial compression. They have therefore to be confined to avoid any fracture during the tests. A new Hopkinson bar device which simultaneously enables to confine a sample and rub it on steel has therefore been designed. This device is composed of two coaxial transmission bars. It consists in a cylindrical sample confined in a steel tube, the cylindrical sample being inserted between the incident bar and the internal transmission bar, and the confinement tube being leant against the external transmission bar. The high impedance of the external transmission bar keeps the confinement tube quasi-motionless whereas the impedance of the internal transmission bar is calculated to reach the desired pressure and the desired velocity at the tube-sample interface. Tests have been carried out with an inert material mechanically representative of explosives. The friction coefficient and the stresses at the tube-sample interface are deduced from strain measurements on the Hopkinson bars and on the external face of the confinement tube, and from an analytical model.

Introduction

Numerical simulations are performed to predict the ignition of confined explosives submitted to accidental impacts [START_REF] Picart | Ignition of a HMX-based PBX submitted to impact: strain localisation and boundary condition[END_REF], [START_REF] Picart | Non-shock ignition of a HMX-based high explosive: thermomechanical numerical study[END_REF], [START_REF] Picart | Modelling and simulation of plastic-bonded explosive mechanical initiation[END_REF]. Such impacts are characterised by velocities of several tens of meters per second and are usually called "low-velocity impacts". These simulations are based on:

-An elasto-plastic model simulating the macroscopic behaviour, whose parameters are identified from triaxial tests.

-A thermo-chemical model enabling the calculation of the local heat due to the irreversible macroscopic strain and due to chemical reactions.

The parameters of the thermo-chemical model are identified from normalised experimental tests supposed to reproduce accidental situations: the drop-weight test [START_REF] Field | Ignition mechanisms of explosives during mechanical deformations[END_REF], the Steven-test [START_REF] Picart | Modelling and simulation of plastic-bonded explosive mechanical initiation[END_REF], [START_REF] Gruau | Ignition of a confined high explosive under low velocity impact[END_REF], [START_REF] Vandersall | Experimental and modelling studies of crush, puncture, and perforation scenarios in the Steven impact test[END_REF], the Susan-test [START_REF] Picart | Modelling and simulation of plastic-bonded explosive mechanical initiation[END_REF] and the Taylor test [START_REF] Yodo | Energetic materials for defense -Safety, vulnerability -Friability[END_REF] among others. Unfortunately, numerical simulations of these normalised tests show that the ignition time of the explosive strongly depends on the friction coefficient at the interface between the explosive and the contact materials (generally steel). A test enabling the friction coefficient measurement between steel and explosives under the "low-velocity impacts" conditions has therefore to be designed. Numerical simulations display that the "low-velocity impacts" lead to contact pressures reaching 100 MPa and sliding velocities reaching 10 m/s at the interfaces. Few tribometers satisfy these requirements: tribometer with explosively-driven friction [START_REF] Kim | Nanostructures generated by explosively driven friction: Experiments and molecular dynamics simulations[END_REF], targetprojectile assembly with oblique impact [START_REF] Rajagopalan | Novel experimental techniques for investigating time resolved high speed friction[END_REF], Hopkinson torsion bars [START_REF] Huang | Dynamic Friction of SiC Surfaces: A Torsional Kolsky Bar Tribometer Study[END_REF], dynamometrical ring with parallelepipedic specimen launched by a gas gun or an hydraulic machine [START_REF] Philippon | A Device Enhancement for the Dry Sliding Friction Coefficient Measurement Between Steel 1080 and VascoMax with Respect to Surface Roughness Changes[END_REF] and the friction of a pin on a revolving disc [START_REF] Dickson | Frictional Heating and Ignition of Energetic Materials[END_REF], [START_REF] Hoffman | Aspect of the tribology of the plastic bonded explosive LX-04[END_REF]. With these classical tribometers, mainly used on metals and ceramics, the friction samples are tested in simple compression and this configuration is unfortunately not adapted to our situation, as explained above.

For safety reasons, our friction tests are carried out with an inert material mechanically representative of an explosive. This material is named the I1. The I1 Young's modulus is 2 GPa, its Poisson's ratio  is estimated to 0.4 and its density is 1850 kg/m 3 [START_REF] Bailly | Dynamic behavior of an aggregate material at simultaneous high pressure and strain rate: SHPB triaxial tests[END_REF]. Its inelastic behavior has been studied by carrying out triaxial compression tests [START_REF] Bailly | Dynamic behavior of an aggregate material at simultaneous high pressure and strain rate: SHPB triaxial tests[END_REF]. The material flow when its plasticity threshold has been attained (for the sake of simplicity the maximal stresses obtained using triaxial tests are used to define a plasticity threshold). The plasticity flow threshold is defined by a Drucker-Prager criterion [START_REF] Bailly | Dynamic behavior of an aggregate material at simultaneous high pressure and strain rate: SHPB triaxial tests[END_REF]:

(1)

mis -P < C

where P is the hydrostatic pressure and mis the Von Mises equivalent stress.

Conventionally, the stress in the I1 is positive in compression and negative in traction.

A plastic incompressibility and a perfectly plastic behavior (i.e. C constant) are assumed. The parameters have been determined: C = 25 MPa and α = 0.64 [START_REF] Bailly | Dynamic behavior of an aggregate material at simultaneous high pressure and strain rate: SHPB triaxial tests[END_REF].

According to relation [START_REF] Picart | Ignition of a HMX-based PBX submitted to impact: strain localisation and boundary condition[END_REF], in the case of a simple compression loading, the maximum axial stress is only 31 MPa. The I1 behavior is quasi-brittle, so when this limit stress is reached, it breaks. The desired 100 MPa pressure cannot therefore be reached with classical tribometers because of the I1 fracture. The material has therefore to be confined during our tests for two following reasons:

-The behavior of the confined material remains elastic even under high stresses.

-A confinement situation avoids any fracture to occur when the elasticity limit is reached.

A cylindrical I1 sample is thus enclosed in a steel tube. This technique is usually employed to perform compression tests with quasi-uniaxial strain states [START_REF] Bailly | Dynamic behavior of an aggregate material at simultaneous high pressure and strain rate: SHPB triaxial tests[END_REF], [START_REF] Forquin | Influence of free water on the quasi-static and dynamic of strength of concrete in confined compression tests[END_REF]. Our test bench has to be designed to enables friction to occur between the I1 sample and the steel tube. Our experimental configuration is similar to the compaction tests one [START_REF] Azhdar | Determination of dynamic and sliding friction, and observation of stick-slip phenomenon on compacted polymers during high velocity compaction[END_REF], [START_REF] Burlion | Experimental analysis of compaction of concrete and mortar[END_REF], [START_REF] Tien | Wall Friction measurement and compaction characteristics of bentonite powders[END_REF].

The Hopkinson bar set-up, its potential performances and the friction identification from a test and from an analytical model are described in section 2. Then, the consistency of this identification is verified in section 3 by performing numerical finite element simulations.

The Hopkinson bar set-up

Design and modeling

The Hopkinson bar device used for our friction tests has two coaxial output bars (Figure 1). It consists in an I1 cylindrical sample confined in a steel tube, the sample being inserted between the incident bar (via a plug, see Figure 2) and the internal output bar, and the confinement tube being leant against the external output bar. The high impedance of the external output bar keeps the confinement tube quasi-motionless whereas the impedance of the internal output bar is calculated to reach the desired pressure and the desired velocity at the tube-sample interface. Thus, the steel tube acts both as a confinement, which avoids any fracture in the I1 sample, and as a friction surface. The radial pressure at the confinement tubesample interface is generated by the axial compression of the sample. The impact of the striker induces an incident compressive strain wave i in the input bar (Figure 1). Reverberation occurs in the cell (cell details are given on Figure 2), which leads to a reflected strain wave r in the input bar, to a transmitted compressive strain wave it in the internal output bar and to a transmitted compressive strain wave et in the external output bar. i and r are both measured by a longitudinal strain gauge glued on the input bar, at 1.22 m from the plug interface, where the two waves are separated in time. it is measured by a longitudinal strain gauge glued at 330 mm from the sample interface and et is measured by a longitudinal strain gauge glued on the external face of the external output bar and at 295 mm from the confinement tube interface. The force Fi applied by the input bar on the plug and the velocity Vi at the input barplug interface can be determined from the Hopkinson formulae (2) and from strain waves i and r measured by the gauge and virtually transported at the input bar -plug interface (see Table 1 for symbols definitions):

(2)

              i r i i r i i i i C V E R F      2
The force Fio applied by the internal output bar on the sample and the velocity Vio at the internal output bar -sample interface can be determined from the Hopkinson formulae [START_REF] Picart | Modelling and simulation of plastic-bonded explosive mechanical initiation[END_REF] and from strain wave it measured by the gauge and virtually transported at the internal output bar -sample interface:

(3)          it io io it io io io C V E R F    2
The force Feo applied by the external output bar on the confinement tube and the velocity Veo at the external output barconfinement tube interface can be determined from the Hopkinson formulae (4) and from strain wave et measured by the gauge and virtually transported at the external output barconfinement tube interface:

(4)          et eo eo et eo eeo ieo eo C V E R R F    2 2
The equilibrium state of the cell (i.e. the confinement tube, the sample and the plug) gives:

(5)

Fi = Feo+Fio

The stationary state of the cell gives:

(6) Vi = Vio
In the case of a stationary state, the sliding velocity at the friction interface V can be expressed as following:

(7) V = Vio -Veo or V = Vi -Veo
The sample behavior has to be modeled to obtain a second relation between the forces Fi, Feo and Fio. The model used is similar of the Janssen's one [START_REF] Janssen | Versuche über Getreiedruch in Silozellen[END_REF] and has been previously used by the authors in [START_REF] Durand | Friction between steel and a confined inert material representative of explosives under severe loadings[END_REF] and [START_REF] Durand | Identification of the friction under high pressure between an aggregate material and steel: experimental and modelling aspects[END_REF]. The approach is based on three assumptions:

(i) the confinement tube is assumed to be perfectly rigid, (ii) the sample behavior remains elastic, (iii) in the sample, the axial, radial and circumferential stresses and strains do not depend on the radial coordinate. If the stresses in the sample (Figure 3) are positive in compression and negative in traction, the Hooke's law leads to the following relation:

(8)          1 z z p  being the I1 Poisson's ratio.
The axial equilibrium of the sample slice between z and z+dz (Figure 3) leads to:

(9)       dz z d R z R z      ' 2
R being the sample radius. A Coulomb's law with a friction coefficient denoted f at the tube-sample interface leads to:

(10)     z p f z  
The relations (8), ( 9) and ( 10) lead to a differential equation:

(11)             1 2 ' R f z z
By taking into account the boundary conditions:

(12)            0 2 2     R F L R F io i we obtain: (13)   f F F io i  exp  with        1 2 R L
The incident strain wave i can be linked to the impact velocity of the striker Vs:

(14) i s i C V 2   
Thanks to the Hopkinson formulae (2), ( 3) and (4), thanks to the equilibrium state equation ( 5), thanks to the stationary state equation [START_REF] Vandersall | Experimental and modelling studies of crush, puncture, and perforation scenarios in the Steven impact test[END_REF], and thanks to relation [START_REF] Hoffman | Aspect of the tribology of the plastic bonded explosive LX-04[END_REF], the mean pressure along the friction interface pmean and the sliding velocity V can be determined from the impact velocity of the striker Vs, from the friction coefficient f and from the set-up parameters: 15) and ( 16) enable to choose the apparatus dimensions (L, R, Ri, Rio, Reeo and Rieo), the apparatus materials (Ei, Ci, Eio, Cio, Eeo and Ceo) and the striker initial velocity Vs knowing the sample Poisson's ratio , the friction coefficient f and the desired interface solicitations (pmean and V). It must be highlighted that an accurate calculation of the apparatus needs to know a priori an order of the friction coefficient f magnitude and needs to know accurately the sample Poisson's ratio . The striker of our apparatus can be launched at 10 m/s. Figure 4 therefore displays the magnitudes of the mean pressure and of the sliding velocity that can be reached with our set-up. Figure 4 shows that the mean pressure increases and that the sliding velocity decreases when the friction coefficient increases. The desired 100 MPa pressure and the desired 10 m/s sliding velocity can almost be simultaneously approached for very low friction coefficients (lower than 0.1). It could be noted that the pressure and the sliding velocity cannot be simultaneously imposed to a desired value because one depends on the other. None of the former devices enables to reach such friction solicitations. The tribometer used in [START_REF] Durand | Friction between steel and a confined inert material representative of explosives under severe loadings[END_REF] enables to reach a sliding velocity of around 10 m/s but limits the mean pressure to 20 MPa whereas the tribometer used in [START_REF] Durand | Identification of the friction under high pressure between an aggregate material and steel: experimental and modelling aspects[END_REF] and in [START_REF] Durand | A friction test between steel and a brittle material at high contact pressures and high sliding velocities[END_REF] enables to reach a mean pressure of around 100 MPa but limits the sliding velocity to 2 m/s.

(15)       s i io io io i i io i io i mean V f C E R C E R L R f f E E R R p ] [ exp 2 1 exp 2 2 2 2      (16)         s i io io io i i eo ieo eeo eo io io io i i V f C E R C E R E R R f C E R C E R V   exp 1 exp 2 2 2 2 2 2            Relations (

Analysis of measurements

A test has been conducted to experimentally check if the sample reaches a stationary equilibrium state as assumed in section 2.1. The time evolutions of the raw strains are shown on Figure 5. The forces applied by the bars on the cell and the velocities at the bars-cell interfaces are then determined from the Hopkinson formulae (2), ( 3) and ( 4). The input force can be compared to the output force on Figure 6 and the sample input velocity can be compared to the sample output velocity on Figure 7. We can notice that the time beginning used on Figure 5 is different from the one used on the other figures and will be no more used in the paper. r. These two waves being quasi-opposed (Figure 8), uncertainties are amplified when the input force is calculated with formula (2). The experimental evolution of Fi will therefore not be used to identify the friction coefficient f and we will focus only on the stationary phase (approximately from 300 µs to 400 µs). The mean friction stress mean can be deduced from Feo which corresponds to the friction force: [START_REF] Tien | Wall Friction measurement and compaction characteristics of bentonite powders[END_REF] RL

F eo mean   2 
The minimal pressure pmin is reached on z = 0 and the maximal pressure pmax in reached on z = L (Figure 3). According to relations (5), ( 8) and ( 12), pmin and pmax can be expressed from the output forces Feo and Fio:

(19)                   2 max 2 min 1 1 0 R F F L p p R F p p io eo io      
According to relations (8), ( 9) and ( 10), the pressure p is an exponential function of (f z):

(20)   1 exp exp         f L z f f p p mean   
For low magnitudes of f, p can thus be considered as an affine function of z, which implies: Figure 10 shows that the mean pressure pmean is of the order of 90-100 MPa.

Numerical simulations of the test: check of the results consistency

Finite element simulations (software: ABAQUS/Explicit) are performed in order to check the consistency of the experimental results and of the friction coefficient magnitude identified from our analytical model (f  0.05). The whole set-up except for the striker is exactly reproduced in these simulations. As Teflon sheets have been inserted between the plug and the sample and between the internal output bar and the sample, these contacts are supposed to be frictionless. The experimental incident strain wave i is used as an imposed loading by applying on the right-hand extremity of the input bar (Figure 1) a pressure equal to the opposite of the measured strain i virtually transported at the extremity multiplied by the input bar Young's modulus Ei. The opposite of i can be seen on Figure 8. The strains r, tu, et and it can be considered as the mechanical response of the set-up to i and the simulations have been performed with several values of the friction coefficient f to study its influence on the response. The external transmitted strain wave et is proportional to the friction force and is therefore the most friction dependent strain (Figure 11). During the stationary phase, f = 0.05 is a very good fit with the experimental et. The strain measured on the confinement tube tu is also highly dependent on f, but a perfect fit cannot be obtained because of the numerical strains high values (Figure 12). The reflected strain wave r and the internal transmitted strain wave it are quasi-independent on friction (Figure 13 and Figure 14). During the stationary phase, f = 0.05 is consistent with the measured r and with the measured it.

Discussion of the analytical model assumptions

Relation [START_REF] Burlion | Experimental analysis of compaction of concrete and mortar[END_REF] leads to the following one: Figure 15 shows that the analytical model slightly overestimates the friction force Feo.

Only this criterion finally matters because f is firstly identified from the io eo F F ratio.

Conclusion

The purpose was to design a set-up enabling the friction measurement between an inert material, mechanically representative of explosives, and a steel confinement. The desired sliding velocities and the desired pressures were respectively 10 m/s and 100 MPa. A confinement set-up using the split Hopkinson pressure bars technique had to be designed because of the low mechanical resistance of the inert material when submitted to the simple compression of classical tribometers. Such a configuration does not enable to make direct measurements. As a result, the stresses and the friction coefficient at the interface between steel and the inert material were identified from indirect measurements, from an analytical model and from the value of the inert material Poisson's ratio. It has been shown that the sliding velocity and the pressure reached roughly 8-9 m/s and 90-100 MPa whereas the striker was launched at only 10 m/s.

A very low friction coefficient has been measured: only 0.05. In [START_REF] Durand | Friction between steel and a confined inert material representative of explosives under severe loadings[END_REF] and [START_REF] Durand | Identification of the friction under high pressure between an aggregate material and steel: experimental and modelling aspects[END_REF], a sliding velocity of the order of 1 mm/min has been imposed and the corresponding friction coefficient is roughly 0.2. In [START_REF] Durand | A friction test between steel and a brittle material at high contact pressures and high sliding velocities[END_REF], the mean pressure is approximately 70 MPa and the sliding velocity is of the order of 2 m/s. In [START_REF] Durand | Friction between steel and a confined inert material representative of explosives under severe loadings[END_REF], the mean pressure is approximately 20 MPa and the sliding velocity is around 10 m/s. In both cases, the friction coefficient is of the order of 0.4-0.5. The reasons of such a variation should be studied in a future work. The friction drop at the very beginning of the test could also be studied by using a time dependent friction model.

The measurements processing could also be improved by using an inverse method like in [START_REF] Durand | Numerical solution of Cauchy problems in linear elasticity in axisymmetric situations[END_REF]. Another prospect is the design of a compaction test enabling the friction force measurement. Indeed, the study of the friction in compaction situations is an issue [START_REF] Azhdar | Determination of dynamic and sliding friction, and observation of stick-slip phenomenon on compacted polymers during high velocity compaction[END_REF], [START_REF] Tien | Wall Friction measurement and compaction characteristics of bentonite powders[END_REF] and our device enables the simultaneous determination of the friction parameters and of the compacted material parameters.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: The Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar device. i: incident strain wave, r: reflected

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2 : Zoom on the mounting with the cell composed of the plug, the sample and the

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Stresses in the sample. z: axial coordinate, p(z): radial pressure, (z): friction stress

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4 : Evolution of the mean pressure pmean and of the sliding velocity V as a function of

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Time evolutions of the raw strains measured by the gauges glued on bars and on the

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Time evolutions of the input force Fi and of the sum of the external output force and

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Time evolutions of the input velocity Vi, of the internal output velocity Vio and of

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. The evolution of the experimental input force Fi during the transient phase (at the

Figure 8 :

 8 Figure 8: Time evolutions of the opposite of the measured incident strain wave i and of the

Figure 7 Figure 9 :

 79 Figure7shows that the sliding velocity V is of the order of 8-9 m/s during the

  The mean interface stresses are determined from the experimental output forces Feo and Fio, from relations[START_REF] Janssen | Versuche über Getreiedruch in Silozellen[END_REF] and from relation[START_REF] Durand | Identification of the friction under high pressure between an aggregate material and steel: experimental and modelling aspects[END_REF]:

Figure 10 :

 10 Figure 10: Time evolutions of the experimental mean pressure pmean and of the experimental

Figure 11 :

 11 Figure 11: Time evolution of the measured external transmitted strain wave et virtually

Figure 12 :

 12 Figure 12: Time evolution of the strain measured by the gauge glued on the confinement tube

Figure 13 :

 13 Figure 13: Time evolution of the measured reflected strain wave r virtually transported at the

Figure 14 :

 14 Figure 14: Time evolution of the measured internal transmitted strain wave it virtually

Figure 15 :

 15 Figure 15: Time evolutions of the numerical external output force Feo and of     io F f 1 exp  

Table 1 :

 1 Young's moduli, tensile/compressive waves celerities, diameters and lengths of the bars.

Acknowledgments:

The authors would like to thank Maxime Biessy for his help and the reviewers for their valuable comments.


Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue

Keywords: histology, cereal kernel, aleurone, hulls, microscopy, barley Highlights

The possible use of specific biochemical compounds identified in wheat grains was evaluated for monitoring barley grain tissues during fractionation. First barley grain anatomy was studied through microscopic observation and quantification of the relative proportion of each anatomical part in four distinct barley samples from both hulled and hulless genotypes. As expected from cereal phylogeny and irrespective of the possible presence of hull, common features were observed between barley and wheat grains, but the aleurone layer predominated in the outer layers. The specific location of

Para-coumaric acid is an appropriate marker of the presence of hulls in barley grains Alkylresorcinols are specifically located in barley grains in a composite layer including testa Phytic acid measurement could be used to assess the aleurone proportion in barley grains List of abbreviations p-CA, para-coumaric acid d.m., dry matter FAt, dehydrotriferulic acid (8-O-4',5'-5'' form) AL+NE, composite isolated layer made of the aleurone layer and the residue of nucellar epidermis T+P, composite isolated layer made of the testa and pericarp the coumpounds identified in wheat was established. Phytic acid was specifically localized in the aleurone layer and alkylresorcinols in the composite layer containing the testa, even if their concentration differed from that observed in wheat grain tissues. Thus, these two markers identified in wheat can be used to monitor the corresponding barley tissues, independent of the presence of hulls. Conversely, phenolic compounds, either ferulic acid trimer or p-coumaric acid, cannot be used to monitor respectively the outer pericarp or the aleurone cell walls in barley grains. p-coumaric acid was identified as an efficient marker of the hull and could be used to distinguish hulled or hulless barley grains and to help monitor the dehulling process.

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 3 1. Introduction. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) belongs to the grass family of Poaceae, more specifically to the Triticeae tribe, like the main small cereal grains, wheat (Triticum spp.) and rye (Secale cereale). Barley is closely related to these two cereal species although it diverged approximately 11.6 million years ago and has further diversified into several subspecies [START_REF] Chalupska | Acc homoeoloci and the evolution of wheat genomes[END_REF]. The major anatomical parts of the barley plant are typical of other members of Triticeae, in particular the kernel, which is an indehiscent fruit type, called caryopsis. In this grain, the future plant is accompanied by the endosperm comprising a storage tissue, called the starchy endosperm, and the aleurone layer. Both the embryo and the endosperm are surrounded by protective layers of maternal origin (the residue of nucellar epidermis, the testa and the pericarp). As also observed in wheat and rye, the outer layers, i.e. from the aleurone layer to the pericarp, are partly enclosed in the grain ventral side and create a crease dividing the grain in half longitudinally, but the crease is shallower in barley grains [START_REF] Evers | Cereal structure and composition[END_REF]. The outermost layers of the barley grain were composed of structures resulting from spikelet differentiation, the palea and lemma. They are usually tightly stuck to the pericarp, which is considered desirable for selection of varieties for malting [START_REF] Hoad | Hull to caryopsis adhesion and grain skinning in malting barley: Identification of key growth stages in the adhesion process[END_REF]. In the specific case of barley genotypes classified as hulless, this hull could be easily removed by combining threshing and cleaning of the grain. Barley is primarily used for animal feed (60-70% of total production), then for malting and only small amounts (<1%) are used for human food (Sahlstrom and Knutsen, 2010). But today there is a growing interest in completely or partially replacing wheat with barley flour given the potential nutritional health benefits of barley grains [START_REF] Baik | Barley for food: Characteristics, improvement, and renewed interest[END_REF]. Barley grains are relatively rich in -glucan, a soluble fibre whose ability to reduce cholesterol and blood glucose after a meal, allowed a health claim to be recently approved by the European Food Safety Authority. Moreover, like other whole cereal grains, they are rich in mineral, fibres or micronutrients. The introduction of barley as an ingredient is not straightforward and the use of barley in palatable and acceptable food products implies the use of different barley types (hulless, proanthocyanidin-free grains) or a different method Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004 of processing the grain [START_REF] Barron | Processing of barley grain for food and feed[END_REF]. Since the constituents are not evenly distributed in the grain, dry milling could be used to produce fractions rich in starch and protein, fibres or other bioactive compounds (as reviewed in [START_REF] Barron | Processing of barley grain for food and feed[END_REF]). Dry processing of barley grains is mainly based on abrasion/pearling in order to sequentially remove the hulls and the outer layers before possible grinding steps. If wheat milling facilities are to be used, barley grain specificities, e.g. grain hardness, bran brittleness and endosperm composition, will need to be taken into account [START_REF] Barron | Processing of barley grain for food and feed[END_REF]. The rational development of efficient processes to obtain value added ingredients requires the ability to monitor the abrasion/pearling process and the fate of grain tissues, in the same way as for wheat grain [START_REF] Hemery | Dry processes to develop wheat fractions and products with enhanced nutritional quality[END_REF]. This strategy relies on the identification of tissue-specific compounds whose concentration measured in mill streams could be directly linked to the proportion of a tissue, knowing their concentration in pure isolated tissues [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF]. In wheat grains, phenolic compounds (a ferulic acid trimer and p-coumaric acid), alkylresorcinols and phytic acid have been shown to be specifically located in the outer pericarp, aleurone cell walls, testa and aleurone cell content, and were successfully used to monitor tissue distribution during traditional milling [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF][START_REF] Raggiri | In-depth study of durum wheat grain tissue distribution at milling[END_REF], pearling process [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF] or innovative dry processing [START_REF] Chen | Dissociation of aleurone cell cluster from wheat bran by centrifugal impact milling[END_REF][START_REF] Hemery | Potential of dry fractionation of wheat bran for the development of food ingredients, part II: Electrostatic separation of particles[END_REF]. The close genetic relationship between barley and wheat grains and hence the similarity in grain structure and composition led to the hypothesis that the same biochemical tools previously identified for wheat grain tissue could also be used to monitor barley tissues. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and the limits of this strategy. First, the barley (hulled or hulless) grain anatomy was studied through microscopic observation and the relative proportion of each anatomical part was measured. Second, distribution and quantification of the biochemical markers identified in wheat were studied in barley grain tissues to assess the efficiency of these markers for monitoring the barley grain tissue. Their thousand kernel weight (TKW) was determined by weighing a 30 g-sample and counting the grains using an electronic seed counter. Results are reported as mean mass (g) of thousand kernels (ISO 108 International Standard 520:2010). At least three determinations were performed for each sample. Barley grain tissues were isolated from these grains for chemical analyses and microscopic observations. Grains were cut to remove the germ and the brush. They were soaked in distilled water overnight to facilitate separation of the endosperm. For hulled grains, the loosely attached hulls were first removed and palea and lemma easily differentiated and separated into different samples. The crease was then removed and starchy endosperm scraped away. The aleurone layer + the residue of nucellar epidermis (AL+NE) were isolated from the testa+pericarp (T+P) layer with a scalpel. Dissected tissues were dried at 25°C over phosphorus pentoxide (P 2 O 5 ). The tissues were then ground in liquid nitrogen with a Spex CertiPrep 6750 laboratory impact grinder and further dried before chemical analysis.

Determination of the relative amount of main tissues within barley grains

The relative proportion of the main barley grain tissues was determined through hand-isolation and gravimetric measurements according to the procedure of [START_REF] Raggiri | In-depth study of durum wheat grain tissue distribution at milling[END_REF] slightly modified. The following tissues were hand-isolated: the embryonic axis, the scutellum, the starchy endosperm, the outer layers (made of the aleurone layer, the residue of the nucellar epidermis, the testa and the pericarp), and the hull (if present). Twenty barley grains were hand dissected in quadruplicate and the recovered barley tissues were weighed after drying on P 2 O 5 until a constant mass was obtained Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004 or freeze-drying (in the case of the starchy endosperm). The relative proportion of each tissue was calculated by dividing the weight of the tissue by the weight of the initial grains (each in dry matter). The composition of the outer layers was deduced, as detailed by [START_REF] Barron | Relative amounts of tissues in mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain and their carbohydrate and phenolic acid composition[END_REF], from the combined weight of AL+NE and T+P layer, dissected from outer layers especially prepared without the crease. To compare the means, Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) test was conducted at the 5% significance level.

Chemical analyses 2.3.1 Phytic acid

The phytic acid content was measured at 500 nm from acidic extracts according to a colorimetric method [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF]. A standard curve was obtained with corn phytate (P-8810, Sigma) solutions of known concentrations. Samples were analysed in duplicate with a relative mean deviation < 5%.

Alkylresorcinols

Total alkylresorcinols were extracted with two successive extractions with n-propanol, for 2 h each at 20°C and an aliquot fraction measured through a colorimetric method [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF], using the coupling of alkylresorcinol to fast blue reagent and evaluation of the absorbance changes at 520 nm. The total amount of alkylresorcinols was estimated by comparison with a calibration curve (0-100 µg.mL -1 ) prepared with olivetol (5-pentyl-1,3-benzediol) as the reference molecule. Samples were analysed in duplicate with a relative mean deviation < 5%.

Phenolic acids

Ester-linked phenolic acids were saponified under argon (oxygen-free) at 35°C in 2N sodium hydroxide. An internal standard (2,3,5-trimethoxy-(E)-cinnamic acid (TMCA), T-4002, Sigma Chemical Co., St Louis, USA) was added before adjusting the pH to 2. Phenolic acids were then extracted with Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. ( 2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004 diethyl ether and quantified by RP-HPLC as described by [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF]. The response factors of the para-coumaric acid (p-CA) and the 4-O-8', 5'-5'' dehydrotriferulic acid (ferulic acid trimer, FAt) relative to the internal standard were determined at 320 nm with pure compounds. All analyses were performed at least in duplicate with a relative mean deviation < 5% (mean relative deviation of 4.3% for p-CA and 3.8% for FAt).

Microscope observations

Sections of barley grain tissue samples were prepared, stained and imaged as described by [START_REF] Hemery | Potential of dry fractionation of wheat bran for the development of food ingredients, part II: Electrostatic separation of particles[END_REF] with following exceptions: polymerized samples were sectioned (2 µm thick) in a rotary microtome HM 355S (Microm Laborgeräte GmbH, Walldorf, Germany) using a tungsten carbon knife. Protein and cell walls (β-glucan and cellulose) were stained with acid fuchsin, and calcofluor white. In exciting light (excitation, 400-410 nm; emission, > 455 nm) intact cell walls stained with calcofluor appeared blue and proteins stained with acid fuchsin appeared red, while starch was not stained and appeared black.

Results and discussion

3.1. Barley grain anatomy

Microscope observations and tissue identification of hand isolated layers

The thousand kernel weights of Olve, Marigold, Pirona and Pihl were respectively 41.7± 0.1 g, 43.5± 0.3 g, 42.9 ± 0.1 g and 44.6 ± 0.4 g. These values are relatively high for barley grains [START_REF] Evers | Cereal structure and composition[END_REF] but in the same range as those obtained for barley samples used for malt production [START_REF] Griffey | Grain composition of Virginia winter barley and implications for use in feed, food, and biofuels production[END_REF]. No differences in kernel weights between the two hulled and hulless samples were observed as expected from previous studies [START_REF] Griffey | Grain composition of Virginia winter barley and implications for use in feed, food, and biofuels production[END_REF].

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 8 Barley grain microstructure was revealed through epifluorescence microscopy (Figure 1) using specific staining for cell wall -glucans and proteins [START_REF] Andersson | Chemical composition and microstructure of two naked waxy barleys[END_REF]. Observation of crosssection of the four barley grain samples revealed the usual oval shape, and the crease was more clearly visible in hulless samples (Figure 1a and1b). The major part of the barley grains were the starchy endosperm, the germ and the outer layers. From the inside to the outside, different tissues were distinguished in the whole outer layers: first the aleurone layer with 2-3 rows of cells with thick cell walls, then the residue of nucellar epidermis, the seed coat or testa, surrounded with the pericarp and finally the hull comprising palea or lemma in the hulled samples (Figure 1c and1d). On the basis of visual examination, the presence or absence of a hull did not have major influence on the overall thickness of each grain tissue layer. Light microscopy examination of cross sections cut from embedded barley tissue layer fragments (Figure 2) were compared with the histological structure of the outer layers of the barley grain (Figure 1) in order to identify the tissue composition of each dissected layer. In the hulled barley grains, lemma, the outer glume, was observed on the dorsal side of the barley grains and palea, the inner glume, on the ventral side (Figure 1a). The glumes consisted of the epidermis, layers of bast fibres, spongy parenchyma and inner epidermis (Figure 1c). These glumes were first isolated and were easily separated due to the low adhesion at the distal end of the grain, which made it possible to insert a scalpel. The lemma was recognizable thanks to the presence of five vessels, whereas only two were present in the palea [START_REF] Briggs | The morphology of barley; the vegetative phase[END_REF]. Spongy parenchyma and inner epidermis were not intact in all the tissue fragments (Figure 2b) showing they had been damaged during the separation of the layers. Occasionally, the lemma and palea also contained a supplementary layer which was identified as the outermost layer of the pericarp (Figure 2a). The tight adherence between the lemma or palea and the pericarp had already been described in detail by [START_REF] Olkku | Connection between structure and quality of barley husk[END_REF]. Accordingly, the composite layer of pericarp and testa (T+P), which was further dissected, contained in some places fragments of spongy parenchyma and inner epidermis of lemma Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004 or palea (Figure 2c) or the outer layers of pericarp were partially missing. Below the testa, some fragments of nucellar epidermis were sometimes present, but the nucellar epidermis was mainly recovered at the outer surface of the last hand dissected layer containing the aleurone layer (Figure 2d). The aleurone layer was also associated with the sub-aleurone cell walls rich in β-glucan.

In the hulless barley grains, the outer layers were separated into two composite layers. The first layer, including the most external tissues (Figure 2e) was made of the whole pericarp and the layer underneath, the testa. The residue of the nucellar epidermis and the aleurone were isolated as the other composite layer. Three to four rows of aleurone cells, especially rich in proteins, were observed in the aleurone layer and some sub-aleurone cell walls with or without cell content from the starchy endosperm still adhering to the dissected layer (Figure 2f). Strong coloration with calcofluor was observed in the cell walls of starchy endosperm, indicating large amounts of -glucan in this tissue. To summarise, hand dissection enabled isolation of pure lemma and palea tissues (Fig. 2a and2b) from hulled barley grains. The following outer layers were divided into two composite layers. One layer was made of the testa and the pericarp (called T+P in the following) and the other layer comprised the aleurone layer and the residue of nucellar epidermis (called AL+NE). Some slight differences were observed within barley grain samples, depending on the presence or absence of the hull. In particular, the presence of the outer pericarp was not proved in the T+P layer when dissected from the hulled barley samples. The separation of the outer layers during hand isolation was not affected by the presence of hulls. The barley tissues did not separate in the same way as in wheat, although the dissection procedure was similar [START_REF] Barron | Relative amounts of tissues in mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain and their carbohydrate and phenolic acid composition[END_REF]. Still, considering the thinness of the residue of nucellar epidermis in comparison with the aleurone layer, the composition of the AL+NE in barley should be approximately the same as the composition of pure aleurone layer and thus be comparable with pure wheat aleurone layers.

Proportions of tissue within the barley grain.

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

10 Meticulous hand dissection of barley grain under a stereomicroscope allowed the separation of pure or composite tissues whose identity was established by optical microscopy based on known barley grain anatomy. Their relative proportions were determined through hand isolation and gravimetric measurements (Table 1). The outer layers were quantified as a whole because they were too sparse to be weighed separately and because of the difficulty of isolating them in the crease. The calculated sum of the different isolated tissues (germ, endosperm, outer layers and hull in hulled samples only) ranged from 97.5% to 99.9%, i.e. negligible loss during hand dissection. Moreover, the mean relative standard deviation obtained from four independent measurements was 2.3%, indicating good repeatability and validating the data obtained. The relative proportion of the two main dissected layers, the T+P on one side, and the AL+NE on the other, was assessed in dedicated experiments, using outer layers without the crease, as also done with wheat grains [START_REF] Barron | Relative amounts of tissues in mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain and their carbohydrate and phenolic acid composition[END_REF]. The barley grains we studied mainly comprised starchy endosperm (74.1% to 84.7%), surrounded by the outer layers (11.0% to 12.8%), the hull (for hulled grains 7.7% to 8.0%), and the future plant accounted for 3.1% to 3.5% (split into the embryonic axis 2.0% and the scutellum 1.1% to 1.5%). The overall tissue composition was in agreement with the typical proportion of grain parts as reviewed by [START_REF] Evers | Cereal structure and composition[END_REF]. Total fibrous tissues (hulls plus outer layers) were in the same order of magnitude (about 20% compared to 21%). The hulled barley cultivars analysed in this study contained a small amount of hulls (8%), which is in the lowest part of the observed range (7% to 25%, [START_REF] Evers | Cereal structure and composition[END_REF]. Considering the ease of separation, the purity of the dissected hulls or outer layers in this study cannot be questioned. Moreover, even if the exact location of the outer pericarp, which was crushed during grain development [START_REF] Briggs | The morphology of barley; the vegetative phase[END_REF], was not easy to detect in the layers dissected in the hulled barley cultivars, its presence or absence could not explain this low amount. Instead it could be related to the barley type (2 rowed), the growing location (northern latitudes) and the kernel size (high thousand kernel weight), since all these characteristics tend to lower the hull proportions within the barley grain [START_REF] Evers | Cereal structure and composition[END_REF].

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

11 Interestingly, the proportion of outer layers was similar among the four barley samples, regardless of the presence of hulls. Therefore, in hulled barley grains, the relative amount of starchy endosperm is lower (74.1% to 76.3%) than in hulless grains (82.8% to 84.7%). This was not offset by the grain weight, as equivalent thousand kernel weights were measured in hulled (41.7 to 43.5g) or hulless samples (42.9 to 44.6g). The smaller quantity of starchy endosperm could explain the smaller quantity of starch in the hulled barley grains, as observed by Holtekjølen et al. (2006a) and [START_REF] Griffey | Grain composition of Virginia winter barley and implications for use in feed, food, and biofuels production[END_REF] as starch is specifically located in the starchy endosperm. Within the hull, the relative proportions of palea and lemma were similar between the two hulled barley samples. The proportion of lemma was higher than that of palea, respectively 58% compared to 42%. The proportion of the T+P and AL+NE layers in the outer layers was also observed to remain constant regardless of the barley sample, with respective values of 20% and 80%. In agreement with [START_REF] Evers | Cereal structure and composition[END_REF], the relative proportion of the aleurone layer within the whole outer layer was therefore higher in barley grains than in wheat grains, where the value was about 45% [START_REF] Barron | Relative amounts of tissues in mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain and their carbohydrate and phenolic acid composition[END_REF][START_REF] Evers | Cereal structure and composition[END_REF]. This could be linked to the relative thinness of the other barley grain maternal tissues, as the amount of aleurone layer in the barley grain is comparable to that in the wheat grain [START_REF] Barron | Relative amounts of tissues in mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain and their carbohydrate and phenolic acid composition[END_REF].

3.2 Location in barley grains of biochemical markers identified in wheat The potential use of specific biochemical markers identified in wheat (Triticum aestivum, [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF] or Triticum durum, [START_REF] Raggiri | In-depth study of durum wheat grain tissue distribution at milling[END_REF]) to monitor the distribution of barley grain tissue was studied. In wheat grain, phytic acid, p-coumaric acid, alkylresorcinols, and 4-O-8', 5'-5'' dehydrotriferulic acid (FAt) were used to monitor the aleurone cell content and cell walls, the testa and the outer pericarp, respectively. The corresponding amounts in the different layers dissected in barley are reported in Table 2. Based on the proportion of each tissue within the barley grain, the specificity of their location in barley grains is discussed.

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. ( 2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004 FAt concentrations in the barley grains ranged from 0.024 to 0.038 mg.g -1 d.m. with the highest amounts observed in the two hulled barley varieties (Table 2). Independent of barley genotype, all the barley grain FAt originated from the whole outer layers. FAt was observed in each dissected layer, with lower values in the AL+NE layer (0.06-0.12 mg.g -1 d.m.) and higher in the T+P (0.45-0.93 mg.g -1 d.m.). Intermediate values were observed in the hulls, with similar values in lemma and palea (about 0.21 mg.g -1 d.m.). In the hulled barley varieties, FAt was evenly distributed in the most external part of the barley grains, from the testa to the hull, containing 70% to 88% of the barley grain's total FAt amount. Considering the mass proportion of the aleurone layer in barley grain, the amount (around 20%) of FAt originating from this tissue was not negligible. Therefore, in barley, this marker was not specific to the most external tissue as it is in wheat grain [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF]. In addition, the small difference in FAt concentration between hulls and the T+P layer would also make it difficult to use it to monitor either the hulls or the outer pericarp, particular during processes such as pearling, which successively removes the most external tissues. In the hulless barley samples, about 65% to 80% of grain FAt originated from the T+P layer, including the pericarp layer, in accordance with and similar to its known location in wheat grain [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF]. However, the ratio of the concentration in the AL+NE to that in the T+P layer in the hulless barley varieties (7-8) is lower than those observed between the aleurone layer and the outer pericarp (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22) in wheat grain [START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF]. Thus, this marker's specificity is low in comparison with those in wheat, although this needs confirming through further analysis of other barley samples representing other genotypes, for example. The concentration of para-coumaric acid (p-CA) measured in the hulled barley grains was between 0.21 and 0.39 mg.g -1 d.m., which is in agreement with results of previous studies (Andersson et al., 2008b;[START_REF] Hernanz | Hydroxycinnamic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers in barley and processed barley[END_REF], Holtekjølen et al., 2006b) (Table 2). However, it was 10 to 20 times lower in the hulless barley varieties (0.02 mg.g -1 d.m.) than in hulled ones, as also observed in Andersson et al. (2008b) and Holtekjølen et al. (2006b). This could be linked to the high amount of p-CA measured both in lemma and palea (between 1.8 and 4 mg.g -1 d.m.), as suggested by Nordkvist et Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 13 al. (1984) when they analysed pearled fractions. Hull tissues are known to be highly lignified and p-CA has been used as a marker of lignification in Poaceae plants [START_REF] Grabber | Genetic and molecular basis of grass cellwall degradability. I. Lignin-cell wall matrix interactions[END_REF]. More than 95% of the p-CA marker encountered in the whole outer layers of hulled barley cultivars originated from the hulls. Similar proportions of hulls in the whole outer layers were calculated using the quantification of pCA as a marker of hulls (35%) than using relative mass proportion from handdissected tissues (40%). In the whole hulled barley grains, about 80% of the total p-CA content was found in the hulls and only 2% in the AL+NE layer. Therefore, this marker should not be used to monitor aleurone cell walls in hulled barley varieties (as is done in wheat), but rather to check the presence of hulls in fractions. Further, the amount of p-CA measured in the hulls of the two different hulled barley varieties differed. This is in accordance with the known hydroxycinnamic acid content variability observed in barley grains [START_REF] Hernanz | Hydroxycinnamic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers in barley and processed barley[END_REF][START_REF] Zupfer | Variation in ferulic acid concentration among diverse barley cultivars measured by HPLC and microspectrophotometry[END_REF]. Consequently, to determine the proportion of hull using the marker methodology with the amount of p-CA, absolute amounts of p-CA in dissected hulls are necessary. In the hulless barley samples, the highest p-CA amount was observed either in the AL+NE layer (Pirona) or in T+P layer (Pihl). Thus, no conclusion can be drawn on the specific location of this constituent in the outer layers of hulless barley grains. Total amounts of alkylresorcinols measured in barley grain samples ranged between 0.058 and 0.082 mg.g -1 d.m. (Table 2), in agreement with the results previously published by Andersson et al. (2008a) and [START_REF] Ross | Alkylresorcinols in cereals and cereal products[END_REF]. Analysing more specifically the dissected tissues including the testa layer, which is known to contain the alkylresorcinols in wheat or rye grain [START_REF] Landberg | Localization of alkylresorcinols in wheat, rye and barley kernels[END_REF], the concentration of alkylresorcinols measured in the T+P layer dissected from barley grains ranged between 1.89 and 3.60 mg.g -1 d.m.. These values are low compared to those found in wheat [START_REF] Barron | Wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions using biochemical marker measurements : application to different wheat cultivars[END_REF][START_REF] Landberg | Localization of alkylresorcinols in wheat, rye and barley kernels[END_REF] in similar tissue, but should be seen in the context of the generally low total amount of alkylresorcinols in barley grains. Considering the measured T+P proportion within the grains (Table 1), the alkylresorcinols detected in this dissected layer account for 80% to 110% of the total alkylresorcinols measured in the whole barley grain. Therefore a specific location of Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 14 the alkylresorcinols was confirmed for barley grains even if microscopic observation was not sensitive enough to detect it [START_REF] Landberg | Localization of alkylresorcinols in wheat, rye and barley kernels[END_REF]. The amount of phytic acid was measured in whole barley grains and in the AL+NE dissected layer (Table 2) and ranged from between 11.9 and 18.9 mg.g -1 d.m. and 126 to 169 mg.g -1 d.m., respectively. These values are in the same order of magnitude as others observed for barley [START_REF] Dai | Differences in phytase and phytic acid content between cultivated and tibetan annual wild barleys[END_REF] or for wheat [START_REF] Barron | Wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions using biochemical marker measurements : application to different wheat cultivars[END_REF]. As expected, palea, lemma and starchy endosperm do not contain any phytic acid (amount < 2 mg.g -1 d.m.) whereas germ tissues contain part of total phytic acid (around 20-30 mg.g -1 d.m. in the embryonic axis and 47 mg.g -1 d.m. in the scutellum). Considering the proportion of each tissue in the whole barley grain, 82% to 88% of the total phytic acid found in the whole barley grain originated from the barley AL+NE layer (Table 3) the same as in wheat [START_REF] O'dell | Distribution of phytate and nutritionally important elements among the morphological components of cereal grains[END_REF][START_REF] Hemery | Biochemical markers : efficient tools for the assessment of wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions[END_REF]. The remaining part (6.6%) originated from the barley germ. Surprisingly, a non-negligible proportion of phytic acid was also detected in the starchy endosperm of the different barley samples. However, this result was probably due to contamination during grain hand-dissection as all the soaking waters used to soften the starchy endosperm were pooled with the extracted starchy endosperm to recover the overall tissue. Nevertheless, phytic acid appeared to be a good marker to track the aleurone layer, more specifically aleurone cell content, considering its well-known location in the aleurone globoids [START_REF] Jacobsen | The structure and composition of aleurone grains in the barley aleurone layer[END_REF].

Conclusions

Barley grain presented a similar structure to other small cereals grains, but differed from wheat in the relative proportion of tissue within the outer layers. Indeed, the aleurone layer was found to be the main tissue in the outer layer (about 80%), and the pericarp tended to be present in lower proportion than in wheat, even in hulless barley cultivars.

The amounts of phytic acid and alkylresorcinols measured in barley grains or individual barley tissues differed from those measured in wheat. However, these two compounds were shown to be Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004 specifically located in the aleurone layer and in the layer containing the testa, respectively, as also observed in wheat grains. Thus, these components could be used as markers to monitor the corresponding tissues during barley grain processing independently of the presence or absence of hulls. In contrast, phenolic compounds, either FAt or p-coumaric acid in barley, are not suitable to monitor the outer pericarp and the aleurone cell walls respectively. Interestingly, p-coumaric acid was identified as an efficient marker for barley grain hulls and could be used to detect its presence in barley grains and/or to monitor hull removal during processing.

Figure captions Figure 1 .

 captions1 Figure captions

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Cross section of each hand-isolated layer of tissue of a hulled (cv. Marigold) and hulless (cv. Pihl) barley grain stained with acid fuchsin and calcofluor. Hulled grain enabled us to obtain (a) lemma, (b) palea, (c) a composite layer of pericarp and testa (T+P), and (d) aleurone with the residue of nucellar epidermis and some cell walls of subaleurone (AL+NE). The tissues separated from hulless grain were respectively (e) a composite layer of pericarp and testa (T+P), and (f) aleurone with the residues of nucellar epidermis and some cell walls of subaleurone (AL+NE). Please see Fig. 1 for explanations concerning the colours.

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2

Table 1 .

 1 Relative proportion of the main barley grain tissues estimated from relative dry mass. Table 2. 4-O, p-coumaric acid (p-CA), alkylresorcinols and phytic acid concentrations in grains and tissues of four barley samples (values in mg.g -1 d.m.).Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

	Barley	Cultivars	Embryonic	Scutellum	Outer layers (%)			Hull (%)		Starchy	Sum
	type		axis								endosperm
			(%)	(%)	(%)	% AL+NE*	%T+P*	(%)	% lemma	% palea	(%)	(%)
	Hulled	Marigold	2.0 (±0.03) a	1.1 (±0.01) a 11.0 (±0.6) a	81.9	18.1	7.7 (±0.2)	58.3	41.7	76.3 (±0.9) b	98
		Olve	2.0 (±0.05) a	1.1 (±0.03) a 12.3 (±0.5) b,c	80.8	19.2	8.0 (±0.1)	57.8	42.2	74.1 (±0.9) a	97.5
	Hulless	Pihl	2.0 (±0.01) a	1.5 (±0.1) c 11.7 (±0.3) a,b	78.5	21.5				84.7 (±0.3) d	99.9
		Pirona	2.0 (±0.04) a	1.3 (±0.03) b 12.8 (±0.5) c	80.0	20.0				82.8 (±0.9) c	99

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004

Table 3 .

 3 Proportion (%) of grain phytic acid located in the different tissues of four barley samples.Comment citer ce document : Barron, C., Holopainen-Mantila, U., Sahlstrøm, S., Holtekjølen, A., Lullien-Pellerin, V. (2017). Assessment of biochemical markers identified in wheat for monitoring barley grain tissue.

	Barley type	Barley	Hand-isolated	% of grain phytic acid present
		cultivars	tissues	in the indicated tissue
		Marigold AL+NE	86.4
			Embryonic axis	2.9
			Scutellum	3.7
			Starchy endosperm	6.8
			Palea	0.0
	Hulled	Olve	Lemma AL+NE	0.2 82.0
			Embryonic axis	2.7
			Scutellum	3.4
			Starchy endosperm	11.2
			Palea	0.2
			Lemma	0.4
		Pirona	AL+NE	84.1
			Embryonic axis	3.5
			Scutellum	3.1
	Hulless	Pihl	Starchy endosperm AL+NE	9.3 88.4
			Embryonic axis	2.4
			Scutellum	4.0
			Starchy endosperm	5.3

Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 11-18. DOI : 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.01.004 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 21

* determined on dissected outer layers without the crease. AL+NE: aleurone layer and the residue of nucellar epidermis; T+P : testa and pericarp, Means in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 0.05) on the basis of Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) test.

Acknowledgments.

The authors are grateful to A. Putois, T-M Lasserre and H. Zobel for their technical assistance in the manual dissection of grain tissues and biochemical analyses and to Liisa Änäkäinen and Ritva Heinonen for their assistance in microscopy work. Stein Bergersen (Graminor AS) and Anders Naess (Økologisk Spesialkorn) are acknowledged for providing the barley samples. This study was financially supported by the European Commission in the Communities 7th Framework Programme, Project BARLEYboost (FP7-SME-2013, project number 605788). This publication reflects only the authors' views and the community is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained in this article.


Janis A Bubenko

Keywords: ESPRIT, information systems, methodology, research, software tools, technology transfer

la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Background

The Swedish Institute for Systems Development (SISU) was a research institute aimed at supporting the public sector as well as business and industry in introducing modern methods and tools when designing and developing information systems within their organizations. This narrative presents reflections on why SISU was established, how it was financed, what its main achievements were, and why it was discontinued. In order to have a better understanding of the story, we will first present a brief survey of the computer hardware situation as well as of the systems development method and tool situation in Sweden in the early 1980s.

To know the number of people aged 16-74 who used the internet [START_REF] Björnerstedt | AVANCE: An Object Management System[END_REF] at home was a question of no relevance in the early 1980s. The internet simply did not exist. Instead Sweden was populated with a fairly large number of mainframe computers, at least when it comes to their physical size. Companies or public organizations owned the computers. My guess is there were between two thousand and three thousand of them installed in Sweden in the early 1980s. From a performance point of view, these computers could not even compete with a laptop of 2010. They had a processor speed of about 0.5 MIPS, a memory of 64-128 kilobytes and a secondary magnetic disk memory of 25-50 Megabytes. Magnetic Tape units were frequently used. Many online, terminal based applications started to appear. The terminals used had simple, text-oriented displays. Graphics oriented terminals were extremely rare. Personal computers started to appear but except for a few Apple Macintosh personal computers, the operating systems were not windows-oriented.

IBM dominated having a 70 to 75 percent share of the market. In many cases the 360 computer (IBM 360/30, 360/40, 360/50) had replaced the IBM 7090, 7070 and 1401-type of computers. Other vendors such as Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Datasaab, ICL, Univac, CDC, and others competed on the remaining 25 to 30 percent share of the Swedish market. Minicomputers such as DEC's PDP-11 and VAX computers were not unusual in technical applications. They also introduced the UNIX operating system and made possible local mail use between users in a company. Later this developed into a more global email system where computers were calling each other in order to transfer mail. In the early 1980s, an email address consisted of a chain of computer names the mail had to pass in order to be delivered to its final destination. The data transfer speed was very modest: about 1,200 bits per second. As said above, the world wide web did not exist at this time, but IBM had its own worldwide network connecting IBM installations. Another well-known net was the ARPA-net connecting many US universities. Compatibility between computers did not exist, except for within a particular vendors' product line. For this reason, transferring of software from one vendor's hardware to another vendor's hardware was a non-trivial task, even when the software was written in a high-level language.

Computers, or rather computer centers, were normally run by the "data processing (DP) department" or "division" of the company. Practically all company information systems were produced "in house" by a company's own system analysts and programmers or by consultants. Standard software packages were rare. This situation gave the DP departments a strong position in companies and organizations. The manager of the DP department was often also member of the top managing group of the company. Information was considered valuable and expensive.

The market of "methods for computer use" or "methods for information systems development" during the 1970s in Sweden was dominated by data processing system departments of large companies (e.g. Ericsson, Telia, ABB, SCA, Volvo, etc.) and by a few large consulting companies such as Programator, ENEA, Data Logic, and Statskonsult. Most of them had their own, semi-structured, "home-made" method handbook. Vendor companies, most notably by IBM, demonstrated considerable method influence also. The user organization "Riksdataförbundet" and its service organization Servi-Data also carried out a number of projects aimed at description and comparative analysis of practical methods for systems development. Practically all these methods were practical and informal, some even having their roots in punched card oriented approaches.

In summary, method use in organizations was primitive. No generally accepted method for system development existed. System development tools started to appear but were hardly used. Lack of interactivity and graphical workstations made the use hard. Graphical representation of system flow and data diagrams was still quite primitive.

What Could Academics Offer?

Academic education and research in systems development had just begun. The ISAC and the CADIS 2 research groups at the Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm University (KTH & SU), influenced by the works of Börje Langefors 3 , were among the first in Sweden to work on theoretical aspects of methods for systems development. The ISAC group had already established a research institute called "Institute V" supported by a number of organizations in practice. ISAC was concerned manly with the early system development stages. Otherwise, contacts between the academic world and the field of practice were relatively sparse. We in the CADIS group and later in SYSLAB [START_REF] Bubenko | Experiences from Technology Transfer Initiatives at SISU[END_REF] were primarily concerned with implementation aspects of information systems design, including design of databases. We felt it also necessary to expose our ideas and results to the field of practice, in order to improve the quality of systems design and development work in Sweden.

What did we have to offer besides our enthusiasm and optimism? We had a fairly good grasp of the method situation concerning models of systems and information (data). We were also working on prototypes for implementation of CASE tools as well as for tools to develop object oriented office information systems.

By doing research on system development, we were of the opinion that much could be improved in practice. Standardization and improvement of methods, use of computer-based tools for system design and development were needed as well as a strict and less "local, home-made flavor" inspired evaluation and use of methods. In addition, in method education, much could be improved and new and modern methods could be taught. We also felt that the methods and prototypes we were working on had the potential to be "inherited" by companies and then developed further into marketable products, methods as well as software.

Therefore, in 1983 we started our work to establish a research institute forming a bridge between the academic world and practice.

Founding of SISU

The SISU institute was founded in 1984 as a natural consequence of two research efforts -the research groups CADIS and SYSLAB as well as of our collaboration with some companies in business and industry. Instrumental in the process of forming SISU was SYSLAB's industrial advisory group [START_REF] Bubenko | ICT for People: 40 Years of Academic Development in Stockholm[END_REF] headed by Rune Brandinger, then the CEO of Valand Insurance Company. In 1983-84, researchers from the department, including the author, together with the advisory group, contacted a large number of 2 CADIS (Computer Aided Design of Information Systems) a research group at KTH & SU between1969 and1979, mainly sponsored by STU (Swedish Board for Technical Development). [START_REF]Second Nordic Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering (CAiSE'90)[END_REF] Börje Langefors became Sweden's first professor in "Administrative Data Processing" at KTH and SU in 1966. [START_REF] Bubenko | Experiences from Technology Transfer Initiatives at SISU[END_REF] SYSLAB is the SYStems development LABoratory at the department, established in 1980. [START_REF] Bubenko | ICT for People: 40 Years of Academic Development in Stockholm[END_REF]

Initial Activities

The main goal of SISU was to act as a bridge between the worlds of practice and academia. Initially, SISU's main areas of activity were: 1) The Information Center (information dissemination, education), 2) Management of Information and Data Resources, 3) Methods and Tools for Problem-oriented Systems Development, and 4) Interactive Systems -Office Information Systems. The idea was to take some results of CADIS and SYSLAB and develop them into "prototype products" which could be demonstrated in practice. Two of these were OPAL (later renamed to AVANCE) and RAMATIC.

OPAL was a prototype system for distributed object management. This system would be used to build advanced and interactive office information systems. The architecture of OPAL was strongly object-oriented. The language PAL was developed for defining office applications [1]. The basic idea of OPAL was to decrease drastically the effort needed to implement advanced office applications.

RAMATIC was a meta-CASE tool, i.e. a tool to build CASE-tools for different methods and description techniques. In this way, we would be able to generate CASE tools for our supporting organizations, which all were using more or less different models and techniques for describing systems. RAMATIC was later used for building system-modeling tools in a number of Swedish organizations as well as in several international projects financed by the European Union's Framework programs.

Another legacy from SYSLAB that further developed at SISU was the conceptual information modeling knowledge and tradition. It later contributed to developing strong participatory business and enterprise modeling approaches as well as computer supported modeling tools within SISU. 6 ISVI members in 1984 were: ASEA, Datalogic, DBK, ENEA, Ericsson, Försvarsstaben, Götabanken, IBM, Infologics, Kommundata, Programator, SAAB-SCANIA, SE-banken, Skandia, Statskonsult, Statskontoret, Televerket, Valand, Vattenfall, Volvo-Data and Volvo-PV. 7 The Swedish Board for Technical Development. 8 Matts Ahlsén, Lars Bergman, Peder Brandt, Stefan Britts, Janis Bubenko, Jr., Roland Dahl, Tord Dahl, Mats-Roger Gustavsson, Christer Hultén, Lars-Åke Johansson, Eva Lindencrona, Stefan Paulsson, Lars Söderlund, Håkan Torbjär, and Benkt Wangler. SISU's first secretary was Marianne Sindler. All SISU's initial software prototype building was made on SUN-1 Workstations under SUN Unix and programmed in C. Ericsson had donated five SUN-1 workstations to SISU. These computers were considered quite powerful at this time.

National Projects

In its "peak period" (1990-93) SISU had an annual turnover of about 35 million Swedish crowns and about forty employees. The institute generated and carried out a large number of national collaborative projects, where the supporting organizations from ISVI took an active part. Hence, many persons from the supporting organizations received advanced training. One such project was TRIAD that generated and documented a vast amount of knowledge in business modeling in organizations. TRIAD also produced a by-product: a very easy to use, simple Macintosh based graphical modeling tool called Business Modeler. Regretfully, Business Modeler was not exploited outside the TRIAD project. Other examples of national projects are HYBRIS and Effective IT.

HYBRIS developed a hypertext-based tool that allows inexperienced computer users to navigate in and retrieve information from large corporate databases at a conceptual level. The information contained in the databases is represented in a graphical conceptual model -the information map. Queries are formulated by pointing and clicking directly in the information map.

Effective IT was a fairly large, two-year, umbrella project that ran from 1993 to 1995. It was initiated by a preliminary study project ordered by Sweden's ministry of industry and business and by NUTEK (a successor of STU). The aim of Effective IT was to investigate the possibility to define a national research program for improved and more effective use of IT in Swedish business and industry.

Collaborative European Projects

SISU understood early the scientific, technological, and the economic importance of joining European Union's ESPRIT program. Work on forming of consortia and on preparing project proposals started in 1987. SISU managed to be accepted as partner in a number of EU-projects such as KIWIS (2424), TEMPORA (2469), Nature (6353), F 3 (6353), INTUITIVE (6593), LYNX (6816), and several more. In the mid-1990s, about half of SISU's staff was engaged in EU-supported projects. During the period from late 1980s until the year 2000, SISU participated in more than twelve EU-supported projects, These projects pursued a number of advanced topics such as federated knowledge bases, temporal-deductive information system modeling, multimedia object management, accessing information in heterogeneous corporate databases, advanced techniques in requirements engineering, computer supported collaborative work, and several more topic areas. This collaborative work gave later openings for forming spin-off companies such as CNet, Projectplace, and ALKIT.

Which were the main contributions of SISU to Sweden's professional society? The most concrete effects are formation of new pioneering IT-companies and through them, the transfer of innovative method and software tool knowledge and technology to usable products. IT-companies formed include NeoTech, CNet, Projectplace, and ALKIT. The next concrete contribution is more than 15 academic degrees (Licentiate or PhD degrees) awarded to SISU employees. SISU played an active role in supporting such studies, financially as well as scientifically. Other contributions include spreading of the "Culture of Conceptual Modeling for Business and Information Systems Development" to many Swedish organizations9 . One of the names for this activity is "Enterprise Modeling" which now has grown into an international academic as well as a practical discipline. This discipline is now being exposed in conferences related to requirements engineering, information systems engineering, enterprise resource planning, and to practice of enterprise modeling (see for instance PoEM [2]). Another important contribution of SISU is bringing Swedish enterprises to participate in EU's research projects in particular in the ESPRIT program (European Strategic Program for Research and development in Information Technologies). Overall, SISU's activities on the European research arena gave Sweden improved recognition in international research in IT. Above all, it gave many young Swedish researchers and IT-engineers a taste and feeling for working on the European market. SISU was also instrumental in starting up the well reputed international CAiSE (Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering) conference series now celebrating its twenty-second annual conference [3].

SISU continued its operations until 2000, during the last two years as part of a research company Framkom. The foundation had a concluding passive period 2000-04. SISU's managing directors were Janis Bubenko, Jr. (1985-92), Thomas Falk (1992-94), and Eva Lindencrona (1995-98) and Mikael von Otter (1998-2000).

Why was SISU Discontinued?

The reason for the discontinuance of SISU is a crucial question and difficult to answer. As expected, there were several contributing causes. One of them is economic disturbances and recession in Sweden. In the beginning of the 1990s, the interest rate climbed to 500 percent. The so-called "IT-bubblan" started in latter part of that decade. Companies found it more and more difficult to justify expenses on supporting IT research, in particular in companies classified as IT users rather than IT developers such as the Ericsson company. However, Ericsson had problems as well, as we remember. Telia (Swedish Telecom) also had difficulties as had most ITconsulting companies. Ericsson and Telia both were supporting SISU to more than 50 percent of SISU's total budget. Both these companies discontinued their support in the late 1990s. This discontinuation contributed strongly to the demise of SISU. Participation in EU-projects in mid-1990s was considerable. It generated some money, but all EU-support was spent on producing project deliverables. The above reasons obviously made it very hard for SISU's management to obtain sufficient financing to run SISU as an independent research organization and not as a consulting company.

Nevertheless, my feeling now, more than fifteen years after the peak period of SISU, still focuses on another reason that is perhaps quite essential for the decline of the institute. This reason is that to apply research results in practice necessitates an undertaking requiring high-competence user organizations, considerable time, and human resources. SISU's supporting organizations were in the 1980s and 1990s perhaps not ready to make such long-term commitments. In this sense, our initial expectations about our supporting organizations and their capability for technology transfer and take-up were far too optimistic. What could be the reason for this situation? In my opinion, it is the relatively low degree of research and development orientation of the education underlying employees of most of our supporting organizations. The academic education in Sweden in computer and systems science and in the neighboring topic "Informatik" has, since its start in the end of 1970s, had a very low fraction of education in the mathematical and engineering sciences. This has fostered, I believe, an attitude among our supporters that excellence in systems development is something that can be bought, by acquiring advanced products, instead of developing skills and competence of the organization itself.

On the other hand, we have to be a bit critical about ourselves as well. We began in 1985 by building two extremely complex prototypes. Resources required to implement them were perhaps five to ten times larger than we had available, but we did not know it then. Consequently, OPAL/AVANCE was never completed and we could not find any Swedish company willing to invest the resources needed for its completion. RAMATIC was practically used in a few projects. In addition, here we failed to find a Swedish company willing to carry the complex work further towards a product. We had better luck with some prototypes in the 1990s, but this was because the prototypes were constructed as products by the staff who originally designed them at SISU.

We had better luck with the exploitation of methods and knowledge for business and enterprise modeling. Knowledge from this field was disseminated to many organizations and hundreds of professionals.

Concluding Remarks

SISU existed during a fifteen-year period. The technical conditions in the beginning of the period and at its end were vastly different. In 1985, computing was mainly done on incompatible mainframe computers. Few workstations or PCs existed. In the year 2000, the internet was in full swing and computing in Sweden was largely done by compatible personal computers. The market had grown to more than a million of PCs, but they did not require the kind of complex software SISU had been developing. The most characteristic thing was the speed with which everything evolved. Such a quickly evolving world of telecommunications and computing calls for different research priorities and research transfer initiatives compared to what existed in 1985. An intriguing question might be, is there a market for a research institute with a similar direction as SISU? That is, does a market exist for the dissemination of information system development methods and tools that existing today? Personally, I think there is a true need for that, but the task to convince business and industry to understand that need and to put any money in such a venture is most likely quite discouraging.

One may find more information about SISU at http://www.sisuportal.se/ (developed by CNeT) which contains more than 250 documents produced during the 1985-2000 period. A description of SISU's knowledge and technology transfer activities can be found in [4]. The forty-year history of the Department for Computer and Systems Science [5] includes reports about CADIS and SYSLAB and in that way forms the background to the establishment of SISU.

  Members of the group were Krister Gustavsson, Statskontoret, Gunnar Holmdahl, ASEA Information Systems, Göran Kling, Volvo-Data, Sten Martin, Swedish Defence, Per Olof Persson, Riksdataförbundet, Sven-Erik Wallin, Esselte Datacenter, and Kurt Wedin, Vattenfall. ISVI) 6 was established. SISU's research plans for the first three years, 1985-87, were worked out and documented in a "Framework Program" (ramprogram). All members of ISVI guaranteed to support SISU's research according to the Framework Program. STU 7 and twenty-one supporting organizations and companies initially financed SISU. The Swedish government decided, in the autumn of 1984, to establish the operation of the industry research institute SISU starting January 1, 1985. The 1985 budget of SISU was about 8 million SEK. A number of researchers 8 moved from SYSLAB to SISU during 1985.

	Swedish organizations in order to obtain financial support for forming a research
	foundation. Considerable support was obtained. A "supporting user and partner
	organization"	called	"Intressentföreningen	för	SVensk
	Informationssystemutveckling" (

For some, not accounted for, reason SCB's (The Swedish Bureau of Census) statistics about computer use in Sweden ends with persons aged 74. The author of this paper is 75.

As an example, the modelling approach has been used by the National Board of Health and Welfare in order to describe and display Sweden's "national information structure" (http://ni.socialstyrelsen.se).