Ather Nawaz
email: athernawaz@cbs.dk

Torkil Clemmensen

Evaluation of information classification on websites and impact of culture: A cross country comparison of information classification

The structure of information classification has an important role in the usability of websites. A majority of cross cultural studies have emphasized on localized elements of interface design and termed them as cultural markers However, not many studies have pointed out on how the classification of information on the websites can be similar or different, especially for those communities who have recently joined the global community of the Internet. This research aims to investigate the information classification of users in different countries and compares it with information classification of a website. The study will evaluate how different demographical properties impacts on the information structure of websites. The study will also evaluate to what extent users' performance and productivity changes, when the information classification of website matches with the end users mental model.

Introduction

Due to the abundance of information, it has become a challenging problem to track and retrieve information from institute, university or e-commerce websites. The challenge may however not be the same in different countries. One of the key issues in the design of websites is the information classification on websites. With the global penetration of the internet, especially into regions where computer use has hitherto been scarce, the diverse needs and perceptions of quality place a special demands upon the web page design and how information is placed [START_REF] Aykin | Usability and internationalization of information technology[END_REF]. The information organized in the correct location speeds up the information retrieval for the users and provides a good user experience of the website. In the cross cultural studies of websites, much of the work has focused on similarities and differences between Asia and the West and little work appears to have been done to investigate the usability, language bias, and structure of websites in those communities who have recently joined the global community of the Internet [START_REF] El Said | Cross-Cultural Web Usability: An Exploration of the Experiences of Egyptians Users[END_REF].

Our research adds the body of knowledge in the domain of information structure on the website and users' understanding with the information structure on the websites especially in those countries where there is not much research done. The research proposes how the information classification in the different countries has the properties that do not resemble to each other, despite the similarity of participants' years of study and age.

Research Problem

With the access of large amount of information on corporates, institutes and ecommerce websites, it is often a challenge to retrieve information on these websites. The challenge may, however, not be the same in different countries. A key issue in a good website design is the classification of the information on the website. If the website information is classified in a manner that fits well with the user's perception of the topic, then information retrieval on the website is efficient and may even be satisfying. Most of the cross-cultural studies of websites have focused on the usability, language biases, and structure of Asian and Western websites. Little work appears to have been done investigating the structure of the websites in communities that have recently joined the global Internet community. Furthermore it is not the technical aspects that are cumbersome but the mental model of the end users in a group that can be different from the information classification of the websites. In order to improve the information findability and performance of users, demographic diversity and its influence on information classification for the websites should be acknowledged.

The prior research addresses the issue by emphasizing on the interface design aspect of websites and cultural markers but did not stress on the classification criteria of contents. A few of the researches talk about the classification models on websites. The studies of Choong [START_REF] Choong | Design of computer interfaces for the chienese population[END_REF] shows how the users from two different locations have different mental models and conceptions about the classification of information. The studies address the cultural aspect of information classification but only highlight the Chinese and American perceptive on information classification.

Research Question

1. How is the perception of website structure similar and/or different in the countries that have recently joined the global community of internet?

2. How does the fit between the users' mental model and the website's information classification affects the information findability on the websites? 3. To what extent does the information literacy of technology interaction influences the perception of information classification on websites.

Method

The research for my PhD is conducted in two stages. In the first stage, I collected the data from the users of a university website in Pakistan and Denmark. The first stage of the research helped me to identify the important and interesting factors of the research. I used brainstorming and card sorting technique to understand the users' mental model. Card sorting is a technique aligned with the Kelly's personal construct theory [START_REF] Kelly | The psychology of personal constructs[END_REF]. It assumes that people make sense of the world by classification and people can describe their own classification of the world with reasonable validity and reliability [START_REF] Kelly | The psychology of personal constructs[END_REF][START_REF] Rugg | The sorting techniques: a tutorial paper on card sorts, picture sorts and item sorts[END_REF]. Card sorting is a useful way of involving users with the classification of information into groups. It provides an insight into users' mental models, illuminating the way they often tacitly group, sort and label tasks and content within their own heads [START_REF] Rugg | The sorting techniques: a tutorial paper on card sorts, picture sorts and item sorts[END_REF]. The supplementary activities included information findability activities and surveying the users' satisfactions in each group. The 1 st stage of the research facilitated in understanding the factors related to the website structure and understanding the users' mental models.

The results of 1 st study showed interesting results from the Pakistani groups of users. The results of the study showed how the end users perceive university websites bilingually in a different way. Two websites were used for information findability. The brainstorm card sort session also reviled interesting results. The primary results provided the culturally specific preferences to with the university website in both countries. For the Pakistani group, the participants of the 1 st study intended for bilingual website with bilingual contents presentation on the same webpage which was not present in their university website. The result of the study also showed differences in information classification. The result of brainstorm card sort showed that the Pakistani users classify information mostly single level deep hierarchy whereas the Danish users classify information in multi-level deep hierarchy. The study also finds also similarities between Pakistani and Danish participants, for example in the retrieval of website content that is not located deep in the website hierarchy.

Study 2:

In the second stage of the research, the card sorting activities will be revised with learning from study 1 of first stage of data collection but this time with the same website across groups. The experiments on a website for home appliance will be used to manipulate the information structure of these websites in Denmark, Pakistan and Malaysia.

Theoretical lenses for the research

In many studies, it is argued that the collective or interdependent nature of Asian society takes the contextual view of the world and believes that events are highly complex and determined by many factors such as thought process, language and cultural background [START_REF] Nisbett | The geography of thought: Why we think the way we do[END_REF]. On the other hand, the individualistic or independent nature of western society seems consistent with the western focus on particular objects in isolation from their context and with westerns' belief that they can know the rules governing objects and therefore can control the objects' behaviour. The difference in their approach of has an influence on the resulting product. Martine & Rugg [START_REF] Rugg | That site looks 88.46% familiar: quantifying similarity of Web page design[END_REF] measured the perceived similarity of webpages using a card sort technique. The card sorting method appears particularly well suited for a comparative and knowledge representation oriented study of information classification on a website.

A sketch of proposed solution

From my PhD research, I intend to propose a list of factors that are involved in the information classification of websites. The study will list the factors that affect the performance of users and how they can be minimized to increase performance. The outcome of the study will provide the suggestion to avoid the bias in the interface design and information structure of the websites that is brought by the different understanding of users towards websites. This research will be helpful for software designers and web developers who are designing and developing websites and applications for Pakistan, Malaysia and Denmark. It will also be helpful for the companies who are localizing their applications in other parts of the world.


Olga Lyra
email: lyra.olga@gmail.com

Evangelos Karapanos
email: ekarapanos@uma.pt

Vassilis Kostakos

Intelligent Playgrounds: Measuring and affecting social inclusion in schools

Keywords: Inclusive education, social networks, persuasive games

. However, despite the substantial attention given to inclusive education in recent years, researchers have criticized a lack of empirical evidence on how exclusion is manifested in student behavior. Recent development in sensor technology and social network analysis techniques can provide a new perspective to the impact of educational practices through the measurement of students' social interactions. In this paper we outline our research agenda that aims at a) measuring the current stand as well as the impact of inclusive educational interventions using sensor technology and sociometric analysis, and b) challenging pupils' perceptions of diversity with the aim of eliminating discriminatory behaviors in primary schools using persuasive games.

Introduction

Inclusive Education represents an approach to education that seeks 'Education for All' through developing schools that respond successfully to the diversity of all learners and their different needs [START_REF]The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education[END_REF]. Equal access to education has recently been declared by the United Nations a basic human right. As of September 2009, most EU countries have signed the Ratification of the UN Convention whereby access to an inclusive educational system has become a legal right [START_REF]Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities[END_REF].

Schools have access to a number of operationalized techniques and methods for promoting inclusive school development, such as the Index for Inclusion [START_REF] Booth | Index for Inclusion. Developing Learning and Participation in Schools[END_REF], a tool being used in more than 40 countries. Index for Inclusion is designed to help schools in a) assessing their current stand with regard to inclusiveness, b) identifying the key topics of concern for the whole school community, and c) implementing concrete actions after reaching consensus among all members of the school community.

However, despite the substantial attention given to this educational approach in recent years, researchers have criticized a lack of empirical evidence on how exclusion is manifested in student behavior as well as the long-term effect of existing methodologies that promote inclusive school development [START_REF] Simpson | Inclusion of Students with Behavior Disorders in General Education Settings: Research and Measurement Issues[END_REF]. Even when studies have attempted to capture how exclusion is manifested in students' social interactions within the class and during play time, their focus was limited to a number of school cases as well as particular dimensions of diversity, thus leading to an uncertainty of how such results may generalize to the larger population and how educational exclusion is manifested at large [START_REF] Fryxell | Placement along the continuum of services and its impact on students' social relationships[END_REF].

Recent development in sensor technology [START_REF] Eagle | Reality Mining: Sensing Complex Social Systems[END_REF] and social network analysis techniques [START_REF] Macindoe | Graph Comparison using Fine Structure Analysis[END_REF] can provide a new perspective to the impact of educational practices through the measurement of students' social interactions. For instance, proximity measurement during playtime capturing pupils' social interactions may be correlated with metrics of different dimensions of diversity such as ethnic origin, religion and native language, parents' socio-economic and educational background, forms of special needs and educational performance,. These in turn may affect a student's ability to participate in equal terms to the educational community. Capturing these metrics can possibly generate the ability to measure inclusiveness at large, through sampling a wide number of schools and over extended periods of time.

Secondly, grounded on data about pupils' social interactions and using persuasive techniques [START_REF] Fogg | Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change what We Think and do[END_REF], technology may be used in challenging pupils' perceptions of diversity with the aim of eliminating discriminatory behaviors in primary schools. In the remainder of the paper we outline our research agenda.

Measuring the inclusiveness of school communities using sensor technology and sociometric analysis

Sociometric analysis has been used for describing communication patterns in organizations [START_REF] Eagle | Reality Mining: Sensing Complex Social Systems[END_REF], inquiring into urban mobility [START_REF] Kostakos | Brief encounters: sensing, modelling and visualizing urban mobility and copresence networks[END_REF], modeling knowledge propagation and other domains [START_REF] Christensen | Disease dynamics in a dynamic social network[END_REF], leading to a new field of computational social science [9] motivated by our increasing ability to capture social phenomena at large. To our knowledge, however, such techniques have not yet been used to capture the development of pupils in schools. Using sensor technology to capture and quantify schools' inclusiveness provides the ability to generalize our findings as measurements can take place at a wide number of schools and through an extended period of time.

This objective will result in a palette of metrics that capture the inclusiveness of a school community based on pupils' social interactions. The metrics will take into account pupils' proximity data during school activities, physical activity (through accelerometer) and verbal activity (through microphone capture). In addition, dimensions of diversity such as ethnic origin, parents' socio-economic and educational background, forms special needs and others will be captured. These metrics will subsequently be used to assess the impact of the educational and technological interventions in the next two goals.

Assessing the impact of inclusive school development interventions

The impact of educational interventions, and specifically "Index for Inclusion" projects, will be assessed in terms of changes in pupils' social interactions, using sensor network technology. Index for inclusion projects will be executed in a number of schools and measurements of pupil's social interactions will be taken throughout the intervention. Pair-wise proximity will be the key measured variable but other variables such as physical activity (through accelerometer) and verbal activity (through microphone) will be captured. A combination of these measures will be used to express social activity, and will then be correlated with: a) Metrics of different dimensions of diversity that might affect a student's ability to participate in equal terms to the educational community such as ethnic origin, religion and native language, parents' socio-economic and educational background, forms special needs and educational performance, and b) stakeholders' perceptions of the inclusiveness of a school, and data elicited in the course of Index for Inclusion projects.

The analysis will look to develop models of how students interact with others, and will attempt to assess whether the social structure amongst students impacts their performance in school. This analysis will control for the various environmental variables that change from school to school.

Persuasive games that challenge children's perceptions of diversity and demotivate discriminatory behaviors

Construal theory [START_REF] Trope | Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance[END_REF] suggests that (perceived) social similarity, being it in the form of attitudes, physical characteristics etc., influences not only the available information, but also the cognitive process involved when individuals evaluate other's actions, with more distant individuals to be judged on more abstract attributes. It has been found that when individuals evaluate their own, and those of similar others, behavior, they emphasize the role of concrete situation factors that operate at the moment of action ("I stepped on your toe because the bus was crowded"), whereas when judging the behavior of more distant individuals, they emphasize the role of stable, general dispositional properties of the actor ("he stepped on my toe because he is clumsy") [START_REF] Trope | Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance[END_REF].

"Daily habits" is a persuasive game that attempts to increase of interpersonal similarity through capturing and communicating habits that are shared across different children that appear limited interaction in school. Habits will be sensed through the mobile phones and may include aspects of a child's daily life such as: wake-up time, sleeping time, or the amount, temporal and spatial range of physical activity.

However, motivating social behaviors brings significant complications, for instance, through group polarization [START_REF] Isenberg | Group polarization: A critical review and meta-analysis[END_REF], a phenomenon where people adopt more extreme response to deliberate acts when being in groups than when being alone.

Through minimalistic interventions we will attempt to measure the impact of two motivational techniques: reciprocity and operant conditioning. Reciprocity has been found to have positive effect in encouraging prosocial behaviors in primary schools [START_REF] Covington | Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: an integrative review[END_REF]. It may be operationalized through the identification of positive changes in a pupil's social behavior (e.g. his or her centrality in the social network) and the communication of those to other pupils in the class. Operant conditioning [START_REF] Skinner | The Technology of Teaching[END_REF] uses two primary tools: reinforcement and punishment. These may be operationalized in the form of a game where positive daily changes in a child's network centrality adds points to the child's profile while negative changes remove points.

Conclusion

This paper presents a double-pronged research agenda aiming first to measure the status quo and impact of inclusive educational interventions using sensor technology and sociometric analysis. In addition, it aims to challenge pupils' perceptions of diversity with the aim of eliminating discriminatory behaviors in primary schools using persuasive games.


Caroline Moeckel
email: moeckelc@lsbu.ac.uk

Xristine Faulkner
email: xristine@lsbu.ac.uk

Human-Computer Interaction for Security Research: The Case of EU E-Banking Systems

1

The Role of Security and Usability in Current EU E-Banking E-Banking has undoubtedly become a key element in every modern bank's service portfolio during the last two decades. With its initial focus primarily on transactions, e-banking has now progressed towards an advanced online sales channel for financial products and most of today's e-banking platforms will be able to reproduce almost all services offered in bank branches [START_REF] Moeckel | EU B2C E-Commerce in the Banking Sector[END_REF]. But not only the strategic and commercial sides of e-banking have developed very far, also the e-banking security countermeasures employed have passed through several development stages, e.g. from simple password systems to sophisticated two-factor authentication approaches [START_REF] Borchert | Online-Banking Verfahren[END_REF]. While the described innovation should generally be viewed as a positive one, current e-banking systems still show large failings in terms of their security and usability. These weaknesses are for example evident in a persistently high number of fraud cases for online banking, accounting for £46.7 million in 2010 (2009: £59.7, 2008: £52.5 [START_REF]Financial Fraud Action UK: Fraud the Facts[END_REF]) solely in the UK [START_REF]Fraud losses drop on UK card, cheques and online banking[END_REF]. The risk posed by banking fraud may also lead to a growing negative public perception or fear shown by customers. Alongside these security issues, some severe usability drawbacks can be observed in modern ebanking systems. While some of these may be related to the actual user interface design, a range of problems arise at system stages such as registration or business continuity. System lock outs or erroneously blocked transactions, like Barclaycard's fraud detection system flagging payments for London 2012 Olympic tickets as suspicious and declining them, are incomprehensible and frustrating to users. There are a range of similar cases, such as mentioned in [START_REF] Drimer | Optimised to Fail: Card Readers for Online Banking[END_REF] where card reader usability impedes security or in [START_REF] Weir | Usable security: User preferences for authentication methods in eBanking and the effects of experience[END_REF] where users prefer less secure solutions due to their apparently higher usability.

Security problems in this context may lead to substantial monetary losses or damage to reputation. However, usability shortcomings may also result in higher operational costs, for example when additional customer support is required through call centres or customers stop using the e-banking functions offered and revert to branch-based services. Furthermore, customers may prefer other financial institutions if their e-banking system seems to be more usable, e.g. if the bank forces the user to purchase a certain type of card reader. Due to the relative importance of e-banking for financial online product sales [START_REF] Moeckel | EU B2C E-Commerce in the Banking Sector[END_REF], usability may also directly affect revenue.

Considering the impact of security and usability as well as the examples and fraud statistics mentioned, the difficulty of combining the roles of security and usability in the context of e-banking becomes obvious. Although modern e-banking systems certainly provide sufficient protection levels and fulfil most functions expected from an internet-based bank branch, there is still a significant potential for improvement in the field of usable security. While the best possible protection against potential attacks and mitigation of threats is desirable from a security point of view, the proposed solution still has to be as usable as possible, which may ultimately require accepting a trade-off in security [START_REF] Kainda | Security and usability: analysis and evaluation[END_REF]. A range of security and usability problems in e-banking systems can be attributed to a conceptual mismatch of threats and countermeasures within the individual system -either at the cost of security when threats are not mitigated adequately by the employed countermeasures or at the cost of usability due to overly strict, hindering security measures not in line with the level of risk encountered. In addition, usability is often viewed as a separate entity and not considered at every stage of development, which may ultimately lead to decreased security or usability levels. Factoring in risk is crucial at this point as the risk level willingly accepted by a bank will influence the selection and design of their security countermeasures. Accepting certain calculated risks in this context may also be of benefit for usability, for example when allowing users to view their account balance after login in with a username-password combination and only enforcing complex security measures for higher-risk services such as transactions. Viewing security and usability purely as antagonists would be too one-dimensional [START_REF] Cranor | Security and Usability -Designing Secure Systems That People Can Use[END_REF], it is their interaction that needs to be understood and further defined for improving e-banking security.

There is a high degree of freedom in selecting countermeasures and designing systems in the context of e-banking and only a limited amount of regulatory guidelines on the issue. This is also underpinned by a large variation of different ebanking security systems currently observed across the European Union (EU) [START_REF] Moeckel | EU B2C E-Commerce in the Banking Sector[END_REF]. Although financial institutions are protecting themselves and their customers against a common global threat landscape, the systems currently in existence in the EU vary in terms of countermeasures employed and their respective usability.

Banks as well as academic researchers would therefore greatly benefit from more insights into the relationship between usability and security in the context of ebanking, particularly if these results could be translated into guidance applicable to real-world systems. Research in the area of usable security is generally limited due to the relative youth of the discipline [START_REF] Cranor | Security and Usability -Designing Secure Systems That People Can Use[END_REF]. In addition, there have been no academic or commercial efforts to create a comprehensive overview of the current e-banking security landscape in the European Union.

Benefits and Objectives of Research in the Field

To enhance usability in e-banking security, overcome current usability or security flaws and to ultimately improve e-banking systems, the understanding of the relationship between security and usability in this context needs to be further deepened, formalised and related to a real-world context. A lack of dedicated research methods for the field of usable security as well as the highly diverse sample of ebanking security solutions with different levels of security and usability in the current EU banking landscape indicate the potentially high value of a study in this area.

For research in this field, the following three main objectives can be identified:

1. creating a comprehensive overview and categorisation of e-banking security systems currently in real-world use throughout the EU, 2. understanding the relationship between security and usability in the context of ebanking as well as the potential influence of other factors such as cost and 3. extending the knowledge in the field of research methods for usable security as well as threat modelling with an applied example (e-banking).

Research Methods for Usable Security in E-Banking

For the case of security research, it needs to be understood that most organisations will not allow external researchers to access all details related to their security policies, specific solutions or products. This applies particularly to the very secretive banking sector, where publicised security flaws can translate into substantial financial losses, decreased trust or reputational problems. The expectation to work with realworld data on security within the organisation, e.g. number of security breaches encountered, investment on e-banking security or plans for future implementations, is therefore not entirely realistic. Ways to overcome this difficulty include using system analysis, e.g. of e-banking applications, customer or employee interviews and questionnaires or using data collected by professional or governmental organisations.

Secondly, research methods in the field of usable security have not fully matured yet and while various key publications [START_REF] Kainda | Security and usability: analysis and evaluation[END_REF] [START_REF] Cranor | Security and Usability -Designing Secure Systems That People Can Use[END_REF] in the area have hinted towards certain approaches such as threat modelling [START_REF] Moeckel | Threat Modeling Approaches and Tools for Securing Architectural Designs of an E-Banking Application[END_REF][10] or user testing, these need to be extended further and tested in various applied contexts. It is argued here that current usability evaluation methods do not fully account for the special nature of secure applications and software. This applies in particular for the example of e-banking, where a highly secure infrastructure has to provide simultaneously a high level of usability to its large number of non-expert users. This view is supported by key materials in this area, which criticise the adoption of usability methods by researchers in human-computer interaction for security (HCISec). Kainda et al. [START_REF] Kainda | Security and usability: analysis and evaluation[END_REF] notes that "the extent to which these apply to the field of HCISec is arguable given the fine balance between improving the ease of use of a secure system and potentially weakening its security". Additionally, Cranor et al. [START_REF] Cranor | Security and Usability -Designing Secure Systems That People Can Use[END_REF] highlight the importance of "contextual information [...] in assessing the cost of the countermeasure to the system as a whole-this includes financial, organizational, and user costs". This is by no means to say that usability evaluation methods should not be employed in a security context, since they may be beneficial through improving users' effectiveness, efficiency or satisfaction, but hints towards an integration of threats and vulnerabilities and surrounding factors.

Original Contribution and Future Work

A number of innovation factors valuable to banks will be included in this study. A framework for evaluating existent and future implementations of e-banking security will be devised for practical employment. Furthermore, the bank's position with all its related challenges will be taken into account rather than assessing the situation in a theoretical, unrealistic environment. In contrast to earlier studies, the interplay of security and usability without a separation of factors will be analysed, enabling the bank to understand the effects of changes in security or usability. In addition to introducing a new focus of user-centered design to e-banking security, this study will also give a detailed overview of the status of EU e-banking security. Future work in this area could include exploring the mismatch between the customer's and the bank's perspective on e-banking security, further examining the data collected on e-banking security in Europe, learning more about the internal reasons that banks prefer certain countermeasures over others as well developing usability evaluation models specific to e-banking security.


Clare J Hooper
email: c.j.hooper@tue.nl

Analysis, Redesign and Evaluation with Teasing Apart, Piecing Together

Keywords: Analysis, Redesign and Evaluation with Teasing Apart, Piecing Together TAPT, UX, understanding, analysis, design, evaluation

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Teasing Apart, Piecing Together

TAPT concerns understanding and redesigning experiences in new contexts. It has been used to facilitate the design of real-world versions of experiences that were initially situated on the web (such as microblogging and wiki usage). TAPT's development was motivated by issues of accessibility, such as the lack of access to web-based social tools by people who are offline.

TAPT falls into two phases: 1. 'Teasing Apart' involves analysing an experience's 'surface elements' (design / physical aspects) and 'experienced effects' (literal and abstract outcomes). These are reviewed to identify essential aspects and produce a 'distilled' description that does not refer to the original modality.

2. In 'Piecing Together' practitioners take the distilled experience description and use it as a springboard for creatively redesigning the initial experience in the new context, which may be physical or digital.

The Tutorial

Overview: The first half of the tutorial covers the basics of TAPT, demonstrating how it can be used to solve design problems. This session will draw on information from a 43-participant trial of TAPT conducted across industry and academia.

The second half of the tutorial concerns agile uses of the method. Participants will learn how TAPT has been used in the field for analysis and evaluation as well as for design, and about different modes of usage: with end users or practitioners, and by groups or individuals. This section of the day will draw on knowledge gained from fieldwork, specifically case studies of TAPT's successful usage in academia (in the UK and Norway) and industry (by IBM UK and IBM India).

This tutorial combines formal presentations with group exercises and feedback. Participants will be asked to work in groups to respond to design tasks, and to briefly present their results to one another. Participants will be encouraged to provide feedback to one another (within and between groups), and to engage with the tutor.

Learning outcomes:

how to analyse design problems with TAPT how to use TAPT for redesign how to evaluate TAPT-built designs how to design TAPT workshops, considering aspects such as available resources, number and background of participants, and workshop format Audience: Design practitioners, HCI researchers and practitioners, students, other professionals in the field.

Prior knowledge required: None. Supporting materials: participants will be be given copies of tutorial materials: slides introducing TAPT and explaining modes of use; TAPT instructions and forms; sample TAPT exercises. Participants will also receive copies of key publications 1 .

Tutor: Clare J. Hooper is a computer scientist based at the Eindhoven University of Technology. During her doctorate, she developed and evaluated TAPT. In addition to design, Clare's research interests include web science, hypertext and HCI.

3

Provisional

  Hooper, C. J. and Millard, D. E. (2010) Teasing Apart and Piecing Together: Towards Understanding Web-based Interactions. Web Science 2010, April 2010, Raleigh, USA. Hooper, C. J. and Rettberg, J. W. (2011) Using TAPT as an Analytical Method for Understanding Online Experiences. Web Science 2011, June 2011, Koblenz, Germany.

		Schedule
	15 minutes	Opening words and settling in
	45 minutes	Presentation / Q&A. Why use TAPT; what it looks like; the types
		of problem it can solve
	30 minutes	Group work: a simple redesign exercise
	15 minutes	Feedback and discussion of group work
	15 minutes	Coffee break
	30 minutes	Presentation / Q&A. Agile uses of TAPT: analysis, design and
		evaluation; use with practitioners or end users; creativity prompts
	30 minutes	Group work: choice between analysis or evaluation exercises
	15 minutes	Feedback and discussion of group work
	15 minutes	Final questions, closing remarks

1


Llúcia Masip

Marta Oliva
email: oliva@diei.udl.cat

Toni Granollers
email: tonig@diei.udl.cat

User experience specification through quality attributes

Keywords: user experience, facets, ISO, quality systems and software

The concept of user experience includes different facets which have still not reached a consensus. On the other hand, the ISO/IEC 25010:2011 standard shows a structured quality model which permits us to obtain quality systems and software. The main aim is the specification of user experience based on the facets which are implicitly considered in the standard.

Introduction

Recently, the User eXperience concept (UX) has become more used than usability in the Human Computer Interaction (HCI) discipline and SQUARE (Systems and Software Quality Requirements and Evaluation) [START_REF]Systems and software engineering-Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE)[END_REF] is the standard that defines the system quality or the software quality. Nevertheless, HCI practitioners still have not come to an agreement about defining UX. Also, the standard attributes which researchers use for analyzing the UX in a specific interactive system do not exist.

For these reasons, the main aim of this research is the specification of UX based on the facets that the ISO/IEC 2010:2011 considers according to its attributes.

User experience

The ISO DIS 9241-210:2008 [START_REF]Ergonomics of human system interaction -Part 210: Humancentred design for interactive systems (formerly known as 13407)[END_REF] standard provides one of the most distinguished definitions for UX. But the following five definitions are also used considerably [3] [4] [START_REF] Desmet | Framework of product experience[END_REF] [6] y [7], which were collected by E. L Law et al. in [START_REF] Lai-Chong | Understanding, scoping and defining user experience: a survey approach[END_REF].

Despite the fact that the definitions presented are valid in specific contexts, they do not include aspects which should be considered when evaluating UX. In some definitions such as in [START_REF] Lai-Chong | Understanding, scoping and defining user experience: a survey approach[END_REF] and [7], the interaction context is not so clear. In [3], the main topic is concerned in company aspects. Other definitions do not refer to facets such as accessibility [START_REF] Hassenzahl | User Experience -a research agenda[END_REF], cross-cultural [START_REF] Desmet | Framework of product experience[END_REF] or adaptability [START_REF] Sward | Making user experience a business strategy[END_REF]. So, we propose the next definition of UX which covers these aspects: "User experience deals with all facts, internal as well as external facts of the user and interactive systems, which causes any feeling in the user who uses the interactive system in a specific context of use."

Facets and concepts involved in the user experience definition

The facets considered in UX are still not agreed on in the scientific community or in any type of organization for standardization. Related works in this area are [9] [4]. In addition, there is other concepts which can form the UX: accessibility [START_REF] W3c | Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0. W3C Candidate Recommendation[END_REF], emotional [START_REF] Leitner | The Role of Usability in the Design and Evaluation of Dynamic Traffic Displays[END_REF], communicability [START_REF] Prates | Methods and tools: a method for evaluating the communicability of user interfaces[END_REF], cross-cultural [START_REF] Jiang | The Perception of Cultural Differences[END_REF], plasticity [START_REF] Thevenin | Plasticity of User Interfaces: Framework and Research Agenda[END_REF], playability [START_REF] González | From Usability to Playability: Introduction to Player-Centred Video Game Development Process[END_REF] and dependability [START_REF] Avizienis | Basic Concepts and Taxonomy of Dependable and Secure Computing[END_REF], among others. Thus, one or another facet is used according to the author and their needs in the design or evaluation process.

Our goal is not choosing the specific facets, but it is preparing the most complete set of UX facets which allows us to carry out this project.

The other goal is to determine the meaning of the most used words in the UX area. According to Oxford's dictionary (http://oxforddictionaries.com/): Property: an attribute, quality, or characteristic of something. Facet: a particular aspect or feature of something. Dimension: a measurable extent of a particular kind, such as length, breadth, depth, or height. Feature: a distinctive attribute or aspect of something. Category: a class or division of people or things regarded as having particular shared characteristics. Attribute: a quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or inherent part of someone or something.

We are going to use these terms: Facet for determining all UX components; attributes for all features, subfeatures and attributes in the standard, and, finally, we will use dimension for measurable quality attributes considered in ISO 2502n.

User experience and ISO standard

The facets which are implicitly considered in the standard are specified in Table 1.

Conclusions

The first topic that we want to highlight is that there are attributes which are considered in more than one UX facet. So, the non-isolation of UX facets is validated.

In addition, all standard attributes are considered by some UX facets; in fact it causes a direct relation between both facets and standard attributes.

In Table 2 we can see the amount of attributes which we detected in each facet. Despite the results of this research and as UX experts, we believe that two more facets are needed in the design or evaluation process and when other facets are applied. Both these facets could be worked in a transverse and they are called communicability [START_REF] Prates | Methods and tools: a method for evaluating the communicability of user interfaces[END_REF] and cross-cultural [START_REF] Jiang | The Perception of Cultural Differences[END_REF]. So, we can differentiate two types of facets. The parallel facets (dependability, usability, playability, plasticity, accessibility, emotional, desirable, findable and useful) are those which can be applied in an interactive system in an individual way. And transverse facets are those which could be applied at the same time as when another facet is applied.

Table 1 .

 1 UX facets considered in every ISO attribute.

			ISO/IEC 25010 : 2011	UX facets
			4.1.1 Effectiveness	Usability, Playability, Useful
			4.1.2 Efficiency	Usability, Playability
		4.1.3	4.1.3.1 Usefulness	Useful
		Satisfaction	4.1.3.2 Trust	Emotional, Playability, Desirable
	4.1 Quality in use	4.1.4 Freedom for risk 4.1.5 Context coverage	4.1.3.3 Pleasure 4.1.3.4 Comfort 4.1.4.1 Economic risk mitigation 4.1.4.2 Health and safety risk mitigation 4.1.4.3 Environmental risk mitigation 4.1.5.1 Context completeness 4.1.5.2 Flexibility	Emotional, Playability, Desirable Emotional, Playability, Desirable Dependability Dependability Dependability Usability Usability and Accessibility

Table 2 .

 2 Amount of considered attributes in each UX facet.

	UX facets	Amount of attributes	UX facets	Amount of attributes
	Dependability	19	Emotional	3
	Usability	10	Desirable	3
	Playability	10	Useful	3
	Accessibility	9	Findable	1
	Plasticity	5

Acknowledgements:

The work has been partially supported by Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the Open Platform for Multichannel Content Distribution Management research project (TIN2008-06228) and it has been partially supported by the University of Lleida for a pre-doctoral fellowship to Llúcia Masip.


Michael Smyth
email: m.smyth@napier.ac.uk

Chris Speed
email: c.speed@eca.ac.uk

Martin Brynskov
email: brynskov@imv.au.dk

Critical Design :: Is it just designers doing ethnography or does it offer something more for Interaction Design?

Keywords:

The panel will discuss the contribution of Critical Design to the field of Interaction Design and reflect on the insights that it provides on interaction.

Introduction

This panel will explore whether Critical Design offers new insight as a method for articulating future interactions. Will its promise deliver or are Interaction Designers destined to experience the same feeling of disappointment that HCI practitioners felt after the novelty of Ethnography began to fade? Will the design fictions of Critical Design mature into design facts or will the demand to solve problems short circuit the method? Indeed, is problem solving per se an out-moded way of design thinking in the context of today's multi-layered hybrid society?

The Panel :: Critical Design & Interaction Design

The panel will comprise of academic practitioners who seek to inform their thinking through practice. Each panellist will describe their research and, in particular, will focus on the value of Critical Design as it pertains to their work. The presentations will set the tone for the panel and will be designed to engage the audience in a discussion about methods through which to better understand interaction. The aim of the panel will be to address questions, such as:

• how do we extend the requirements horizon beyond existing systems in order to identify emerging themes within the field? • how do we begin to design concepts when we don't know what that design space will look like, let alone who the user population will be?

It is envisaged that the outcome of the panel session will be an increased awareness of the possible contribution of design to the requirements generation process. In particular, how Critical Design can act as a mechanism to ask questions and make us think.

Requirements generation has a strong tradition within the field of Human Computer Interaction (HCI). Numerous methods have been adopted from a variety of disciplines and these have been tailored to address the specific demands of HCI. Traditional HCI tends to take a rational, engineering focussed approach, that of problem solving, where insufficiently structured problem statements cause difficulties in arriving at appropriate solutions. Part of the resolution of this situation rests on application of methodologies that attempt to refine and clarify the problem statement itself in order to move towards appropriate systems. Interaction Design, as a more recently developed discipline, takes a more 'designerly' approach to this activity by considering both the problem and the solution in a more fluid and intertwined manner, accepting lack of situational certainty and embracing the contextual and evolutionary nature of designed systems in use [START_REF] Dorst | Design problems and design paradoxes[END_REF].

The panel will explore how design can shape strategy and set agendas for future generations of technology and design outcomes. The challenge facing such early stage concept generation is to project forward by tapping into higher level needs and desires that are often not obviously apparent. Critical Design [START_REF] Dunne | Hertzian Tales -Electronic Products, Aesthetic Experience and Critical Design[END_REF] presents design as a catalyst or provocation for thought. It is a strategy for exploring the space that lies tantalisingly beyond the current and the now. By contextualising this approach at the edges of our knowledge, it is possible to use design to create 'design fictions' [START_REF] Bleecker | A synchronicity: Design Fictions for Asynchronous Urban Computing[END_REF]. Examples of fictions will demonstrate their effect of humanising the future and thereby enabling us to focus on the minutiae of behaviour and the subsequent questions that are revealed through the exposure of our needs, desires, habits, rituals, values and priorities. At the core of Critical Design is the attempt to challenge our assumptions and preconceptions about the role that products and services play in everyday life.

In the introduction to the recent book entitled NonObject [START_REF] Lukic | NonObject[END_REF], Barry Katz described design as a means of surveying the bounds of the believable and pressing against the perimeter of the possible. This characterisation of design as a means of 'cultural research' closely parallels the aspirations of Critical Design. Indeed Lukic [START_REF] Lukic | NonObject[END_REF] views design as a way to probe the emotional space between the human and the artefact and, in a wider sense, a more complete understanding of our object world will provide a means through which we can better understand ourselves. We live in a world where everything seems possible and as a consequence have lost the sense of wonder. Maybe Critical Design is an initial step towards regaining that wonder and better understanding our own condition.


Ons Al-Shamaileh
email: alshamaileh.ons@gmail.com

Alistair Sutcliffe
email: alistair.sutcliffe@mbs.ac.uk

Antonella De Angeli
email: antonella.deangeli@disi.unitn.it

The effect of religious identity on user judgment of website quality

Keywords: User experience, user judgment, religion, brand

The paper investigates the effect of users' religious identity on their judgments of website quality. Websites related to Islamic and Christian identities were evaluated by Christian and Muslim respondents. Aesthetics, usability, service quality, pleasurable interaction, content, website identity and overall judgment were assessed, showing that respondents were more positive to the website which related to their own belief but the effect was stronger with the Muslim sample. Interviews were conducted to support the above results with a non-religious well known branded website added. Respondents provided consistent evaluations preferring the website matching their beliefs but brand identity showed to be more important than the religious identity.

INTRODUCTION

A conceptual framework for user experience has suggested that the interaction with a product gives rise to emotions, attitudes and thoughts which will influence intentions and interactions with the product used over time; claiming that user experience is affected by individual differences such as knowledge, concerns, skills, personality and physical attributes [START_REF] Beauregard | User Experience Quality: A Conceptual Framework for Goal Setting and Measurement[END_REF]. Factors such as product, user, context of use and social and cultural factors are also claimed to affect the user experience [START_REF] Arhippainen | Empirical Evaluation of User Experience in Two Adaptive Mobile Application Prototypes[END_REF]. To influence users' overall judgment, Organization brand has been shown in market related studies to have a positive effect of favorable brand on quality perceptions [START_REF] Dodds | Effects of Price, Brand and Store Information on Buyers' Product Evaluations[END_REF]. Research has covered several user characteristics and background aspects affecting website overall judgment. However, user religion as a factor affecting user experience has received little attention by researchers; further work on user religious identity is needed. This paper explores user social identity (religion) as one of the factors affecting user judgment of website quality1

METHOD

ONLINE QUESTIONNAIRES

Questionnaires explored the role of religion on user judgment of website quality. A sample of six websites from three different areas (health www.muslimhealthnetwork.org/, www.christianhospital.org/, books, www.islamicbookstore.com, www.christianbook.com and aid, www.muslimaid.org, www.christianaid.org/ ) associated to Muslim and Christian identities were randomly allocated to users. Respondents' viewed one website and evaluated it by completing an online questionnaire. 371 respondents took part in the online questionnaire, 167 respondents were Muslims; 147 were Christians, 44 atheists, 10 from other religion and three refused to declare their religion. 52% of the sample was aged 18-25, 36% aged 26-35, 7% 36-45 and 5% were older. Only responses from Muslim and Christian respondents were considered in the analysis of this study. The questionnaire was divided into three parts, website evaluation, religious commitment [START_REF] Worthington | The religious commitment inventory-10: development, refinement and validation of a brief scale for research and counseling[END_REF] and demographic information. The first part of the questionnaire consisted of several scales; classical aesthetics [START_REF] Lavie | Assessing Dimensions of Perceived Visual Aesthetics of Web Sites[END_REF], expressive aesthetics [START_REF] Lavie | Assessing Dimensions of Perceived Visual Aesthetics of Web Sites[END_REF], usability [START_REF] Lavie | Assessing Dimensions of Perceived Visual Aesthetics of Web Sites[END_REF], pleasurable interaction [START_REF] Lavie | Assessing Dimensions of Perceived Visual Aesthetics of Web Sites[END_REF], service quality [START_REF] Lavie | Assessing Dimensions of Perceived Visual Aesthetics of Web Sites[END_REF], information quality-content with a nine items was originally adapted from Bernier Instructional Design [START_REF] De Angeli | Interaction, usability and aesthetics: what influences users' preferences?[END_REF] symbolism [START_REF] Tractinsky | Exploring Attributes of Skins as Potential Antecedents of Emotion in HCI[END_REF], overall judgment and behavioral intentions. The total number of questions was 54 questions.

INTERVIEWS

Interviews were conducted to get a deeper insight of the effect of the website religious identity on respondents' evaluations. Brand was included as an additional factor in the interview study; to further examine the difference between social identity (religion) and brand. Twenty eight randomly selected respondents were interviewed. Fifteen were Muslims and thirteen were Christians, age range 22-34. Respondents viewed three websites; two were used in the survey (www.islamicbookstore.com and www.christianbook.com) with addition of a third -non religious-well known brand (http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk). Participants were then interviewed to express their preference towards each website, and to indicate the most important features affected their decision. Interviews transcripts were coded to summarize respondents' opinions.

RESULTS

Cronbach's alpha values ranged from 0.818-to 0.961 for all scales. Results showed that religious identity is a strong influence. Two-way ANOVAs; (respondents religions* websites identities) results showed that website religion had a main effect on user judgment of aesthetics, usability, service quality, pleasurable interaction, content, website identity and overall judgment, with significant interactions of the website identity and the respondent religion for all variables except aesthetics and usability. One way ANOVAs were conducted to analyze differences between Muslim and Christian websites. Results showed that there was significant difference between Muslims and Christians evaluating Muslim websites in all dependent variables except classic aesthetic and usability; while only three factors; pleasurable interaction, symbolism and service quality were significant in evaluating Christian websites.

The Christian sample showed a bimodal distribution and was divided into two groups; strong and weak believers. Using a median split; 84< 5 and were categorized as weak believers. 63 >5 and were categorized as strong believers. One way ANOVAs of the Christian respondents (strong and weak believers) showed no differences while evaluating Muslim websites. However, all scales apart from classic aesthetics and usability were significant while evaluating Christian websites. Strong Christian believers rated Christian websites higher than weak Christian believers, while the strength of religious beliefs did not have an effect when evaluating websites from a non matching identity. Respondents were asked to rank criteria according to their importance in influencing their overall judgments. Content was the most important criterion in all evaluations apart from Muslims evaluating the Christian website where usability was ranked number one and the neutral (branded) website where ID was ranked as the most important criterion. Usability was highly ranked while aesthetics and pleasurable interaction were least important.

The interview results supported the survey indicating that respondents' prefer matching identity websites. Respondents explicitly mentioned that website identity and content are the reasons of preferring the matching website rather than design quality; (Christian on a Muslim website) "everything in the website looks neutral to me apart from the content and religious identity which I consider as negative since it's not of my interest". Similarly; a Muslim on the Christian website; "I will not visit it again; good in terms of design not content". A curiosity effect appeared for Christians expressing interest in Islam as a new experience. "It is something new and everything new you become curious to see what it is about". A possible social sub identity emerged in the Christian sample where three respondents did not like the content of the matching identity website because it followed an approach that did not match their beliefs; e.g. "The content of the website is pushy and not really related to my beliefs, though I am a Christian I feel the content approach is American which is different from mine". Brand showed a strong effect on users' evaluations, 9/13 Christians and 12/16 Muslims favored branded website over websites with religious identity.

Respondents were asked to assess each criterion by indicating (positive, negative or neutral). The net ratings of criteria excluding neutral evaluations were calculated. In matching identity websites; respondents were more positive rating content and website identity in matching than in non matching identity websites. But overall; Muslims and Christians preferred the identity of the branded website which they were all familiar with.

DISCUSSION

Results showed that religion as a form of user social identity had an important effect on user judgment of website quality, which agrees with Hartmann et al. [START_REF] Hartmann | Towards a Theory of User Judgment of Aesthetics and user Interface Quality[END_REF] indicating that users' background influence the decision making process. This paper showed that websites with religious identity affected users' perception of service quality, pleasurable interaction, content, overall judgment but not usability and aesthetics. People may be separating evaluation of usability and aesthetics from identity and treating them objectively. Respondents favored matching identity websites and evaluated them more favorably than websites from other religions (both Muslims and Christians); which partially agrees with Siala et al [START_REF] Haytham | The impact of religious affiliation on trust in the context of electronic commerce[END_REF] results that only Muslims trusted matching identity websites while Christians favored neutral websites. Brand affected respondents' judgment of content, service quality, usability and aesthetics which agrees with De Angeli et al [START_REF] Angeli | The Effect of Brand on the Evaluation of Websites[END_REF] who demonstrated that people who have positive attitudes towards the website brand were more positive in the evaluation of aesthetics, pleasure and usability. This paper demonstrated clear effects of religion on user judgment of website quality with regards to the websites that has a religious identity regardless of its domain; however, some limitations should be noted. The study consisted of several measures representing opinions; these opinions may differ with intentions or actual actions i.e. respondents may have different judgment while only viewing a charity website and donating to that website.

A composite of the factors measured in this study (aesthetics, usability, service quality, pleasurable interaction, content, website identity and overall judgment)


Emanuela Mazzone
email: 1emazzone@uclan.ac.uk

Janet C Read
email: jcread@uclan.ac.uk

Russell Beale
email: r.beale@cs.bham.ac.uk

Towards a Framework of Co-Design Sessions with Children

Keywords: Interaction Design, Children, Co-Design, Framework

In this poster we present a framework of the elements of co-design sessions with children. The involvement of children in the design process is important in order to understand their needs but it is often considered a complex practice. Considering a thorough appreciation of this practice as the basis for its accurate application, we addressed its complexity in a framework. To do so, we identified and organised elements that have an impact on co-design sessions in who, where, when, what and how dimensions. This theoretical framework aims to support novice practitioners in their decisions when coordinating co-design sessions.

Introduction

A User-Centred approach is recommended in the design of novel technology for children in order to reduce the discrepancy between the system conceptual model, defined by adult designers, and the mental model of children users. Designers usually refer to cognitive development stages of children to identify the users' capabilities and skills that need to be mirrored in the product requirements, i.e. [START_REF] Antle | The CTI framework[END_REF][START_REF] Gelderblom | Designing software for young children[END_REF]. In addition to the reference to developmental models, it has become a common practice to involve children during the design and evaluation of products to make sure that the requirements are actually met. Engaging children throughout the design process can take several forms depending on the degree of participation children are allowed, from simply users to equal partners [START_REF] Druin | The role of children in the design of new technology[END_REF]. Over the last decade, there has been an increasing tendency to explore children's involvement in the early stages of the design process, i.e [START_REF] Bruckman | Human-computer interaction for kids. The human-computer interaction handbook[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Experiences obtained from designing with children[END_REF][START_REF] Williamson | The participation of children in the design of new technology[END_REF][START_REF] Sluis-Thiescheffer | Comparing early design methods for children[END_REF]. The broad term 'co-design' means that users are asked to do things, instead of only being asked about a topic or observed in specific situations; this takes the designers to a deeper level of understanding of the user's way of thinking about the world [START_REF] Sanders | Postdesign and Participatory Culture. Presented at the Useful and Critical: The Position of Research in Design[END_REF]. When it comes to children, engaging them in design activities also helps overcome the limitations that arise from their not fully developed language and social skills, while at the same time encouraging their potential for creativity and imagination.

As concluded by Nesset and Large [START_REF] Nesset | Children in the information technology design process: A review of theories and their applications[END_REF], when reviewing design projects that involved children, the advantages in terms of innovation and appropriateness of design outweigh negative factors, like cost in terms of time and resources needed. Therefore, ''the real issue would seem to be […] how to more effectively engage children in the design process'' [START_REF] Scaife | Designing for or designing with? Informant design for interactive learning environments[END_REF]. In a similar way, in a special issue of the coDesign journal, all the studies agreed on the value of including children in the early stages of design and in the decision making process, but highlighted practical difficulties and the need for guides and directions for designers and researchers who want to organise and conduct meaningful participations [START_REF] Woodcock | [END_REF]. More recently, [START_REF] Sluis-Thiescheffer | Development and application of a framework for comparing early design methods for young children[END_REF] proposed a framework for supporting the choice of certain methods by relating the characteristics of children with the characteristics of design methods. As suggested by [START_REF] Stolterman | The Nature of Design Practice and Implications for Interaction Design Research[END_REF], research that aims to support the Interaction Design practice has to be based on a deep understanding of design as a complex human activity of inquiry and action. Taking all these research directions into account, we wanted to increase the awareness of all the elements involved in a co-design session that influence its output by organising them into a framework. The framework we present in this poster is of 'explanatory' [START_REF] Rogers | A framework for designing sensor-based interactions to promote exploration and reflection in play[END_REF] as it presents concepts or dimensions to consider in designing experiences, rather than presenting a set of steps or principles to follow.

Defining a Framework

From the analysis of the research reported in the literature and from our own experience in the field [START_REF] Kelly | Bluebells: a design method for childcentred product development[END_REF][START_REF] Mazzone | Understanding children's contributions during informant design[END_REF][START_REF] Mazzone | Integrating Children's Contributions in the Interaction Design Process[END_REF] we identified elements that are determinant in codesign sessions with children and need to be considered when managing resources for gaining access to children, for running the co-design sessions or for analysing the results. We consider these elements to also play a significant role in what we identified as critical aspects for the researchers, i.e.: determining researchers' expectations of the outputs, considering children's perspectives, pondering practical constraints, dealing with not-programmed incidents, and managing sessions' outputs. Our aim is to organise the complexity of co-design with children in a way that highlights the importance of each element in the handling of a co-design session. We understand the coordination of a design session as defining the design objectives and variables to involve in the session. Once researchers identify the objectives and the available resources as initial requirements, the decisions concern all those elements involved in the experience of the session. We adopted a who-what-when-where-how (WH/HW) structure as an easy-to-remember way to group these factors, also used by [START_REF] Markopoulos | Evaluating Children's Interactive Products[END_REF] for planning evaluation sessions. The 5 WH/HW dimensions are presented as tables to summarise the implications behind the decisions on the single variables involved in the sessions 1 .

The who section includes consulting experts to support and validate the definition of activities. These experts can be teachers or developmental and educational experts whose advice is strategic for understanding children's skills and potential contribution. In the same section facilitators, like observers or assistants, are considered -these need to share the same approach on the activities, understand their role, comprehend the activity goal, and the expected output. In this respect researchers should be aware of observers' effect and countercheck possible influences this may have on children's contributions. 'Children' do not appear as a specific variable of this section: since, as they are the main focus of the design session, their perspectives are addressed in other variables (i.e. experts advice, grouping, fun, distractions, etc.). For example, grouping strategies have an effect on the session's output: working in group can provoke discussion and chaining of ideas but may inhibit more introvert children, while individual work has the side effect of taking more time or leading to less ideas [START_REF] Sluis-Thiescheffer | Development and application of a framework for comparing early design methods for young children[END_REF][START_REF] Mazzone | Understanding children's contributions during informant design[END_REF].

The where section presents hints for space location, either familiar contexts for children but less controllable for researchers, or lab-type spaces that are less natural contexts for children. Concerning space distribution, children doing activities simultaneously in the same room can save time and resources but there will be an increase of chaos and distractions.

For the when section, options are presented for time management in terms of duration of activities and tasks, inclusion of breaks, and flexibility to adapt to unexpected events.

The what section includes a table with an alphabetic list of the most common techniques used in co-design sessions for children. Each technique has a brief description of its intended aim, some examples of possible variations, identification of the design stage of application, indication of the required children's skills, and a summary of the pros and cons of its employment. The introduction of props and of variants of creative techniques is important to trigger children's ideas and adapt to children's different ways of expressing themselves.

The how section considers ethics on privacy and security issues, together with tips on the different ways to brief the activity and hints on data collection. This last point is directly related to the analysis of outputs, which is essential to determine the session's success. For example, recording the progress of children's ideas and their explanations of the outputs can facilitate researchers' afterwards interpretation.

The aim of this framework is to support novice practitioners in reflecting on the implications of each element when taking decisions and outlining a detailed plan of their session. For example, if researchers want to involve children in the design of a computer game on a specific topic, they would check with the teacher whether that topic is suitable for the selected group of children to work on, or alternatively, look for a different group of children or adjust the topic to the available group. In a different example, if researchers are looking for a wide range of inputs in a limited time, they can ponder to organise a session with a whole group of children and recruit several assistant researchers to record the outputs rather than having small groups of children at a time to explore a topic in depth.

Conclusions and Future Work

The nature of the co-design with children practice and the endless variety of design situations and approaches makes it neither feasible nor sensible to create an exhaustive checklist for supporting novice practitioners in co-design sessions with children. In line with [START_REF] Stolterman | The Nature of Design Practice and Implications for Interaction Design Research[END_REF] and [START_REF] Schön | The Reflective Practioner[END_REF] views on research on design practice, design practitioners need concepts to 'think about' rather than 'guidelines' to tick off in a prescriptive way. In this paper we have organised elements involved in co-design sessions with children according to a WH/HW structure and presented their implications for the co-design session. This framework is the result of research based on literature and direct experience in the field and it provides theoretical references to use in practice. Once it is available to other practitioners of our research group, we will gather qualitative data to evaluate its effectiveness and refine its structure. Future work may also involve the creation of a practical tool based on this framework.

See http://193.61.245.74/interact-poster.pdf for a version of the framework described here


Alain Bourmaud

David Siniscalco

Olivier Arnould

Antoine Le Duigou

Christophe Baley

Christophe Baley Flax

Flax fiber cell walls characterization by Peak-Force Quantitative Nano Mechanics technology

à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Flax fiber cell walls characterization by Peak-Force Quantitative Nano Mechanics technology

The industrial interest for vegetal bast fibers used as composite materials reinforcements increases. This tendency is explained by their low impact on the environment and their very interesting specific mechanical properties [START_REF] Lefeuvre | Tensile properties of elementary fibres of flax and glass: Analysis of reproducibility and scattering[END_REF] which make them attractive for transported applications. The tensile properties of the elementary fibers are well described in the literature [START_REF] Baley | Analysis of the flax fibres tensile behaviour and analysis of the tensile stiffness increase[END_REF], but additional information at the cell wall scale is needed to better understand the relationship between their ultrastructure and their mechanical performance. The aim of this work is to present first results from manipulations performed in atomic force microscopy (AFM) associated with PeakForce Quantitative Nanomecanique (PF-QNM) mode.

In a first step, this tool was used to demonstrate a potential mechanical stiffness gradient in flax cell wall layers, using nanoindentation as a reference measurement. First, to validate the method and explore the imaging capabilities of a stiffness gradient, PF-QNM was used on aramid fibers, well known to possess a core-skin microstructure. Then, the methodology was transferred to the flax fibers; stiffness mappings were carried out at the nanoscale, both on developing (Fig. 1) and mature cell walls.

Fig. 1. Topography (a) et cartography of indentation modulus (b) obtained on a growing flax fiber cross section

These mappings demonstrate the presence of under layers G and Gn within the secondary cell wall for developing fibers [START_REF] Gorshkova | Specific type of secondary cell wall formed by plant fibers[END_REF]; On the other hand, no mechanical property gradient could be detected in the sections of mature fibers.

In a second step, we used the PF-QNM method to better understand the impact of a thermal cycle during the manufacturing of a composite on flax cell wall mechanical properties. Previous work has shown that the mechanical performance of flax single fiber was altered from 210°C for a heating time of 8 mn [START_REF] Gourier | Mechanical analysis of elementary flax fibre tensile properties after different thermal cycles[END_REF]. In the present work, stiffness JNC 20 -Ecole des Ponts ParisTech -28-30 juin 2017 measurements were carried out both by nanoindentation and PF-QNM on flax fiber cross sections with or without polymer matrix. They allowed us to show decreases in nanoscale stiffness with thermal exposure; The latter are more pronounced when the fibers are included in a thermoplastic matrix. At the same time, a significant increase in hardness was measured by nanoindentation.

These studies validate the measurement method but also to suggest the full potential of the PF-QNM technology for the fine fiber characterization of plant cell walls. This tool provides an access to new information and open the way for many future applications.