Prince Kwame Senyo
email: pksenyo@ug.edu.gh

Kecheng Liu
email: k.liu@henley.ac.uk

Lily Sun
email: lily.sun@reading.ac.uk

John Effah
email: jeffah@ug.edu.gh

Evolution of Norms in the Emergence of Digital Business Ecosystems

Keywords: Digital business ecosystem, business ecosystem, norms, organisational semiotics, import-export ecosystem

As digital business ecosystems emerge from traditional business ecosystems, norms evolve or remain. However, less is known about evolution of norms in relation to digital business ecosystems. Norms are rules that govern behaviour; as such they drive activities in business ecosystems. Therefore, this paper uses Ghana's import-export ecosystem to trace the evolution of norms when traditional business ecosystems transition to digital business ecosystem in order to understand which norms change or remain and the reasons that account for the changes.

Introduction

Business Ecosystem (BE) is a network of interdependent organisations with shared goals to co-create [START_REF] Iansiti | Strategy as Ecology[END_REF] value. BE can be traditional or digital. While interactions in traditional BEs (TBEs) rely on direct business to business communication, that of digital business ecosystems (DBEs) is based on an integrated dynamic organisational network supported by the Internet [START_REF] Nachira | A network of digital business ecosystems for Europe: roots, processes and perspectives[END_REF]. As DBEs emerge from TBEs, norms may evolve or remain. Norms are rules or standards that guide activities [START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -A semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF]. Hence, their evolution when TBEs transition to DBEs is an important phenomenon for information systems and organisational research.

Even though BE have witnessed some studies (e.g., [START_REF] Nachira | A network of digital business ecosystems for Europe: roots, processes and perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Adner | Match your innovation strategy to your innovation ecosystem[END_REF][START_REF] Ceccagnoli | Cocreation of value in a platform ecosystem: the case of enterprise software[END_REF][START_REF] Li | The technological roadmap of Cisco's business ecosystem[END_REF]) in information systems research, less attention has been paid to evolution of norms. Therefore, this study contributes to BE research by investigating how norms evolve when DBEs emerge from TBEs. The rest of this paper is organised as follows. Section 2 discusses related works on TBE and DBE. Section 3 presents organisational semiotics models, namely organisational onion and morphology as theoretical lenses for this study. Section 4 presents a case study of Ghana's import-export ecosystem to demonstrate emergence of a DBE from a TBE and how norms evolve or remain after the transition. Section 5 concludes the paper and presents directions for future research.

2

Related Works

Traditional Business Ecosystem

The traditional use of the term BE [START_REF] Moore | Predators and prey: a new ecology of competition[END_REF] describes interdependency among organisations in a network. BE is analogous to biological ecosystem [START_REF] Iansiti | Strategy as Ecology[END_REF]. However, one feature that distinguishes BE from its biological counterpart is the shared goal of value co-creation, which is beyond the scope and capabilities of individual partners. As a network of organisations, TBEs need to be guided by norms that regulate the behaviour of partners.

The interactions among partners in TBEs are mostly direct organisation to organisation communication without centrality of the Internet [START_REF] Razavi | From Business Ecosystems towards Digital Business Ecosystems[END_REF]. However, with the emergence of the Internet, some TBEs have evolved into DBEs [START_REF] Nachira | A network of digital business ecosystems for Europe: roots, processes and perspectives[END_REF].

Digital Business Ecosystem

DBE is an organisational network that enables digital collaboration [START_REF] Nachira | A network of digital business ecosystems for Europe: roots, processes and perspectives[END_REF]. However, the main distinguishing feature of DBE from TBE is the centrality of digital network infrastructure in the interaction of its partners. Following the transition of some TBEs to DBEs, much focus of related research has been on architecture redesign [START_REF] Nachira | A network of digital business ecosystems for Europe: roots, processes and perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Razavi | From Business Ecosystems towards Digital Business Ecosystems[END_REF], new areas of practical application [START_REF] Adner | Match your innovation strategy to your innovation ecosystem[END_REF] and regulatory issues [START_REF] Tsatsou | Towards a taxonomy for regulatory issues in a digital business ecosystem in the EU[END_REF]. For example, Razavi et al. [START_REF] Razavi | From Business Ecosystems towards Digital Business Ecosystems[END_REF] investigate the evolution of TBEs to DBEs and focused on how static TBE hubs are converted to dynamic DBE hubs. However, evolution of norms in the emergence of DBE from TBE is yet to receive the necessary attention in information systems and organisational research. This study therefore focuses on evolution of norms when DBEs emerge from TBEs.

Organisational Semiotics

Organisational semiotics is a branch of semiotics that studies organisations as information systems made up of collection of signs. A sign itself is anything that stands for something to someone [START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -A semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF]. Creation and use of signs are subject to norms as rules or standards that shape organisational activities. This study draws on two organisational semiotics models; the organisational onion and the organisational morphology, to analyse the evolution of norms when TBEs transition to DBEs.

Organisational Onion

The organisational onion categorises norms into informal, formal and technical [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF] as shown in Fig. 1. Informal norms represent unstructured and undocumented rules or standards. On the other hand, formal norms are documented bureaucratic rule or standards. Technical norms represent formal norms that have been digitized [START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -A semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF]. Both the informal and formal norms are carried out in the physical domain while technical norms are carried out within the digital domain [START_REF] Effah | Virtual Process Control Modelling in Organisational Semiotics: A Case of Higher Education Admission[END_REF]. This study draws on the organisational onion to analyse evolution of informal, formal and technical norms as TBEs transition to DBEs.

Organisational Morphology

Organisational morphology (Fig. 2) classifies behavioural norms into substantive, communication and control norms [START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -A semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF]. First, substantive norms define core activities of organisations. Second, communication norms concern exchange of information among organisational actors. Third, control norms monitor and regulate substantive as well as communication norms. This study draws on the organisational morphology to analyse norm evolution from physical to digital domains in terms of substantive, communication and control norms.

Behavioroual Norms

Evolution of Ghana's Import-Export Digital Ecosystem

This section presents the case of the transition of Ghana's import-export ecosystem to DBE. Given the complexity of the whole import-export system, the current focus of this paper is on the import ecosystem, which is used to illustrate norm evolution from TBE to DBE.

The Import Traditional Business Ecosystem

Until 2000, the import ecosystem was traditional.

Control

T7

Customs was required to send review and verification report to the importer.

Communication T8

An import was required to pay import duties at the bank. Substantive T9

The bank was required to notify Customs of payment. Communication T10

A Customs official was required to physically examine consignment.

Control T11

Consignment was required to be released after physical examination Substantive

The Import Digital Business Ecosystem

In 2000, the import ecosystem transitioned from TBE to DBE. As a result, an electronic integrated digital platform was deployed. Table 2 shows the behavioural norms, types and domain under the emerged DBE.

Evolution of Norms from TBE to DBE

To address the research purpose, this section presents the evolution of norms when a DBE emerge from a TBE. Norms T1, T2, and T3 in Table 1 on physical purchase, submission and notification of import valuation under the TBE continued as D1, D2, and D3 in Table 2 under the emerged DBE. The reason for the continuance is that the law that required submission of physical forms has not yet been revised to enable submission of electronic documents. Norms T8 and D8 on payment of import duties in Table 1 and 2 respectively also did not evolve. The reason for their continuance is the unavailability of a national electronic payment system in Ghana. Under both the TBE and the emerged DBE, norms T10 and D10 in Table 1 and 2 respectively on physical examination of consignment also did not evolve. The reason for their continuance is to check the deliberate act of importers to under-declare value of goods in order to pay less import duties. However, norms T4 and T5 in Table 1 on physical purchase and submission of Customs import declaration forms under the TBE evolved into D4 and D5 in Table 2 where importers were now required to log into the digital platform, complete and submit Customs import declaration forms as well as other supporting documents. In the same vein, norms T6 and T7 in Table 1 on physical review and verification of import documents under the TBE as well as sending review report to the importer also evolved into D6 and D7 in Table 2 respectively where these norms are now carried out on the digital platform. As such, Customs officials use the digital platform to electronically review, verify and validate import related documents and also send review reports to the importers digitally. Norm T9 in Table 1 on physical notification of Customs of duty payments under the TBE evolved to D9 in Table 2 under the emerged DBE. As such, banks were now required to send digital payment notifications to Customs. Under the TBE, norm T11 in Table 1 on physical release of consignment evolved into norm D11 in Table 2 under the emerged DBE where after physical examination, the consignment is released digitally to end the import process.

Comparing the evolving of the behavioural norms following the emergence of the DBE from the TBE, it was evident that most communication norms have easily evolved from informal and formal to technical norms. On the other hand, substantive and control norms required more restructuring such as change in legislation as well as development of national information and communication technology infrastructure to enable transition from the physical to the digital domain.

Conclusion and Future Works

The aim of the study was to analyse which norms evolved and which ones remained as well as the reasons for the changes. This study points out that as TBEs evolve to DBEs so will their norms. This study reemphasizes that all norm types may evolve during the transition. However, communication norms are the easiest to digitize during the transition from TBE to DBE. This study also acknowledges the importance of a nation electronic payment systems and technology infrastructure as well as appropriate legislation in developing country context to facilitate the transition of norms. These knowledge facilitate better understanding and reconfiguration of norms when DBEs emerge from TBEs. Again, this knowledge provides practitioners with understanding of norms that can or cannot be migrated to digital domains and the factors that can constrain the transition to DBE. However, one key consequence of the evolving of norms from TBE to DBE is the issue of availability of the digital platform. Future research call is made to consider the conceptualization and actuality of norms in DBEs. We also call for further studies from the developed world perspective and other digital ecosystems to understand how contextual factors shape norm evolution in TBE to DBE transition.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1.Organisational onion[START_REF] Effah | Virtual Process Control Modelling in Organisational Semiotics: A Case of Higher Education Admission[END_REF]

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Organisational morphology[START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -A semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF]

Table 1 .

 1 The members included importers, shipping lines, Customs, banks, logistics companies, Ministry of Trade and Industry (MOTI), Destination Inspection Companies (DICs) and the Ghana Port and Harbour The norms that guided activities in the TBE were physical. Table1shows the behavioural norms and their types. Norms under the import traditional business ecosystem

	Informal Norms (Physical)
	Formal Norms (Physical)
	Technical Norms
	(Digital)

Table 2 .

 2 Norms under the import digital business ecosystem

	Norm #	Norm Definition	Norm Type	Domain
	D1	An importer is required to purchase IDF from MOTI.	Substantive	Physical
	D2	An importer is required to submit the IDF to a DIC.	Communication Physical
	D3	A DIC is required to send FCVR to the importer.	Communication Physical
	D4	An importer must complete Customs import declaration form	Communication Digital
		on the digital platform.
	D5	An importer must submit FCVR, shipping manifest and bill of	Communication Digital
		lading to Customs through the digital platform.
	D6	Customs must review, verification and validation documents	Control	Digital
		submitted by importer.
	D7	Customs must send review and verification report to importer	Communication Digital
		through the digital platform
	D8	An import must pay import duties at the bank.	Substantive	Physical
	D9	The bank must notify Customs through the digital platform.	Communication Digital
	D10	Customs officials must physically examine consignment.	Control	Physical
	D11	Consignment must be released electronically after examination. Control	Digital


Maria Carolina

Souza Santos

Bruna Da Silva

Magalhães Bertãozini

Vania Paula

Almeida Neris

Studies in Organisational Semiotics: A Systematic Literature Review

Keywords: Organizational semiotics, Semiotics, Systematic literature review

Organizational Semiotics (OS) is a discipline that supports analyzing and modeling organizations as Information Systems (IS). This paper investigates the use of OS theories in studies published in the last five years, aiming to identify how researchers have been employing the OS theory and the current approaches derived from OS. In this sense, we conducted a systematic review in four scientific databases. Starting with an initial set of 91 papers, we selected 53 for this review. The results suggest almost twenty new modeling approaches using OS artifacts and ideas. Moreover, the number of publications has been increasing and publications have occurred in several different journals and conference proceedings.

Introduction

Organizational Semiotics (OS) is a discipline that emerged around 1973, and it aimed at analyzing and modeling organizations as Information Systems (IS). The pioneers of this discipline, such as Stamper [START_REF] Stamper | Information in Business and Administrative Systems[END_REF] and Liu [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF], have developed methods, techniques and approaches grounded in Peircean Semiotics [START_REF] Pereira | Value Pie: A Culturally Informed Conceptual Scheme for Understanding Values in Design[END_REF] focused on organizations. Therefore, they have inspired other authors to adopt these methods, techniques, and approaches in different IS and to develop new approaches based on OS theories.

This paper investigates the use of OS theories in studies published in the last five years, aiming to identify how researchers have been employing the OS theory and the current approaches derived from OS. To achieve this aim, we searched first the main methods, techniques, frameworks grounded on OS theories and published before 2011, and we named them as OS approaches. Thus, we have followed a systematic literature review process that consists of three key stages: planning, conducting, and reporting the review. In addition, we have defined and applied the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Afterward, we have extracted the data and synthesized them to answer the research questions.

Conducting the Review

With respect to searching, selecting, as well as reviewing the papers, we conducted the activities during December 2015 to January 2016. The preliminary searching returned 91 papers. Following, we describe the number of hits in each database: ACM retrieved two papers, IEEEXplorer retrieved three papers, ScienceDirect retrieved three papers, and SpringerLink retrieved 83 papers. Applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, we excluded 36 hits in the first review of titles, abstracts and keywords. Further, we did not find duplicated papers. However, we excluded two non-full papers. Consequently, we considered 53 papers to extract data.

Results

We summarized the data by tabulating results against stated questions. Due to space limitation, the complete set of extracting data for each question is not included in this paper.

How Do Researchers Employ OS Theory?

Concerning the data extraction question numbers 3 and 4, we describe summarily how authors adopted OS theory:

Semiotic Onion (SO): The majority of the authors used the SO to identify the informal, formal and technical norms, and to represent and comprehend the information systems, the rules and stakeholders' needs [START_REF] Chen | Incorporating Semiotics into Fuzzy Logic to Enhance Clinical Decision Support Systems[END_REF][START_REF] Chidzambwa | The social considerations for moving health services into the home: A telecare perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Effah | Virtual Process Control Modelling in Organisational Semiotics: A Case of Higher Education Admission[END_REF][START_REF] Effah | Virtual Process Modelling Informed by Organisational Semiotics: A Case of Higher Education Admission[END_REF][START_REF] Ferreira | Analyzing Barriers for People with Hearing Loss on the Web: A Semiotic Study[END_REF][START_REF] Hayashi | Introducing New Technology in Educational Contexts: Schools as Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Jensen | An Interaction Design Method to Support the Expression of User Intentions in Collaborative Systems[END_REF][START_REF] Ketabchi | A Pattern for Structuring the Information System Architecture -Introducing an EA Framework for Organizing Tasks[END_REF][START_REF] Pereira | On the Relationships between Norms, Values and Culture: Preliminary Thoughts in HCI[END_REF][START_REF] Pereira | Values and Cultural Aspects in Design: Artifacts for Making Them Explicit in Design Activities[END_REF][START_REF] Pereira | Value Pie: A Culturally Informed Conceptual Scheme for Understanding Values in Design[END_REF]. For instance, SO helped to identify socio-technical barriers that arise in the domain of integrated digital television (iDTV) [START_REF] Buchdid | Socio-Technical Barriers Induced by the Design of Emerging Technologies[END_REF]. Concerning the design solutions, [START_REF] Pereira | A value-oriented and culturally informed approach to the design of interactive systems[END_REF] shows the development of a model to suggest solutions through artifacts which analyze, synthesize and evaluate the informal, formal and technical layers, respectively. In addition, Liu et al. [START_REF] Liu | Assessing Pragmatic Interoperability of Information Systems from a Semiotic Perspective[END_REF] used the SO as a dimension of the Pragmatic Interoperability Measurement Model. Furthermore, this dimension illustrates how an integrated system works. Concerning human values, [START_REF] Pereira | Seeing Social Software Analysis and Evaluation through the Lenses of Culture[END_REF] presents a way to identify values according to SO levels.

Semiotic Framework (SF): It usually supports the elicitation and formalization of the requirements of each SF level [START_REF] Buchdid | Creating an iDTV Application from Inside a TV Company: A Situated and Participatory Approach[END_REF][START_REF] Jensen | An Interaction Design Method to Support the Expression of User Intentions in Collaborative Systems[END_REF][START_REF] Neris | Designing tailorable software systems with the users' participation[END_REF]. Furthermore, researchers developed frameworks (e.g. Semiotic interoperability framework [START_REF] Li | Semiotics in Interoperation for Information Systems Working Collaboratively[END_REF]) and proposed a set of methods (e.g. NormEST [START_REF] Moawad | Knowledge elicitation and representation in a normative approach-a case study in diagnosis of plant diseases in Egypt[END_REF]) that deal with the six levels of SF in an information system. Additionally, the authors used SF to bring social aspects into smart manufacturing [START_REF] Yao | Emerging manufacturing paradigm shifts for the incoming industrial revolution[END_REF], and to support the understanding, design, and analysis of Web systems [START_REF] Ferreira | Analyzing Barriers for People with Hearing Loss on the Web: A Semiotic Study[END_REF]. Also, they used the six levels of the SF as criteria to compare the existing evaluation frameworks for information systems integration [START_REF] Liu | Evaluation Frameworks for Information Systems Integration: From a Semiotic Lens[END_REF]. Concerning the data lifecycle, [START_REF] Hornung | Challenges For Human-Data Interaction -A Semiotic Perspective[END_REF] showed a way to use the six layers in the different stages of the data lifecycle and with different stakeholders, consequently they could map design issues or questions that make the data lifecycle more explicit. Regarding the interoperability, [START_REF] Liu | Assessing Pragmatic Interoperability for Process Alignment in Collaborative Working Environment[END_REF] developed the concepts of semiotic interoperability ground on the SF.

Semantic Analysis Method (SAM): It assists the identification of ontological dependence on information systems and the generation of ontology charts [START_REF] Buchdid | Clarifying the Situational Context of a TV Company towards the Design of iDTV Applications[END_REF][START_REF] Ferreira | Eliciting Accessibility Requirements for People with Hearing Loss: A Semantic and Norm Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Moreira | A Semiotic Based Method for Evaluating Automated Cockpit Interfaces[END_REF][START_REF] Piccolo | Designing to Promote a New Social Affordance for Energy Consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Reis | Addressing universal access in social networks: an inclusive search mechanism[END_REF][START_REF] Reis | Prospecting an Inclusive Search Mechanism for Social Network Services[END_REF][START_REF] Xu | Applying Organizational Semiotics for Developing Knowledge-Based Cost Estimation of Construction Project[END_REF]. For instance, researchers could represent the possible patterns of behaviors in Clinical Pathway and their relationships in an OC, which delineates the boundary of concern in the analysis and defines the meaning of terminology used in the clinical pathway model [START_REF] Tehrani | Semiotics-Oriented Method for Generation of Clinical Pathways[END_REF]. In addition, researchers used the SAM to produce a stable ontology of the context that describes the semantic aspects of the signs shared in a Social Network Services (SNS) [START_REF] Reis | Beyond the Social Search: Personalizing the Semantic Search in Social Networks[END_REF].

Norm Analysis Method (NAM):

The authors usually use NAM to eliciting and formalizing norms [START_REF] Buchdid | Clarifying the Situational Context of a TV Company towards the Design of iDTV Applications[END_REF][START_REF] Chidzambwa | The social considerations for moving health services into the home: A telecare perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Effah | Virtual Process Control Modelling in Organisational Semiotics: A Case of Higher Education Admission[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | A Design of Business-Technology Alignment Consulting Framework[END_REF][START_REF] Moreira | A Semiotic Based Method for Evaluating Automated Cockpit Interfaces[END_REF][START_REF] Neris | Designing tailorable software systems with the users' participation[END_REF][START_REF] Piccolo | Designing to Promote a New Social Affordance for Energy Consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Xu | Applying Organizational Semiotics for Developing Knowledge-Based Cost Estimation of Construction Project[END_REF]. For instance, [START_REF] Tehrani | Semiotics-Oriented Method for Generation of Clinical Pathways[END_REF] used NAM to extract and analyze patterns of care activities and informal safety norms that affect patient safety outcomes. Researchers also adopted NAM to identify norms of the production and consumption of Web content [START_REF] Ferreira | Eliciting Accessibility Requirements for People with Hearing Loss: A Semantic and Norm Analysis[END_REF]. In [START_REF] Neris | Designing tailorable software systems with the users' participation[END_REF], the authors elicited different interface representations through NAM and participatory practices. Consequently, they defined and implemented several norms that represent the system tailorable behavior. Likewise, NAM helped to identify substantive activities in the university's postgraduate admission process [START_REF] Effah | Virtual Process Modelling Informed by Organisational Semiotics: A Case of Higher Education Admission[END_REF].

Problem Articulation Methods (PAM): The authors used PAM to reduce the complexity of the system and to clarify the problem [START_REF] Gulliver | Changing building user attitude and organisational policy towards sustainable resource use in healthcare[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | An Evaluation Framework for Migrating Application to the Cloud: Software as a Service[END_REF]. For instance, PAM artifacts, such as Stakeholder Analysis, Evaluation Framing, and Semiotic Framework, helped to elicit interested parties in the prospective Learning Design software tool, and anticipate possible problems and propose solutions [START_REF] Arpetti | Eliciting Requirements for Learning Design Tools[END_REF].

Evaluation Frame (EF): Researchers usually used the Evaluation Framing to identify the interests, questions, and problems of each stakeholder according to the three problem levels, based on SO, in participatory practices [START_REF] Buchdid | Creating an iDTV Application from Inside a TV Company: A Situated and Participatory Approach[END_REF][START_REF] Ferreira | Analyzing Barriers for People with Hearing Loss on the Web: A Semiotic Study[END_REF]. For instance, Buchdid et al. [START_REF] Buchdid | Creating an iDTV Application from Inside a TV Company: A Situated and Participatory Approach[END_REF] proposed to participants to fill in the EF artifact in order to think about possible important issues related to the different stakeholders and the way they could affect the project.

Stakeholder Analysis (SA): It supported researchers to elicit stakeholders, their roles, responsibilities and their impact on the different organizations organization [START_REF] Ketabchi | A Pattern for Structuring the Information System Architecture -Introducing an EA Framework for Organizing Tasks[END_REF][START_REF] Neris | Designing tailorable software systems with the users' participation[END_REF].

Stakeholder Identification Diagram (SID):

The authors used SID because different stakeholders bring different perspectives to the innovation being proposed, and have different interests, views, needs, values, and culture [START_REF] Pereira | Values and Cultural Aspects in Design: Artifacts for Making Them Explicit in Design Activities[END_REF][START_REF] Pereira | A value-oriented and culturally informed approach to the design of interactive systems[END_REF]. In [START_REF] Buchdid | Creating an iDTV Application from Inside a TV Company: A Situated and Participatory Approach[END_REF]¸ participants filled in the SID artifact in participatory workshops. As a result, the SID allowed researchers to observe that only people immersed in the situated context can measure the importance of some stakeholders.

Authors of other papers have mentioned the adoption of OS theories. However, these authors did not explicitly specify the employed artifacts [START_REF] Bonacin | Pragmatic Aspects of Collaborative Problem Solving: Towards a Framework for Conceptualizing Dynamic Knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Bonacin | Understanding Pragmatic Aspects with Social Values in Web-Mediated Collaborative Systems[END_REF][START_REF] Buchdid | Designing an IDTV Application in a Situated Scenario: A Participatory Approach Based on Patterns[END_REF][START_REF] Buchdid | Designing iDTV Applications from Participatory Use of Patterns[END_REF][START_REF] Buchdid | You Can Interact with Your TV and You May Like It an Investigation on Persuasive Aspects for an iDTV Application[END_REF][START_REF] De Carvalho Correia | Syntactic/Semantic Formalizations and Metrics of Residential Applications Based on Gestural Interface[END_REF][START_REF] Cordeiro | A New Way of Modelling Information Systems and Business Processes -the NOMIS Approach[END_REF][START_REF] Ferreira | Interfaces cérebro-computador de sistemas interativos: estado da arte e desafios de[END_REF][START_REF] Gonçalves | Providing adaptive smartphone interfaces targeted at elderly people: an approach that takes into account diversity among the elderly[END_REF][START_REF] Maike | Designing Natural User Interfaces Scenarios for All and for Some: An Analysis Informed by Organizational Semiotics Artifacts[END_REF][START_REF] Mendes | Prototipação de interfaces tangíveis de produtos interativos: estado da arte e desafios da plataforma arduino[END_REF][START_REF] Prado | Capturing Semiotic and Social Factors of Organizational Evolution[END_REF][START_REF] Suurmond | Information Systems and Sign Systems[END_REF][START_REF] Suurmond | Sign Systems, Information Systems, and Engineering[END_REF][START_REF] Suurmond | The Business of Business Modeling[END_REF].

What Are New Approaches Derived from OS?

Considering DE5, we briefly present new methods, artifacts, and frameworks based on OS concepts.

eValue [START_REF] Pereira | Considering values and cultural aspects in the evaluation of interactive systems prototypes[END_REF]: This artifact aims to evaluate interactive systems or their prototypes through a value-oriented and culturally aware. The authors developed this artifact on the grounds of OS theory [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF] and the Building Blocks of Culture [START_REF] Hall | The silent language[END_REF].

Value-oriented and Culturally Informed Approach (VCIA) [START_REF] Pereira | A value-oriented and culturally informed approach to the design of interactive systems[END_REF]: This approach supports the design of interactive systems and involves a set of artifacts (e.g. SID and eValue). The authors developed it on the grounds of the OS theory [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF], the Building Blocks of Culture [START_REF] Hall | The silent language[END_REF], and the Socially Aware Computing view for design [START_REF] Baranauskas | Social awareness in HCI[END_REF][START_REF] Baranauskas | Socially Aware Computing[END_REF][START_REF] Baranauskas | Design -Indicating Through Signs[END_REF].

Web Ontology Design Aided by Semiotics (WODAS) [START_REF] Reis | Addressing universal access in social networks: an inclusive search mechanism[END_REF]: This method supports the construction of representative Web ontologies. The authors developed it on the grounded of Semantic Web technologies (Web ontology) combined with OS concepts and methods to identify the users' profile and language.

Decision Making Method for SAAS Adoption (DEMSA) [START_REF] Tan | An Evaluation Framework for Migrating Application to the Cloud: Software as a Service[END_REF]: This method supports the decision making process for Software as a Service (SaaS) adoption. The method adopts PAM.

InDIE [START_REF] Jensen | An Interaction Design Method to Support the Expression of User Intentions in Collaborative Systems[END_REF]: This method supports the production and validation of the design solutions with end-users in an interactive and iterative process. The authors adopted OS theory such as SA and SF. [START_REF] Liu | Assessing Pragmatic Interoperability of Information Systems from a Semiotic Perspective[END_REF]: The approaches help to measure pragmatic interoperability from two dimensions including six aspects (informal, formal, technical, substantive, communication, and control). The authors adopted the SO and the organization morphology.

Pragmatic Interoperability Analysis Framework and Pragmatic Interoperability Measurement Model

A Semiotic-Based Approach for Search Personalization in SNS [START_REF] Reis | Beyond the Social Search: Personalizing the Semantic Search in Social Networks[END_REF]: This approach provides means to discover as well to distinguish the meanings used by people at the SNS through the agents represented into Ontology Charts.

PLuRaL [START_REF] Neris | Designing tailorable software systems with the users' participation[END_REF]: This framework supports the design of tailorable applications. It adopts a sociotechnical approach and a comprehensive view of interaction requirements. The authors included OS approaches in the pillars of PLuRaL such as SA, SF, SAM, and NAM.

SCPS-based manufacturing framework [START_REF] Yao | Emerging manufacturing paradigm shifts for the incoming industrial revolution[END_REF]: This framework integrates the social, cyber, and physical systems as a whole, and allows producers/customers/users to collaborate on product design and development. The authors propose a framework from the SF.

Semiotically Inspired Fuzzy Clinical decision support systems (CDSSs) Framework [START_REF] Chen | Incorporating Semiotics into Fuzzy Logic to Enhance Clinical Decision Support Systems[END_REF]: This framework allows describing medical domain concepts contextually and reasoning with vague knowledge. The authors adopted the SO and SF.

Valuation Framing for Social Software (VF4SS) [START_REF] Pereira | Interaction design of social software: Clarifying requirements through a culturally aware artifact[END_REF]: This artifact supports designers in the identification and understanding of the cultural dimensions of a product. The authors developed it based on Valuation Frame.

NormEST [START_REF] Moawad | Knowledge elicitation and representation in a normative approach-a case study in diagnosis of plant diseases in Egypt[END_REF]: This tool provides an intuitive development interface that makes it easy to create Knowledge-Based Systems. It also provides deep considerations of the SF levels that permitted to relate the system user interface to the processes and social practices of the users.

Semiotic interoperability framework [START_REF] Li | Semiotics in Interoperation for Information Systems Working Collaboratively[END_REF]: This framework supports the assessment of organization's interoperability level to identify organization's requirement towards comprehensive interoperation. The authors developed this framework based on SF.

Semantics-Oriented Method for Generation of Clinical Pathways (SOG-CP) [START_REF] Tehrani | Semiotics-Oriented Method for Generation of Clinical Pathways[END_REF]: This method supports the generation of clinical pathways, and adopts SAM and NAM.

NOrmative Modelling of Information Systems (NOMIS) [START_REF] Cordeiro | A New Way of Modelling Information Systems and Business Processes -the NOMIS Approach[END_REF]: This approach aims to improve modeling objectivity and precision. The authors adopt a new ontology named Human Relativism, proposing a new vision of IS composed of different views inspired by ideas from OS, and defining a new modeling notation and a set of diagrams to represent NOMIS vision and views.

A Framework for Conceptualizing Dynamic Knowledge [START_REF] Bonacin | Pragmatic Aspects of Collaborative Problem Solving: Towards a Framework for Conceptualizing Dynamic Knowledge[END_REF]: This framework supports an exchange of human "messy" knowledge into shared useful information. The research explored two scenarios: VilanaRede (a SNS) and Yahoo! Answers. The authors adopted NAM.

Value Pie [START_REF] Pereira | Value Pie: A Culturally Informed Conceptual Scheme for Understanding Values in Design[END_REF]: This artifact supports designers to identify values in the context of social software. The authors created Value Pie based on OS and Building Blocks of Culture [START_REF] Hall | The silent language[END_REF].

Semiotic Cockpit Evaluation Method (SCoEM) [START_REF] Moreira | A Semiotic Based Method for Evaluating Automated Cockpit Interfaces[END_REF]: This method consists of a checklist where each affordance and norm is evaluated with the artifacts that support the agent's action. In the development, the authors adopted NAM and SAM.

Value Identification Frame (VIF) [START_REF] Pereira | Values and Cultural Aspects in Design: Artifacts for Making Them Explicit in Design Activities[END_REF]: This artifact aims to identify the values related to different stakeholders. The authors use SID to help the system that is being designed.

Where Have These Studies Been Published?

In response to DE6, the systematic review results (Table 1) showed that authors published almost all papers (88%) in conference proceedings. In addition, the authors published more in conferences that focus on information systems such as ICISO (20%) and ICEIS (13%).

Discussion and Conclusion

The results suggest that slightly more than a quarter of the papers (15 out of 53) employed the SO in order to identify and comprehend the three levels of norms within an information system. Moreover, it was possible to note that 23% of papers (12 out of 53) employed NAM due to eliciting, analyzing and formalizing norms in different types of ISs. Besides, less than one-fifth of the papers employed Semiotic Framework (10 out of 53) and SAM (9 out of 53). In addition, we noticed that few studies employed PAM, Evaluation Frame, Stakeholder Identification Diagram (all, 3 out of 53), Stakeholder Analysis (2 out of 53), Valuation Frame and Semio-Participatory framework (both, 1 out of 53). However, less than one-third of the papers (15 out of 53) do not explicitly describe the OS approach used. Thus, we could not determine which Organizational Semiotic methods and artifacts those researchers have employed. Somewhat more than one-third of the papers (19 out of 53) describe a new approach derived from OS ideas. In general, these new approaches support the design process and the evaluation of a product, the assessment of the interoperability in an IS, and the identification and understanding of the cultural dimensions of a product. Therefore, researchers have been engaged in creating new approaches based on organizational semiotics to find solutions in different natures of IS.

Regarding to the number of publications in the last five years, we found that the number of publications that use OS concepts has been increasing.

For practice, this review showed the significance of OS to improve the business process, elicit requirements for interface design, understand the nature of different IS, and to create an appropriate approach to design, implement and evaluate IS. In addition, we consider this paper as the basic starting step for future researchers interested in understanding the concepts and applicability of OS, its traditional approaches, and the most current approaches. Furthermore, this review suggests to the research community a small picture of current advances in the OS studies.

Table 1 .

 1 Number of papers by journals and conferences proceedings.

	Conference / Journal	Acronym No. of papers
	IFIP WG 8.1 Int. Conf. on Inform. and Semiotics in Organ.	ICISO	11
	Int. Conf. on Enterprise Information Systems	ICEIS	7
	Int. Conf. on Human-Comp. Interaction	HCII	5
	Int. Symp. on Business Modeling and Software Design	BMSD	3
	Int. Conf. on Design, User Experience, and Usability	DUXU	3
	Int. Conf. on Information Society	i-Society	3
	Int. Conf. on Logistics, Informatics and Service Science	LISS	3
	European Conf. on Technology Enhanced Learning	EC-TEL	2
	J. Health Policy and Technology	HPT	2
	Brazilian Symp. on Hum. Factors in Comp. Systems	IHC	2
	Int. Conf. on Universal Access in Human-Comp. Interaction	UAHCI	2
	J. Universal Access in the Information Society	UAIS	2
	Int. Conf. on Advanced Information Systems Engineering	CAiSE	1
	IFIP WG 6.11 Conf. on e-Business, e-Services, and e-Society	I3E	1
	Int. Joint Conf. on K. Discov., K. Engin. and K. Manag.	IC3K	1

How Many Papers Using OS Have Been Published Since 2011 Per Year?

  In response to DE7, Table2presents the number of papers published each year since 2011. It is possible to notice that the number of publications that use OS concepts has almost increased three times in the last five years.

Table 2 .

 2 Number of papers published per year

				Year
		2011	2012	2013	2014	2015
	No. of papers	6	7	12	13	17


Heiko Hornung

Roberto Pereira
email: rpereira@inf.ufpr.br

M Cecilia
email: cecilia@ic.unicamp.br

C Baranauskas

Meaning Construction and Evolution: a Case Study of the Design-in-Use of a System for Inclusive Education Teachers

Keywords: Meaning construction, Meaning evolution, Pragmatics, Humancomputer interaction, Interaction design

Evolution in the digital technologies has changed the way people interact with others mediated by those devices. In this paper, we argue that systems design needs to go beyond the meaningful interaction of people with computational systems, and include meaningful interaction among people that is mediated by computational artefacts, by rules and norms that guide people's actions, as well as by culture, values, and intentions. This paper presents a case study of design-in-use of a system for inclusive education teachers. The design process for the system is participatory and based on Organisational Semiotics, i.e., explicitly considers collaborative meaning construction and negotiation. We illustrate and discuss examples of meaning construction and evolution from the perspective of interface and interaction design.

Introduction

There are different theoretical and methodological frames of reference for understanding, studying and designing for "meaningfulness". The notion of what constitutes "meaningful interaction" in a system, as well as what constitutes the "system" in which this interaction happens, and what or who takes part in this interaction have changed over the years. Consequently, the notion of how a system mediates interaction has also changed, making the subject even more relevant to research about Information Systems (IS) and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). Digital technology has permeated all aspects of life [START_REF] Bødker | When Second Wave HCI Meets Third Wave Challenges[END_REF]. People use devices of a wide variety of forms in a wide variety of contexts or situations. When designing an application or a system, the traditional definitions of "user" and "task" do not hold up anymore. "Users" today have diverse characteristics and diverse motives for using applications, consequently "tasks" can no longer be seen in a singular context. For instance, a simple app for managing a to-do list might be used by a team of professional software developers for project managing or by a single user for creating a shopping list. "Meaningfulness" in this case relates to people's practices, and design needs to focus on facilitating these practices. Systems design then needs to go beyond the meaningful interaction of people with computational systems, and include meaningful interaction with people, i.e., interaction mediated by computational artefacts, by rules and norms that guide people's actions, as well as by people's culture, values, and intentions.

In this paper, we present the case of a system that is being designed-in-use with its users and other stakeholders since 2010. After briefly describing the context in which this system is being created, we present and discuss examples of meaning construction and evolution from the perspective of Pragmatics [START_REF] Hornung | Interaction Design in the Pragmatic Web -Reducing Semiotic Barriers to Web-mediated collaboration[END_REF] and Values [START_REF] Pereira | A value-oriented and culturally informed approach to the design of interactive systems[END_REF].

2

Todos Nós em Rede (TNR; English: "All of Us Networked")

In the last decade, the Brazilian public policies for inclusion of disabled students in regular schools created the Specialized Educational Services (SES). The SES services regulate and provide support for teachers' activities with students in multifunctional resources rooms, i.e., special rooms in regular schools equipped with specialized resources [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF]. In order to qualify professionals in this field, teachers from all over the country started specialization courses through e-learning environments. These courses had a limited period of duration and, after them, teachers are alone in their places for accomplishing their daily activities.

The case study presented in this paper is situated within the context of the research and design project named "Redes Sociais e Autonomia Profissional"1 (English: "Social Networks and Professional Autonomy"). This project investigates how to facilitate continuing learning of teachers in the field of inclusive education in Brazil's public school system and how to support them in their professional activities. Within the project, TNR2 ("Todos Nós em Rede", English: "All of Us Networked") is a system where inclusive education teachers can socialize, share experiences and discuss matters related to work practices. As of February 2016, the TNR system has more than 800 registered users. More than 1400 contents (articles, documents, questions, pictures) were shared by teachers and received around 4000 comments. TNR is being designed according to the socially-aware process outlined in [START_REF] Baranauskas | Social awareness in HCI[END_REF]. Cornerstones of this process are stakeholder participation during all stages of design and semio-participatory practices that are informed by Organisational Semiotics [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF] and Participatory Design [START_REF]Participatory Design: Principles and Practices[END_REF]. During these practices, stakeholders construct and negotiate meanings [START_REF] Baranauskas | Social awareness in HCI[END_REF].

The core research and design team comprises professors, researchers and PhD/MSc students from Unicamp's Faculty of Education and Institute of Computing, as well as inclusive education teachers from different parts of the country. For some activities, people with necessary skills are temporarily brought into the project, e.g., the team already collaborated with a journalist, a lawyer, and a Web developer. When the project started in 2010, inclusive education teachers were recruited by sending a questionnaire to a list of registered special education teachers. From the about 300 respondents, 28 have been invited. One selection criterion was the access to and use of technology (computer, smartphone, etc.) and software such as e-mail, social networks, or other online communication systems. All 28 teachers, who are geographically dispersed all over Brazil, accepted the invitation. One reason for the selection criterion was that access and use of computers and online systems was deemed the most viable option for participatory activities. Given the continental dimensions of Brazil, bringing in all members to regular face-to-face meetings is not practical. Another reason for the selection criterion was that digital inclusion was not the focus of the project.

The project started without limiting possible outcomes, i.e., at the beginning, it was not clear that the computational system that is part of TNR would be developed. The main guiding principle was the objective to promote professional autonomy of inclusive education teachers by creating a system for socializing, sharing experiences and discussing matters related to inclusive education work practices. The main input for understanding teachers' work practices was given by a university course offered by the Ministry of Education where a 5-step process was taught, and by the diverse local practices of inclusive education teachers, which varied from ad-hoc processes using no or low-tech tools to custom-structured processes using e.g., electronic spreadsheets or mind maps. All participating teachers had attended the course offered by the Ministry of Education.

Along the first 4 years of the project, we conducted various synchronous and asynchronous online activities as well as two face-to-face one-day workshops. Details of the project and the process have been described in [START_REF] Pereira | A value-oriented and culturally informed approach to the design of interactive systems[END_REF]. In the following, we present aspects related to meaning construction and evolution, taking a perspective informed by Pragmatics and Values.

Meaning Construction and Evolution in TNR

Inclusive education teachers provide attendance to children with special needs in order to facilitate their participation in regular classes. A core practice of this attendance is the so-called "case discussion" which comprises elements such as understanding the specific requirements of a child for participating in regular class, the elaboration of an attendance plan, as well as the implementation and evaluation of this plan. At the outset of the project, different understandings of the "case discussion" practice existed. Some of the team members from the Faculty of Education had participated in the creation of the university course offered by the Ministry of Education. The course is a representation of the practice as understood by the course creators. The course attendants in turn constructed their understandings of the practice, which probably differed somewhat from the understanding of the creators, given that the course was delivered via an online learning platform with tools that differed from the tools the participants usually had access to. Furthermore, the course was supported by monitors and tutors as well as by course schedules that e.g., determined when to proceed from one phase of the attendance process to the next. Transitions between phases were linear. In actual practice, teachers adopt different methods that vary from unstructured ad-hoc methods with limited tool use to more structured approaches with computational support tools.

In order to understand how inclusive teachers would use a collaborative online system for case discussions, we created prototypical practices where teachers explored and evaluated existing systems regarding the way they could support their professional activities. Four practices were created, and each practice discussed a case based on real cases submitted previously by the participants. The 28 participating teachers conducted the case discussions sequentially during a four to six-week period in existing online systems that afforded different styles of textual communication (a question-answer system, a forum-like system, a system with tool support for explicit meaning construction, and a blog-like system with social networking elements). The case discussions were a rich source of information where teachers gave their feedback by: i) interacting through the systems in order to solve fictitious cases; ii) answering evaluation questionnaires for each system, pointing out features they liked, disliked, missed, etc.; and iii) participating in semi-structured online interviews.

Analyses of aspects related to pragmatic meanings of the four prototypical case discussions revealed how the four different systems influenced the case discussion in different ways [START_REF] Hornung | Interaction Design in the Pragmatic Web -Reducing Semiotic Barriers to Web-mediated collaboration[END_REF]. A pragmatic function analysis showed that the participants employed a limited set of illocution types in the question-answer system (mainly affirmations), which hints at a conversation style that might be less beneficial to critically analysing a case and to learning from a case discussion than a conversation in which also valuations or inducements occur.

The analyses also revealed individual differences in practice conduction, e.g., a preference towards a linear sequence of discussion phases versus a parallel elaboration of phases [START_REF] Hornung | Interaction Design in the Pragmatic Web -Reducing Semiotic Barriers to Web-mediated collaboration[END_REF], and cultural values related to the teachers' practices [START_REF] Pereira | A value-oriented and culturally informed approach to the design of interactive systems[END_REF]. Concepts like collaboration, reputation and privacy were clarified and understood as values with meanings substantially different from the researchers' initial views. These values influenced the way teachers reacted to different features of the systems and to others' behaviour promoted or inhibited by each system. E.g., in a system that permitted synchronous and collaborative editing, teachers revealed a strong valuation for authorship, disapproving editing of "their" content by others and requiring the individual contribution to be preserved.

The users did not conclude the case discussion (phase four in the process) in three of the four systems. We attributed this to a certain artificiality of the discussions: although cases were based on actual cases and experience of the participants, there was no real "case owner" who had an interest of pushing the discussion forward.

The four prototypical practices also revealed an evolution of practice ( [START_REF] Bonacin | Pragmatic Aspects of Collaborative Problem Solving: towards a Framework for Conceptualizing Dynamic Knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Hornung | Identifying Pragmatic Patterns of Collaborative Problem Solving[END_REF] for more detailed analyses). During the last prototypical practice, which was conducted in the least formal blog-like system, the count of "non-substantial" messages with a socializing intent was highest. It is unknown whether this was due to participants getting to know each other better, or due to the lower level of formality of the system.

All the material produced during the previous activities was synthesized and discussed by the researchers and the teachers in a face-to-face workshop. Once a common understanding about the system and its requirements was achieved, participatory practices were conducted to generate different proposals for implementing the solution. These proposals inspired the design of the TNR system, including the development of "Nossos Casos" (Portuguese for "Our Cases"), an area within TNR to facilitate case discussions. Goals of designing "Nossos Casos" included allowing flexible practice and evolution of practice, as well as simplifying the process compared to the discussion taught in the university course. Formulating these goals was a result of the analyses described in the previous paragraph and the follow-up interviews. Although one goal was to enable flexibility, another goal was to provide some structure, since we perceived that the discussions through the previously described systems that provided no or little structure had a tendency to peter out.

Structure is provided by separate tabs for separate moments of the case discussion, clearly demarcated areas for content about the case and comments/discussions of this content, and by some form fields in the content area (Fig. 1). Flexibility is provided by the freedom to fill in and discuss content in the tabs in any order or to even not use some of the tabs. Most of the form fields are optional, and none has restrictions regarding input formats. Furthermore, there are very few explicit, technical norms or rules for conducting the discussion, e.g., the content area can only be edited by the case creator and all registered users can participate in the discussion through nonanonymous comments.

Fig. 1. Flexible structure in Nossos Casos

Fig. 2 summarizes the meaning evolution of "case discussion", i.e., the different answers to the question of how to discuss a case. The gray areas symbolize that there are many alternative ways to conduct a case discussion. A horizontal line represents a way to discuss a case. Regarding the diverse, local practices at the top and the prototypical practices at the bottom of the figure, different ways might exist in

Tabs for different moments of case discussion

Free-form fields Separation of case content and discussion parallel, independent of each other, or be created as a branch or variant of an existing way. It is also conceivable that two ways of discussing a case converge. The introduction of Nossos Casos possibly makes new ways to discuss cases possible, hence the expansion of the gray area.

Fig. 2. Timeline of different ways to discuss cases

Case discussions in the context of the university course are conducted in exactly one way, as prescribed in the course curriculum ("exactly one way" is a simplification, since instructors and other factors have an influence on the conduction). The definition of this type of case discussion is inspired by the diverse local practices. It probably has an influence on further local practices, although we did not conduct a study to investigate whether this influence exists and how it alters actual practice conduction. The university course practice directly and explicitly influenced the design of Nossos Casos. We have no data to answer the question whether it also influenced the use of Nossos Casos.

The four prototypical practices existed only during a well-defined interval in time. The practices were informed by the formal, linear process of the university course and the diverse local practices "in the wild". While the first prototypical practice allowed only one way to discuss a case (an exchange of questions by the case owner and answers by the participants), the other three practices allowed for some variance. The prototypical practices influenced the design of Nossos Casos. Since the number of teachers participating in the prototypical practices was small compared to the number of users in the TNR system, the influence of these practices on the use of Nossos Casos is negligible if existent at all.

We conducted other activities of explicit shared meaning construction and negotiation during the project, for example during the creation of the "Terms of Use" and the "Charter of principles". Both Terms of Use and the Charter of Principles were elaborated during an iterative process of discussions among researchers and project participants within the TNR system. The Charter of Principles was a result of the discussion of the Terms of Use. A value-driven analysis of this discussion revealed values such as autonomy or collaboration that the participants felt should be made explicit in order to influence the constitution of the culture of interaction within the system. The Charter of Principles was also made available as the system home page for non-logged-in users.

Discussion

As illustrated by the "Nossos Casos" tool presented in this paper, meaning construction and negotiation starts at choosing the theoretical and methodological frame of reference, which in our case is based on and inspired by Organisational Semiotics [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering[END_REF][START_REF]Participatory Design: Principles and Practices[END_REF], Participatory Design [START_REF]Participatory Design: Principles and Practices[END_REF], Activity Theory [START_REF] Kaptelinin | Acting with Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design[END_REF], the Building Blocks of Culture [START_REF] Hall | The Silent Language[END_REF] and [START_REF] Baranauskas | Social awareness in HCI[END_REF][START_REF] Hornung | Interaction Design in the Pragmatic Web -Reducing Semiotic Barriers to Web-mediated collaboration[END_REF][START_REF] Pereira | A value-oriented and culturally informed approach to the design of interactive systems[END_REF]. These frames of reference are compatible with the view that meaning construction is a participatory and bottom-up process. Had we employed other frameworks that for example subscribe to an objectivist world view, the design of Nossos Casos would have been different and probably resulted in a tool with less flexibility and more explicit formal and technical norms.

Defining which stakeholders participate in which way and identifying stakeholder representatives has repercussions on meaning construction. Had we recruited teachers from our home state where smartphone diffusion and cell phone signal coverage are considerably higher than in many other parts of the country, the result might have been a mobile platform with dramatically different characteristics regarding meaning construction. Defining the stakeholders also has an influence on which values will be prioritized. For instance, although accessibility affects teachers directly, it was not a concern they manifested, but identified by Education and Computer Science researchers. Similarly, autonomy is another value directly related to teachers, but it was a concern manifested by researchers in the Education field. Teachers are used to adopt a narrow range of activities and approaches to the different cases face; researchers hope that by exchanging ideas and experiences, teachers may become more proactive and creative in their day-to-day work, developing and adopting new practices and activities. Furthermore, it is also desired that teachers become more autonomous using computer technology as they gain experience with the designed system. Had we ignored the existence of other key stakeholders, the results might have been an oversimplified system offering what the teachers already new or learnt during the practices.

Starting with prototyping practices in existing systems instead of prototyping user interfaces contributed significantly to keeping the design space wide open and facilitated the investigation of meaning construction of and about the "case discussion". This kind of prototyping evidenced explicit and implicit meaning making, explicit during follow-up interviews and implicit during the case discussions. Of course, this kind of prototyping has its limitations, e.g., the cases proposed for the practice within TNR had no case owner in the sense of a person who experienced the situation at the time of the practice and who would have a personal interest in concluding the case. However, the benefit of seeing prototypical practice right at the beginning of the process instead of having to wait to create a working prototype of a system safe enough to discuss the highly sensitive cases of children with special needs greatly outweighed the limitations.

Collaborative meaning construction and evolution does not necessarily result in meanings uniformly shared by all stakeholders. As described in the previous subsection, Nossos Casos permits different ways of conducting a case discussion, and users in fact use the tool in different ways. Interestingly, at the time of writing this paper, many users use Nossos Casos in ways that are different from what the team of researchers, designers and end-user representatives understood would be good practice. For example, with very few exceptions, case owners do not post an attendance plan (tab "Elaboração" in Fig. 1) or provide feedback about attendance (tab "Acompanhamento" in Fig. 1). This does not mean that the teachers do not use attendance plans or do not document the attendance of a child; they just do not (yet) use Nossos Casos for these activities. Using a system in a way different than that intended by the designers or developers is called appropriation in HCI vocabulary [START_REF] Dix | Designing for appropriation[END_REF] and often considered a positive phenomenon. In TNR, appropriation is desired to some extent, although the participating researchers desire that eventually as many teachers as possible converge to an understanding of inclusive education and of how to discuss cases similar to theirs.

Inclusive education is a polemical subject and it would most probably not be feasible, much less desired, to design a system that imposes or even enforces the researchers' views. In terms of affordances and norms, the question arises how to design a system that allows for different understandings of affordances and different, maybe even conflicting norms, but that enables meaning evolution and convergence towards shared norms.

The strategy employed during the design of Nossos Casos in order to allow different understandings of affordances and different norms in parallel can be summarized as follows (Fig. 3): involve different stakeholders, conduct participatory design and prototypical practices in order to get a grasp of the diversity of understandings of a case, a case discussion and related concepts; restrict the use of explicit formal norms in order to promote diverse practices; and restrict constraints of the technical system in order to enable diverse practices.

Fig. 3. Strategies for allowing different understandings and promoting convergence [2]

Our strategy for promoting convergence towards shared understandings is anchored at the informal level. It involves dialogue with users within the technical TNR system, e.g., involving discussions in the comment sections of content, as well as outside, e.g., involving personal visits at teachers' schools and homes. This strategy is in line with the view that meaning construction in TNR is a participatory and bottom-up process.

The success of strategies for allowing different understandings can be evaluated within a relatively small time frame conducting pragmatics-driven content analyses (e.g., [START_REF] Hornung | Identifying Pragmatic Patterns of Collaborative Problem Solving[END_REF]) or qualitative analyses of group discussions or interviews (e.g., a comment during a group session: "These are different realities. And sometimes a small nudge from a colleague who made the comment above yours [in the Nossos Casos tool] already makes you think in other things. It's a support. Various ideas."). We believe that in general, these analyses can be conducted by evaluators with little domain knowledge and good knowledge in content analysis methods, e.g., in the TNR case, these evaluations were conducted by HCI-specialists experienced in different qualitative research methods. On the other hand, the success of strategies for promoting convergence of different meanings, at least in the TNR case, requires a much more cost-intensive, longitudinal approach and the involvement of domain experts. In the case of TNR this means to evaluate the success of continuing learning processes, which is a topic with many open research challenges.

Another important open question is how methods for problem understanding can support design for pluralistic meaning constructing and possible convergence more explicitly. In our case, the adoption of Organizational Semiotics and its epistemological position facilitated the consideration of these topics. HCI's "design for appropriation" might also provide some pointers. However, we believe that the design of TNR and Nossos Casos might have been more a result of the research team than that of the used methods. Many methods for problem clarification end with a single problem statement. A suggestion might be to investigate whether and how problem clarification might generate diverse or multi-faceted problem statements.

Conclusion

We presented a case of a system designed for and with inclusive education teachers, to illustrate how meaning construction and negotiation occurred during design and use, and how user practices and design were interrelated. We illustrated and discussed how pragmatic aspects affected the design of a tool to support teachers' practices.

We illustrated the importance of understanding the stakeholders' cultural context in its broadest sense. When dealing with concepts such as reputation or authorship, the cultural context explains why these concepts are desirable and necessary to different stakeholders. The conducted practices revealed situations where the lack of understanding about why such concepts are important to teachers could have led to the design of features that would not make sense to them, or that would trigger a negative impact on their interaction. They also revealed important and necessary design decisions that would not be made if other stakeholders had not been put into consideration.

We showed how meaning construction and evolution is a bottom-up process, and that at any point different interpretations of an issue might exist. These different interpretations might but do not necessarily have to converge. Designing systems that permit diverging meanings and promoting convergence of meanings poses methodological challenges that start with the problem clarification and definition. Diverging and converging meanings in TNR appeared in different uses of the Nossos Casos tool. In general, this problem is relevant to lifelong learning systems and other domains of creative problem solving. We described possible strategies anchored at the different levels of an information system. Further work is required to evaluate and refine these strategies and to identify additional ones.

http://www.nied.unicamp.br/tnr

http://tnr.nied.unicamp.br

Acknowledgments. We thank our colleagues from InterHAD and LEPED, and the teachers participating in this project. This work is supported by CNPq (grant 308618/ 2014-9) and FAPESP (2014/01382-7; 2013/02821-1), and is part of a project approved by Unicamp Institutional Board on Ethics (CAAE 0647.0.146.000-11).


Abdulla Alhefeiti
email: a.alhefeiti@pgr.reading.ac.uk

Keiichi Nakata
email: k.nakata@reading.ac.uk

A Preliminary Study on Information Sharing Practice Between Police and Private Security Companies in the United Arab Emirates

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The current security system in the private security companies' regulatory department (PSCRD) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) suffers from inconsistency and inefficiency in communication and information sharing with the private security companies (PSCs). These failings hinder collaborative policing. Therefore, this paper focuses on information sharing practice to support collaboration in policing with the help of PSCs for managing crime prevention and safety. The information sharing within various departments in police is studied in literatures and issues are identified. [START_REF] Kitchen | Privatizing security, securitizing policing: the case of the G20 in Toronto[END_REF]. On the other hand, the empirical data shows that the mechanism of sharing information does not really work properly and it needs to be improved to fit with the requirements of the effectiveness of information sharing. This is according to S4 "The mechanism of information sharing is required to link all sources in one system while providing a precise context and there is need to have a central call control centre where all security information is coordinated."

Activity Theory

Activity theory helps to provide a broad conceptual framework in order to explain the complex development, context, and structure of computer-based activities. It also supports PSCRD and PSCs working on three tenets that ensure its effectiveness [START_REF] Engestrom | Objects, contradictions and collaboration in medical cognition: an activity theoretical perspective[END_REF]. In the theory, there are aspects of modular actions, molar activity, and the components of the two [START_REF] Avis | Engeström's version of activity theory: a conservative praxis?[END_REF]. As a result, it is important to intervene in socially situated practices for offering concrete solutions [START_REF] Avis | Engeström's version of activity theory: a conservative praxis?[END_REF]. According to this theory, observing a realistic situation enables information gathering to identify the conditions of action and implementation [START_REF] Engestrom | Objects, contradictions and collaboration in medical cognition: an activity theoretical perspective[END_REF]. For this reason, it comes out that using a conditioning tool will aid in acquiring this information for use. It provides the theoretical perspective of unification of the computer-human interaction.

Implications on the Design of Information Architecture to Support Information Sharing

The study highlights some obstacles to effective information sharing in the police in the UAE, and the mechanism of information sharing between the PSCRD and PSCs is generally considered ineffective. Therefor, designing Information Architecture (IA) is needed, with further study on the exact processes in sharing information. IA can be described as a collection of design artefacts appropriate for illustrating an object so that it can be produced to suit various requirements and be maintained over time during its useful life [START_REF] Buckl | Using enterprise architecture management patterns to complement TOGAF[END_REF]. IA can be defined as established regulations that determine the manner, the form and the place where data will be gathered from, kept, processed, and shared and eventually how it will not only be presented but also used. From its definition, information architecture is an imperative for improving and classifying communication, particularly in cases where secrecy is deemed to be very central, such as in the police force control room [5].

The implication of this study is that it is necessary to design IA, which will improve the mechanism of information transference within the police and PSCs, while also supporting the information exchanged between PSCRD, and PSCs.

Limitations and Future Work

The attempt has been made to find a suitable method to be proposed and validated by conducting interviews with members of these stakeholders. Basically appropriate technology must be used depending on the need of each issue.

It is important that there are some limitations in this evaluation of the ineffective aspects of the information sharing mechanism within the police and PSCs. One variable is that both sectors have different motivation and purposes as they perform their activities. For example, the police mainly exist to serve the public security whereas PSCs exist for the profit motive in particular. Consequently, the subject of delegating rights to private security concerns that are motivated by profits is an area for future consideration and research. Furthermore, to evaluate how the findings from fieldwork substantiate the requirements of IA. This can help produce a prototype that illustrates how the given information ought to be transformed on a screen as the user proceeds while navigating through the task.


Sunday C Eze
email: eze.sunday@lmu.edu.ng

Yanqing Duan
email: yanqing.duan@beds.ac.uk

The Role of Actors in the Adoption of Emerging ICT in SMEs: An Actor Network Theory Analysis

Keywords: SMEs, ICT adoption, Actor Network Theory, Technology adoption

This paper aims to understand the role of actors in the adoption of emerging Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) using Actor Network Theory (ANT). The use of ANT helps to identify a diverse range of actors and their role and influence in the dynamic process of emerging ICT's adoption in UK Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). This study adopts a qualitative approach to investigate how UK services SMEs are engaged in emerging ICT adoption by focusing on the role of actors in the process. Data were gathered through unstructured and semi-structured interviews with managers, IT experts, government agencies, and customers. Using ANT, the roles of various human and non-human actors at a four-stage dynamic adoption process are examined. The findings reveal the critical and dynamic roles of various actors in the socio-technical network. Although SME managers play the decisional role in emerging ICT adoption, their views and decisions are constantly influenced by various other human and non-human factors. The roles and interactions of all actors are dynamic depending on the adoption stages.

Introduction

Although emerging ICT applications offer great opportunities, their successful adoption faces challenges by SME managers and their long-term viability is often uncertain due to the fact that small businesses operate in much more volatile environment with little support on new technology adoption. Very often various stakeholders influence the adoption outcomes. Although ICT adoption has received extensive attention from various researchers, most of research focuses on the factors affecting ICT adoption by treating ICT adoption as a static decision making event and there has been very limited inquiries on how the various actors exert influences that may encourage or inhibit adoption [START_REF] Cavusoglu | Information technology diffusion with influential, imitators and opponents[END_REF]. This research aims to better understand role of diverse actors and their influences in emerging ICT adoption process in UK service SMEs using Actor Network Theory (ANT). This study adopts a qualitative approach aiming to gather rich data. The empirical data collected through interviews are used to first establish a dynamic adoption process that has been published in [START_REF] Eze | Examining emerging ICT's adoption in SMEs from a dynamic process approach[END_REF]. Based on the process of emerging ICT adoption, this study provides further analysis on the dynamic roles of actors and their key influences at each stage of dynamic adoption process.

This study is theoretically underpinned by ANT because it offers a suitable lends for our investigation and understanding. ANT admits that actors are not restricted to only human beings; rather it is based on how strong the association between human and non-human actors is and tracing such association to a source. Overall, the strength of ANT in understanding ICT adoption lies in its emphasis on studying both the human and non-human entities [START_REF] Latour | Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory[END_REF]. The key ANT concepts of inscription, translation, framing and stabilization are adopted for the study.

The research employed a two-round data collection process using unstructured (first round) and semi-structured (second round) interviews. In the first round, the interviewee sample was generated from an online data base and 65 participates were contacted randomly, of which 11 participants were interviewed. In the second round, 15 semi-structured interviews were conducted with a range of key human actors identified from the first round of interviews.

Key Findings and Conclusion

Using ANT to examine the process of emerging ICT adoption has helped to unveil the dynamic nature of ICT process and the roles of diverse actors involved in the social-technical network of technology adoption. A number of important findings are emerged from our analysis using ANT as a theoretical lens, including 1. Actors' roles are not static, but dynamic, they plays different roles at the different adoptions stage; 2. Both human and non-human actors influence and are influenced by each other; 3. SMEs managers are the key actor and play a dominant role in influencing and be influenced by non-human actor, i.e. emerging ICT in this context. Overall, emerging ICT adoption has moved from a simple adopters' participation process to involving various actors that constantly interact and influence the process. The findings not only advance our knowledge and understanding on the dynamic nature of emerging ICT adoption and the roles of diverse actors, but also help small business managers to be more strategic and proactive since the adoption of emerging ICT is becoming more challenging. The main limitation of this study is the small sample size used in the data collection due to the nature of qualitative approach. Therefore the key findings can be further validated across a wider population using a mixed method of qualitative and quantitative approaches.

© IFIP International Federation for Information Processing 2016 Published by Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016. All Rights Reserved M.C.C. Baranauskas et al. (Eds.): ICISO 2016, IFIP AICT 477, pp. 234-236, 2016. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-42102-5


Fabien Lauer

MLweb: A toolkit for machine learning on the web

This paper describes MLweb, an open source software toolkit for machine learning on the web. The specificity of MLweb is that all computations are performed on the client side without the need to send data to a third-party server. MLweb includes three main components: a JavaScript API for scientific computing (LALOLib), an extension of this library with machine learning tools (ML.js) and an online development environment (LALOLab) with many examples.

Introduction

MLweb is an open source software toolkit for machine learning on the web available at http://mlweb.loria.fr . A number of web-based commercial solutions exist to enable web applications with machine learning capabilities. These are often server-based: both training and predictions are performed by the server with data and results traveling across the Internet to the client upon request. This model is particularly suitable for the "big data" challenge, where heavy computing resources are needed. However, this also raises issues regarding for instance the privacy of data or the offline use of the prediction models. In addition, such a computing model relies on expensive computing infrastructures and leaves a number of individuals or nonprofit organizations without an easy and free access to machine learning capabilities. On the opposite, MLweb focuses on these issues (privacy, offline use, accessibility to non-experts and affordability at the individual level).

With these goals in mind, MLweb develops machine learning tools for the web in which all computations are performed on the client side, i.e., in the browser. Such a client-side approach has the direct combined benefits of privacy and offline use, since no data, models or predictions need to travel across the network. However, there is currently a lack of machine learning software following that approach, except for a few libraries dedicated to some specific algorithm (see, e.g., [START_REF] Karpathy | Convnetjs: Deep learning in your browser[END_REF] for deep learning). Other open-source alternatives with a broader scope like scikit-learn [START_REF] Pedregosa | Scikit-learn: Machine learning in Python[END_REF] that might satisfy privacy and accessibility constraints do not work on the web and do not offer the possibility to develop applications easily distributed on the Internet without requiring users to 1 go through a complex installation procedure. On the opposite, MLweb just works on many platforms without requiring any installation step. For teaching or communication purposes, this can be used to easily set up an interactive demonstration of a (possibly novel) learning algorithm while ensuring that it is accessible from anywhere (even tablets and smartphones). Other potential uses include applications for which privacy might be more valuable than efficiency, or where the network or server constitutes the efficiency bottleneck.

Software Framework

MLweb includes three main components described below: a client-side web API in JavaScript for scientific computing (LALOLib), an extension of this library with machine learning tools (ML.js) and an online development environment (LALOLab). It also comes with an online help including many examples and an extended documentation in the form of a webbook.

MLweb uses only two third-party libraries, glpk.js for linear programming and JSZip for easy data compression. They are both automatically downloaded when installing from the source code and fetched when necessary when using the online executables.

LALOLib: a Linear Algebra Online Library

LALOLib is a Linear ALgebra Online Library written in JavaScript to enable scientific computing in web pages. JavaScript is the standard language for web applications, which is both very versatile and platform-independent. However, as a non-compiled language, it was not made for computation-intensive tasks and few numerical libraries exist. LALOLib attempts to fill this gap with both ease of use and efficiency in mind. With LALOLib, many common linear algebra, statistics and optimization operations are made available to the web page. A script within the page can for instance compute the singular values of a random matrix with X = rand(200,300); singularvalues = svd(X);

This example directly calls LALOLib functions, providing an easy access to their results. However, such a synchronous approach blocks the page (and freezes the browser) until the functions return. To maintain the responsiveness of the web application, LALOLib also provides an asynchronous mode based on callbacks.

A comparison of LALOLib with other JavaScript libraries [3,[START_REF] Loisel | Numeric javascript[END_REF][START_REF] Miura | Miljs : Brand new javascript libraries for matrix calculation and machine learning[END_REF] shows that LALOLib is both the most comprehensive and the most efficient library for linear algebra.

Indeed, the two JavaScript libraries math.js [3] and numeric.js [START_REF] Loisel | Numeric javascript[END_REF] provide basic scientific computing support. However, they both lack important features such as sparse solvers, eigendecomposition, singular value decomposition (SVD) (for math.js) or statistics (for numeric.js). In terms of performance, they are also 1. This drop in performance is partly due to the choice of matrix representation based on an Array of Arrays. While this provides easy access to the entries of a matrix A with A[i][j], it has two major issues. First, operations on Arrays are not easily optimized by the browser, since the size of the Array can change and its entries are not typed. 1 Second, for each row, this creates an Array, which is a complex object that must be handled by the garbage collector. As a result, a matrix with many rows implies significant slow downs at every garbage collection cycle.

To avoid these issues, LALOLib stores matrix entries in a single Float64Array, i.e., a typed array with fixed size for which browsers offer a much more interesting level of optimization. Sushi [START_REF] Miura | Miljs : Brand new javascript libraries for matrix calculation and machine learning[END_REF] also implements a more efficient matrix representation and multiplication. But it can be less accurate for more complex tasks, since it uses 32-bits floats (Float32Array) instead of 64 bits. In addition, default tolerance constants are set to large values, which results in large errors when solving linear systems or computing an SVD. Also note that Sushi does not provide functions for solving linear systems, and we had to explicitly compute the matrix inverse in the experiments of Table 1. Despite the fact that MLweb targets small to moderate scale data sets, it has been developed with efficiency in mind, both at the coding level and in the choice of techniques implemented for the learning algorithms. While a JavaScript application cannot compete in terms of speed with a compiled code written for instance in C, Table 2 shows that MLweb still yields reasonable computing times for moderate size data sets. Note that these performances could not have been obtained with straightforward re-implementations of the algorithms due to the specificities of the JavaScript engines running (and optimizing) the code in the browsers.

ML.js: a JavaScript Library for Machine Learning

In addition to standard training algorithms, MLweb includes automatic tuning procedures based on cross-validation and grid search or more advanced model selection techniques involving for instance regularization paths or fast kernel matrix updates2 . Finally, models trained on large data sets with, e.g., LibSVM [START_REF] Chang | LibSVM: a Library for Support Vector Machines[END_REF] or MSVMpack [START_REF] Lauer | MSVMpack: a multi-class support vector machine package[END_REF], can also be easily loaded to make online predictions.

LALOLab: a Linear Algebra Online Lab

LALOLab3 is an online development environment in the flavor of Matlab based on the scientific computing library LALOLib. It also includes the functionalities of ML.js by default and can easily be extended with more. LALOLab accepts commands or scripts written in JavaScript or an easy to grasp Matlab-like syntax, e.g., Illustrative examples are provided with the help of most functions and links to a webbook explaining machine learning topics in more details are also included. This provides a convenient platform to experiment with MLweb.

Extending MLweb

MLweb is to provide the basic building blocks for machine learning on the web together with a solid implementation of a few baseline methods rather than an exhaustive library of algorithms. Therefore, it was made to be easily extended with additional toolboxes. This can be done with different levels of expertise depending on the desired efficiency and the nature of the new features. For instance, a toolbox can be written with the Matlab-like syntax of LALOLab and easily converted into JavaScript by clicking a button in LALOLab. If more efficiency is needed, the documentation provides a set of guidelines to avoid common pitfalls and write faster code. Storing the resulting source file in the toolboxes folder and running make finishes to include the toolbox in LALOLab.

Conclusions

MLweb provides an efficient JavaScript implementation of basic functions for numerical computing together with a solid basis of machine learning tools for the web. MLweb will continuously be extended with new features and learning algorithms. We are also considering the now experimental features of the JavaScript language regarding shared-memory parallel processing in order to benefit from multi-cores architectures in a transparent manner for the user.

  ML.js extends LALOLib with easy to use machine learning functions for classification, regression, clustering and dimensionality reduction. For instance, the code model = new Classifier(SVM, {kernel: "rbf", kernelpar: 2.5, C: 10}); model.train(X,Y); label = model.predict(x); creates a new support vector machine classifier and trains it on examples stacked as rows in X and labeled by Y. Then, the classifier is used to predict the label of x. All classification and regression methods enjoy a unified interface with functions for training, prediction, test, tuning and cross-validation.

  x = randn(10) // generate a random vector A = randn(100,10) // generate a random matrix y = A*x + 0.01*randn(100) xhat = A \ y // solve the linear system Ax = y (min_x ||Ax -y||)

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: LALOLab web interface.

Table 1 :

 1 Comparison of the computing time (in milliseconds) for various standard operations obtained with Firefox 41 on a laptop with an Intel i7-3540M CPU at 3GHz. The meaning of the operations is as follows with all matrices having random entries. Matrix creation: create 10 matrices of size 10000 × 100. Matrix multiply: multiply a 20000 × 100 matrix by a 100 × 100 matrix. Square linear system: solve a square system with 500 variables. Least squares: Solve an overdetermined system with 10000 rows and 200 columns in a least square sense. Sparse least squares: same as least squares but with 2000 columns and only 20% of nonzero coefficients. SVD: compute the thin SVD of a 300 × 200 matrix. Eigendecomposition: compute the eigendecomposition of a 50 × 50 real and symmetric matrix. Details on the precise functions used can be found in the source of the page at http://mlweb.loria.fr/benchmark/index.html .

	Operation	LALOLib math.js numeric.js Sushi
	Matrix creation	59	151	1923	73
	Matrix multiply	429	3854	1420	545
	Square linear sys-	98	1179	158	577
	tem
	Least squares	667 > 12000	10905	1751
	Sparse least squares	235	N/A	N/A	N/A
	SVD	272	N/A	484	388
	Eigen-	24	N/A	6661	N/A
	decomposition

behind LALOLib, in particular for large matrices, as can be seen from Table

Table 2

 2

	: Training time (in seconds) on random (or well-known) data sets of
	size #examples×dimension obtained with Firefox 53 on a laptop with an Intel
	i7-3540M at 3GHz. These experiments can be reproduced by running examples
	in LALOLab.
	Method	Data set size	Time
	Least squares regression	100000×1000	8.5
		100000×1000 (sparse)	3.0
		100000×2000 (sparse)	6.9
	LASSO	442×10 (diabetes)	0.3
		10000×100	5.1
		1000×500	14.5
	LARS	442×10 (diabetes)	0.01
	entire regularization path	1000×500	3.2
		5000×500	13.4
	Kernel ridge regression	2000×1000	2.8
		5000×1000	17.4
	SVM classification (rbf)	1300×18 (image seg.)	12.2
	(tuning C and σ over a 5 × 10
	grid)
	SVM (one-vs-all, rbf)	500×256, 10 classes (usps)	0.5
	Crammer&Singer multiclass-	500×256, 10 classes (usps)	61.4
	SVM (rbf)
	K-nearest neighbors (tuning	500×256, 10 classes (usps)	4.9
	K by leave-one-out cross-
	validation)
	Spectral clustering	500×100	3.5
		1000×100	10.8

Note that some browsers like Chrome are less sensitive to this issue.

Given a value of the Gaussian kernel, Kσ(x, x ) = exp -x -x 2 /2σ 2 , for some bandwidth σ, we can efficiently compute the value for another bandwidth σ asK σ (x, x ) = (Kσ(x, x )) (σ/σ ) 2. In addition, by choosing a grid of bandwidths {σ k } n k=1 such that σ k = 2 -k/2 β for some constant β > 0, we have Kσ k+1 (x, x ) = Kσ k (x, x ) 2 and we can update each value in the kernel matrix with a simple multiplication.

3 LALOLab can be used simply by opening a browser at http://mlweb.loria.fr/lalolab/ or from the source code of MLweb.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Pedro Ernesto Garcia Rodriguez for his contribution to the software.