Nick Guldemond
email: n.a.guldemond@tudelft.nl

Magda David Hercheui
email: m.hercheui@westminster.ac.uk

Technology and Care for Patients with Chronic Conditions: the Chronic Care Model as a Framework for the Integration of ICT

Keywords: healthcare, ICT, innovation, integrated care, technology

Worldwide, healthcare systems are considered unsustainable due to an increase in demand for care and an associated rise in healthcare costs. Ageing of societies and the growth of populations with chronic conditions are making a paradigm shift in western healthcare systems necessary. The Chronic Care Model (CCM) provides a framework for healthcare change, including a prominent role for the community and patients' self-management. Information and communication technology (ICT) is indispensable to accomplish the model's objectives. The role of ICT in the provision of care is discussed as an opportunity to facilitate the application of the CCM and improve healthcare in general.

Introduction

The ageing of society is a key societal challenge for many countries worldwide. The prevalence of chronic diseases is rising globally due to the ageing of societies in combination with the effects of a sedentary life style. This trend results in a rise of healthcare costs an enormous pressure on the resources in society [START_REF] Mcpherson | Aging as a social process: Canadian perspectives[END_REF]. Implementation of healthcare services where medical and social aspects are integrated is imperative as well as the use of technology to facilitate self-management and cost-effective service delivery. When they grow older, people are more prone to multiple and chronic ailments. Chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis and dementia are among the most common, costly, and preventable of all health problems in the world and are leading causes of death and disability. Currently the working population is shrinking. Projections show a growing imbalance between the number of elderly citizens in need of care and the actual supply of formal care services 1 . This is indicated by the age dependency ratio 2 , which shows an increasing pressure on the productive population of many countries 3 . In 2007, the age dependency ratio of the European Union (EU) was on average one retired citizen to four working people. Without anticipatory action, the average in 2050 will be an estimated 1:2. In the Netherlands, there will be an average ratio of 1:3 and in Italy and Spain an average ratio of 1:1.5, while in China this age dependency ratio will be less than 1. By 2025 the EU will lose an average of one million workers a year, while an increasing number of people has to be employed in healthcare. By then, about 25% of the working population should be employed in healthcare in the Netherlands, while optimistic scenarios for Greece, Italy and Spain will approach 50% [START_REF]SPB: Actualisatie en aanpassing ramingsmodel verpleging en verzorging 2009 -2030[END_REF]. The consequence of this growth in both chronic diseases and ageing is an increasing demand on healthcare while financial and human resources are decreasing. Current western healthcare systems are considered to be unsustainable, since the institutional care provision maintains a focus on curing diseases rather than preventing them. We can no longer expect that formal carers and professional institutions will provide the services for the support of an increasing number of people with a chronic condition.

In a complex health system, the management of chronic illness requires the coordination of care. Historically, there has been little coordination across the multiple settings, providers and treatments of chronic illness care. Integrated care may be seen as a response to the fragmented delivery of health and social services. The proposed paradigm shift in healthcare systems comprises a transition: 1) from mainly a monodisciplinary to a multi-disciplinary form of care provision, 2) from a curative approach to preventive medicine and public health, 3) from institutional care to community care, and 4) from professional care to informal care. The concept of healthcare practice and healthcare change is based on frameworks or models. Healthcare models are a set of policies and organizational arrangements for meeting the three basic goals of a healthcare system: keeping people healthy, treating people who are sick, and protecting citizens against the financial burden as a result of the amount of care that is consumed. Hence, these models provide the framework that should guarantee accessibility, quality and affordability of healthcare and ensure that patients get the optimal care, at the right time, by the right people and in the right place.

2

The Chronic Care Model and Integrated Care

In the search for effective strategies to prevent and manage chronic diseases, different models and programs have been proposed such as the Disease Management Program [START_REF] Jonker | Promotion of self-management in vulnerable older people: a narrative literature review of outcomes of the Chronic Disease Self-Management Program (CDSMP)[END_REF], Shared Care Program [START_REF] Kahan | Short-term outcomes in patients attending a primary care-based addiction shared care program[END_REF], [START_REF] Sanchez | Implementation of a diabetes self-management education program in primary care for adults using shared medical appointments[END_REF], Chronic Care Model [START_REF] Barr | The expanded Chronic Care Model: an integration of concepts and strategies from population health promotion and the Chronic Care Model[END_REF], [START_REF] Wagner | Improving outcomes in chronic illness[END_REF], and Guided Care Model [START_REF] Boult | Improving chronic care: the "guided care" model[END_REF], [START_REF] Mitchell | Human becoming-guided patient-centered care: A new model transforms nursing practice[END_REF]. In spite of their differences, all these models or programs aimed at a less fragmented, more integrated provision of patient-centered care.

The Chronic Care Model (CCM) by Wagner and colleagues [START_REF] Wagner | Improving outcomes in chronic illness[END_REF] is currently central to European and United States' healthcare policy, and includes important elements of self-management, social support organizations, informal carers and the community. The CCM was intended to be a framework for innovation and improvement of care for chronic conditions. The CCM was later refined by Barr and colleagues [START_REF] Barr | The expanded Chronic Care Model: an integration of concepts and strategies from population health promotion and the Chronic Care Model[END_REF], so that it became i.e. "the expanded CCM" that accentuated prevention and health promotion. The CCM assumes that good health outcomes require productive interactions between a multi-disciplinary team of professionals and an active patient and his or her proxies, such as families and informal caregivers. This interaction is the result of a form of coordinated care that is composed of six distinctive elements along with its relevant aspects, as laid out in the CCM (figure 2). There are two contextual elements: 1) the community and 2) the healthcare system. Within the healthcare system there are four focus areas for innovation: 3) the delivery system, 4) information systems, 5) decision support and 6) self-management. In the community element, Barr and colleagues emphasized the necessary community resources and policies that facilitate concrete actions, as well as the importance of public health and a supportive environment [START_REF] Barr | The expanded Chronic Care Model: an integration of concepts and strategies from population health promotion and the Chronic Care Model[END_REF]. While technology is mentioned in most healthcare models, further elaboration on the required functionalities remain absent, as well as the implications of future information and communication technology (ICT) developments.

In this paper, the role of ICT and future developments are discussed from the perspective of CCM and its related components (figure 2), as follows. Health System: program planning (including measureable goals for better care of chronic illness) to meet the health needs of target populations. Community: mobilizing people to engage in informal care and developing partnerships with community organizations that meet the needs of patients with chronic conditions. Delivery system: the process of reorientation of health services with a focus on multidisciplinary teamwork drawing on individuals and skills from the health and social care sectors. Information system: smart information systems based on patient populations to provide all the relevant client data (medical, health and social). Decision support: integration of evidencebased medicine, protocols and guidelines into a holistic approach. Self-management: interventions, training, and skills by which patients with a chronic condition can ef-fectively take care of themselves. Note: health system and community are dealt with in two separate sections below, where the section on "health system" explores the notions of information systems, decision support, delivery system and selfmanagement. The text on the health system is treated purely as background and is not explored in detail.

Health System

The health system is the operational body that translates healthcare policy into practice through programs that subsume and support the management, define the performance indicators in relation to the standard of healthcare quality, and formulate the related business plan. The health system comprises information systems, decision support, the delivery system and self-management.

Information Systems

Health information systems provide a means of making the information about an entire patient population (a registry) available to the patient and provider [START_REF] Mcevoy | Patient registries: a central component of the chronic care model[END_REF]. Over the last decades, the digital revolution has made an enormous change in the availability of clinical information. This accounts for traditional information sources such as patient records, daily practice data (e.g. laboratory results and radiographs) as well as protocols, guidelines and science-related information. Clinicians also have increasingly more access to animated information on patients' physiology, anatomy and pathology. Besides these developments in bio-medical based practice, there is a current trend of collecting personal health or life style data. This is made possible through common devices such as weight scales, blood pressure and glucose monitors that communicate through the Internet and through a variety of innovative diagnostic tools for home care. Portable devices and smartphones also enable monitoring of activity, sleep and food consumption. Millions of individuals are storing streams of personal data through their websites, cell phones, laptops and other digital devices, which might be used to predict and anticipate conditions, behaviors and events relevant to their health.

For adequate healthcare management, an integration of bio-medical, health and social care data is needed, including community data [START_REF] Barr | The expanded Chronic Care Model: an integration of concepts and strategies from population health promotion and the Chronic Care Model[END_REF]. In chronic care management, relevant users of information systems are also patients, informal carers, advocacy groups, municipalities and everyone who is indispensable in the provision of care. This requires data integration of various sources, data analysis and data stewardship with which intelligent agent software can help [START_REF] Lieberman | Intelligent agent software for medicine[END_REF], [START_REF] Rialle | Telemonitoring of patients at home: a software agent approach[END_REF], [START_REF] Sayyad Shirabad | Implementing an integrative multi-agent clinical decision support system with open source software[END_REF]. Software agents that incorporate learning, context-sensitivity, personalization, collaboration and proactivity will enable a support system that provides tailored medical information for practice teams [START_REF] Bickmore | Context Awareness in a Handheld Exercise Agent[END_REF]. For patients and informal carers, agent-based technology could offer personalized information with alerts, recalls and instructions for health promotion. Agent technology is also useful for population data-mining to identify subgroups that need proactive care, and to see whether preventive policy measures have an effect on primary medical, life style and social indicators [START_REF] Szalma | Effective knowledge management in translational medicine[END_REF]. Data technologies are becoming so important in providing solutions for societal challenges that government and citizens have to address urgently questions about protection from the misuse or abuse of large databases in a wide number of areas that also include health and healthcare. Besides the technological solutions for data protection and privacy, new regulations and legislation are needed. Data privacy should be seen in a wider context than just secure data transfer and information sharing among healthcare professionals.

Decision Support

Decision support provides healthcare professionals with instructions, guidelines and protocols to ensure that best evidence-based care is delivered. Decision support is strongly dependent on the expertise of the clinician, clinical information systems and evidence from medical research. As described in section 3.1, most important information needed for decision support is digitally available, but it is fragmented and only partially used. The overwhelming amount of clinical information generally available has made it much more difficult to extract useful information, and keep up with the progress in particular medical disciplines [START_REF] Olkin | Meta-analysis: reconciling the results of independent studies[END_REF]. Considering the limited time for consultation by a clinician, it is unrealistic that all information regarding a specific patient can be part of the clinical reasoning process. To translate data into practice, clinicians typically have to: 1) formulate questions that are answerable from the information sources, 2) search for and identify evidence to answer the clinical questions and 3) appraise the evidence identified for quality, reliability, accuracy and relevance [START_REF] Oxman | Users' guides to the medical literature. I. How to get started. The Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group[END_REF]. A clinician or a practice team would be greatly supported by an automated clinical reasoning support tool in which available evidence from the literature is selected, deliberated on, summarized, and attuned with guidelines and treatment protocols [START_REF] Hatzakis | Use of medical informatics for management of multiple sclerosis using a chroniccare model[END_REF]. A patient's profile, derived from both medical and social data, could form a basis for personalization through which the available evidence could be tailored into relevant instructions for each person involved in the care process. Automated decision support is an important facilitating tool for integrated care.

Delivery System

The delivery system of healthcare addresses the overall workflow coordination. Highquality healthcare requires certain elements for adequate performance. The most vital elements in the delivery system dedicated to integrated care are well-trained and motivated people, accurate information, and technologies that enable providers to use resources effectively. This involves cross-sectorial primary, secondary and social care work flow planning, communication and quality control.

Planning in a delivery system deals with 1) who should be on a care team, 2) what kind of interaction each member of the team should have with the patient, 3) how team members should interact with each other, and 4) how patients communicate with caregivers. Efficient planning and harmonizing tasks of formal and informal carers is crucial for effective care [START_REF] Butt | Interprofessional partnerships in chronic illness care: a conceptual model for measuring partnership effectiveness[END_REF]. Software tools for care management can help with the scheduling of appointments and services such as case management.

Communication in the delivery system is indispensable for the collaboration between stakeholders. Chronic care needs collaboration between primary and informal care (in the community) as well as secondary care (in an institution). The organizational structure of distinctive primary and secondary care sectors hampers the provision of integrated care [START_REF] Castillo | A knowledge-based taxonomy of critical factors for adopting electronic health record systems by physicians: a systematic literature review[END_REF], [START_REF] Granlien | Challenges for IT-supported shared care: a qualitative analyses of two shared care initiatives for diabetes treatment in Denmark "I'll never use it" (GP5)[END_REF]. Due to the existence of so many unique specialisms and disciplines, horizontal communication among different medical specialists in secondary care and vertical communication between primary and secondary care is problematic [START_REF] Hicks | Leader communication styles and organizational health[END_REF].

Computerized health information systems could overcome most cross-sectorial communication issues. However, the implementation of shared information systems is far behind that seen in other sectors and industries. Despite the overwhelming evidence of the cost-effectiveness of multi-disciplinary use of electronic medical records, email, text-messages, social media and video communication services such as Skype [START_REF] Piette | A preliminary study of a cloud-computing model for chronic illness self-care support in an underdeveloped country[END_REF], [51]. Many technology-related reasons have been mentioned as obstacles to the use of health information systems, including security, privacy, incompatibility between systems, maintenance, upgrades, ease of use and lack of integration with other applications [START_REF] Hayrinen | Definition, structure, content, use and impacts of electronic health records: a review of the research literature[END_REF]. Web-based applications and solutions provided by cloud computing as an alternative to local hosted software and storage concepts could overcome many of these issues.

Quality control and transparency of data about clinical effectiveness and costeffectiveness of procedures, diagnostic and therapeutic devices and drugs is an increasing societal need. Healthcare consumers might be involved in providing feedback on performance indicators. Patients and their proxies could rate their carers, consumed services and hospitals visited [START_REF] Hvenegaard | Exploring the relationship between costs and quality: does the joint evaluation of costs and quality alter the ranking of Danish hospital departments[END_REF]. Accordingly, competitiveness among healthcare providers can be stimulated. With shared information systems and social media it is possible to link healthcare services to patient satisfaction, quality indicators, cost and, ultimately, regional or national benchmarks.

3.4

Self-management

Patient engagement is increasingly important as a solution to lowering costs and improving population health. Self-management aims to enable people to remain independent and active and to support them to live in their own homes as long as possible. Self-management support involves empowering patients and their caregivers through education, training, skills acquisition, and help with integrating problem-solving and goal-setting into everyday care [START_REF] Barlow | Self-management approaches for people with chronic conditions: a review[END_REF], [START_REF] Barr | The expanded Chronic Care Model: an integration of concepts and strategies from population health promotion and the Chronic Care Model[END_REF], [START_REF] Bickmore | Usability of conversational agents by patients with inadequate health literacy: evidence from two clinical trials[END_REF], [START_REF] Miller | Motivational interviewing: preparing people for change[END_REF]. Many aspects of self-management could be supported by solutions enabled by technologies. There is evidence of improvement of patients' self-management through web-based applications and social media [START_REF] Thielst | Social media: ubiquitous community and patient engagement[END_REF]. Most research is focused on technologies for self-monitoring and selfeducation, where changes in patient adherence and levels of knowledge showed significant improvements [START_REF] Dorr | Implementing a multidisease chronic care model in primary care using people and technology[END_REF], [START_REF] Kaufman | Internet and information technology use in treatment of diabetes[END_REF]. Hence, opportunities for further improvement lie in supporting patients to manage their health by finding information about their condition on the web and participating in social networks through which they can exchange information and provide support to each other [START_REF] Bickmore | Maintaining Engagement in Long-term Interventions with Relational Agents[END_REF]. This could be supported by intelligent systems that provide personalized assistance by remembering past interactions, and inferring the user's preferences through his or her actions [START_REF] Hsu | Context-based electronic health record: toward patient specific healthcare[END_REF].

Community

Community resources and policies are essential to facilitate the implementation of technology supported integrated care [START_REF] Leykum | Reciprocal learning and chronic care model implementation in primary care: results from a new scale of learning in primary care[END_REF]. To implement integrated care according to CCM, new partnerships in the community with citizens, medical and social professionals have to be established. Communication and sharing of information, and alignment of objectives, resources and actions are also essential. Prevention of illness and readmission requires community actions, while informal carers play an important role in maintaining the health and wellbeing of people with chronic conditions. Health is predominantly influenced by the community factors, including the quality of housing, safety, social interaction, and transport. Supportive environments could help dependent and vulnerable people keep actively involved, people who would be otherwise be at risk of losing their independence. Outreach to outlying and underserved communities is being supported through a number of technological approaches [START_REF] Siminerio | The role of technology and the chronic care model[END_REF].

Public Health

The objective of public health is to improve health and quality of life through the prevention and treatment of disease. Public health comprises a multidisciplinary approach, where health promotion is dedicated to enable people to manage their health by education and social marketing focused on changing behavioral risk factors such as a sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy food consumption, mental stress and smoking [START_REF] Bunton | Health promotion: disciplines, diversity, and developments[END_REF]. Social marketing applies commercial marketing strategies to promote public health in mass communication. The combination of market strategies and social media could influence the attitudes, beliefs and behaviors of communities and individuals [START_REF] Segbers | Go where the customers are. Marketing (and managing) your patient experience with social media[END_REF]. Social media stimulate active participation of the patient, which is an element of suc-cessful behavioral change [START_REF] Watson | An internet-based virtual coach to promote physical activity adherence in overweight adults: randomized controlled trial[END_REF]. Healthcare providers can contribute to the effectiveness of patient involvement during their direct and indirect contacts with patients [START_REF] Evans | How social marketing works in health care[END_REF].

Supportive Environment

Supportive environments provide support for daily life activities and facilitates patients to stay active and independent, including solutions that support people in the work environment, and incorporate home automation through sensor technology and service robots [START_REF] Graf | Robots in the nursing home. "It gives the impression of something pleasantly service-like[END_REF], [START_REF] Oborn | Robots and service innovation in health care[END_REF]. Smartphones and tablets can enable empowerment, wellness and the provision of social care services to the homes of dependent elderly persons and patients [START_REF] Lenert | Transforming healthcare through patient empowerment[END_REF], [START_REF] Lynch | Optimizing diabetes self-care in low literacy and minority populations--problem-solving, empowerment, peer support and technology-based approaches[END_REF]. Interactive multimedia allows a two-way communication for family, friends and caregivers. Agent-based software could enable more sophisticated communication and problem-solving between professional and non-professional carers. Integration of social networking and serious gaming elements into communication services could engage people in sharing community care. Mobilizing local communities for the support of care-dependent people is a great societal need and will have a major positive impact on social cohesion and the economy [START_REF] Harley | Age matters: bridging the generation gap through technology-mediated interaction[END_REF], [START_REF] Hennessey | The home-based chronic care model: a platform for partnership for the provision of a patient-centered medical home[END_REF].

Community Action

Informal caregivers are individuals who provide on-going assistance, without pay, for family members and friends in need of support. Informal care is a resource that is under both demographic and economic pressure [START_REF] Keefe | Developing New Strategies to Support Future Caregivers of the Aged in Canada: Projections of Need and their Policy Implications. Social and Economic Dimensions of an Aging Population (SEDAP)[END_REF]. Projections show that less informal care will be available within households as a result of trends in family size and scarcity on the labor market (in combination with an increase in the participation of women in the labor market 4 ). The only solution to these limited resources for the support of vulnerable and dependent people is to organize informal support systems more efficiently. We need mobilization within our communities, thus it is imperative that we "engage all": technologies such as social media could help to achieve this [START_REF] Fyrand | Reciprocity: A Predictor of Mental Health and Continuity in Elderly People's Relationships? A Review[END_REF].

Conclusion

The ageing of western society is a great challenge that is having a major impact on healthcare costs and community resources. Overcoming the problems of ageing and chronic conditions can only be achieved by transforming the current healthcare system with an integrated approach where multidisciplinary care teams, self-management and community involvement all play a central role. Technology is essential to this transition. The CCM provides essential health system and community elements into which technology could be integrated purposefully. Medical and social information has to be merged into a shared and personalized record, for patients as well as for both professional and informal carers. Decision support could be improved by an integration of evidence-based medicine, clinical expertise and patient values (based on social, medical and cultural profiles) into an automated clinical reasoning system. A cross-sectorial resource management and communication system would overcome the problems of the current siloed structure of social, primary and secondary care sectors. Patients' self-management would benefit from cloud-based computing and mobile technologies. Smart web-based management tools with automated personalized support would be a solution desired by many patients and carers: the most recent data and support tools could be instantly available to provide the most optimal care. Current developments in ICT are the ultimate facilitators for integrated care and the CCM.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Paradigm shift in healthcare systems.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Expanded Chronic Care Model: adopted from Barr et al. [2].

http://europa.eu.int/comm/economy_finance/epc/epc_publications_en.htm

http://esa.un.org/wpp/Sorting-Tables/tab-sorting_ageing.htm

http://www.euphix.org/object_document/o5117n27112.html

http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/archive/special_reports_en.htm


Fons Wijnhoven
email: fons.wijnhoven@utwente.nl

Pim Dietz

Chintan Amrit

Information Waste, the Environment and Human Action: Concepts and Research

Keywords: information value, information waste, file retention, web site quality

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

This essay is part of a more general interest in e-waste: the consequences of the information industry on hazardous waste. Ruth [START_REF] Ruth | Green it more than a three percent solution? Internet Computing[END_REF] states (p. 74) that "Seventy percent of all hazardous waste is e-waste, which is bulky, complicated to recycle, and sometimes contains unsafe levels of heavy metal and other dangerous chemicals." E-waste may have several causes:

1. PCs, monitors, workstations and other hardware: According to the US agency for the environmental protection (EPA): "…over 25 billion computers, televisions, cell phones, printers, gaming systems, and other devices have been sold since 1980, generating 2 million tons of unwanted electronic devices in 2005 alone, with only 15 to 20 percent being recycled" [START_REF] Ruth | Green it more than a three percent solution? Internet Computing[END_REF]. 2. Software: Software can be designed and developed to improve the efficiency of energy consumption of electronic devices and computers. Microsoft claimed that its Windows Vista product saves roughly $50 per year in electricity costs per PC and thus also causes reduced GHG emissions. McAfee estimates the number of spam messages in 2008 to be about 62 trillion, which causes 33 billion KWh of unnecessary use (which is equivalent to the annual use of 2.4 million homes in the US).

3. Data centers and servers: In 2005, the power and cooling costs of servers worldwide is estimated to be US$26 billion. Greenpeace1 reports that many of the large data centers in the USA use electricity produced by coal, i.e. the largest GHG emission creator during electricity production.

This paper focuses on a specific under-researched aspect of e-waste, namely, information waste. Information waste are data which are unnecessary (e.g. redundant) and unusable (e.g. not understandable) and which are the consequence of human limitations of knowing which data are of no use and could thus be removed or stored on a non-direct access medium. Detecting information waste will help in reducing the energy needs of information technology and related GHG emissions. Information waste can still be regarded as a minor influencer of e-energy waste, but in the next decades we may be confronted with an explosion of it. For example, IDC expects the digital universe to grow from 0.8 ZB (one ZB is 1 trillion gigabyte) in 2009 to 35 ZB in 2020; which is factor of 44 in 10 years [START_REF] Slawsky | Teaching digital asset management in a higher education setting[END_REF]. Thus research in this area is needed in order to be prepared for this future. It is likely that the percentage of the total amount of information that is considered as waste will grow substantially as a consequence of the increased complexity of finding information in larger databases and in the Internet. Thus a major question is how we can detect information waste?

2

The Concept of Information Waste

Information is meaningful data or meaningful representations [START_REF] Floridi | Is semantic information meaningful data?[END_REF], [START_REF] Wijnhoven | Information services design: A design science approach for sustainable knowledge[END_REF]. Information is a key resource for organizations, and information technology able to hugely reduce information collection, storage, manipulation, and distribution costs. In fact, the marginal reproduction and distribution costs of digital information are nearly zero [START_REF] Shapiro | Information rules: a strategic guide to the network economy[END_REF].

The real costs are the creation of the first copy. On a world scale, though, the energy costs are very substantial, and often information technology is run on not-green electricity 2 . With more than 200 million internet searches estimated globally daily, the electricity consumption and greenhouse gas emissions caused by computers and the internet is provoking concern. A recent report by Gartner said that the global IT industry generated as much greenhouse gas as the world's airlines -about 2% of global CO2 emissions [START_REF] Gartner | Gartner Says Data Centres Account for 23 Per Cent of Global ICT CO2 Emissions[END_REF]. Data centers are among the most energy-intensive facilities imaginable. Servers storing billions of web pages require power. Mobile devices and smartphones also consume internet resources and substantial energy for data communication. We are not saying here that any internet use or information service use (for business or personal needs) should be avoided, but we say that it has "carbon costs."

We have to be aware of these facts, and next start using information technology most intelligently. Information services should be there to help on this matter, but we lack tools for detecting information waste and thus remove it. Thus this paper poses a key question: How can we detect information waste?

This description of information waste indicates that information waste can be found on different media (on the disks in proprietary environments of persons and organizations and on the internet) and information waste can have information use and knowledge dimensions. This implies that at least four areas of information waste can be identified, as presented in Table 1, which we discuss in the following subsections.

Table 1. Types of information waste.

Information waste media Proprietary disks Web Information waste dimensions

Information

Use Indicators of Information Waste in Existing File Retention Methods

Determining the value, or the lack of value of information, i.e.: information waste, is complex. We can, for instance, easily calculate the number of data available on a hard disk by looking how many kilo-, mega-or gigabytes are occupied by our documents. But this does not say much about its value, as sometimes less is better. Most current information waste research is file retention research and focusses on the analysis of statistical patterns of files.

The key assumption of file retention research is that throughout its lifecycle, the value of a file in general grows after the first stage and declines in the final stage [START_REF] Tallon | Information Lifecycle Management[END_REF]. In the final stage, the intensity of usage mostly decreases and the accessibility of the files becomes less important. But, not all types of files have the same value and the file value may evolve differently depending on the file type. Consequently, one of the most important functions of a file valuation method is the ability to differentiate files by its value and non-value in an unbiased manner so that decisions can be made on the appropriate storage medium or possible deletion of these files [START_REF] Chen | Information Valuation for Information Lifecycle Management[END_REF]. Hence, what is required is a method to relatively easily measure the use value of files by which a file retention (or deletion) policy can be determined. We found ten data retention policy formation methods in the literature. Table 2 gives an overview of these methods.

A number of criteria for a file retention policy method are present in the literature:

1. The retention policy determination method has to function with little to no human intervention [START_REF] Chen | Information Valuation for Information Lifecycle Management[END_REF], [START_REF] Turczyk | Eine Methode zur Wertzuweisung von Dateien in ILM[END_REF]. The execution of file valuation as a manual rating of individual is mostly too costly. A simple directory can easily contain 6,000 files; evaluating them piece for piece will take many hours if not days. 2. The method should be based on the subjective use value of files over time in their different life stages [START_REF] Chen | Information Valuation for Information Lifecycle Management[END_REF], [START_REF] Turczyk | Eine Methode zur Wertzuweisung von Dateien in ILM[END_REF]. It is obvious that value is a subjective and often individual characteristic.

3. The method has to use multiple file attributes for the valuation process [START_REF] Turczyk | Eine Methode zur Wertzuweisung von Dateien in ILM[END_REF]. One file attribute will not be able to cover all value determining variables.

Table 2. File Policy Retention Determination Methods.

Author

Goal of data retention policy Important file attributes [START_REF] Chen | Information Valuation for Information Lifecycle Management[END_REF] Capture the changing file value throughout the lifecycle and present value differences of files Frequency of use; Recency of use [START_REF] Turczyk | Eine Methode zur Wertzuweisung von Dateien in ILM[END_REF] Determine the probability of future use of files for deciding on the most cost-effective storage medium Time since last access; Age of file; Number of access; File type [START_REF] Bhagwan | Time Varying Management of Data Storage[END_REF] Lay out storage system mechanisms that can ensure high performance and availability Frequency of use [START_REF] Verma | An Architecture for Lifecycle Management in Very Large File Systems[END_REF] Optimize storage allocation based on policies Frequency of use; File type [START_REF] Mesnier | File Classification in Self-* Storage Systems[END_REF] Classify automatically the properties of files to predict their value Frequency of use; File type; Access mode [START_REF] Zadok | Reducing Storage Management Costs via Informed User-Based Policies[END_REF] Select files that can be compressed to reduce the rate of storage consumption Directory; File name; User; Application [START_REF] Strange | Analysis of Long-Term UNIX File Access Patterns for Application to Automatic File Migration Strategies[END_REF] Optimize storage in a hierarchal storage management (HSM) solution

Least recently used [START_REF] Gibson | An Improved Long-Term File-Usage Prediction Algorithm[END_REF] Reduce storage consumption on primary storage location Time since last Access [START_REF] Shah | ACE: Classification for Information Lifecycle Management[END_REF] Design a cost efficient data placement plan while allowing efficient access to all important data Metadata; User input; Policies [START_REF] Jin | Information value evaluation model for ILM[END_REF] Determine file value based on supply and demand

Frequency of use (by different users)

All the file retention policy determination methods of table 2 can be automated, and thus fulfill the first criterion. They all classify files by file attributes in order to make retention decisions. In some way these methods must be able to represent file value (criterion 2) and some combination of these file attributes must be able to identify waste. File value, however, is a subjective dimension and consequently must be measured and cannot be derived from file behavior alone.

Knowledge Value

Five paradigms to the knowledge value have been codified by epistemological (i.e., knowledge theory) traditions [START_REF] Churchman | The design of inquiring systems: basic concepts of systems and organization[END_REF]. These paradigms are:

 The empirical paradigm based on John Locke (1632-1704) [START_REF] Meyers | Understanding empiricism[END_REF], [START_REF] Uzgalis | The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy[END_REF] evaluates information value by its correctness in representing facts and events in reality.  The rationalist paradigm founded by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) [START_REF] Huenemann | Understanding rationalism[END_REF], [START_REF] Look | Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz "4. Metaphysics: A Primer on Substance[END_REF] evaluates information by its opportunity to causally explain, predict and reason about problems and reality.  The transcendental idealist paradigm, founded by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) [START_REF] Hartnack | Kant's theory of knowledge[END_REF] evaluates information by both empiricist and rationalist criteria, but on top of that it analyzes the key a priori of the views taken and from there aims at further integrating different perspectives in a larger coherent view of a subject.  The Hegelian paradigm developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) [START_REF] Popovič | The impact of business intelligence system maturity on information quality[END_REF], [START_REF] Sinnerbrink | Understanding Hegelianism[END_REF] evaluates information by its historical context and sees information as representation of conflicting interests that can be synthesized by dialect logic. As such Hegelian dialects gives concepts for interpreting human behavior and critically looking at the status quo, and as such is a foundation for interpretive [START_REF] Klein | A set of principles for conducting and evaluating interpretive field studies in information systems[END_REF] and critical [START_REF] Walsham | GIS for District-Level Administration in India: Problems and Opportunities[END_REF] explanatory insights.  The Lockean, Leibnizian, and Kantian paradigms of knowledge all aim at finding an ultimate truth. The Hegelian approach regards truth as part of historical and social reality, and as arguments in favor of certain ideals. The pragmatist paradigm, as described by Churchman [START_REF] Churchman | The design of inquiring systems: basic concepts of systems and organization[END_REF] on the basis of Edgar Singer's (1873-1954) work, in contrast proposes that the continuous search for new and improved insights is important, but only valuable as far as it results in human progress, which implies the practical solving of human problems. For the measurement of the pragmatic value of information, Sajko et al. [START_REF] Sajko | How to calculate information value for effective security risk assessment[END_REF] developed an information value questionnaire (IVQ) that allows information workers to value the information they use. The IVQ has five dimensions (1) Files Lost, (2) Costs of File (Re)building; (3) Market Value; (4) Legislative, and (5) Time as an indicator of obsolescence. The "Lost" dimension measures the impact of information loss on the business operations. This can be anything from "nothing special" to "making wrong decisions with major consequences". "(Re)building" measures the cost of replacing the lost information (from "negligibly small" to "intolerably high costs"). "Market value" measures the consequences if competitors obtain the information (from "nothing" to "competitor gets competitive advantage"). "Legislative" identifies the obligation to keep the information and the legal consequences if the information is lost (from "no obligation" to "keeping information is obligatory and sanctions are strict").

The "Time" dimension measures the rate at which the information depreciates in value (from "very quickly" to "does not depreciate at all").

These approaches to knowledge give different indications to information waste, as summarized in Table 3.

Web Information Waste

For internet information, a number of behavioral indicators can be found and several scales for the knowledge value of sites exist. Several web analytics companies (like Google, Alexa and URLSpy) deliver behavioral data on the intensity of use of sites.

Alexa.com also publishes a top million list every day. These web data collectors produce the following data that indicate site content value or waste:

Table 3. Criteria for information waste and theirs causes.

Paradigm Information waste criteria

Lockean

No correspondence with reality; incorrect representations; not interpretable in natural language

Leibnizian Inconsistency, wrong or obsolete parameters and fomulas, over-complex models Kantian Statements or content not related with and ontology.

Hegelian Information serving no one's interest

Singerian

Irrelevant and un-usable information  Access speed. More access speed has been indicated as poor maintenance or less professional support to the sites quality [START_REF] Eppler | Measuring information quality in the web context: a survey of state-of-the-art instruments and an application methodology[END_REF], [START_REF] Palmer | Web site usability, design, and performance metrics[END_REF], [START_REF] Yang | Development and validation of an instrument to measure user perceived service quality of information presenting web portals[END_REF].  One of the most important behavioral metric is the number of incoming links. If a website has a lot of incoming links, it is expected to contain good information.  The number of broken links on a website is an indicator of maintenance problems.  Currency can be easily measured by the last update or modification time of a site.  Frequency of Access can be measured by the number of unique (monthly) visitors to a site. If a site has a lot of visitors it most likely is valuable information.  Time on a site. If a user stays at a site for a long time, it most likely is good information. Precautions need to be taken with this metric because if a user keeps his browser open at a certain page while he is away, it will give a false positive.  Bounce percentage. Bounce percentage gives the percentage of unique users which visited only one page on a certain website. Therefore this might give an indication of poor information quality.

For the knowledge value of sites, a lot of research has already been done in the area of website quality [START_REF] Eppler | Measuring information quality in the web context: a survey of state-of-the-art instruments and an application methodology[END_REF], [START_REF] Palmer | Web site usability, design, and performance metrics[END_REF], [START_REF] Yang | Development and validation of an instrument to measure user perceived service quality of information presenting web portals[END_REF]. The research realized various metrics, both objective and subjective, to classify the value of websites. Although these metrics are relatively old for the fast changing internet, they are still used in relative new researches, for example [START_REF] Kuo | The relationships among service quality, perceived value, customer satisfaction, and post-purchase intention in mobile value-added services[END_REF], [START_REF] Petter | Measuring information systems success: models, dimensions, measures, and interrelationships[END_REF], [START_REF] Popovič | The impact of business intelligence system maturity on information quality[END_REF]. At the time these studies were performed most of the current content of websites was already present. The following scales for information value have been developed:

 Content quality and correctness [START_REF] Eppler | Measuring information quality in the web context: a survey of state-of-the-art instruments and an application methodology[END_REF], [START_REF] Palmer | Web site usability, design, and performance metrics[END_REF] determines information on a site is correct. This is necessary to determine the information quality of a website since a low content quality means a low information quality and vice versa.  Information relevancy [START_REF] Yang | Development and validation of an instrument to measure user perceived service quality of information presenting web portals[END_REF] determines whether a site delivers relevant or irrelevant information.

 Information comprehensiveness [START_REF] Eppler | Measuring information quality in the web context: a survey of state-of-the-art instruments and an application methodology[END_REF], [START_REF] Yang | Development and validation of an instrument to measure user perceived service quality of information presenting web portals[END_REF] indicates the completeness and understandability if a site's content.

Researching Information Waste

Returning to our question how information waste can be detected, we have stated that the individual rating of files or sites is too laborious for estimating the knowledge value of the content of these media. Consequently, an measurement of value on basis of behavioral indicators using analytics or file system tools can be tried, because it is much more efficient, but it is unclear until now how reliably behavioral indicators can estimate (subjective) knowledge value. If in ad random selected files and sites a high correlation can be found between some behavioral indicators and knowledge value of files, these behavioral indicators can be used as proxies for information waste. For Internet information waste estimation, the following set of assumptions and hypotheses can be used for further research:  Assumption 1: The higher the processing costs of servers, the higher the server's GHG footprint.  Assumption 2: The higher the search and access costs of information, the higher the Internet users GHG footprint.  Hypothesis 1: The higher the information waste (=% of unnecessary data on the Internet), the higher unnecessary amount of the processing costs of servers.  Hypothesis 2: The higher the information waste, the higher the avoidable search and access costs of useful information.  Hypothesis 3: The availability of an effective information detector will result in a reduction of information waste by increased information waste awareness of information service customers.

Figure 1 Fig. 1 .

 11 Figure 1 summarizes this in a causal research model.

http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/publications/reports/How-dirty-is-your-data/

http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/publications/climate/2011/Cool %20IT/dirty-data-report-greenpeace.pdf


Aaron K Martin
email: a.k.martin@lse.ac.uk

National Identity Infrastructures: Lessons from the United Kingdom

Keywords: biometrics, case study research, e-government, failure, identification technology, organizing visions, surveillance

Despite growing interest in the technologies of biometrics such as fingerprinting, facial recognition and iris scanning, there are too few in-depth case studies exploring their deployment on a national scale. This paper offers a qualitative analysis of biometric technologies by examining the National Identity Schemea recently abandoned United Kingdom government-sponsored program for a national identity card infrastructure. Leveraging organizing visions theory, it focuses in particular on government discourses about implementing a national infrastructure for biometrics. The discussion reflects on how the vision for implementing biometrics in the Scheme unravelled and tries to explain the course of these discourses in the political context of the UK.

Introduction

Governments around the world are establishing new identity policies to apply new technologies to their civil registration and citizen identity systems [START_REF] Whitley | Global Identity Policies and Technology: Do We Understand the Question?[END_REF]. Longestablished forms of paper-based documentation such as identity cards, visas and passports are being upgraded with machine-readable zones, computer chips and radio frequency identification (RFID). These new 'smart' artefacts are promoted as being more reliable and secure than traditional paper documents. The latest trend is to include 'biometrics' in these documents in order to further secure identity infrastructures.

Biometrics are physiological or behavioural measurements, generally performed by computers, to identify someone or verify an identity. Examples of biometrics include facial recognition, fingerprinting, hand geometry, vein pattering, iris patterning, DNA profiling, signature recognition, keystroke dynamics recognition, gait recognition and speech or voice recognition, among other emerging and prospective techniques. Unlike conventional methods of secure authentication that rely on what you know (such as passwords, personal identification numbers (PINs) or cryptographic keys) or what you possess (e.g., identity tokens or access cards), biometrics depend on facets of the human bodyspecifically what you are or what you do [START_REF] O'gorman | Comparing Passwords, Tokens, and Biometrics for User Authentication[END_REF]. They are assumed to be a stronger means of identification because they cannot be forgotten or misplaced.

Following the terrorist attacks of September 2001, the Labour Government in the UK proposed a new identity policy that would take the form of a biometric-based identity card. What was originally uncontested later became politically controversial, taking four years to pass into law as the Identity Cards Act 2006. It then took a number of years to make progress in deploying the National Identity Scheme ("the Scheme") because of the unprecedented size and complexity of the proposals, including a centralized National Identity Register (the database on which the population's identity data would be held) and the recording of extensive amounts of personal information from individuals, including iris, fingerprint and facial biometrics. The government's plan for real-time, online biometric identification against a centralized, government-managed database was also a major innovation. In part because of the slow deployment of the Scheme, following a national election, the new Coalition Government repealed the law in December 2010, thereby cancelling the programme.

It is therefore important to study the discourses around a complex technology policy like identity policy, particularly when technologies like biometrics are introduced. A government-sponsored scheme for biometrics may bring with it a political dimension, often because of its compulsory nature, which is also an interesting source of data. This case study focuses on both the public and political discourses in the UK, as both were rich sources of data.

Motivated by theories on the role of discourse in organizing visions for new IT innovation, this paper seeks answers to the following question: To what extent were government spokespeople able to organize efforts and mobilize actors to innovate a national infrastructure for biometrics in the UK?

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. First, I review the extant information systems literature on biometrics, exposing a dearth of in-depth case studies on the deployment of these technologies. Then I summarize the analytical framework, based on Swanson and Ramiller's organizing visions theory. Afterwards, I present the critical analysis of government discourses on the planned implementation of biometrics in the Scheme. The discussion offers an explanation for the course of the visions for biometrics in the case and the conclusion reflects on the paper's limitations and suggests areas for future research.

Critical Literature Review

While the technical literature on biometrics focuses on the details of trials and tests of various biometric techniques, the information systems literature is largely captivated by modelling user acceptance and surveying public perceptions of the technologies, with some exceptions (see, for example, [START_REF] Davis | Through the Eyes of Experts: A Socio-Cognitive Perspective on the Automation of Fingerprint Work[END_REF] and [START_REF] Otjacques | Interoperability of E-Government Information Systems: Issues of Identification and Data Sharing[END_REF]). Many consider the acceptance of biometric systems by user groups an important requirement for success. It is believed that without user acceptance, perfectly functioning systems are doomed to fail.

These studies focus on what Chau, Stephens and Jamieson [START_REF] Chau | Biometrics Acceptance -Perceptions of Use of Biometrics[END_REF] call the "people" side of biometrics. Some of this literature is inspired by the technology acceptance model (see, for example, [START_REF] Chau | Biometrics Acceptance -Perceptions of Use of Biometrics[END_REF], [START_REF] Ho | Biometric Authentication Adoption Issues[END_REF], [START_REF] James | Determining the Intention to Use Biometric Devices: An Application and Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Towards Understanding User Perceptions of Authentication Technologies[END_REF]). Much of it lacks a theoretical grounding (e.g., [START_REF] Clarke | Acceptance of Subscriber Authentication Methods For Mobile Telephony Devices[END_REF], [START_REF] Deane | Perceived acceptability of biometric security systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Furnell | Authentication and Supervision: A Survey of User Attitudes[END_REF][START_REF] Furnell | Public awareness and perceptions of biometrics[END_REF][START_REF] Heckle | Perception and acceptance of fingerprint biometric technology[END_REF], [START_REF] Moody | Public Perceptions of Biometric Devices: The Effect of Misinformation on Acceptance and Use[END_REF], [START_REF] Perakslis | Social Acceptance of RFID as a Biometric Security Method[END_REF]). Virtually all of this work is survey-based and hypothetical in nature. Respondents are asked to opine about biometrics without an understanding of the context of use or substantial engagement with the technologies in question.

One of the principal aims of these analyses of biometrics acceptance is to understand user resistance in order to overcome it, often through "better" marketing and information campaigns to "educate" uninformed consumers about the benefits of biometrics [START_REF] Chau | Biometrics Acceptance -Perceptions of Use of Biometrics[END_REF]. In many of these studies resistance to biometrics is viewed as a problem or as somehow irrationalthe result of misunderstandings about the technology which ought to be corrected.

One grapples to make sense of the sometimes-contradictory findings of these studies. While some conclude that most users are ready to accept and use biometrics [START_REF]Global Study on the Public's Perceptions about Identity Management[END_REF], others note on-going reluctance and potential resistance [START_REF] Moody | Public Perceptions of Biometric Devices: The Effect of Misinformation on Acceptance and Use[END_REF]. Some try to confront the unclear and contradictory nature of public opinion regarding these issues [START_REF] Heckle | Perception and acceptance of fingerprint biometric technology[END_REF], [START_REF] Moody | Public Perceptions of Biometric Devices: The Effect of Misinformation on Acceptance and Use[END_REF], noting that understanding context and how exactly biometrics will be used by organizations is important. However, the literature lacks comprehensive studies on the realworld implementation of biometrics.

There is a good explanation for this: biometric systems are often spoken about, but rarely seen. This is partly to do with their novelty as well as the difficult political and technological environments in which they are pursued. While politicians speak with excitement about the possibilities of biometrics in achieving varying policy objectives, and deployment teams try to build the perfect environments for their solutions, few systems actually see the light of day in large-scale, real-world implementations. Biometrics are complex technologies that require vast technological, organizational and operational resources to operate seamlessly. As a result, there are insufficient cases of biometrics being used 'in the wild' and therefore the research investigations that typically study such systems once they are up and running have failed to materialize in substantial numbers. When biometrics are actually implemented for civilian purposes, typically in immigration applications, there is a void of objective information about their effectiveness and impacts. Border systems are often opaque and are not subjected to accountability measures applied to other government systems with which citizens interact. Similarly, to date many large-scale deployments of modern biometrics have been in non-democratic countries (e.g., UAE, Malaysia) where access to data is more challenging.

How then can we study such technologies? One way is to focus on the discourses around the proposals themselves, rather than waiting for the systems to appear. This case study therefore examines the organizational discourses that motivated the implementation of biometrics in the UK.

Theoretical Framework

The main theoretical construct that motivates this study is the 'organizing vision' in innovation projects [START_REF] Swanson | Talking the IS Innovation Walk[END_REF][START_REF] Swanson | The Organizing Vision in Information Systems Innovation[END_REF], which provides a useful concept to help to explain the discursive emergence and development of IT innovation such as the government's pursuit of multiple biometrics in a national identity card programme.

Swanson and Ramiller aim to understand better the institutional processes that facilitate the adoption and use of new technology. In contrast to the traditional view that the early decision to adopt a given innovation happens as the result of local, rational organizational processes, which are subsequently institutionalized with the increased update of the technology, they argue that a better way of explaining innovation is as a collective process of creating and propagating an organizing vision that helps to coordinate decisions and actions related to the technology's materialization and diffusion. The organization vision can, thus, be understood as a sense-making device [START_REF] Weick | Sensemaking in Organizations[END_REF].

Organizations are frequently confronted with novel technologies that they perceive as demanding their attention: "New technology often arrives on the marketplace in an immature state, puzzling as to its benefits, future prospects, and long-term form" [27, p. 459]. Defined as "a focal community idea for the application of information technology in organizations" [27, p. 460], an organizing vision is thus intended to reduce, in broad strokes, the uncertainty that accompanies these new technologies. The organizing vision provides a conceptual framework that permits simplified understandings about novel and, as yet unsettled, technologies.

Swanson and Ramiller identify three main functions of an organizing vision:

 Interpretation: When a new technology arrives on the scene its meaning and implications are not well understood by organizational actors. It is in this space that organizing visions are generated to give some interpretive coherence to the innovation. They provide a focus for the innovation's interpretation [28, p. 556].  Legitimation: These visions also give organizations reasons and justifications for pursing an innovation. They provide an answer to the question, 'why do it?' This legitimation process is facilitated through the reputations and authority of those promulgating the vision. To adapt an example from Swanson and Ramiller's paper to fit the case at hand, this process might be initiated as follows: "Why aren't we doing [biometrics] yet?" the [Home Secretary] might ask his or her [civil servant], having just read about it (and all the good things that come to leading [countries] doing it) for the first time in Business Week [27, p. 461].  Mobilization: The organizing vision is a "creative force" that sparks and energizes market interest and activity to support the realization of the innovation. "Would be adopters look to the market for needed resources, including hardware, software, and skills, following clues and guidelines embedded in the organizing vision" [27, p. 461].

Organizing visions are produced and sustained discursively, by a community with a common interest, which may agree or disagree about the content of the vision [27, p. 462]. The potential for disagreement means that there is an on-going contest of interpretations over the meaning of the technology. For Swanson and Ramiller, the depiction of the vision as an appropriate response to a certain business problematic will determine its currency and perceived relevance. Furthermore, the vision's perceived distinctiveness, intelligibility, informativeness and plausibility will also affect its compellingness and eventual success (or failure) [27, p. 469]. Importantly, there must be some new or emerging technology accompanying the vision that can be exploited by, but which also constrains, the vision. Often buzzwords (such as 'customer relationship management' [START_REF] Firth | The Organizing Vision for Customer Relationship Management[END_REF] or 'enterprise resource planning' [START_REF] Wang | Popular Concepts beyond Organizations: Exploring New Dimensions of Information Technology Innovations[END_REF], or as in this present case, 'biometrics') play an important discursive role in signalling and strengthening the vision. However, there are risks to the overuse and overextension of such terms.

The organizing vision concept provides us with a core analytical tool to study imaginative discourse in innovation. Its emphasis on the early stages of discursive development, when understandings and outcomes about new technology are most uncertain, is especially apposite to the current case.

Research Methods

The analysis presented in this paper is the result of a multi-year case study of identity policy in the UK, focussing on the government discourses on biometrics. It is based on an exhaustive review of relevant government communications around the Scheme. The analysis of documents is well established in social research [START_REF] Prior | Using Documents in Social Research[END_REF]. To cope with the "attractive nuisance" of these qualitative data [START_REF] Miles | Qualitative Data as an Attractive Nuisance: The Problem of Analysis[END_REF], the corpus was indexed in its entirety in the ATLAS.ti software for analysis, and then coded in accordance with principles and techniques from critical discourse analysis [START_REF] Fairclough | Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language[END_REF].

Analysis

This analysis encompasses official discourses on how the Home Office, the UK government ministry responsible for the Scheme, and the Identity and Passport Service, the department responsible for its deployment, would establish, run and manage a nationwide network of equipment for recording and reading biometrics. These discourses concern the organizations' knowledge, expectations and experiences of the design, development and installation of a new technology. These concerns are rife with future expectations about an implementation that, in the end, never happened.

Implementing Infrastructures

In practice, doing biometrics involves two major steps: the initial enrolment of biometrics from a person and the subsequent comparison of his or her biometrics against the previously enrolled data, during either an identification or verification mode.

From the beginning of proposals for the Scheme, the government paid considerable attention to how it might enrol the nation's biometrics. For example, noting the significant "learning curve" associated with implementing biometrics [12, p. 64], it sought opinions on this issue during the very first consultation exercise.

The Government would like to hear the views of potential partners on how a nation-wide network of easily accessible biometric recording devices could be established and operated, how people who are not mobile or who live in sparsely populated areas could be served and what other value added services potential partners might offer. [12, p.110] Such discourses explained the importance of providing biometric enrolment facilities in locations across the UK, and where that proved impractical the use of mobile recording devices.

As well as local centres there will also be mobile centres for sparsely populated areas. [13, p.4] However, much less attention was paid to how these enrolled biometrics would then be used in practice, particularly in ways that benefited the citizen whose data were being used. That is, the government's priority seemed to be figuring ways of collecting and storing everyone's biometrics in the first instance, and not how they would be subsequently used. Indeed, as a focus group interviewee from one of the early government's consultation exercises complained: For [biometrics] to be beneficial all these places would have to have finger scanning and eye scanning facilities. Otherwise it's pointless. [3, p.55] One could argue that the government was especially focused on enrolment-related aspects because it is a necessary first step in the practice of biometrics and that other concerns would be addressed later on. Indeed, the government admitted in the begin-ning that, in the initial stages of the Scheme, the use of biometrics would likely be limited, with the focus being on checking that people were not enrolling more than once.

The use of any of the above types of biometric information (or a combination of these) would probably be limited in the early stages of an entitlement card scheme to ensuring that a person could not establish multiple, false identities. [12, p.105] A further argument is that it was up to the organizations that would eventually use the Scheme to decide when and how they would make use of people's biometrics. That is, that it was the government's job only to provide the basic infrastructure for an identity scheme and that the eventual use of biometrics by public and private sector organizations should be demand-led and not dictated by the government.

However, the government's marketing activities for biometrics in the Scheme never extended beyond enrolment issues, with various attempts at forging relationships with organizations capable of enrolling large volumes of biometrics, without a clear explanation of how these would be used afterward. This further fuelled speculation amongst critics that the Scheme was one massive government data collection exercise, with little eventual benefit to the citizen. These suspicions were partly responsible for the Scheme's demise.

Another aspect of implementing an identity infrastructure based on biometrics has to do with the human resources required for such an undertaking, including both specialist training for facilitating and overseeing the enrolment process but also identifying and acquiring the expertise necessary for dealing with system errors and other anomalies as they emerge during biometric checking [cf. 4].

A major concern in government discourses was whether the public sector had suitable human resources to conduct large-scale biometric enrolment. At first, the need for trained specialists was downplayed by the Home Office.

The Government envisages a much simpler scanning system than that used by the police or the Immigration Service, which would probably involve just the scanning of four fingers. The prints would not be scanned to a legal standard of proof of identity. The staff taking the fingerprints therefore would not need to be as highly trained as those working for police forces of the Immigration Service and there would be no need for trained fingerprint officers to interpret the results of any potential matches detected by the computer. [12, pp. 115-116, emphasis added] Government discourses would shift in later documents, with revised claims that while expertise was needed, there were sufficient human resources already in the civil service on which to found an expert base. For example in the Strategic Action Plan the government stated:

We will put in place the skills and expertise to support large-scale use of biometric matching. Biometric technology identifies small percentages of what are known as 'false matches' or 'false non-matches'. These need expert human assessment to ensure that matches are be-ing made correctly. For this, we will build on resources which currently exist within government. [14, p. 15, emphasis added] Soon thereafter the discourses about biometrics training and expertise began to shift again, with the emphasis being placed on the need for 'support services'. As was admitted in the Strategic Supplier Framework Prospectus:

With the use of probabilistic biometric matching technologies, there may also be associated biometric support services within this package (i.e. those services requiring expert human intervention). [15, p. 34] The question, of course, was where this expertise would come from. While the government claimed that the UK Borders Agency was developing the relevant human resources through its programmes for collecting asylum seekers' biometrics and issuing biometric visas to foreigners, the size of these programs was dwarfed by the potential scale of a national identity programme. Concurrently, the government began articulating the need for "biometric enrolment services" for the Scheme, to be developed and provided by the market.

The capacity to handle these enrolmentsin terms of high street estates, personnel and technologydoes not exist today. The Biometric Enrolment Service would need to deploy a nationwide capacity capable of handling five million+ enrolments a year, in a way that is convenient for customers, efficient and of high integrity. [15, p. 39] Yet again, in these discourses the focus was on the human resources needed for the initial enrolment of biometrics for second-generation biometric passports (with fingerprint data) and identity cards, and not the human resources required for biometrics in various identification and authentication contexts. As previously noted, had the plans for biometrics matured and a significant number of people's biometrics been enrolled in the Scheme, this likely would have enhanced consideration of how biometrics would be usedincluding consideration of the attendant human resource implications. However, the Scheme was scrapped prior to the completion of contracting processes and these issues were never fully explored.

Discussion

The 'organizing vision' concept provides a means to understand how organizations seeking to develop and implement new technologies deal with their inherent uncertainties and ambiguities. By unifying and co-ordinating discourses and activities, organizing visions help to reduce doubts or unknowns about the future adoption and use of technology. With a single vision and a single goal, it becomes easier to implement new technologies, all the more so if potential defects and imperfections are discursively diminished. These discourses draw on a pool of conceptual resources that exist beyond the organization, and which are shared by a larger community that is also interested in the technological innovation. When an organization brings together these cognitive and discursive resources in a cohesive manner, the organizing vision is said to be more stable, and thus sustainable. However, problems may arise -"where the innovation entails novel technology, this task can appear especially speculative and problematic" [27, p. 459]. In such cases, sustaining an unproblematic vision may prove difficult.

Organizing visions function to mobilize actors for the purposes of materializing an innovation. There were at three main groups of actors that the government aimed to mobilize in the case: the companies engaged to help the Home Office build the National Identity Schemeincluding systems procurement and the outsourcing of biometric enrolment; a wide range of other public sector departments (which were expected to adopt the technologies and contribute to their diffusion); and the public, who were supposed to be the eventual end users of the system.

We will never know for certain whether the vision for biometrics would have successfully mobilized industry to develop and implement the biometric systems and services required for the Scheme had the Labour Party won the 2010 general election. By 2008, several firms had been engaged through the Strategic Supplier Framework, and certain contracts had even been agreed, but the programme for biometric identity cards was ended well before large-scale procurement and system design were completed. Before, during and after the election, we witnessed the demise of the Scheme, not because there were not any commercial actors willing to work with the Home Office, or because the technology failed to live up to expectations, but rather due to the course of political change. In brief, mobilization efforts were cut short by politics and in the process the debates about the technology's readiness, reliability and practicability were never entirely resolved.

As of 2010, none of the government departments that were expected to take up the biometric systems being developed for the Scheme had committed to using them (with the possible exception of the UK Border Agency, which was already collecting biometrics from foreigners). Champions of the Scheme had failed to mobilize these important organizational actors. But as before, this was arguably a matter of timing. The Home Office had cautioned that uptake by government departments would only begin once its identity infrastructure was in place. The election disrupted the original time frames for this project.

Finally, the third set of actors to be mobilized in the Scheme was the public. Suffice it to say, this was an enormous and diverse group of people, whose bodies were intended to be read, recorded and repeatedly validated by biometric devices. Their mobilization was especially critical to the Scheme's success but the government's programme for identity cards and new (fingerprint) biometric passports was terminated before the public were to begin enrolling their biometrics en masse. The systems required for mass enrolment were never implemented. Critics such as No2ID had argued that it was at the point of mass enrolment that public resistance would mount, but this is a hypothesis that remains untested. What is known is that by the time the Scheme was finally abandoned, only 14,670 Britons had volunteered for an identity card. A significant fraction of thesenearly 3,000 airside workers from select airports received their identity cards for free. In addition, an unknown number of the enrollees were civil servants who were privately encouraged to apply for an identity card before the election [START_REF] Lettice | ID card astroturf -No2ID beats the truth out of IPS[END_REF].

What can we learn from this episode? The project for a national identity infrastructure based on biometrics was unsuccessful for a number of reasons:

 Organizational complexity: The Scheme was a Labour Party policy, which the Home Office and Identity and Passport Service were responsible for implementing. The presence of multiple actors from such varied organizations (including both politicians and civil servants in this case), who are responsible for articulating and co-ordinating a coherent vision for new technology is something that the organizing visions theory (as articulated in Swanson and Ramiller's original article) does not easily accommodate. Historically, organizing visions theory has focused on the institutionalization of an innovation within a single organization, rather than looking at visions spanning multiple organizations, and which voyage into 'society at large'.  Scale: The Scheme was a huge undertaking, encompassing not just the Home Office, but also eventually the entirety of government and certain private sector organizations (such as banks). Moreover, a successful Scheme would require some degree of participation from national public and certain classes of foreign citizens. It is highly debatable whether such top-down visioning and innovating is possible on this scale, especially considering the range of organizations, people and bodies involved.  Politics: A vision for the implementation of an enterprise resource planning system in a business organization, for example, may encounter resistance, which may even be political in nature; however it is unlikely to be tightly bound to notions of citizenship, freedom and identity. The government's proposals for biometric identity cards, by contrast, elicited considerable political distrust, fears of government tracking 'innocent' citizens and worries about privacy intrusions, as was represented in the political opposition's discourses as well as media reports on the Scheme [START_REF] Whitley | Perceptions of Government Technology, Surveillance and Privacy: the UK Identity Cards Scheme[END_REF]. There is therefore a qualitative difference between visions for a corporate accounting system, for instance, and a nationwide, governmentsponsored identity system. The former is a solution to a problem. The latter is a political choice about how society should look and be organized, where the search for a solution may precede the event of a problem. Where the 'need' for such a large communal effort seems the stuff of choice and not necessity, political opposition is always difficult to surmount. Not surprisingly then, the proposals became highly politicized over time as the urgency which supposedly underpinned them grew more and more elusive. These politics affected the content of the vision for biometrics, with the government reworking its messages to focus on themes of 'empowerment' and 'inclusion' as the Scheme's fate grew more and more uncertain.

Conclusion

The widespread introduction of biometrics has proven to be controversial in the UK, but this is not an inevitable outcome. Some argue that a national infrastructure for biometrics would represent a sea change in identification practices. Others argue that in a modern world the collection of this information is inevitable and no longer sinister. These debates are ongoing. This chapter focused its analysis on publicly available discourses, as one must surely do with such a topical matter of public security provision where classification and industrial secrecy loom large. I would have liked to get inside the organizations responsible for delivering the Scheme in order to gain access to those individuals responsible for overseeing its creation, design and implementation. These include civil servants in the Home Office and Identity and Passport Service, whom I believe would have provided an interesting source of data. However, this was not possible for various reasons, the most obvious of which was the sensitivity of the project and institutional concerns about protecting what was said to be 'commercially confidential' and 'security sensitive' information regarding the programme.

Finally, this research project was a single case study. Future research should aim for comparative analyses. Two other national programmes for biometrics (namely, Mexico and India, both of which aim to enrol multiple biometrics including irises) have been recently launched and would make interesting comparative cases.

  Monthly newsletters (which were published by the Identity and Passport Service)  Leaked government documents (which were made available to No2ID, the anti-ID card campaign group, and subsequently published on-line)  Publicly-available responses to Freedom of Information requests

The final corpus included every known public government document relating to the National Identity Scheme, published between July 2002 and December 2008. In total, there were 129 documents in this corpus, including:  Legislative, parliamentary, research, and corporate publications  Speeches and PowerPoint presentations by civil servants and ministers  Interviews and interactive web chats 