Hannes Schlieter
email: hannes.schlieter@tu-dresden.de

Stephan Bögel
email: boegel@virtimo.de

Werner Esswein
email: werner.esswein@tu-dresden.de

A Service Oriented Method For Health Care Network Governance

Keywords: Conceptual Models, Vertical Integration, Conflict Management, Health Care Network, Service-oriented method, Care process compliance

Governance and compliance of health care networks gain more and more attention in the IS research. The configuration of medical care workflow systems and the compliance check of care processes according to national and international guidelines is the motivation for this paper. We are following a process model based approach for the management of health care networks. We present a service-based method for the compliance check of process models and enable a configuration of information systems with process models. The application of the method as well as the discussion of the practical benefits is illustrated by a real world case.

INTRODUCTION 1.Situation

A major problem in the health care sector is to improve the medical care and at the same time reduce costs. To improve the medical care Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs) and Clinical Pathways (CPs) are used to communicate best practices and to establish a standard care quality. CPGs provide decision guidance for health care provider that is based on evident practice for specific indications (diseases). CPs describe clinical processes for a specific diagnosis that is adapted to the local situation, e.g. in a specific hospital. CPGs are typically released by national or international medical associations like the European Stroke Association. CPs are created by the medical care provider according to their local processes.

Conceptual Models in the Health-Care Sector

Conceptual modeling is used in CPGs and CPs to standardize and communicate clinical processes [START_REF] Schlieter | From Clinical Practice Guideline to Clinical Pathway -Issues of Reference Model-Based Approach[END_REF][START_REF] Wollersheim | Clinical guidelines to improve patient care[END_REF]. A conceptual modeling language is the combination of a technical language with a modeling grammar, and results in the creation of conceptual models. Hence, the conceptual model comprises formal-structural representation and non-formal content [START_REF] Frank | Conceptual modelling as the core of the information systems disciplineperspectives and epistemological challenges[END_REF]. Conceptual models are an accepted instrument to describe organizations in its various aspects such as structures and behavior.

In health care domain different models are constructed simultaneously for same indication by different groups of interests. These models are complementary and in relation but are not totally equal. We call this set of models "model landscape" and their implicit relation "hidden relation". The integration of CPGs and CPs is demanded in the literature but has not been completely realized [START_REF] Wollersheim | Clinical guidelines to improve patient care[END_REF]. Process compliance in clinical context becomes more and more important in a competitive health care market. Firstly, compliant CP can be used as an instrument to implement evident medical knowledge in organization. Secondly, they build a basis for continuous process improvement and measurement. CPGs could thus be used to govern the right implementation of CPs in practice. The CPGs are the regulatory element for the governance of clinical processes. To the extent of our knowledge there are no holistic approaches that provide the alignment or integration between CPG and CP models.

To illustrate the context of the present situation in a "big picture", we want to introduce the life cycle of the medical care processes (see figure 1). The life cycle can be divided into three phases or layers. Starting point is the model landscape in the first phase where models are isolated and inconsistent. With the help of the proposed method, the models are vertically integrated. The integration on the model layer is the prerequisite for the next two phases. On the organizational layer in phase 2 the result of the model integration is used to guide the compliance implementation. To be compliant with the guidelines operational procedures and organizational structures have to be adjusted. On the technical layer the hospital information systems is configured using the integrated models to support the execution of the medical care processes.

The life cycle starts, if the environment fundamentally changes, e.g. due to new laws. Because of the exceptional relevance of the model layer for the organizational and technical layer this research in progress paper focuses on the first step, i.e. the integration of these models. In this paper we aim to present the research goal and a proposal for a way to achieve the vertical model integration. Our research should build the linking element between those studies which demand a consideration of the CPGs while CPs development [START_REF] Lelgemann | Evidenzbasierte Leitlinien und Behandlungspfade[END_REF][START_REF] Schnabel | Von der Leitlinie zum Behandlungspfad[END_REF] and are dealing with discussion to transfer the CPG content in the formalmachine-readable -syntax [START_REF] Seyfang | Modelling Diagnosis and Treatment[END_REF][START_REF] Peleg | Comparing Computer-interpretable Guideline Models: A Case-study Approach[END_REF].

Fig. 1. The Life Cycle of Medical Care Processes

Research Method and Outline

The research can be assigned to the field of design science [START_REF] Hevner | Design science in information systems research[END_REF][START_REF] Peffers | A Design Science Research Methodology for Information Systems Research[END_REF]. Knowledge is gained hereby the creation and evaluation of artifacts in the form of languages, models, methods or systems. The investigation aims for the usefulness of the constructing artifact in the sense of a problem solution. We use a case scenario to make the requirements analysis and evaluate our artifact. In a descriptive case study [START_REF] Yin | Applications of case study research[END_REF] we examine the situation of Stroke Network Saxony (SOS-NET).

In the first part of the paper, the theoretical foundations of integration conflicts are discussed shortly. Afterwards we examine the situation of the case scenario and derive requirements for a vertical model integration method. The paper finishes with the proposal for a vertical model integration method (VeMoI) and an outlook on further research.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

Vertical vs. Horizontal Model Integration

In the context of model integration vertical and horizontal integration of model layers needs to be distinguished (Bögel and Esswein 2010). We speak of vertical integration if the integrated model layers concern the same part of the universe of discourse, but differ in the viewpoint. If we look on CPGs, the universe of discourse is a specific disease, while the viewpoint is the evident guideline viewpoint on this specific disease. For a corresponding CP, the universe of discourse is the same disease, but the viewpoint is that of a specific process in a certain hospital.

In contrast, the horizontal integration of two models on the same layer, differ in the universe of discourse but have the same viewpoint. Heterogeneity in vertical integration is therefore a result of different viewpoints.

Integration Conflicts

The heterogeneity of models leads to integration conflicts between those models. Diverse classifications of integration conflicts can be found in the literature. A common classification distinguishes type, structural and name conflicts [START_REF] Pfeiffer | A framework for comparing conceptual models[END_REF][START_REF] Pfeiffer | Semantic business process analysis: building block-based construction of automatically analyzable business process models[END_REF][START_REF] Rosemann | Komplexitätsmanagement in Prozeßmodellen[END_REF][START_REF] Hars | Referenzdatenmodelle[END_REF]. If a part of the real world is modeled semantically different in two models this is denominated as structural or semantic conflict [START_REF] Pfeiffer | A framework for comparing conceptual models[END_REF]. These can further be distinguished as dependency conflicts, abstraction conflicts and level of detail [START_REF] Kashyap | Semantic and schematic similarities between database objects: a context-based approach[END_REF]. [START_REF] Dijkman | Diagnosing differences between business process models[END_REF] considers the horizontal integration of similar process models. He differentiates authorization, activity and control-flow conflicts. Weidlich et al. (2009) extend the list by process and data conflicts. Those conflicts relate to constructs of a modeling language. Others like [START_REF] Pfeiffer | Semantic business process analysis: building block-based construction of automatically analyzable business process models[END_REF] are differentiating homonym, abstraction, separation, type, synonym, annotation and control-flow conflicts. We consolidate these classifications according to table 1. The previously mentioned conflicts relate either to symbols of the domain languages or to concepts of modeling languages.

In the dimension of semiotics, the conflicts can be classified by looking at their occurrence. Name and type conflicts can be identified at the level of the syntax (for example, through the comparison of strings or two type identifiers). All the other conflicts mentioned [START_REF] Dijkman | Diagnosing differences between business process models[END_REF][START_REF] Pfeiffer | Semantic business process analysis: building block-based construction of automatically analyzable business process models[END_REF] can only be detected by looking at the semantic layer. No conflicts could be found on the pragmatic layer. The mapping between syntax and semantics is an on-going process executed by human beings. Humans use symbols corresponding to his or her intentions and therefore constitute semantics [START_REF] Holenstein | On the cognitive underpinnings of language[END_REF][START_REF] Wittgenstein | Tractatus logico-philosophicus: philosophische Untersuchungen[END_REF]). As a consequence, for the solution of these conflicts, the next semiotic level has to be considered.

CASE STUDY

In industrialized countries, the stroke is the third major cause of death and the most frequent reason of lasting physical handicaps [START_REF] Kolominsky-Rabas | Lifetime Cost of Ischemic Stroke in Germany: Results and National Projections From a Population-Based Stroke Registry: The Erlangen Stroke Project[END_REF]. In acute stroke care, the capabilities of therapy worsen with each minute the stroke is not diagnosed and treated accordingly. An immediate medical intervention is necessary to avoid consequential damage. This is especially important for radiological findings. Further characteristics for an acute stroke are short delay for decision-making, limited local transfer possibility and symptoms that are difficulty diagnosed. In 2007, the SOS-NET was founded to build a telemedical infrastructure for regional stroke care. The goal of the network is to treat all stroke patients consitently and independently from distance to next stroke expert over the whole region. Within two years the SOS-NET is growing to an important stroke care network in Saxony (Germany).

Presently, there are fourteen hospitals participating in the network. 580 telemedical consultations were carried out in 2009. The suspicion of stroke was confirmed in 79% of the telemedical presented patients. 89 lyses-therapies were indicated. If the indication can be done at early stage, this therapy allows an almost complete rehabilitation of special stroke cases.

The different suspension of employees and the differences of the technical infrastructure necessitate a defined responsibilities and process within the network. The stroke center as the core of network allocates CPGs for the partners of the network (stroke units) to assure a network-wide high standard clinical care.

In figure 2, the situation is depicted in which the models interrelate. The framework shows three different and initially independent model layers. On the topmost layer professional associations and local experts create (CPG). CPs are located on the middle layer and are used by the hospital staff. The hospital information system (HIS) is shown on the bottom layer. Typically, on the technical layer, the HIS could be configured by workflow models via a XML-Transformation. The care process life cycle (see figure 1) is referenced through the different phases. In phase 1 the clinical pathways are checked against the appropriate CPG. The compliant models are than used to implement the organizational structures and in phase 3 to configure the hospital information system.

Fig. 2. Framework for medical care processes

The integration of the layers delivers great potential to improve the recommendations themselves and thus the quality of clinical care. The following cases reflect the main goals of integration in the SOS-NET:

Case 1:

Compliance check: The vertical integration makes a check of models concerning superordinate layer possible. The models are compliant, if all necessary advises are considered in the underling layer. Compliance should guarantee that the goals of care are reached as it is defined in the subordinate layer. Compliance is no structural or syntactical conformity. It depends largely on the content wise correspondence.

Case 2: Context sensitive help: If a link between the different layers exists, user can track where information come from. They can also get further information for special steps of the treatment or clinical decisions.

Case 3: Support of business-process-reengineering (BPR): In BPR it is necessary to know the current situation of the processes and the limits of BPR. The integration model could help to determine the flexibility for the restructure. On the other, the integration could help to identify weak parts in the processes.

REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS

In this section, we want to present the results of our requirements analysis (figure 3). The analysis was done with the i*-(i-star)-framework. It provides a method to structure relations of actors and their influence to goals, to describe decompositions as well as means-ends-relation between tasks and resources which are necessary to achieve the (soft)goal(s) (Yu 2009). The starting point of the analysis is the goal to treat patient with the "Best Clinical Care". From this main goal, the goal of the evidence-based utilization of CP depends. This means integration between CPGs and CPs is needed.

Kaveh et al. showed that CPG are permanent under revision [START_REF] Katona | How quickly do systematic reviews go out of date? A Survival Analysis[END_REF]). Since CP guide evident clinical care, they need to be up-to-date against the CPG which was supported by the integration. Further the integration would encourage a context sensitive help in business-workflow as well as business-process-reengineering projects. To achieve these goals, a method would help to reconstruct the inherent relationships between the models. This can only be done with the knowledge about the conflicts ("conflict identification"). To allow a successful application of the method, a procedure model should document the main steps of the method. Supporting techniques and heuristics are necessary for the automated and nonautomated parts of the method. The case study shows that various modeling languages are used to describe clinical recommendations. Thus the method should be applied to various modeling languages.

INTERMEDIARY RESULTS -VEMOI

We want to introduce a service-oriented method based on the following considerations. First the health care network requires a distributed architecture. Second we gain flexibility in the orchestration of the services so we can integrate preliminary work, e.g. the integration of ontologies for the resolving of name conflicts. We can also change non-automated steps with automated steps, if such a service is available. A hospital or care network may also decide to outsource certain services like the classification step. In summary, our procedure model is described by orchestrating services and not by modeling a process diagram. Following this approach a method fragment is represented by a service. In Figure 4 three services: "classification", "anchor identification" and "domain conflict identification" and their orchestration are depicted. These step lead to the reconstruction of the inherent model relations. The central element of our approach "VeMoI" is the anchor model, which allows to represent inter-model relations as well as possible conflict situations. It guides also the participators of integration project to find and to eliminate conflict situations.

EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION AND OUTLOOK

Expected contribution of this work is the proposal of the VeMoI method for the vertical integration of medical care process models. This is an important prerequisite for the organizational compliance implementation and the model-based configuration of the hospital information system. With this method we want to design a domain language based approach for conflict handling in heterogeneous model landscapes.

The identified domain conflicts should allow compliance checks against the CPG. The process of identifying conflicts also should shows relations between two models that hopefully can be used for context sensitive enrichment of the medical care process models. As a third use case the relations and domain conflicts might be used for business process reengineering. The enriched process models probably allow the identification of reengineering potential.

Next steps our research are the finalization of the integration method and its evaluation in the context of a greater case study inside the stroke and a cancer network.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Summary of the requirements (i*-model).

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. The VeMoI -Service Model.

Table 1 .

 1 Overview of Integration Conflicts

		Domain language	Modeling Language	Solutions
	Syntax	Name conflict	Type conflict	Ontologies,
		(homonym		syntactical model
		conflict,		comparison
		synonym
		conflict)
	Semantics	-	Authorization conflict,	VeMoI
			Activity conflict, Process
			conflict,
			Data conflict, Dependency
			conflict, Abstraction
			conflict, Level of detail
			conflict, Annotation conflict,
			Control-flow conflict, Order
			conflict, Separation conflict
	Pragmatics	-	-	-

AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

Hannes Schlieter is research assistant at the Chair for Information Systems, esp. Systems Engineering at the TU Dresden science 2008.

Stephan Bögel was research assistant at the Chair for Information Systems, esp. Systems Engineering at the TU Dresden from 2010 to 2011. Currently, he works as project manager for the Virtimo AG.

Werner Esswein is owner of the Chair for Information Systems, esp. Systems Engineering at the TU Dresden.


Johannes Vergeer
email: johannes.vergeer@uct.ac.za

Wallace Chigona
email: wallace.chigona@uct.ac.za

Andile Simphiwe Metfula
email: andile.metfula@uct.ac.za

A Media Discourse of Broadband Policy in a Developing Country Context

Keywords:

The formation of bodies like the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) and the incorporation of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have given birth to the importance of connectivity, thus putting the Internet on the national agenda of every nation in the world. Countries (especially developing nations) have started drafting their own broadband policies so as to be able to 'quickly' provide Internet access to 'all' their citizens and to be able to 'immediately' start 'reaping' the fruits provided by broadband. This paper, therefore, looks at this process in the Republic of South Africa -that is, the discourses around the formulation of the National Broadband Policy -in order to uncover possible distortions and misconceptions. Moreover, it also looks at the interactions that existed amongst the actors that were involved or were supposed to be involved in the policyformulation process. This is done by using Habermas' Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).

Introduction

Background

Nowadays the importance of the Internet, especially Broadband Internet, cannot be over-emphasised. Governments see it as a catalyst to speed up service delivery; capitalists see it as a dynamic business tool; educators see it as a new knowledge provider; youngsters see it as a new form of expressing dissent and entertainment. In his budget speech to Parliament on the 20th of April 2010, the then Minister of Communications, Siphiwe Nyanda made a statement that by 2019 South Africans would enjoy universal access to broadband. This was a bold statement considering the current ICT penetration rate in the country. Benefits of the access, Nyanda stated, would include the provision of multimedia, e-governance and economic growth [START_REF] Nyanda | Minister of Communications S. Nyanda Budget Vote speech -ICT for accelerated service delivery and empowerment! -20 Apr 2010[END_REF]. The Broadband Policy -which would in turn bring all these benefits into fruition -was finalised on the 13th of July 2010 after parliamentary deliberations and, most importantly, supposed public consultations. Considering the importance of the policy and the dismal outcomes of other ICT policies in the developing countries, it is of academic interest to investigate the likelihood of the policy succeeding.

As the formulation of a Broadband Policy was highly topical at this time, both locally and internationally, it is important to note concerns raised about the generally poor policy outcomes of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Africa. [START_REF] Gillwald | The Poverty of ICT Policy, Research, and Practice in Africa[END_REF] attributes the poor outcomes to the paucity of critical research that recognises the political dimensions of policy reform and economic regulation.

Media Discourse and the Public Sphere

To contribute towards this understanding, this study traces the South African media reporting (both print and electronic) and the response of civil society (often via dedicated web-based environments) on the rhetoric of 'Broadband' and, in particular, focuses on its role during the South African Broadband Policy formulation process. Consequently, the theoretical foundation used in this paper is Habermas' Theory of Communicative Action [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF], which focuses on the impact and implications of a discourse.

Habermas posits that the conceptual category of the public sphere is essential to the evolution and maintenance of a democratic society. This public sphere, he asserts, consists of politicians and their political parties, lobbyists, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other pressure groups, as well as mass media professionals with their networks of electronic and print media. The public sphere actors often compete to set the agenda on crucial public issues like policy formulation [START_REF] Mills | The Effect of Legislative Professionalism on Agenda Setting at the State Level[END_REF]. [START_REF] Norton-Griffiths | The growing involvement of foreign NGOs in setting policy agendas and political decision-making in Africa[END_REF] noted that this competition culminates in the adoption of minority views of the powerful, thus defeating the whole purpose of a democratic society and process. The media, as part of the public sphere, plays a central role in shaping public discourses [START_REF] Cukier | A Critical Analysis of Media Discourse on Information Technology: preliminary results of a proposed method for critical discourse analysis[END_REF]. It provides a primary source of information [START_REF] Melody | Policy implications of the new information Economy[END_REF]. It is also a vehicle by which civil society obtains information and becomes involved in the political process. The media are not only consumed by the public, but also by politicians who use the media to learn of the needs of the people and to influence public opinion. Thus, in many ways, the media affects the political and more importantly, the policy process [START_REF] Cooper | News Media and State Policy Process: Perspectives from Legislators and Political Professionals, State Politics and Policy Conference[END_REF]. Figure 1 further illustrates this. Therefore, as they (the media) have an influence on what we think about and how we think about it, it is important to highlight distortions in these discourses [START_REF] Chigona | MXit up in the media: media discourse analysis on a mobile instant messaging system[END_REF]. The identification of distorted media discourses, especially those dealing with policy formulation, is important, as the possibility exists for political elites and privileged groups to deflect citizens' individual and collective interests [START_REF] Guardino | Media Discourse, Public Policy and Democracy: A Preliminary Case Study of the Reagan Tax and Budget Plans of 1981[END_REF].

1.3

Research Aims, Claims, Questions and Approach

This paper, therefore, seeks to understand the workings of the public discourse surrounding the South African Broadband Policy debate, thus facilitating a better understanding of the factors influencing the debate about the availability and adoption of broadband technologies and services in the South African context. Its main intention is to answer the call made by [START_REF] Gillwald | The Poverty of ICT Policy, Research, and Practice in Africa[END_REF] to contribute towards indigenous research that engages in the ICT policy space. This research aims specifically at understanding the interplay between various institutions and the roles they play, particularly in the telecommunications arena. [START_REF] Thompson | ICT research in Africa: a need for a strategic developmental focus[END_REF] once called upon researchers in Information Systems to critically look at national and international policies, so as to be able to make sound and meaningful contributions to individual national ICT policies. In the same vein, [START_REF] Delano | The globalisation of ICT[END_REF] noted that there was a need for more research so that more rational ICT policies and strategies are realised and are efficiently put to use to end the existing digital divides in the world. The synchronisation of regional and international ICT policies with local ones is imperative; local initiatives and policies should not be affected by foreign ones, but should be the other way around [START_REF] Mcbride | Egypt's Information Society Strategy: A Critical Lexicography[END_REF]. The research question answered by this paper is:

What distortions and misconceptions does media discourse have about the South African Broadband Policy?

It answers this question by using Habermas' Theory of Communicative Action (TCA) to analyse the discourse that surrounded the formulation of the Broadband Policy in South Africa.

Structure of the Paper

The structure of this paper is as follows: • The following section talks about the background of broadband.

• Section three looks at the broadband environment in South Africa.

• Section four is the theoretical framework.

• Section five is the research methodology.

• Section six looks at the findings.

• Section seven is the discussion of the findings.

• Section eight makes some conclusions and recommendations.

Broadband Background

The term 'broadband' has no universally accepted definition, but generally refers to high bandwidth Internet access [START_REF] Van Den Broeck | Why Broadband? The meaning of broadband for residential users[END_REF]. The Broadband Commission for Digital Development defines it as a cluster of concepts ranging from instantaneous updates to simultaneous provision of services (The Broadband Commission, 2010a).

Overview of Broadband

The discussion around broadband should however move beyond the merely technical aspects of access and speed. Attention also has to be directed to the social dimensions of having broadband connectivity, considering the potential benefits to users and society as a whole. In many respects the technology is not as important as what can be accomplished by using it [START_REF] Van Den Broeck | Why Broadband? The meaning of broadband for residential users[END_REF]. [START_REF] Kim | Building broadband: Strategies and policies for the developing world[END_REF] see broadband as an ecosystem (see Figure 2), consisting of networks, services carried on these networks, the applications they deliver and the users making use of these. [START_REF] Kim | Building broadband: Strategies and policies for the developing world[END_REF] It is important to point out that to facilitate an end-to-end communication service, different network elements, processes and business services need to be present, as illustrated by William (2008) in his layered broadband supply chain model (see Figure 3). At the top of his supply chain are the international connectivity links, usually provided via submarine fibre-optic or satellite links. The second level is the regional and domestic backbone, allowing traffic to flow both domestically and between the international links. The third level represents the routing and switching or the so-called 'intelligence' in the network. Below this is the typical customer network access. Finally, there is the layer of 'soft' retail services such as customer acquisition, customer care and billing. Fig. 3. The Broadband Commuications Supply Chain [START_REF] Williams | Broadband for Africa -Policy for promoting the development of backbone networks[END_REF]

Fig. 2. The Broadband Ecosystem

Socio-Economic Impact of Broadband

Pickot & Wernick (2007) stress that the economic relevance and societal importance of broadband is becoming more important, due to the diffusion of broadband Internet infrastructure reshaping the traditional ICT landscape. According to [START_REF] Kim | Building broadband: Strategies and policies for the developing world[END_REF], broadband is a technological innovation that will immensely change people's lives and day-to-day activities, thus enabling economic development and national competitiveness.

There are various positive socio-economic benefits that broadband can deliver, but it is important to note that 'broadband connectivity is a means and not an end in itself' [START_REF] Jones | Creating successful broadband policies in developing countries[END_REF]. Substantial research has been done to show that broadband can play a crucial role in productivity, job creation, innovation, entrepreneurial activities, health, education, e-governance, political activities and personal relations (World Bank, 2009;[START_REF] Katz | The impact of broadband policy on the economy[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Creating successful broadband policies in developing countries[END_REF]The Broadband Commission, 2010;[START_REF] Willson | Evaluating the Economic and Social Impact of the National Broadband Network[END_REF][START_REF] Srivastava | Handbook of Research on Global Diffusion of Broadband Data Transmission[END_REF][START_REF] Firth | Broadband: benefits and problems[END_REF][START_REF] Horrigan | Home Broadband Adoption 2009[END_REF].

2.3

Broadband Policy [START_REF] Katz | The impact of broadband policy on the economy[END_REF] found that the formulation of policy is determined by the overarching government vision, and as such impacts on the development of broadband. They note that institutional strength and platform-based competition, and not so much the independence of the regulator, appear to be the most important variables driving broadband innovation and development in a country. In order to implement broadband development strategies, a number of policies, regulations and programmes need to be implemented [START_REF] Kim | Building broadband: Strategies and policies for the developing world[END_REF].

Policy leadership and political will in government are crucial for the deployment of broadband networks and, most importantly, for the enhancement of local content and skills. Developing countries, conscious of the widening digital divide and the risk that some groups may be missing the economic and social benefits that broadband access promises, are eager to stimulate and promote the uptake of broadband [START_REF] Kim | Building broadband: Strategies and policies for the developing world[END_REF]The Broadband Commission, 2010;[START_REF] Jones | Creating successful broadband policies in developing countries[END_REF]. This, as outlined in [START_REF] Kim | Building broadband: Strategies and policies for the developing world[END_REF], can be done by adhering to the good practices that have emerged from countries with advanced broadband markets, such as being visionary and flexible, using competition to promote market growth and facilitating demand.

South African Broadband Environment

To appreciate the dynamics of media discourse on broadband policy, it is important to take cognisance of the roles and responsibilities of various entities and the activities of various operators in the broadband domain.

Actors and Participation

The major players in the South African broadband arena include state agencies, state-owned enterprises, incumbent operators, Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and resellers. Disappointingly, the role of civil society organisations is limited and thus insignificant. [START_REF] Comninos | South African ICT Sector Performance Review 2009/2010[END_REF] note that, in South Africa, the state is still a significant player in the communications sector with full ownership of some enterprises and direct shareholding in major operators like Telkom (the incumbent telecommunication provider) and Vodacom (the leading mobile operator).

Communication-related state agencies -which include the Department of Communication (DoC), the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA) and the Universal Service and Access Agency of South Africa (USAASA)have a function of formulating policy, regulating the industry and playing an advisory role. Their main responsibility is to create a vibrant ICT sector that will enable all citizens to have access to affordable ICT services, so as achieve socio-economic development goals and to fight the scourge of poverty.

State-owned enterprises, with an interest in communications, are Infraco and Sentech. Infraco is a broadband infrastructure company that was created to intervene in the broadband market and bring down the cost of communicating. Prior to its inception, Telkom was the only company providing national and international broadband backbone access; it was charging Internet service providers and other telecommunications service providers rates far exceeding those seen in other countries. Sentech, a signal distributor and broadcasting network operator, was the first in South Africa to provide wireless broadband service (BMI-T, 2010).

The role played by the civil society was found to be of a less 'formal' nature. Other than minimal contributions from blogs and some civil organisations such as the South African National Broadband Forum (SANBF) and the Association for Progressive Communications (APC), there was no direct contribution from members of the public (see Table 1). The SANBF was the most active civic group, although it became dormant after the draft of the policy was released.

Access and Infrastructure

The commissioning of the SEACOM high capacity bandwidth undersea cable, linking Southern and East Africa to Europe and Asia, attracted considerable media interest. The added backhaul capacity is invaluable but, as in many other developing countries, the problem of the 'last mile' is the true issue at hand in the South African context. [START_REF] Goldstuck | Internet Access in South Africa 2010 -A Comprehensive Study of the Internet Access Market in South Africa[END_REF] claims that current and future undersea cable projects (like SEACOM) will have a positive impact on accessibility.

Until recently, Telkom held the monopoly in providing urban fibre capacity. With the licensing of Neotel and with the backing of its parent company Tata, about ZAR 10 billion was committed to building a new fibre network. Also, during this time, another key infrastructure player, Dark Fibre Africa (DFK), entered the market [START_REF] Goldstuck | Internet Access in South Africa 2010 -A Comprehensive Study of the Internet Access Market in South Africa[END_REF].

Policy Formulation Process, Events and Discourse

With issues surrounding accessibility and infrastructure arising, the South African Government engaged in sporadic exercises to formulate the National Broadband Policy (see Table 1 for the timelines). Reviewing government's early involvement with driving the Broadband Policy process, there is a noticeable 28-month gap in action During 2007, the academic community in South Africa brought broadband back on the agenda, through a special issue of the Southern African Journal of Information and Communication (SAJIC) dedicated to this theme [START_REF] Sajic | The Southern African Journal of Information and Communication[END_REF].

The first mention of a South African Broadband Strategy was found in a blog by Willie Currie [START_REF] Currie | Towards a National Broadband Strategy[END_REF], although prior to this time mention was only made to Broadband Policy, not strategy. The formation of the South African National Broadband Forum (SANBF) during early 2009 was the next significant event that mobilised support to engage with government and get broadband back on the agenda. After the appointment of a new Minister of Communications in 2009, events moved swiftly towards the publishing of a Draft Broadband Policy in September of 2009.

Theoretical Framework

This section highlights the theoretical framework used and motivates the choice of the critical epistemology and, in particular, the choice of CDA as the research strategy. Habermas' Theory of Communicative Action (TCA) is introduced and a method of using it in practice is discussed.

Habermas' Discourses and Theory of Communicative Action

The use of critical research in Information Systems (IS) is recognised as the third research approach besides positivist and interpretivist research; it is defined by critical intention and critical topics [START_REF] Stahl | The ethical nature of critical research in information systems[END_REF].

Habermas places discourse in the centre of his theoretical writing. Habermas' Theory of Communicative Action (TCA) argues that our ability to jointly coordinate our actions using language and communication is a fundamental feature of humans that distinguishes us from all other species [START_REF] Mingers | Discourse Ethics and Critical Realist Ethics: An Evaluation in the Context of Business[END_REF]. This ability to communicate is grounded in our capacity to understand one another.

Habermas' TCA helps to explain rationality and is based on the anthropological assumption that, as human beings, we require social interaction to survive and thrive. As such, the role of communication is to facilitate cooperation. During the process of communication, each statement or expression is associated with certain validity claims. These validity claims are discussed below and are categorised by [START_REF] Chigona | MXit up in the media: media discourse analysis on a mobile instant messaging system[END_REF] in Table 2. [START_REF] Chigona | MXit up in the media: media discourse analysis on a mobile instant messaging system[END_REF] • Comprehensibility (C) addresses the technical, syntactical and semantic clarity of the communication. Essentially, it is a qualification that what is being communicated is intelligible, audible or legible.

• Truth (T) validity claim looks for falsehoods and bias interpretations in the texts.

It requires that the corpus is examined in a contextualised situation and examines utterances against the Objective (real) World and, as such, requires a comprehensive understanding of the context in which the statements are presented [START_REF] Chigona | MXit up in the media: media discourse analysis on a mobile instant messaging system[END_REF].

• Sincerity (S) looks to see whether what is being communicated is consistent with what is meant and forms the basis of the claim. Sincerity can only be inferred; examining the actions of the speaker and how a message is communicated needs to be compared to what is being said [START_REF] Chigona | MXit up in the media: media discourse analysis on a mobile instant messaging system[END_REF].

• Legitimacy (L) covers the question as to whether the communication conforms to the social environment where it is being delivered. It considers who is silenced and who is considered an expert and evaluates if there is a balance in the communication [START_REF] Chigona | MXit up in the media: media discourse analysis on a mobile instant messaging system[END_REF].

4.2

Operationalising Habermasian CDA Cukier, Hodson & Ryan (2009a) recommend a four-step approach for conducting analysis of the data associated with a discourse under review:

Step 1: Defining the corpus to be analysed -Multiple data sources should be used to facilitate being able to gather all relevant material that will explain the situation or artefact under consideration.

Step 2: Analysing the content and doing the coding -The analysis is done for each document within the corpus and also over the full set. This is done to find empirical evidence pertaining to the various validity claims that may be supported or validated.

Step 3: Reading and interpreting the empirical evidence from Step 2 -The documents are now re-read to uncover and test both implied and explicit validity claims. The test involves searching for imperial observations that contradict the validity claims made in the texts.

Step 4: Explaining the findings -This explores and explains the findings in the context of the broader environment of the study area.

Methodology

The logical starting point to gather the information about the National Broadband Policy is to examine the original documents and statements from Government or political parties. Government statements or press releases related to the National Broadband Policy, as well as speeches by ministers or deputies that referred to the Broadband Policy, were retrieved. Both print and electronic media that had contributed to the broadband debate were included in the corpus. Moreover, a number of well-established web-based IT publications and focused news forums exist and their articles were also included in the corpus. In total, 112 media articles consisting of 24 items from the traditional print media domain and 88 from specialist or other web media sites were identified for analysis.

A number of specialist websites were also identified; these were either specifically dedicated to the National Broadband Strategy or were concerned with general ICT issues in South Africa. These sites are typically maintained by civil society organisations or interest groups and did not yield information that contributed directly to the formal corpus of media articles under review in this paper; however, their activity was deemed an important indicator to the health of public discourse on broadband policy in South Africa.

The various articles were printed and chronologically ordered and put in a binder to enable easy access and to facilitate the reading of all the material in a chronological order. The electronic versions of the articles were uploaded into the Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis System, Nvivo 8. Then the validity claims were tested against the rest of the corpus.

Findings

Comprehensibility

As the corpus consisted of material from both the general press and more technically-focused publications, it was to be expected that a considerable amounts of industry-specific language or jargon would be present. However, these technical terms are well understood by the industry professionals that the publications are intended for and, as such, do not need further clarification.

Truths

The government, in a bid to frame the draft and the final Broadband Policy for the media, made assertions that broadband would provide multimedia, e-governance, ecommerce, e-health, e-education and many others. These positive claims were similar to the ones that were made in articles that dealt with the policy. Negative claims were also made regarding issues such as the lack of consultative process, lack of clear deliverables in broadband policy, financial constraints, lack of education and awareness.

The media discourse clearly points to the need for a broadband policy, by highlighting the failure of government's managed liberalisation in the telecommunications sector. The SANBF articulates that:

The NBF feels government's efforts have failed, as issues of limited competition and the high cost of services still remain. The solution, it says, lies in the creation of a comprehensive national broadband policy which will help it deal effectively with broadband extension. [ITWeb] The SANBF further clarifies what it believes to be the main benefits to be derived from an effective broadband policy, placing emphasis on the educational possibilities offered by broadband:

… high-speed broadband access will in turn stimulate the creation of commerce and digital broadband content by content providers, such as educators, so that Government's mandate of affordable learning and teaching can be fully realised. [MyBB] Quickly, it (the discourse) moves on to bring to the limelight the main benefits that can be derived from an effective Broadband Policy. However, the emphasis on the ability of broadband to facilitate the improvement of education is lost in the overriding e-government rhetoric framing the Broadband Policy view from government. While one of governments espoused benefits of broadband does include e-education, the focus of government's drive for broadband seems to be more on egovernment and economic benefits to be derived from broadband availability.

One of the most glaring omissions from the Broadband Policy discourse by the Department of Communications is that of cost and actual information about implementation. Although it could be argued that such items are to be addressed outside of the policy document, for example in a detailed implementation strategy, this is never made clear, hence leaving many unanswered questions in the mind of the observer, which ultimately could lead to doubt in the policy as a whole. It led an IT publication, ITWeb, to conclude:

No financial strategy has yet been provided to meet the objective, but the policy does mention that government will use state-owned enterprises, such as Sentech and Infraco, for the provisioning of electronic communications network services. The biggest challenges will be that of actual implementation … [ITWeb] Furthermore, one assumption that is not adequately explored in the discourse is whether government departments are indeed ready for e-government. There are no questions raised about whether government IT departments have been integrated into an e-government environment, or whether departments are ready to offer e-services and e-transactions, or if government officials are ready to deliver and support egovernment services to the public. One of the few statements in the discourse on this matter is by Minister Nyanda when he alludes to the probability that government departments are, indeed, not ready, as he urges the adoption of ICT:

Therefore, the development of a coherent framework for the deployment and utilisation of ICT in government is critical. It is urgent that the government adopts and uses ICT in order to modernise services, improve administration and efficiency.

[ServPub]

Sincerity

There is some evidence of hyperbole, metaphor and connotative language to reinforce certain perspectives in the discourse and, most importantly, to elicit an emotive response. The most prominent of these are the use of terms like 'digital divide', 'bridging' of this divide, or 'being on the wrong side' of the divide. There are also examples where disappointment and frustration about certain aspects or aspirations come to the fore e.g. the feeling of mediocrity or the lack of ambition:

… aims to provide all citizens with a 256 Kbps connection by 2019. This lacklustre (sic) goal from Government is falling well behind other similar projects. [MyBB] In addition, South Africa was at times compared with more economically advanced nations, in respect of broadband penetration or broadband access speeds. This has the potential to elicit an emotional response of inferiority and triggers the expectation that the Broadband Policy should be able to get South Africa on a par with these leaders. Most often, these links with advanced economies serve to illustrate how far behind South Africa is to the developed world and implies that having a Broadband Policy would facilitate a way for South Africa to close the gap. Generally, the discourse elicits a response of technological inferiority and the need to catch up.

Legitimacy

The overriding contributor to the discourse is the Department of Communications through statements by the minister, his deputy and director-general. The next dominant voice in the discourse is that of market analysts, most notable those of BMI-TechKnowledge Managing Director Denis Smit with 11 articles quoting him, while World Wide Worx Managing Director, Arthur Goldstuck and Steve Ambrose had seven articles reflecting their views. As 'experts' and 'neutral bystanders', their views often provided the only alternative non-governmental insights into the discourse.

The civil society in general is not at all well represented in the discourse, primarily because even news publications did not carry stories on the Broadband Policy. The SANBF initially had a strong voice in the discourse with a total of 12 articles, but it fell silent after the Draft Broadband Policy was announced in September 2009. Although substantial press coverage was given to the SANBF's website and the partners responsible for its launch, it is surprising that, after the government's publication of the Draft and Final Broadband Policy, there was no ongoing dialogue via this website or any statements of endorsement or rejection. As a result the Broadband Policy was formulated through a closed and non-transparent process; public participation was only 'symbolic'. Public participation does not only ensure success and effectiveness of the policy formulation process, but it also creates ownership of the policy amongst the civil society [START_REF] Kendall | Formulating information and communication policy through discourse: how internet discussions shape policies on ICTs for developing countries[END_REF][START_REF] Barnes | Nation-Building without Mortar? Public Participation in Higher Education Policy-Making in South Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Mohamed | From ideas to practice: The involvement of informal settlement communities in policy-making at city level in South Africa[END_REF].

State owned enterprises (SOEs) are also silent on the specifics of the policy. References are made to Sentech and Infraco, but no representation from these entities in the discourse ever touches on the actual Broadband Policy. Surprisingly, these are the institutions which are expected to play a crucial role in order for the policy to be successfully implemented. It is even more worrying that they are not represented in the debate. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the lack of leadership and clear direction at the state entities and state-owned enterprises are the reasons they are not engaged with the media on this matter. Lastly, there was also no input from any of the major broadband providers such as Telkom, Vodacom, MTN or Cell C.

Discussion

The general atmosphere of the broadband discourse under review is that of 'techno-optimism', the 'technology imperative' and 'technological determinism'. [START_REF] Roode | It's Not The Digital Divide -It's The Socio-Techno Divide! Presentation to the 12th European Conference on Information Systems[END_REF] note how technological optimism relates to the belief that developmental problems can be resolved by the availability of, and access to, ICTs. According to [START_REF] Wilson | Understanding the International ICT and Development Discourse: Assumptions and implications[END_REF], the technology imperative or technological determinism discounts the fact that information or knowledge do not necessarily have to be associated with ICTs. While ICTs may provide a conduit to accessing certain types of information, or to gain certain knowledge, this is not necessarily the only way.

Generally, in the discourse, the Broadband Policy does not appear to feature prominently in the collective minds of the general public. The government ignored the fact that effective policies can only be achieved through outlining clear and possible goals that will be achieved by the policy improvements and, most importantly, by appealing to societal interests -no power can ever be exercised without consent and interest from the civil society [START_REF] Boswell | Knowledge, legitimation and the politics of risk: the functions of research in public debates on migration[END_REF]. Most policies in developing countries, even in developed nations, meet resistance due to the lack of instrumental participation on the part of civil society in the development of these policies [START_REF] Hideg | Overcoming negative reactions of nonbeneficiaries to employment equity: The effect of participation in policy formulation[END_REF]. Moreover, an inclusive policy formulation process which involves all actors, even latent ones, other than civil society, does not only create the effectiveness of the policy, but it goes to the extent of creating its ownership [START_REF] Hicks | Crafting new democratic spaces: participatory policy-making in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Sack | The Pedagogy of Education Policy Formulation: Working from Policy Assets[END_REF]. The case in point in this research is the nonparticipation of the private sector which may have a negative impact on the policy outcomes.

It can be argued that the policy has the potential to significantly improve people's lives and wellbeing, but currently the development of a Broadband Policy is secondary to more pressing issues such as basic services provision. Issues that directly affect people's quality of life inevitably take precedence. One reason for this poor public engagement is perhaps related to the way that the non-ICT focused media reported on the Broadband Policy. These sources closely followed the press releases from government, but rarely added substantial commentary to the statements. This is in line with the findings of [START_REF] Quail | Net Neutrality: Media Discourses and Public Perception[END_REF] that the poor coverage of the topic 'does not lend itself to a critically informed and engaged public'. Moreover, the withdrawal of civil society groups such as the SANBF was also a cause for serious concern -lobbyists and pressure groups are members of the public sphere and are essential for maintaining and evolving a democratic society [START_REF] Cukier | A Critical Analysis of Media Discourse on Information Technology: preliminary results of a proposed method for critical discourse analysis[END_REF].

During the period under review, there was a notable change in the discourse from optimism to a less favourable, pessimistic outlook. The importance of following this mood change in the discourse is that the policy is inextricably linked to the DoC and its senior officials e.g. the Minister. As these entities are afforded the custodianship of the Broadband Policy, the observer's feelings about the policy become entangled with feelings about the custodian. A brief review of activities at the department and the general resultant turmoil, lead to the conclusion that the Broadband Policy gets affected by these events. Some events and signs of disarray are shown in Table 3. As Gillwald (2010) pointed out, it is necessary to recognise the political dimensions of policy reform and to examine the interaction of the state and the market if we are to understand the general failure of ICT policy outcomes in Africa.

Table 3. Time-line of key events at the DoC

One important question that emanates from these events is how an entity, with this level of instability and upheaval and with apparent lack of continuity in its leadership structure, can function. As the Broadband Policy is so closely linked and associated with the DoC, it is hard not to project the negative sentiments about the department onto the policy. To make matters worse, throughout the discourse there are repeated references to not only the DoC being in a state of crisis, but also to the unrest in associated and crucial state entities, like ICASA, USAASA, Sentech and Infraco -the very entities that are supposed to implement the policy. In the same way that one would associate the policy with the custodians, one would also associate the policy with the implementers.

Furthermore, the exclusion of large local corporate broadband providers raised concerns about the prevailing uncoordinated efforts. The ability of the SOE's to deliver on the Broadband Policy objective was questionable and therefore allowed private enterprises to continue to follow their own agendas. Finally, although international best practice seems to suggest that policy is needed, this clearly needs to be balanced by action. So far, the feeling created in the discourse is that the Broadband Policy is 'lip service' and that it 'ticks the boxes'. There is no optimism that it will make a real difference to the citizens of the country.

Conclusion

The analysis revealed that the association and disassociation of various role players in the South African broadband environment has created a negative perception around the Broadband Policy. Although the government's rhetoric on the Broadband Policy is of a positive nature, the constant linking of the policy to reporting on negative industrial and political aspects ultimately influences the perception about the policy and the ability for the policy to be implemented.

This study has contributed to the body of knowledge about the formulation of ICT Policy and Broadband Policy in the context of a developing country. Moreover, some contribution was made to unravelling the complexities of the political and regulatory aspects in the South African telecommunications environment, although this is an area where further ongoing research is needed.

Considering the generalizability of this research [START_REF] Lee | Generalizing generalizability in information systems research[END_REF], the theoretical contributions of this paper to understanding media involvement in ICT and Broadband Policy formulation may be of value in other settings, or when considering other policy formulation processes. Most developing countries have similar, if not the same, institutions and, most importantly, they also have similar ways of doing things. Therefore, on a practical note, the results and lessons extracted from this study can be used to understand the 'noise' that surrounds policy formulation processes in developing countries and hence the failure of many policies. Furthermore, the contributions of this paper also bring to the limelight the importance of government institutions, in the sense that poor government institutions result in poor policies and outcomes. Weak institutions beget a state that fails to deliver on its promises and a sceptical private sector and civil society that lacks confidence in any government process or intervention.

The paper recommends that for governments of developing countries to have effective policies that will be owned by the masses, these governments need to start viewing civil society as a partner in policy-formulation exercises. Civil society can only be equipped to partake in such activities if there is a vibrant and an encouraged media that is willing to educate the population on emerging technologies and policies. Finally, governments should strengthen state institutions that are involved in the telecommunications sector so that benefits of broadband or any development-related technologies are clear and well appreciated.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. The Media und the Policy Process (Coopers & Johnson, 2007)

  . The earliest documents referring to a National Broadband Policy are in those of the Department of Communications Strategic Plan for 2005 to 2008. Following this are regular mentions of a Broadband Policy in Budget Vote speeches in 2005 and 2006. A final mention is made to it in a speech at the Government Technology Conference in November 2006. Only in March 2009 is mention made again of the Broadband Policy, this time in the 2009/2010 Budget Vote Speech for the Department of Communications.

Table 1 .

 1 Time-line of Key South African Broadband Policy Events

Table 2 .

 2 Summary of Validity Claims


Wietske Van Osch
email: w.vanosch@uva.nl

Michel Avital
email: avital@uva.nl

The Green Vistas of Sustainable Innovation in the IT Domain

Keywords: Green IT, Green IS, Sustainability, Innovation

Sustainable innovation is about creating social, environmental, and economic value for all stakeholders involved. The sustainable innovation lens offers an extension of the prevailing discourse on Green IT/IS and renders a three-fold approach that encompasses social, environmental and economic dimensions of sustainability. Moreover, sustainable innovation entails a proactive approach that focuses on developing creative solutions to environmental and social challenges rather than merely on reducing the IT footprint by waste management and regulation compliance. Building on a longitudinal analysis of sustainable innovation in the automotive industry, we gained a number of relevant insights that can be applied to the information technology domain. First, our results illustrate that a sustainable innovation approach can serve as a source of creativity and innovation that enables firms to aim for generating bigger wins for businesses, the environment, and society overall. Second, our results suggest that sustainable innovation requires a concerted effort of all stakeholders to reshape existing norms and values, formulate new standards, and reconfigure work systems vis-à-vis the social and environmental vistas of sustainable value. Building on our study, we provide further recommendations for IT research and practice.

INTRODUCTION

With the centrality of information technology and charges that it is responsible for 2% of the world's total CO2 emissions (Gartner, 2007), it is not surprising that in recent years the issue of Green IT/IS has gained momentum. Overall, so far we can identify two primary approaches to sustainability-one focuses on how to reduce the negative ecological impact of information technologies, Green IT, and the other focuses on how to leverage information technologies for solving our environmental problems, Green IS. The former approach treats information technologies as part of the problem and addresses the question of how to reduce their ecological footprint by cutting CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and waste throughout their lifecycle. The latter approach considers information technologies or information systems as part of the solution and analyzes their potential role in helping organizations to manage their environmental footprint.

Notwithstanding the valuable insights that the Green IT/IS1 movements have contributed, we posit that they have largely overlooked two important issues. First, both approaches have been focused on the ecological (i.e. environmental) facet of sustainability, while falling short of noticing the significance of its social aspect. Second, Green IT/IS has been driven largely by regulation and the desire to reduce costs, while virtually disregarding the potential generative and value added capacity of sustainable innovation with respect to the prevailing technologies. Compliance with regulation and cost reduction have steered the discussion and subsequent efforts toward mitigating and managing technology's negative environmental effects through primarily reactive approaches, which have in turn led to downplaying the potential of IT/IS in fostering sustainable innovation as a source of social, environmental, and economic value for all stakeholders involved.

To that end, we propose approaching the underlying topic through the sustainable innovation lens [START_REF] Cooperrider | Sustainable Innovation[END_REF], which builds on, yet extends, the prevailing conceptions of Green IT/IS. Overall, sustainable innovation refers to designing and implementing sustainable organizational processes and practices that generate social, environmental, and economic worth for all stakeholders involved [START_REF] Thatchenkery | Positive Design and Appreciative Construction: From Sustainable Development to Sustainable Value[END_REF]. Applying the sustainable innovation lens to the discourse on Green IT/IS has two appealing promises. First, it offers reframing the underlying issues with an extended approach to sustainability that addresses a range of environmental, social, and economic values in the context of information technology. Second, it redirects our attention to the importance of innovation and multi-stakeholder collaboration in proactively addressing challenges and opportunities of sustainability.

Building on analysis of sustainable innovation in the automotive industry, we draw two insights with respect to the information technology domain. First, a sustainable innovation approach can serve as a source of creativity and innovation that enables firms to generate bigger wins for the business, the environment, and society overall. Second, the study suggests that sustainable innovation requires a concerted effort by all stakeholders to reshape existing norms and values, to formulate new standards, and to reconfigure work systems for diffusing sustainable technologies.

In what follows, we first describe the prevailing IT-related context of sustainability. Then, we present the findings through a brief synopsis of sustainable innovation in the automotive industry. Finally, we apply the generated findings regarding sustainable innovation to information technology and discuss its implications for research and practice.

THREE PERSPECTIVES ON SUSTAINABLE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Sustainability in the context of IT is often addressed through the narrative of Green IT (i.e. greening IT) or Green IS (i.e. greening by IT), and we offer an alternative, namely Sustainable Innovation. In this section we briefly describe the three different approaches to sustainability and juxtapose them in Table 1.

Table 1. Summarizing Approaches to Green and Sustainable IT/IS

Green IT

The bulk of the nascent literature on Green IT to date is concerned with greening IT, that is, with mitigating the negative impact of IT on energy consumption and CO2 emissions [START_REF] Murugesan | Harnessing Green IT: Principles and Practices[END_REF]Gartner 2007;[START_REF] Pernici | Business Process Design: Towards Servicebased Green Information Systems[END_REF]. The most prominent drivers of Green IT are regulation [START_REF] Mingay | Green IT: The New Industry Shock Wave[END_REF] and the increased concerns about the impact of IT on a company's energy spending. The research and business practice in this area aimed at eliminating waste, increasing efficiency, and lowering energy costs. Thereby, it is primarily reactive and focused on the environmental facet of sustainability.

Green IS

A smaller set of studies has addressed the potential role of information technology in helping organizations to manage their environmental footprint, i.e. greening by IT. This approach has been referred to as Green IS [START_REF] Boudreau | From Green IT to Green IS[END_REF] stressing the greater potential of information systems rather than information technology in dealing with environmental management. The most prominent driver of Green IS is regulatory compliance reporting as well as the desire to reduce costs of energy and carbon emissions [START_REF] Mingay | Green IT: The New Industry Shock Wave[END_REF]. Thereby, it is also primarily reactive and focused on the environmental facet of sustainability.

Wietske van Osch/Michel Avital

Sustainable Innovation

Taking an affirmative holistic stance, sustainability can be seen as "a business approach to creating long-term shareholder and stakeholder value by embracing opportunities and risks derived from economic, environmental and social developments" (Dow Jones Sustainability Group). Hence, generating environmental, social, and economic sustainability is not perceived as a burden for businesses, but rather as an innovation challenge, a strong differentiator, and a potential source of competitive advantage [START_REF] Cooperrider | Sustainable Innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Laszlo | Sustainable Value. How the World's Leading Companies Are Doing Well by Doing Good[END_REF]. Sustainable innovation draws on the intrinsic motivation of companies to take responsibility for all stakeholders, future generations, and the environment itself. It stresses the crucial role businesses can play in creating a sustainable world when acting as a source of innovation and creativity to address sustainability-related challenges in a holistic manner. Additionally, sustainable innovation highlights the importance of multistakeholder innovation-e.g., of collective engagements among businesses, governments, educational institutions, and the community-for generating sustainability. In short, the sustainable innovation approach provides a wider and inclusive boundary-spanning outlook on the underlying subject matter (see Table 1).

FINDINGS

In what follows, we briefly explore some general findings regarding sustainable innovation in the automotive industry over the past two decades. Building on our generalized observations regarding the potential benefits of adopting the sustainable innovation approach in the context of information technology, the subsequent section provides insights for both IT research and IT practice. Sustainable innovation holds that companies can take a proactive role in solving sustainability-related challenges only if they look beyond regulation compliance and cost reduction, and subsequently search for opportunities to shape legislation, to create value for the community and all stakeholders, and to rethink and redesign unsustainable products, processes, and entire systems.

The generated findings clearly reflect this proactive and collaborative nature of sustainable innovation in the automotive industry. First, the study shows that the development and successful diffusion of technologies is highly dependent on a sequence of contingencies including technical, economic, regulatory, social, and environmental junctures. Second, the successful diffusion of new technological innovation depends on how well a company links the innovation to the expectations and demands in the broader social environment. Hence, sustainable innovation could succeed only when important players in the automotive industry were able to understand and rethink the unsustainable nature of existing processes and systems and to proactively search for sustainable alternatives that appeal to their respective markets.

For example, the great success of hybrid vehicles, in particular Toyota's Prius, and at the same time, the failure of electric and fuel cell vehicles have not been solely based on technological considerations or performance, but also on social circumstances. The successful hybrid technology, did not require a significant disruption of existing technologies, norms, and standards, rather was it designed to use the existing technology base, such as refueling infrastructure, functional requirements, and institutional frameworks, that was already in place for traditional cars. In contrast, electric and fuel cell cars, entailed a radical discontinuity from the internal combustion engine, and called for fundamental reframing of preferences and expectations, values and norms, standards and regulations. Although electric vehicles and fuel cell cars can create environmental value and social value simultaneously, the diffusion of such sustainable alternatives has been impossible without the proper multiple complementary social and institutional measures. Therefore, sustainable innovation requires the concerted efforts of all stakeholders to change related norms, formulate new standards, alter prevailing preferences, and reshape dominant practices for opening up paths to sustainable innovation.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Sustainable innovation requires a broad and inclusive view of the underlying issues with a long-range perspective that is rooted in historical depth. Just as management is an instance of governance, green IT can be seen as an instance of sustainable innovation. In spite of the limitations to generalizing from a different industry, we propose the sustainable innovation approach as an extension of the current Green IT/IS frameworks. Sustainable innovation redirects our efforts to the creation of sustainable environmental, social, and economic value, and does not limit our actions to environmental concerns. Moreover, it offers an augmented perspective by focusing on creating positive solutions to environmental and social challenges through multistakeholder collaboration rather than on reducing and managing the IT footprint.

In what follows, we apply the accumulated insights regarding sustainable innovation in the car industry to information technology, and discuss how it can shed light on the challenges and opportunities ahead.

Implications and Recommendations for IT Research

Sustainable innovation, as introduced in this paper, can serve as a rhetorical device that can extend the Green IT/IS discourse far beyond ecological considerations. Adopting the sustainable innovation lens would provide researchers with the leverage necessary to elevate their research beyond environmental sustainability into a wider context relating to innovation and society; for instance, by studying how companies, through their IT innovation efforts, can contribute to sustainability, diversity, human rights, employee relations, safe and clean products, as well as good governance structures. Furthermore, by relying on sustainable innovation, researchers can look for ways in which contemporary social and global challenges can be turned into business opportunities and how innovation can be used for generating a sustainable world. This implies not only adopting a broader perspective on sustainability-by incorporating its three pillars-but also a wider approach to innovation-by acknowledging the need for collaborative engagements between businesses and society.

Implications and Recommendations for IT Practice

Our observations can also provide insights into the practice of sustainable use and application of IT, which seems to leave much room for improvement according to watchdog groups who monitor the situation. For instance, Greenpeace's 2009 Guide to Greener Electronics indicates that only a few companies in the IT industry have made an effort to become greener and that most companies perform unsatisfactorily2 . Overall, new information technologies and systems will be able to generate more environmental and social value for stakeholders only if the current efforts that focus on incremental and reactive innovation programs (such as the reduction of energy consumption and waste disposal) will be reinforced with more radical technological innovations that reshape current practices and reconfigure existing work systems.

Moreover, our findings show that creating sustainable information technology is likely to require multi-stakeholder involvement. The IT industry, let alone a single organization, is unlikely to drive successfully a significant change or manage the sustainable challenge single-handedly, using the leverage of technological innovation. Instead, leading companies and the IT industry as a whole should seek involvement of the public, interest groups, universities, non-profit organizations, and government agencies.

Finally, our results indicate that merely responding to social and economic factors that trigger needs for more sustainable technologies is unlikely to be sufficient for reshaping the extraordinary potential of information technology in creating significant sustainable value. Rather, applying the sustainable innovation approach, companies need to adopt a leading role in shaping radical new technologies that provide environmental, social and economic value for all stakeholders involved and in reshaping the respective societal and institutional frameworks.

The abbreviated term "Green IT/IS" throughout this paper denotes Green IT and Green IS. It does not imply that Green IT and Green IS are similar or interchangeable. Rather, we view Green IT and Green IS as two unique approaches and relate them separately as well as jointly to sustainable innovation.

http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/toxics/electronics/how-the-companiesline-up

AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

Wietske VAN OSCH is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Amsterdam, department of Information Management. She has a Master degree (MPhil) in Organization Science (2008) from the VU University. She is also lecturing Organization and Management at the University of Amsterdam. Her research interests are generativity, online communities, social network sites, and sustainable IT. For further information, please contact by email, W.vanOsch@uva.nl.

Michel AVITAL is Associate Professor of Information Management at University of Amsterdam. The study of how information technology promotes innovation and extraordinary outcomes is a central theme of Michel's work. He has published articles on topics such as generative systems design, creativity, innovation, collaboration and competition, green IT and sustainable value. He is an editorial board member of seven leading IS journals and serves in various organizing capacities in ICIS, AOM, ECIS, and other topical conferences. Further information at http://avital.net