Béatrice Degraeve

Marie-Axelle Granié

Karyn Pravossoudovitch

& Grégory

Lo Monaco

Social representations associated with men and women drivers among French adolescents and adults. Effects of perceiver's age, sex, and socioeconomic status

Keywords: social representation, core-periphery analysis, social insertion, stereotypes, sex, driver

The aim of this study was to investigate the specific contents of the social representations (SR) associated with men and women drivers and to examine the effects of the social insertions of individuals (i.e., age, sex and socio-economic status) on the content and the structure of these SR. A preliminary study with 414 French participants identified thematic content associated with men and women drivers through the method of verbal associations.

Based on these themes, 833 French participants, equally distributed on the basis of age group (from 12 to 50 years-old and over), sex and socio-economic status (SES), were asked to answer a questionnaire on men (N = 422) or women (N = 411) drivers. The results show that these SR are each organized around three factors: incompetence, prudence and lack of selfcontrol for women drivers; carelessness, skills and self-control for men drivers. In-group favoritism bias can be noted as male participants, more than female ones, rated men drivers as having self-control and women drivers as lacking self-control, whereas female participants, more than male ones, perceived men drivers as careless and women drivers as prudent.

Despite this phenomenon, in all age groups, male respondents, more than female ones, seem to believe that women are not competent for driving, whereas both sexes seem to agree on men good driving skills. Among most age groups, three characteristics associated with man drivers (confidence, fastness and pleasure of driving) and four characteristics associated with female drivers (caution, civility, compliance with rules and vigilance) emerge as central in the SR. The SR associated with men drivers seem to be stable and shared across age groups, whereas the SR associated with women drivers appear more mixed, heterogeneous and unstable with age. Participants with higher SES consider female drivers as more incompetent, more nervous and less cautious than participants with lower SES and female's responses tend be closer to those provided by the male group when they are higher SES.

Introduction

There are many empirical evidences outlining sex differences in driving behaviors and accidentology. In most Western countries, men are two to three times more likely to die in a traffic accident than women [START_REF] Hanna | Fatal crashes involving young unlicensed drivers in the U[END_REF][START_REF] Nell | Why Young Men Drive Dangerously? Implications for Injury Prevention[END_REF][START_REF] Özkan | Why are there sex differences in risky driving? the relationship between sex and gender-role on aggressive driving, traffic offences, and accident involvement among young turkish drivers[END_REF]. Their probability of being injured in a car accident is 25% higher than women [START_REF] Evans | Traffic Safety and the Driver[END_REF]. Studies show that men are more frequently involved in accidents related to a traffic rule violation. In France, at equal mileage, women have 2.5 times fewer points removed from their driving licenses, and are 6.2 times less convicted for offenses [START_REF] Assailly | Revue de questions sur le continuum éducatif[END_REF]. Indeed, men show a lower degree of normative motivation to comply with traffic rules [START_REF] Yagil | Gender and age-related differences in attitudes toward traffic laws and traffic violations[END_REF].

However, despite these objective data about accidentology, women are still considered as being poor drivers. In fact, many studies in the field of stereotypes showed that the negative stereotype against women drivers is still effective. [START_REF] Berger | Women drivers!: The emergence of folklore and stereotypic opinions concerning feminine automotive behavior[END_REF] tried to understand the origin of the popular beliefs against women drivers and how a negative stereotype spread towards them in the early twentieth century. According to him, this stereotype would be linked to beliefs that they would be unable to handle stressful situations requiring rapid decision making because of their physical and emotional sensitive constitution, which would make them poor drivers. Otherwise, some studies suggest that these stereotypes are used by drivers, which may impact on driving behaviors [START_REF] Davies | The influence of car and driver stereotypes on attributions of vehicle speed, position on the road and culpability in a road accident scenario[END_REF][START_REF] Derks | The threat vs. challenge of car parking for women: How self-and group affirmation affect cardiovascular responses[END_REF]. In the framework of the stereotype threat phenomenon [START_REF] Steele | Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans[END_REF], these stereotypes provide the foundation for strong inductive inferences, which can have significant cognitive and behavioral consequences, and particularly for the driving activity. Studies thus showed that negative beliefs associated with female drivers could lead to an impairment of their driving performances [START_REF] Chateignier | effet de la menace du stéréotype et de la colère sur les performances des femmes à une tâche liée à la conduite automobile[END_REF]Félonneau & Becker, 2011;[START_REF] Yeung | Stereotype threat increases the likelihood that female drivers in a simulator run over jaywalkers[END_REF].

The study of how individuals perceive "the man and woman behind the wheel" may be useful for apprehending and understanding the various speculations and everyday discussions in this area. Moreover, it also appears to be an important aspect for studies on stereotype threat phenomenon and its implications in the context of driving. However, as far as we know, the precise content of these perceptions has not been explored in depth among adults but only among adolescents [START_REF] Granié | Gender stereotypes associated with vehicle driving among French preadolescents and adolescents[END_REF].

The theory of social representations (SR) is relevant to fully apprehend these daily discussion topics, insofar as it allows revealing the content and the structural organization of such social constructs but also allows putting it into perspective with the social insertions of individuals.

This theory provides a methodological framework for the study of the aspects associated with men and women drivers. SR are common sense theories used to give meaning to social objects [START_REF] Moscovici | Notes towards a description of social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Moscovici | Psychoanalysis: Its Image and Its Public[END_REF]. These lay theories circulate through society as knowledge of common sense to explain, make sense, and understand the environment. Thus, SR are a form of shared social knowledge. In this sense, the SR of a social group corresponds to the way individuals perceive this group, and is composed of all the information and beliefs that individuals socially produce and share [START_REF] Moscovici | Psychoanalysis: Its Image and Its Public[END_REF].

Since the work initiated by Moscovici on SR, two approaches have focused on their organization. Firstly, in the framework of the structural model of the SR, the "central core theory" was developed by [START_REF] Abric | Central system, peripheral system: their function and roles in the dynamic of social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Abric | A structural approach to social representations[END_REF]; see [START_REF] Rateau | Social Representation Theory[END_REF] for a review) to investigate the internal hierarchy of SR. This approach aims at demonstrating how are structured the elements constituting a representation. This theory assumes that any representation is organized around and structured by a central core, which is composed of a few elements (i.e., opinions, beliefs, knowledge) that are subject to a consensus among the individuals who share this representation and are insensitive to context variations [START_REF] Abric | A structural approach to social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Flament | Approche expérimentale de type psychophysique dans l'étude d'une représentation [Psychophysical experimental approach in the study of a representation[END_REF][START_REF] Lo Monaco | Test d'Indépendance au Contexte (TIC) et Structure des Représentations Sociales [Test of Context Independence (TCI) and Structure of Social Representations[END_REF][START_REF] Rateau | Social Representation Theory[END_REF][START_REF] Wagner | Relevance, discourse and the 'hot' stable core of social representations: a structural analysis of word associations[END_REF]. Otherwise, various elements are also related to the representation but are not part of the central core. These "peripheral elements" allow some flexibility in the representation and reflect the individual appropriation and the context in which they are actualized.

Secondly, according to [START_REF] Doise | Les représentations sociales. Définition d'un concept [The social representations. Definition of a concept[END_REF][START_REF] Doise | Les représentations sociales [The social representations[END_REF]) and the sociodynamic model, representations are structured by common "organizing principles", from which will occur interindividual differences. These variations in the position-taking about such or such object are regulated by the social positions of the individuals, their experiences or their integration in a context or a given social situation. For [START_REF] Doise | The Quantitative analysis of social representations[END_REF], the study of the SR is not limited to their consensual properties but shall include the socially regulated interindividual variations derived from the representational field (i.e., taking into account the variations between individuals and groups in the organization and the dynamics of a social representation). These individual variations are considered as systematic fluctuations in the weight (and/or in the degree of importance) that individuals or groups give to the various dimensions underlying the representational structure. Contrary to the central core theory, the analysis of the representational structure consists in the identification of the principles that organize individual differences. Usually within the framework of the study of social representations, the organizing principles are identified with multidimensional data analyses. Moreover, in line with [START_REF] Bourdieu | The logic of practice[END_REF], it aims at studying the social regulations of the various position-taking, therefore the social anchoring of the ways to represent the object. In this sense, considering the social anchoring consists in analyzing the effects of social insertions on a particular SR. According to the principle of structural homology [START_REF] Bourdieu | The logic of practice[END_REF], there are correspondences between cognitive structures and social insertions. Thus, it is possible to observe links in the social field between the occupied social position and the individuals' ways to think and to position themselves about, for examples, an object, a debate, the adoption or not of a social practice, etc.

In this context, these two different approaches have been developed to account for SR.

Indeed, one can distinguish the structural model, which is based on the concept of consensus, from the sociodynamic model, which focuses, on its part, on socially regulated interindividual variations. In line with these two approaches of SR, a number of studies (e.g., Lo Monaco, [START_REF] Lo Monaco | Questionnaire of characterization and correspondence factor analysis: a methodological contribution in the field of social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Moliner | A two dimensional model of social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Moliner | Attitudes and social representations: a theorical and experimental approach[END_REF][START_REF] Rateau | Psychosociological anchoring and structural dynamic of social representations of the heterosexual/homosexual couple[END_REF][START_REF] Tafani | Théorie des champs sociaux et dynamique représentationnelle: Études des effets des asymétries positionnelles sur la structure d'une représentation sociale [Theory of social fields and representational dynamic: Studies of the effects of positional asymmetries on the structure of a social representation[END_REF] have tried to articulate them. Indeed, the objective was to take into account both the consensus and the inter-individual variations. In order to study the effect of social regulation on the structure of SR, recent studies articulated the use of methodologies designed to explore the structure of the SR according to the central core theory [START_REF] Moliner | Ambiguous scenario and attribute challenge techniques. Social Representations of "The Firm" and "The nurse[END_REF] and multidimensional data analyses more related to the sociodynamic model [START_REF] Doise | The Quantitative analysis of social representations[END_REF]. Proceeding in this way allows to identify the effect of social insertions relative to an object and to study the structure of SR among subgroups [START_REF] Lo Monaco | Questionnaire of characterization and correspondence factor analysis: a methodological contribution in the field of social representations[END_REF].

In this framework, some studies already shown how gender asymmetries (e.g., [START_REF] Lorenzi-Cioldi | Professions au masculin et au féminin : un moyen terme entre le masculin et le féminin [Male and female professions: a middle ground between the masculine and the feminine[END_REF][START_REF] Lo Monaco | Questionnaire of characterization and correspondence factor analysis: a methodological contribution in the field of social representations[END_REF] and economic and cultural asymmetries (e.g., [START_REF] Flament | Les valeurs du travail : la psychologie des représentations sociales comme observatoire d'un changement historique[END_REF][START_REF] Lo Monaco | Questionnaire of characterization and correspondence factor analysis: a methodological contribution in the field of social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Tafani | Principe d'homologie structurale et dynamique représentationnelle [Structural homology principle and representational dynamic[END_REF][START_REF] Viaud | Principes organisateurs et représentations sociales de l'économie : genèse et dynamique [Organizing principles and social representations of the economy: genesis and dynamic[END_REF] could have an impact on some SR. However, few studies considered the effect of the age. In the framework of intergroup relation studies, [START_REF] Dafflon | Perception d'homogénéité dans les groupes. Effet des positions statutaires respectives des groupes [Perception of homogeneity in groups. Effect of the respective statutory positions of the groups[END_REF] shows that the perceived homogeneity of the outgroup varies according to some affiliation such as age, which can generate asymmetrical relations. It can be hypothesized that, due to the effects of socialization and the gradual internalization of asymmetries in the social structure, the perception of the out-group changes with age, that can influence the structure of SR related to social groups [START_REF] Dafflon | Perception d'homogénéité dans les groupes. Effet des positions statutaires respectives des groupes [Perception of homogeneity in groups. Effect of the respective statutory positions of the groups[END_REF].

Despite its fruitful use to understand the social objects, the theoretical framework of the SR has been rarely mobilized in the field of transportation. Only one study from [START_REF] Pianelli | Rôle des représentations sociales préexistantes dans les processus d'ancrage et de structuration d'une nouvelle représentation [Role of existing social representations in the process of anchoring and structuring a new representation[END_REF] analyzed the SR of traffic speed, of speed limitation and of an intelligent speed limitation system, and the effect of social anchoring on these SR through multidimensional analyses. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have investigated the content and structure of the SR associated with men and women drivers, nor the effect of perceiver's age, sex, and socioeconomic status (SES) on these SR.

In this context, this research attempts to analyze the specific content of the social representation of "the man and woman behind the wheel", specifying their different modalities of social anchoring. Indeed, the SR theory is susceptible to clarify this issue, insofar as it can determine the content of a representation, and allows putting this content in perspective with social insertion [START_REF] Doise | Debating social representations[END_REF]. More specifically, concerning the social regulations, the present study proposes to examine how the importance attributed to these contents and the structural status of the elements composing the SR may vary depending on the social insertion of individuals using several socio-demographic variables such as age, sex and SES. The methodological framework provided by the structural approach to SR seems appropriate and relevant to bring out the content of these social constructs as well as its structure.

Methodological perspectives

In order to explore the SR associated with men and women drivers and the structural status of the characteristics associated with these SR, according to social insertions, a preliminary study was conducted to identify the specific content of the SR.

Method used for this preliminary study was a verbal association procedure. This method is particularly effective for identifying the specific content of social representations [START_REF] Abric | Méthodes d'étude des représentations sociales [Methods for studying social representations[END_REF], which is the case of the present research. Many studies used the method of verbal associations to reveal various representational contents [START_REF] Dany | Free associations and social representations: some reflections on rank-frequency and importance-frequency method[END_REF][START_REF] Gaymard | The representation of old people: comparison between the professionals and students[END_REF][START_REF] Lo Monaco | Hegemonic and polemical beliefs: Culture and consumption in the social representation of wine[END_REF][START_REF] Mouret | Social representations of wine and culture: a comparison between France and New Zealand[END_REF]Slovic, Flynn, & Jayman, 1991;[START_REF] Wagner | Relevance, discourse and the 'hot' stable core of social representations: a structural analysis of word associations[END_REF].

Data collection was conducted on a convenience basis, in some cities in southeastern France, such as Marseilles and Salon-de-Provence. French-speaking participants (N = 414) were asked to associate "5 words or expressions that came to mind to describe a man (or a woman) driver". Two hundred and three participants were asked to produce associations from the inductor "man driver" and 211 participants were asked to produce associations from the inductor "woman driver". The sample was balanced on sex, age and SES to ensure data comparability with the main study.

The thematic analysis conducted on the SR of "the man driver" allowed to identify 17 topics more or less frequently mentioned by participants: disrespectful, impatient, fast, dangerous, do not comply with the traffic law, manly, show-off, dexterous, careful, confident, pleasure of driving, technical skills, inattentive, civic, incompetent, natural facilities, calm. The thematic analysis conducted on the SR of the "woman driver" allowed to identify 17 topics: careful, dangerous, inattentive, lack of technical skills, slow, clumsy, comply with the traffic law, vigilant, civic, lack of confidence, disrespectful, calm, impatient, transgression of the rules, not made for driving, mastery of the vehicle, functional aspects of the driving. These characteristics and their frequencies of occurrence in the sample are presented in Appendix A.

The topics mentioned by participants became the items of the questionnaire of the present study, which were used to test the effects of the social anchoring on the content and structure of these SR.

Social representations associated with men and women drivers

The first objective of the present study was to assess the importance attributed to the different characteristics associated with man or woman driver. The list of topics associated with the SR of the man or woman driver was submitted to the participants. For each characteristic, they were asked to evaluate their respective importance by indicating the extent to which it corresponds to their idea of the man or woman driver. Participants positioned themselves on a 10-point scale (from (1) = "no, not at all" to (10) = "yes, absolutely").

Structural status of characteristics associated with men and women drivers

The second objective was to explore the structure of these SR in order to identify the essential or central character of the elements that compose the core of the SR of the man or woman driver.

The list of topics associated with the SR of the man or woman driver was resubmitted to the participants. Instructions delivered to participants were the following: "in your opinion, are men (or women) drivers always, in all cases...?". In accordance with Lo [START_REF] Lo Monaco | Test d'Indépendance au Contexte (TIC) et Structure des Représentations Sociales [Test of Context Independence (TCI) and Structure of Social Representations[END_REF], for each item, four categories of answers were proposed (i.e., 1 = definitely not, 2 = rather not, 3 = rather yes, 4 = definitely yes).

To make a distinction between the components of the representational field, a structural diagnostic test was used to proceed to a systematic identification of the central vs. peripheral elements. The "test of context independence (TCI)" [START_REF] Lo Monaco | Test d'Indépendance au Contexte (TIC) et Structure des Représentations Sociales [Test of Context Independence (TCI) and Structure of Social Representations[END_REF] is based on the context-insensitivity property of the central elements of a SR. Indeed, this test assumes that central elements have a trans-situational property conferring them an insensitivity to the immediate context, whereas the peripheral elements are characterized by a lower insensitivity to the context variations than central ones [START_REF] Abric | Central system, peripheral system: their function and roles in the dynamic of social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Abric | A structural approach to social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Flament | Approche expérimentale de type psychophysique dans l'étude d'une représentation [Psychophysical experimental approach in the study of a representation[END_REF][START_REF] Wagner | Relevance, discourse and the 'hot' stable core of social representations: a structural analysis of word associations[END_REF].

Lastly, the last part of the questionnaire consisted of identification questions. In order to test the effects of the social variables on the structures of the SR, sex, age and SES were asked.

Two other identification variables were added to control their effects on the SR (validation of driving license and year of validation).

Sample and procedure

In the main study, 833 French-speaking participants answered either the questionnaire on women (N = 411) or the questionnaire on men (N = 422) drivers. The population was divided into subgroups based on age, sex and SES (Table 1). A junior-high school and a high school were solicited in southeastern France, in order to collect data on participants aged between 12 and 15 years and between 16 and 18 years. Concerning adult participants, data collection was conducted in some cities in southeastern France, such as Marseilles and in a southeastern

France hospital where we were allowed to interview people in the waiting rooms.

The socio-economic status (SES) was obtained by asking participants to which occupational category they belong and by classify them according to the grid of occupational categories of the French National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (e.g., Desrosières & Thévenot, 2002;Tafani, Haguel, & Ménager, 2007), in order to obtain a balanced sample between higher SES (Entrepreneurs, liberal professions, intellectual professions) and lower SES (intermediate professions, employees or workers). Students or high school students were asked about the occupational status of their parents.

Among the respondents on the "woman driver" questionnaire, 241 (58.6%) had a driver's license. This license was obtained on average during the year 1990. Concerning respondents on the "man driver" questionnaire, 250 (59.2%) had a driver's license. This license was obtained on average during the year 1991. Note. SES+ refers to higher SES, SES-refers to lower SES.

Results

Factors organizing the SR on men and women drivers

In order to extract the factors organizing the representational field, data on the importance attributed to the different characteristics associated with man or woman driver were analyzed through a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Oblimin rotation. Oblimin rotations were preferred since a link was assumed between the different dimensions organizing the SR [START_REF] Fabrigar | Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research[END_REF]. The selected factors are those with eigenvalues higher than 1, according to [START_REF] Kaiser | The application of electronic computers to factor analysis[END_REF] criterion. A cut-off point of .40 was used for item loading values. Items with loading values > .39 on two factorial axes or more were excluded. This analysis allowed to identify 3 factors that explained 61.73% of the variance for the "man driver" and 3 factors that explain 53.75% of the variance for the "woman driver".

For men drivers (see Table 2), on Factor 1 (35.32% of explained variance) loaded characteristics related to the incompetence, inattention, non-compliance with the traffic laws, danger and disrespect, in this case characteristics related to the "carelessness" of men drivers (α = .83). Factor 2 (16.40% of explained variance), which included the technical skills, the pleasure of driving, the self-confidence and the speed, can be interpreted as related to the "driving skills" possessed by men (α = .66). Factor 3 (10.01% of explained variance) on which loaded the elements "calm", "civic", "careful" and "impatient" (with opposite saturation for this last item, thus making reference to patience; α = .78), reflected "self controlled" relations to others and more specifically a patient driving style (Taubman-Ben-Ari, [START_REF] Taubman-Ben-Ari | The multidimensional driving style inventory -Scale construct and validation[END_REF]. Four items ("manly", "show-off", "natural facilities" and "dexterous") which loaded on two factorial axes or more were excluded, resulting in a threefactor solution containing 13 items. For women drivers (see Table 3), on Factor 1 (33.62% of explained variance) loaded aspects related to the clumsiness, slowness, lack of technical skills and confidence, inattention, danger, "not made for driving" aspects, and mastery of the vehicle (with a reverse saturation), in this case characteristics relating to the "incompetence" of women drivers (α = .81). Factor 2 (12.54% of explained variance), which included the prudence, the compliance with the traffic laws, and the vigilance, can be interpreted as related to the "prudence" of female drivers (α = .77). Finally, Factor 3 (7.59% of explained variance) included the impatience, calm, civility (with opposite saturation for both items, thus making reference to the lack of civility and calm) and disrespect, which referred to the interaction with other road users, and more specifically to a "lack of self control" (α = .66).

Two items ("the functional aspects of the conduct" and "transgression of the rules") which loaded on two factorial axes or more were excluded, resulting in a three-factor solution containing 15 items. Concerning Factor 3 (i.e., Self control), a significant main effect of perceiver's sex was observed on the whole sample. Men attributed greater importance to this factor than women.

An interaction effect of sex and SES was observed among participants aged 50 and over, where the sex difference was greater for the lower SES group than for the higher SES group, as shown in table 4. respondents attributed greater importance to this factor than men and higher SES respondents.

The Bonferroni post-hoc test (p < .05) showed respondents between 12 and 15 attributed greater importance to this factor than other age groups.

Concerning Factor 3 (i.e., Lack of self control), significant main effects of perceiver's sex and SES were observed on the whole sample, where men and higher SES respondents attributed greater importance to this factor than women and lower SES respondents.

- - - - - Sex X SES - - - - - - Age X SES - - - - - - Sex X Age X SES - - - - - -

Central elements

The aim of the study was also to highlight the central/peripheral structure of the representations studied. In order to realize a diagnosis of centrality, the "test of context independence (TCI)" [START_REF] Lo Monaco | Test d'Indépendance au Contexte (TIC) et Structure des Représentations Sociales [Test of Context Independence (TCI) and Structure of Social Representations[END_REF] was used (see section 2.2). As central elements are considered to be independent of the immediate context, an item is considered as central if it designates always, in any case a characteristic of the given SR (i.e., by answering affirmatively to the TCI). In line with this method, a characteristic is considered central if it

gives rise to an affirmation rate that does not significantly differ from 100% (i.e., using the Dmax Kolmogorov-Smirnov test: [START_REF] Abric | Méthodes d'étude des représentations sociales [Methods for studying social representations[END_REF][START_REF] Kanji | 100 Statistical Tests[END_REF][START_REF] Lo Monaco | Test d'Indépendance au Contexte (TIC) et Structure des Représentations Sociales [Test of Context Independence (TCI) and Structure of Social Representations[END_REF][START_REF] Moliner | Les Représentations sociales: Pratique des études de terrain [Social Representations: Practice of field studies[END_REF]. In accordance with Lo Monaco et al. ( 2008), the affirmation rate was calculated by combining the answers "rather yes"(=3) and "definitely yes" (=4).

Given the number of participants, an affirmation frequency was considered as close to 100, at a significance level of p < .05, if it exceeded the threshold calculated by the test (for example, if the affirmation frequency was 79.26 or more for the men aged 50 and over about women drivers). Since the number of participants varied depending on the condition, a corresponding threshold was calculated for each group in order to determine the structural status (i.e., central or peripheral) of each element. Table 6 and 7 gives the affirmation frequencies observed in each group.

Insert Table 6 and 7 here

Table 6 shows that, for the man driver, three elements emerged as central in most age groups: confidence, fastness and pleasure of driving. These elements all refer to the factor related to the "driving skills" possessed by men (Factor 2 of the PCA).

Concerning the representation of the woman driver, table 7 shows that four elements emerge as central in most groups (and more specifically among adults for some of them): caution, civility, compliance with rules and vigilance. Three of these elements (caution, vigilance and compliance) are connected to the "prudence" attributed to women (Factor 2 of the PCA) and the fourth (civility) is related to the relationship with other users in its positive aspect (Factor 3 of the PCA).

Discussion

SR associated with men and women drivers

This study aimed at analyzing the specific content of the social representations of "the man and woman behind the wheel", specifying their different modalities of social anchoring (i.e., the social regulations in line with their social insertions). The results showed that these social representations are each organized around three principles (i.e., Factors) whose content varies according to the target. A contrast can be noted between the organizing principles regulating these two SR: women are seen as incompetent, cautious and lacking of self-control, while men are seen as competent, reckless and self-controlled.

These findings are consistent with some studies which have shown that adolescents and preadolescents already differentiate expertise and driving skills according to the driver's sex:

women have abilities for safety but not for driving, while men have driving skills but neglect safety (Granié & Pappafava, 2011). As [START_REF] Näätänen | Road user behavior and traffic accidents[END_REF] showed that the tendency to drive fast and to overtake is considered as an indicator of competence, the results of the present study could thus be interpreted by the following relationships: since women are incompetent they must be cautious, and because men are competent they can take risks at the wheel (Granié & Pappafava, 2011). These representations of men and women drivers go in line with previous research (Tafani, Haguel, & Ménager, 2007), showing that, to define their social representation of a "good car", women give more attention than men to safety, reliability and robustness, whereas men give greater attention to the engine power and hedonism. Thus, the results of the present study are in line with other findings suggesting that perceivers tend to differentiate driving skills and safety skills [START_REF] Lajunen | Driver experience, personality, and skill and safety motive dimensions in drivers' self-assessments[END_REF],

where the former seem to be considered as masculine skills and the latter as feminine ones.

This content appears to be internalized in an essentialist way by perceivers [START_REF] Heyman | Gender and Psychological Essentialism[END_REF][START_REF] Prentice | Essentializing Differences Between Women and Men[END_REF], as driving skills seem to be described as inherent to the individual's sex group, suggesting, on the one hand, that men are naturally good at driving, and, on the other hand, that this activity is not in adequacy with the definition or the essence of women (Granié & Pappafava, 2011).

These findings suggest that asymmetrical attributions may be made according to the driver's sex: in case of an accident, men would be judged as not sufficiently taking into account other users while women would be judged to have demonstrated a lack of mastery of the vehicle [START_REF] Lawrence | Gender-Based Judgments of Traffic Violations: The Moderating Influence of Car Type1[END_REF]. Conversely, in case of good driving (or accident avoidance), women would be judged to have been cautious and vigilant towards other road users (thus avoiding an accident) while men would be judged as having expertise and dexterity for car driving (and this is due to those skills that they avoid an accident). This echoes the findings from [START_REF] Deaux | Social psychology of sex roles[END_REF][START_REF] Deaux | From individual differences to social categories: Analysis of a decade's research on gender[END_REF] and [START_REF] Deaux | Explanations of successful performance on sex-linked task what is skill for male is luck for the female[END_REF] according to whom performances that are consistent with expectations are attributed to stable and internal causes (such as ability) while performances that are inconsistent with expectations are attributed to more unstable causes (such as effort or luck). Since people usually more expect men to succeed than women (which remains the case for driving), women's successes are more likely to be attributed to luck or effort, whereas men's successes are more likely to be attributed to ability [START_REF] Swim | He's skilled, she's lucky: A meta-analysis of observers' attributions for women's and men's successes and failures[END_REF]. Conversely, since people usually more expect women to fail than men, women's failures are more likely to be attributed to a lack of ability, whereas men's failure are more likely to be attributed to a lack of effort or of luck. In this regard, [START_REF] Lawrence | Gender-Based Judgments of Traffic Violations: The Moderating Influence of Car Type1[END_REF] pointed out that accidents caused by women are seen as an inability to adopt the right behavior (i.e., acts of omission; [START_REF] Shaver | The attribution of blame: Causality, responsibility, and blameworthiness[END_REF], whereas men's accidents are attributed to carelessness or risk-taking (i.e., acts of commission). This indicates that men's successes are attributed to internal factors, these factors explaining the failure for women. Note that these performance expectations and the reasons attributed to these performances are elaborated by consensus of both sexes [START_REF] Deaux | Explanations of successful performance on sex-linked task what is skill for male is luck for the female[END_REF].

Effects of perceiver's age in the modulation and the structure of these SR

This study has raised the fact that these SR varied according to social insertions of the individuals. In fact, these SR are anchored through a set of positional asymmetries that reflect contrasted social regulations. Regarding the social anchoring, the results emphasize the role of sex, age and SES in the modulation and the structure of the SR. Comparisons of the affirmation frequencies for beliefs related to these SR revealed significant differences according to age, sex and SES. This can be explained by the fact that central beliefs (i.e., the core of the SR) are linked to historical, sociological and ideological environments and therefore are highly related to identity and social positions. The effects of the social insertions of individuals on the structure of these SR can be observed as some elements appear as central only in certain subgroups.

First of all, age seems to have an effect on the SR associated with men and women drivers, insofar as the differences seem to be maximized among younger age groups. These results could be an effect of the search for positive distinctiveness and of gender intensification [START_REF] Hill | The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence[END_REF] beginning at age 12, as research shows gender stereotype conformity tends to peak of in the early adolescent period and then decline over time [START_REF] Berndt | Transitions in friendship and friends' influence[END_REF]. Apart from the general increase in sex stereotyping in adolescence, the area of the car and driving is particularly invested by boys and participates in the construction of masculinity [START_REF] Walker | Boys on the road: masculinities, car culture, and road safety education[END_REF]. Whatever his physical strength, the technical ability to control the performance of a motor vehicle at high speeds helps boys to demonstrate their manhood.

Driving is seen by boys as an egalitarian way (regardless of their intellectual abilities, physical skills, racial or ethnic group) to be empowered as a man [START_REF] Walker | Boys on the road: masculinities, car culture, and road safety education[END_REF]. Thus, boys' acceptance of and compliance with the image they have constructed about male drivers could explain why, even before starting to drive, the boys of 12-16 years have riskier attitudes than girls in terms of speed and not wearing a seatbelt [START_REF] Mann | Pre-driving adolescent attitudes: Can they change?[END_REF], confirming the results by [START_REF] Harré | Gender differences and areas of common concern in the driving behaviors and attitudes of adolescents[END_REF] on 15-year-old adolescents.

Secondly, age appears to have less of an effect on the image of men drivers than on the image of women drivers. Indeed, the SR associated with men drivers seem to be stable and shared across age groups, whereas the SR associated with women drivers appear more mixed, heterogeneous and unstable with age. The stability of the representation of men drivers can be seen on the components of the central core of the SR. The elements concerning the confidence and the fast driving of the male drivers are present in the central core of the SR in all age groups, from 12 to 50 and more. On the other side, the careful and civic elements of the SR of women drivers only appear in the central core of the SR from the group aged 19 to 29, these elements being central only for women in lower age groups. Furthermore, the compliance with rules is a part of the central core of the SR in the group aged 12-15 and after 19 but do not belong to the central core among the 16-18. Thus, based on the different elements, our results suggest that the SR of men drivers is stable across age groups, whereas the SR of the female drivers is more unstable with age. This could be linked to the fact that the car, as well as activities associated with (washing it, repairing it, and of course driving it), are part of the "male sex role". The child indeed early learns knowledge about gender roles and, from 2 ½ years of age (or even from 18 months among girls; [START_REF] Serbin | Gender stereotyping in infancy: Visual preferences for and knowledge of gender-stereotyped toys in the second year[END_REF], associates cars to the boys and dolls to the girls [START_REF] Kuhn | Sex role concepts of two-and three-year-olds[END_REF]. More generally, children have correct knowledge about gender typed activities for adults (including the car) before the end of kindergarten [START_REF] Serbin | The development of sex typing in middle childhood[END_REF]. Thus, very early on, children of both sexes associate the area of the car to men. The stability of the SR of the man behind the wheel, already shown among school students from 11 years old (Granié & Pappafava, 2011), may be due to the fact that the man at the wheel serves as a normative reference for driver [START_REF] Dontsov | Gender stereotypes among road users. Psychology in Russia[END_REF], from which is defined, by differentiation and opposition, the typical behavior of women drivers, more ambivalent and heterogeneous due to the different identity issues for men and women.

Effects of perceiver's sex in the modulation and the structure of these SR

The results show differences depending on the perceiver's sex concerning characteristics associated with drivers of each sex. Male participants, more than female ones, rated men drivers as having self-control and women drivers as lacking self-control. In contrast, female participants, more than male ones, perceived men drivers as careless and women drivers as prudent. These results are in keeping with research on intergroup relations, which have shown how individuals seek positive distinctiveness, by denigrating the out-group while promoting the in-group [START_REF] Allen | Categorization, belief similarity, and intergroup discrimination[END_REF][START_REF] Brewer | Ingroup bias as a function of task characteristics[END_REF][START_REF] Tajfel | The social identity theory in intergroup behavior[END_REF]). Thus, one can conclude to in-group favoritism bias (Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flament, 1971) where participants promoted their in-group, by attributing higher positive and fewer negative characteristics to the drivers of their own sex group, and denigrated the out-group, by attributing fewer positive and higher negative characteristics to the drivers of the other sex group. The analysis of the central core also showed that its components were affected by participants' sex. Some positive characteristics of women drivers were only included in the core of female participants (i.e., calm, mastery of the vehicle), but this phenomenon did not occur for men drivers with male respondents. Thus, it seems that females tend to promote their sex group, more than men do. Power-based gender stereotype approaches [START_REF] Zemore | Gender stereotypes and the dynamics of social interaction[END_REF] and the effects of social asymmetry between the sexes [START_REF] Hurtig | Sexe et Genre. De la hiérarchie entre les Sexes [Sex and Gender. The hierarchy between the sexes[END_REF] can provide an understanding of these results among females. Thus, research has shown that the dominant position of the male group (Lorenzi-Cioldi, 1988a[START_REF] Lorenzi-Cioldi | Individus dominants et groupes dominés. Images masculines et féminines [Dominant individuals and dominated groups. Masculine and feminine images[END_REF][START_REF] Sidanius | Gender, ethnic status, and ideological asymmetry: A social dominance interpretation[END_REF] leads members of the socially dominated female group to over-promote the in-group [START_REF] Powlishta | Intergroup processes in childhood: Social categorization and sex role development[END_REF][START_REF] Rudman | Gender differences in automatic in-group bias: Why do women like women more than men like men[END_REF][START_REF] Serbin | The development of sex typing in middle childhood[END_REF]. The emergence of some added positive characteristics of women drivers may be used by the female participants to reverse the negative stereotype according to which they would be poor drivers. It appears that associating the driving activity with the male role in society causes females to "defend" their gender identity more than males need to.

But despite this in-group promotion among females, men's driving skills were considered relatively important, and reflected a consensus between men and women (i.e., no effects of perceiver's sex on the whole sample), whereas women's incompetence was considered relatively medium in a general way and was more pronounced among men. In fact, male seem to believe (at least more than females) that women are not very competent for driving, whereas both groups seem to agree on men good driving skills. Thus, it appears the SR elaborated by the members of the male dominant group concerning the members of the female subordinate group enables the former to legitimize their dominant position. But at the same time, the SR elaborated by the members of the female subordinate group concerning the members of the male dominant group allows the former to justify their position of subordination. In this sense, developing and sharing a negative representation on women drivers allows the male group to justify their dominant position in road space. Otherwise, according to [START_REF] Fiske | Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping[END_REF], the stereotypical judgment is a way of exercising control over others, which reinforces the power of an individual or a group. In other words, stereotypes are used by members of dominant groups to maintain the status quo [START_REF] Vescio | The stereotypic behaviors of the powerful and their effect on the relatively powerless[END_REF]. This can be related to the work of [START_REF] Berger | Women drivers!: The emergence of folklore and stereotypic opinions concerning feminine automotive behavior[END_REF], according to which negative stereotypes about women drivers were spread in the early twentieth century due to the men's fear of women's emancipation that could be generated by the car. As a result, this fear would have been at the base of a negative stereotype toward women drivers, in order to minimize the impact of the automobile as a perspective of women's liberation and involvement into social change. Various popular beliefs against their driving style appeared, that would make them poor drivers. Otherwise, from a normative viewpoint, one can hypothesize that the propagation of the negative representation of the woman behind the wheel as well as the masculine qualification of this practice has formed a norm according to which women are not made for driving. Consequently, when women fail, it confirms the commonly-held negative representation, but when they success, they threat the established order and they are qualified as exceptions: this kind of woman is made masculine (i.e., tomboy). In fact this widespread negative representation constitutes a way for normalizing the behaviors and aims at maintaining the social order. Concerning the effect of sex, this research also illustrated the central role of intergroup differentiation in SR. This reflects that the topic of the questionnaires emphasizes sex differences, which challenged social identity. Intergroup differentiation is more salient when participants are focused on intergroup comparison and when social identity is threatened (Jetten, Brandscombe, & Spears, 2002;[START_REF] Jetten | Distinctiveness threat and prototypicality: Combined effects on intergroup discrimination and collective self-esteem[END_REF]. This can explain why women consider more than men that men are careless at the wheel and why women consider less than men that women do not have driving skills.

Effects of perceiver's SES in the modulation and the structure of these SR

The results show that the SES also impacts the SR on women driving. Indeed, participants with higher SES consider female drivers as more incompetent, more nervous and less cautious than participants with lower SES. Besides, the results showed that differences between men and women seem to vary according the participant's SES. Female's responses tend indeed to be closer to those provided by the male group when they are higher SES. This was the case for the positive elements associated with their group (e.g., prudence): higher SES women depreciated more their group than lower SES, their responses being thus more similar to those of men. This was also the case for the negative elements associated with their group (e.g., incompetence) where the same phenomenon seemed to occur: higher SES women were more likely to devalue their group. Concerning elements associated with men, lower SES women promoted more men than higher SES women (and even more than men did). Again in this case, higher SES women's responses are more similar to those of men as if, for women with higher SES, socioeconomic status was favored over the membership of the gender group, the first leading to a dominant and valued position than the second does not bring. By devaluing their gender group, higher SES women may emphasize their dominance linked to their socioeconomic status and thus get closer to the position of men. In a perspective of social dominance [START_REF] Sidanius | Social dominance: an intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression[END_REF], this reflects the depreciation conducted by the dominant group (i.e., women with higher SES) to maintain the asymmetry with the dominated group (i.e., women with lower SES). As previously discussed, this phenomenon seems to take place at a larger level, between the male and female groups, in the same perspective of maintaining the status quo.

Practical consequences from a traffic perspective

The practical significance of these results obviously concerns the sex differences in crashes and driving behaviors. In addition to biological sex differences, differences in observable risktaking between men and women in road space are due to the manifestation of a behavior consistent with social expectations [START_REF] Ronay | Gender Differences in Explicit and Implicit Risk Attitudes: A socially Facilitated Phenomenon[END_REF]. Expectations, as the results showed, are also observed in the gender stereotypes associated with driving, and socially interpreted as due to innate differences between sexes toward risk-taking and driving (Granié & Pappafava, 2011). As a result, the level of individual compliance with masculine stereotypes has a direct effect of increased risk-taking [START_REF] Özkan | What causes the differences in driving between young men and women? The effects of gender roles and sex on young drivers' driving behaviour and selfassessment of skills[END_REF], as taking risk is a behavior involved in the social definition of masculinity [START_REF] Green | Risk and the construction of social identity: children's talk about accidents[END_REF][START_REF] Green | Children's views of accident risks and prevention: a qualitative study[END_REF][START_REF] Papadakis | Drink-driving and adolescent lifestyles: Rethinking policy[END_REF][START_REF] Walker | Boys on the road: masculinities, car culture, and road safety education[END_REF]. The level of individual compliance with feminine stereotypes also plays an indirect role in causing a higher level of traffic rules internalization that inhibits taking risks [START_REF] Granié | Effects of gender, sex-stereotype conformity, age and internalization on risk-taking among adolescent pedestrians[END_REF]. More specifically, the differentiated beliefs about the driving abilities of men and women could have direct implications on men and women behaviors and may cause effect of stereotype threat on women drivers. Previous studies [START_REF] Chateignier | effet de la menace du stéréotype et de la colère sur les performances des femmes à une tâche liée à la conduite automobile[END_REF]Félonneau & Becker, 2011;[START_REF] Yeung | Stereotype threat increases the likelihood that female drivers in a simulator run over jaywalkers[END_REF] thus provide evidence that risk-taking is under the influence of gender identity, specifically the mobilization of individuals belonging to a social sex group and of behaviors allowing the individual to demonstrate this social identity. These beliefs could explain why, even before they start driving, the boys have riskier attitudes than girls in terms of speed and not wearing a seatbelt [START_REF] Harré | Gender differences and areas of common concern in the driving behaviors and attitudes of adolescents[END_REF][START_REF] Mann | Pre-driving adolescent attitudes: Can they change?[END_REF] and why girls' and boys' attitudes toward driver training differ, with boys feeling more competent as driver than girls, even before they start learning to drive [START_REF] Nyberg | Practicing for and performance on drivers license tests in relation to gender differences in crash involvement among novice drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Wiberg | Gender differences in the Swedish driving-license test[END_REF].

Conclusion

The objectives of this study were to analyze the specific content of the social representations of "the man and woman behind the wheel" and to specify their different modalities of social anchoring examining the effect of social insertions on these social representations. The results

showed that these SR of men and women drivers are organized around three main principles (or dimensions): carelessness, driving skills and self-control concerning men and incompetence, prudence and lack of self-control among women drivers. Some characteristics emerge as central in most age groups about man (confidence, fastness and pleasure of driving)

and women (caution, civility, compliance with rules and vigilance) drivers. Analysis of the structure of these SR showed its variation according to the social anchoring variables. Thus, the SR of the man driver appears to be stable and homogeneous through age groups, whereas the SR of the woman driver is more heterogeneous and differentiated according to the age group of the participants. In addition, even if each individual tends to overvalue, especially among females, their own sex group and devalue the other sex group, both sex groups seem to agree on men good driving skills and participants with higher SES tend to have a more negative representation of women drivers than participants with lower SES.

These results can, thus, be used as a basis for more detailed research on the effect of these beliefs in individuals' driving behavior and on socialization to risk-taking. The results show that differentiated social representations of the driver according to the driver's sex group do indeed exist and can be detected in individuals' discourses from adolescence and across age groups. These social representations of men and women drivers are the expression of more general sex stereotypes: female compliance and male risk-taking. Furthermore, they expose an essentialist view of sex roles. Thus, the social promotion of an activity for a certain group of individuals, here men, can bring individuals to interpret the underlying abilities as naturally present in the individuals of this group and to consider individuals of the other group as being naturally unfit. These results could thus be explained by the acceptance of and compliance with the image individuals of both sexes have constructed about male and female drivers in a culture where seeking out risk through driving is part of the manliness construction [START_REF] Hopkins | Social network participation and problem behavior in adolescence[END_REF]. Lastly, the results of this study show that the representation of male and female driversand maybe the behaviors related to itappears to be a field of expression of personal and social identity and thus is involved in the social differentiation [START_REF] Green | Risk and the construction of social identity: children's talk about accidents[END_REF][START_REF] Green | Children's views of accident risks and prevention: a qualitative study[END_REF][START_REF] Papadakis | Drink-driving and adolescent lifestyles: Rethinking policy[END_REF][START_REF] Walker | Boys on the road: masculinities, car culture, and road safety education[END_REF].

Table 1 .

 1 Distribution of the sample according to age, sex and socio-economic status (SES).

			Man driver		Women driver
		Male		Female	Male		Female
		participants	participants	participants	participants
	Age	SES+ SES-SES+ SES-SES+ SES-SES+ SES-Total
	12-15	22	22	15	23	19	20	16	20	157
	16-18	19	17	20	23	17	21	22	24	163
	19-29	20	23	21	23	19	21	21	20	168
	30-49	21	25	20	24	21	20	21	23	175
	50 and over	20	22	20	22	22	21	20	23	170
	Total	102	109	96	115	98	103	100	110	833

Table 2 .

 2 Saturation of the items on the three factors resulting from the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Oblimin rotation of the different characteristics associated with the man driver.

		Mean	Factor 1	Factor 2	Factor 3
		(SD)	Carelessness	Driving skills	Self control
	Incompetent	4.03 (2.11)	.894
	Inattentive	4.82 (2.02)	.806
	Do not comply with the traffic law	5.70 (2.44)	.711
	Dangerous	5.75 (2.36)	.624
	Disrespectful	5.57 (2.40)	.547
	Technical skills	7.16 (1.95)		.741
	Pleasure of driving	7.88 (1.92)		.736
	Confident	7.32 (1.74)		.662
	Fast	7.14 (1.84)		.621
	Calm	4.22 (2.11)			.940
	Civic	4.36 (2.17)			.889
	Careful, cautious	5.66 (1.98)			.553
	Impatient	4.43 (2.19)			-.404
	Eigenvalues		4.59	2.13	1.30
	Cronbach alpha		.83	.66	.78
	Percentage of explained variance		35.32%	16.40%	10.01%

Table 3 .

 3 Saturation of the items on the three factors resulting from the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with oblimin rotation of the different characteristics associated with the woman driver. and SES were then tested for each age group separately. Bonferroni post hoc tests were used to report the significant differences between age groups when the ANOVA shown a significant effect of age. Mean scores on each factor according to gender, age and SES groups are summed up in Table4. All the effects of socio-demographic variables (statistical criteria and significance) on the importance attributed to organizing principles of the SR of men drivers, for the whole sample and analyzed by age group, are summed up in Table5.

		Mean (SD)	Factor 1 Incompetence	Factor 2 Prudence	Factor 3 Lack of self control
	Clumsy	4.18 (2.26)	.787
	Slow	5.23 (2.49)	.739
	Lack of technical skills	5.08 (2.68)	.667
	Lack of confidence	4.59 (3.53)	.626
	Inattentive	4.78 (2.45)	.599
	Dangerous	4.10 (2.44)	.587
	Not made to drive	2.60 (2.38)	.479
	Mastery of the vehicle	6.34 (2.30)	-.47
	Careful, cautious	7.19 (2.14)		.822
	Comply with the traffic law	7.23 (2.03)		.778
	Vigilant	6.73 (2.10)		.757
	Impatient	5.35 (2.18)			.824
	Calm	5.93 (2.07)			-.581
	Civic	6.54 (2.14)			-.535
	Disrespectful	3.38 (2.25)			.533
	Eigenvalues		5.04	1.88	1.13
	Cronbach alpha		.81	.77	.66
	Percentage of explained variance		33.62%	12.54%	7.59%

On the basis of the factors highlighted by the PCA, a score of items saturating on each of these factors was computed and used as composite scores in the following analyses. Items that loaded with opposite saturation (i.e., Impatient, Mastery of the vehicle, Calm and Civic) were reversed to compute these composite scores.

3.2. Effect of perceiver's age, sex and socioeconomic status on elements associated with men drivers

Scores of individuals on the three factors associated with men drivers generated from the Principal Component Analysis were subjected to a series of ANOVAs in order to test the effects of the socio-demographic variables (sex, age and SES) on the characteristics attributed to the man driver. A first series of ANOVAs was conducted on the whole sample and effects of sex Concerning Factor 2 (i.e., Driving skills), a significant main effect of perceiver's age was observed on the whole sample. The Bonferroni post-hoc test showed that the 16-18 attributed greater importance to this factor (p < .05) than the 50 years and over. Concerning the 19-29 years group, an interaction effect between sex and SES was observed. The sex difference was greater for the lower SES group than for the higher SES group, as shown in table 4. For the 30-49 years group, a main effect of sex was observed. In this age group, female respondents scored men driving skills higher than male did.

1 Table 4 .

 14 Mean composite scores on each factor according to age, sex and SES 1 . 2 1 Standard deviations have not been reported for the sake of clarity but are available upon request from the corresponding author.Scores of individuals on the three factors associated with women drivers generated from the PCA were subjected to a series of ANOVAs in order to test the effects of the sociodemographic variables (age, sex and SES) on the characteristics attributed to the woman driver. A first series of ANOVAs was conducted on the whole sample and effects of sex and SES were then tested for each age group separately. Bonferroni post hoc tests were used to report the significant differences between age groups when the ANOVA shown a significant effect of age. Mean scores on each factor according to sex, age and SES groups are summed up in Table4. All the effects of socio-demographic variables (statistical criteria and significance) on the importance attributed to organizing principles of the SR of women drivers, for the whole sample and analyzed by age group, are summed up in Table5.

	3.3. Effect of perceiver's age, sex and socioeconomic status on elements associated with AGE GROUP Male driver 12-15 16-18 19-29 30-49 women drivers	50 +		Total
			SES-SES+ Total	SES-	SES+ Total SES-SES+ Total	SES-	SES+ Total SES-SES+ Total	SES-	SES+	Total
	Carelessness (From 5 to 50)	Man Woman 24.37 25.93 24.97 22.72 21.36 22.04	24.17 28.95	20.94 22.47 25.08 28.35 26.60 25.00 27.07 28.17 27.57 27.88	24.48 29.08	25.38 24.89 24.54 25.95 25.21 27.85 28.52 29.86 25.30 27.69	24.22 28.04	24.38 26.36	24.29 27.27
		Total	23.58 23.21 23.42	26.87	23.02 24.94 26.63 27.95 27.25	26.73	26.58 26.66 27.20 25.62 26.45	26.18	25.34	25.78
	Driving skills	Man	30.68 28.86 29.72	31.47	32.00 31.75 29.08 29.40 29.23	28.16	27.42 27.82 27.95 27.90 27.93	29.33	29.06	29.21
	(From 4 to 40)	Woman 29.20 28.86 29.07	30.13	30.10 30.11 31.86 27.95 30.00	30.79	29.40 30.16 29.27 28.05 28.69	30.26	28.86	29.62
		Total	29.91 28.86 29.44	30.72	31.02 30.87 30.48 28.66 29.62	29.44	28.39 28.97 28.61 27.97 28.31	29.81	28.97	29.42
	Self control	Man	22.09 20.41 21.25	17.82	19.53 18.72 18.43 18.25 18.35	20.44	20.00 20.24 23.73 19.85 21.88	20.60	19.63	20.13
	(From 4 to 40)	Woman 20.46 17.27 19.23	15.59	18.05 16.76 16.61 17.62 17.09	15.12	17.05 16.00 15.54 18.80 17.09	16.70	17.78	17.19
		Total	21.24 19.13 20.30	16.56	18.78 17.67 17.52 17.93 17.71	17.84	18.56 18.17 19.64 19.32 19.49	18.60	18.73	18.66
	Female driver		12-15		16-18	19-29	AGE GROUP 30-49	50 +		Total
			SES-SES+ Total	SES-	SES+ Total SES-SES+ Total	SES-	SES+ Total SES-SES+ Total	SES-	SES+	Total
	Incompetence (From 8 to 80)	Man Woman 24.70 34.12 28.89 39.30 37.05 38.24 Total 32.00 35.67 33.69	39.33 28.29 33.44	45.29 42.00 43.42 42.52 43.00 32.31 30.22 31.25 36.24 33.80 37.97 35.55 37.48 39.22 38.35	42.55 24.95 33.33	43.57 43.07 35.80 39.73 37.81 31.32 28.14 29.08 25.80 27.56 37.30 35.34 32.29 33.09 32.69	40.07 27.67 33.69	41.59 31.91 36.65	40.81 29.71 35.12
	Prudence (From 3 to 30)	Man Woman 24.00 22.31 23.25 24.45 19.72 22.21 Total 24.22 20.94 22.72	18.71 22.71 20.84	18.47 18.61 20.05 18.36 19.25 22.77 22.74 22.95 19.09 20.98 20.89 20.87 21.46 18.75 20.12	20.25 24.68 22.57	18.62 19.41 19.71 19.36 19.53 22.00 23.34 23.43 19.95 21.81 20.34 21.45 21.66 19.64 20.67	20.60 23.54 22.11	18.91 21.21 20.08	19.78 22.41 21.13
	Lack of self	Man	17.95 21.05 19.42	19.76	22.29 20.89 19.23 19.63 19.43	16.50	20.28 18.44 18.52 19.36 18.95	18.42	20.44	19.40
	control	Woman 16.65 17.37 16.97	18.71	16.36 17.59 16.25 19.52 17.93	14.63	18.50 16.57 15.95 16.50 16.21	16.47	17.67	17.05
	(From 4 to 40)	Total	17.30 19.32 18.23	19.20	18.95 19.08 17.78 19.57 18.67	15.52	19.37 17.47 17.18 18.00 17.58	17.42	19.03	18.20

Concerning Factor 1 (i.e., Incompetence), significant main effects were observed for perceiver's sex, age and SES on the whole sample. As shown in table 4, women's incompetence was more pronounced among men and higher SES respondents than among women and lower SES respondents. The Bonferroni post-hoc test (p < .05) showed the group aged 19-29 attributed a greater importance to this factor than the group aged 50 and over.

Concerning Factor 2 (i.e., Prudence), significant main effects of perceiver's sex, age and SES can be observed on the whole sample. As shown in table 4, women and lower SES

Table 5 .

 5 Effects of socio-demographic variables on the importance attributed to organizing principles of the two SR, for the whole sample and by age groups. 31Note.

	Men drivers

* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001. 32

Table 6 .

 6 Central elements identified on the basis of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for men drivers (in %).

	12-15	16 -18	19 -29	30 -49	50 +

Note. * Frequencies non-different from 100 (p < .05) according to the Dmax Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Table 7 .

 7 Central elements identified on the basis of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for women drivers (in %).Note. * Frequencies non-different from 100 (p < .05) according to the Dmax Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

				12-15			16 -18			19 -29			30 -49			50 +
	Factor		Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
	Incom-	Clumsy	31.3	31.4	31.3	44.1	19.6	30.0	57.5	31.7	44.4	48.8	20.5	34.1	35.7	4.8	20.2
	petence	Dangerous	20.6	9.1	14.9	32.4	6.5	17.5	37.5	14.6	25.9	22.0	6.8	14.1	17.1	4.7	10.7
		Inattentive	36.4	25.7	30.9	45.5	15.2	27.8	45.0	31.7	38.3	56.1	25.0	40.0	45.2	16.3	30.6
		Lack of confidence 53.1	34.3	43.3	55.9	22.2	36.7	67.1	36.6	50.0	48.8	13.6	30.6	35.7	14.0	24.7
		Lack of technical skills	43.8	18.2	30.8	38.2	17.8	26.6	52.5	26.8	39.5	46.3	34.1	40.0	57.1	46.5	51.8
		Mastery of the vehicle	68.8	80.0*	74.6	50.0	87.0*	71.3	57.5	70.7	64.2	65.9	90.9*	78.8	73.8	86.8*	80.0
		Not made for driving	15.6	14.3	14.9	17.6	2.2	8.8	20.0	7.3	13.6	7.3	13.6	10.6	19.5	4.7	11.9
		Slow	48.5	37.1	42.6	58.8	32.6	43.8	67.5	46.3	56.8	63.4	25.0	43.5	59.5	28.6	44.0
	Prudence Careful, cautious	71.9	93.9*	83.1	58.8	91.3*	77.5	82.5*	92.7*	87.7* 87.8*	95.5*	91.8* 90.5*	92.9*	91.7*
		Comply with the traffic law	80.6*	94.3*	87.9* 76.5	80.4*	78.8	85.0*	95.1*	90.1* 90.2*	93.2*	91.8*	78.6	95.3*	87.1*
		Vigilant	75.0	91.2*	83.3	64.7	89.1*	78.8	72.5	95.1*	84.0	80.5*	88.6*	84.7	83.3*	95.3*	89.4*
	Lack of	Calm	67.6	88.6*	78.3	44.1	80.4*	65.0	55.0	80.5*	67.9	61.0	84.1*	72.9	73.8	74.4	74.1
	self control	Civic Disrespectful	75.8 21.2	84.8* 20.0	80.3 20.6	67.6 20.6	89.1* 6.5	80.0 12.5	82.5* 15.0	87.8* 7.3	85.2* 80.5* 11.1 12.5	90.9* 2.3	85.9* 81.0* 7.1 22.0	88.4* 9.3	84.7 15.5
		Impatient	56.3	25.7	40.3	52.9	41.3	46.3	40.0	26.8	33.3	34.1	38.6	36.5	45.2	34.9	40.0