Denis Havlik
email: denis.havlik@ait.ac.at

Building environmental semantic web applications with Drupal

Keywords: Drupal, Semantic Web, Linked Data, web services, rapid prototyping, environmental usage area

Efforts required for publishing information as Linked Data often appears too high compared to obvious and immediate benefits. Consequently, only a tiny fraction of the web can be easily used as a semantic "database" today. Drupal 7 changes the rules of the game by integrating the functionality required for structuring and semantically annotating arbitrary content types in the Drupal "core", as well as encouraging the module authors to use this functionality in their Drupal extensions. This paper presents the authors recent experiences with strengths and shortcomings of the Drupal 6 and Drupal 7 semantic web extensions, and discusses feasibility of the future semantic web environmental applications based on a Drupal platform. The intention of the paper is (1) to analyse the state of the art in semantic web support, as well as the potentials for further development in Drupal today; (2) to prove the feasibility of Drupal based semantic web applications for environmental usage area; and (3) to introduce the idea of Drupal as a rapid prototyping development environment.

Introduction

A huge and growing number of environmental observations are collected on a daily bases, and a large part of these observations are published on the web today. Many of these observations are unfortunately published in a form unsuitable for further processing, for instance as a human readable text or as color-coded maps. Finding and binding the available observations, even if they have been published e.g. as structured XML [START_REF]Extensible markup language[END_REF] and annotated by appropriate ontology terms, for the value added application one wants to develop can often be a challenge of its own, since major search engines often ignore the existence of such data.

Linked Data [START_REF] Berners-Lee | Linked data[END_REF] provides an alternative approach for publishing of arbitrary data in a form that is both suitable for automated processing, and easily discovered on the web: rather, or in addition to publication of the data through some form of a web service, the actual human-readable information published on the web site is annotated by ontology terms embedded in eXtensible Hyper-Text Markup Language (XHTML, [3]). The resulting combination is described in "Resource Description Framework in attributes (RDFa)in XHTML" W3C Recommendation [START_REF]Rdfa in xhtml: Syntax and processing a collection of attributes and processing rules for extending xhtml to support rdf[END_REF]. Unfortunately, the effort required for publishing the Linked Data can often be quite high compared with the effort required to publish a human readable content on the Web. The seventh release of the Drupal Content Management System (CMS) promises to drastically lower this barrier: Drupal 7, which has been realised in January 2011 is the first major CMS platform with full integration of the key semantic web technologies [10]. Consequently, the additional effort and knowledge required to semantically enable a web site build upon a Drupal platform is expected to drastically lower within the next year or two. This may in turn positon Drupal as a primary platform for all stakeholders interested in painless transition from classical CMS to semantic web enabled applications.

This paper takes a critical look at the support for "Resource Description Framework" (RDF, [START_REF][END_REF]), SPARQL Query Language for RDF [8], and RDFa [START_REF]Rdfa primer bridging the human and data webs[END_REF] in Drupal, from the point of view of a stakeholder interested in developing a lightweight semantic-web enabled applications, while at the same time keeping all advantages of modern CMS-es.

It starts by introducing the Drupal platform and the state of the art of semantic web support in Drupal 6 and Drupal 7 releases in Q1 2011 (section 2). This section is mainly intended as overview for the readers considering the use of semantic web Drupal extensions in their own projects.

Section 3 "Proof of Concept Application" presents a simple application which takes advantage of the Drupal's semantic web extensions. Due to Drupal's popularity in the biodiversity community, the use cases are pertinent to biodiversity usage area. This information is provided as a base for discussion, and in the hope it may be of some use for readers with little or no experience in semantic web and interested in building similar applications for other usage areas.

Finally, the section 4 "Conclusions and Outlook" section summarises the lessons learned in preparing this paper, and presents a vision of Drupal as a rapid prototyping development environment for building web services and semantic web applications.

Drupal and semantic web

Drupal is one of the most sucesfull open Source CMS platforms today. By the end of February 2011 there were almost 400k active Drupal installations [START_REF]Drupal: Drupal module usage statistics[END_REF]. Out of these, 25k sites already used the Drupal 7 release, which was published only two months earlier, in January 2011.

Drupal code is highly modular. "Drupal core" provides the functionality used by a great majority of the web sites and the large number of third party modules [9] providing more specialised functionality (e.g. "project management", "visualisation on the map", or "e-commerce"). In early February 2011, 5264 open source modules for Drupal 6, and 1069 Drupal 7 modules were available for download on the Drupal web site. Two weeks later, there were already 1119 modules for Drupal 7. In the same period, the number of Drupal 6 modules also grew to 5311, indicating that the Drupal 6 is still considered as a main development target by many developers [START_REF]Drupal: Drupal module usage statistics[END_REF].

Drupal 6 already provides a number of possibilities for structuring and implicitly associating of meaning to information, but it does not associate this implicit knowledge with explicit machine readable representation. The development of third party semantic extensions for Drupal 6 resulted in a heterogeneous set of add-on modules that never reached maturity. Therefore only a small fraction of the Drupal 6 sites and of the Drupal 6 add-on modules ever made use of these semantic extensions. Table 1 summarises the development status of the key Drupal modules used in the preparation of this paper, and Table 2 lists some additional modules pertinent to the papers topic.

Core functionality required by semantic web Drupal applications is provided by CCK, Feeds, Views, RDF and RDF CCK modules. CCK allows site administrators to structure the data, Feeds module allows them to import the data from various sources and Views module provides a mechanism to define how the result will be published. RDF module provides RDF data type and an API for Drupal, while the RDF CCK (RDF in Drupal 7) allows us to annotate the node types and fields with ontology terms. It is therefore interesting to note that the Drupal 7 integrates most of the functionality offered by CCK, Views and RDF modules in the "core" Drupal code base.

Remaining modules provide functions for importing, exporting, annotating and manipulating structured data, as well as semantically annotated data, in Drupal. For example:

-SPARQL and VARQL modules provide support for SPARQL queries; -Calais module illustrates the feasibility of automated semantic annotation of the texts associated with Drupal nodes; -Semantic Markup Editor does the same for manual annotations; -Finally, the modules such as Feeds and its plugins (e.g. Feeds XPath Parser, Feeds View Parser, Feeds QueryPath Parser), RDF SPARQL Proxy, VARQL and the Lin Clark's SPARQL Views provide ways to both integrate external data into Drupal and transform between various Drupal's data representations (e.g. nodes, views, taxonomies).

The information presented in tables 1 and 2 clearly indicate that semantic functionality in Drupal hasn't reached maturity yet, in spite of the excellent support for RDF and RDFa in Drupal 7. Development of Drupal 6 RDF-related modules in most cases stopped at "proof of concept" level, and the Drupal 7 versions of these modules may not be even available yet. Consequently, most of the experiments presented in this paper have nevertheless been conducted using experimental Drupal 6 implementations.

Development of Drupal 7 semantic web modules is an on-going activity and many of the modules are expected to issue stable releases within next 12 months.

Proof of Concept Application

In order to develop a proof of concept for the abstract use case of building a semantic web application capable of discovering, binding, processing and visualisation of the environmental observations, I first had to choose a concrete instance related to one of the environmental domains. For this paper, the choice fell to "biodiversity", in anticipation of the biodiversity-related developments that are planned in the ENVIROFI project [START_REF] Havlik | From sensor to observation web with environmental enablers in the future internet[END_REF].

The idea was to find some data sets with geo-temporal context which can be visualised on a map and on the time scale and then to mash this data with additional information from another source and present the results in several ways. Obvious candidates for such initial data are for instance "species occurrence", "species sightings", or "habitat extent". Good candidates for additional data could be for instance "species/habitat descriptions", illustrations and translations to various languages.

In order to narrow down the problem at hand even further, I decided to concentrate only on the cats and their relatives (family: Felidae; genus: *).

Retrieving biodiversity data from GBIF and DBpedia

All the data used in this application originates either from DBpedia (http://dbpedia.org), or from the the experimental "GBIF data" site (http://data.gbif.net). DBpedia data can be directly retrieved through DPpedia sparql endpoint at http://dbpedia.org/sparql, while the GBIF site only allows querying by humans using the web interface and downloading of the resulting data sets1 . Searching for a "cat" on either of the sites does not lead to satisfactory results, but the search for "Felidae" on GBIF data site quickly leads us to the web page featuring the map shown in the figure 1. The "Actions" box (not shown in figure 1 provides a link to "Occurences", which in fact offers a comfortable query builder. The final query consisted of: (1) "Classification includes Family: Felidae"; (2) "Coordinate status is Includes coordinates"; (3) "Coordinate issues is No issues detected"; (4) "Basis of record is Observation"; (5) "Year range is between 1900 and 2011"; and (6) Data originating from Argentina, South Africa or Spain. This returned 2.419 occurence records; 1.766 thereof in Spain [START_REF]GBIF: Biodiversity occurrence data. Provided by: Administracin de Parques Nacionales[END_REF].

GBIF data can be downloaded in several formats, including the semantically annotated "Darwin Core" format. The first occurrence record from the downloaded GBIF file is shown below. The next step was to find some complementary information on various Felidae species from DBpedia. A search for "Felideae" using the DBpedia's "faceted search" interface (http://dbpedia.org/fct/) returned over 200 matches and the quick analysis of the results shows that the entries we are interested in, share the "Family is dbpedia:Felidae" relationship. Furthermore, the search results included a wealth of highly structured information consisting of names and descriptions of the Felidae members in various languages, photos, links to external resources and many other properties including the "genus", "species" and "binomial". For Iberian Lynx, the DBpedia genus is "Lynx", species "L. pardinus" and binomial "Lynx pardinus" which perfectly maps to "genus Lynx; species pardinus" in the GBIF data sets.

DBpedia faceted search results provide all information needed to build SPARQL queries and to retrieve the data. For example, the following SPARQL query returns some basic information on Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus).

Defining the data model and semantic annotations

The basic unit of data in Drupal is called a "node". In most cases, each node corresponds with a single web page, but for our purpose it is convenient to see a node as Drupal equivalent of an SQL table entry. Each node is structured according to a node type and new node types can be easily defined by Drupal users possessing adequate rights (administrator, web-developer). For this application, I defined two node types: "animal description" and "animal occurrence". Definition of the animal description node type is illustrated in figure 2. The simplest "animal occurrence" node type needs to contain a Latin name, observation time and georeference. In addition, a node reference field is required in order to mash up occurrence and description data later and an unique ID helps to keep the data synchronized with the original source.

Next, is to decide upon semantic annotations for each of the node types and for each of the fields. In Drupal 7, all data is automatically annotated with a site ontology, but users can define additional annotations if they want. For this application, I choose to re-use the original annotations used by DBpedia and GBIF data site respectively. Detailed description of the process has been described in "Produce and Consume Linked Data with Drupal" paper by Stphane Corlosquet et. al. [START_REF] Corlosquet | Produce and consume linked data with drupal![END_REF]. Probably the most appropriate way to proceed here is to (1) decide which ontologies will be used; (2) use Evoc module to upload them; and (3) use the classes and terms from these ontologies to annotate the data.

Once the RDF annotations have been defined, Drupal will automatically add RDFa annotations to all data of this type, as illustrated below.

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML+RDFa 1.0//EN" "http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/DTD/xhtml-rdfa-1.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr" xmlns:Animal_description="http://www.havlik.org/d6/?q=rdf/schema/Animal_description#" xmlns:db-owl="http://dbpedia.org/ontology/" xmlns:db-prop="http://dbpedia.org/property/" xmlns:db-res="http://dbpedia.org/resource/" ...
Scientific Name:

Puma concolor

 ... Defining the data model and semantic annotations is straightforward and works "out of the box" in Drupal 7. This is not the case for Drupal 6, where RDFa support can only be introduced by installing the CCK, RDF, RDF CKK, Evoc and Evoc reference modules, and requires patching of the CCK module.

Binding data into Drupal

In section 3.1 and 3.2, I introduced two biodiversity-related data sources and explained how to prepare Drupal data models. Next critical step is to assure that the Drupal site can actually use the GBIF and DBpedia data. In order to avoid latencies, I opted for pre-fetching of the data to the Drupal site. Feeds module provides an elegant way to pre-fetch the data, cache it in a suitable node type and synchronize it as needed. Feeds parsers allow "feeding" of data from various sources, including for example local and remote HTML, XML, CSV and Excel files, Atom and JSON feeds, as well as the services such as Youtube, Flickr and Slideshare. XPath Parser provides a way to import data from XML files by specifying the XPath expressions [START_REF]Xml path language[END_REF] for each of the fields. Part of the XPath Parser configuration for GBIF occurrence data is shown in figure 3.

No SPARQL Parser for Feeds exists, but Lin Clark's SPARQL Views module can be used to fetch the data from a SPARQL server and temporary store it in a Drupal feed. Furthermore, Lin explained how to store the data from a view into nodes using the Feeds View Parser in her blog [START_REF] Clark | Importing / syncing content from external sites like wikipedia[END_REF]. The proposed solution is highly experimental and breaks XPath Parser. Similar functionality could be probably achieved in other ways, for instance by exporting the view as XML and parsing it with XPath parser. However, the direct feeding of the content from Drupal views to nodes is likely to be more efficient.

Mashups and visualization

The views module provides a rich set of functions for mashing data. However, the Drupal 6 version of the Views module relies on the foreign key relationship between two nodes for this task. Drupal Node Reference CCK module provides a way to establish this relationship, but these references can not be automatically computed within the Drupal framework. Inability to generate node references may be the biggest shortcoming of the Feeds module today, but fortunately quite easy to work around.

Extending the Drupal functionality with ad-hoc PHP code snipsets is quite easy, and the Computed Field CCK extension allows the administrators to define computed values in custom content types. As a workaround, I therefore defined a custom node field that calculates the reference at node generation time. Unfortunately, I did not succeed in persuading the system to use this field as a node reference. So, eventually I decided to fill-in the node references at SQL database level, which worked without any advert effects. Once the node reference was in place, mashing of two datasets with Views was straightforward, resulting in the table shown in figure 4. Similarly to Feeds, the Views module is itself providing a pluggable environment for add-on modules. One such modules (SPARQL Views) has already been introduced in this paper. Due to its immense popularity (see table 1), the Drupal site features a separate "Views" section with over 400 Views related modules. On top of this, a huge number of modules exist which can take the result from views and present it in various ways. Figure 5 illustrates the feasibility of presenting the mashed data on a map. This map was generated using the gmap module which integrates the google maps into Drupal. Far more complex maps can be generated using the Open Layers module, which integrates the OpenLayers javascript library into Drupal [START_REF]Openlayers: Free maps for the web[END_REF], but gmap module is easier to set up and provides sufficient functionality for this experiment.

Conclusions and Outlook

This paper explores the possibilities of semantically enabled Drupal sites by building a simple application that:

uses SPARQL query and XPath parsing to bind data from two external sources; semantically annotates the imported data and presents is as RDFa; produces new data by mashing the two sources; and presents the results as a table and on a map. Drupal 7 release excels at basic semantic web functionality. It provides a possibility to define complex data (node) types, semantically annotate the data and publish the results as RDFa out of the box. Unfortunately, it is currently not possible to import external data to a Drupal 7 site using SPARQL query. Therefore, the final application has been built using Drupal 6.

Following the excellent documentation provided by Lin Clark, I was able to successfully test SPARQL import under Drupal 6, but the proposed solution breaks the XPath Parser module. As a result, the site was able to either import data from a SPARQL source, or from the XML file, but not both at the same time. Other shortcomings of the Drupal 6 solution included unreliable Evoc module and very rudimentary support for semantic annotation and RDFa. Further unsolved issue is establishing of the foreign key relationships between data imported from different sources, which currently has to be done at SQL database level.

Nevertheless, the results obtained so far are very encouraging. Most module developers are likely to issue Drupal 7 updates within next couple of months, so that a working solution (stable, well documented and easy to set up) for applications, similar to one presented in this paper, are likely to become available within next 1-2 years.

While preparing this paper, I also discovered the Services module, which allows a Drupal site to provide web services via multiple interfaces (including REST [START_REF] Rodriguez | Restful web services: The basics[END_REF] and SOAP [START_REF]Simple object access protocol (soap) 1[END_REF]). I did not test its functionality, but this module is under active development and used by more than 10k Drupal instances. This indicates that the module is of high quality and likely to be ported to Drupal 7 soon. Combination of the Service Module and the semantic web functionality outlined in this paper may transform Drupal from a CMS into rapid prototyping environment for all types of web services and semantic web services.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. GBIF occurency overview for felidea family (detail from data.gbif.org web site)

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Field definitions of the "animal description" node type.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. First part of the XPath Parser configuration for GBIF occurrence data

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4.Table illustrating the mash-up of "animal sightings" and "animal description" content types.

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Representation of the mashed data on a map

Table 1 .

 1 Key Drupal modules used in this paper and their development status (GIT= only available through Github; dev=development snapshot, alpha, beta, or stable; core=integrated in Drupal core; RDF=provided by Drupal 7 RDF module)

	Module name	Summary	D6 sta-	D7 sta-	No.
				tus	tus	sites
	Views		Smart query builder that, given	stable core, al-	>280k
			enough information, can build the		pha
			proper query, execute it, and dis-
			play the results in various ways.
	Content Construc-	Web interface allowing the adminis-	stable core,	>260k
	tion Kit (CCK)	trator to add custom fields to nodes		dev
			using a web browser.
	Feeds		Import or aggregate data as nodes,	beta	alpha	>12k
			users, taxonomy terms or simple
			database records.
	Resource Description	Provides comprehensive RDF func-	alpha,	core,	>10k
	Framework (RDF)	tionality and interoperability for	dev	dev
			the Drupal 6.x platform.
	Feeds XPath Parser Feeds plugin for parsing XML and	stable beta	1k
			HTML documents. It enables site
			builders to leverage the power of
			Feeds to easily import data from
			complex, external data sources.
	SPARQL		enables the use of SPARQL queries	alpha	dev	0,3k
			with the RDF API for Drupal 6.x.
	RDF external vo-	Evoc caches any external RDF vo-	alpha	RDF	0,2k
	cabulary	importer	cabulary in Drupal, and exposes its
	(Evoc)		classes and properties to other mod-
			ules. RDF CCK relies on Evoc to
			offer classes and properties to be
			mapped to CCK fields, node title
			and body.
	RDF CCK		Allows site administrators to map	dev	RDF	0,2k
			each content type, node title, node
			body and CCK field to an RDF
			term (class or property).
	Feeds View Parser	This module enables Feeds to take	dev	-	20
			in data from a view output (i.e.
			from Views module). Combined
			with pluggable query backend in
			Views 3.x, this will enable Dru-
			pal to import data from practically
			anywhere from the web
	SPARQL Views	Allows to query RDF data in	alpha,	GIT	2
			SPARQL endpoints and RDFa on	GIT
			Web pages, and bring the data into
			Views.

Table 2 .

 2 Additional

Drupal modules related to semantic web and their development status (GIT= only available through Github; dev=development snapshot, alpha, beta, or stable; core=integrated in Drupal core; RDF=provided by Drupal 7 RDF module)

  Table illustrating the mash-up of "animal sightings" and "animal description" content types.

In fact, GBIF data site also provides a RESTful service interface, but I did not realise this on time.

Acknowledgments

The work leading to the results presented in this paper has been partially funded by European Commission through FP7 Tagging Tool based on a Semantic Discovery Framework project (TaToo; EC grant agreement nr. 247893; http://www.tatoo-fp7.eu/tatooweb/).

Furthermore, I would like to thank: (1) Lin Clark and Stphane Corlosquet for their visionary Drupal developments and excellent publications explaining how to use the Drupal's semantic extensions; (2) Fuada Havlik and Gerald Schimak, for encouraging me in this work and proofreading the manuscript; and (3) Linux, Apache, MySQL and Drupal developers, for developing the immensely valuable Open Source software.


Jana Soukopová
email: soukopova@econ.muni.cz

Michal Struk
email: struk@mail.muni.cz

Methodology for the Efficiency Evaluation of the Municipal Environmental Protection Expenditure

Keywords: methodology, municipal environmental protection expenditure, efficiency, effectiveness, economy, sustainable development

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Environmental protection expenditure is terms for the money that society spends on the environmental protection. Nowadays, the protection of the environment is integrated into all fields of policy with the general objective of reaching sustainable development. Clean air, water and soil, healthy ecosystems and rich biodiversity are vital for human life, and thus it is not surprising that societies devote large sums of money to pollution reduction and preservation of healthy environment.

Consequently is the environmental protection expenditure (EPE) one of the indicators for evaluating the standard of the environmental protection not only at the level of municipalities and governments, but also for the comparison of environmental protection in the world.

EPE is the money spent on activities directly aimed at the prevention, reduction and elimination of pollution resulting from the production or consumption of goods and services [START_REF] Epa | An Introduction to Environmental Accounting As a Business Management Tool: Key Concepts And Terms[END_REF]. These are, for example, waste disposal activities and wastewater treatment activities, as well as activities aimed at noise abatement and air pollution control. Environmental protection expenditure does not directly take into account the expenditure for the sustainable management of natural resources. All economic sectors, businesses in agriculture, industry and services as well as the public sector and households spend some money on reducing, preventing and eliminating their pressures on the environment.

For instance, both businesses and households pay for safe waste disposal, spend money on mitigation of the polluting effects of production processes and governments pay for provision of environmental public goods, such as the basic levels of sanitation required to safeguard health.

Governments subsidize environmentally beneficial activities and use public funds in order to make it easier for subjects to borrow money on the financial markets for environmental projects. To be more specific, this is done through measures such as risk sharing, credit enhancement or subsidies that lower the costs of borrowing for communities that cannot afford to carry full costs of investments into environmental projects.

Therefore the main objective of this paper is an evaluation of the efficiency of public expenditure and other financial instruments in the field of environmental protection with focus on particular regions, together with the optimization of incidence of public subsidies for environmental protection on macro and microeconomical level. Further objective is the development of open source software [START_REF] Lokkainen | Cost efficiency of Finnish municipalities 1994-2002. An application of DEA and Tobit methods[END_REF] supporting this evaluation.

In the Czech Republic the important part is identification of factors that influence absorption capacity of individual regions and setting of indicators for the evaluation of their effectiveness.

Public environmental protection expenditure

Public expenditure in the field of environmental protection represents important part of total public expenditure and, thanks to the active policy of European Union and expenditures from its structural funds, its sum probably won't decrease notably even in the time of financial crisis. Figure 1 shows the progression of public expenditure since 1997. Apart from legislative and regulatory tasks, the public sector monitors environmental performance, provides grants and subsidies to encourage environmentally sensitive behaviour and funds research and development activities. In the Czech Republic public administrations, for example municipalities, can also provide environmental protection services, such as waste management or wastewater treatment, directly. These services are generally provided by public corporations, whose activities differ from other governmental administrative tasks.

In the Fig. 1 we can see that throughout the time municipal expenditure made always more than 50% of total environmental public expenditure.

Environmental expenditure is divided in the budget structure according to the Classification of Environmental Protection Activities and Expenditure (CEPA 2000) into several categories: protection of ambient air and climate; wastewater management; waste management; protection and remediation of soil, groundwater and surface water; noise and vibration abatement; protection of biodiversity and landscapes; protection against radiation; research and development; and other environmental protection activities [START_REF]Classification of Environmental Protection Activities and Expenditure[END_REF]. As shown in Fig. 2, largest parts of public environmental protection expenditure are wastewater management expenditure, waste management expenditure and protection of biodiversity landscapes expenditure.

Methodology of efficiency evaluation

In order to evaluate efficiency of public (environmental) expenditure most authors use the methodology of 3E -economy, efficiency and effectiveness. According to theory, these terms are perceived like this: 1. Economy -such use of public expenditures, that leads to provision of given objectives with the least amount of resources spent, while keeping up to the corresponding quality of tasks; 2. Efficiency -such use of public expenditures that acquires the greatest possible amount, quality and contribution to the given objectives compared to the amount of resources spent in order to fulfill them 1 . 3. Effectiveness -such use of public expenditures that leads to the greatest possible output respecting desired outcome, which are prerequisite for optimal fulfillment of goals set in advance. Therefore effectiveness means how the produced goods or services (for example waste disposal) fulfill utility (for example clean municipal environment without waste) [START_REF] Soukopova | Assessing the efficiency of municipal expenditures regarding environmental protection[END_REF].

1

Economy and efficiency are for purposes of quantification and in respect of usage of methods of economic analysis understood as cost efficiency.

When judging all these criteria (economy, efficiency, effectiveness and quality) we can speak of economic efficiency of public expenditure. For the complex view we need to add that sometimes we distinguish between terms technical and allocation efficiency. However, analysis of this concept is beyond the scope of this text. The scheme in Fig. 3 shows the concept of economic efficiency, from which we move on into further analysis and we use it for the construction of methodology for the evaluation of environmental municipal expenditure.

Environmental protection expenditure efficiency and effectiveness

One of the contemporary problems is how to allocate public expenditure in the field of environment protection more effectively [START_REF] Farrell | The Measurement of productive efficiency[END_REF]. When considering efficiency and effectiveness, the methodology is based on multi-criteria evaluation of efficiency and effectiveness that is determined by 3 basic pillars of sustainable development. When the methodology was designed, we came out from the evaluation of efficiency and effectiveness in terms of social, environmental and economic points of view (see scheme in Fig. 4).

Economic aspect of evaluation

Economic criteria of evaluation come out from the concept of efficiency explained above and include the economical evaluation of efficiency and economy EK E , effectiveness EK Ef and economic quality EK Q , so:

Q Ef E E E E E K + + = , (1)
where K E is the complex criterion of efficiency evaluation, E E is the complex criterion of efficiency and economy evaluation (cost efficiency evaluation), E Ef is the complex criterion of effectiveness evaluation, E Q is the complex criterion of economical quality evaluation (quality of environmental goals). More detailed explanation of evaluation methodology according to the given complex criteria follows.

Efficiency evaluation -E E

The most commonly used methods for evaluating efficiency of public expenditure are Cost-minimization Analysis (CMA), Cost-effectiveness Analysis (CEA), Cost-utility Analysis (CUA) and Cost-benefit Analysis (CBA). These methods are in general suitable for the evaluation of efficiency of public expenditure for environmental protection. The only exception is CMA, which only compares amount of expenditures, and therefore will not be considered in further evaluation. Efficiency evaluation of current public budgets expenditures, however, encounters several limitations. This is because current expenditures usually consist of expenditures for public services -services of common interest.

This makes evaluation of expenses using CBA or CUA quite difficult. In case of CBA it is difficult to estimate benefits of these services in terms of money and as for CUA, the situation is even more complicated because there is no suitable methodology for environmental expenditures (however, it exists for health-care and several other) [START_REF] Boardman | Cost-benefit analysis: concepts and practice[END_REF]. Therefore, choosing the CEA method appears to be the most appropriate [START_REF] Levin | Cost-effectiveness analysis: Methods and applications[END_REF][START_REF] Raszka | The CEA -a superior alternative to the cost-benefit Analysis of environmental infrastructure investments[END_REF], when it comes to the evaluation of efficiency. And for the evaluation of C/E we have chosen efficiency indicator E as a complex criterion created with help of multi-criteria analysis depending on factors influencing expenditure on given environmental service.

Let K E be a set of criteria for the evaluation of quality of environmental public budget expenditures, where

K E = (k E1 , k E1 , …., k En ), then ) ,....., , ( 2 1 En E E k k k f E = , ( 2
)
where k Ei is the criterion of cost efficiency and economy evaluation, n is the number of outputs for the environmental protection expenditure.

Then the cost efficiency of given expenditure could be expressed as follows:

(

) 3
where C is the environmental protection expenditure, E is the indicator of cost efficiency evaluation.

If 1 ≤ CEA , the expenditure is efficient, if CEA>1, the expenditure is inefficient. Because the criterion is minimizing, it needs to be transformed into maximizing one. Therefore for the construction of EK E criterion we will use the following formula:

0 1 ≥ = = C E CEA E E , (4)
where if EK E >1, then the expenditure is efficient and max → E E .

Evaluation of the effectiveness -E Ef

Let K Ef be a set of criteria for the evaluation of effectiveness of environmental municipal expenditures, where

K Ef = (k Ef1 , k Ef1 , …., k Efn ), then Efi n i i Ef k w E ∑ = = 1 , (5)
where k Efi is the criterion determining results of given expenditure -percentage fulfillment of the goal No. i (criterion acquires values 0-1), n is the amount of outcomes (goals) for given environmental expenditure, w i is the weight of i-numbered criterion.

min 0 → ≥ = E C CEA It acquires values max 1 0 → ≤ ≤ Ef EK

Evaluation of the quality -EK Q

Let EK Q be a set of criteria for the evaluation of the quality of environmental public budget expenditures, where

EK Q = (k Q1 , k Q1 , …., k Qn ), then Qi n i i Q k w E ∑ = = 1 , (6)
where k Qi is the criterion determining quality -quality of given goal -connection with strategic documents of region or state (in percents) (criterion acquires values 0-1), n is the amount of outcomes (goals) for given environmental expenditure, w i is the standardized weight of criterion No. i.

Environmental aspect of evaluation

Environmental criteria of evaluation come out from indicators of sustainable development in selected field of environmental protection. The complex criterion of the evaluation of efficiency could be from the view of environmental K En constructed as follows [START_REF] Soukopova | Assessing the efficiency of municipal expenditures regarding environmental protection[END_REF]:

Eni n i i En k w K ∑ = = 1 , (7)
where k Eni is the criterion of environmental efficiency, n is the amount of criteria, w i is the standardized weight of criterion No. i.

It acquires values K En ≥ 0. If K En = 0, the expenditure is fully inefficient.

Social aspect of evaluation

Social criteria of evaluation come out from taking the social aspect of existing expenditure into account. The complex criterion for evaluating efficiency from the social point of view K S could be constructed as follows:

Si n i i S k w K ∑ = = 1 , (8)
Where k Si is the social efficiency criterion (in percents), n is the number of criteria, w i is the weight of criterion No. i.

It acquires values

1 0 ≤ ≤ S K
and if K S = 0, the expenditure is fully inefficient. max → Eni k

Summary of the methodology

The sequence of this methodology for the evaluation of public environmental protection expenditure can be shown in an algorithm with several phases and steps:

1. Phase -the evaluation of the efficiency: a.

Step 1 -the evaluation of efficiency and economy of expenditure (whether the given goals are being fulfilled with minimal costs, or if the environmental benefits with given costs are maximized

Case study of the efficiency evaluation using the methodology

In the Czech Republic there are 204 municipalities with extended powers (type III municipalities). To test the developed methodology and software, the South Moravian Region was selected. There are 21 type III municipalities in this region. Table 1 shows the list of them. For the following analysis with using developed software we have chosen the sample of municipalities containing only those over 10 000 citizens (10 municipalities). Year 2008 was chosen for the analysis. Data on the amount of municipal waste were obtained from the Ministry of the Environment Czech Republic, as shown in Table 2.

Evaluation of economic aspect of efficiency and effectiveness

Economy and efficiency evaluation -E E

In case of municipal waste collection there are several input parameters of software: waste amount, rate for waste manipulation, rate for waste transportation, transportation vehicle's capacity and distance to the processing facility. Costs of collection are then the following:

Q p Q m k Q s v V E d d E * * * * * 2 + + = = ( 9
)
and 0 ≥ = C E E E
where v is distance from the facility (landfill, incinerator) [km] including the distance in the municipality -

(k E3 ) s d is rate for the transportation [CZK/km], considered 45 CZK/km -(k E5 ) Q is amount of waste [t] -(k E1 ) k d is capacity of waste transportation vehicle [t], considered maximal capacity 25 tons -(k E4
) m is rate for waste manipulation, considered average price in the region 150 CZK/ton p is the price of landfill [CZK/t], considered average price of landfill in the region 1000 CZK/ton Table 3 contains results of the evaluation of E E by using software. According to the results of cost-effectiveness, the best managing municipality in terms of municipal waste expenditure is Veselí nad Moravou followed by municipalities Vyškov, Kyjov and Hodonín.

Effectiveness evaluation -E Ef

Here we have example of effectiveness evaluation of the city of Brno.

City of Brno has in its Waste Management Plan the following objectives and performance criteria of expenditure effectiveness:

1 For simplification, all the criteria implemented in software were assigned the same weight w i = 0.125. The expert panel gave each criterion the values in Table 3. Then EK Ef = 0.9075.

Evaluation of the quality -E Q .

The South Moravian Region has in its strategic document called Waste Management Plan (WMP) 25 goals related to waste management. The city of Brno put in its own Waste Management Plan 8 goals, all of which are all included in the South Moravian Region's WMP. Therefore, these criteria take value of 1 (100% associated with the strategic documents). Considering the evaluation of quality of expenditure, it is possible to use criteria of effectiveness evaluation and build E Q , when E Q = 1.

For the city of Brno the complex criterion for evaluation of economic efficiency comes out as follows:

= + + = + + = Q Ef E E E E E K

Evaluation of environmental aspect

Considering waste management expenditure, criteria for evaluation of environmental efficiency could be determined as follows (all of them are maximizing): k En1

Amount of municipal solid waste per capita in comparison with Czech national average (national average proportion of the municipality value); k En2

Waste management expenditure per capita compared to the Czech average (ratio of Czech average to the to the actual municipality value); In this analysis we have chosen to evaluate only sample of South Moravian Region municipalities over 10 000 citizens. Experts assigned these criteria by similar weight of wi = 0.5. Table 5 contains values calculated by software that the expert panel assigned to each criterion: According to the results in Table 5, Boskovice is the best municipality in terms of environmental efficiency, followed by Vyškov, Blansko, Veselí nad Moravou and Brno.

Evaluation of social aspect

When it comes to municipal waste management expenditure, suitable criteria for social efficiency evaluation of given calculated expenditure could be the following: k S1

Willingness to sort municipal waste (in percents) k S2

Employment -Influence on employment (is given service carried out by local company or external one, and so on) (in percents) k S3

Living standard of citizens -does the expenditure have positive impact on living standard of citizens of municipality (in percents)

When evaluating municipal waste management expenditure in Brno, experts gave these weights to the given criteria: w 1 = 0.4, w 2 = 0.3, w 3 = 0.3. Table 6 contains calculated values assigned by experts to each criterion. Then K S = 0.748.

Summary and Outlook

Evaluation of the effectiveness of public environmental protection expenditure is already very complex matter [START_REF] García-Sánchez | Efficiency measurement in Spanish local government: The case of municipal water services[END_REF][START_REF] Lokkainen | Cost efficiency of Finnish municipalities 1994-2002. An application of DEA and Tobit methods[END_REF][START_REF] Mandl | The effectiveness and efficiency of public spending, European Commission[END_REF]. There are many factors and indicators that affect the level of expenditure [START_REF] Mandl | The effectiveness and efficiency of public spending, European Commission[END_REF]. This paper discusses why the most appropriate tool seems to be the Cost-effectiveness Analysis with its application as a part of multi-criteria analysis depending on factors influencing expenditure on given environmental service. The open source software was developed to implement this tool. Determination of all these factors, as shown in the case study of South Moravia Region municipalities, is a necessary prerequisite for establishing an indicator of efficiency.

We believe that this is one of the ways to evaluate the efficiency of public spending on environmental protection with the use of developed software. At the same time we realize that the described problem is much more complicated in practice because the amount of public spending is influenced by a variety of external factors, such as performance orientation, organizational aspects, human resources, the use of information technology, political decisions, interest groups, etc. Some of these factors cannot be quantified, they can only be described.

Methodology for the efficiency evaluation of municipal environmental protection expenditure is primarily meant for municipalities and faces the following criteria:

1. the utilization of sustainable development concept; 2. the utilization of existing methodologies and analyses; 3. data availability; 4. multi-criteria evaluation with weight sums utilization; 5. simplicity together with complexity of outcome. This methodology was implemented in open soursce application software and it has been tested on sample of 200 South Moravian Region Municipalities together with all Czech municipalities with extended powers. It has been approved and certified by Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic in November 2010 [START_REF] Soukopova | Methodology for the efficiency evaluation of the municipal environmental protection expenditure[END_REF]. A software [START_REF] Soukopova | Software for Methodology for the efficiency evaluation of the municipal environmental protection expenditure[END_REF] as a tool for evaluation has been also connected with the methodology and it is available for all municipalities of the Czech Republic.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Environmental expenditures of public budgets in the Czech Republic (in thousands CZK), 1997-2009 [2]

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Municipal environmental expenditures according to CEPA 2000 (in thousands CZK), 1997-2009 [2]

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Conceptual conception of efficiency of public expenditure[START_REF] Soukopova | Assessing the efficiency of municipal expenditures regarding environmental protection[END_REF]

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig.4. Scheme of public environmental protection expenditure efficiency evaluation[START_REF] Soukopova | Assessing the efficiency of municipal expenditures regarding environmental protection[END_REF]

  Phase -the evaluation based on importance of individual expenditure in terms of its relation to the whole (each expenditure is multiplied by a weight equal to the proportion of expenditure on total expenditure of the municipality). This methodology has been programmed as open source software available for all municipalities of the Czech Republic and tested on a sample of 200 South Moravian Region municipalities.

			). E E > 1 → max;
	b. Step 2 -the evaluation of effectiveness (how municipal environmental
	expenditure ensures the set goal).	0	≤ Ef E	≤	1	→	max	;
	c. Step 3 -the evaluation of quality (quality of goals is crucial problem of
	expenditures, that's why we evaluate it too).	0	≤ Q E	≤	1	→	max	;
	2. Phase -the evaluation of efficiency from environmental view.	K	En	≥	0 →	max	.
	3. Phase -the evaluation of efficiency from the social view	0	≤ S K	≤	1	→	max	;
	4.

Table 1 :

 1 Municipalities with extended powers in the South Moravian Region

	Municipality	Number of citizens
	Blansko	21 106
	Boskovice	10 965
	Brno	370 592
	Břeclav	24 242
	Bučovice	6 432
	Hodonín	25 687
	Hustopeče	5 903
	Ivančice	9 347
	Kuřim	10 492
	Kyjov	11 707
	Mikulov	7 493
	Moravský Krumlov	5 986
	Pohořelice	4 521
	Rosice	5 504
	Slavkov u Brna	6 169
	Šlapanice	6 836
	Tišnov	8 585
	Veselí nad Moravou	11 781
	Vyškov	21 875
	Znojmo	34 759
	Židlochovice	3 472

Table 2 :

 2 Information about waste management expenditure and waste amount of type III municipalities in South Moravian Region, year 2008

	Type III	Expenditure on waste management,	Amount of municipal
	municipality	thousands CZK, 2008	waste, tons, 2008
	Blansko	14 962.04	5 417
	Boskovice	6 968.61	2 441
	Brno	366 459.47	118 663
	Břeclav	18 387.23	8 655
	Hodonín	19 773.20	9 321
	Kuřim	6 410.08	2 662
	Kyjov	7 441.25	5 320
	Veselí nad Moravou	7 207.84	6 278
	Vyškov	13 003.84	9 659
	Znojmo	30 575.97	8 694

Table 3 :

 3 Efficiency evaluation (economic aspect of evaluation)

	Municipality	Distance from the facility	Distance in the municipality	E	E E = E/C	Rank
	Blansko	32.1	15	7 286.52	0.49	8.
	Boskovice	22.1	9	3 001.36	0.43	9.
	Brno	0	35	202 885.25	0.55	6.
	Břeclav	16.6	10	11 037.55	0.60	5.
	Hodonín	18.2	18	12 058.02	0.61	4.
	Kuřim	21.7	8	3 468.59	0.54	7.
	Kyjov	20.8	9	6 828.54	0.92	3.
	Veselí n. Moravou	16.3	9	7 967.79	1.11	1.
	Vyškov	16.8	15	12 161.45	0.94	2.
	Znojmo	13.5	20	10 420,63	0.34	10.

  . Increase material utilization of municipal waste to 50% by 2010 compared to year 2000 -k Enf 1 ; 2. Material utilization of municipal waste in relation to the whole Czech Republic (ensure the collection and subsequent use or alternatively controlled disposal of hazardous components of municipal waste (50% in 2005 and 75% in 2010)) -k Ef 2 ; 3. Ensure recycling of construction and demolition waste (utilize 50% of the weight of emerging construction and demolition waste before end of 2005 and 75% before end of 2012) -k Ef 3 ; 4. Prefer incineration of mixed municipal waste with energy recovery over landfill storage -k Ef 4 ; 5. Reduce the weight ratio of landfilled waste with perspective of further reduction by 20% in 2010 compared to year 2000 -k Ef 5 ; 6. Decrease the ratio of landfilled waste with potential of energy utilization (35% in 2010) -k Ef 6 ; 7. Decrease ratio of landfilled biodegradable municipal waste (75% of what the production was in 1995 compared to 2010) -k Ef 7 ; 8. Increase utilization of waste through recycling up to 55% in 2012 -k Ef 8.

Table 4 :

 4 Evaluation of effectiveness (city of Brno)

	Criterion	k Ef1	k Ef2	k Ef3	k Ef4	k Ef5	k Ef6	k Ef7	k Ef8
	Criterion value	0.95	1	0.86	1	0.85	0.95	0.65	1

Table 5 :

 5 Evaluation of environmental aspect (South Moravian Region's municipalities over 10 000 citizens), year 2008

	Criterion/	k En1	k En2	Weight	Rank
	Municipality			Sum
	Blansko	1.033	1.054	1.044	3.
	Boskovice	1.192	1.081	1.137	1.
	Brno	1.099	0.741	0.920	5.
	Břeclav	0.851	0.979	0.915	6.
	Hodonín	0.870	0.844	0.857	9.
	Kuřim	1.152	0.636	0.894	7.
	Kyjov	0.705	0.997	0.851	10.
	Veselí n. Moravou	0.880	1.108	0.994	4
	Vyškov	1.090	1.139	1.115	2.
	Znojmo	1.061	0.698	0.880	8.

Table 6 :

 6 Evaluation of social aspect (city of Brno)

	Criterion	k S1	k S2	k S3
	Criterion value	0.58	0.85	0.86

Acknowledgements. We thank the Ministry of Environment (MoE) of the Czech Republic for the support. Paper is one of the results of the MoE of the Czech Republic project SP/4i1/54/08 "Analysis of municipal budgets efficiency in relation to the environmental protection", where we have identified that efficiency evaluation of municipal environmental expenditure is very complex and extraordinary difficult task. This paper is based on our common findings.


Steen Solvang Jensen

Jørgen Brandt

Martin Hvidberg

Matthias Ketzel

Gitte Brandt Hedegaard

Jens Hesselbjerg Christensen

Decision-support System for Urban Air Pollution under Future Climate Conditions

Keywords: Decision-support system, climate change, dynamical downscaling, urban heat island effect, urban air quality, adaptation, mitigation

Climate change is expected to influence urban living conditions and challenge the ability of cities to adapt to and mitigate climate change. Urban climates will be faced with elevated temperatures and future climate conditions are expected to cause higher ozone concentrations, increased biogenic emissions from vegetation, changes in the chemistry of the atmosphere and changes in deposition of particulate air pollution. This paper describes a conceptual outline of a decision-support system for assessment of the impacts of climate change on urban climate and air quality, and for assessment of integrated climate change and air pollution adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Introduction

Climate change is expected to increase the global temperature, raise the sea level and alter the storm activity and precipitation patterns that give rise to flooding and drought events. These parameters affect urban living conditions and challenge the ability of cities to adapt to and mitigate climate change. Under future climate conditions it is expected that we will have higher ozone concentrations, increased biogenic emissions from vegetation, changes in the chemistry of the atmosphere and changes in how particulate air pollution is washed out of the air or otherwise removed. These changes may pose health risks to the population. Urban climates will be faced with elevated temperatures due to an increased urban heat island effect. At the same time, many cities are growing with challenges in urban, traffic and energy planning in a situation where a low-carbon economy needs to be developed to reduce climate impacts. Continued reductions in air pollution and greenhouse gases are important, as they pose serious threats to both people's health and the environment.

The aim of this paper is to describe a conceptual outline of a decision-support system for assessment of the impacts of climate change on urban climate and air quality, and for assessment of integrated climate change and air pollution adaptation and mitigation strategies.

System Description

Figure 1 shows a conceptual outline of sub-models in a decision-support system for assessment of the impacts of climate change on urban climate and air quality, and for integrated assessment of climate change and air pollution adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Visualisation of urban climate

Dynamic climate downscaling to regional level is based on the HIRHAM regional climate model developed at the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI). The HIRHAM simulations can then successively be used to simulate Urban Heat island effects by setting up a very high resolution meso-scale model where urban effects are described. This model setup can predict future regional climates under different global climate scenarios, and it can be downscaled to predict future urban climates around the world. Scenarios that target the reduction of urban temperatures can be modelled through adaptation measures.

The air pollution modelling part of the system includes interlinked air quality models to model regional (Danish Eulerian hemispheric Model (DEHM)), urban background (Urban Background Model (UBM)) and street concentrations (Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM)) developed at National Environmental Research Institute (NERI). Regional concentrations represent conditions in rural areas outside cities and are influenced by all sources within a very large region, urban background levels represent the general pollution level in the city e.g. at roof top level in a city or in an urban park and are due to the regional concentrations including the urban increment from urban sources, and street concentrations include the urban background concentrations and the street increment due to vehicle sources in the street.

The Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model (DEHM) provides predictions of future regional air quality based on meteorological predictions from the climate model and based on future emission scenarios to obtain certain climate conditions. This model covers the Northern hemisphere.

Urban background modelling may be based on the Urban Background Model (UBM), and modelling of street concentrations by the Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM). Mapping of air quality at street scale for en entire city can be carried out by the AirGIS system. AirGIS is able to generate street configuration and traffic data for the OSPM model based on digital maps and databases that enables estimation of air quality levels at a large number of addresses in an automatic and effective way. The impacts to future air quality on urban and street scale can be evaluated for different emission scenarios e.g. scenarios on sustainable energy system, fuel and technology changes in road transportation, urban planning etc.

Health impact assessment and assessment of the external costs of air pollution are based on the EVA-system (Economic Valuation of Air Pollution) developed by NERI. External costs included are the costs associated to the health effects of air pollution. In a cost-benefit analyse of different policy options the EVA-system will provide the benefits (reduced costs) of reductions in emissions. The air pollution part of the EVA-system is based on the DEHM and UBM models and hence provides assessment of external costs at the regional and urban background level.

System Features

The decision-support system includes the following features:

(a) Climate and air pollution models that will enable simulation of changes to regional climate and air quality at different spatial scales under different future climate scenarios.

(b) Assessment of the impacts on regional as well as urban climate with focus on modelling of the urban heat island effect causing significantly warmer metropolitan areas than surrounding rural areas.

(c) Modelling and assessment of air quality; health impacts and associated external costs of air pollution as input to cost-benefit analysis of different policy options.

(d) Impact assessment of climate change adaptation measures to urban heat island effects (e.g. changes in black (asphalt, concrete etc.), green (vegatative) and blue (water) surfaces).

(e) Impact assessment of mitigation measures within urban and traffic planning and sustainable low-carbon energy utilisation as a basis for identification of optimal integrated climate change and air pollution mitigation scenarios.

(f) Visualisation of emissions, air quality and urban climate on different geographic scales using GIS. Relevant data may also be visualised using WebGIS for internet dissemination of results in a user friendly and interactive way to the general public.

Sub-Models

4.1 Regional Climate Modelling Increasingly reliable regional climate change projections are now available for many regions of the world due to advances in modelling and understanding of the physical processes of the climate system. Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) remain the foundation for projections while downscaling techniques now provide valuable additional detail e.g. [START_REF] Christensen | Evaluating the performance and utility of regional climate models: the PRUDENCE project[END_REF] [9] [START_REF] Kjellström | Introduction to special issue[END_REF]. GCMs cannot provide information at scales finer than their computational grid (typically of the order of 200 km) and processes at the unresolved scales are important. Providing information at finer scales can be achieved through using high resolution in dynamical models or empirical statistical downscaling. Development of downscaling methodologies remains an important focus and downscaled climate change projections tailored to specific needs are only now starting to become available [11] [15]. Here we propose to use a chain of models, where a GCM is the first link in the chain. These relatively coarse resolution simulations are then providing lateral boundary conditions for a dynamical downscaling set up with the regional climate model HIRHAM [START_REF] Christensen | The HIRHAM Regional Climate Model[END_REF]. Information originating from the GCM about atmospheric temperature, moisture content, wind and surface pressure is passed to the regional model every 6 hours at the lateral boundary as is sea surface conditions (temperature and sea ice if present), except this information only is updated once per day.

The HIRHAM model has been applied in such a set-up for many regions of the world, including Europe, North America, the Arctic, Africa and East Asia e.g. [START_REF] Christensen | A summary of the PRUDENCE model projections of changes in European climate by the end of this century[END_REF] [26] [START_REF] Kiilsholm | Net accumulation of the Greenland Ice Sheet: Modelling Arctic regional climate change[END_REF]. Different resolutions have been applied including very high resolution (e.g. 5km) and experiments have been performed that spanning periods up to 150 years.

The HIRHAM simulations can then successively be used to simulate Urban Heat Island effects by setting up a very high resolution meso-scale model (~1km horizontal grid scale), where urban effects are described or parameterized.

Urban Heat Island Effect Modelling

The modified land surface in cities affects the storage and radiative and turbulent transfers of heat and its partition into sensible and latent components. The relative warmth of a city compared with surrounding rural areas, known as the urban heat island (UHI) effect, arises from these changes and may also be affected by changes in water runoff, pollution and aerosols. Urban heat island effects are often very localised and depend on local climate factors such as windiness and cloudiness (which in turn depend on season), and on proximity to the sea. From a modelling perspective, it is simple to assess the importance of an urban heat island. Experiments can be designed and performed in which different surface characteristics describing the urban area is introduced. This will allow for a detection of the localized UHI effect as well as more remote influences, which may be of some importance if the urban site is a mega-city or consists of a larger conglomerate of several major cities. An increase of surface temperatures up to 5-10°C have been reported as the effect of UHI in US [START_REF] Zhang | Detecting urban heat island drivers in northeast USA cities using MODIS and Landsat products[END_REF].

Methods of monitoring and modelling UHI must involve mapping of land cover. Most methods use mapping by remote sensing of mainly two parameters that can roughly be categorized as 'black surfaces' and 'green surfaces'. Black surfaces are not all black, but characterised by having 'black body' like radiation reflection and emissivity. These are typically asphalt, concrete, and various roof materials that all are good absorbers of solar radiation and mostly with high heat capacity. Green surfaces are often reflected by a vegetation index, e.g. NDVI. This parameter describes the surface cover photosynthetic properties, and is a proxy for vegetation cooling by evapotranspiration. 'Blue surfaces' (water faces) also have UHI properties highly different from black surfaces, and should be included in any modelling if present. If available, thermal infra-red images of night time surface temperatures can contribute considerably to local understanding and will potentially increase model accuracy. All relevant parameters can be retrieved from commercially available satellite images.

Measures against increasing UHI includes mainly vegetation, and with less effect, the use of lighter-coloured materials. The use of 'green roofs' has a cooling effect and also a positive effect in case of extreme precipitation events. Trees and larger plants can also cast shadow as well as contribute with transpiration. 'Living roofs offer greater cooling per unit area than light surfaces, but less cooling per unit area than curbside planting' [START_REF] Rosenzweig | Mitigating New York City's heat island with urban forestry, living roofs, and light surfaces[END_REF]. Optimally the combined use of vegetation and materials with favourable reflective, emissive and heat capacity properties should be considered.

Regional Air Quality Modelling

The Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model (DEHM) is a three-dimensional, offline, large-scale, Eulerian, atmospheric transport and chemistry model developed to study long-range transport of air pollution in the Northern Hemisphere and Europe [START_REF] Brandt | Operational air pollution forecasts from European to local scale[END_REF] [6]

[7] [12] [START_REF] Frohn | Development of a high resolution nested air pollution model -the numerical approach[END_REF]. The model domain covers most of the Northern Hemisphere, discretized in a 96 × 96 horizontal grid, using a polar stereographic projection. The projection is true at 60º north, where the horizontal grid resolutions for the coarse, medium and fine grids are 150 km × 150 km, 50 km × 50 km, and 16.67 km × 16.67 km, respectively, using two-way nesting [START_REF] Frohn | Development of a high resolution nested air pollution model -the numerical approach[END_REF]. The vertical grid is defined using the σcoordinate system, with 29 vertical layers. The model describes concentration fields of 58 chemical compounds and 9 classes of particulate matter (PM 2.5 , PM 10 , TSP, seasalt < 2.5 µm, sea-salt > 2.5 µm, smoke, fresh black carbon, aged black carbon, organic carbon). A total of 122 chemical reactions are included. Furthermore, the model includes options for describing persistent organic pollutants and mercury.

Wet deposition, included in the loss term, is expressed as the product of scavenging coefficients and the concentration. In contrast, dry deposition is solved separately for gases and particles, and deposition rates depend on the land-cover. Emissions are based on several inventories, including EDGAR, GEIA or RCP, retrospective wildfires, ship emissions both around Denmark and globally, and emissions from the EMEP database. The model has undergone an extensive model validation where model results have been validated against measurements from the whole of Europe over a 20 year period.

To calculate the marginal difference in regional ambient concentration levels due to a specific emission source or sector, DEHM includes a 'tagging' method [START_REF] Brandt | Assessment of Health-Cost Externalities of Air Pollution at the National Level using the EVA Model System[END_REF], to examine how specific emission sources influence air pollution levels, without assuming linear behaviour of atmospheric chemistry, and reducing the influence from the numerical noise. This method, used as a basis for the EVA model system (see below) is more precise than taking the difference between two concentration fields. DEHM has been used to study climate change impacts on future air pollution levels by couple the model to climate data [17] [18].

Local-scale Air Quality Modelling

For urban areas an interlinked modelling approach is implemented that applies the modelled regional climate and air pollution as boundary conditions for local-scale modelling of urban background concentrations that again are boundary conditions for modelling of street concentrations. In this case, urban background concentrations are modelled with the Urban Background Model (UBM) and street concentrations with the Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM).

Urban background levels are defined to represent conditions at roof top level in a city or in an urban park. Hourly urban background data are modelled with the Urban Background Model (UBM) [START_REF] Berkowicz | A simple model for urban background pollution[END_REF], a simple area source based dispersion model. Contributions from individual gridded area sources are integrated along the wind direction path assuming linear dispersion with the distance to the receptor point.

Horizontal dispersion is accounted for by averaging the calculated concentrations over a given wind direction sector that is dependent on the wind speed and centred on the hourly average wind direction. The model includes simple photochemistry to predict NO 2 formation, and requires inputs on emissions, meteorological data and regional background concentrations, as well as land-cover data to estimate surface roughness. A model region of e.g. 35 km x 50 km may be defined with a grid resolution of 1 x 1 km 2 for emission inputs for vehicle emissions that is a major source in larger urban areas. Contributions from sources other than vehicles may also be taken into account including industries, space heating, non-road etc.

Concentration levels within the street canyons are calculated with the Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM) [START_REF] Berkowicz | OSPM -A parameterised street pollution model[END_REF]. The calculation points are chosen so as to be representative of locations in front of the buildings at user-specified heights. The OSPM requires information about street geometry (e.g. street orientation, street width, building height in wind sectors), hourly traffic emissions, meteorological parameters and urban background concentrations. The model computes pollution levels as the sum of the direct contribution from traffic and the contribution from the windgenerated recirculation of air pollution inside the street environment. The direct contribution is described by a plume dispersion model and the recirculation contribution by a box model that takes into account the exchange with the urban background air. The influence of traffic induced turbulence is taken into account and it is especially important for low wind speeds. Traffic induced turbulence depends on vehicle density in the street, horizontal area occupied by vehicles and vehicle speed. The model also includes simple photochemistry involving NO, NO 2 and O 3 for estimation of NO 2 concentrations. The OSPM model has been successfully tested against monitor stations in Denmark, other European countries and in US and Asia [START_REF] Kakosimos | Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM) -a review of performed validation studies, and future prospects[END_REF].

The AirGIS system is a deterministic exposure model system based on the OSPM model and urban background concentrations (UBM model) together with digital maps, register data, traffic data, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for estimation of air pollution and human exposure in urban areas [19] [20]. One of the unique features of AirGIS is that it is able to generate street configuration and traffic data for the OSPM model based on digital maps on road links with traffic data and building footprints with building heights. This enables estimation of air quality levels at a large number of street locations in an automatic and effective way in urban areas [START_REF] Ketzel | Evaluation of AirGIS -a GIS-based air pollution and human exposure modelling system[END_REF].

Demonstration of linked modelling of regional, urban background and street air quality has been shown in studies for short-term forecasts [START_REF] Brandt | Operational air pollution forecasts from European to local scale[END_REF], as well as for future air quality assessment under climate mitigation measures with focus on utilisation of hydrogen [START_REF] Jensen | Impacts of large-scale introduction of hydrogen in the road transport sector on urban air pollution and human exposure in Copenhagen[END_REF] and biofuels in road transportation [START_REF] Gross | Regional Air Quality Assessment of Biofuel Scenarios in the Road Transport Sector[END_REF].

Economic Evaluation of Air Pollution

The concept of the integrated EVA (Economic Valuation of Air pollution) model system is based on the impact pathway chain [START_REF] Andersen | External effects from power production and the treatment of wind energy (and other renewables) in the Danish energy taxation system[END_REF] [14] [START_REF] Brandt | Assessment of Health-Cost Externalities of Air Pollution at the National Level using the EVA Model System[END_REF]. The site-specific emissions are causing (via atmospheric transport and chemistry) a concentration distribution, which together with detailed population data is used to estimate the population-level exposure. Using exposure-response functions for health impacts and economic valuations, the exposure is transformed into impacts on human health and related external costs.

The EVA system consists of the regional-scale air pollution model DEHM, addresslevel or gridded population data, exposure-response functions and economic valuations of the impacts from air pollution. The essential idea behind the EVA system is that state-of-the-art methods are used in all the individual parts of the impact-pathway chain. Other comparable systems commonly use linear sourcereceptor relationships, which do not accurately describe non-linear processes such as atmospheric chemistry and deposition. The EVA system has the advantage that it describes such processes using a comprehensive, state-of-the-art chemical transport model when calculating how specific changes to emissions affect air pollution levels. All scenarios are run individually and not estimated using linear extra-/interpolation from standard reductions.

The EVA-system is able to estimate the external costs of health-related air pollution based on e.g. emission reduction scenarios. In a cost-benefit analyse of different policy options the EVA-system will provide the benefits (reduced costs) of reductions in emissions.

A conceptual outline has been presented of a decision-support system for assessment of the impacts of climate change on urban climate and air quality, and for assessment of integrated climate change and air pollution adaptation and mitigation strategies.

The model system includes dynamic climate downscaling to regional level under different future global climate scenarios as well as subsequent Urban Heat Island effect modelling. The air pollution modelling part of the system includes interlinked air quality models to model regional, urban background and street concentrations. The regional concentrations are based on meteorological predictions from the climate model and on associated future emission scenarios. Health impact assessment and assessment of the external costs of air pollution are also estimated and may provide input to cost-benefit analyse of different policy options. The impacts to future air quality on urban and street scale can be evaluated for different emission scenarios e.g. scenarios on sustainable energy systems, fuel and technology changes in road transportation, urban planning etc.

Fig. 1

 1 Fig.1Conceptual outline of sub-models in a decision-support system for assessment of the impacts of climate change on urban climate and air quality, and for integrated assessment of climate change and air pollution adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Decision-support System for Urban Air Pollution under Future Climate Conditions

	Climate scenarios	General Circulation Model
		Regional climate modelling
		(HIRHAM)
	Scenarios for green, black and blue surfaces	Urban Heat Island Effects modelling
		Long-range chemistry
		transport model (DEHM)
		covering hemispheric to
		national scales	Economic Valuation of Air
			Pollution (EVA)
	Scenarios for sustainable energy, transportation and urban planning	Urban Background Model (UBM)	Health impact assessment and external costs Visualisation in GIS and
			WebGIS
		Street model (OSPM)
		using AirGIS


Michael Stencl
email: michael.stencl@mendelu.cz

Oldrich Trenz
email: oldrich.trenz@mendelu.cz

Ondřej Popelka

Jiří Hřebíček

Ondrej Popelka
email: ondrej.popelka@mendelu.cz

Jiri Hrebicek
email: jiri.hrebicek@mendelu.cz

Using Semantic Search as a Means of Support for Research Projects

Keywords: Searching, semantic search, XBRL, CMS, social networking

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Semantic search and its principles is very often joined with the principles of semantic web and often also Web 2.0 [START_REF] Burzagli | Towards the Convergence of Web 2.0 and Semantic Web for E-Inclusion[END_REF], potentially Web 3.0 [START_REF] Garca-Crespo | Digital libraries and Web 3.0. The CallimachusDL approach[END_REF]. Garca-Crespo (2010) then clearly defines the Web 3.0 " [. . . ] Berners-Lee (2007) has termed the Giant Global Grap." Development of the Semantic research is connected with the basic needs of information, no data, in actual Web era/age. The amount of actual date accessible for free on the Internet is huge and to get the right information in the right time means to have advantage on all levels including business and research. Retrieving information from heterogeneous data stores give power to development or reincarnation of several machine-learning methods to use them in newly defined hybrid expert systems [6] and not only in experts systems. The Semantic Web its impacting traditional sciences, such as chemical, physical [START_REF] Burzagli | Towards the Convergence of Web 2.0 and Semantic Web for E-Inclusion[END_REF], sciences.

as a new version of Web 2.0 in which web has advanced to become what Tim

The Aim of the article consists in state-of-the-art analysis of semantic search applications as background for the Research project and integration of the Semantic search in the research project phases. The integration will be shown on application of the approach in the Czech Science Foundation GACR project P403/11/1103 -Construction of Methods for Multi-factorial Assessment of Company Complex Performance in Selected Sectors. The Semantic Web1 offers another communication channel for the research team at different phases of the project. Integration of the Semantic Search, its tools and approaches aid to reliable re-use of data. It also has potential to bring more efficiency to the resources library productivity. Modern digital libraries offers huge amount of information, but the problem is data retrieval. An actual tool includes traditional browsing or keyword-based search strategies. However current approaches still results in enormous numbers of pages without affecting the right topic. This leads to timeconsuming manual browsing/filtering while deciding which of the filtered data is relevant to the topic. The manual browsing hand-in-hand with the diversity of file format used in the resource data store has impact on productivity of retrieving the information and on used information system [START_REF] Trenz | The impact of document format on productivity of information systems[END_REF] too.

Materials and methods

The Semantic Web and Web 2.0

The fundamental of the semantic web is searching based on the semantic analysis of source data. We are dealing here with amplifying the concept of web pages by supplementary metadata which describes the semantic information of websources; and this in such a way that the data are written in a form that can be machine-processed. The metadata subsequently contain a given vocabulary and enable the creation of an adequate relationship between concepts. For in the environment of the common web, it is not possible to establish a single descriptive language containing an established vocabulary (also bearing in mind the specialization of the concrete web), and for this reason we are at present witnessing an overlapping of several descriptive languages (Fig. 1). In general, we can call this approach decentralized, i.e., it contains in its core all the areas of knowledge.

One competitor or even a successor to the semantic web is the web 2.0, or its successor web 3.0, which enables the centralized treatment of individual services, i.e., processing in one place. This approach greatly improves the capacities of unified administration and the unified application response. In view of the support of community networks and projects (semantic wiki, semantic blogging, semantic desktop), the web 2.0 is, at present, considered to be a suitable extension of the semantic web.

Semantic Searching and Search Engines

The search engines designed for the semantic and for the classical web are, on the highest application level, very similar i.e., the documents search, data mining from documents, identification of users requests, agents, sequencing and storing results. There is a different configuration, however, on the level of the search core. Here, there is the support of the machine processing on the level of the marked content. If the data is stored using RDF, the support of effective indexing and searching is necessary. In a single document, there are more facts, knowledge and complementing metadata, and all this creates great requirements for the search machine this is shown in Fig. 2. If we compare the search chart of the semantic web with the chart created from hypertext links of common web documents, at first glance the two charts are structurally very different. This fact greatly influences the strategy for acquiring and searching documents, and also influences the creation of metrics for their final allocation.

When searching, the search engine compares the identified users requests with the data which have appeared in the indexing already performed. The results of the search engines come as particularly composed documents which, as opposed to ordinary documents, can aggregate data on more levels, and this starting at the level of all RDF data located on the given web, all the way to individual RDF triplets.

Results

Fig. 3. Drupal Semantic Search module [START_REF]Drupal Semantic Search Group[END_REF].

Good review of Semantic Web applications in, and not only in, digital libraries bring Garca-Crespo (2010). They comment several applications of Semantic Web that provides a complementary vision as a knowledge management environment. The typical research life cycle involves 4 phases:

1. Planning; defining the project, involving literature analysis, discussions with a range of experts, arranging funding and resources; 2. Data preparation; processing, collecting and describing data; 3. Analysis; commenting results, data access, data dissemination, preparation of the knowledge transfer and undertaking the necessary analysis, publications of results over the undertaken experiments; 4. Research Outcomes; publications of obtained results, generalizing of the results according to the methods used.

Semantic Web as a research tool could be used across all the phases. Our approach combines several technologies and tools to create qualitatively strong resources for several projects phases.

All the present projects have their own web presentation with basic information about the topic, research team, etc. Our project GACR P403/11/1103 is focused on the construction of methods for multifactor measurement of company performance in chosen economic (CZ-NACE) activities and the creation of a modifiable and broad-spectrum methodology of their putting into practice. Presently we are in the first phase, where the literature analysis takes place. As a web project presentation tool we chose the Drupal CMS for the project team background. Outside the standard project annotation and description, Drupal includes the module for Web 3.02 that implements the Semantic Search architecture. The module logic of the Drupal is shown on Fig. 3. CMS Drupal uses an RDF store as a search index. The built in store is easy to use. Other RDF stores require Java and configuration. Also dynamically creates default search interfaces, for many searches per site, configurable via admin interfaces. [START_REF]Drupal Semantic Search Group[END_REF] Other possibility to be used as search engine is the Yahoo! SearchMonkey Apps.

Yahoo! SearchMonkey share structured data with Yahoo! Search to display a standard enhanced result (available for certain content types) or the Search-Monkey developer tool could be used to extract data and build apps to display custom enhanced results. [START_REF]Yahoo! SearchMonkey Definition[END_REF] For Drupal also speaks presentation of his creator, Dries Buytaert, about the Drupal solution. [START_REF] Buytaert | Drupal, the semantic web and search[END_REF] But not only the Drupal is involved. Is combined with the Google Docs tools, especially with spreadsheets. The selection where supported because of easy usage and it support the real time multi-user editing option. We use the spreadsheets for several tasks:

1. Resource digital library (RDL) it includes results of literature analysis of the state-of-the-art analysis with defined structure (Tab. 1); 2. Publications digital library (PDL) key information of the team own publication with defined structure; 3. Team publication plan; 4. Documents share point information about stored and shared documents containing information for/about project.

First two, the RDL and PDL, also builds the internal resource layer for the Semantic Search engine in CMS Drupal. Google Docs spreadsheets allow usage of standard SQL to query and also its possible to access the spreadsheets data from outside application. The Semantic Search application in our project could be described as on figure 4.

XBRL

The XBRL format (eXtensible Business Reporting Language) was chosen as s suitable means of information exchange and inter-company communication. It is a worldwide standard for the exchange of commercial information with the support of searching on the level of semantic meaning. An advantage of this standard is the possibility of its simple processing at the level of important world institutions in the state, as well as private sector. This fact is a necessary prerequisite for the integration into the company environment and the willingness to make use of this means of communication for inter-company data exchange.

In our case, the XBRL will be used for acquiring financial documents from individual monitored company subjects. Because the communication will be periodical, the chosen standardized framework appears to be a good choice. The acquired data will subsequently enable us to calculate the indicators describing the present situation of the company, and, based on historical connections, balance sheets about its future aims can be created. The integration will be done on the level of incorporation of the XBRL conversion module into the already existing system; a similar approach to database connection has been applied in the following source.

Using the social communication means as support of the project solution

Regular meetings are necessary support for the project. The basis is not only the recapitulation of individual steps resolution, but also the coordination of subsequent steps inside each workgroup, because the individual participants are not always available temporally, as well as spatially (teaching, internships, vacations, etc.). It is therefore necessary to select a suitable framework that would enable us to create a work meeting even on the virtual level. Besides the allocation of partial tasks by means of the calendar application on the projects portal we have discussed the possibility of using the Skype technology for leading alternative meetings of the project. This approach has proven to be very effective, not only because it enables the storage of mutual text communication, but also because it enables the implementation of semantic search in this communication.

Conclusion

The present contribution has discussed the possibilities of integration of new technologies, as a suitable support for the leading and solving of projects. Namely, it has dealt with the integration of semantic search on several portal levels, used for the solution of scientific projects, and also the employment of new communication means from the areas of social and community networks for the support and leading of projects, and the execution of work meetings. It has been shown that the use of these technologies brings about the simplification of communication among the group of solvers, and above all, it increases the effectiveness of the project solution.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Descriptive languages [8].

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Search machine [8].

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Project Semantic Search with Google Docs.

  [START_REF]XBRL Mapping[END_REF]

Table 1 .

 1 Resource Digital Library (RDL) and Publications digital library (PDL) structure

	PID Authors Year of	Publisher Citation Key Source Processed DOI
	Publication	(in text) words DBS by	/URL

http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/

http://semanticsearch.org/

Acknowledgments

. This work has been supported by the project No P403/11/1103 Construction of Methods for Multi-factorial Assessment of Company Complex Performance in Selected Sectors. The Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (GACR).