Hossein Ftouni

Christophe Blanc

Dimitri Tainoff

Andrew D Fefferman

Martial Defoort

Kunal J Lulla

Jacques Richard

Eddy Collin

Olivier Bourgeois

The thermal conductivity of silicon nitride membranes is not sensitive to stress

Keywords: numbers: 65.60.+a, 68.65.-k, 62.40.+i, 63.50.Lm 1

We have measured the thermal properties of suspended membranes from 10 K to 300 K for two amplitudes of internal stress (about 0.1 GPa and 1 GPa) and for two different thicknesses (50 nm and 100 nm). The use of the original 3ω-Volklein method has allowed the extraction of both the specific heat and the thermal conductivity of each SiN membrane over a wide temperature range.

The mechanical properties of the same substrates have been measured at helium temperatures using nanomechanical techniques. Our measurements show that the thermal transport in freestanding SiN membranes is not affected by the presence of internal stress. Consistently, mechanical dissipation is also unaffected even though Qs increase with increasing tensile stress. We thus demonstrate that the theory developed by Wu and Yu [Phys. Rev. B, 84, 174109 (2011)] does not apply to this amorphous material in this stress range. On the other hand, our results can be viewed as a natural consequence of the "dissipation dilution" argument [Y. L.

I. INTRODUCTION

Silicon nitride (SiN) thin films are widely used to thermally isolate sensitive thermal detectors, for etch masking as well as layers for micro-electromechanical systems [START_REF] Garimella | Advances in mesoscale thermal management technologies for microelectronics[END_REF] . Indeed, outstanding mechanical properties including very high quality factors Q 2,3 can be reached in optimized SiN material. Depending on deposition parameters, SiN films can experience very large residual (biaxial) stress during deposition. It is thus of prime importance to understand the role of the internal stress not only on the mechanical properties but also on the other physical characteristics of SiN films including optical, thermal and electrical properties. Silicon nitride has a specific place due to its amorphous nature and the study of stress in that compound is also an issue for the fundamental understanding of its role in the physics of glasses 2 .

Using the stress to tune the thermal properties of nanomaterials is one of the possible ways to design future thermal components (thermal rectifier, thermal diode, thermal switch 4 ...). This has been proposed for monocrystalline silicon 5,6 , as strain in silicon is currently used to enhance electron mobility in transistors 7 . Since the debate on the origin of mechanical dissipation in strained glasses like SiN 2,8 , the question of the effect of stress on the thermal properties, whatever its origin (internal or external), has been raised and theoretically addressed for the case of silicon nitride 9 . Indeed it is well known that stoichiometric silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ) prepared by low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) contains a significant internal tensile stress (up to about 1 GPa) as compared to regular non-stoichiometric SiN that has a very low internal stress (below 0.2 GPa). In an attempt to explain the very high mechanical Qs, Wu and Yu 9 proposed a model where the internal losses in the material are sensitive to the stress state. Their calculations based on this hypothesis predict that the thermal conductivity of SiN may be strongly enhanced by the presence of stress. On the other hand, systematic mechanical measurements on high stress SiN substrates explain the Qs through the so called "dissipation dilution" model 10 : mechanical energy is stored through the tensioning of the substrate while the dissipation is unaffected 9,11,12 . However, no experiments to date compared directly similar devices made of different SiN materials. Furthermore, thermal properties of low stress SiN have been widely measured over a broad temperature range [13][14][15][16][17][18] for different kinds of thin films and nanomaterials, but very few experimental studies deal with the influence of stress on the thermal transport at the nanoscale 19 .

In order to study the potential effect of internal stress on the thermal properties of silicon nitride, the thermal conductivity and the specific heat have been measured as a function of temperature for high stress (HS) and low stress (LS) SiN membranes having a thickness of 50 nm and 100 nm. These measurements are performed using the 3ω-Völklein method [20][21][22] as described in previous papers. This technique allows the measurement of both thermal conductivity and specific heat of a given membrane within the same experiment over a broad temperature range. The mechanical dissipation and stress amplitude of both HS and LS substrates are also measured at cryogenic temperatures by means of nanomechanical resonators 23 . We show experimentally that thermal conduction is essentially independent of the stress stored in this material. This is inconsistent with the hypothesis underlying the model of Ref. 9 for SiN, and corroborates the "dissipation dilution" explanation for high mechanical Qs.

II. SAMPLES AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

The thermal properties of two types of SiN membranes have been measured: high stress stoichiometric Si 3 N 4 and low stress SiN deposited by LPCVD. The amorphous stoichiometric high stress (HS) Si 3 N 4 as well as low stress (LS) SiN were grown on both sides of a silicon substrate. The membranes were then patterned on the rear side by laser photolithography.

After removing the silicon nitride by SF 6 Reactive Ion Etching, the silicon substrate on the rear side was etched in KOH, as described in Fig. 1. The final result is a rectangular SiN membrane obtained on the front side.

Before the thermal study, a mechanical measurement was performed to quantify the stress present after releasing the membranes. A suspended silicon nitride beam with 100 nm thickness, 250 nm width and 15 µm length fabricated using e-beam lithography from the same substrate was placed in a magnetic field (see Fig. 1 for fabrication details). A sinusoidal driving current within a 30 nm thin deposited Al layer is used to generate the Lorentz force causing the beam's out-of-plane oscillation 24 . This measurement is performed in a vacuum of about 10 -6 mbar at helium temperatures. The magnetic flux cut by the beam oscillation generates a voltage which is measured using a lock-in amplifier 3,25 . Typical resonance curves for the first flexure and their respective fits are shown in Fig. 2.

The expression for the n th mode resonance frequency of a stressed doubly-clamped beam is given by 8 :

f n = n 2 σ ρh 2 (1)
Eq. 1 is used to calculate the stress σ within the beam, with n the mode number, ρ the Lorentzian fits, with full width at half height of 650 ± 50 Hz (HS, Q ≈ 25 000) and 500 ± 50 Hz (LS, Q ≈ 14 000). We extract from the resonance frequencies the stress values of 0.85 ± 0.08 GPa (HS) and 0.12 ± 0.05 GPa (LS). Data taken at 4.2 K in vacuum in a 840 mT magnetic field.

silicon nitride density (3 g/cm 3 ) and h the beam length 23 . We find a stress value of about 0.85 GPa for the HS silicon nitride, which confirms that the membrane is still stressed after releasing and 0.12 GPa for the LS silicon nitride. These values agree fairly well with the manufacturer data, as they should (supplied by LIONIX). Note that both values fall in the high-stress limit of beam theory, validating the use of Eq. ( 1).

A careful characterization of the setup and of the devices has been performed in order to guarantee quantitative analysis 25,[START_REF] Defoort | Non-linear dynamics in nano-electromechanical systems at low temperatures[END_REF] . In particular, the loading from the environment onto the measured resonance has been characterized as a function of magnetic field 24 : the raw resonance lines displayed on The important and still unsolved issue of the mechanical dissipation shall be discussed elsewhere 36 . But let us nonetheless position our findings within the state-of-the-art.

The mechanical Q factors obtained for our high-stress samples are consistent with the litterature 8,11,[START_REF] Suhel | [END_REF][28][29] , as are the low-stress results 8,30 . Obviously, these comparisons have to be taken with care, since temperature and metallic coatings are known to influence mechanical dissipation [31][32][33] , but the dispersion among silicon nitride wafer providers seems to be greater or of the same order than these effects. Comparing very different types of devices had lead to the proposition that stress could strongly influence mechanical dissipation 2 . Recent results from Refs. 11,12,[START_REF] Suhel | [END_REF] on HS devices contradict this idea, and favor the "dissipation dilution" model first introduced in Ref. 10 : the mechanical Q factor increases only because the stored (tensioning) energy increases. Indeed, tuning the stress by bending the sample a linear relationship between Q and f 0 is found in Ref. 8 . In this respect, Fig. 2 is a natural consequence of the "dissipation dilution" idea: while the mechanical Q = f 0 /∆f increases with stress, the linewidh ∆f (measuring mechanical dissipation) of the resonances of two geometrically identical devices is almost unaffected. The related question we thus want to address in this paper is how stress affects the thermal properties of silicon nitride structures.

Thermal experiments are conducted on the very same materials. As mentioned above, we have chosen in this study the most appropriate method to measure the thermal conductivity of large aspect ratio suspended membranes: the 3ω-Völklein method [20][21][22] . The principle of the method consists in creating a sinusoidal Joule heating generated by an AC electrical current at frequency ω across a transducer centered along the long axis of a rectangular membrane. The center of the membrane is thermally isolated from the frame and hence its temperature is free to increase.

The temperature oscillation (≈100 mK) of the membrane is at 2ω and is directly related to its thermal properties by the amplitude and the frequency dependence of the aforementioned temperature oscillation. Since the resistance of the thermometer can be considered as linearly dependent on temperature over that small temperature oscillation, the voltage is strongly temperature dependent. It serves as a thermometer and a heater at the same time [37][38][39] . For the present work, the thermometer has been designed for the 10 K to 320 K temperature range. Typically, the resistance of the thermometer is about 100 kOhm at room temperature with a temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) α = dR RdT of 10 -2 K -1 at 300 K and of 0.1 K -1 at 4 K.

V = R[T (
Since the 1ω voltage is 3 to 4 orders of magnitude higher than the 3ω voltage, a specific Wheatstone bridge is used to reduce the 1ω component and perform thermal measurements (see Fig. 3). The bridge consists of the measured sample with a resistance R e , which is the NbN thermometer on the SiN membrane, the reference thermometer R ref deposited on the bulk region of the chip which has the same geometry and deposited in the same run as the transducer on the membrane, an adjustable resistor R v , and an equivalent nonadjustable resistance R 1 =50 kOhm.

The general expression of the measured 3ω output Wheatstone bridge voltage can be given by 20,21 :

|V rms 3ω (ω)| = V rms ac αReR 1 |∆T 2ω | 2(R e + R 1 ) 2 (2)
with α the TCR, V ac the 1ω input Wheatstone bridge voltage and |∆T 2ω | the amplitude of the temperature oscillation at 2ω of the membrane due to the sinusoidal nature of heating.

By solving the partial differential equation of the heat flux across the membrane, 3

gives the relation between the thermal properties, the dimensions of the membrane and V 3ω 20,21 : showing severely reduced thermal conductivity, which was ascribed to the interfacial thermal resistance. Zhang and Grigoropuolos 43 also observed anomalous thickness dependence and suggested that micro structural defects may strongly influence thermal conductivity. It is important to note that none of the above studies measure thermal conductivity as a function of the internal stress.

|V rms 3ω (ω)| = α(V rms ac ) 3 R 1 R 2 e 4K p (R e + R 1 ) 4 1 + ω 2 4τ 2 + 2 4 3D 2 + 4τ 2 3D 1/2 (3)
In order to verify the coherence of our experimental results, we have extracted the specific heat from the variation of the 3ω signal versus the frequency. Generally the specific heat is not expected to vary strongly as a function of stress at room temperature 9 , and consequently it is a good test for the experiment. The results for the four different membranes are shown in Fig. 5. The temperature variation of the specific heat is very similar for the four samples. For both 50 and 100 nm thick membranes we observe that the specific heat tends to be slightly higher for the case of low stress sample. But here again, the differences are insignificant and the specific heat is very similar for all the thicknesses and stress (low and high). The Debye temperatures deduced from the heat capacity measurements vary from 620 to 650 K depending on the sample which is a little lower than the commonly accepted value 16 . Our measurements of thermal conductivity and specific heat demonstrate that no significant differences occur for the thermal transport in high and low stress SiN material because even with a stress close to 1 GPa, no modification of the phonon thermal conductivity can be observed.

IV. DISCUSSION

High stress silicon nitride mechanical devices exhibit remarkable Q factors: inverse quality factors Q -1 are two to three orders of magnitude lower than those of amorphous SiO 2 from 4 K up to room temperature 2 . The true origin of mechanical dissipation in stressed SiN is still unknown but could have connections with the thermal properties 2,11,12 . Even though amorphous solids are by nature diverse in composition, these materials are characterized by a universal behaviour of the thermal conductivity and mechanical dissipation at low temperature (between 0.1 and 10 K) 45,46 . This universal behavior was initially reported by Zeller and Pohl 46 and described in terms of a phenomenological model which takes into account the contribution from defects referred to as two-level systems (TLS) 47,48 . The model does reproduce the data, but the universality appears as a surprising coincidence which continues to puzzle physicists 2,49 . In the theoretical work by Wu and Yu 9 , the starting point is to consider that the stress (bond constraints, impurities, local defaults or even external strain) can modify either the TLS barrier height V or the coupling between TLS and phonons denoted by γ. In this model, it is predicted that the modification of V and γ (by taking into account the amplitude of the stress in stoichiometric SiN) will have a significant effect on the thermal conductivity and mechanical dissipation. Let us discuss the two cases separately. First, when the barrier height is affected, a difference between the thermal conductivity in low and high stress should be seen as the temperature is reduced; a factor close to five at 50 K is expected between the thermal conductivities of LS and HS. This is clearly not observed in our measurements since the thermal conductivity of the HS and LS membranes are very similar. We can only point out that around 50 K the thermal conductivity is slightly different between 50 nm and 100 nm samples, a behaviour that can be attributed to a reduction of mean free path in the thinner membrane. Secondly, in the case of the coupling between phonons and TLS (given by the parameter γ), an effect even larger is expected with a thermal conductivity a factor of ten higher in the HS SiN as compared to the LS at room temperature. This could be indeed very interesting for practical applications. Even though the stoichiometry is not strictly identical between the low and high stress membranes, we do not observe such a big difference in thermal conductivity. This has to be compared to the mechanical measurement performed at 4 K, which also did not present any large differences in mechanical damping between HS and LS devices.

We thus demonstrated negligible effect of stress on the thermal conductivity and mechanical dissipation in amorphous SiN. We conclude that the hypothesis of TLS in which barrier height V or coupling constant γ is affected by stress does not apply to these materials in the present stress range. We also underline that the values of thermal conductivity we have measured for both high stress Si 3 N 4 and low stress SiN membranes are in perfect accordance with most of the values already published (see table I). In order to highlight the low temperature particularities of the phonon conductivity in these thin membranes, it is particularly important to discuss the temperature variation of the mean free path 18 . Fig. 6 shows the phonon mean free path in the membranes determined from the kinetic equation Λ = 3k/Cv s , v s being the Debye speed of sound. It has been shown in the past that this equation can be used even at room temperature for amorphous materials by Pohl and co-workers 45 . At 300 K all curves (with the exception of 50 nm LS) approach the same limit which is two times higher than the inter-atomic spacing (0.25 nm for amorphous SiN). This is in very good agreement with previous thermal analysis 18 . As the temperature decreases, the mean free path increases rapidly to reach the order of ten nanometers at 20 K. As it can be seen in Fig. 6, it is reasonable to ascribe the difference of thermal transport below 200 K to a reduced mean free path in the thinner membranes.

V. CONCLUSIONS

The thermal conductivity has been measured on silicon nitride membranes having low and high stress. The objective was to search for any effect of internal stress on the phonon thermal conductivity and mechanical dissipation. Even though very high stress (of the order of 1 GPa) has been evidenced in suspended stoichiometric SiN membranes by nanomechanical measurements, it has been shown using very sensitive 3ω technique that the thermal conductivity was not affected. Besides, mechanical dissipation is almost independent of stress, even though high Qs are obtained in HS structures in accordance with the "dissipation dilution" model. This rules out a scenario of strong increase of thermal conductivity (and concomittantly a strond decrease of mechanical dissipation) with the presence of stress proposed recently by Wu and Yu 9 , either through the increase of the barrier height of two level systems or through the decrease of the coupling between TLS and phonons. We also show that the thermal properties of the most commonly used silicon nitride materials are equivalent. We then express doubts about the possible use of stress in thermal engineering in amorphous materials.

VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge technical supports from Nanofab, the Cryogenic and the Electronic

FIG. 1 .

 1 FIG. 1. (colour online) Micro and nanofabrication processes of both suspended structures studied in this work. a) fabrication process for the membrane 1), 2) The patterns of the membranes are created by photolithography. The non protected SiN is removed by SF 6 RIE etching. 3) The silicon is anisotropically etched in a KOH solution. 4) The thermometers are obtained by a lift-off process; the area is patterned by photolithography. 5) NbN (70 nm) is deposited by reactive sputtering. 6) The resist and NbN layer is removed using a wet procedure. b) fabrication process for the nanowires 1) The patterns of the nanowires are created by e-beam lithography. 2) evaporation of Al layer (30 nm) 3), 4) The non-protected SiN is removed by SF 6 RIE. 5) The silicon is isotropically etched by gazeous XeF 2 ecthing.

FIG. 2 .

 2 FIG. 2. (colour online) Measurement of the first flexure resonance of two suspended SiN beams with different in-built stresses, the red points are the in-phase signal and the black points the out-of-phase signal (both 15 µm long, 250 nm wide, 100 nm thick, see SEM picture in inset). (a) low-stress and (b) high-stress resonance lines obtained in the linear regime. The lines are

Fig. 2

 2 are only about 20 % broader than the genuine intrinsic mechanical resonances. Many devices varying shapes and stress have been measured 26 , studying flexural modes up to n = 9.

  2ω)] × I(ω) will have an ohmic component at ω and a thermal component at 3ω.By measuring the V 3ω voltage appearing across the transducer as function of the frequency, both the thermal conductivity and the specific heat of the membrane 22 are inferred. The membranes measured in this study are 300 µm wide and 1.5 mm long.The transducer of 5 µm width and 1.5 mm length is made out of NbN whose resistance

FIG. 3 .

 3 FIG. 3. (colour online) Experimental set-up based on the Wheatstone bridge configuration, the yellow membrane sample is on the bottom right and the reference thermometer is on the left; the blue area of the sketch corresponds to the temperature regulated part of the Wheatstone bridge.

  with K p = kS the thermal conductance and C = cS the heat capacity of the measured membrane, τ = C Kp the thermalization time of the membrane to the heat bath, D = k ρc the thermal diffusivity, half the width of the membrane and S the section of the membrane (perpendicular to the heat flow). By measuring the V 3ω voltage as a function of frequency both k (in-plane thermal conductivity) and c (specific heat) of the membrane can be extracted 22 .

FIG. 4 .

 4 FIG. 4. (colour online) Thermal conductivity measurement of 50 nm and 100 nm thick membranes for both SiN low stress and high stress. The 100 nm curves of low stress and high stress show nearly no difference.

FIG. 5 .

 5 FIG. 5. (colour online) Specific heat measurement of 50 nm and 100 nm thick of both LS and HS silicon nitride from low temperature (10 K) to room temperature.

FIG. 6 .

 6 FIG. 6. (colour online) Mean free path Λ of measured samples calculated using experimental data of specific heat and thermal conductivity. The dashed line shows the estimation of the mean free path using the Debye specific heat.

  facilities and the Pole Capteur Thermométrique et Calorimétrie of Institut Néel for these experiments. Funding for this project was provided by a grant from La Région Rhône-Alpes (Cible and CMIRA), by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) through the project QNM no. 0404 01, by the European projects: MicroKelvin FP7 low temperature

TABLE I .

 I Measured values of thermal conductivity (k in W.m -1 .K -1 ) and specific heat (c in J/g.K) of silicon nitride having different stoichiometry and/or different stress. Our results are in accordance with most of the studies. LS is for Low Stress, HS for High Stress and free st. for free standing membranes.


Wisnu Adihartono

Migration and Family Relationships: The Case of "Gay Indonesia" in Paris

Keywords: Migration, Family Relationships, Gay, Indonesia, Gay Bar

State and national identity are formed on the basis of mutual unification of thoughts and ideas through the process of representation and social imagination. Through these two processes, people determine what is good and not good, including the issue of homosexuality. There is a "sexual script" in which sexuality is produced, shared, and enforced as a social norm and made a blueprint for correct behaviour. Many Indonesians consider homosexuality abnormal and against religion. Homosexuals in Indonesia have little or no power and limited legal access to fight for their rights. In the end, in order to survive, they are forced to hide their sexual orientation, or in extreme cases, they move to other countries. As long as these push factors do not change, migration will become the "natural way" for them to avoid being mistreated. Because the Indonesian state has been unwilling or unable to ensure and protect the basic human rights of its citizens, I consider the migration of Indonesian gays to be a state failure. Drawing on face-to-face interviews with Indonesian gays who live in Paris, this paper examines why they decided to migrate to there.. It also looks into whether they maintain relationships with their family back in Indonesia and the main features of such relationships.

Using qualitative methodology, this paper will introduce some of their narratives.

I. Introduction: The Reality

According to Takács, Mocsonaki, and Tóth (2008: 6) from the Institute of Sociology, Hungarian Academy of Science, LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender) people can be seen as members of minority groups, i.e., social groups characterized by a relative powerlessness regarding their interest-representing abilities. They cited Fraser (1997: 18) that gays and lesbians suffer from "heterosexism": the authoritative construction of norms that privilege heterosexuality. Along with these goes homophobia: the cultural devaluation of homosexuality. Their sexuality thus disparaged, homosexuals are subject to shaming, harassment, discrimination, and violence, while being denied legal rights and equal protection -all fundamentally denials of recognition. To be sure, gays and lesbians also suffer serious economic injustices; they can be summarily dismissed from paid work and are denied familybased social-welfare benefits. But far from being rooted directly in the economic structure, these derive instead from an unjust cultural-valuation structure.

Even though Indonesia has a secularist constitution and homosexuality is legal, a recent poll shows that 93 percent of Indonesians do not accept homosexual couples. 1 The authoritarian New Order (Orde Baru) regime of Soeharto had the resources to impose its agenda to a greater degree than the old regime of Sukarno (Boellstorff, 2005: 187). Indonesia has also been a society under enormous stress and change after the Suharto dictatorship era from 1998 onwards. The country's fledgling democratic governments have faced increasingly Islamicized pressure in terms of governance and law. In the post-11 September 2001 climate, the rise of militant Islamic groups and certain extreme forms of atavistic behaviour across Indonesia have led to endemic and pervasive violence. This was targeted at ethnic minorities and homosexuals, who were often perceived to be Western-corrupted individuals or deviants.

Hard-line Islamic groups explicitly targeting homosexuals include the Indonesian Council of Ulemas, Indonesia's top Muslim clerical body, the Islamic Defender Front, an extremist group that is known for violent tactics, and the Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia (Offord, 2011: 144).

Homosexuality in Indonesian society is considered against the norms of society because the "creeping" Islamization of Indonesia has had a widespread impact on the perception of what is considered normal and appropriate moral behaviour (Offord, 2011: 144). 2 At the beginning of the 1980s, homosexuality became closely connected to the spread of the AIDS virus in the minds of many Indonesians. As a consequence, it is common in Indonesian society to call gay people "the sick" (orang sakit) and thus they are the target of social exclusion, violence, and other forms of physical, psychological and emotional persecution (Offord, 2011: 145). Arus Pelangi founder, King Oey noted: "Discrimination occurs everywhere. If someone is known to be homosexual, taunts and gossip will follow, as well as harassment and loss of employment",3 so the idea that homosexuality is a disease is widely shared in Indonesia. 4However in the past, Indonesia was also home to a number of "sacred" or "traditional" homosexualities, the most well-known of which are the bissu of South Sulawesi and the warok of the Ponorogo region of East Java (Murtagh, 2013: 6). Davies (2010: 11-12) described bissu as androgynous shamans who symbolically embody male and female elements. The Bugis of South Sulawesi acknowledge four genders plus a fifth "para-gender" identity. In addition to male-men (oroane), and female-women (makunrai) (categories that are similar to those in Australia), there are calalai, biological females who take on many of the roles expected of men; calabai, biological males who in many respects adhere to the roles expected of women, and bissu (Graham, 2002: 27). The warok is a leader of the dance of Reyog. The basis of the warok's homoerotic relations with his gemblak lies in the polluting nature of heterosexual intercourse with women [START_REF] Wilson | Reog Ponorogo: Spirituality, Sexuality and Power in a Javanese Performance Tradition[END_REF]. The gemblak is normally chosen for his poise and physical appearance characterized typically as androgynous and a light complexion which is sometimes enhanced with face powder [START_REF] Wilson | Reog Ponorogo: Spirituality, Sexuality and Power in a Javanese Performance Tradition[END_REF]. During performances, the gemblak is sometimes known to dress in feminine attire, such as the kebaya blouse, a wrap-around skirt (jarik batik), and a scarf (sampur or selendang) (Kartomi, 1976: 87).

2 Many provinces in Indonesia have adopted traditional Shariah law, which explicitly condemns homosexuality.

The adoption of Anti-Pornography Bill by the Indonesian parliament on 30 October 2008 defines pornography in such a broad manner that even effeminate gestures may be regarded as pornographic (See Offord, 2011: 144).

Currently, homosexuality can be informally welcomed. This means that a person who exhibits homosexual behaviour will be accepted as long as he or she does not cause any trouble in society (Johan, 2011: 203). However, discrimination against LGBT people is also still very common. Therefore, to avoid being discriminated by society, many Indonesian

LGBTs play a form of "hide and seek". Gay Indonesians tend to see themselves as being open (terbuka) in certain spaces -for example, in cruising spaces and in the homes of friends -and closed (tertutup) in others, such as the workplace or the family home (Boellstorff, 2005: 170-175).

II. Word Choice: Choosing the Word "Gay" Instead of "Homosexual" Before I move on to the main topic, I would like to explain why I insist on using the word "gay" instead of "homosexual". As Whitaker (2011: 15) has noted, some people believe the word "homosexual" has negative overtones. Most homosexual men and women prefer the words "gay" and "lesbian".

The word "homosexual" could be seen as a pathological term as French philosopher Michel Foucault noted that homosexuality appeared as a form of sexuality when it was transposed from the practice of sodomy onto a kind of interior androgyny, a hermaphrodism of the soul.

The sodomite had been a temporary aberration. The homosexual was now a species [START_REF] Foucault | The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction[END_REF]. Meanwhile the word "gay" is commonly used as a declaration of identity to represent selfhood, as in the sentence "I am gay", "It's who I am", and "It's what I label myself" (Savin-Williams, 2005: 7). Thus, this word is became a kind of pride that exists in a self of every gay man, whether gay masculine or gay feminine. In James M. Donovan's PhD research, "Homosexual, Gay, and Lesbian: Defining the Words and Sampling the Populations" (Donovan, 1992: 40), he found from one of his respondents the point of distinction between the word "homosexual" and "gay". The word "homosexual" defines behaviour, while "gay" on the other hand defines an acceptance of the behaviour, a mind-set, by an individual. "Gay" describes a way of life. Being homosexual may have nothing to do with being gay. For example, many non-gay men (and women) do homosexual things, i.e., participate in homosexual acts.

This working paper is based on my on-going PhD research at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en

Sciences Sociales (EHESS) Marseille -France. I interviewed 20 Indonesian gays (masculine or feminine) in Paris where I carried out my research. The interviews took around one-tothree hours depending on availability and mood. The most difficult element of my research was finding informants, therefore I asked a known "gatekeeper" of the community to introduce me to my respondents. The gatekeeper is also gay and has lived in Paris for over ten years. According to him, there is no statistical data that shows the number of Indonesian gays in Paris, but he estimates that they are in the 100s. In order to avoid dissemination, I promised all respondents that I would not publish names or other identifying details. Only their initials and ages have been recorded.

III. "Migration Is a Must"

Discussing the meaning of globalization which is almost never precisely defined, McGrew (1998) stated that globalization is a process which generates and connects, not simply across nation-states and national territorial boundaries, but between regions, continents, and civilizations. This invites a definition of globalization as: "an historical process which engenders a significant shift in the spatial reach of networks and system of social relations to transcontinental or interregional patterns of human organization, activity and the exercise of power." On the other hand, Baylis and Smith (1990) identified the character of globalization as the internationalizing of production, with a new international division of labour, new migratory movements from south to north, and the internationalizing of the state. Here, Goldin, Cameron, and Balarajan (2011: 27) refer to globalization not only in economic terms, but also in relation to social and political transformations and the emergence of global currents of thought.

Researchers have found that globalization opens connections in most domains and that these connections are not always small in scope but extends to every sphere. Migration, now is generally taken to be movement across a national border, often with the purpose of settling for a period of time and to be managed (Goldin, Cameron, and Balarajan, 2011: 16-17), is one of the effects of a process of globalization.

For LGBT people, migration is often a must instead of a choice. The usual "push" and "pull" factors mentioned in studies of migration are no longer the main reason why they choose to leave their country of origin. As voluntary migrants, LGBTs are thought to move voluntary because economic conditions and living standards in their country or region of origin are not as desirable as in another country or region. In other words, voluntary migrants move to find work and better job opportunities (Hancon and Vicino, 2014: 7). But the actual reasons why people move from their country of origin to another country are varied and complex. Mai and King (2009) studied the relations between sex and emotion as factors for migration.

They added that love, whether it is for a partner, lover or friend, or for a child, parents or other kin, is often a key factor in the desire and the decision to move to a place where one's feelings, ambitions and expectations -emotional, sexual, political, hedonistic, etc. -can be lived more fully and freely (Ibid, 296). Sexuality is another increasingly relevant and recognized axis of self-identification for people, whether they decide to stay put or to migrate. Like love, and sometimes alongside it, sex can play a decisive role in the imagination and enactment of the choice to migrate. This is the explanation for the movement of Indonesian gays to Paris. They argue that living in Indonesia is not a "rational" choice because society at large still cannot accept homosexuality even though there are some who think that homosexuality is a sexual preference that is not against nature. Thus, sexual identity and feelings for another person can be strong motivators for migration. LGBT individuals migrate in search of places that offer more freedom for them to express their sexual identity or out of fear of persecution (Hancon and Vicino, 2014: 76).

There are three reasons why Indonesian gays migrate to Paris: for study, divorce in the family, or opportunity (holiday, work). The narratives below best illustrate these reasons.

(H, 36) "I don't know. I am here inadvertently. One day I looked the information that France government offered scholarships to Indonesian students. And at the same time, I think I had to apply it. For me there is nothing to lose. After one month, I got a call that I had to go to the Embassy for an interview. They then informed me that I passed the interview. I am going to Paris without any idea. I just think that I have to study hard and get the diploma. That's all.

After I got the diploma, I continue my study to master's degree and then you can see, I am here in Paris." (W, 29) "I don't know. It all happened inadvertently. After I got my MA here in Paris, my professor asked me to continue to get PhD. And I think it's an opportunity. I am comfortable in Paris." (I, 30) "I got a scholarship and I am going to Paris, that's it."

From these three reasons we can see that H, W, and I did not plan to stay in Paris long-term; it was chance meetings with men who eventually became their boyfriends. For H, he met his boyfriend while eating in a fast food restaurant. At that time, the restaurant was full and H was sitting by himself. Suddenly, JM (the future boyfriend) asked if he could take a seat and H said it was okay. They exchanged phone numbers and started a relationship.

W met his boyfriend when they were working on assignments in the library. W told me that suddenly a young man came to him to borrow the book that W was reading. At that time, W was annoyed with the distraction and continued to read the book. The library closed and W ran to catch the night bus. G (the young man who wanted to borrow the book) follows him secretly. But W feels that G is stalking him. When W got off the bus, W stopped a few minutes and G approached him. W asked him what he wanted. G finally said that he just want to get to know him. They exchanged phone numbers and then began a relationship.

For I, it was love at first sight. One day, I and M (his future boyfriend) were both involved in a project. Working closely together meant that got to know each other very quickly. M loves I because I is smart. At that time, I lacked confidence because he hated his chubby body, but M told him that I's intelligence was what was attractive to him.

Another short narrative is from A, 34. "I lived in Paris since 2008. You know that I came to Paris just for a holiday but in the end I fell in love with V (his boyfriend)".

Like the two cases above, A came to Paris inadvertently. At that time he had only visited Paris as a backpacking tourist. Since he did not have enough money to stay in a hotel, he decided to stay in a youth hostel. Unexpectedly he met his boyfriend, V, on the site. H, W, and I had similar family backgrounds. Their parents were divorced and they felt that they needed parental affection. They said to me that if their parents were not divorced at that time, they would have gone back to Indonesia and confessed their sexual preference to them.

For them, it was better to tell the truth in advance rather than having to lie. But conditions changed. They preferred to stay in France because they hated their parents' divorce.

IV. "Should I Maintain My Relationship with My Family?"

According to [START_REF] Strommen | You're a What? Family Member Reactions to the Disclosure of Homosexuality[END_REF] there are two common reactions that parents feel when they find out that their children are gay. The first is that most parents are unfamiliar with homosexuality so that they have negative perceptions about it. The second is the feelings that they have failed to educate their children. Therefore parents often find that having gay or lesbian children is quite embarrassing (Rothberg and Weinstein, 1996). Rothman and Weinstein (1996: 81) also said that: when a family member "comes out of the closet" there are a multitude of responses. Take for example, the announcement a heterosexual person makes to his or her family about their decision to marry. This is usually met with a joyous response, a ritual part and many gifts. Lesbians and gay men do not receive this response.

Instead, the "coming out" announcement is often met with negative responses which can range from mild disapproval to complete non-acceptance and disassociation. These responses cause considerable stress and pain for the lesbian and gay person seeking parental approval.

Rejection seems greater when it occurs in a family with strong religious convictions. Blumenfeld and Raymond (1988) argue that families with strong religious convictions often focus more on their religion over that of the concerns of a family member. Gays with religious families would normally not confess their sexuality to them because they know of the negative reaction that they would receive.

So what are actually the greatest pressures of being gay in Indonesia? According to Dede [START_REF] Oetomo | Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia: Arrested Development![END_REF], there are two major pressures, the first is marriage. They are afraid that they will be forced by their family to marry a woman. The second is the anxiety of being revealed as gay by society, so they feel insecure. The consequence is that they go to gay bars in order to create an identity because, according to [START_REF] Holt | Being Gay, Being Straight and Being Yourself: Local and Global Reflections on Identity, Authenticity and the Lesbian and Gay Scene[END_REF], gay bars and clubs are commonly the only public places in which lesbians and gay men can openly express their sexuality. Their findings suggest that gay bars and dance clubs are perceived as places of acceptance and are used as an escape from the hetero-normative dominant culture [START_REF] Holt | Being Gay, Being Straight and Being Yourself: Local and Global Reflections on Identity, Authenticity and the Lesbian and Gay Scene[END_REF].

Gay bars do not develop by accident; they are the result of careful and systematic planning (Achilles, 1998: 179). As places of acceptance and escape, gay bars are usually the main places for LGBT leisure activities (Achilles, 1998: 175). Thus, it can be said that the existence of gay bars and clubs may be indicated as a "private" realm of subjects' personal sexual identity and the performance of that identity (Matejskova, 2007: 138). According to [START_REF] Weightman | Gay Bars as Private Places[END_REF], this place can also be considered as private places as well as what [START_REF] Mcdowell | Body Work: Heterosexual Gender Performances in City Workplaces[END_REF] and [START_REF] Brickell | Heroes and Invaders: Gay and Lesbian Prides Parades and Public/Private Distinction in New Zealand Media Accounts[END_REF] say are spaces of privacy where their sexual identities can be enacted and performed.

The other consequence is moving to other big cities in Indonesia or moving abroad. These reasons are understandable because, as Oetomo (2004: 283) has noted, the real threat for gays comes from their family, friends, society, and religion. It is the family in particular since rejection by kin greatly influences their behaviour and psychological state (Oetomo, 2004: 202).

For this research, I only focused on the nuclear family which is defined as a married man and woman with typically two children. However according to [START_REF] Rapoport | British Families in Transition[END_REF] there is a myth that the nuclear family is disappearing, but it this has not happened in the Indonesian family. The nuclear family still remains a powerful normative ideal (Saggers and Sims, 2005: 68).

The family as an institution has been criticized by Tanti Noor Said. 5 She said that the family should be a safest place for children to receive love. But she began to suspect that statement because for Indonesian gays, the family is an institution that became quite frightening. Said cited the statement of Dutch sociologist, Professor Peter Geschiere, who said that the family is the most repressive institution in perpetuating cultural values, so therefore the family may not be a safest place for children. Some Indonesian gays are occasionally beaten or verbally abused simply because they are gay. Generally speaking, perception of Indonesian family regarding homosexuality is still low because of the traditional gender belief system.

The gender belief systems that Soeharto imposed led to a set of beliefs and opinions about males and females and about the purported qualities of masculinity and femininity (Kite and Deaux, 1987: 97). This belief system includes such factors as stereotypes about men and women, attitudes toward appropriate roles for women and men, and perceptions of those who presumably violate the traditional pattern of gender roles, including lesbians and gay men (Whitley, Jr. and AEgisdóttir, 2000: 948). Thus, it is clear that the gender belief system therefore holds that heterosexuals dislike lesbians and gay men because they are perceived as having cross-gender traits, roles, and physical characteristics (Whitley, Jr. and AEgisdóttir, 2000: 949). Some of my respondents confessed that the main reason for going to Paris is caused by society's stereotypical beliefs about the roles of men and women. Being called a "sick person" can be another trigger to run away from home in order to find a safe place in addition to their parents' divorce.

"My Family is Everything"

However, despite the above, the family still provides some social support for LGBT children.

Many respondents that I interviewed in Paris had already confessed to their parents that they are gay and were in a relationship with another gay person.

According to [START_REF] Wan | The Relationship between Social Support and Life Satisfaction as a Function of Family Structure[END_REF], social support is distinguished between four types: emotional, informational, companionship, and tangible. Emotional support is associated with sharing life experiences and is the expression of esteem, affect, trust, concern, and listening which functions to enhance the individual's self-esteem. The second is informational support which concerns the provision of knowledge that might help an individual to increase their efficiency in responding or generating solutions to a problem [START_REF] Cross | More Than an Answer: How Seeking Information through People Facilities Knowledge Creation and Use[END_REF]. Companionship is the next support which is includes spending time with others in leisure and recreational activities. This kind of support helps distract the individual away from their problems. [START_REF] Wellman | Brothers' Keepers: Situating Kinship Relations in Broader Networks of Social Support[END_REF] show that companionship is support between close friends or colleagues. The last is tangible support which refers to the provision of financial aid, material resources, and needed services. H is a gay and a Muslim and his family knows he is gay. He has lived in Paris for eight years with his partner. He said that his parents strongly support him. He underlined that his parents, even though they are embarrassed that he is gay, still care deeply for him because believes that love between parents and children cannot be easily removed. Therefore H keeps constant contact with them with the help of the Internet. (Y, 38) …they never send me some euros, but I send them my euros. We connect each other with Internet, indeed, in particular with Skype. But normally, I chat with my sister … and later my parents appear on screen and just want to say "hello" to with me. I am very happy to have a family like them…"Alhamdoulillah". That's why I try to find a halal job because I send them some euros. Is it a sin if I just want to make them happy?" Y, Muslim, has strong emotional ties with his family even though he lives in Paris. For him, distance is not a problem as he can use Skype to talk to them. In this case, Y gives tangible support to his family in Indonesia. One day, his younger sister tried to send him money, but as a brother, Y feels it his responsibility to provide for his family. He takes a job in Paris even though the job is not in an office. He thinks that any job is good as long it does not make him lose his dignity as a human. He wants his family always to be happy and proud to have a child like him even though he is gay.

From the two narratives above, it can be said that close family relationships can be a great source of strength in a time of crisis because the child needs signals that their family will still love them, no matter what. 6The last narrative is not so positive. I's parents reject him because they are embarrassed and felt that they failed by having a child like him. The interview was a little dramatic because I cried when discussing his relationship with his parents. He missed them very much and constantly tried to contact them but without success.

(I, 40) "… (Crying in front of me)…My parents didn't want to have a gay child so they stopped contact with me. But I still have contact with my two sisters. I love them…love very much…I send them some euros and ask them about the condition of my parents.…they don't want to speak with me…One day, one of my sister wanted to send me money, but I said 'no', I'm her brother, so I have to take responsibility. I have four sisters … One is like a parent to me. She is fanatical about Islam … I want to contact her, but it's impossible… (crying)… I miss them …" I also told me that his parents passed away seven years ago, not knowing that their son was gay. A few days after his parents passed away, he confessed to his three little sisters that he was gay. His youngest sister then did not want anything to do with him. However, I is still in contact with his two younger sisters. I's family has a strong religious background. His father worked at an Islamic institution while his mother was a typical Indonesian housewife. They had been on pilgrimages many times and had sent their children to Islamic school. His three little sisters wear the hijab. Even though I studied in an Islamic school, he had quite liberal ideas. I told me that being gay is not anyone's fault.

V. Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be said that migration seems inevitable for many LGBT people. This because being open about their sexuality makes them particularly vulnerable to be discriminated by society, religious leaders, and even by the state. As long is these push factors do not change, migration will become the "natural way" for them to avoid being mistreated. Because the Indonesian state is unwilling or unable to ensure and protect the basic human rights of all its citizens, I consider the migration of Indonesian gays to be a state failure. In my opinion, the state should have prevented Indonesian gays from moving to other countries by ensuring their safety and by providing them the opportunity to make a contribution to their own country. After all, whether gay, lesbian or heterosexual, we are all human beings, and therefore have the undeniable right to express ourselves.

  Below, I give three narratives. The first two narratives are quite positive because their families do not reject their children because they are gay. (H, 40) "Yes, indeed. My parents always think about my life. For Indonesian family, a child is always treated like gold. It's very different in European society. Even when we are married, parents always hope that we stay with them. In Indonesian culture, we can't forget that there is a very strong relation between parents and their children…. While I'm here I can still contact them. Come on … the technology bring us Facebook, Instagram, Path, Twitter, Skype, and Yahoo Messenger. Just click them all, and I know what my parents are doing, and they know what I'm doing in Paris."

Southeast Asia Research Centre Working Paper Series, No. 157, 2014

Alexandra Demetrianova, "The Invisible LGBT in ASEAN: Part

2" SimplySyx, 5 July 2014, http://simplysxy.com/articles/2014/07/05/the-invisible-lgbt-people-in-asean-part-2/.

"Paradox in Heterosexist Indonesia", The Jakarta Post, www.thejakartapost/node/177241.

Wisnu Adihartono, "Searching for Security: The Migration of Indonesian Gays", Amsterdam Social Science 23 September 2015, http://socialscience.nl/2013/09/25/searching-security-migration-indonesian-gays/. Southeast Asia Research Centre Working Paper Series, No. 157, 2014

Tanti Noor Said, "Keluarga: Pengadilan, Penjara dan Sumber Pendidikan Kekerasan", Suara Kita, 17 July 2014, www.suarakita.org/2014/07/keluarga-pengadilan-penjara-dan-sumber-pendidikan-kekerasan/. Southeast Asia Research Centre Working Paper Series, No. 157, 2014

Cited in A Guide for Parents who haveLesbian, Gay, or Bisexual Children, www.gylni.org.uk.

and a M.A. in European Studies at the University of Indonesia. He has received scholarships from the French and the Indonesian governments, and research funds from the Ford Foundation Indonesia. He expects to complete his PhD by early 2015.