Don Passey
email: d.passey@lancaster.ac.uk

Gavin Hawkins
email: ghawkins@cloudw.co.uk

Darren Clift
email: dclift@cloudw.co.uk

Fathers and Male Guardians Are Important Stakeholders in Children's Education: Do Lego Building and Scratch-like Programming Activities Hold a Key to Involving Them More?

Keywords: Fathers/male guardians, learning with children, collaborative activities, intergenerational learning, primary school development

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

This paper explores the role of activities that support learning, where parents and guardians can work with their children through collaborative endeavour using technologies. Technology can play an important part in such activities; it can provide a medium where children and their parents and guardians can work together, where they can share how they are working as well as working collaboratively on the outcomes of their working. This paper focuses on collaborative endeavours using technologies at primary school level (where children are between 5 and 11 years of age). In this school sector, it is recognised in a number of countries that parents associate with their children's schools often; but mothers and female guardians are more frequently seen by schools coming in to work with their children, talking to their children immediately after school, and coming into school to discuss their progress. In a study in the United States (US), for example, Rimm-Kaufmann and Zang [START_REF] Rimm-Kaufmann | Father-school communication in preschool and kindergarten[END_REF] found that in a sample of parents and guardians from a low-income population, about half of the fathers or male guardians had no contact with the teachers of their children in nursery schools, and only one in ten fathers or male guardians communicated with their child's infant school.

In this paper, we look at a project that has been run in three primary schools in a local authority in England; the project has sought to bring fathers and male guardians into school to work with their children, using technologies as a medium through which shared and collaborative learning can occur. In the project described, a case study has been used to look at activities in two different sites, and identifies outcomes arising. The findings indicate that this form of activity should be considered for wider practice, both to support the current curriculum that is stipulated in England, but also to potentially support engagement and learning between fathers and male guardians and their children more widely internationally.

Roles of Parents and Guardians (Particularly Males) in Children's Learning

Parents and guardians contribute to their children's learning, as recognised and measured in a number of past research studies. For example, as Bransford, Brown and Cocking [START_REF]How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School[END_REF] stated in their wide review of school-based learning and effective learning practices in the US: "Parents are especially good at helping their children make connections" (p.153). The authors suggested that parents and guardians are not only in a position to support their children, but may have important insights and personal knowledge that allow their children to see how to make learning connections, with other contexts and other ideas and knowledge. Desforges and Abouchaar [START_REF] Desforges | The impact of parental involvement, parental support and family education on pupil achievement and adjustment: A literature review[END_REF], from their review of research findings in this field stated that: "parental involvement in the form of 'at-home good parenting' has a significant positive effect on children's achievement" (p.4). They concluded that: "In the primary age range the impact caused by different levels of parental involvement is much bigger than differences associated with variations in the quality of schools" (pp. [START_REF] Harris | Engaging Parents in Raising Achievement: Do Parents Know They Matter? Research Report DCSF-RW004[END_REF][START_REF] Mcfarlane | Learners, learning and new technologies[END_REF]. In a later review of research on this topic, Harris and Goodall stated [START_REF] Harris | Engaging Parents in Raising Achievement: Do Parents Know They Matter? Research Report DCSF-RW004[END_REF] that:

"Parental engagement is a powerful lever for raising achievement in schools. Where parents and teachers work together to improve learning, the gains in achievement are significant. Parents have the greatest influence on the achievement of young people through supporting their learning in the home rather than supporting activities in the school. It is their support of learning within the home environment that makes the maximum difference to achievement." (p.5)

These authors pointed to the need for forms of interactions between parents and children's learning to be as direct as possible if impact is to arise. In this context, in enabling direct interaction, technologies have a clear and already recognised part to play. But educational engagement of children that will affect their resultant outcomes must go beyond merely having access to technologies, or selecting resources, or using resources that are designed in particular ways, or depending on teachers choosing pedagogies to match learning approaches (as argued and discussed in McFarlane [START_REF] Mcfarlane | Learners, learning and new technologies[END_REF], for example). Key influences that bring about wider engagement and enhanced outcomes are socially driven -for example, parents encouraging children by taking note of their work and positively praising them, being present in environments where children's work is seen to be valued, asking questions about their work, or discussing with other children who take interest in their work and take pleasure in their findings (as discussed in government policy documents in England by the independent inspection service Ofsted [START_REF]Office for Standards in Education: Family learning: a survey of current practice[END_REF], and by the government education department DfES [START_REF]Her Majesty's Government Green Paper: Every Child Matters[END_REF]). In terms of supporting engagement that is educationally effective, parents and guardians can interact socially, while technologies support these social drivers through specific affordances that link and enhance these interactions. In the United Kingdom (UK), the potential for technologies to enhance home-based activities for learners and their parents and guardians has been highlighted by research over a number of years. Early studies explored the potential of the Internet and networking infrastructure, initially linking homes and schools, then using mobile technologies to allow interactions and resources to move via mobile technologies (laptops and palmtops) between schools and homes (described in Passey et al. [START_REF] Passey | Superhighways Evaluation -Group D -Home-School Links: Final Report[END_REF][START_REF] Passey | Summary: Group D -Home-School Links[END_REF]; Kirkwood [START_REF] Kirkwood | Learning at home with information and communication technologies[END_REF]; Passey [START_REF] Passey | Developing Home-School ICT uses: Challenging values and thinking[END_REF][START_REF] Passey | Developing home-school links: Implications for learners, learning, and learning support[END_REF][START_REF] Passey | Developing Teaching Strategies for Distance (Out-of-School) Learning in Primary and Secondary Schools[END_REF]).

In terms of measuring the impact of home-based engagement on children's learning, Somekh et al. [START_REF] Somekh | Evaluation of the ICT Test Bed project Final Report[END_REF] explored differences in national test results in 28 schools in England, all supported with high levels of information and communication technologies (ICT), over a 4-year period, comparing them to a group and to national test averages. The researchers reported that while the Test Bed primary schools "were performing less well than matched comparator schools on a range of key performance measures: Key Stage 2 [age 7 to 11 years] English, mathematics, science and the APS [average points score] per institution" (p.8), that by the end of the project, the shift over the 4-year period from 2002 to 2006 was, for mathematics, 64% to 75% compared to 74% to 73% for the comparator schools.

Watson and Watson [START_REF] Watson | The Role of Technology and Computer-Based Instruction in a Disadvantaged Alternative School's Culture of Learning[END_REF], in 2011, reported that technologically-based resources can afford choice and self-pacing for learners, indicating that resources can provide opportunities for children to work in locations remote from classrooms and schools. However, the role of parenting itself is clear from the results of other studies. Kiernan and Mensah [START_REF] Kiernan | Poverty, family resources and children's early educational attainment: the mediating role of parenting[END_REF] studied 5,462 children, who were assessed at age 5 years, and with mothers interviewed at periodic intervals. They found that: "children from poor families and those with lower levels of family resources who experienced more positive parenting were more likely to do well in school" (pp.327-328). Using technologies to support engagement with children's learning needs, therefore, to support and work with effective practices of parent and guardian engagement as well as offering activities that can provide learning support.

Existing research evidence indicates that enhancing parental and guardian engagement in learning practices can enable children to gain from parents' and guardians' interests. They can see and use role models of their parents' and guardians' practices, enabling children to more positively develop their own longer-term practices. As a Big Lottery Fund report [START_REF]Big Lottery Fund: Building the future of learning: A guide to sustaining out of hours learning[END_REF] on out-of-school-hours learning states with regard to community-linked projects, these: "can help young people to develop their skills, and increase parental involvement" (p.46). But, as Byron [START_REF]Schools and Families: Safer Children in a Digital World: The Report of the Byron Review[END_REF] and Plowman, McPake and Stephen [START_REF] Plowman | Just picking it up? Young children learning with technology at home[END_REF]) have pointed out, there is a need to consider the developing social needs and shifting social relationships of young people over time. How technologies support parental engagement and interactions for home and out-ofhours learning contexts of 5 year old children and of 12 year old children should consider their potentially different stages of social development and social relationships with parents and guardians.

In terms of fathers and male guardians, rather than parents and guardians as a whole, Cullen, Cullen, Band, Davis and Lindsay [START_REF] Cullen | Supporting fathers to engage with their children's learning and education: an under-developed aspect of the Parent Support Adviser pilot[END_REF], in a study investigating Parent Support Advisor (PSA) pilots in 15 local authorities (LAs) in England indicated limited involvement with fathers in support of their children's learning and learning engagement in homes (as well as limitations in terms of planning for such involvement). Previous studies have shown that father and male guardian interest, high but reasonable expectations of their children, and direct involvement with their children's learning, are all associated with higher levels of test results, better progress in school and more positive attitudes towards future education (see Goldman [START_REF] Goldman | Fathers' Involvement in their Children's Education. National Family and Parenting Institute[END_REF]). The ways that fathers and male guardians can influence their children's learning (and how in some studies this can affect boys rather than girls, and vice versa) is discussed in greater depth in a review by the Fatherhood Institute [START_REF]The Fatherhood Institute: Fathers' impact on their children's learning and achievement[END_REF]. However, other studies have pointed to the fact that low levels of father and male guardian involvement (especially during school time) may be linked to working practices, if fathers and male guardians have commitments at those certain times of the day (Peters, Seeds, Goldstein and Coleman [START_REF] Peters | Parental Involvement in Children's Education[END_REF]).

The Lego Build and Scratch-Like Programming Project

While Furlong and Davies [START_REF] Furlong | Young people, new technologies and learning at home: taking context seriously[END_REF] analysed the different ways that parents and guardians could work with their children, this activity has taken a project-based approach within the school setting. Project-based activities have been deployed in primary schools to support interactions between parents and guardians and their children, although the range of these activities that involve uses of technologies, as shown by a recent review [START_REF] Passey | Inclusive technology enhanced learning: Overcoming Cognitive, Physical, Emotional and Geographic Challenges[END_REF], is much more limited than are the levels of many other forms of resources accessible to learners. The project that is the focus of the research reported in this paper was developed and run by Wolverhampton City Council in 2015 and 2016. Run in a number of schools, the project lasts for 3 to 5 weeks, with each weekly session being some one-and-a-half to two hours in length. The schools identified already had an interest in parental engagement and had previously undertaken programmes focused on improving parental understanding and involvement in basic skills (phonetic understanding, reading with their children, calculation processes, etc.). The senior leadership teams, within the schools concerned, saw the potential to extend existing programmes to include elements of computer science and also offer 21 st century skills to parents and guardians.

The schools are within economically deprived areas of the city, with high levels of unemployment, low levels of adult academic achievement and high mobility (including an above average intake from 'New Arrivals' and families with 'English as an Additional Language'). A significant driver for the schools concerned was to ensure that the programme could be accessed by families newly arrived in England and in turn increase access to the school and to educational skills for those families.

In one school (School A), four weekly sessions each 2 hours in length, involved fathers and male guardians with their children:

• Building a robot in week 1. Lego Technics (Mindstorms) was used for building the robot, as no explanation was needed for children when they started to use this technology. • Programming the robot in week 2. Scratch-like programs were used for the programming. • Creating a course and programming the robot to navigate it in week 3.

• Racing their robots on a track, observed by other children and teachers in the school, with time to discuss what they had done in week 4.

In another school (School B), the project ran over 3 weeks, each session being one-and-three-quarter hours in length. The focus and the expected outcomes of each of these sessions are shown in Table 1. The technologies involved in the project were LEGO Education Mindstorms EV3 and the associated LEGO Education app. The EV3 equipment allows for a programmable module to be built into a range of models designed to undertake specific tasks. It was decided to use LEGO products as the assembly techniques of LEGO are relatively simple and the equipment is designed to involve two people within the build and programming processes. Furthermore, full instructions are provided by LEGO Education which encourage discussion problem-solving during both the build and programming stages of the activity.

The Learning Technologies Team provided both the equipment and the iPads needed to undertake the tasks and were very much seen as facilitators during the project; helping with the build process and also offering initial and ongoing support during the programming process, although due to the nature of the icon-driven app, very little initial training was required.

Two new projects are planned to be delivered during the late spring and early summer of 2016, with a slightly amended model, designed to extend further some of the skills associated with three-dimensional (3D) design and printing. The project content and expected outcomes are shown in Table 2.

3D Printing -Makerbots

Using the activity from last week, the designs will be 3D printed in order that the children can take them home. Designs will need to be evaluated in order that they can be printed, e.g. all points must meet, no free-standing parts, etc.

The 3D printers will accurately print the model as designed so each pair will need to spend time discussing the integrity of their model to ensure that the printer can build up the model in layers:

• Visualisation skills • Problem solving • Editing and correcting issues as they arise during the process • Personal resilience

Methodological Approaches and Methods

The research adopted a case study approach. As Yin [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research: Design and Methods[END_REF] says, "case studies are the preferred method when (a) "how" or "why" questions are being posed, (b) the investigator has little control over events, and (c) the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context" (p.2). This was exactly the situation the researchers confronted: they wanted to know how this project might be working and why it might be successful or adopted elsewhere; they did not want to intervene within the project activities as it was felt that these should be directed by the children working with their parent or guardian; and the project was contemporary in nature within a real-life school activity context.

The research questions that were identified at the outset were:

• How is this project working for children and their parents or guardians?

• What factors might suggest it could be adopted successfully elsewhere?

• How did children work with their parents or guardians?

• How did the activity fit within a school-based context?

Within this case study, three sites were involved, but the methods deployed to gather evidence in each case were similar. Evidence was gathered through:

• Documentary records of the project run in each case.

• Reflections by project staff involved in each case.

• Discussions with teachers, parents and guardians and children in each case.

• Observations in one case.

• Video reflections from both parents and children.

In School A, four fathers and male guardians were involved in the four-week activity; in three cases, the fathers and male guardians worked with their sons, and in one case with a daughter. The four fathers and guardians came from different cultural and employment backgrounds. One father was from the Middle East with an engineering background, and three fathers and guardians were from the local area (with White British cultural backgrounds). The children were of different ages; the son of the Middle Eastern father was 7 years of age, while the other children were 10 years of age.

The staff running the project, reflecting on the outcomes from across the four weeks, reported that in week 1, fathers and male guardians tended to lead on the build activity, discussing this with their children. In week 2, however, children tended to lead on the programming, while in week 3 both parties tended to be involved equally. Discussion generally between children and their fathers or guardians was found to be on task throughout these sessions.

Observation of the activity in week 4 showed that fathers and male guardians and children were working positively together. Early in the session, fathers and male guardians marked out the track that would be used for the race. The children tended to start on the programming, taking particular care with the programming needed to move the robots forward particular distances and to move them in different directions -using estimations from their previous trial experiences, both in terms of distance of travel and of angles of change of direction, using trial and error to amend and revise these details in other cases, and adjusting their robots until their movements were matched to their requirements. The ways in which the children and parents or guardians worked together differed in some respects. In one case, the father/guardian looked at instructions for the programming, while the child did the programming. In another case, the father/guardian did the programming, and in this latter case, the child had showed the father/guardian how to do the programming the previous week. He stated that he had had no previous experience with programming until he encountered it in this project; additionally, he indicated that he enjoyed the opportunity to engage with this form of activity, however.

Discussions with the fathers and male guardians highlighted how the form of the activity had engaged them positively in working with their children and in coming into the school. One father described how he remembered using Big Track in the past, when he was at school. He remembered that buttons needed to be pushed a number of times to direct a robot to move it forward a certain distance. He indicated how he had used this past experience in the current context, and how he had started to apply his experience to the programming he had undertaken the previous week. Other fathers also indicated how their previous experiences and interests had affected their engagement with this project. One parent said that he enjoyed activities that involved building, so had come along as his son also enjoyed this form of activity. Another father indicated how he had a long history of building, using Meccano and Lego. He said that this, coupled with a personal invitation from a teacher, had influenced his decision to come along. Another father indicated how he felt the activity would enable him to spend time working together with his child. Evidence from these fathers and male guardians indicated that these parents were more willing to participate in these school activities, and they referred to the project as a catalyst.

Since this initial project was completed, two further cohorts of parents and children in this school requested to be involved and they formed cohorts for revised projects (outlined in Table 2 above). The school also identified funding to establish a LEGO Innovation Centre, which will be used both within curriculum time to support lesson-based activities, but will also be available for 'family learning' and extracurricular activities. An additional by-product will be the availability for use of the Centre for staff professional development (within the school and more widely, subregionally).

In a second school, School B, five children were involved; three fathers and male guardians worked with their children (one girl and two boys), while two mothers and female guardians worked with their children (one boy and one girl). As in the case of School A, teachers had specifically targeted these parents and guardians, as they were seen less in the school than other parents and guardians.

In this school, the project staff observed a high level of engagement of both parents and guardians and children. Again, children and their parents or guardians tended to work collaboratively by using their respective strengths and previous experiences. Overall, it was recognised that those who were strong builders were not the strong programmers. Interestingly, the strong builders tended to be the parents and guardians, while the strong programmers tended to be the children. Clearly this pairing provided an ideal grouping for shared and collaborative endeavour. It was also reported that in this school (School B) the pairs had managed to get further with the programming, while children were less successful and less quick in School A. It was felt that part of the reason for this might have been due to changing to use of iPads in School B, allowing Bluetooth connectivity to be used to support more rapid testing of the effects of revised programming. With Bluetooth, the effects of programming could be seen more quickly. Trial and error, therefore, could be used more effectively, with less time happening between each successive trial.

Since the project, the school (School B) has gained from increased involvement from the parents and guardians. This is explained by school staff, both in terms of increased confidence when talking with staff in school, and in terms of greater comfort arising from their beliefs that the school values their involvement in their children's education. In addition, the school has seen the benefit of 'family learning' activities and is planning further projects and sourcing funding to develop a Family Learning Centre with associated resources and staffing.

Discussion

This project meets some the requirements of the current national curriculum for computing in England [START_REF]DFE: Statutory guidance -National curriculum in England: computing programmes of study[END_REF]. Indeed, the role of computing in developing creativity and problem-solving skills is not only highlighted as needs within that national curriculum, but is also highlighted by Lego as outcomes that can arise when children use these technologies [START_REF] Gauntlett | The Future of Learning[END_REF].

However, this project goes beyond meeting the needs of a national curriculum, or even the needs for supporting the development of creativity and problem solving. It does this by adding an important social dimension -enabling fathers and guardians to work with their children in ways that both parties are contributing to a collaborative endeavour. It is not necessarily possible for the children or their fathers and guardians to know exactly which elements they contributed to the final solution; but they can be proud of the fact that they have both contributed, perhaps children more on the programming side and fathers and guardians more on the build side.

From a school point of view, parents and guardians they see less in the school are encouraged through this activity to attend, and to work with their children. This builds their relationships and options for further participation.

An essential bi-product of the project has been the recognition of the importance of educational skills beyond those traditionally associated with parents and children working together (reading, learning spelling-lists, phonic practice, traditional homework activities, etc.). This is important as it heightens the awareness of the 'softer skills' of problem-solving, collaboration and discussion, rather than just the completion of a task set by the child's teacher. It follows, therefore, that parents and children increasingly see the value of such skills and are more often able to apply them to their more traditional homework activities.

Clearly, there is a requirement for schools to make an initial investment in equipment and staff training; however, it is clear that the initial financial investment can reap significant returns, both from an engagement perspective but also from an increase in attainment within the computing curriculum. Clearly, additional research will need to focus on broader attainment measures.

Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations

In terms of the research questions highlighted at the outset:

• How is this project working for children and their parents or guardians? Evidence indicates that this was a successful project: children worked positively and were engaged with their parents or guardians; they discussed and worked together to develop a collaborative outcome; they all achieved success in building and programming; they developed skills that met the needs of the national curriculum; and they developed practices that they could adopt elsewhere, including at home. • What factors might suggest it could be adopted successfully elsewhere? The children and parents and guardians in these schools came from what can be considered to be 'ordinary' backgrounds. If this activity works in this context, then it may well work in other contexts. Parents and guardians who were targeted did come into school, they worked with their children, sharing their skills and understanding, and contributed positively to the outcomes. • How did children work with their parents or guardians? Children worked positively and were engaged with their parents or guardians; they discussed and worked together to develop a collaborative outcome; they contributed particularly in terms of programming; they developed skills in this respect that met the needs of the national curriculum; and they used creative and problem-solving skills to address challenges that they met. • How did the activity fit within a school-based context? In terms of the school-based context, this project worked positively. Parents and guardians were encouraged to come into school, and the school could look to develop participation with these parents and guardians beyond this activity.

There are clear implications:

• Schools need to recruit cohorts and could, in some circumstances, target particular ethnic groups, age groups, socio-economic groups, etc. • Schools need to invest in both equipment and staff time (or use a local support team with sufficient resources to deliver the projects -as in the case of the Learning Technologies Team in Wolverhampton).

Recommendations for policy, practice and research are:

• For policy, evidence of the impact of parental engagement on children's learning is clearly argued; therefore, funding should be made available for schools to initiate such schemes. • Greater importance should be placed on the 'softer skills' of collaboration, problem-solving and resilience within curricular contexts. • There should be formal accreditation for both children and parents who complete such projects and also for schools who are willing to commit to a culture of family learning. • For practice, there should be greater opportunities for parents to become involved in their children's learning within the school day, for example, with mathematics, reading, science days or lessons, where parents are encouraged to work alongside their children. Too often parents only attend school during curriculum time for celebration events rather than to be involved in the processes leading to that celebration. • Programmes focusing on skills deemed to be essential for employment within shortage areas within localities, for example, engineering and computing skills, should be developed further. • For research, there should be opportunities for a wider research agenda to investigate regional variations, for example, across the UK and Europe, focusing more specifically on attainment outcomes. • Opportunities focusing on the contribution of softer skills to academic outcomes. • Future employment opportunities for parents undertaking this form of project and other family learning experiences. • The impact of LEGO Educational and Scratch-like activities within a national curriculum context.

Table 1 .

 1 Project content and expected outcomes in School B.

	Week Content				Expected outcomes
	1	Introductions				Parents/guardians and children work
		Initial outline of the project Children and parents/guardians work on	together to build the initial robot • Following instructions
		the initial build of the basic robot • Build guides are provided • Photograph the process at each stage • Staff to provide support and advice	• Solving any problems or issues • Talking and evaluating their models • Recording of the process
	2	Programming				This session will involve lots of trial
		Using the model built last week, begin to	and error as each pairing develop
		experiment	with	the	programming	instructions intended to control their
		application				robot
		Key commands should be		Particular outcomes should be
		• Directions • Distances			• Fewest commands • Shortest routes
		• Loop statements			• Algorithms which loop
		• Develop single commands into	• Saved sequences
		algorithms			Each pair will be encouraged to film
						their robot's final program
	3	'Top Gear Pointless Challenge'	Apply previous learning in order to
		A series of challenges will be set up in order to program and control the model	solve a range of challenges • Problem solving skills
		around a specific course		• Speaking and listening skills
		Navigating around the course will require	• Accurate computer programming
		accurate algorithms and 'points' will be	and measuring of time, distance
		awarded and deducted for speed and	and speed
		accuracy

Table 2 .

 2 Project content and expected outcomes in extension project.

	Session Content	Expected Outcomes
	1	Robotics	Parents and children work together to build
		Introductions	the initial robot
		Initial outline of project Children and parents work on the	Following instructions: • Solving any problems or issues
		initial build of the basic robot: • Build guides are provided • Photographing the process	• Talking about and evaluating their models • Recording of the process
		at each stage • Staff to provide support and
		advice
	2	Robotics -Programming	This session will involve lots of trial and error
		Using the model built last week,	as each pairing develops instructions intended
		begin to experiment with the	to control their robot. Particular outcomes
		programming application. Key commands should be: • Directions • Distances • Loop statements • Develop single commands	should be: • Fewest commands • Shortest routes • Algorithms which loop • Saved sequences Each pair will be encouraged to film their
		into algorithms	robot's final program
	3	Robotics -"Top Gear Pointless	Apply previous learning in order to solve a
		Challenge" A series of challenges will be set	range of challenges: • Problem solving skills
		up in order to programme and control the model around a specific	• Speaking and listening skills • Accurate computer programming and
		course. Navigating around the	measuring of time, distance and speed
		course will require accurate
		algorithms and "points" will be
		awarded and deducted for speed
		and accuracy

Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank: the children, parents and staff of Eastfield and Bantock Primary Schools for their enthusiasm and willingness to be involved; LEGO Education UK for providing advice, support and additional resources; and Wolverhampton City Council's East Park Action Group for funding the project reported here and for providing administrative support.


Eleanor Overland
email: e.overland@mmu.ac.uk

Using Images as a Stimulus to Explore the Identity of Student Teachers in Computing

Keywords: Computing education, ICT education, student teachers, identity

The computing curriculum in English secondary education is now officially in its second year of implementation. A new, specialist group of student teachers are being trained to be able to deliver the new, rigorous computing curriculum. In this emerging curriculum area, it is essential teachers explore their own identity, beliefs and values in order to deliver effectively and ensure enjoyment for both themselves and the pupils they teach. In this study, the student teachers engage with images and place them in a hierarchy to stimulate honest discussion and exploration of computing teacher identity. Whilst the student teachers resonate with approaches in the classroom, such as group work, engagement with the computing curriculum topics themselves are limited and show an area which may require more attention and challenge in the computing teacher training programme.

Introduction

The National Curriculum in England has undergone a significant shift; from September 2014 ICT education was withdrawn and replaced with computing [START_REF]National Curriculum from September 2014[END_REF]. As a result, Initial Teacher Education (ITE) courses have been updated to reflect the requirement for new, specialist teachers to enter the profession. Secondary trainee teachers in England now follow courses in 'Computing' or 'Computing with [Information and Communication Technologies] ICT'. The courses attract a range of graduate applicants, some direct from computing-related degree courses and others from industry and computer-related employment. For some applicants their computing subject knowledge is broad and in sufficient depth to teach to the highest levels, others may have more specialist backgrounds and so need to follow a computing subject knowledge enhancement course prior to teacher training. The opportunity to teach the 'new' subject attracted 878 students in England between 2013 and 2015 [START_REF]Initial teacher training: trainee number census -2014 to 2015[END_REF]. The availability of bursaries to support career change and the availability of subject knowledge enhancement courses has brought in a wide range of students, differing in age, background and expectations. Added to the eclectic mix of students are a range of school-based mentors, many of whom are not computing specialists themselves but may have been teaching an ICTbased curriculum for considerable time. Those that are computing specialists may have found themselves teaching mathematics or more science-based subjects so the opportunity to engage with their specialism is also a new experience. Although a rapidly developing area, finding trainee teachers an experienced school-based mentor who is a computing specialist is a challenge.

The context of change and curriculum reform adds an additional layer of complexity for trainee computing teachers. Developing an identity as a teacher, whilst a changeable and evolving process, is crucial as part of any ITE where students are given the opportunity to explore their values and beliefs, how they are learning and the context in which they will work; a process of becoming [START_REF] Britzman | Practice makes Practice. A critical study of learning to teach[END_REF]. The computing trainees may well receive mixed messages from mentors, university tutors, the media and pupils themselves. All those involved in the curriculum change will also be identifying their own role and position within it so therefore, whilst thinking primarily of their own position, the trainees are also subject to mixed rhetoric from those around them. Exploring identity within this context is therefore more crucial yet more challenging than for many other subject areas at this time.

Exploring Identity

The Importance of Identity Construction

Studies have found supporting teachers in the exploration of their identity has allowed teachers to 'grow in service to students', develop better teaching, renew practice and ultimately enjoy the role [START_REF] Luehamnn | Identity Development as a Lens to Science Teacher Preparation[END_REF][START_REF] Livsey | The courage to teach: A guide to reflection and renewal Jossey-Bass[END_REF]. Leuhmann prioritised 'recognition work' with student science teachers in order to provide opportunities for the student teachers to explore their identity through personal reflection and exploratory processes such as keeping journals and engaging in discussion. The methods of exploring teacher identity vary in nature but are similar in aim, in order to identify external influences (including prior experience and own education), professional factors, personal factors and uncovering a set of values, beliefs and goals held by the teacher [START_REF] Ni | Who AM I? Understanding High School Computer Science Teachers' Professional Identity[END_REF].

Ni and Guzdial [START_REF] Ni | Who AM I? Understanding High School Computer Science Teachers' Professional Identity[END_REF] carried out a study exclusively with teachers of computer science in the United States of America (USA). They found varied identities, with particular differences in motivation and confidence with the subject of computer science. Respondents in the survey very much attached themselves to labels such as programming, computer science and the complexities of the subject. With the current government rhetoric in England there is a danger of current student teachers in computing finding themselves attached to the lexicon rather than the underlying values and priorities they have as computing teachers. There is a drive for computing to portray itself as having far more academic rigour and challenge than its predecessor, ICT, and current student teachers are very much part of this emerging landscape [START_REF]Shut Down or Retstart? The way forward for computing in UK Schools[END_REF].

Assessment practices are also developing. The national qualifications in England taken by school pupils at age 16 years now require 80% of assessment to be completed through written examinations. This results in very little of the two-year course being practical requiring 'project based' computing solutions. For student teachers this may be at odds with their own experience in industry before training to be teachers or in their own personal experience of being engaged in the 'maker movement' or 'hackerthon' type events. In these, constructivism is very much favoured with participants 'playing' and exploring to discover new learning [START_REF] Martinez | Invent to Learn: Making, tinkering and engineering in the classroom[END_REF].

Support during the teacher training course and in negotiating a path through the range of conflicting influences, terminology and rhetoric is provided by school-based mentors. School-based mentors help shape the teacher the student becomes through the communication of classroom practice-based values that the student may then receive or reject. At the same time, the students will need to feel valued by their mentors in order to feel self-worth in their development as teachers [START_REF] White | Reflecting Selves: Pre-Service Teacher Identity Development explored through material culture[END_REF]. Where the student teachers may have greater subject knowledge than their mentors this may add complexity to how mentors support the development of student teacher identity. Subject knowledge may become less of a priority for the students or could even lead to them devaluing the beliefs and advice of the mentors and so seek values from alternative sources.

Image as a Provocation

In an attempt to break away from the lexicon of the emerging computing curriculum, a visual approach to exploring identity is being taken. The theoretical frameworks for this study are varied yet interwoven. The study draws on identity theory and on semiology; how is identity portrayed or interpreted? The study also 'borrows' from art theorists. This section outlines the frameworks that are drawn upon in this study but also explores the overlaps within the fields.

Foucault considers a painting of a pipe, which features a blackboard stating 'this is not a pipe' within the image, depicting yet another pipe. The reading of this image by Foucault outlines a number of ambiguities [START_REF] Foucault | This is not a pipe[END_REF]. The discussion extends for some time and raises a number of questions about the painting. What is clearly illustrated is the non-relation, or the very complex relation between the painting and its title. The intention of the artist, Magritte, is to challenge the viewer of the image and focus their attention on the very act of naming. The tension between the naming of the painting and the objects portrayed, resemblance and affirmation, is where the viewers (or 'reader' of the image) are forced to think, to devise meaning and consider their own view. Without the text, the painting would be accepted by most as a representation of a pipe.

The tension that can be created through visual representation and opposing text can also be initiated through contradictory images. In an attempt to move away from lexicon, the same tensions can be developed and so similar commitment from the 'reader' is required. Two images are presented, using the anchorage 'pupils at work'; firstly an image of children sitting in rows, working on paper without evident speech or movement; secondly, a small group of children clearly talking and focussed on a central resource. A choice needs to be made, which one is most representative of 'pupils at work'. For this to happen, as a reader of the images, you would need to draw on your own experiences, your understanding of 'work' and which image most resonates. The comparative process aids the reader, not only to view the image, but consider their own position and so new understanding of it.

There is a concern that this process of comparing and selecting images is simplistic and limited in scope. The images may be isotopic in nature so the comparison becomes superficial, a tangle of words and images with little contradiction to sustain a purposeful discourse [START_REF] Manghani | Images: A Reader[END_REF][START_REF] Barthes | Image Music Text[END_REF]. However, within this process of comparing images, the multiplicity of layers and 'readings' on an image adds further value and legitimacy to the method. Even the most naive of images (produced without intention or message, if this is indeed possible) will convey characteristics of a message; even if not substantial these will be relational in some way to the 'reader' [START_REF] Barthes | Image Music Text[END_REF]. Without applying their own experience and prior understanding to the reading, signs would not be understood and the image would be unintelligible to the reader. Each reading of an image is therefore individual, based on experience and understanding, so in exploring one's own readings of signs, a consideration of one's own experience, beliefs and identity will be required.

Methodology

The study involved 40 trainee computing teachers from two different cohorts between September 2014 and December 2015. The students worked in pairs to discuss, respond and reflect on the process.

Participants were given 18 images and requested to select only 9 to feature in their completed diagram. This first part of the process required the trainee teachers to act as 'readers' of the images. They discussed what each of the images meant to them and agreed half of the images to be discarded. They were instructed to keep the 9 that most resonated with them as teachers of computing. By working in pairs, the students were required to articulate their view of each image and come to a consensus as to which images are given priority.

The images selected for the process were varied in nature and included a selection of photographs from classroom situations, topics delivered within ICT or computing classrooms, and pupil work. Each image was numbered for purposes of analysis but these were allocated randomly. The students were given the images as a shuffled pile of cards. The students were given no further information on what the images depicted, although they were much larger than the examples presented below. Students were asked to annotate, wherever appropriate, to provide an insight into their reading or positioning of the image. A copy of all images is available online [13]. Depicting pupil activity within learning settings (Figure 1):

• Image 4 is a view of a typical examination setting. All English national computing qualifications will require 80% assessment through a written examination. • Image 9 is a pupil connecting a MakeyMakey with Scratch running on screen.

Depicting pupil work in computing or ICT lessons:

• Image 2 shows a hand-drawn flow chart.

• Image 6 shows a pupil working on a tablet, here using the Beebot application. • Image 3 shows two pieces of hardware along with moveable printed labels.

• Image 10 is a hand-drawn poster depicting 'Internet Safety Girl'.

Following the discussion and selection of an agreed 9 images, the students were given a 'Diamond 9' shape as shown in Figure 2. They were requested to place their images within the hierarchical structure, the most important being at the top of the diamond and the least at the base. This time, rather than just being 'readers' of images, the students were required to draw on their beliefs, values and classroom practice to prioritise images. This process has been used successfully to develop discussion and identify tacit thoughts of abstract concepts, particularly with school age children [START_REF] Clark | Using diamond ranking as visual cues to engage young people in the research process[END_REF][START_REF] O'kane | The development of participatory techniques: facilitating children's views about decisions which affect them[END_REF].

Results and Findings

Approaches to analysis of the data are three-fold. The first two make use of a basic statistical analysis to identify patterns and trends in the selection and placement of the data. The first looks at the overall usage of each image using a weighted score dependent on the position anywhere within the Diamond (Figure 3). The second simply identifies the images most commonly used in the top 3 rows of the diamond formation (Figure 4). Thirdly the Diamond 9 responses are compared to consider the annotation added by the participants.

Images 5 and 7 are most prevalent in their use within the diamonds. One depicts pupils clearly conversing and working together around a laptop. It is labelled throughout the responses with appropriate 'buzz words' (for example, Figure 5). These are terms that currently feature prominently across much teacher training and development across all curriculum areas. These descriptors include 'peer learning', 'group work', 'interactive learning', 'learning by doing', 'active learning' and 'experimental learning'. Also featuring highly are practical work, pupil-led learning and teacher support. Image 10 also featured strongly throughout many of the diamonds. Interestingly, it is one of the few images that does not depict a computer or some aspect of specific computing subject knowledge. The image portrays a hand-drawn 'super hero girl' who knows how to stay safe online. The annotations (Figure 6) mainly feature an 'e-safety' label, never alluding to a reading of the image other than the safety message.

Fig. 6: Annotated Internet Safety Girl

The trainees are reading this image as the pupil illustrator intended and have held fast to the message. They have identified safeguarding as being one of their top-most priorities as a teacher, the need to protect and even nurture the pupils in their use of the internet. This notion of the caring nature of the role resonates strongly with some of the findings Walkerdine identified from her own exploration of teacher identity [START_REF] Walkerdine | School Girl Fictions[END_REF]. Interestingly, code, assessment and curriculum seldom featured or were placed in low positions on the Diamond. Where they were included the annotation was very basic, often including straightforward terms such as 'programming' and 'coding'. Very few of the wider terms and content featured in the National Curriculum Computing document were included in any of the annotation and images that may have suggested these were placed very low in the hierarchy or not featured. These omissions are the terms most associated with current 'measures' of the English computing education through Ofsted and government-led computing curriculum rhetoric. What was clearly apparent, however, was the rejection of 'ICT' both as a curriculum subject and in the wider context. Only one image displayed use of a mobile device and there is a clear dislike for traditional ICT-type tasks such as the annotated database shown in Figure 7. The student teachers were also asked to note any omissions they felt they were unable to represent from the images with which they were provided. Not all felt the need to take this opportunity; however, some were listed: cross curricular, inclusion, marking, differentiation, behaviour, class discussions and the internet. It is interesting how this list features some of the more challenging aspects of teaching and yet none of the images have been annotated in a way to suggest they have been 'read' as a negative feature of teaching as a profession. This is due to the nature of the study with student teachers being asked to prioritise and look at importance. This suggests the process may lend itself to being used in different ways, for example, specifically addressing curriculum design or teacher challenges.

One of the most revealing aspects of this research process was the participant response. The trainee teachers fully engaged with the process and were fascinated by the outcome, both their own and those of others. Following the task they requested to look at each other's work and discussed and justified their own decision making process. It also allowed university-based teacher educators to have a greater understanding of the student teacher identity and support areas they felt may be worth further discussion and exploration.

By only recording the final annotated diamonds for this study, much rich data was lost. Recording the discussions the trainees were having during the process would have provided additional insight into the process and the actual awakening of teacher identity occurring within the group. With the second cohort the student teachers were asked to volunteer to record their discussions. Only one pair did and after a short while asked if they could stop the recording. They felt their discussions were less honest and free flowing as they were conscious that university staff may listen to what they said. It may be more appropriate for student teachers to develop their own personal reflections following the discussion to contribute towards the understanding of the process. Also revisiting this activity at a later date would add another insight into identity development amongst the student teachers. What is most important is that student teachers have the opportunity to construct and re-construct their identity as part of their teacher training programme [START_REF] Trent | Teacher education as identity construction: insights from action research[END_REF].

Conclusion

A main finding from the Diamond 9s is the lack of priority given to subject specific topics or classroom activity. Student teachers are clearly more engaged in the 'how' of their teaching rather than the 'what'. Maybe this is where student teachers feel they have the most freedom and ability to develop their own practice, whereas the computing curriculum is a given. Conflicts between personal identity and the mandated curriculum can really hamper teacher development, a sense of achievement and so job satisfaction [START_REF] Connelly | Shaping a professional identity; stories of educational practice Teachers[END_REF]. In the new field of computing education in English high schools, it is important any conflicts are explored, particularly to ensure the growing number of specialist teachers are able to contribute their ideas and beliefs to the development of the curriculum and to ensure retention of this new group of teachers. It is essential time is given to this within computing teacher training programmes and student teachers are able to explore where they may have ownership and influence in curriculum development in schools.

What is clear is the images have been a valuable stimulus for discussion. A move to images has ensured the student teachers have been able to have jargon-free, open discussions and really explore the aspects of teaching they most resonate with rather than paying lip service to computing curriculum rhetoric or the assessed requirements of the course. In this study the images have been collected and issued to the students. Expanding the process to encourage student teachers to take their own images, through a photo journal, may encourage them to 'look' at their teaching practice from a different perspective. This way the process would develop to be more personally reflective and explore identity over a period of time.

The process embraced within this paper, whilst at an early stage of development, is already appreciated by student teachers and student teacher educators. The process of engaging with the images has allowed a space for discussion and exploration which may otherwise be missed. It is important, particularly in the developing area of training computing teachers, that identity continues to be explored.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Examples of images from the study Depicting classroom display or on-screen presentation of pupil work from computing and ICT lessons:

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: An example of a completed Diamond 9

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Summary data showing weighted scores for each image based on overall use within the Diamond 9

Fig. 4 :Fig. 5 :

 45 Fig. 4: Summary data showing frequency of images used in the top three positions within the Diamond 9

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Database structure with student annotation


Ana-Paula Correia
email: correia.ana@gmail.com

Alternative Ways of Involving Stakeholders: The Rise of Entrepreneurism in Higher Education and the Case of a Learning Enterprise

Keywords: Entrepreneurism, civic-minded professional, educational technology, stakeholders

The education field has not traditionally stressed entrepreneurship; however, in light of current difficult economic scenarios and shrinking global job markets, a myriad of Educational Technology entrepreneurs is emerging across the world. Edupreneurs are here. They are self-motivated members of an enterprise who can recognize opportunities and take action on complex educational problems while aiming to create social value, financial value, and/or social benefits. Stakeholders hold a critical role when relating with edupreneurs. Stakeholders are the various individuals and groups who are directly invested in and may be affected (positively or negatively) by the entrepreneurial activities. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the rise of entrepreneurism in higher education and explore the case of a learning enterprise that supports the preparation of educational technologists as up-and-coming entrepreneurs. The development of such a learning enterprise is connected to the concept of a civicminded professional who is someone interested in using his or her knowledge and skills for the public good. The learning enterprise enhances its members' civic-minded agency, meaning the group's purposeful and reflective acts that aim to address community members' educational needs. Stakeholders are deeply involved in addressing needs and issues in collaboration with educational technologists.

The Rise of Entrepreneurism in Higher Education

Investments in Education Technology are on the rise with $2 billion deals closed last year in Educational Technology investments, which represents a 55% increase since the previous year [START_REF] Singer | Silicon Valley Turns Its Eye to Education[END_REF]. Money is invested in a diverse group of products and services ranging from classroom-management apps to foreign language for adult learners. But an entrepreneurial mindset goes beyond starting a business, or making money. It is a way of life driven by the continuous impetus of looking at issues from a novel perspective with the intent to create solutions that people actually use. As Kao et al. [2, pp. 41] explain, entrepreneurship meets the central human need to innovate and create. Entrepreneurship consists "of doing something new (creation), and/or something different (innovation) for the purpose of creating wealth for the individual and adding value to the society." Education, in general, and Educational Technology, in particular, have not been traditionally perceived as a proving ground for entrepreneurship initiatives; however, in light of current difficult economic scenario and shrinking global job markets it is imperative to ensure that students are adequately prepared to face the challenges ahead. As Wagner [3, pp. 8] identifies, the gap between "what our best suburban, urban, and rural public schools are teaching and testing versus what all students will need to succeed as learners, workers, and citizens in today's global knowledge economy." Among seven survival skills for the 21st century, Wagner [START_REF] Wagner | The global achievement gap[END_REF] highlights "initiative and entrepreneurialism" as ways to pursue new opportunities, ideas and strategies for improvement. Organizations are looking for highly adaptable employees who can produce creative solutions to complex problems. As social change takes over every dimension of people's lives, schools reveal themselves as too conservative and "lagging behind change" instead of helping students "understanding and living with social change" [4, pp. 151]. As postgraduate programs in Educational Technology renew themselves to face the challenges ahead, they engage in educating the new generation of educational technologist -the edupreneurs.

The Edupreneur

Edupreneurs are "self-motivated learners/members of an enterprise who can recognize opportunities and take action on complex educational problems while aiming to create social value, financial value, and/or social benefits" [5, pp. 115], [START_REF] Kamenetz | DIY U: Edupunks, edupreneurs and the coming transformation of higher education[END_REF].

Globalization and the digital revolution have allowed people to engage in low-risk start-ups. College and university postgraduates are no longer expected to put all their time and effort toward moving up the corporate ladder in a single company during the span of their entire career. Much to the contrary, they are experiencing different career paths in different organizations including, in all likelihood, a company of their own and embodying the true spirit of an edupreneur.

The Stakeholders

What do entrepreneurs do? They establish a network of relationships with their stakeholders. Stakeholders are the various individuals and groups who are directly invested in and may be affected (positively or negatively) by the entrepreneurial activities. This definition embodies Freeman's stakeholder theory and his wider definition of stakeholders that "includes any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the corporation." [7, pp. 41].

In order to be successful, edupreneurs need to establish strong connections to anyone impacted by their work, such as, the people that they serve, their investors, suppliers and employees as well as other organizations and communities. If edupreneurs solve educational complex problems, then they need to engage with the people who are committed to address these problems and/or are impacted by them. The quality of stakeholder involvement results in more equitable and sustainable solutions to educational problems as more voices are heard and taken into consideration in the decision-making process. A high involvement of stakeholders leads to a more efficient management of resources (knowledge, people, money and technology) to solve problems and allows for a better understanding of complex operating environments, including market developments and cultural dynamics. Most importantly, it contributes to the development of trust-based and transparent educational technologist-stakeholder relationship.

As Freeman [START_REF] Freeman | Stakeholder Theory of the Modern Corporation[END_REF] points out the quickest manner to destroy a corporation is to ignore their stakeholders. When corporations operate with the consent of stakeholders and communities they not only display social responsibility but they also better identify opportunities and threats critical for strategic planning. According to Freeman's stakeholder theory, edupreneurs need to: (1) identify the stakeholders, (2) identify the relations they want with them, (3) identify the urgency/timing need for communicating with them, (4) identify their information needs, and (5) identify the best communication channels.

The Case of a Learning Enterprise

The following paragraphs describe a learning enterprise created under the School of Education at Iowa State University in the United States (U.S.) This enterprise supports the preparation of educational technologists as up-and-coming entrepreneurs. Iowa State University is a member of the Association of American Universities and ranked by U.S. News and World Report as one of the top public universities in the nation. Over 36,000 students are enrolled, and served by over 6,200 faculty and staff. The university is located in Ames, Iowa, a progressive community of 60,000, located approximately 30 minutes north of Des Moines, and considered one of the best most livable small cities in the U.S.

Learning Design Solutions Background

The learning enterprise, named Learning Design Solutions, grew out of an advanced instructional design course in which postgraduate students worked on real-world projects with clients from organizations in the community. The focal learning activity of the course was to be part of a multi-team instructional consulting company designed to simulate a small firm that provided professional-level services free of charge. Postgraduate students, taking on the roles of technology consultants, worked with both university clients and organizations within the community (e.g., government agencies, schools, and healthcare providers). However, the demand for instructional design work was greater than could be accommodated by the single advanced instructional design course offered only during a semester each year. In order to meet the needs of the community, the course instructor and a group of postgraduate students envisioned an organization that could provide instructional design services year round.

Learning Design Solutions Purpose and Operations

The primary purpose of Learning Design Solutions is to create a context within which postgraduate students can develop an entrepreneurial mindset and practice managing financial and business aspects of the enterprise. In addition, it hones their consulting skills and applies their instructional design expertise in ways that ultimately improve people's lives and add societal value. The students take responsibility for all roles within the organization, including project management, customer relations, advertising, and dissemination [START_REF] Correia | Creating Curriculum within the context of an Enterprise[END_REF].

Learning Design Solutions members and collaborators weekly review and reflect on their processes and inquire how they can improve their services and make operations more effective. These learning experiences capitalize on students' practical strengths while testing the application of ideas, theories, and models learned in the classroom. These experiences happen in real time with real stakeholders, and the decision-making involved carries real implications. Examples of projects developed are needs analyses, evaluation of training solutions, design and development of e-learning solutions, just to mention a few. The length of the projects is also variable. They can last for 3 to 6 months to 4 to 6 weeks. Stakeholders belong to different communities ranging from the university to organizations outside the state of Iowa.

Learning Design Solutions Business Model

Learning Design Solutions offers educational technology consulting services to internal Iowa State University clients as well as external clients from business and industry, both within and outside of the local community. This organization is defined as a service center under the university structure and categorized as a non-profit organization that operates on a break-even basis. The per hour rate for services is calculated each year based on the anticipated number of projects that will be contracted and the anticipated costs to both keep the organization running and to complete the number of contracted projects anticipated. Any revenue generated is re-invested into the organization by, for example, offering competitive scholarships to postgraduate students in Educational Technology.

This learning enterprise was created in 2009 with start-up funds from the Iowa State University John Pappajohn Entrepreneurial Center, followed by a significant grant from the College of Human Sciences Entrepreneurship Initiative. Learning Design Solutions is a unique enterprise within the university and one of few that are self-sustaining. However, the first client project completed as part of this learning enterprise was a community-driven project with a significant social positive impact. Members in this organization strive to become civic-minded professionals.

Other Similar Learning Enterprises

Other similar learning enterprises have been reported in the U.S. For example, Indiana University at Bloomington has implemented a multitude of educational technology projects with real-world applications developed by the Instructional Systems Technology department. Along the same lines, David Merrill's team at Utah State University has been working on educational materials targeting entrepreneurial education [e.g., 8]. Similar enterprises have also been identified across the U.S., mainly among students in business and management [e.g., 9] at Valdosta State University. Utah State University has started up a somewhat similar enterprise to Learning Design Solutions. It began as an educational technology consulting firm out of the department of Instructional Technology and Learning Sciences under David Merrill's supervision. It is currently a well-established venture in Logan, Utah, known as Letterpress Software, Inc. (www.lpsoftware.com).

A Civic-Minded Approach

Career-centric approaches to Educational Technology produce technocratic professionals more interested in economic gain than in using their knowledge and skills for the public good [START_REF] Sullivan | Work and integrity: the crisis and promise of professionalism in America[END_REF]. Based on the conceptualization of entrepreneurship presented above [START_REF] Kao | Entrepreneurism: A Philosophy and a Sensible Alternative for the Market Economy[END_REF], one of the main purposes of entrepreneurship is to add value to society, which is the intent of many of creations and innovations in Educational Technology that aim to help people learn better and become responsible and active citizens. The term civicminded agency is defined here as an individual's or group's purposeful and reflective acts that aim at addressing societal needs and issues [START_REF] Sullivan | Work and integrity: the crisis and promise of professionalism in America[END_REF]. In this line of reasoning, a civic-minded educational technologist (1) has the public interest and a sense of civic responsibility at the forefront of his or her work, (2) is attentive, responsible and responsive to the emergent educational needs of the members of the community, and (3) utilizes his or her knowledge and skills in Educational Technology to improve learning and performance of the community members. Civic-minded educational technologists are concerned with the well-being of all members of a society and utilize their knowledge and skills to improve people's lives and bring positive social change. Social change is at the heart of their work and contributing to an equal distribution of social goods (e.g., education and access to technology) is their drive [START_REF] Yusop | On becoming a civic-minded instructional designer: An ethnographic study of an instructional design experience[END_REF]. Therefore, involvement from stakeholders at all the stages of the design and development process is critical.

Final Remarks

The rationale for creating a learning enterprise stemmed from the recognition of an opportunity to serve the many educational needs of the surrounding community. The drive came from the chance to offer postgraduate students different career venues in education and the invaluable opportunity to practice "live" what they were learning in their programs, especially skills and knowledge related to Educational Technology. Additional motivation derived from creating a self-sustaining unit that could provide resources and funds to support students' professional development and research.

Learning Design Solutions can enhance its members' civic-minded agency and relies on a quality stakeholder engagement to address educational needs and issues in collaboration with educational technologists.

Acknowledgments. The author would like to thank Dr. Farrah Dina Yusop for her vision and relentless application of the civic-minded instructional designer framework. She also would like to thank Learning Design Solutions members and collaborators for their work and commitment to entrepreneurship in Educational Technology.


R Robert Gajewski
email: rg@il.pw.edu.pl

IT in Educational Management: Can it Support Solution of e-Cheating Problem?

Keywords: Cheating, plagiarism, collusion, e-learning

The paper tries to answer the question -can IT tools help to solve echeating problem during the course of information technologies and computer sciences. The scale of e-cheating leads to the situation that dishonest students have better grades than honest ones. None of the simple solutions known from the literature helped to solve that problem, so IT tools were used. The first part of the paper gives a critical review of the literature of the subject. In the second one comparative analysis of results of the two surveys is performed. The first one was based on a survey conducted in United States, the second in Australia. This analysis shows that there are very big cultural differences in students' attitude to cheating in different countries. The third part presents two software solutions of e-cheating problem investigated during research -monitoring software and safe exam browser. Final remarks are accompanied by raising an open question -will these IT solutions be valuable in the coming decade?

Introduction and Literature Review

Cheating is perhaps as old as education. Mavis [START_REF] Mavis | College cheating as a function of subject and situational variables[END_REF] wrote about college cheating as a function of subject and situational variables in 1962 and Haines [START_REF] Haines | College cheating: Immaturity, lack of commitment, and the neutralizing attitude[END_REF] about college cheating as an effect of immaturity, lack of commitment, and a neutralizing attitude in 1986 and also ten years later [START_REF] Diekhoff | College cheating: Ten years later[END_REF]. But nowadays due to the information and communication technology it is much easier to cheat so it starts to be a crucial problem. There were tens of papers written on this subject. The review can be found in [START_REF] Ercegovac | Academic Dishonesty, Plagiarism Included, in the Digital Age: A Literature Review[END_REF]. The answer to the important philosophical question why cheating is so wrong can be found in [START_REF] Bouville | Why is Cheating Wrong? Stud[END_REF]. According to Bouville cheating can be frustrating for the instructors because it can be interpreted as the direct affront. Instructors can also feel betrayed. But the most important reason is the fact that cheating can influence grades which are an information how good a student is. So finally good and fair students can have worse grades than cheaters.

It is very important to distinguish between different forms of cheating. Johnston in [START_REF] Johnston | The Concet of Plagiarism[END_REF] precisely defined plagiarism and collusion as forms of cheating and illustrated this in a very intuitive way (see Fig. 1). Plagiarism is "the submission of material (written, visual or oral) originally produced by another person or persons without due acknowledgement so that the work could be assumed to be the student's own". On the other hand, "collusion is the term used to describe any form of joint effort intended to deceive an assessor as to who was actually responsible for producing the material submitted for assessment." One should also distinguish unintended plagiarism and improper collaboration which can be treated as elements of poor academic practice. Fig. 1. Plagiarism and collusion as forms of cheating -adapted from Johnston [START_REF] Johnston | The Concet of Plagiarism[END_REF].

According to Barret and Cox [START_REF] Barrett | At least they`re learning something: the hazy line between collaboration and collusion[END_REF] the line between collusion and collaboration is hazy but at least students are learning something by cheating. A similar problem was investigated by Sutherland [START_REF] Carroll | A Handbook for Deterring Plagiarism in Higher Education[END_REF]. She wrote about crossing the line and raised the fundamental question -collusion or collaboration in the university group work? Dabrovska [START_REF] Dobrovska | Avoiding Plagiarism and Collusion[END_REF] expanded Johnston's classification of cheating giving various examples of dishonest behavior but the problem of avoiding plagiarism and collusion remained open. Fraser in [START_REF] Fraser | Collaboration, Collusion and Plagiarism in Computer Science[END_REF] and [START_REF] Fraser | Collaboration, Collusion and Plagiarism in Computer Science Coursework[END_REF] presented the problem of collaboration, collusion and plagiarism in a computer science coursework. Mahmood in [START_REF] Mahmood | Students' Understanding of Plagiarism and Collusion and Recommendations for Academics[END_REF] investigated students' understanding of plagiarism and collusion and gave some recommendations for academics. There are also books written about these problems. Carroll [START_REF] Sutherland-Smith | Crossing the line: Collusion or collaboration in university group work?[END_REF] wrote a handbook for deterring plagiarism in higher education, while Culvin [START_REF] Culvin | Plagiarism, prevention, deterrence and detection[END_REF] wrote a book on plagiarism, prevention, deterrence and detection.

There are only a few papers devoted to technical issues. Ajanovski [START_REF] Ajanovski | Access Control and Monitoring for Campus Computer Labs: Best Practice Document[END_REF] prepared best a practice document on access control and monitoring for campus computer labs. Keresztury [START_REF] Keresztury | New Cheating Methods in the Electronic Teaching Era[END_REF] warned instructors, that in the electronic teaching era there are many new cheating methods. Khan in [START_REF] Khan | Students go click, flick and cheat: E-cheating, technologies and more[END_REF] wrote in his paper about new e-cheating technologies. Leister in [START_REF] Leister | Preventing unwanted communication in ICT-based exams by using free software[END_REF] presented how to prevent unwanted communication in ICT-based examinations by using free software. Omer in [START_REF] Omer | Network Services Application to Controlling and Develop Institute Computer LABs[END_REF] described network services application to controlling and developing computer laboratories. Uhrakova in [START_REF] Uhrakova | The Attitude of Students Towards Electronic and Non-Electronic Cheating[END_REF] investigated the attitude of students towards electronic and non-electronic cheating. Kumar in [START_REF] Kumar | Investigation on Security in LMS Moodle[END_REF] examined security issues in the learning management system Moodle. Faucher in [START_REF] Faucher | Academic dishonesty: Innovative cheating techniques and the detection and prevention of them[END_REF] presented innovative teaching techniques and the detection and prevention of them. Harper in [START_REF] Harper | High tech cheating[END_REF] and in [START_REF] Harper | High tech cheating[END_REF] described the problem of high tech cheating in nurse education. None of the solutions from these papers can be directly used during tests in a computer laboratory.

During the last decade different forms of e-cheating were getting more and more popular during the classes in information technologies and computer sciences CHEATING PLAGIARISM collusion COLLABORATION described in details in [START_REF] Gajewski | IS (ICT) and CS in Civil Engineering Curricula: Case Study[END_REF] and [START_REF] Gajewski | Flipped Computer Science Classes[END_REF]. This resulted in a ridiculous situation when cheating students in many cases had better grades than honest students. Simple pedagogical hints given by McDowell and Brown [START_REF] Mcdowell | Assessing students: cheating and plagiarism[END_REF] like: "use strict controls", "make the rules clear and have known penalties", "design assessment instruments that make cheating difficult" and "develop climate that will reduce the likelihood of cheating" did not help to decrease cheating during the last years. So, the main motivation to start this research was a strong will to change this unmoral situation.

Two Surveys and Their Results

In order to learn what is the attitude towards cheating among Polish students two surveys were conducted. In order to learn what are the cultural differences between different countries the first survey was based on the survey from Gettysburg in USA and the second was based on the survey conducted in Monash University in Australia. Similar comparative analysis on students' perception and attitudes towards academic dishonesty between the students in China and United States was done by Zou and Lan in [START_REF] Zhou | A Comparative Analysis On Students' Perceptions And Attitudes Towards Academic Dishonesty Between Students In China And In The United States[END_REF].

Comparison of Results with Gettysburg Survey

This survey was conducted during the first week of classes in October 2015. The total number of responses was 203. The number of students registered for the subject was 221. The total number of the questions in this survey was 24. Answers on 18 of them are presented in two tables. Table 1 shows that answers to all questions differ significantly, especially for the last question "did you ever cheat during high school". In table 2 only answers to the two first questions about acceptance of forging signatures are nearly the same. For the rest of the questions there are big differences. For example, cheating during a test is treated as very dishonest by 95% of students in Gettysburg and only 39% of students in Poland. On the other hand, when results "very dishonest" and "dishonest but I do it anyway" are summed up the difference is not so big: 100% vs 92%. These results show that although the perception of cheating as unmoral is very similar in both countries the actual level of cheating in Poland is much higher than in Gettysburg, so some additional treatment should be undertaken. It seems also that this treatment should be focused on reducing the opportunity to cheat rather than on pedagogical issues.

Comparison of Results with Monash University Survey

This test was conducted during the last week of classes in January 2016. Total number of responses was 179. Number of students attending classes at the end of semester was 201. Questionnaire of this survey is fully based on the questionnaire used in 2000 during the survey conducted in Australia at Monash University and at Swanbourne University which results were published in [START_REF] Sheard | Cheating and plagiarism: perceptions and practices of first year IT students[END_REF]. The same survey was conducted ten years later and results were compared in [START_REF] Sheard | Computing student practices of cheating and plagiarism: a decade of change[END_REF]. The most important part of both surveys consists of 18 scenarios. For each of them answers are given using a Likert scale [START_REF] Likert | A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes[END_REF] with the answers ranging from 1 -acceptable to 5 -not acceptable. Comparison of results of all surveys is in table 3. In columns 2000 and 2010 are results from Australia and in column 2015 results from Poland. For acceptability mean value of the answers to the question "how acceptable is this scenario" is calculated and for practice percent of students who answered yes to the question "have you ever done this".

What can be easily learned from Table 3 is that in Australia a positive change has occurred among students over the decade with regard to cheating awareness, acceptability and practice. Results of a survey conducted in Poland are much worse than Australia from the year 2000. Especially big differences are in the case of the three following scenarios:

• Copying material from the book or from the Internet,

• Swapping assignments with another person,

• Using a hidden sheet of paper with important facts during an exam. (In the case of questionnaires concerning computer lab tests "a hidden sheet of paper" means using all types of unauthorized materials e.g. files.) The first problem can be generally solved by means of plagiarism checkers on the university level. The second one should be mainly solved by instructor manually. The third one which can be generally called as using unauthorized materials during exams can be solved by means of specialized IT tools which will be described below. For the last-mentioned scenario -using unauthorized materials -worth mentioning is the relatively small difference in mean values of acceptability (4.59, 4.64 and 4.32) and very big difference in practice (4%, 2% and 53%).

Technical Issues

Comparison of results of the two surveys shows that cheating is a serious and important problem in Poland. Moreover, all instructors who have classes in a computer lab and in a typical class know differences in cheating possibilities. It is much easier to cheat in the computer lab when it is not equipped with specialized software. So, in order to prevent cheating two IT solutions were used. The problem of plagiarism in BSc and MSc thesis is solved on the university level while problems of individual instructors should be solved by themselves. But the solution of plagiarism problem is doubtful. There are many sites which offer automatic rewording.

Save Exam Browser

In order of prevent cheating during multiple choice tests on MOODLE Safe Exam Browser (SEB) platform was used. SEB is the result of a project lead by the Swiss National Research and Education Network and supported by funds from the ETH Board. According to the information from sebexambrowser.org portal "SEB runs on a local computer and it is connected via the internet to a learning management system (LMS). SEB consists of a kiosk application and a browser part, which are running on an examination computer. The kiosk application locks down the examination computer, the browser part communicates via the internet (or a LAN) with the quiz module of a LMS running on a server." This idea is illustrated by Fig. 2. The kiosk application locks down the computer and starts the SEB browser. The SEB browser connects with the URL of the LMS quiz page. The user interface of the LMS is reduced to navigation necessary for the test. Usage of SEB prevents using Google search engine or PDF files during test exams.

Lan School Manager Lite

In order to prevent cheating during practical tests LanSchool, classroom and desktop movement software was used. Its lite, free of charge version can monitor up to 3000 students by real time computer thumbnail monitoring. Such thumbnails can be arranged and saved to represent the classroom layout. LanSchool Lite enables also to view the students' active application and last visited website as well as a full screen view of the student's monitor. There are much more capabilities in the full version of this software. Screen Feed option allows to monitor details of students' screens from a distance. Other features like Internet History or Keystroke Monitoring create a safe environment for all students. This software reduced nearly to zero cheating in a form of collusion or using unauthorised materials during practical tests -the only authorised materials were help files.

Kiosk Application Browser

Learning

Management

System ILIAS, MOODLE

SEB: Save

Exam Browser

starts

URL to test

Third Party Application starts

Results of both surveys show that cheating especially in electronic form (e-cheating) is an important issue in higher education. A full solution to this problem can be obtained only by means of cooperation of all stakeholders of education marketuniversity and faculty authorities, instructors and… students. Cases when students force instructors and authorities to act actively against cheating are more and more often. But on the other hand, none of the technical solutions will work forever so continuous research in this field is necessary. Two suggested and discussed IT solutions decreased radically levels of cheating. Although the difficulty level of tests was not changed (namely questions and practical problems were in fact the same) in this year nearly 20% of students had to retake a lecture test, while one year ago only 2% of students had to do this. Similar results were obtained for practical tests. In this case retakes did not help too much due to the fact that it is easier to memorize answers on the questions rather than understand how a spreadsheet or computer algebra system works and solve a unique computing problem. So, the final conclusion is: IT can support the solution of e-cheating problem.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of an online exam with SEB and a LMS. Source: based on picture from safeexambrowser.org

Table 1

 1

summarises results for questions about practice of cheating while table 2 about acceptance of cheating. All results are in percent. Results for Gettysburg are calculated as an average from the years 2008-2014.

Table 1 .

 1 Comparison of results of surveys -practice of cheating.

		Gettysburg	2015 Poland
	Question	Never	Once	More than once	Never	Once	More than once
	Did you ever witness cheating in your high school?	13	10	77	8	5	87
	Have you ever reported another student you suspected of cheating?	79	18	3	94	3	3
	Have you ever interrupted a student who was cheating?	50	24	26	72	10	18
	Did you ever cheat during high school?	60	21	19	30	17

Table 2 .

 2 Comparison of results of surveys -acceptance of cheating.

			Gettysburg			2015 Poland
	Question	Very dishonest	Dishonest, but	I do it anyway	Not dishonest	Very dishonest	Dishonest, but	I do it anyway	Not dishonest
	Forging a teacher's signature?	95	4	1	94	3	3
	Forging an administrator's signature	98	1	0	97	1	2
	Cheating on a homework assignment	61	34	5	29	56	15
	Cheating on a test	95	5	0	39	53	8
	Cheating on a midterm or final examination	99	1	0	78	16	6
	Fabricating lab data	80	16	4	76	12	12
	Completely faking a lab experiment	96	3	1	58	37	5
	Plagiarizing a paper or written assignment	99	1	0	58	37	5
	Working with another student when instructed to work alone	57	33	9	25	45	30
	Signing in for another student who missed class	83	13	4	73	18	9
	Lying to protect another student	70	24	6	40	33	27
	Lying to get an extension on an assignment	83	16	1	54	33	13
	Lying about why you turned in an assignment late	78	20	2	49	35	16
	Lying about why you were absent	75	21	4	43	35	21

Table 3 .

 3 Comparison of results of surveys.

		Acceptability		Practice
	Scenario	Australia 2000 2010	Poland 2015	Australia 2000 2010	Poland 2015
		mean	mean	mean	%	%	%
	Showing assignment work to a lecturer for guidance	2.07	2.21	1.68	37	42	67
	Posting to an Internet newsgroup for assistance	2.07	2.28	1.77	27	34	68
	Two students collaborating on an
	assignment meant to be completed	2.54	3.20	2.65	44	36	54
	individually
	Resubmitting an assignment from a previous subject in a new subject	2.82	2.99	2.49	27	17	41
	Submitting a friend's assignment from a past running of the subject	2.86	3.46	3.03	34	20	32
	Copying the majority of an
	assignment from a friend's assignment, but doing a fair bit of	2.98	3.37	2.98	31	21	39
	work yourself
	Not informing the tutor that an
	assignment has been given too high a	3.08	3.29	2.82	17	16	39
	mark
	Being given the answer to a tutorial
	exercise worth 5% by a class mate if	3.76	4.29	3.03	7	3	9
	the computer you used has problems
	Copying material for an essay from a text book	3.81	4.19	3.71	22	10	34
	Copying material for an essay from the Internet	3.85	4.28	4.29	23	10	33
	Obtaining a medical certificate from a
	doctor to get an extension when you	3.94	4.02	3.35	12	3	9
	are not sick
	Swapping assignments with a friend,
	so that each does one assignment,	3.96	4.45	3.37	9	3	37
	instead of doing both
	Copying another student's assignment
	from their computer without their	4.18	4.62	3.94	7	3	7
	knowledge and submitting
	Copying all of an assignment given to you by a friend	4.30	4.62	3.92	10	3	10

Acknowledgments. The author would like to thank all Students who participated in surveys and filled two long questionnaires. Research was conducted within a frame of grant No. 504 / 01921 / 1088 / 40.