Gulsun Altintas
email: m@n@gement

Microfoundations of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities

Keywords: Dynamic managerial capabilities, knowledge management, managerial abilities, psychological abilities, managerial characteristics Knowledge management activities Nielsen (2006) Knowledge creation, acquisition, capturing and articulating, assembly, sharing, integration and recombination, leverage, application, exploitation ) Knowledge acquisition, generation, combination Denford (2013) Knowledge creating, integrating, reconfiguring, replicating, developing, assimilating, synthesising, imitating Monferer et al. (2015) Adaptation capability, absorption capability, innovation capability

Although knowledge-based dynamic capabilities literature argues that dynamic capabilities foster knowledge management activities, it does not explain how such fostering occurs. To answer this question, this study focuses on dynamic managerial capabilities, applying microfoundational analysis at the individual level to improve understanding of organizational phenomena. It focuses on three dimensions of dynamic managerial capabilities: the managerial abilities of sensing, seizing, and transforming; the psychological abilities of intuition and emotion; and the managerial characteristics of human capital, social capital, and cognition. The study makes three contributions. First, it shows that the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities generate knowledge management activities. Second, it demonstrates the link between managers' psychological abilities (intuition, emotion) and knowledge management activities. Third, it describes the role of sensing, seizing, and transforming in knowledge management activities.

INTRODUCTION

Because 'The services rendered by tangible resources depend on how they are combined and applied, which in turn is a function of a firm's know-how (i.e., knowledge)' (Alavi & Leidner, 2001, p. 108), and because knowledge is the origin of the quality of tangible resources, it represents a key strategic resource. Firms acquire, manipulate, and apply knowledge to produce superior performance [START_REF] Denford | Knowledge strategy typologies: Defining dimensions and relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Nonaka | The knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Van Reijsen | The impact of knowledge management and social capital on dynamic capability in organizations[END_REF]. Moreover, because knowledge-based resources are difficult to imitate and socially complex [START_REF] Alavi | Knowledge management and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues[END_REF], they can sustain firms' superior performance over the long term. The growth of the knowledge-based economy makes knowledge even more important, and organizations increasingly must acquire, integrate, and use new knowledge-that is, become knowledge-integrating [START_REF] Garcia-Perez | Knowledge management and intellectual capital in knowledge-based organisations: A review and theoretical perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Teece | Strategies for managing knowledge assets: the role of firm structure and industrial context[END_REF]. According to Alavi and Leidner (2001, p. 109), knowledge is 'a justified belief that increases an entity's capacity for effective action' that can be considered from several perspectives: a state of mind, object, process, condition for having access to information, or capability.

In this study, we consider knowledge as a process and seek to analyse knowledge management activities, or how companies create and share their knowledge, which is critical to gaining and sustaining competitive advantages [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm[END_REF][START_REF] Nikitina | Creating and managing knowledge towards managerial competence development in contemporary business environment[END_REF][START_REF] Von Krogh | Making the most of your company's knowledge: A strategic framework[END_REF]. Knowledge management is the process of creating value [START_REF] Liebowitz | Key ingredients to the success of an organization's knowledge management strategy[END_REF] by identifying, developing, and leveraging knowledge in organizations [START_REF] Alavi | Knowledge management and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues[END_REF][START_REF] Easterby-Smith | Dynamic capabilities and knowledge management: An integrative role for learning[END_REF]. Thus, it comprises processes and practices that enable organizations to obtain stocks of knowledge [START_REF] Hsu | Relationship between intellectual capital and knowledge management: An empirical investigation[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | The impact of intellectual capital-knowledge management strategy fit on firm performance[END_REF]. In turn, the concept of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities (KBDC) highlights the importance of knowledge in sustaining organizational performance in knowledge-based economies that experience unforeseen and innovative demands [START_REF] Bindra | Reviewing knowledge-based dynamic capabilities perspectives through meta-analysis[END_REF]; it is 'the ability to acquire, generate and combine knowledge resources to sense, explore and address environment dynamics' [START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF](Zheng et al., , p. 1037)).

To achieve obtain and maintain performance, managers also must assume entrepreneurial roles and orchestrate resources to build and transfer both productive and customer knowledge [START_REF] Teece | Dynamic capabilities and entrepreneurial management in large organizations: Toward a theory of the (entrepreneurial) firm[END_REF]. The concept of KBDC emphasises that dynamic capabilities foster knowledge management activities such as knowledge generation, acquisition, and combination [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF][START_REF] Faccin | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities: A joint R&D project in the French semiconductor industry[END_REF][START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF]. However, due to the limited number of studies of the concept [START_REF] Robertson | Innovation performance: The effect of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities in cross-country innovation ecosystems[END_REF], our understanding of precisely how dynamic capabilities foster knowledge management activities is restricted. We propose mobilising the microfoundations approach to analyse such activities, reflecting the importance of individual actors for creating and managing knowledge [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF]Nikita & Lapina, 2019).

Microfoundations analyses enable us to consider organizational phenomenon by focusing on individual actors and their interactions [START_REF] Felin | Strategic organization: A field in search of micro-foundations[END_REF]. Accordingly, we investigate dynamic managerial capabilities [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Helfat | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Review and assessment of managerial impact on strategic change[END_REF] as they relate to the role of managers/leaders in resource base transformations. By articulating both dynamic capabilities and knowledge management literature and formulating propositions, we highlight relationships between the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities and knowledge management activities, to support tests of them on a larger scale.

By theoretically examining the role of dynamic managerial capabilities in knowledge management activities, we also make three main contributions. First, we provide an analysis of KBDC by focusing on microfoundations. Second, we highlight the role of intuition and emotion in knowledge management. Third, we describe how the sensing, seizing, and transforming framework contributes to knowledge management. Thus, we begin with a review of KBDC and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities. After we present a series of propositions about microfoundations that foster knowledge management activities, we detail the three contributions to prior literature.

KNOWLEDGE-BASED DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES (KBDC)

Research on KBDC is still scarce, and relatively few studies have addressed the subject. According to [START_REF] Robertson | Innovation performance: The effect of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities in cross-country innovation ecosystems[END_REF], the KBDC concept represents a synthesis of the knowledge-based theory of the firm [START_REF] Grant | Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm[END_REF], with its roots in the resource-based view (RBV) [START_REF] Barney | Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage[END_REF] and dynamic capabilities theory [START_REF] Teece | Dynamic capabilities and strategic management[END_REF]. Thus, it combines the views of both theories and highlights the importance of renewing organizational knowledge in a dynamic way. More precisely, KBDC entails acquiring, generating, and combining knowledge resources to sense, explore, and address environmental dynamics [START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF]. Studies show that KBDC can help organizations perform in highly competitive environments (Khaskar et al., 2020) and obtain competitive advantages [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF][START_REF] Robertson | Innovation performance: The effect of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities in cross-country innovation ecosystems[END_REF] through successful innovation, as the result of their acquisition and integration of knowledge [START_REF] Robertson | Innovation performance: The effect of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities in cross-country innovation ecosystems[END_REF].

Dynamic capabilities can foster change and renew and exploit firms' knowledgebased resources [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF], the management of knowledge through dynamic capabilities also supports the development of new capabilities, depending on the nature of knowledge. If a dynamic capability focuses on externally sourced knowledge, it encourages the development of alliancing capabilities, but if it focuses on internal sources, it supports the development of R&D capabilities. Several studies also highlight the role of dynamic capabilities in knowledge management activities, though each study offers a different conceptualization of KBDC according to different knowledge management activities (see Table 1). Among these various conceptualizations, we focus on [START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF] typology of knowledge acquisition, generation, and combination, because it is relevant to our focus on the individual level. This typology illustrates knowledge acquisition and/or generation by individual actors and the combination of knowledge to produce organizational knowledge-that is, the transition from individual to organizational knowledge. All three activities are essential to creating new organizational knowledge and obtaining competitive advantage. According to [START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF], knowledge acquisition consists of identifying and acquiring useful external knowledge. Individual actors also can generate knowledge, by developing and refining activities and processes that facilitate the creation or generation of new knowledge, and by combining knowledge-that is, integrating and applying both internal and external knowledge. [START_REF] Han | Effects of intellectual capital on innovative performance: The role of knowledge-based dynamic capability[END_REF] typology, which mobilises sensing and seizing of opportunities and transforming of resources, could be tautological with our framework, which uses managerial abilities related to sensing, seizing, and transforming.

Table 1. Typologies of knowledge management activities (adapted from Robertson et al., 2020) typologies of knowledge management activities, very few have investigated factors that generate these activities. For example, [START_REF] Bindra | Reviewing knowledge-based dynamic capabilities perspectives through meta-analysis[END_REF] cite intellectual capital, R&D intensity, absorptive capacity, and agility; other authors highlight the importance of dynamic capabilities by showing that they can generate knowledge management activities [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF][START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF]. None of these studies reveal the mechanisms through which dynamic capabilities foster such activities though.

Therefore, we focus on the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities, because understanding organizational phenomena requires understanding them at the individual level [START_REF] Felin | Strategic organization: A field in search of micro-foundations[END_REF]. Moreover, studies highlight the importance of managerial competence for creating and managing knowledge [START_REF] Muhammed | Peer knowledge sharing and organizational performance: The role of leadership support and knowledge management success[END_REF]Nikita & Lapina, 2019;[START_REF] Schiuma | The managerial foundations of knowledge assets dynamics[END_REF]. Knowledge is created by individual actors [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF][START_REF] Nonaka | A dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation[END_REF] and can become embedded within organizations through organizational processes and routines [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF]. Therefore, if dynamic capabilities foster knowledge management and if knowledge primarily is created and held by individual actors, it seems relevant to study and understand the role of microfoundations of dynamic capabilities in knowledge management. In turn, it is necessary to consider dynamic managerial capabilities that focus on individual and managerial activities [START_REF] Teece | Dynamic capabilities and entrepreneurial management in large organizations: Toward a theory of the (entrepreneurial) firm[END_REF].

MICROFOUNDATIONS OF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES

As indicated previously, to explain an organizational phenomenon, it is necessary to begin by understanding the individual actors who make up organizations [START_REF] Felin | Strategic organization: A field in search of micro-foundations[END_REF]. According to some authors, understanding collective phenomena such as routines or capabilities requires focusing on individual-level components such as choices, agency, characteristics, abilities, and cognition [START_REF] Felin | Microfoundations of routines and capabilities: Individuals, processes, and structures[END_REF]. Other authors argue that organizational phenomena are produced by intentional human action and interactions (Abbell et al., 2008;[START_REF] Felin | Organizational routines and capabilities: Historical drift and a course-correction toward microfoundations[END_REF][START_REF] Foss | Alternative research strategies in the knowledge movement: From macro bias to micro-foundations and multi-level explanation[END_REF]. [START_REF] Barney | What are microfoundations?[END_REF] emphasise the importance of interactions, indicating that microfoundations are not only about individual actors or adding individual actors but also about aggregating individual actors to generate emergent outcomes as the result of the knowledge of the constituent parts. Focusing on the individual level also has certain virtues in terms of understanding organizational behaviour and performance [START_REF] Barney | What are microfoundations?[END_REF]; the latter is explained by the talent of certain organizational actors [START_REF] Foss | Microfoundations for strategy: A goal-framing perspectives on the drivers of value creation[END_REF]. [START_REF] Felin | Microfoundations of routines and capabilities: Individuals, processes, and structures[END_REF] define microfoundations with a regression method, such that a baseline microfoundation for level N lies at level N -1.

By moving down one level of analysis, we can identify the N -1 level of dynamic capabilities. [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF] also suggest the notion of dynamic managerial capability, which they define as 'the capabilities with which managers build, integrate, and reconfigure organizational resources and competences' (p. 1012). A dynamic managerial capability view is a specific perspective within dynamic capability theory literature; it emphasises the role of managers/leaders in changing a firm's resource base, in line with the environment [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Augier | Dynamic managerial capabilities and the role of managers in business strategy and economic performance[END_REF][START_REF] King | Incumbent entry into new market niches: The role of experience and managerial choice in the creation of dynamic capabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Zahra | Entrepreneurship and dynamic capabilities: A review, model and research agenda[END_REF]. Individual actors constitute microfoundations of capacities in two ways, through their (1) managerial characteristics and abilities and (2) psychological and behavioural characteristics [START_REF] Felin | Microfoundations of routines and capabilities: Individuals, processes, and structures[END_REF]. More precisely, dynamic managerial capabilities are characterised by three dimensions: managerial abilities, psychological abilities, and managerial characteristics.

Managerial abilities refer to asset orchestration, that is, the sensing of new opportunities, the seizing of such opportunities, and the transforming of resource bases [START_REF] Fainshmidt | MNE performance during a crisis: An evolutionary perspective on the role of dynamic managerial capabilities and industry context[END_REF]Teece, 2007a). Even if some elements of dynamic capabilities are embedded in organizational activities, the ability to assess and prescribe changes in the resource base is a managerial skill.

Dynamic capabilities refer to creative managerial and entrepreneurial activities that are strategic and non-routine, even though there may be underlying principles that guide choices [START_REF] Teece | Dynamic capabilities: Routines versus entrepreneurial action[END_REF]. [START_REF] Schilke | Quo vadis, dynamic capabilities? A contentanalytic review of the current state of knowledge and recommendations for future research[END_REF] give a concrete example related to the development of new products, indicating that though new product development often takes place within a stable framework of recurring organizational processes, this process involves non-routine activities that refer to the exploration of new ideas by individual actors. Furthermore, dynamic managerial capabilities are composed of psychological abilities such as intuition and emotion [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF][START_REF] Huy | Exploring the affective underpinnings of dynamic managerial capabilities: How managers' emotion regulation behaviors mobilize resources for their firms[END_REF]. These abilities can improve the implementation of managerial abilities through better recognition of valuable knowledge and faster decision making [START_REF] Ambrosini | Dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]. Finally, authors highlight individuallevel antecedents such as the managerial characteristics of human capital, social capital, and cognition [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Helfat | Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF]. Human capital relates to the experience of managers and social capital results from relationships and connections [START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF]. Managerial cognition refers to the belief systems and mental models of managers [START_REF] Prahalad | The dominant logic: A new linkage between diversity and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Walsh | Managerial and organizational cognition: Notes from a trip down memory lane[END_REF].

In summary, KBDCs are dynamic capabilities that foster knowledge management activities, which in turn foster knowledge acquisition, generation, and combination. In this paper, we seek to understand how dynamic capabilities foster knowledge management activities. To do so, we focus on dynamic managerial capabilities at the individual level; specifically, we focus on three dimensions of dynamic managerial capabilities (see Figure 1): managerial abilities, psychological abilities, and managerial characteristics. We analyse how these three dimensions of dynamic managerial capabilities foster knowledge generation, acquisition, and combination.

Figure 1. Microfoundations of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities

MICROFOUNDATIONS OF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES IN KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

We next integrate our synthesis of literature and suggest how managerial (sensing, seizing, and transforming) and psychological (emotion and intuition) abilities and managerial characteristics (cognition, human capital, social capital) foster knowledge management activities (see Table 2).

Role of Managerial and Psychological Abilities in Knowledge Management Activities

The concept of dynamic managerial capability emphasises the entrepreneurial perspective of dynamic capabilities. Beyond managers' operational activities such as control, supervision, and administration to ensure the coordination of activities, dynamic capabilities theory relates to managers' strategic and entrepreneurial functions (Teece, 2007b), which are essential in turbulent environments. From this perspective, managers' roles are entrepreneurial [START_REF] Augier | Strategy as evolution with design: The foundations of dynamic capabilities and the role of managers in the economic system[END_REF]Teece, 2007aTeece, , 2007b;;[START_REF] Teece | Dynamic capabilities and entrepreneurial management in large organizations: Toward a theory of the (entrepreneurial) firm[END_REF], and firms that have strong dynamic capabilities are those that are intensely entrepreneurial. Such companies not only adapt to their environments but also adopt proactive behaviours to influence the environments they operate in through innovation and collaboration with other firms, entities,

DYNAMIC MANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

or institutions (Teece, 2007a). In this sense, the fundamental strategic function of managers is to orchestrate organizational assets [START_REF] Augier | Strategy as evolution with design: The foundations of dynamic capabilities and the role of managers in the economic system[END_REF]Teece 2007a).

According to Teece (2007a), such orchestration requires three managerial abilities: (1) sensing new opportunities by scanning the environment to collect information [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF], ( 2) seizing these opportunities through the exploitation of market opportunities by bridging external and internal information [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF], and (3) transforming resource bases, characterised by change. According to [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF], new information represents potential change; some studies indicate that flow of information allows the creation of new knowledge [START_REF] Nonaka | A dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation[END_REF]. The three abilities generate information gathering (Teece, 2007a). and thereby foster knowledge management activities. Furthermore, psychological abilities such as emotion and intuition [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF][START_REF] Huy | Exploring the affective underpinnings of dynamic managerial capabilities: How managers' emotion regulation behaviors mobilize resources for their firms[END_REF] can improve managerial abilities. Because managerial abilities allow information gathering and knowledge creation and psychological abilities improve managerial abilities, we argue: Proposition 1: Managerial and psychological abilities foster knowledge management activities.

Sensing Opportunities. Managerial sensing capacity is 'the capacity of an individual manager to identify opportunities for organizational innovation' (Roberts et al., 2016, p. 48).

Two access factors influence a manager's ability to sense opportunities (Teece, 2007a), namely, access to existing or to new information. Having access to information requires scanning activities; firms survey new technologies and markets to sense opportunities for technological change and customers' latent demands. Other information access mechanisms include information systems [START_REF] Roberts | Using information systems to sense opportunities for innovation: Integrating post-adoptive use behaviors with the dynamic managerial capability perspective[END_REF], though information alone is not enough to sense opportunities that involve creating, learning, and interpreting activities; the identification of new opportunities also requires managers' cognitive and creative abilities (Teece, 2007a). Cognitive ability refers to 'managerial ability in searching, encoding, structuring and recalling salient information that is used proactively for influencing firms' strategic directions' (Pandza & Thorpe, 2009, p. 122), and creative ability consists of searching for opportunities and integration of the knowledge necessary to explore the recognized opportunities [START_REF] Pandza | Creative search and strategic sense-making: Missing dimensions in the concept of dynamic capabilities[END_REF]Teece, 2007a). Two cognitive characteristics facilitate the identification of opportunities: perception and attention [START_REF] Helfat | Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities[END_REF]. Perception is the construction of useful and meaningful information about a specific environment; it promotes the identification of opportunities through the recognition of emerging patterns in the environment and interpretation of data relating to these patterns.

Attention facilitates analyses of the environment by focusing on a relevant stimulus.

Ultimately, when managers' sensing capacities are high, they can continuously and reliably acquire and interpret strategically relevant information in their environments [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF]. Because information is defined as 'that commodity capable of yielding knowledge, and what information a signal carries is what we can learn from it' (Nonaka, 1994, p. 15), sensing opportunities can generate knowledge through strategic gathering and interpretation of relevant information that emanates from the environment. According to [START_REF] Nonaka | A dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation[END_REF], knowledge is created and organized by the flow of information and is anchored to the commitment and beliefs of its holders; it originates from and is applied in the minds of knowers [START_REF] Baskerville | The theoretical foundations of knowledge management[END_REF]. Moreover, knowledge resides in the living mind; a person must identify, interpret, and internalise knowledge [START_REF] Baskerville | The theoretical foundations of knowledge management[END_REF].

Therefore, sensing capacity is the origin of individuals' capacities to absorb, which [START_REF] Lowik | Antecedents and effects of individual absorptive capacity: A micro-foundational perspective on open innovation[END_REF] cite as a key microfoundational factor of organizations' capacities to absorb. Such capacities refer to the identification and acquisition of external knowledge and its integration into internal knowledge through transformation and exploitation [START_REF] Zahra | Absorptive capacity: A review, reconceptualization, and extension[END_REF].

Therefore, we argue that sensing capacity can generate new knowledge [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF][START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF] through information gathering achieved by scanning activities and information systems, and this information can be transformed into knowledge as a result of interpretation efforts by managers, achieved through their cognitive and creative abilities: Proposition 1a: Managerial capacity to sense opportunity fosters knowledge generation through cognitive and creative abilities.

According to [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF], the ability to update mental representations (i.e., mental schemas and cognitive maps) in response to changes in the external environment is essential for identifying opportunities. Managers must be able to incorporate intuition into the process of identifying opportunities. In some strategic situations, they must make decisions about assessing emerging opportunities or threats relatively quickly, such that data recognition and interpretation patterns may prove insufficient, whereas intuition may provide strong, implicit knowledge.

In prior literature, authors defined intuition in different ways. According to Jung (1933, cited in Dane & Pratt, 2007), intuition is a psychological function that transmits perceptions unconsciously. It is not an irrational process but is based on a deep understanding of situations [START_REF] Khatri | The role of intuition in strategic decision making[END_REF]. Intuition is a complex phenomenon that taps into the store of knowledge found in the subconscious and is rooted in experience [START_REF] Khatri | The role of intuition in strategic decision making[END_REF]. It relies on an innate ability to synthesise information quickly and efficiently-an ability that can be hampered by more formalised procedures [START_REF] Dane | Exploring intuition and its role in managerial decision making[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Epstein | Individual differences in intuitiveexperiential and analytical-rational thinking styles[END_REF], when managers include intuition in decision making, the process is automatic, preconscious, holistic, associative, mainly non-verbal, and closely linked to affect. Generated by emotional reactions, intuition induces speed in situation assessment [START_REF] Biswas | The effects of option framing on consumer choices: Making decisions in rational versus experiential processing modes[END_REF], mainly in complex situations [START_REF] Schul | Searching for certainty in an uncertain world: The difficulty of giving up the experiential for the rational mode of thinking[END_REF], leading managers to resort to heuristic processing [START_REF] Epstein | Individual differences in intuitiveexperiential and analytical-rational thinking styles[END_REF]. However, [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF] point out that relying on intuition is not always right; its use is appropriate only when there is sufficient environmental regularity and recognition of the signs that signal using intuition is the way forward. Because having intuitive ability in complex situations can lead managers to acquire the most relevant knowledge more rapidly, we argue: Proposition 1b: Managerial sensing capacity that includes intuition fosters knowledge generation in complex situations through the rapid acquisition of relevant knowledge.

Seizing Opportunities. According to Teece (2007a), seizing opportunities requires making investments in development and commercialisation activity; there are multiple choices in terms of investment, especially when several innovations appear on the markets.

The emergence of dominant models then narrows the scope of strategic choices. Nevertheless, to stay ahead of competitors, managers must be the first to identify the most valuable models; they can do so by acquiring valuable knowledge, because knowledge is a strategic resource [START_REF] Grant | Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm[END_REF] that reduces environmental complexity and helps organizations perform in highly competitive environments (Khaskar et al., 2020). Knowledge acquisition represents a flow of knowledge from external stocks of knowledge into organizations [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF].

Acquiring valuable knowledge can be fostered by having a strong capacity for seizing [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF], characterised by the formulation of responses and implementation of courses of action [START_REF] Peteraf | Dynamic capabilities and organizational process[END_REF] to transform opportunities into concrete business activities [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF]. This process involves problem solving, or finding ways around obstacles to achieve goals, and reasoning, which refers to evaluating information, arguments, and beliefs to draw conclusions [START_REF] Helfat | Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities[END_REF]. The evaluation of information can reveal if it is valuable and can be transformed into concrete business opportunities [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF]Teece, 2007a). This process may be fostered by controlled mental processing that is associated with fluid intelligence and rational thinking. Fluid intelligence is characterised by short-term memory and 'involves the ability to reason without relying heavily on previously learned knowledge or procedure' (Helfat & Martin, 2015, p. 840). In contrast, rational thinking describes a person's 'tendencies to think extensively about a problem before responding … [and] future consequences before taking action' (Helfat & Martin, 2015, p. 840). Controlled mental processing may regulate thinking and avoid automatic responses; by avoiding cognitive biases, it can foster knowledge acquisition, especially of knowledge that is useful to organizations [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF][START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF]. Accordingly, we argue: Proposition 1c: Managerial capacity to seize opportunities fosters knowledge acquisition through controlled mental processing.

According to [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF], knowledge acquisition is a process that moves from the sender to the receiver, but the receiver can lack a sufficient level of capacity to absorb, which can inhibit the acquisition process; absorption of unrelated knowledge requires more effort when absorptive capacity is lacking. This effort may be favoured by emotional commitment.

As [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF] argue, seizing opportunities can be enhanced by emotional commitment. Analytical processes or Internet technology (IT) mechanisms might prevent organizations from making innovative and risky investment choices, but managers' emotions can increase such choices and enable them to seize new opportunities. However, if emotional judgment dominates the rational choice process, negative feelings can cause managers to miss opportunities. Therefore, it is important for managers to regulate their emotions [START_REF] Huy | Exploring the affective underpinnings of dynamic managerial capabilities: How managers' emotion regulation behaviors mobilize resources for their firms[END_REF] rather than suppress them, so that they can continue to seize opportunities [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF]. Because emotion increases seizing capacity and seizing capacity is characterised by recognising and exploiting valuable knowledge, we argue that seizing capacity that includes emotion can foster the absorption of knowledge by facilitating the recognition of knowledge that is valuable: Proposition 1d: Managerial seizing capacity, which includes emotion, fosters knowledge acquisition by improving recognition and exploitation of valuable knowledge.

Transforming the Resource Base. The several modes of resource transformation include integration, reconfiguration, acquisition, and resource release [START_REF] Eisenhardt | Dynamic capabilities: What are they?[END_REF]. According to Teece (2007a), transformation capacity can generate the recombination and reconfiguration of assets and organizational structures as enterprises grow and markets and technologies change. [START_REF] Sirmon | Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: Looking inside the black box[END_REF] indicate that resource transformation is characterised by a three-phase process: structuring a resource portfolio, bundling resources to build capabilities, and leveraging capabilities to exploit market opportunities. Whereas these authors focus on resources and capabilities, several other authors highlight the importance of knowledge to organizational transformation; [START_REF] Bindra | Reviewing knowledge-based dynamic capabilities perspectives through meta-analysis[END_REF] emphasise the importance of the effective use of knowledge to strengthen capabilities, and Teece (2007a) highlights the importance of knowledge to transformation capabilities by arguing that mechanisms linked to the creation of learning, knowledge sharing, and knowledge integration are critical to transformation capacity. Other authors argue that resource transformation also generates knowledge transfer. For example, [START_REF] Eisenhardt | Dynamic capabilities: What are they?[END_REF]Martin (2000, p. 1107) note that 'transfer processes including routines for replication and brokering are used by managers to copy, transfer, and recombine resources, especially knowledge-based ones, within the firm'.

Similarly, [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF] highlight that transformation is characterised by strategic renewal, which requires new knowledge to be integrated into entire organizations, insofar as all members of the organization are concerned with the transformation.

All these studies converge to indicate that transformation can promote new knowledge. Into this context, [START_REF] Helfat | Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities[END_REF] introduce social cognitive skills that underpin the transformation of the resource base. These skills can be used to perceive, assist, remember, think, and give meaning. They also help develop social skills that are essential to understanding organizational members' viewpoints. These skills offer the opportunity to influence staff behaviour and obtain their buy-in during the transformation of resources.

However, to do so, managers must implement 'decided renewal activities by assigning responsibilities, allocating resources, and ensuring that the workforce possesses the newly required knowledge' (Kump et al., 2019, p. 5). Transformation capacity can foster knowledge combination, in that it integrates and applies internal and external knowledge and uses it within firms' value-creating activities [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF][START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF]. Because transformation capacity can generate new knowledge for organizations overall, we argue: Proposition 1e: Managerial capacity to transform resources fosters knowledge combination through social cognitive skills.

According to Nielsen (2006, p. 64), knowledge combination is 'the deliberate activities in the firm aimed at locating, evaluating, selecting, and activating the knowledge resources necessary for developing and delivering a new product, service or developing an organizational capability'. That is, knowledge combination requires the involvement of all organizational members, and such involvement may be favoured by the psychological abilities of managers. [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF] take a psychological stance to highlight the role of managerial skills in reducing employees' fear and anxiety that is triggered by the launch of new strategic directions; managers must be able to build employees' emotional commitment to new strategies. [START_REF] Huy | Exploring the affective underpinnings of dynamic managerial capabilities: How managers' emotion regulation behaviors mobilize resources for their firms[END_REF] indicate that regulating stakeholders' emotions, maintaining open dialogue, and showing consideration and support of key stakeholders can create benefits such as greater stakeholder/leader buy-in of change and legitimacy, thereby allowing greater involvement of organizational members in knowledge integration. When managerial transformation capacity includes the ability to regulate stakeholders' emotions, it may be easier to integrate knowledge within their organizations:

Proposition 1f: Managerial capacity to transform resources that includes the ability to regulate stakeholders' emotions fosters knowledge combination by improving knowledge integration.

Role of Managerial Characteristics in Knowledge Management Activities

As previously argued, managerial and psychological abilities can foster knowledge management activities. However, these abilities are fostered by managerial characteristics such as human capital, social capital, and managerial cognition [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]. Thus, it is crucial to understand which characteristics may favour knowledge management activities.

Regarding managerial human capital, authors argue that managerial experiences in specific contexts allow managers to acquire and develop specialised knowledge and skills [START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF], and managerial social capital helps them obtain critical information for decision making from network ties [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF]. Managerial cognition is a cognitive base for decision making; according to [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]Helfat (2003, p. 1021), it consists of 'knowledge or assumptions about future events, knowledge of alternatives, and knowledge of consequences of the alternatives'. As upper echelon theory and dominant logic perspective suggest, managerial characteristics often are reflected at the organizational level, and managers affect organizations [START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons theory: An update[END_REF][START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers[END_REF][START_REF] Helfat | Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities[END_REF].

According to upper echelon theory, organizational outcomes of both strategic choices and performance levels can be predicted by managerial background characteristics. [START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers[END_REF] show that several managerial underpinnings-such as age, functional track, other career experiences, formal education, and socioeconomic background-influence organizational outcomes. For example, managers' youth, amount of formal education, and other career experiences are associated with risky strategies such as innovation. Prahalad and Bettis (1986, p. 490) define a dominant logic as 'the way in which managers conceptualise the business and make critical resource allocation decisions'. Mimicking upper echelon theory, they propose that 'the repertoire of tools that top managers use to identify, define and make strategic decisions, and their view of the world is determined by their experiences' (Prahalad & Bettis, 1986, p. 490). According to [START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF], the three characteristics of dynamic managerial capabilities are linked and foundational to the development of managers' dominant logic, which becomes embedded in firms' routines, procedures, and resource commitments. A dominant logic 'serves as an organizational-level information and competency filter and guides both managerial and employee actions and initiatives in configuring a firm's resources and competencies' (Kor & Mesko, 2013, p. 236). Because these three managerial characteristics can generate knowledge for managers and transfer their knowledge at the organizational level, we argue:

Proposition 2: Managerial characteristics foster knowledge management activities by transposing individual knowledge into organizational knowledge.

Because the transposition of individual knowledge at the organizational level is characterised by knowledge combination [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF][START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF]-which is the integrating and applying of internal and external knowledge [START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF]-we further argue that the three managerial characteristics foster knowledge combination.

Managerial Cognition. This characteristic refers to managerial beliefs and mental models that serve as a basis for decision making [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Walsh | Managerial and organizational cognition: Notes from a trip down memory lane[END_REF].

Usually, managerial beliefs are based on historical experience [START_REF] Vecchiato | Disruptive innovation, managerial cognition, and technology competition outcomes[END_REF] and mental models that represent the stored knowledge a person has acquired over time [START_REF] Maitland | Managerial cognition and internationalization[END_REF]. Mental models act as both knowledge and filters for taking in new information; they identify the important elements in situations and show how they fit together.

However, because of bounded rationality, managers may not consider all information [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]; their mental models may be based on imperfect representations [START_REF] Vecchiato | Disruptive innovation, managerial cognition, and technology competition outcomes[END_REF]. Thus, they may tend to simplify complexity and uncertainty and assign information cues to a framework for understanding and action [START_REF] Maitland | Managerial cognition and internationalization[END_REF]. Mental models influence how managers interpret external changes and how they seek to adapt their organizations to these changes [START_REF] Vecchiato | Disruptive innovation, managerial cognition, and technology competition outcomes[END_REF]. Managers' responses may vary because each manager has a unique mental model [START_REF] Maitland | Managerial cognition and internationalization[END_REF]. In turn, managerial beliefs and mental models affect firm-level strategic choices, growth, and performance [START_REF] Maitland | Managerial cognition and internationalization[END_REF]. Managerial cognition must allow for strategy adjustments, according to changes in external environments [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF].

However, not all managers have the same cognitive frame. Managerial perceptions of situations depend on combinations of managers' limited fields of vision, selective perceptions, and interpretations filtered by their cognitive bases and value systems [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]. Some managers are better than others at interpreting situations correctly and acting accordingly. As previously discussed, managerial beliefs and mental models influence organizational variables [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]. For example, [START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers[END_REF] indicate that managerial cognition affects how decisions are made. Both [START_REF] Prahalad | The dominant logic: A new linkage between diversity and performance[END_REF] and [START_REF] Bettis | The dominant logic: Retrospective and extension[END_REF] argue that managerial cognition forms the dominant logic within an organization. Thus, we argue that managers can influence information processing at the organizational level. If their information processing manners allow them to understand their environments correctly and act accordingly, managerial cognition can generate sensing and seizing of opportunities, transforming of resource bases, and knowledge management activities. If managers transpose their skills about information processing to the organizational level, the organization can correctly process information and create organizational knowledge, given that organizations are information-processing and communication systems. Therefore, we argue that managerial cognition influences knowledge management through the creation of organizational knowledge if managers share their information-processing skills to the organizational level.

Proposition 2a: Managerial cognition can foster knowledge combination if managers

share their information-processing skills to the organizational level.

Managerial Social Capital. Formal and informal network ties favour managers' and leaders' abilities to access resources through relationships and connections [START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF]. They give managers/leaders some degree of influence, control, and power [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Adler | Social capital: Prospects for a new concept[END_REF], social capital can be of two types: internal and external. Whereas internal social capital confers influence and allows managers to obtain information from different levels of the organizations [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF], external social capital provides information about the practices of different firms [START_REF] Gelatkanycz | The external ties of top executives: Implications for strategic choice and performance[END_REF]. Therefore, managers' network ties help them acquire essential resources and provide them with critical information for decision making [START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF]. Managers who have access to this information can create new knowledge and integrate it at the organizational level; this integration of knowledge favours relational capital through internal relationships between managers and employees. Managers with strong external ties also can share their networks with all organizational members. Network sharing can favour relational capital by encouraging external relationships between employees and stakeholders. Relational capital refers to the relationships between organizations and their external stakeholders, such as customers, suppliers [START_REF] Huang | External and internal capabilities and organizational performance: Does intellectual capital matter?[END_REF], competitors, investors, or partners [START_REF] Cabrilo | How strategic knowledge management drives intellectual capital to superior innovation and market performance[END_REF]. It creates organizational value by connecting intellectual resources with external stakeholders [START_REF] Wang | The impact of intellectual capital-knowledge management strategy fit on firm performance[END_REF]. [START_REF] Albertini | Intellectual capital and financial performance: A meta-analysis and research agenda[END_REF] argue that stronger relationships allow for continuous improvement in new product development through knowledge sharing among suppliers, customers, and firms; they maintain that stronger relationships with customers can provide competitive advantages, because external relationships with stakeholders provide access to new information that allows them to sense and seize new opportunities. Seizing opportunities requires acquiring or developing new resources, including knowledge (Teece, 2007a). Therefore, we argue that strong managerial social capital can increase organizational relational capital [START_REF] Wang | The impact of intellectual capital-knowledge management strategy fit on firm performance[END_REF] and knowledge combination if managers share their social capital with their organizations: Proposition 2b: Managerial social capital can foster knowledge combination if managers share their social capital with their organizations. Managerial Human Capital. This characteristic relates to the skills and knowledge managers develop during their education or through their personal and professional experiences [START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF]. Managers' prior work experiences allow them to acquire knowledge, develop expertise, and perfect their abilities [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF]. Managerial human capital is an important factor for all the three phases of managerial dynamic capabilities (sensing, seizing, and transforming). However, heterogeneity exists among managerial skills [START_REF] Helfat | Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities[END_REF]. [START_REF] Adner | Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities[END_REF] argue that managers differ according to both their mixture of skills and level of ability for each skill. Not all managers have the same capacity to sense and seize opportunities and transform resource bases. [START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers[END_REF] emphasise the importance of other career experiences for developing new perspectives; new perspectives are crucial for creating new knowledge, so managers who have spent their entire careers in single firms may have relatively limited perspectives.

The transformation of resource bases also requires change implementation [START_REF] Helfat | Untangling dynamic and operational capabilities: Strategy for the (N) ever-changing world[END_REF], such that managers must make their knowledge accessible throughout their organizations, including sharing it with lower-level employees. They can do so through various dimensions of structural capital, such as organizational processes, information systems, organizational culture, structure, routines, and administrative systems; such organizational support is needed to transform individual knowledge to the organizational level [START_REF] Cabrilo | How strategic knowledge management drives intellectual capital to superior innovation and market performance[END_REF]. Therefore, we argue that managerial human capital may influence knowledge management, as a result of organization-wide integration of knowledge that generates new competencies, knowledge, and skills, if knowledge is made accessible to all organizational members: Proposition 2c: Managerial human capital can foster knowledge combination if managers make their knowledge accessible to their organizations.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Our research emphasises the role of dynamic managerial capability in knowledge management activities (see Figure 2). Our propositions issue three contributions to knowledge-based dynamic capabilities literature. First, they describe the role of the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities in knowledge management activities, that is, the microfoundations of KBDC. Second, they emphasise the role of intuition and emotion in knowledge management activities. Third, they add to literature in knowledge management by revealing the asset-orchestration managerial capacities of sensing and seizing of opportunities and transforming of resource bases.

Theoretical Implications

Role of dynamic capability microfoundations in knowledge management activities. Our first contribution is a microfoundational analysis of the relationship between dynamic capabilities and knowledge management. As indicated previously, KBDC literature is poorly developed; the few studies of the topic indicate only that dynamic capabilities generate knowledge management activities such as generation, acquisition, combination, and use [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF][START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF][START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF]. We contribute by highlighting the underlying mechanisms that allow dynamic capabilities to generate knowledge management activities. We study and understand how the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities foster knowledge management activities. Because authors of microfoundations literature recognise the importance of understanding individual characteristics and behaviours in explaining organizational phenomena [START_REF] Felin | Strategic organization: A field in search of micro-foundations[END_REF], we focus on dynamic managerial capabilities and specifically on the three managerial abilities of sensing and seizing of opportunities and transforming of resource bases (Teece, 2007a). Our literature analysis identifies the underlying mechanisms that emanate from each managerial ability. It shows that sensing opportunities fosters knowledge management as a result of information-gathering and interpretation activities that are fostered by cognitive and creative abilities. The seizing of opportunities also enables knowledge management by identifying information/knowledge that is valuable. This ability is fostered by controlled mental processing. Finally, it shows that the transformation of resource bases fosters knowledge management through knowledge combination and the involvement of all employees, as a result of the social and cognitive skills of managers.

Microfoundations literature also indicates that collective concepts emanate from the individual level and are rooted in deliberate and intentional action [START_REF] Felin | Strategic organization: A field in search of micro-foundations[END_REF].

Moreover, it assumes that individual actors and their interactions are essential for understanding organizations and systems [START_REF] Barney | What are microfoundations?[END_REF]. This approach is in line with studies that indicate that knowledge is created and held by individual actors [START_REF] Nonaka | A dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation[END_REF][START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF] and can become embedded within organizations through organizational processes and routines [START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF]. Accordingly, we show that the three managerial characteristics of cognition, human capital, and social capital can foster knowledge management if managers share their individual characteristics with their organizations.

By focusing on microfoundations, we can perceive the passage from the individual level to the organizational level. We show that dynamic managerial capabilities influence knowledge management through the transformation of individual knowledge into organizational knowledge. We use upper echelon theory [START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers[END_REF][START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons theory: An update[END_REF] and the dominant logic perspective [START_REF] Bettis | The dominant logic: Retrospective and extension[END_REF][START_REF] Kor | Dynamic managerial capabilities: Configuration and orchestration of top executives' capabilities and the firm's dominant logic[END_REF][START_REF] Prahalad | The dominant logic: A new linkage between diversity and performance[END_REF] to illustrate the transposition of knowledge at the organizational level. According to upper echelon theory, organizational outcomes can be predicted by managerial backgrounds, including managers' cognitive bases, if managers have sufficient power to transpose their values and cognitive bases at the organizational level [START_REF] Hambrick | Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers[END_REF]. In line with this theory, we argue that managerial social capital can foster knowledge management if managers share their networks with organizational members. Relationships with stakeholders can create new organizational knowledge.

We also argue that managerial cognition can foster knowledge management if managers transpose their information-processing skills to the organizational level. Therefore, we highlight the importance of interactions among individual actors [START_REF] Barney | What are microfoundations?[END_REF].

Through good information processing, organizations can generate new knowledge.

Managerial human capital can influence knowledge management when managers render their knowledge accessible to their entire organizations as the result of various dimensions of structural capital, such as organizational processes, information systems, organizational culture, structure, routines, and administrative systems [START_REF] Cabrilo | How strategic knowledge management drives intellectual capital to superior innovation and market performance[END_REF]. Whereas prior literature indicates that organizational phenomena such as routines and capabilities can be understood according to individual-level components such as choices, agency, and cognition [START_REF] Felin | Microfoundations of routines and capabilities: Individuals, processes, and structures[END_REF], our study contributes by emphasising the role of the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities in organizational knowledge creation.

Role of intuition and emotion in knowledge management activities. Our second contribution relies on the relationship between managers' psychological abilities and knowledge management activities. Whereas a microfoundations perspective highlights that understanding individual actors' behavioural and psychological foundations is crucial to understanding organizational phenomena [START_REF] Felin | Microfoundations of routines and capabilities: Individuals, processes, and structures[END_REF], the KBDC literature stream-as well as dynamic capabilities literature overall-insufficiently studies the psychological dimension. Moreover, microfoundations literature largely neglects the psychological perspective, focusing mainly on cognition [START_REF] Felin | Microfoundations of routines and capabilities: Individuals, processes, and structures[END_REF][START_REF] Gavetti | Cognition and hierarchy: Rethinking the microfoundations of capabilities' development[END_REF]. Our study fills this gap by explicating how intuition and emotion improve knowledge management activities.

We show that intuition improves sensing capacity [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF] to rapidly generate relevant knowledge, and emotion facilitates seizing capacity [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF][START_REF] Huy | Exploring the affective underpinnings of dynamic managerial capabilities: How managers' emotion regulation behaviors mobilize resources for their firms[END_REF] to improve the recognition and exploitation of valuable knowledge.

We also show that emotional commitment that regulates stakeholders' emotions [START_REF] Huy | Exploring the affective underpinnings of dynamic managerial capabilities: How managers' emotion regulation behaviors mobilize resources for their firms[END_REF] improves the integration of knowledge into organizations. Organizations have an interest in integrating members who have analytical reasoning modes and those who follow intuitive reasoning modes into decision-making teams, to identify opportunities and facilitate decision making [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management[END_REF]. Our study corroborates this assertion by adding that intuition and emotion enable the acquisition and integration of relevant and valuable knowledge in a manner that favours rapid, efficient decision making. emphasises the role of some managerial competencies, such as knowledge asset identification, mapping, and flow, we contribute by illustrating the role of managerial abilities that are linked to sensing, seizing, and transforming. Prior KBDC literature scarcely uses these capacities, with the exception of [START_REF] Han | Effects of intellectual capital on innovative performance: The role of knowledge-based dynamic capability[END_REF], who highlight that sensing, seizing, and transforming capacities form KBDC. Nevertheless, these authors do not explain how these abilities foster KBDC. Our research clarifies how sensing and seizing of opportunities and transforming of resource bases (Teece, 2007a) foster knowledge management activities.

Beyond the general argument that dynamic capabilities enable knowledge management activities [START_REF] Nielsen | Understanding dynamic capabilities through knowledge management[END_REF][START_REF] Zheng | Knowledge-based dynamic capabilities and innovation in networked environments[END_REF][START_REF] Denford | Building knowledge: Developing a knowledge-based dynamic capabilities typology[END_REF], we provide a more microlevel analysis and identify which managerial ability, linked to asset orchestration, fosters which [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF], because information is capable of yielding knowledge [START_REF] Nonaka | A dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation[END_REF]. We also show that seizing opportunities allows knowledge acquisition because it requires the recognition of valuable knowledge and transforming it into concrete business opportunities [START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF]. Finally, transforming capacity that enables strategic change favours knowledge combination; this capacity requires knowledge management activities (Eisnehardt & Martin, 2000;Teece, 2007;[START_REF] Kump | Toward a dynamic capabilities scale: Measuring organizational capacities[END_REF] such as knowledge creation (Teece, 2007) to implement strategic changes. Managers need to integrate and share knowledge with everyone in their organization associated with the transformation.

Managerial Implications

Our study also contributes to managerial practice. First, we highlight the importance of knowledge in the current economy; to obtain or maintain performance, it is necessary to develop KBDC to reconfigure firms' knowledge-based resources according to the evolution of the environment. We emphasise the importance of dynamic managerial capabilities to develop knowledge management activities. We also argue that dynamic managerial capabilities comprise three dimensions: managerial abilities, psychological abilities, and managerial characteristics. In light of the importance of these three dimensions to knowledge management, we suggest it is essential for executives to learn how to develop and harness each dimension so they can mobilise all of them, as needed and required by their environments. Regarding managerial abilities, we highlight the importance of interpreting which information creates new knowledge. Firms can develop tools for information gathering, such as effective information systems. We also emphasise the role of psychological abilities in improving managerial abilities, suggesting that executives should use their intuition and emotions to sense and seize opportunities. Finally, we emphasise the role of managerial characteristics and the need for managers to share their experience, knowledge, social capital, and information-processing skills with their organizations. From this perspective, firms can develop organizational processes such as collective discussions, debriefing sessions, and training sessions to transfer individual knowledge-based resources to the organizational level.

Research Avenues

Our research offers interesting ideas for empirical studies of the propositions.

Empirical studies of the link between dynamic managerial capabilities and knowledge management are lacking, and studies that seek to investigate this link are welcomed. These studies could be qualitative or quantitative; qualitative research would allow deep analyses of the propositions, such as with a case study design, whereas quantitative research could test the propositions on a larger scale to identify whether the relationship between dynamic managerial capabilities and knowledge management activities remains valid for organizations with different characteristics. In a continuation of this study, research efforts also could attempt to deepen the relationship between psychological dimensions (intuition, emotion) and knowledge management activities. In particular, researchers could analyse the relationship between dynamic managerial capability and intellectual capital. Knowledge management and intellectual capital are similar: Knowledge management comprises processes and practices that enable organizations to obtain their stocks of knowledge [START_REF] Hsu | Relationship between intellectual capital and knowledge management: An empirical investigation[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | The impact of intellectual capital-knowledge management strategy fit on firm performance[END_REF], but those stocks are characterised by intellectual capital, composed of human capital, relational capital, and structural capital [START_REF] Albertini | Intellectual capital and financial performance: A meta-analysis and research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Marr | Intellectual capital and knowledge management effectiveness[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | The impact of intellectual capital-knowledge management strategy fit on firm performance[END_REF]. These three components of intellectual capital are similar to the three managerial characteristics of cognition, human capital, and social capital. Continued studies should determine their influences. Finally, researchers could assess how dynamic managerial capabilities influence the knowledge-based, personality-based, and experiencebased competencies that are required for knowledge management [START_REF] Nikitina | Creating and managing knowledge towards managerial competence development in contemporary business environment[END_REF].

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Microfoundations of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities

Table 2 .

 2 Mechanisms that underlie knowledge management activities

	Dynamic capability microfoundations	Propositions	Mechanisms underlying	Knowledge
	(dynamic managerial capabilities)		knowledge management	management
				activities	activities
	Managerial	Sensing	P. 1a	Information-gathering,	Knowledge
	and			interpretation activities	generation
	psychological abilities			-Cognitive abilities
				-Creative abilities
			P. 1b	Intuition of managers
				-Heuristic processing
		Seizing	P. 1c	Recognising valuable	Knowledge
				information/knowledge	acquisition
				-Fluid intelligence
				-Rational thinking disposition
			P. 1d	Emotion of managers
				-Risk taking
				-Regulation of self emotion
		Transforming	P. 1e	Integration of knowledge,	Knowledge
				involvement of the whole	combination
				organization
				-Social cognitive skills
			P. 1f	Emotion
				-Regulation stakeholders'
				emotions
	Managerial	Managerial cognition P. 2a	Managerial belief and mental	Knowledge
	characteristics			models	combination
				-Information processing skills
				-Transposition of these skills
				at organizational level
		Managerial social	P. 2b	Formal and informal network	Knowledge
		capital		ties of managers	combination
				-Relational capital


Tsirinantenaina A Rafalimanana

Gérard Granet
email: gerard.granet@uca.fr

Karyl Danielson

Scattering by a dielectric cylinder with arbitrary cross section using Pseudo-spectral Modal Method

We present a new semi-analytical formulation for diffraction by structured cylinders. A pseudo-spectral method is used to solve the Maxwell equations written in curvilinear coordinates. The program is compared with the numerical results obtained using Comsol Multiphysics.

Introduction

The last two decades have been marked by the study and fabrication of structured materials to control light. To solve complex electromagnetic problems, numerical methods are widely used. We propose a semi-analytical model based on the pseudo-spectral method using the Chebyshev differentiation matrix [START_REF] Song | Fouriermatching pseudospectral modal method for diffraction gratings[END_REF][START_REF] Granet | Fourier-matching pseudospectral modal method for diffraction gratings : comment Optical Society of America[END_REF][START_REF] Edee | Gippius, Mode solver based on Gegenbauer polynomial expansion for cylindrical structures with arbitrary cross sections[END_REF][START_REF] Prémel | Matching curvilinear coordinates for the computation of the distribution of eddy currents in a cylindrical tube described by an arbitrary longitudinal internal/external profile[END_REF]. In this method, Maxwell's equations are written in their covariant forms [START_REF] Nevière | New theoretical method for electromagnetic wave diffraction by a metallic or dielectric cylinder, bare or coated with a thin dielectric layer[END_REF]. For this purpose, the curvilinear coordinate method is used to render an arbitrary-walled cylinder into a cylinder of circular cross-section . We are working in physical space, writing the boundary conditions is very easy. Since the structure has cylindrical symmetry and 2π periodic with θ, in the usual cylindrical coordinate the incident field is given by :

E i z (r, θ) = E 0 exp[ik 0 r sin(θ -θ 0 )] (1)
2. resolution

Coordinate change

The change of coordinates transforms a complex section into a circular section. We start from a circular cylinder of radius

u 1 = R 1 through the profile u = u 2 to a circular cylinder of radius u 3 = R 3 a(u, θ) =        R 1 + [f (θ) -R 1 ] u -u 1 u 2 -u 1 for u 1 ≤ u ≤ u 2 f (θ) + [R 3 -f (θ)] u -u 2 u 3 -u 2 for u 2 ≤ u ≤ u 3
(2) The fields at the bottom of radius R1 and at the top of radius R3 are developed in Fourier-Bessel and Hankel series.

E (1) z (r, θ)

= M m=-M A1 m J m (k 0 n 1 r) exp(imθ) (3)
E (3) z (r, θ) = M m=-M {[(-i) m J m (k 0 r)+ A3 m H (2) m (k 0 r) exp(imθ) (4)

Maxwell's Covariant Equations

In a homogeneous medium without source, considering the angular frequency ω in the harmonic regime exp(-iωt) and with Einstein's convention, the Maxwell-Minkowski equations are written.

ξ ijk ∂ j E k = +iωB i ξ ijk ∂ j H k = -iωD i ( 5
)
where i, j, k = 1, 2, 3. ξ ijk is the Levi-Civita indicator defined by :

ξ ijk =    0 if two superscripts are equal +1 if (i, j, k) is an even permutation of (1,2,3) -1 if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (1,2,3)
The constitutive equations of the middle are given by :

B i = µ 0 µ ij r H j D i = ε 0 ε ij r E j (6)

Boundary conditions

For the completeness of the mathematical problem, we need to specify the boundary conditions. The Continuity of the tangential components of the fields are satisfied.

The first boundary condition is the continuity of the field at the frontier of the fictitious inside cylinder.

E - 0 = J 1 A 1 H - 0 = J1 A 1 (7)
The subscript 0 is relative to u 0 The second boundary condition is the continuity of field in the surface defined by u = u 2 :

E - N -1 = E + 0 H - N -1 = H + 0 (8) N -1 corresponds to u N -1
The third boundary condition is the continuity of the field at the frontier of the fictitious outside cylinder.

E + N -1 = J 3 + H (2) A 3 H + N -1 = J3 + H(2) A 3 (9)

Results

By expanding the equation ( 5) we obtain a differential matrix. After incorporating the boundary conditions, we obtain a system to be inverted by keeping only the J 3 in the second member. The radar cross section, which is the relationship of square modules of diffracted and incident fields, is defined as.

σ = lim r→∞ 2πr |E dif f | 2 |E inc | 2 (10)

Conclusions

We have proposed a pseudo-spectral modal method for electromagnetic diffraction. The method gives accurate solutions with the cylinder of arbitrary section. The speed of convergence for pseudo-spectral is greatly than different technical calculation. The specification of this method lies in the boundary condition can be written analytically without requiring any mesh.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Geometry of the problem.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Comparison of the total field surrounding the elliptic cylinder, with large radius a = 1λ and small radius b = 0.8λ, at a distance of r = 2.5λ. Refractive index is n 1 = 1.5.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Radar Cross Section of the elliptic cylinder, with large radius a = 1λ and small radius b = 0.8λ, with refractive index n 1 = 1.5