Breteau Pierre
email: pierre.breteau@lurpa.ens-cahan.fr

François Thiebaut

Lartigue Claire

Fricéro Benoit

Moufle Falgarone Hugo

Georges Eric

Thiebaut François

Assembly Simulation of Flexible Parts through the fitting of Linkage Devices

Keywords: Flexible part, assembly, simulation, deformation

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INTRODUCTION

Compliant sheet metal assembly is a process widely used in automotive or aerospace industry [START_REF] Camelio | Modeling variation propagation of multi-station assembly systems with compliant parts[END_REF]. Part compliance enables the assembly but it also causes considerable variations that will influence the final geometry of the assembly. Many works have addressed the problem of assembly simulation of flexible parts. [START_REF] Hu | Modeling and control of compliant assembly systems[END_REF] have summarized the recent developments of simulation models for compliant assembly and present the applications of such models. Most applications concern the simulation of assembly variations integrating part and fixture variations. Works are related to assembly by spot welding and are based on the PCFR cycle (Place, Clamp, Fasten and Release) [START_REF] Chang | Modeling the assembly of compliant, non-ideal parts[END_REF], [START_REF] Chang | Representation of assembly and inspection processes for the tolerance analysis of automobile bodies[END_REF], [START_REF] Dahlström | Practical implications in tolerance analysis of sheet metal assemblies experiences from an automotive application[END_REF], [START_REF] Hu | Simulation and analysis of assembly processes considering compliant, non-ideal parts and tooling variations[END_REF]. All the methods rely on the use of Finite Element Method (FEM) to calculate deformation after assembly. [START_REF] Liu | Variation simulation for deformable sheet metal assemblies using finite element methods[END_REF] have first introduced the notion of sensitivity matrix which establishes the linear relationship between the incoming part deviation and the output assembly deviation. Some authors propose to also integrate variations induced by the tooling [START_REF] Chang | Modeling the assembly of compliant, non-ideal parts[END_REF], [START_REF] Camelio | Modeling variation propagation of multi-station assembly systems with compliant parts[END_REF]. [START_REF] Long | A unified model for variation simulation of sheet metal assemblies[END_REF] consider the gap between parts and fixtures into the assembly modelling. [Lian et al., 1999] analyse the causes of variations by using a statistical method. Most of these works are linked to the automobile industry. Some recent works focus on the optimization of part positioning in order to respect assembly tolerances while taking into account part variations. [START_REF] Cid | Geometrical study of assembly behaviour, taking into accounts rigid components' deviations, actual geometric variations and deformations[END_REF] propose a best assembly process that takes into account through simulation the flexibility of components. The method, which is based on the influence of component geometrical variations on functional conditions, determines the coefficients of influence in a symbolic writing and used them during the optimization which leads to an efficient simulation loop. The method is particularly efficient for compliant assemblies with more fitting liaisons than necessary which introduce over-constraints, deformations and stresses that have to be managed [START_REF] Chevassus | A new approach for best fit assembly based on the behaviour of components[END_REF].

Anyway, the proposed approach supposes that the component geometry is measured at each stage of the process. Therefore, the method presented in the paper resumes the previous works and integrates part measurement to initialise the method. The assembly studied consists of one flexible part which is set in position thanks to linkage devices on rigid parts (figure1). The aim of the paper is to propose a simulation method leading to the optimal fitting values of these linkage devices so that functional requirements of the assembly are ensured. After a short presentation of the method and its key points, an illustration based on an industrial case is exposed.

METHOD FOR ASSEMBLY SIMULATION

The assembly and setting process is carried out according to the following four steps:

• Initial component assembly with geometrical deviations and default settings • Assembly measurement on predefined interface points • Simulation and best fit optimization which leads to determine the fitting values of linkage devices • Application of the optimized fitting values and checking of the assembly constraints The next section details the method for assembly simulation associated to the process described above.

The Approach

The simulation of the compliant assembly relies on the method exposed in [START_REF] Cid | [END_REF]. This method supposes that the behaviour of the flexible part is linear and only considers small displacements. Using the Finite Element Method (FEM), the displacements of each point of a component are linked to the forces by the matrix K:

F=K.U This equation is equivalent to the following one:

[ ] [ ] 0 F U I K = ⎥ ⎦ ⎤ ⎢ ⎣ ⎡ - (1)
Formally, we can impose forces or displacements values at each point which leads to the boundary conditions. The writing of all the boundary conditions yields to:

⎥ ⎦ ⎤ ⎢ ⎣ ⎡ = ⎥ ⎦ ⎤ ⎢ ⎣ ⎡ ⎥ ⎦ ⎤ ⎢ ⎣ ⎡ - BC S F U nditions BoundaryCo I K 0 (2)
Solving Equation 2leads to the values of forces and displacements at each point of the components. However, the simulation provides the flexible component deviations relative to the rigid body. As a result, the displacement U is not expressed relatively to the nominal geometry but is expressed relatively to the rigid frame. As the problem is linear, displacements and forces can be written as follow:

⎩ ⎨ ⎧ + = + = fit def fit def F F F U U U ( 3
)
Where U def and F def are the initial deviations and forces of the assembly and U fit and F fit are the deviations and forces induced by the fittings.

Basically, the method consists in optimizing the values of U fit so that functional requirements are respected. Once U fit are optimized, the values of F fit obtained using equation 2 must be compared to admissible mechanical constraints. The main problem is the determination of the reference state (or initial state) of the assembly in order to identify U def and F def . The next section is dedicated to this point.

Initial state measurement

The originality of the method is to identify the geometry of the reference state through the measurement of the assembly. The component is set in its over-constrained use position. Only sampled points are measured on the component, and the measured deviations correspond to the actual shape of the component and the initial values of the fittings. The whole geometry is evaluated through the FEM method considering measurements as boundary conditions.

On the other hand, the determination of the values of F def requires the knowledge of the free-state of the assembly (figure 2). To determine the free state of the assembly, the flexible part must be set in a properly-constrained position. Significant points are thus measured. The difference between the reference state and the free-state gives the value of U def :

0 ref def U U U - = (4)
F def is afterwards calculated using equation 2.

Figure 2, Geometrical deviation in the assembly.

Optimization of the fittings

By imposing the fitting values as boundary conditions, equation ( 2) yields to:

⎪ ⎪ ⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎧ + = + = ∑ ∑ = = n j j ij i fit i n j j ij i fit i R b f F R a u U 1 0 1 0 (5)
Where u i0 , f i0 are constants, R j is the j fitting value (j=[1;n]), and a ij , b ij are the influence coefficients of the "j fitting" at the node i. Using equation (3) this gives:

⎪ ⎪ ⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎧ + = + = ∑ ∑ = = n j j ij i i n j j ij i i R b f F R a u U 1 * 0 1 * 0 (6)
As assembly conditions C q are expressed using U i , they can be expressed in function of the R j values:

[ ] p ; 1 q , R c c C j n 1 j qj 0 q q = + = ∑ = (7)
The optimization of the fitting values can thus be performed in order to respect the assembly functional requirements.

STUDY CASE

The proposed method is illustrated through an aeronautic example which consists in assembling the sliding door of Dauphin helicopter. This composite door must satisfy functioning conditions as well as waterproof qualities, aerodynamic and safety constraints. The kinematics of the door is based on four positioning hinges that slide on three curved rails. The hinges are equipped with different settings which enable to reach a perfect fit (figure 3). The subject of the study is the door assembly when it is in closed position.

Description of the system

The kinematics of the door is based on four positioning hinges that slide on three curved rails (figure 3). These hinges, which also position the door when it is closed, can be adjusted in the x, y and z directions for the front hinges and in the z direction for the back ones. Three other devices are used to lock the door, and can be adjusted in the x, y and z directions. Moreover, all along the door edge, a seal ensures the airtightness between the structure and the door.

Assembly constraints

The door assembly must satisfy some constraints given by the functional requirements:

-Security, -Aerodynamics, -Airtightness. Among all these constraints, only those which influence the fitting of the door onto the structure are retained.

The analysis of these constraints shows that some fitting directions are influence free on the door assembly. Consequently, these fitting directions are not taken into account in the optimization process.

Determination of the fitting of linkage devices

The problem is formally written from equation ( 1) to equation ( 6) using Mathematica®. On the other hand, the optimization of the fitting is programmed using Matlab®. Results are presented through a graphic interface which is divided in four parts, each one corresponding to a step of the method. The first graph (Top-Left) presents the mesh of the door as well as the measurement points. All the measurement points are located all along the edge of the door. The second graph (Top-right) corresponds to the free-state. The free-state is obtained by the measurement of the flush values when the door is set in a properlyconstraint position onto the helicopter structure.

The third graph (Bottom-Left) is the reference-state: the door is assembled in its actual position. Flushes, gaps and seal gaps are measured and defined the initial values of the geometrical parameters. The initial values of the forces are obtained using the FEM considering the displacements between the reference-state and the free-state as boundary conditions.

Therefore, initial data (geometrical parameters and forces) are known, and the optimization can be carried out. The fitting values of the linkage devices after optimization are indicated in the boxes around the fourth graph (Bottom-Right).

CONCLUSION

In this paper, a measurement based assembly approach is proposed which takes into account the measured geometries of components to be assembled as well the deformations of one of them. The method has been applied on the simulation of assembly of a helicopter door with promising results (figure 4). In particular, the proposed approach would allow gains of time for the assembly process. Currently the method suggested works only on assemblies with only one flexible part. Further work will thus consist in extending this work to assemblies with several flexible parts.

Figure 1 ;

 1 Figure 1; Assembly of a flexible part with adjustable linkage devices.

Figure 3 ,

 3 Figure 3, Door linkage devices.

Figure 4 ,

 4 Figure 4, Fitting window for the helicopter door.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research work has been carried out in the frame of the GRC-Flexible assembly of the INNO'CAMPUS programme in partnership with EADS.


Adèle Martin-Gruen

The Role of Design in the Appropriation of Shared Objects: Autolib in Paris

INTRODUCTION

Virginie has a client meeting and decides to drive there. She looks at her phone: three cars are waiting for her one block away. She has been using Autolib, a carsharing system supported by Paris' City Council, for almost two years now. She knows the vehicles (there's only one model, the Bluecar, an electric car) and the system intimately. She places her card on the reader and the door of the vehicle in the middle opens. She unplugs the car from the charging station and gets in. The car greets her: 'Hello Virginie' and starts playing her favorite radio. She presses the pedal; she is on the road again. She has come to love that feeling.

In a context of rising collaborative consumption (Botsman and Rogers, 2010;[START_REF] John | The social logics of sharing[END_REF] a new focus on sharing behaviors (Belk, 2007(Belk, , 2010) ) and access-based consumption [START_REF] Bardhi | Access-based consumption: The case of car sharing[END_REF] has emerged in the research community. Studies have looked at the pros and cons of using instead of owning for consumers and companies [START_REF] Bardhi | Access-based consumption: The case of car sharing[END_REF][START_REF] Meijkamp | Changing consumer behaviour through eco-efficient services: an empirical study of car sharing in the Netherlands[END_REF][START_REF] Jonsson | A tale of a car sharing organization (CSO) monster. Little Monsters:(de) coupling assemblages of consumption[END_REF]. Sharing is often depicted as a liberating form of consumption as it frees the consumer from the domination of objects [START_REF] Bardhi | Access-based consumption: The case of car sharing[END_REF] and even as a form of anti-consumption that allows consumers to express their rejection of the market [START_REF] Ozanne | Sharing as a form of anti-consumption? An examination of toy library users[END_REF]. Belk (2010) distinguishes between an affective form of sharing ("sharing in") and a more economically driven "sharing out". In this second type of sharing, the consumer is not driven by an altruistic motive but rather by practicality or cost reduction. This second type of sharing is probably less impressive than collaborative projects between consumers, and yet it is the most interesting to study in order to observe new relationships between consumers, products and brands (Belk, 2010). When a consumer owns a product, a natural process of appropriation towards that object occurs. Appropriation is a fundamental characteristic of human behavior. It is crucial in the self-fulfillment process [START_REF] Serfaty-Garzon | L'appropriation. Dictionnaire critique de l'habitat et du logement[END_REF], and helps consumers in the construction of their identities [START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF][START_REF] Cerulo | Identity construction: New issues, new directions[END_REF][START_REF] Kleine | How is a possession" me" or" not me"? Characterizing types and an antecedent of material possession attachment[END_REF][START_REF] Kleine | An integrative review of material possession attachment[END_REF]. In marketing, appropriation of the product is necessary in order to create a relationship with the brand (Founier, 1998). When an object is shared the dynamic of appropriation is threatened [START_REF] Bardhi | Access-based consumption: The case of car sharing[END_REF]. How can a company conceive a product that will be shared but that also will enable consumers to develop a certain appropriation towards it, thus creating a relationship with the brand? Based on the analysis of current theories in the discipline of design and design thinking, our paper explores the links between design and appropriation in the context of shared objects. Specifically, we look at key design elements than can have an impact on creating appropriation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Sharing

Sharing is a specific form of consumption, a model that differs from traditional gift giving or commodity exchange (Belk, 2010). This specific form of consumption invites us to reconsider the consumer-object relationship. The role of consumption as a possession-based activity has long been studied in marketing [START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF][START_REF] Richins | Special possessions and the expression of material values[END_REF][START_REF] Ahuvia | Beyond the extended self: Loved objects and consumers' identity narratives[END_REF], as it remains the dominant form of consumption [START_REF] Guillard | The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun[END_REF]. However this traditional scheme has recently been disrupted by the emergence of the sharing economy (Botsman and Rogers, 2010). Sharing is in itself an ambivalent term. It signifies both cutting something into pieces and living a common experience. Belk (2010) distinguishes between "sharing in" that qualifies sharing behaviors existing in close, intimate circles such as family or friends; and "sharing out", which is when sharing happens outside of the extended self of the individual. Car sharing is an example of sharing out, when consumers use cars that belong to a third-party [START_REF] Meijkamp | Changing consumer behaviour through eco-efficient services: an empirical study of car sharing in the Netherlands[END_REF][START_REF] Jonsson | A tale of a car sharing organization (CSO) monster. Little Monsters:(de) coupling assemblages of consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Katzev | Car sharing: A new approach to urban transportation problems[END_REF]. [START_REF] Bardhi | Access-based consumption: The case of car sharing[END_REF] have conceptualized those instances of consumption as "access-based consumption", which they defined as 'transactions that can be mediated in which no transfer of ownership take place'. Studying a case of car sharing, the authors refuted that a perceived sense of ownership could exist between the consumers and the accessed object, meaning that no appropriative relationship existed. However the company they chose to focus their case study on had not implemented a design project for their product or service.

Design

Implementing a design project implies thinking about the product itself but also about the actors of the object (the users), and the situation of usage (the consumption context) [START_REF] Findeli | L'Eclipse de L'Objet dans les Théories du Projet en Design (The Eclipse of the Object in Design Project Theories)[END_REF]. The discipline of design is, in its most recent conception, highly concerned with 'the accomplishment of [human beings] individual and collective purposes' [START_REF] Buchanan | Design research and the new learning[END_REF]. Design research tries to link insights from social sciences, such as marketing research, with the development of new product and product features [START_REF] Buchanan | Design research and the new learning[END_REF]. From a marketing point of view design is often depicted as a mere product development activity, and on the other hand, to designers marketing is often too concerned with cost and managerial issues. This situation creates communication and understanding issues between the two disciplines [START_REF] Beverland | Designers and Marketers: Toward a Shared Understanding[END_REF]). Yet as these authors show, when the two fields work hand in hand the results can be sensational. It is thus necessary to understand design as a culture, integrating elements from production to distribution; consumption to waste; demography to consumer psychology [START_REF] Julier | The culture of design[END_REF]. The discipline of design, with a strong reflection on the definition of a product and knowledge on product features' roles in consumption can help us analyze how to generate appropriation of a shared product. It is our understanding that marketing research could benefit from a more design-oriented point of view.

Appropriation

The common sense given to appropriation is to "make something mine". The feeling of appropriation is universal and an inherent part of human nature. Rouhette (Encyclopedia Universalis) gives the example of engraved bone weapons dating back to the Paleolithic as a representation of appropriation. Appropriation is not to be confused with ownership. The later is defined by legal standards whereas appropriation's definition is rooted in common sense. Appropriation implies actions from the individual who wishes to make something his. It is a dynamic and complex process. This phenomenon has been studied largely in the case of spaces [START_REF] Fischer | La psychosociologie de l'espace[END_REF]. In marketing it was particularly the case in services marketing and store design [START_REF]Le design d'environnement commercial dans les services: appropriation et détournement par le client[END_REF][START_REF] Kolenc | L'impact de la situation de consommation sur la valeur de l'expérience vécue dans le cadre d'activités communautaires: une perspective dynamique[END_REF][START_REF] Badot | La ritualisation du parcours-client chez Build-a-Bear Workshop: phénoménologie et enseignements[END_REF]. Place appropriation can be defined as a process of "actions and interventions on a space to transform and personalize it" [START_REF]Le design d'environnement commercial dans les services: appropriation et détournement par le client[END_REF]. In the context of experiential consumption [START_REF] Guillard | The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun[END_REF] research has shown that the appropriation of the experience's space is necessary to allow the immersion of the consumer into the experience [START_REF] Bonnin | Magasin et expérience de magasinage: le rôle de l'appropriation[END_REF][START_REF] Carù | Approche empirique de l'immersion dans l'expérience de consommation: les opérations d'appropriation[END_REF].

Etymologically, to appropriate something refers to the natural action by which food penetrated the organism. This is relevant in the case of object appropriation and the extended-self theory. Sartre's work (1943) theorizes the human desire to have things. He identified three ways one could appropriate something: creating (making something to have it), knowing (knowing something intimately contributes to its existence for me) and a third one that can be described as controlling. Controlling refers to overcoming an obstacle. It is also linked to the ability to use the object and to have the power to destroy it (to modify its matter). To Sartre, wanting to have an object meant wanting to be into a relationship with this object. [START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF] drew on Sartre's work to understand the impact of this relationship on consumers' identity construction. He examined how our possessions become a part of our selves to constitute our extended selves. He translated into three self-extension processes the three having ways developed by [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF]: controlling/appropriating, creating and knowing. He added a fourth way which he identified as symbolic contamination. Contamination is a passive form of self-extension that occurs by involuntarily incorporating others into one's extended self [START_REF] Argo | Consumer contamination: How consumers react to products touched by others[END_REF]. [START_REF] Fernandez | Making magic: Fetishes in contemporary consumption[END_REF] deconstructed this process of self-extension by looking at how objects could contaminate the self. They answered Belk's (2005) call to develop an alternate, non-Western view of the concept of selfincorporation by offering a more assimilationist view. Rather than to conceptualize selfextension as the individual extending oneself towards the objects, they are looking at ways that possessions are assimilated inward. The locus of control is moved from the individual to the object. They found that controlling is the main element of the appropriative process. Creating and knowing intimately lead to controlling via mastery of the object [START_REF] Fernandez | Making magic: Fetishes in contemporary consumption[END_REF]. More specifically they found that contamination occurs on all four processes of selfextension. Creating and knowing intimately implies contamination, and as a consequence so does controlling. [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF] defined possession of an object as 'being through the object'. Behind every having behavior is a will of being [START_REF] Fromm | To have or to Be? Harper and Row[END_REF]. The link between the appropriated object and the self is strong. Marxist theory goes further by stating that it is only through the appropriation of the means of production that workers could be freed from a bourgeois appropriation, make sense of their life and find purpose. Appropriation is crucial in the development of the selves and the wellbeing of individuals. In today's context of rising sharing behaviors this process seems threatened [START_REF] Bardhi | Access-based consumption: The case of car sharing[END_REF], which is why it is necessary to understand how to enable consumers to appropriate objects that they share with others.

METHODOLOGY

Because we aim to understand the process of appropriation of shared objects our research follows a comprehensive logic. Hence, a qualitative methodology is preferred. The literature could not provide enough depths to formulate a hypothesis because studying sharing is relatively new in marketing research. That is why we engaged our research through an abductive approach, constantly going back and forth between the field and the literature.

We conducted interviews with users of the carsharing system Autolib in Paris. Autolib offers a network of electric cars in Paris and its close suburbs. For about ten euros a month, plus a small cost for each journey, users have access to all the cars and benefit from the service and the infrastructure. Autolib and companies like Zipcar share many common characteristics, however Autolib differs in that it supports only one type of car. Its fleet of car is homogeneous and consists in the model "The Bluecar" designed by Pininfarina. Thirteen interviews were conducted with Parisians and close suburbs inhabitants (see Table 1. below). Each interview lasted between forty and seventy minutes. The discussion focused on sharing in general, the relationship with the company Autolib and the Bluecar. Categorization of the interviews was done both deductively (appropriation as an existing construct) and inductively (identifying emerging themes) [START_REF] Spiggle | Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data in consumer research[END_REF]. The analysis was guided by the constant comparative method of analysis described by [START_REF] Spiggle | Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data in consumer research[END_REF], in which each incident in the data is compared with other incidents of the same category in order to identify similarities and differences. Our analysis led us to understand the appropriation process, the relationship with the firm's product and service, and the consumer's view of sharing in general. Specifically, we were able to identify key design features involved in the appropriation process.

FINDINGS

Our findings follow [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF] theory of appropriation and [START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF] theory of self-extension. The first three processes of appropriation were recognized in our interviews: controlling, knowing and creating [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF][START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF]. Instances of contamination were identified, yet none of them were positive contamination [START_REF] Argo | Positive consumer contagion: Responses to attractive others in a retail context[END_REF]. As a result contamination was not examined here as a process of appropriation [START_REF] Fernandez | Making magic: Fetishes in contemporary consumption[END_REF]. Out of the thirteen respondents, only four did not felt appropriation of the Bluecars. Two of them felt the negative contamination of others too much [START_REF] Argo | Consumer contamination: How consumers react to products touched by others[END_REF] and drove with gloves or washed their hands as soon as they got out of the car. One did not use the service enough (only once every three or four months). Finally the fourth was fully engaged into altruistic sharing and had the feeling of living in community (closer to the 'sharing in' described by Belk, 2010). The other respondents really felt like the cars they were using were theirs. This was expressed through sentences such as 'Yes, to me, when I'm in the car, I put the music on and I feel like I'm in my car, I do not feel as though I am in someone else's car' (Johanna, 26). Our analysis indicated a real appropriation of the shared car for these respondents. For each of the three processes of appropriation we identified the key design features that enabled these feelings.

Controlling

Appropriation by controlling implies overpassing a difficulty or mastering the matter [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF][START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF][START_REF] Brunel | L'appropriation des produits par le consommateur : proposition d'une grille d'analyse[END_REF]. Because we exercise a control over an object it becomes ours: 'It is yourself who leads, there's no mechanics, no 'machine' ready to dominate. It is there and it works. There is a real feeling of possession' (Olivier,27). This feeling is enabled by the electric motor of the car and the automatic gear: driving is smooth and silent, and thus we understand that this has for consequence that the driver feels in complete control over the vehicle. It is important to note here that automatic gear and electric cars are not, to this day, very common in France. We also noticed that respondents were empowered by the height of the driver's seat. Even if the car is quite small and 'urban', the seat is higher than usual, giving them an impression of control: 'Something interesting is that the car is quite high, a bit like 4x4, so that the driving's seat is quite high, higher than almost all the other cars, and that reinforces the game-like sensation' (Jean-Baptiste, 28). This game-like sensation is central to the controlling element. When Sartre first explained what he meant by 'mastering the matter' he gave the example of games and sports. Finally, the design of the service also played a role in giving control to the users. The possibility to book a car, to book a parking space at the place of destination and the vast implantation of the electric charging stations established a 'whenever I want, wherever I want' system that empowered consumers.

Knowing

Knowing is a form of having, it is because I know the object that it exists for me [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF][START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF]. The simple fact of seeing something reveals it to me and participates to its existence for me. In this way, I 'own' it because it exists through my eyes. With the Bluecar it is less abstract; the feeling of owning the car emerged from the habits that are created between the user and the car. Perhaps one of the most important design features that made possible the appropriation of the shared cars was the uniformity of its fleet vehicles. Because of the use of one single model, the Bluecar, users were able to recognize the car in the street from afar, to know the specificities associated with driving it and to describe the vehicle's interior. Moreover it established the impression of always getting in the same car: 'You're used to it. We know where all the buttons are, there is no need to search for anything every time' (Carla,27). Because of this uniformity, habits are created between the users and the cars: 'Yes I am very familiar [with the car], I know that the first thing to do is to turn the power on because the builtin computer can be slow sometimes. So I turn the power on first to get it started and in the meantime I adjust the mirrors and the seat. I do it in that order.' (Lionel,29). This relationship of familiarity is reinforced by the role of the built-in computer. Favorite radio stations are saved, as well as favorite destinations. When the user enters the car, the radio is automatically the same than the previous time, just like in possessed cars.

Creating

Creating is the oldest form of appropriation. At the origins men needed to create the objects they wanted to use and own. Today this can be attained through invested time, energy and money [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF][START_REF] Belk | Possessions and the Extended Self[END_REF]. Designing a service that involves consumers in the process is crucial in this regard. Users clearly expressed the necessity of their involvement: 'You just have to understand the mechanisms. After a while it becomes mechanical but at the beginning you have to understand it well. You can't just arrive and leave, you have to lay [your card] to show that it's you, […] things like that.' (Mélissa,23). The long subscribing process reinforced this feeling of involvement: 'it's really a peculiar process. You must really want to use them to try it, you have to take a card and all' (Tristan,22). Money and energy invested for each journey, in the good functioning of the service were also factors of appropriation: '[…] then you've got your Bluecar flashing, you lay your card on the detector to open the small shutter, you unplug, you put away the thing, the electrical supply, you get into your car' (Tristan,22). Each time a car is used the driver has to re-plug it into the charging station. When a feature is malfunctioning or a car is damaged, users are invited to report the issue to the customer service.

DISCUSSION

This article adds to current research on sharing and access-based consumption (Belk, 2010;[START_REF] Bardhi | Access-based consumption: The case of car sharing[END_REF]. Specifically, this research contributes to our understanding of the existing relationship between consumers and shared products. Appropriation of shared cars was made possible thanks to strong product and service design features at key points in the appropriation process. Specifically, we identified that design enabled users to control and to know the vehicle as well as to create the service.

The present research also aims to contribute to the discussion between the disciplines of marketing and design. Both are focused on the end-users and their relationship with objects. While the number of research on product design in marketing journals is slowly increasing [START_REF] Luchs | Perspective: The Emergence of Product Design as a Field of Marketing Inquiry*[END_REF], the two fields do not collaborate easily [START_REF] Beverland | Designers and Marketers: Toward a Shared Understanding[END_REF]. Research that combines both approaches can contribute to narrowing this gap and to create connections between the two disciplines. This article presents the limits inherent to the nature of our research. We have studied the appropriation process in the context of Autolib in Paris; our results are tied to this context. Secondly, the number of interviews is limited, in particular to understand consumers who do not feel any appropriation of the Bluecar. It could be interesting to develop solutions to give them the keys to appropriation. This research can benefit companies in the sharing economy. By looking at best practice in the field they can ameliorate their products and services to better respond to the consumer's desire for wellbeing. Indeed it is our understanding that consumers will be more inclined to engage into loyalty behaviors with cars that they feel are 'theirs'.

Finally, this article opens several potential research avenues for further research to better understand the relationship between the consumer and the shared object. Ethnography has a strong tradition in design research [START_REF] Button | The ethnographic tradition and design[END_REF] and with that in mind it would be relevant to observe consumers in their daily activities involving shared objects. Also, other shared objects should be included in the research to broaden the perspectives, such as household appliances shared amongst occupants of the same building. Furthermore questions arise regarding the appropriation of a shared place: are the dynamics the same than for shared objects? [START_REF] Kleine | An integrative review of material possession attachment[END_REF] show that place attachment shares many characteristics with possession attachment. Both objects and places are central for the consumer's definition of self. This encourages future research to compare the appropriation process for shared objects and places. It might be, for instance, interesting to observe these dynamics in coworking spaces. Knowing Knowing is a form of having, it is because I know the object that it exists by and for me [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF]. The simple fact of seeing for instance something reveals it to me and participates to its existence for me Uniformity of the fleet's vehicle contributes to create habits. The consumer:  Recognizes the car in the street from afar  Knows the specificities associated with driving  Describes the vehicle's interior  Has an impression of always getting in the same car 'You're used to it. We know where all the buttons are, there is no need to search for anything every time' (Carla, 27) 'The personalization is well done, having our radios already there, the station closest to my home in my favorites' (Jean-Marc, 31) Creating Creating is the oldest form of appropriation.

At the origins men needed to create the things they wanted to own. Today this can be attained through invested time, energy and money [START_REF] Sartre | L'être et le néant[END_REF].

Co-construction of the service via subscribing process, money and energy invested in the good functioning of the service. Each time a car is used its drivers has to re-plug it into the charging station. When a feature is malfunctioning or a car is damaged, users are invited to report the issue to the customer service. '[…] then you've got your Bluecar flashing, you lay your card on the detector to open the small shutter, you unplug, you put away the thing, the electrical supply, you get into your car' (Tristan,22)

Table 1 .

 1 Informant Demographic Characteristics

	Name	Age Profession Place of residence	User for
	Carla	27	Student	Suburbs	6 months
	Marianne	25	Intern	Paris	2 years
	Olivier	27 Consultant	Paris	4 months
	Tristan	22	Intern	Paris	1,5 years
	Johanna	26	Student	Paris	2,5 years
	Jean-Marc	31	Employee	Paris	1,5 years
	Lionel	29	Engineer	Suburbs	2,5 years
	Jean-Baptiste 28	Engineer	Paris	7 months
	Mélissa	23	Student	Suburbs	6 months
	Christophe	30	Engineer	Suburbs	1,5 years
	Gaëlle	32	Employee	Paris	2 years
	Sacha	20	Student	Paris	10 months
	Valérie	27	Lawyer	Suburbs	1 months

Table 2 .

 2 Summary of Findings

	Theme	Definition		Design element	Quotation example
	Existence of	9 respondents expressed		'Yes, to me, when I'm in
	appropriation	feelings	of		the car, I put the music
		appropriation towards		on and I feel like I'm in
		the car: controlling,		my car, I do not feel as
		knowing or/and creating		though I am in someone
		(Sartre, 1943)			else's car' (Johanna, 26).
	Controlling Overpassing a difficulty	 Electric motor of the car	'It is yourself who leads,
		or mastering the matter	and the automatic gear: driving	there's no mechanics, no
		(Sartre, 1943; Brunel	is smooth and silent, driver	'machine' ready to
		and Roux, 2006)		seat is high: driver feels in	dominate. It is there and
				complete control over the	it works. There is a real
				vehicle	feeling of possession'
				 Empowerment via	(Olivier, 27).
				service design: 'whenever I
				want, wherever I want':
				Consumers control the service
				process


Eloïse Libourel
email: eloise.libourel@enpc.frnomenclature

The Mediterranean railway corridor: territorialising multiple visions of a macro-regional axis

Keywords: Corridor, Mediterranean railway corridor, Spain, Territorialisation, Trans-European Networks of Transport, Transport geography

The Mediterranean railway corridor is a project of a macro-regional trans-European axis of transport. In its Spanish part, it goes through Mediterranean regions which have historical, demographical, economic and even political common structures. But they are also marked by important gaps and a double lack of economic and political stakeholders' cohesion in a competitive context and of railway infrastructure. In this context, the MRC appears as a common goal and a catalyst: it creates new forms of cooperation between the actors and promotes a new image of the Mediterranean corridor as a possible coherent territory, shared by all the coastal regions. The transport corridor project, even if it is not yet realised as an infrastructure, already works as a strong factor of territorialisation along the Spanish Mediterranean axis. A special form of longitudinal and polymorphic territory, fruit of a complex system of particular and diverging interests seems to be emerging in these regions as a specific "corridor territory".

Résumé

Le corridor ferroviaire méditerranéen (MRC) est un projet d'axe de transport transeuropéen d'échelle macrorégionale. Dans sa partie espagnole, il traverse des régions méditerranéennes dotées de structures historiques, démographiques, économiques voire politiques communes, mais aussi marquées par d'importantes fractures et par un double manque de cohésion entre les acteurs politiques et économiques dans un contexte de concurrence et d'infrastructures ferroviaires. Dans ce contexte, le MRC apparaît comme un objectif commun et comme un catalyseur : il aboutit à la création de nouvelles coopérations entre acteurs et promeut une image de l'axe méditerranéen, possible territoire cohérent partagé par toutes les régions littorales. Ce projet de corridor de transport, si l'infrastructure n'est pas encore réalisée, fonctionne déjà comme un puissant facteur de territorialisation de l'axe méditerranéen espagnol. Un territoire singulier, longitudinal et polymorphe, fruit d'intérêts particuliers divergents, semble émerger dans ces régions comme « territoire de corridor » spécifique.

Mots-clés :

Corridor ; Corridor ferroviaire méditerranéen ; Espagne ; Géographie des transports ; Réseau transeuropéen de transport ; Territorialisation

Introduction

The Mediterranean railway corridor is one of the Trans-European Network of Transport projects held by the European Commission to improve interconnection and interoperability throughout the continent for freight and passengers. It is presented as a priority project and as a part of the core network since the 1990's in official documents (Ministerio de Fomento, 1993;European Commission, 1996;European Commission, 2011;Ministerio de Fomento, 2012). The MRC is a great axis from Algeciras to Ukraine in the very last version up to the EU documents. In Spain, it is mainly both a freight and a high-speed passenger axis linking the main ports and cities to France and the rest of Europe through a new, interoperable, international gauge set of tracks. The discussion about the length and modalities of its implementation is very pregnant: the cost of brand new tracks is very high, but the improvements of the actual tracks can't be a long-term option because of their low level of service. The first part should be implemented from the French border to Valencia before the end of 2015. This Spanish part of the trans-European corridor is set in a particular political and economic context. The project of linking the main Mediterranean cities and regions with a railway axis seems to be a response to the lack of powerful infrastructure in these regions and an opportunity to connect with the rest of Europe. But even if the project is present in all the infrastructure master plans of the government since the 1990's, it stands against the historical politics of radial axis centred on Madrid [START_REF] Comín Comín | años de historia de los ferrocarriles españoles[END_REF][START_REF] Bel | España, capital París. Origen y apoteosis del Estado radial: del Madrid sede cortesana a la « capital total[END_REF]. Today, it also appears as an expensive project in an economic crisis context particularly strong in the Mediterranean regions [START_REF] Baron-Yellès | L'Espagne aujourd'hui : de la prospérité à la crise[END_REF][START_REF] Chastagnaret | Banques, caisses d'épargne, immobilier et politiques publiques Une lecture historienne de la crise financière espagnole : l'Espagne toujours diferente ?[END_REF].

In Spain, the notion of Mediterranean corridor has a double signification. On the one hand, it obviously refers to the macro-regional European railway infrastructure project. On the other hand, it also refers to a complex and poorly defined Mediterranean space spread along the Mediterranean Sea, from the French border to an undefined point between Valencia and Algeciras, frequently Alicante or Murcia. This littoral axis seems to have some symbolical coherence in the minds, but it is difficult to call it a "territory" because of its lack of unity or common identity. Territory indeed refers to a clearly defined spatial structure with a coherent identity or opportunity of identification, possibly a political coherence, and a collective appropriation.

In this context, one question has to be asked: how a new macro-regional railway infrastructure as the MRC project can lead to the creation or the renewal of a relevant territory specific to this corridor. The aim of this paper is to show how the concept of corridor, as it is defined in several fields including economy and transport, can be useful in geography to describe a process of territorialisation of a determined spatial field. It therefore proposes the concept of "corridor territory" as the consequence of the acts of the different stakeholders taking part to the progressive implementation or the MRC macro-project.

The qualitative methodology used in this research to establish the different actors' point of views will be first presented. A literature review of the concept of "corridor" and of the link between railway infrastructures and territory will then be set to highlight the existing gap between the multiplication of the use of "corridor" in planning and its very few connection to territorial aspects. The actors' multiple visions of the MRC and of its territorial impacts will then be presented as a result of a series of interviews. This will lead to the main findings of the paper as far as the territorialisation of this macro-regional axis is concerned.

Methodology: a qualitative approach of the MRC

In order to demonstrate how the MRC project leads to particular processes of territorialisation through the visions and acts of different stakeholders, the paper will be mainly based on a qualitative methodology.

A literature review on the topics of the "corridors" and of the link between railway and territory will first be step. It will allow questioning two main aspects. First, the concept of corridor was used in relation with territory in very few cases and it is now used mainly in a conceptual way paradoxically in planning documents. Second, the link between railway and territory is present in a large literature and it should help us making a relation between the concept of corridor and its plural forms of spatial consequences in the MRC case study.

In order to approach the specific territorialisation process along the MRC project, this research is based on the methodology of interviews with relevant actors. A first step is the identification of the stakeholders who take part in the debate and the actions around the Mediterranean corridor: the European Commission is supposed to choose the priority projects up to the proposals of each member state of the EU; in Spain, the great infrastructures are a national competence and are implemented by ADIF, the infrastructure manager; the Autonomous Communities have a set of competences; the economic sector and its lobbies also claim for the MRC; academic personalities also take part into the debate. The identification of the actors was made by crossing two sources: the institutional competences are a good way to identify part of them; the observation of the events and actuations around the MRC through the media and the networking allow to complete the list. The main point of the methodology is to collect their opinion through interviews. Since 2011, 43 interviews were realised, mainly in the late 2013, in several Spanish cities, in Brussels and in Paris. During the interviews, a series of questions about the MRC were asked, among which the personal definition given by each actor, his position regarding it and the concrete actuations planned or implemented in relation to the MRC. The question of the meaning of "corridor" was also asked. The public declarations of the stakeholders in the media or in institutional documents were also analysed as a complementary source. Thanks to the answers, we have been able to make a typology of these actors according to the analysis of their different visions, confronted with the concrete actions initiated on the Mediterranean axis.

From corridor to territory: a missing link in the state-of-the art

The Mediterranean railway corridor refers to the notion of "corridor" as it is used in transportation field. The term is very often part of the institutional discourse to define an important and large scale transport line (European Commission, 2011), having or not a territorial reference. But literature shows that the great railway infrastructure may have important effects on territory and therefore can't be considered independently.

"Corridor": a complex multidimensional concept

The concept of "corridor" emerged in the 1960's in the United States in the field of spatial analysis and network analysis (Haggett & Chorley, 1969;[START_REF] Kansky | Structure of Transportation Networks: Relationship between Network Geometry and Regional Characteristics[END_REF]. At this time, it was quite open to the notions of space, territorial organisation and geography in a rather descriptive way. It was particularly used to describe urban processes linked to the intensification of transit along structuring transportation axis, as C.F.J. [START_REF] Whebell | Corridors: a Theory of Urban Systems[END_REF] and B.E. [START_REF] Prentice | Transport Gateways and Trade Corridors[END_REF] could show in North-American case studies. In its first acceptation, the notion of corridor was directly linked to the transport infrastructures or at least to the transportation axis perceived through flows of transit and mobility. But in this sense, it was not necessarily connected to the idea of a territory as a coherent and continuous space or to the idea of territorial organisation and planning at any scale. Nonetheless, the idea of a corridor as a continuum of space with particular characteristics emerged in the 1970's and is still used nowadays in ecology. In the 1990's, the notion of "corridor", in the transport approach, moved to the field of economy. It was used in multi-criteria economic analysis and supply and demand models.

European case studies mainly appear in the 2000's in institutional reports of the European Commission and in national scientific productions. The Spanish case is original because of an older use of the term "corridor" to define great transport axis, particularly for the Mediterranean regions [START_REF] Boira | Euram 2010: La via europea[END_REF]Centre for Innovation in Transport, 2012). In the European institutional documents as the TEN-T (European Commission, 2011), the term "corridor" refers to the great trans-national transport axis projects. It seems to be used in a prospective and political vision, as a language instrument to give a reality to these projects. Thus, European "corridors" are not infrastructuresor they are a set of discontinuous pieces of different infrastructures to be linked together.

Neither are they territories because they don't take into account the identity or possible unity of the spaces they go through. This technical use of the notion of corridor leads to an abstraction of the concept.

Indivisible concepts: railway infrastructure and territory

The idea of a strong link between transport and territory is historically established by scientific literature as reminded by F. [START_REF] Plassard | Les effets des infrastructures de transport, modèles et paradigmes[END_REF]. Railway especially appears as an instrument for planning and territorial unification since the beginnings in the 19 th Century. In Europe the train was used as a territorial coherence tool [START_REF] Troin | Rail et aménagement du territoire[END_REF]Offner & Pumain, 1996) and some authors even talk about railway as "architecture of the territory" [START_REF] Grillet-Aubert | Recherche : état des lieux et perspectives[END_REF]. The same assessment is made at a regional level [START_REF] Button | Transport and Industrial and Commercial Location[END_REF][START_REF] Banister | Quantification of the non transport benefits resulting from rail investment[END_REF]). The regional or local studies of the impact of railway infrastructure on the territory usually give a prominent role to the actors and the analysis of their position and actuations [START_REF] Wolfram | Planning the Integration of the High-speed Train[END_REF]. In the whole literature, the link between railway and territory is established, even if [START_REF] Offner | Les effets structurants du transport : mythe politique, mystification scientifique[END_REF] demonstrates that there is no "structural effect" of the infrastructure, which leads to the idea that its relationship to the territory is quite complex.

A missing link with territory

The term "corridor" as used by the European institutions and countries in their infrastructure programs shows that territory is very rarely present in the debate at this macro-regional scale. This is a paradox when all the transport policies are most often oriented towards a better cohesion or equity of the (national) territory. It is as if the step to European level made it difficult for the states to consider a possibly coherent territory which would not fit with their borders and would oblige them to consider new forms of territoriality.

The notion of "corridor", as it appears in literature, seems to have slipped from spatial to economic analysis [START_REF] Hall | Cities, Regions and Flows[END_REF]. Nonetheless, the reactivation of the concept of transportation corridor in the context of the TEN-T projects could paradoxically bring it back to geography. De facto, the trans-European networks need to take root in the specific territories in which they are implemented. Therefore, the implementation phase of European projects, which can be quite long, can appear as a privileged phase of territorialisation.

Actors, territory and the MRC: from a plural space to new territorial cooperations

The trans-European projects, as they plan long term and long distance infrastructures, go through different territorial entities, as states, regions or cities, but also more fuzzy forms of territoriality. The Spanish Mediterranean regions have strong identities and traditions at political, economic, social, demographic and institutional levels. It makes it a plural space marked by common Mediterranean affiliations, but also strong divisions in which the different actors are moving and changing their relationships; as it is noticeable through the interviews.

The Mediterranean as a plural space and a coherent axis?

During the interviews, the historical dimension of the MRC, first claimed by orange producers in the 1920's, and of the Mediterranean regions was very often evoked as follows. Historically, the Mediterranean Sea has a common heritage and shares a common culture. Nonetheless, this Mediterranean cohesion was slightly modified with time. The constitution of national States connected politically the Mediterranean regions with the other components of each state and therefore disconnected them from each other [START_REF] Béthemont | Géographie de la Méditerranée : du mythe unitaire à l'espace fragment[END_REF]. Recently the Mediterranean heritage was rediscovered through regional cooperation in a European frame (Institut de la Méditerranée, 2004) -Interreg, Union for the Mediterranean, etc. In Spain, demographic and economic indicators seem to confirm the coherence of the Mediterranean space from a geographical point of view. Apart the region of Madrid, the major growth rates of demography and of economic indicators in the last 15 years are concentrated along the Mediterranean coast (up to the national institute of statistics). This dynamism is reinforced by the presence in the Spanish Mediterranean regions of the main ports (Valencia, Barcelona and Algeciras) and economic sectors, such as automotive industry, ceramics and textile. These exporting companies need an improvement of the railway axis to Europe, but the economic dynamism goes hand in hand with a strong competition between ports (Valencia is very proud to overtake Barcelona in TEUs) and industries (Ford in Valencia and Seat in Barcelona on the European market). From a political point of view, the situation seems to be very propitious to a Mediterranean good understanding, at least for Catalonia and Valencia Community, both governed by a conservative majority. But historically, a strong rivalry has been opposing both regions and it is still very active. One of the elements building a reputation of unity for the Mediterranean axis is the dominant political philosophy in Spain. It is indeed set on the idea of a cultural and institutional domination of Castile and the region of Madrid [START_REF] Loyer | Géopolitique de l'Espagne[END_REF][START_REF] Romero | España inacabada[END_REF] based on ideas from literary and philosophical works.

In the field of transports, the construction of the route and rail networks are quite good indicators. As Germà Bel shows in his book España, capital París (2010) transportation networks were always a way to create and reinforce the nodal position of Madrid and at the same time to build an artificial unity of the national territory. As underlined by all the regional scale actors, this political choice lead to the construction of a radial highway and railway network, centred on Madrid. Its consequence is a lack of coastal infrastructure in the Mediterranean regions which were the poor relation of the infrastructure politics. Nonetheless, if we look at the dominant flows, it is noticeable that the Mediterranean corridor is the most important of the country [START_REF] Monzón | Evaluación de los Impactos Territoriales y Económicos de Planes de Infraestructuras de Transporte[END_REF]. In this context, the MRC seems to make sense, and we can assume that it is coherent with an existing territory, at least from transportation flows' point of view. Nonetheless, even though the MRC project is supported as a European priority, the Spanish central government doesn't make it a real priority as far as funding and construction are concerned but one project among others.

Nonetheless, as José Ortega y Gasset underlines in his book España invertebrada (1921), the whole country lacks of great "vertebrating" axis. It is especially true when considering the Mediterranean axis from railway point of view. Two high-speed lines, Madrid-Levante (with a branch to Valencia and further to Castellón and a branch to Alicante) and Madrid-Barcelona don't take into account the 200km missing between Castellón and Tarragona to complete the network, which by now has medium speed lines and 40km of one-track line. This absence of continuity along the Mediterranean axis is in a way based on very deeply anchored in the psychology and ideas of institutional actors -as shown by the interviews-but also of everyone.

Almost all the actors agree that the Mediterranean axis is fragmented and appears as a quite rejected territory at a national level. But a corridor exists de facto, underlined by the importance of freight traffic, passenger demand and tourism. This gap between the political philosophy and the common ideas about Mediterranean space as a non-coherent and non-appropriated region and the existence of real transport demand and needs appears as a paradox. The existing functional disjunctions seem to disappear in transport field.

Multiple and diverging stakeholders' visions for a single objective: the MRC as a territorial catalyst

If the different interviewed actors seem to agree on the MRC as a necessity for the coastal regions as well as for the national economy, this consensus is based on rather divergent visions and conceptions of the corridor. It was often very difficult for the interviewed actors to express in a direct way an opinion about the question of the territorialisation, because they are not familiar with the concept and don't take this particular issue into account in their actuation. Nonetheless, academic actors (some of them being geographers) and some of the lobbyists are very concerned about territory [START_REF] Boira | L'Eix Mediterrani: entre les dinàmiques locals i la perspectiva megaregional[END_REF]. Political actors also refer very often to the idea of "territory", meaning an institutional perimeter in which they are elected or have a competence in terms of planning. Therefore, their vision of the territory mainly depends on the political scale they represent.

Even if the question of the territorialisation of the MRC is not directly present in the content of interviews, the answers of the stakeholders can be analysed and their vision of the political and economic relationships along the Mediterranean axis and of the new complementarity or cooperation to be created allow us to have an idea of their vision of what could be the territory of the Mediterranean corridor.

A typology can be set on the criteria of the definition of the MRC given by the actors, their more or less spatially integrated vision and their concrete territorialised proposals. Table 1 (below), by comparing stakeholders' priorities and visions of the MRC, leads to several findings. First, the impact of the main objectives of each actor on his vision of a corridor territory is obvious. National or regional objectives as those of the Central Government or of the Autonomous Governments lead to an addition of institutional perimeters, whereas a European integration perspective or the local development objectives mainly lead to non-institutional perimeters. The latter are mainly based on functional considerations. Second, the question of the extension of the MRC, in its Spanish part, is variable depending on a more or less extensive vision of it. European documents and [START_REF] Ferrmed | Ferrmed Global Study. Ferrmed Great Axis Rail Freight Network and its area of influence, Scandinavia-Rhein-Rhone-Western Mediterranean. Feasibility, conclusions and recommendations[END_REF] and EU Core Net Cities informs promote a trans-continental axis which would be the link between Africa and Northern Europe: in this case, all the Spanish Mediterranean regions (Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia and Catalonia) would be part of it. But the economic field has a more limited vision, taking into account Catalonia, Valencia and most of the time Murcia, and sometimes a little part of Andalusia till Málaga. But regional political actors even exclude Andalusia. This region has a topographical and a political gap which makes it more likely to be connected to Seville-Madrid axis than to the Mediterranean corridor. Third, there is a huge domination of a freight railway axis in the claiming of the different stakeholders, whereas a passenger axis is mainly a demand of the cities. A freight axis would be economically profitable and gathers all economical actors, whereas a passenger high-speed rail axis would cost much more than its social profitability would make it acceptable [START_REF] Bel | España, capital París. Origen y apoteosis del Estado radial: del Madrid sede cortesana a la « capital total[END_REF]. But the idea of a high-speed passenger corridor is present in the discourse of the stakeholders as an attractiveness element and as an argument to convince the inhabitants of the opportunity of the corridor. The consecutive territorial vision is ambiguous: one argument in favour of HSR is to improve the accessibility of the whole coast for tourism, giving it a homogeneous sense. However a HSR service would only stop in the main cities and maybe improve their metropolitan status, but it would reinforce the fragmentation of the Mediterranean space by increasing the gap between the main cities and the secondary ones.

Even if it's possible to make a difference between economic, political and academic stakeholders according to their priorities and to their visions of what could be a Mediterranean corridor territory, and despite their divergent objectives, they all are involved in the MRC project and cooperate into some debate and proposition task forces, such as IIVEE-Euram, an institute which promotes a Mediterranean Euro-region [START_REF] Boira | Euram 2010: La via europea[END_REF]. Despite their different objectives and positions about the modalities of the project, all these stakeholders are part of a great pro-MRC cluster lobby. This scheme shows how actors coming from diverse origins with quite unlike cultures and knowledge participate to a common effort in favour of the Mediterranean corridor. It seems impossible to draw one coherent vision of the MRC up to the results of the analysis of stakeholders' priorities, but there is still an active effect on the Mediterranean macro-region as if all stakeholders were moving towards a common objective through different ways. This movement towards the MRC implementation allows to define the notion of "corridor territory".

Main findings: towards the creation of a "corridor territory"

The Spanish Mediterranean regions have some homogeneity according to indicators such as demography, political representation or economy at a small scale. But if we look at a more precise scale, it is fragmented and it seems difficult today to talk about a territory as an appropriated and identified coherent portion or space organised with common interests and cooperation. Nonetheless, the actions of the different stakeholders in the MRC project renew the idea of a relevant corridor territory through political, economic and social (circumstance) cooperation, and through a qualitative jump from regional straight to European scale. The analysis of the main findings lead to the justification of the concept of "corridor territory".

Cooperation and the regional jump towards European scale

The MRC project as a part of the TEN-T projects introduces a major change in the way stakeholders act. Indeed, the Spanish Autonomous Communities are directly represented in the EU institutions through the Committee of the Regions. The principle of subsidiarity, in use in European institutions, implies that the decisions should be taken at the closest practical level for the citizen [START_REF] Kersbergen | The politics of subsidiarity in the European Union[END_REF]. Therefore the regions have increasing weight and credibility even though they are theoretically not competent for infrastructures in Spain.

As the MRC doesn't reach a full consensus in Spain, and principally in Madrid which would be put aside, the Mediterranean regions had an important mobilisation at the European Commission. That was the starting point of a dialog between Catalonia and Valencia, two neighbour regions which were competing with each other and had no project in common. This cooperation started in the 1990's when the MRC was first included in the TEN-T but was particularly reinforced in the last years. It is interesting to see that the Secretaries of Transport of both regions are now present together at the same meetings, as at the meeting organised by IIVEE in February 2013 in Peñíscola, at mid-distance from Barcelona and Valencia. The IIVEE is represented in both regions.

The creation in June 2013 of the EU Core Net Cities new lobby of the cities of the European core network was also an interesting event. It showed the increasing political cooperation along the Mediterranean axis, but also the remaining gaps. The initiative was due to Ferrmed. A large number of Spanish Mediterranean cities were represented (17 out of 27 European cities) including small ones, which confirms the existence of an increasing continuity and a common interest of the Mediterranean actors for MRC. But the city of Valenciathird Spanish and second Mediterranean metropoliswas not represented. The political cooperation of the Mediterranean corridor is still incomplete, but it is under construction and is reaching a very interesting level: institutions at all scales and of all sizes feel concerned by a single project.

But the political cooperation seems to have come for institutional reasons -that is to say to support the MRC project at the European Commission, whereas the economic actors began their coming together earlier and on much more rational basis. The opportunity offered by the MRC for all the economic sectors and for the Mediterranean harbours is very important (Spain has an Iberian gauge railway network which cannot connect directly with European gauge tracks in France and the rest of the continent and which creates a loss of time and additional costs). The Chambers of Commerce and Industry of the different Autonomous Communities began to cooperate around the MRC project. They were influenced by a set of ideas from economists such as Germà [START_REF] Bel | España, capital París. Origen y apoteosis del Estado radial: del Madrid sede cortesana a la « capital total[END_REF] and by academic and economic institutes such as IIVEE.

In 2004, Ferrmed was officially created and installed as a lobby at the European Commission. It emerged from the first attempts of economic cooperation between the Mediterranean regions and from the conviction that a strengthened cooperation was necessary to support the MRC as a part of a wider network. Ferrmed proposes a "Great Axis" from Casablanca to Saint-Petersburg. Nonetheless, the Spanish part of this axis is in the centre of the lobby's action: it was created and is managed by Joan Amorós, a Catalan, and a huge proportion of its members is Spanish. Ferrmed, as well as IIVEE and some other structures (Business Eumed, EU Core Net Cities, etc.) are now having a role of interface between the different stakeholders. They are the structures in which economic and political actors can meet as well as civil society members. Therefore, they are the sign that a real territorial cooperation is emerging in the Spanish Mediterranean corridor.

A corridor territory made of a set of actuations and symbols

All the stakeholders which strongly support the MRC have their own interests and therefore project in the Mediterranean corridor their representations. It contributes to the constitution of a territory as a symbolically appropriated space.

A set of images and representations of the Mediterranean corridor exist. They are mainly maps from the lobbies, the Government and the research institutes, but also pieces of advertising from the municipalities (Gandía created the image of an AVE train arriving on the beach) or the private actors (like Pro-AVE business association) and caricatures published in the media or on the internet. These representations are very diverse, but they all promote the idea of a coherent Mediterranean axis through images that people can keep in mind. As an example, Ferrmed map of the Greater axis [START_REF] Ferrmed | Ferrmed Global Study. Ferrmed Great Axis Rail Freight Network and its area of influence, Scandinavia-Rhein-Rhone-Western Mediterranean. Feasibility, conclusions and recommendations[END_REF] represents a project as it was officially proposed to the European Commission together with impact and feasibility studies: it actually is an executive prospective map. Nevertheless, it is also an image of a structuring European corridor based on intermediate cities, which are the majority of the lobby. Thus, this map is both a proposal for European networks and the symptom of a synthesis of different stakeholders' interests. It is very well-known and present in mind of all the stakeholders. Business Eumed, a lobby of commerce and industry companies, presents a map of the "Mediterranean orbital train" which, according to an interview with the director [START_REF] Libourel | L'insertion de Valence dans le corridor ferroviaire méditerranéen. Stratégies multiscalaires et aménagement urbain[END_REF], is mainly a representation to consider and keep in mind, and not a real executive project. The idea is to create a vision of a fuzzy territoriality around the Mediterranean to strengthen the cooperation between the Mediterranean companies for commerce and industry. The profusion of these representations (a large set of symbols could be added) makes the Mediterranean corridor exist as a coherent territory despite its multiple definitions and perceptions. A real "corridor territory" structured by the infrastructure is progressively emerging from the MRC project.

At the same time, the events organised by some of the actors (especially the lobbies) joining together a large set of stakeholders at different levels and from different territories contribute to the unification of the Mediterranean corridor as a relevant frame for political and economic action. Sectorial groups are emerging as representatives of the interests of the Mediterranean corridor as a coherent territory, such as Cierval, the business association of the industrials of all the Mediterranean regions from Catalonia to Murcia and some provinces of Andalusia. The implementation of a provisional "third rail" to adapt the existing tracks to European gauge is also a factor of unification of the interests and of cohesion of the territory because it allows the whole corridor to access Europe.

At a local level, numerous projects of urban infrastructure (high-speed rail stations, urban renewal around the stations, logistic parks…) claim their affiliation to the MRC and use it as a justification. There is indeed a huge expectation based on the implementation of the railway corridor: it is supposed to increase the dynamism of all the Mediterranean axis. Even if the projects presented at a local scale are not directly in relation with the MRC, the trans-European project appears as a way to justify investment at a local scale and to create a global vision of the Mediterranean coast as a dynamic territory in Europe.

Thus, in a moment of economic crisis which is particularly strong in the Mediterranean regions and in which the Catalan exception is particularly strong also, the MRC project acts as a catalyst. It renews a Mediterranean coherent perception and makes the idea of a relevant "corridor territory", appropriated by the stakeholders and by the people, possible. The MRC is used as an instrument for diverse aims, but it still is a territorial entity more and more identified and perceived as a coherent bloc in Spain and Europe.

Conclusion

The Mediterranean railway corridor is an infrastructure project at a macro-regional scale, and even at a transcontinental level. In European terms, it is a technical or even a technocratic vision of a more or less ideal link between several European regions. But in Spain, where the Mediterranean regions lack of powerful railway infrastructures but have a strong freight and passenger demand, it takes a particular dimension.

An analysis of the geographical skills of the Mediterranean axis showed certain coherence in the demographic, economic and political indicators at a macro-regional level, even if an analysis of the situation at a more detailed scale shows some important gaps. But according to the series of interviews made with the different stakeholders of the MRC and to their actuations, these gaps are being passed over by new political, economic, social cooperation which make the Mediterranean corridor exist in the facts and discourses, even if it still doesn't exist as an infrastructure.

The political revival of the concept of corridor leads to the positive appreciation of a latent territoriality through its symbolical appropriation. The Mediterranean regions are not yet a complete "corridor territory" as it is not fully appropriated and organised in a coherent way. But we can assume it is positively under construction thanks to the mobilisation and conjunction of interests produced by the Mediterranean railway corridor project. This territorialisation process is visible through the discourses of the different stakeholders, but also through positive acts of economic and political cooperation. Of course, this does not mean that competition is now over, but it means that the stakeholders are aware of the need to give body to a territorial structure in order to make the MRC essential.

This Spanish Mediterranean corridor case study leads geography to integrate the notion of territory to the notion of corridor when it takes the form of a territorial phenomenon.

Table 1 .

 1 Classification of stakeholders according to their vision of the Mediterranean corridor.

	Type of territorial	Actor	Main objectives	Concrete projects
	vision of the MRC
	Integrated / macro-	European	Promoting European networks	-One end of a great TEN-T
	regional vision	Commission	interconnection and interoperation	-Railway connexion to North
				Africa
		Spanish government	-Completing HSR network	-From French border to Algeciras
		(Grupo Fomento :	-Improving the connexion to	as a maximalist hypothesis
		ADIF / RENFE)	Europe	-to Murcia a mid-term
			-Improving competitiveness
		Mediterranean	-Euro-regional integration,	Integrating Catalonia, Valencia and
		regions (Catalonia	-Connexion of main Spanish	Murcia regions
		and Valencia	harbours,
		mainly)	-South-north axis avoiding Madrid
		Academics	-Promoting a Mediterranean great	Catalonia, Valencia and Murcia in a
			region, with particular cohesion	Euro-regional perspective
			and identity,
			-Reinforce the economical weight
			of the Mediterranean
		Lobbies (Ferrmed,	-Connecting industries of the	-Piece of a project from Casablanca
		Business Eumed,	Mediterranean regions,	to Saint-Petersburg,
		AVE, IIVEE)	-Opening Spanish coast to Europe	-Along the Mediterranean
	Sectorial / cluster	CCI	Improving the connexion of	-Connect the main cities to Europe
	vision		Spanish industries to Europe	-International clusters
		Port authorities	Become a gateway for Europe	Connect ports to European market
	Isolated / localist	Cities	-Reach a metropolitan status in	-AVE stations, urban renewal
	vision		Europe	-Events and communication about
				the MRC

ADIF Administrador de Infraestructuras Ferroviarias (Spanish nfrastructure manager) AVE Alta Velocidad Española (Spanish high-speed)