Olivier Marty

An anthropology of education management Out of socio-political field studies of adult education conception

Keywords: Value management, Professionalization, Distance education, Adult education, Curriculum design, Financial analysis, Training marketing, Ethics, Meritocracy

This chapter takes a close look at the curricula designers' conception activity. The author conducted a fieldwork allowing a precise sociological description of the management tools used to account value when engineering a new training. A description of expected sales revenues, investment as well as running costs and financial analysis sets a an economical perspective on value management. However, on field, this economical perspective is confronted to the values of the profession that are critical to understand the curriculum designers' activities. Teachers resist to being transformed into product managers. A discussion on this professionalization around new values leads to develop a direction of research towards a French model of education, where valuation helps to solve the paradox of meritocracy -this constituting an anthropological model of education management.

INTRODUCTION

The general perspective of this chapter is to identify value management in education, and more specifically in adult education and higher distance education. When one is designing a new bachelor degree in distance education, inspired by the North American model but compatible with the European constraints (ECTS for example) ; when one is defining a two years curriculum preparing a national French technical degree, or even a two days professional program for adults, what are the values that determine the decision of whether to invest or not? One uses the plural to analyse values since one deals with different economic conceptions in the value chain : the value for the learner (that includes human capital, updated skills for career purposes and lifelong employability but also learning experience that enhance the training quality to his/her eyes), the value for the client (directly the learner who pays for it or sometimes the company or state investing in one of his/her employee), the value for the teacher (the one who deliver the training and has a view on its quality), the value for the training engineer who designs the curriculum (that includes an economic approach with costs and revenues and a financial analysis, but also the professional pedagogical values of the community of practices), and so forth (aggregated values for strategy decision makers in the hierarchy, perceived value for the internal clients within the education organization such as the HR assessing curriculum designers,…). Within this multiplicity of points of view, one will focus on curriculum designers in major education industries (mega-university in public distance education or private companies dealing with vocational education). Even through the eyes of the curriculum designer, it appears that value analysis is plural since there is sometimes a conflict between a rational economical approach (accounting what is the money involved and figuring out a priced value) and a rather more affective professional approach (the pedagogical values of the community of practices dealing with education). Therefore the objectives of this chapter are multiple:

Presenting field data of value management in French adult and distance education Out of these cases, discussing globally economical value management with the broader perspective of professional values Identifying good practices in curriculum design (value management and pedagogy quality) for education professionals readership As a broader objective out of these specific cases observed and discussed, facilitating the dialog between management sciences and education sciences as to what concerns scientific knowledge but also technical knowledge, know-how and know-how-to-be within higher education organizations

BACKGROUND

The rise of a society of knowledge with a higher level of general education led to an industrialization of education [START_REF] Perriault | La logique de l'usage, essai sur les machines à communiquer[END_REF][START_REF] Moeglin | Les industries éducatives[END_REF] in the 20 th century. To meet the increasing demand of education, universities grew up and used new tools to deliver their teaching. Amphitheatres and books where soon completed by postal communication, phone, the Internet… until the integration into Learning Management System supporting modern distance education. It is therefore possible to observe mega universities counting more than a hundred thousand students.

Regional policies, such as lifelong learning in Europe developed in the Bologna process, foster the development of adult education. Professionals come back to schools or universities in order to gain other qualification and pursue their careers. This new audience as a major consequence: education is no longer limited to pupils and a by-law obligation; it is also an investment for adults who are ready to pay to get a degree. This society of knowledge constitutes therefore an economy of knowledge, characterized by a commoditization of education [START_REF] Shumar | College for sale: A critique of the commodification of higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Shumar | Structure and agency in the neoliberal university[END_REF]. The state-delivered public good is transformed into a private good provided by companies, which one can buy or sell. Even if more and more open educative resources (OER) are to be found online (or even massive open online courses -MOOC), the pedagogy (or sometimes andragogy) is sold and one has to pay to access to programs. This will seem normal to Anglo-American readership used to this economic and money-based culture, it is odder to continental Europeans and more specifically French people since there long has been a tradition of free state education [START_REF] Author | Monetizing French Distance Education: an enquiry in higher education value(s)[END_REF]. Within this general background, one will take a closer look at curriculum designer, that is to say the workers within the economy of knowledge and its education industries, specialized in the engineering of trainings: the ones who create and implement the education modules. What are the management tools they use in order to assess the value of a training project? Are these economic tools sufficient or could they be completed by broader instrumental perspectives on professional values? If [START_REF] Marx | Le capital. Critique de l'économie politique, Livre 1 : le procès de production du capital[END_REF] and [START_REF] Becker | Human capital: a theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to Education[END_REF] have discussed the question of economical value and more specifically the question of human capital, followed by technical developments [START_REF] Carnevale | Return on Investment: Accounting for Training[END_REF]Rumble G., 2003;Pottiez J., 2011), it appears that education sciences recent investigations on "professionnalization" (Wittorski, 2007;[START_REF] Jorro | Évaluation et développement professionnel[END_REF] can add to the question of what is valuable for a community of workers in education.

MANAGEMENT TOOLS TO ESTIMATE ECONOMICAL VALUE

The main focus of the chapter is to present management tools used by curriculum designer in order to estimate the economical value of training when they are planning it. The value analysis is made by training engineers, on field, during the conception phase.

Research question, hypothesis and methodology

What are the values of a training? This simple research question leads to other ones: how is value estimated? What are the different dimensions of this economical approach? Are the management tools sufficient to entail a valuebased decision? Are there other criteria, like professional values (pedagogy, quality,…) implied?

One's main hypothesis is that a social sciences field enquiry allows to know and describe management tools used in education organizations: both the good practices and their misuses and critical aspects. Questioning the notion of value may allow to understand the management logic within the education organizations and to describe them properly.

One supposes that management tools, even complex and rather comprehensive, are not sufficient and are always completed by professional considerations. The economical value of a training would be compared to its coherence with the professional values of the curriculum designers' community of practices.

In order to test this supposition, one conducted a fieldwork consisting in a participatory observation. One got hired first in a private company providing professional educationas a training project manager in charge of the conception of short programs for adults. This fieldwork was conducted in parallel with one's PhD dissertation work and lasted for two years. The methodology of such ethnography within education organizations is well described by the review Ethnography and Education encouraging long run fields within education organizations and where one published an epistemology article in 2015 [START_REF] Author | A model of distance analysis. Epistemic field notes for education ethnographers[END_REF].

A second range of data was collected in by another fieldwork in public distance education. Similarly, one has been hired in an industry of higher education as a curriculum designer and training manager for three yearswhiled being affiliated at an education sciences laboratory to maintain a clear insertion within a research policy. One was affiliated to the axis "organizations of training" and therefore one's productions [START_REF] Author | Monetizing French Distance Education: an enquiry in higher education value(s)[END_REF] was clearly focusing on the description, from inside, of an adult education organization.

After these two fieldworks, one is now hired by a university and is presenting a retrospective analysis of these data. Since it is the interest of both the readership and the current education sciences laboratory (focusing on conception of trainings), one will detail the estimation of value at the moment of the curriculum designer or the project manager is planning a new training. It is the moment when specific management tools are used and the analysis of curriculum's value is the more intense.

One's methodology is therefore close the sociology of management practice, inspired by ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism and authors such as [START_REF] Becker | Tricks of the Trade: How to Think about Your Research While You're Doing It[END_REF] or [START_REF] Goffman | The presentation of self in everyday life, United States[END_REF]. One is focusing on the meaning given by the social actors to their acts and the values they defend when taking decisions. These decisions are economical in the traditional sense, dealing with money investment and return on this investment, but also in a professional sense since they belong to a community with codes, norms and rules such as pedagogical quality. By observing these actors in action, by endorsing the role of one of them, one pretends to have a proper position to reflect upon this collective sense making.

One will now present the official management tools used to estimate the value of a curriculum when conceiving it. This will be done in three parts: 1/the marketing value of a training (the expected benefits), 2/ the production value of a training (the expected costs) and 3/ the financial analysis comparing the previous ones (in order to determine thresholds).

Marketing value of a training: benefits

The first management tool used on field by training executives in adult educationwhether in public or private sectoris marketing. The curriculum designers are looking for clients (even if their professional ethos sometimes leads them to talk about "users" or "learners") to whom sell the planned training.

In the private sector the distinction between client and consumer is important since the curriculum designers plan to sell the training to a HR executive client in another company, who will distribute it to his/her employees in order to consume it. The HR executive is the client who puts into his company's training catalogue the training designed by the project manager. Therefore there is not a single value (the one for the curriculum designer), but a chain of linked point of views about what constitutes the value of a training. At the bottom of the line is the learner, then the client and even the teacher who is going to deliver the training. In the middle of the line is located the curriculum designer, but he his supervised by the strategy decision makers of his/her company and these are dependant on national policies as to what concerns the regulation of the market where there are operating. Stakeholders such as HR department assessing the curriculum designer can also have a say upon the value of his/her training in order to assess his performance within the education organization. This chain of value can be represented as follow in the figure 1:

Therefore the economical value estimated with management tools is not always the same: it can differ according to who is making the estimation. There are other cases of bigger education industries than the highly specialized professional education for adults companies. In these cases, such as the second fieldwork one conducted in a public distance education institution, marketing of training is formal and is condensed in administrative spreadsheets to be filled in by curriculum designers. These documents list fundamental questions that any training engineer, whatever his/her didactical speciality is, has to answer before proposing to invest. The questions deal with the number of potential client, the amount of money they are likely to spend in a training, but also qualitative data about their standard of living and the type of training they consume. Age, professional activity or even gender is questioned in order to determine the nature of the targeted market and its consumers. The final questions are about a potential price for the training, taking into account the profile of consumers but also potential competitive products on the market. This constitutes the core of the market survey and is condensed in a single page to be transferred to the hierarchy in order to take the decisions of investment. This decision of investment depends also on the product life expectancy. The theory of product life cycle that appeared in the 1980s in management sciences is applied to training products at the moment of their conception and development. The aim is to anticipate costs and benefits at each stage of the product's life. When the product is launched it necessitates more investments and is not yet profitable, whereas once grown up and mature the profit is more certain. Last come the time of decline when it is time to retire it from the market or replace it by a more profitable product. Both of the studied education organizations where encouraging their executive to engineer trainings with a high life expectancy, that is to say profitable on the long run. So that they would constitute cash cows (to reproduce the Boston Consulting Group vocabulary and metaphors, taught in French elitist grandes écoles and used on field by the workers) since the students classes accumulate and the financial expectancy rises.

On field, either in public or in private sector, the use of the "4P" marketing tool is common. The curriculum designers are bound to think with the notions of Price, Promotion, Product and Place as we described them. How much will be sold the training? through what communication channel? What are going to be the characteristics of the curriculum (teacher, program, pedagogical objectives, timing)? Where is it going to take place? This marketing logic is developed in a rhetoric on branding. The brand of the product is multiple and entails different communication actions. Clients buy a training title: this title is often developed into pedagogical objectives with competences to reach in order to incorporate it.

The competencies are described on the program, just below the title, with action verbs. They are the target for the learner. But this title is also inserted within a training catalogue of an education organization with its own branding. The French state-controlled finance of professional training (by OPCA operating on sectors of activity) leads to recognize the value of certain education organizations within a sector of activity. It is therefore important to work on the brand of the organization with prominent products and adapted pedagogical methods. Last but not least, the trainer who is going to deliver the training has also his own brand or signature: he is the one that the learners are going to meet and has therefore an uppermost importance. Hence, education organizations are often associated financially in groups with professional editors, reviews and events organization. So that they can put forward the quality of individuals that teach their program, edit books or articles in magazines and are awarded during events organized by sister-societies. It appears that a complex hierarchy and multiplicity of brands exist on the training catalogue and are taken into accounts by the curriculum designers when they conceive their product: they deal and jiggle with these valuable brands and the local constraints of schedule and space within the advertisement service. Brands have a first rank impact in professional training: the client is investing money and time, whereas he/she has no precise vision of the product. Therefore each line on the product description has its place and importance, is valuable as a brand (name of the training organization, name of the training, name of the teacher) which has to be managed in order to take advantage of it. The bias is that excellent curriculum designers only manipulate these brands to generate a purchase but do not assure a good product. As a consequence the learners are sometimes deceived during the consumptionwith a limited drop out since the products are short and there are not necessarily the clients. An important bargaining of the program appears at the beginning of each session: the trainer being different from the curriculum designer, he/she often proposes to negotiate the pedagogical objectives in order to meet exactly the demand of the learners. This adaptation is not always well seen by the clients but learners appreciate it and it generates good appreciations at the end of the training.

A pure marketing training perspective as one described it meets some juridical limitations. The free market explored by market surveys is regulated, if not ruled, by the law. On the one hand juridical news can constitute a training need (for example to be trained to a new legislation in HR) but on the other hand the law is mostly a framework for marketing trainers. In France, for example, the law of 1971 opens up professional trainings and the national markets where operate most of the education organizations. The rule of the law is even stronger when it comes to prescriptions. In the public education institution one has studied, it appeared that the marketing spreadsheet to qualify the needs let an open space for imperative prescriptions of training by public authorities. A unilateral act of public authority, from the ministry of higher education for example, could determine an out-of-price and out-of-market special training that would mobilize a huge task force within the education organization. In that case, by-law compulsory curricula would escape from marketing and accounting: even not-profitable trainings would be launched to answer to a public demand. These legal constraints are variable from a country to another and France is a specific case since it has a strong social legislation with intervention of the State in education. The economical model is therefore half public and half private, money and market deciding for ordinary adult education investments, law and public authority determining imperative objectives to meet. The development of a European Higher Education Area and its regional insertion into a worldwide market of education leads to questions about this model due to fairness with contenders and local constraints for education providers. Underneath, lays the economical question to determine whether education is a public or a private good. If it is certainly part of the common good, states have answered differently to that question concerning higher education. In France the movement in higher education seems to point at a model of privatizationat least for the institution we observed on field in distance education [START_REF] Author | Monetizing French Distance Education: an enquiry in higher education value(s)[END_REF] it is not necessarily the case for universities).

Production value of a training: accounting costs

Curriculum designers one studied in public distance education are provided with management tools allowing a cost accounting. These employees are rather central within their education organization since they are in charge of filling in spreadsheet files detailing the costs of every dimensions of the planned training. This lead them to communicate with all services involved in production and commercialization of a training and entails a better harmonization of the practices. There is therefore not only a possibility to control their activity with economical criteria: if it first of all a tool to measure the value of training (the costs of its production) it is also, as a side effect, a good practice allowing better cooperation within the company.

The construction of such management tools involved many people within the education organization. It had been hard work to find a common language between the eight geographical locations; each one specialized in different types of training. The determination of a measurement unit led to many discussions: should it be counted in days of work? In units produced? Even the names of single document would change during the making process and differ from one location to another: a text would become a leaflet and finally a course once fully engineered. But it had to be called with a single name within the spreadsheet file.

As [START_REF] Rabardel | Le hommes et les technologies : approche cognitive des instruments contemporrains[END_REF] showed it, this technical tool has been instrumented by humans manipulating it. Out of all the possibilities the management device would allow, a few where used by the curriculum designers, often serving their career interest (figuring out the lowest costs possible) or department interest (using such or such unit of accounting that would value the work of their colleagues). If the management tool allowed economical supervision and better communication, helping the organization at the right moment, it also created discussions and dissensions around its practical construction and utilization.

The education organization appeared to be constituted of different organs or services, ready to defend different interests as "clients" to each other within the same whole, trying to improve their own interest.

In order to estimate the economical value of a training, the curriculum designers were using a three spreadsheets file that one will now present and discuss. On the first page were gathered the marketing value including the potential sales revenues estimated in number of clients multiplied by the price of the product, during a life expectancy. The second page accounts costs (cf. figure 2) and distinguishes investment costs and operating costs. Last, the third page that one will analyze latter is a financial analysis linking the first two pages and figuring out profitability thresholds, margin rate, depreciation, etc. After the marketing approach, comes the time of costs evaluation. The aim of the curriculum designer is most of all to determine whether the planned training is going to be profitable. He/she has therefore to look at the revenue and costs to determine whether it is a good investment with a positive return. Here a discussion can rise since the tool is sometimes a mere indicator and is not strictly followed: certain investments are made on not profitable training, qualified as "strategic" (because there is a public demand, because the education organization deciders want to be present on an emerging marketing and allow a compensation between the different sectors of activities; and so forth). The formal operation of costs accounting is therefore more a good practice facilitating the curriculum designers' activity control than a strict rule to be obeyed.

The different costs to be checked out are listed in the figure below: The curriculum designers have this spreadsheet to fill in, listing all the costs with their unit of measure. One hasn't reproduced the unit of measure since it is likely to be very variable from one organization to another and is not general enough to be of scientific interest.

One will notice that on the upper part of the list appear the investment costs that are fixed at the beginning of the conception phase, before the first learner is registered into the training. These costs are constituted of days of work of conception and coordination but also the purchase of pedagogical contents to authors, their shaping by the production service in order to be ready to print it or to insert it within the website of the training. The operating costs, in the lower part of the figure, are variable according to the number of clients and are repeated every year. They are constituted of days of work to manage the training, sales and communication costs by the commercial department, registration costs for every students, printing of course material by the production service, mailing of this material to every students, correction of assignments by teachers, online or in-class animation by teachers, renting of examination centres, website maintenance. On this spreadsheet one hasn't reproduced the overheads costs: sum of the HR cost, law department cost, innovation service cost, etc. In the original document, these were estimated to 15% added as a cost to any training. Arbitration was therefore made between a global vision that allows coherence and eases strategic decisions and a more local and precise vision to details the costs, measure them precisely and allows change towards optimization. This document was used by curriculum designers, there was no point determining precisely the overheads costs for their mission and needed however a clear vision on their own activity centred on the curriculum production. This explains why certain costs were not detailed.

As one explained it, the upper part of the spreadsheet is a fixed investment cost (purchase of the pedagogical content) whereas the lower part of the spreadsheet is a variable cost, that increases according to the number of learners (impression of the courses, correction of assignments…) and that is repeated every year. Therefore the curriculum designers where asked to maximize the investment cost and minimize the operating costs in order to be more profitableas shown in figure 3.

An example of this process can be found in the automatization of assignment marking. The use of multiple choice question marks, to be computer processed, is an investment cost (buying of the software and the assignments in the proper format) that is saving operating cost (year after year, whatever the number of learner is, there is no need for human intervention in the marking process). Therefore this kind of investment was encouraged by the strategic decision makers and its profitability was measured with the management tool allowing it to figure it out precisely (there was a threshold in the number of planned learners from which on it was interesting to invest in such a device). On the other hand, the trend of hybrid training, blending presence and distance, was increasing the operating costs since certain investment in pedagogical contents (printable at a low cost for each student once bought) were replaced by operating costs in teachers time (highly variable with the number of learners). This was much discussed since there was a double bind between the injunction to be profitable and maximize investment cost on the one hand; and follow the pedagogical trends and offer blended learning on the other hand. Here a professional ethics of quality was confronted to harsh economical constraints commending to manage value on accounting basis. It shows that the management tool was incomplete and could not encompass all the data handled by the curriculum designers. Another example to circumvent the constraints has been observed on field: curriculum designers were tempted to fake with the accounting tool and to put operating costs as investment costs in order to compute a more profitable training. This was observed on field with a group of curriculum designers who collectively imposed a new line on the spreadsheet (reproduced on figure 2) named "re-engineering". They took for granted that a yearly update of the pedagogical content was not an operating cost but an investment costand had the whole management tool modified to admit so. This manoeuvring with the management tools is well known in management sciences [START_REF] Friedberg | Power and Rules : the organizational dynamics of collective action[END_REF] whatever the field of application is [START_REF] Grevin | Le jeu avec les outils de gestion comme nouvelle compétence stratégique[END_REF], here it has been observed in curriculum management. The type of training was a one year preparation to a French examination to become a secondary education teacher ("agrégation" and "Capes" civil servants competitions). The distance education structure had made a cash cow of these preparations that mobilized about eight training engineers who were mostly doing management of a well stabilized educational device. Clients were renewed each year and only the national programs necessitated adapted new course contents. On this operating site, the team invented the term "re-engineering" to characterize their activity and had it recognized with its specificity of yearly renewal. They took advantage of the uncertainty to describe it as a yearly investment operation and therefore have it valorised within the organization and its management constraints.

Financial analysis: thresholds values and their limits

The last spreadsheet of the management tool is built upon the two first ones: it compares the expected sales (number of clients, number of years, price of a unit) to the expected costs (investment costs and variable running costs). This is done automatically by the file in order to determine the profitability of the designed curriculum. It allows forecasting thresholds such as the minimal number of clients to become profitable, the minimum number of years of exploitation, or else the minimum price at which to sell it in order to be profitable. Even if the final price of the curriculum is signed by a price analyst, specialized in this task due to the division of labour within this industry of knowledge, the curriculum designer can propose a price and play with it within the spreadsheet in order to figure out and adjust the best option possible. This last document is therefore structured as follows: Therefore the curriculum designers formally speak about their training portfolio not only in number of learners but also in total sales revenues, if not with its profit margin. This profit margin is required by the strategic management to be between forty and seventy percent. This policy is to be approved if one wants to climb up the hierarchy of the educative organization: it is a criteria of a yearly judgment by the hierarchy and the human resources during the annual performance review. However, one showed how laws or decisions from the public authorities could force the education organization and its curriculum designer to invest in notprofitable markets or trainings. In the organization one studied, a gigantic website for teaching English to secondary pupils was set up in a year and a half. This website had huge costs and low profits (only half of the training were actually sold, the other halves being given for free to French civil society) but it served an objective of the ministry of higher education. In this case the management tool was transformed to be adapted to this specific reality. The point was to have the right tool at the right moment in order to have a good vision of the accounts at any time.

In this case the profitability objective of the organization was submitted to a higher value of common good for civil society. The education organization was not necessarily loosing money on that mission: it had a special funding from the ministry dedicated to it (less precisely quantified than for usual business due to the lack of time to prepare the measuring instruments) and its very brand image was enhanced by a not-for-profit goal. It was present on the markets, for learners, as the organization serving common goodwhich is a sign of prestige and reliability within the French context. Further on, certain innovations are not necessarily profitable as such: adding a program as a test is sometimes energy and money consuming. But it gives the positive image of an innovative administration operating both in public and private sector. This is therefore another asset for the brand of the education organization, difficult to account with a simple management tool such as the one described. The brand impact was studied by a private consulting company for the education organization and reports were given to employees twice a semester. The impact of innovations was looked up through qualitative comments on forums or interviews with clients: this measure was using sociology tools and not accounting management tools such as the one described above. Figuring out the value of a training is more complex than a simple computing of revenues and costs. This is what will be discussed now.

A QUESTION OF VALUES: DISCUSSION ON PROFESIONNALIZATION OF CURRICULUM DESIGNERS

The presentation of a management tool to account the value of a curriculum when designing it revealed a few difficulties: part of the value of the training is linked to the qualitative brand of the education organization and the very engineers working on it question the economical approach, arguing with their professional values. The value of a training seems to them irreducible to a quantitative number and is better described by qualitative considerations. One will leave here the sociological description of management practices within an education organization to enter the field of education sciences and the recent debates on professionalization (Wittorksi, 2007). This technical scientific term, hardly heard on field by the professional, accounts for a double reality that one observed: first of all the constitution of a profession (curriculum designers) around practices and know-how but also rules, values and norms. Second the individual movements of workers becoming professional, that is to say learning this know-how and practices and endorsing the values, norms and rules of the profession as a social group. In their attempt to be recognized [START_REF] Jorro | Évaluation et développement professionnel[END_REF] by their colleagues, they claim the values of the profession and reinforce the constitution of their professional social group. The human resources department of the institution one studied was using this as a tool to influence the individual: they had an injunction to be professional, often by acting or talking in a way useful for the organization more than the overall profession. A competitive authority was the union position also expecting workers to be professionals, may be in a broader way than within the organizational educationthough no proper union exists for this specific profession in France. One of the most vivid debates dealing with the ethics of the profession within the organization was around the value of the training for the learner. Karl Marx (2008 -this is one's translation) wrote in his Capital, at the chapter "Merchandise and money": "the utility of a thing makes its value in use" and further: "the value in use is fully realized during the consumption act". Therefore, besides the marketing value and the accounting of the costs by the curriculum designer, one has to take into account the value for the learner, that is to say the consumer. That is precisely what the Bologna process wants education organizations to implement in Europe: a model where the learner is at the centre and trainings are measured in a credit transfer system where the learner's time is accounted when his or her learning outputs are validated. Within the education organization one observed, there were on the one hand curriculum designers who had a professional ethics arguing for a better learning experience and learner's value; and on the other hand strategic deciders pushing them to account the value of the training for the organization as one described in the first part of the chapter. The institution was split between two ways of making value: by selling either method (course structures, learning paths on media such as books, video or LMS) or pedagogy (guidance and educational support by phone, forum, paper correction…). The product was discussed as a service in this later case, where the pedagogy puts the learner at the centre of the learning process: the teacher goes to pick him up at his or her initial position of knowledge and takes him by the hand to guide him on the learning path. As one can see, a lot of value estimation depends on who is estimating what. Is it the learner investing time, efforts and money in his human capital [START_REF] Becker | Human capital: a theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to Education[END_REF] in order to enhance his value on the job market? In this case the learning experience, lowering the efforts and making the time pleasant to him, is important. Is it the organization through the curriculum designer eyes which is maximizing its profit? In this case there seems to be different ways to be profitable, either by increasing the investment costs in regards to running cost, or by choosing between selling either method or pedagogy. Last, is it the client organization which is trying to improve its force task? In this case the value of training is computed for the learner, but within the scope of his company's interests. There is no long term development and the aim of the company is merely adapting its task force to the jobs to be done on the short run. An important discussion within the profession deals with time. Time is crucial in value measuring (how long is the project going to last and be profitable?) but also in project management like the example of the national website for teaching English to secondary schools. There is a strategic pressure for more productivity, contested by the training managers invoking the lack of quality when working in a hurry. This is a classical debate in unions, but times interferes in a special way when it comes to education. One presented a tool where the value of a training was anticipated with the future benefits it will bring. As any investment, one pays now to profit laterwithin a reasonable time. But in the case of education, there is a transformation of the values throughout time: when the learner anticipates the future benefits, he/she figures it out within a set of values allowing him/her to expect a higher position in regards to these values. For example, he/she will expect a better job position within the same craft or sector of activity, he/she will anticipate a better social gratification by his/her colleagues and friends. But one observes that, on the long run, a curriculum deeply modifies the system of values of the one who is going through it. Once trained, the trainee adopts the value of the training and modifies his/her vision of the world. This change of paradigm leads him/her to other work expectations, a change in his/her social relations and so forth. Therefore the training self-legitimates itself by changing the mind of the trainee. Hence, it is hard for the learner to anticipate the value of trainingeven economicallydue to this self-valuation effect. Taking into consideration this self-valuation effect is part of the professional ethics of the curriculum designers: aware of it, they can better communicate about the training they are engineering. By setting the values of the planned training, they can anticipate the deep change in the learner's mind and help him/her to figure out how he/she is going to value his work and social world once trained. This is part of the "promises" of a training that the curriculum designer and the education organization are selling: if the learner gets fully involved in the learning process, if he/she endorse his/her role, then he/she will be deeply transformed and access to another world. The qualitative gap between before and after the training is hard to quantify and is more about images and descriptions than about measure with numbers of an economical valueand this is part of the maketing function of the curriculum designers. Hence there is a conflict between monetary values, common to all sectors of activities and the professional values of the curriculum designers and the education organizations. Whereas the regular organizations are looking for profits on the short run, the education organizations are targeting the long run and a deep change in society as well as in learners' mind. This is why, historically, education has been a religious and, after the French revolution, a public domain. It is but recently, during the second halves of the 20st century, that the French model opened education to private sector, though cautiously State controlled and regulated. One believe that this French model, with its specific historical evolution [START_REF] Author | Monetizing French Distance Education: an enquiry in higher education value(s)[END_REF], will be a field for future research directions. One will present the main axis of theses researchers, dealing with the "paradox of meritocracy" and solved by the notion of valuation.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS: A FRENCH MODEL

The international handbook of research about quality and value management leads us to anticipate researches about a French model of education, out of our perspective on curriculum designer management tools and professional ethics. French education history is fundamentally shaped by the 1789-1799 Revolution, developing the system of grandes écoles (Ecole normale supérieure, Conservatoire national des arts et metiers, École Polytechnique…) to serve the new born first Republic. Education is viewed as a mean to provide the State with well-trained civil-servants, qualified for administrative jobs. The rise of the bourgeoisie and the decline of old aristocratic privileges is the moment chosen to implement meritocracy (best jobs to the best students, whatever their social condition was when they were born) and three values are proclaimed: liberty, equality, and fraternity.

There is an apparent paradox of meritocracy. If any one is free to invest in a training to take advantage of it later, and if it is justice that someone who studied hard should benefit of it, then equality can be contradicted. Indeed, if everyone had an equal access to education at the first moment, the hard work of the best students place them above the rest of the population at the second moment. They are wining privileges leading to a paradox: if liberty of study legitimates it, equality towards education contests it. This is not a mere speculation since it is well know, in France, that the best trained students increase they access to better studies, since they follow the best educative tracks, enter the grandes écoles (sometimes like did their own parents, as if one generation could inherit from the hard school work from the previous one), and have a better access to professional education during all their life long learning process (since their mind is pre-trained, value-shaped and they have more money to invest in these late trainings). Due to return on investment, a new training benefits to the already best trained and equality towards education fades away.

This paradox of meritocracy confronts a synchronic justice in a social space supposedly flat and equal on the one hand; to an individual diachronic justice due to the right to level up one's position on the other hand. How are supposed to react the profession of curriculum designers to this paradox? Equality and Liberty are two values apparently incompatible in education. At a political level, there are reforms to open up the boundaries and facilitate the passages from one level to the other, giving more freedom to study, at any age, in order to permanently reinforce equality. This implies an open design of curricula, always welcoming non-typical students who are chosen to follow the course on the base of their recent learning efforts.

A remarkable initiative is done by a not-for-profit French association "Frateli" aiming at encouraging solidarity and Fraternity between successful students from low social background and another student ("godchild") coming from the same background and doing, ten years after, the same kind of studies. Here there is a redistribution of learning power from the ones who acquired it freely by they hard work towards younger ones trying to imitate them. This helps to find back the balance of equality thanks to a system of Fraternity. It would be a way to solve the paradox of meritocracy of the French model.

A broader view on the issue can be taken with the concept of valuation. One knows that this concept has been introduced in philosophy of education by Nietzsche and developed by [START_REF] Dewey | A theory of valuation[END_REF]. The whole idea is to stop evaluating according to dead values and, instead, to encourage power and valuation. Life is fostered by this evaluation: the ones who impose their own values are let free to transform the world according to their affirmations. They are not restricted by a frame coming from the past to limit their action. This philosophical view on education and valuation goes towards the same direction than the Fraternity solution of the political paradox of meritocracy: the free ones who were successful in their studies pay off by giving back to the next generation they choose at their image and maintain, by doing so, a form of equality. This is an important direction of research for the professional ethics and value management of curriculum designers.

CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, one will track backwards the movement of the chapter, starting by a narrow sociological description of value management practices of curriculum designers within an education organization, towards a broader perspective of professionnalization and the rise of specific ethics of this social group. Among the values of this new born profession, that came to life thanks to the division of labour within education industry, raises a French model with a paradox of meritocracy. The tension between liberty and equality is partly solved by the valuation through fraternity.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: estimating the costs of a training

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Thresholds for profitability of a training

  As announced in the introduction, one will focus on the curriculum designer point of view. The training engineer first starts with a market study. He/she is in charge of a permanent intelligence of his/her markets (or sector) in order to

	Is it the
	learner who wants to increase his/her lifelong employability and spend quality
	time during the training period? Is it the client who wants to adapt his/her
	employee to his productive goal, sometimes with a short term perspective? Is it
	the teacher who mostly obeys to the contradictory logics of the individuals in
	presence at the training and their different goals as to what concern the
	program? Is it the training engineer split between economical value of return on
	investment and pedagogy ethics? Or the strategy decision maker who makes
	arbitration between different markets?

detect a potential new training need. He/she is reading everyday the professional press of the marketing, consulting websites and juridical news. Once he/she has spotted a new demand, he/she conceives an offer in order to meet it and to target the potential clients. The product is therefore conceived in a marketing logic. Once developed, the curriculum designer can use different communication channels in order to reach the target: catalogue of trainings (both paper and online), advertisements through emails and websites, meetings by the commercial team with important clients… The norm is, since the early 2000s, a mutation from paper communication to electronic communication, with a better targeting thanks to profiled databases allowing the precise definition of what to send to whom. This business to business marketing of adult training is following the global economy towards online marketing and massive data treatment. The databases being either constituted throughout experience or bought to specialised firms. Online social networks websites are used like in other sector of activity in order to do the market surveys (what are the training needs and trends?) but also keep up with important clients and generate buzz around events related to the trainings (by the constitution of groups and diffusion of news on specific topics).

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

BRANDING OF AN EDUCATION ORGANIZATION: tools to enhance the image of an education organization on markets and to learners eyes. This can rely on innovation, quality of service, management efficiency and looking for both profitability and common good.

CURRICULUM DESIGN: the process of designing a curriculum includes a training engineering phase (economical approach, project management) and a pedagogy engineering phase (designing the contents, objectives, pedagogical methods and evaluation), the whole being sometimes also called didactical engineering.

DISTANCE EDUCATION:

education where teachers and learners communicate through the medium of paper/electronic document/LMS. The mega-universities specialized in distance education appeared in the middle of the 20 th century : Cned in France (1939), Open Universities (such as the English one created in the 1970'), Uned in Spain… PARADOX OF MERITOCRACY: the contradiction between liberty to have one's study pay off in return and equality of access to education at any time is partly solved by the valuation process of fraternity.

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS OF CURRICULUM DESIGNERS:

rules, norms and values of the training engineers, expressed in vernacular expressions such as "equality of treatment", "quality of service to learners", "freedom to learn".

PROFITABILITY OF AN EDUCATION ORGANIZATION:

profits of all the training portfolios such as computed by management tools taking into account sales revenues and costs (both of investment and operating costs) during the period. This profitability can be modified by public authorities subventions of requirements.

PROFESSIONALIZATION: both the constitution of a profession around values, norms, rules and traditions, and the socialization to this profession by an individual adopting its ethics. VALUE(S): one will study "what counts" for the social actors involved in curriculum design, both as what is economically accountable (the value of a training) and as what is relevant to their professional ethics (the relevance to their values) VOCATIONAL EDUCATION: lifelong learning in Europe fosters vocational education for adults who want to develop their professional competences. This education has led to a new market for private education companies but also universities investing in that field as a second activity


Marty Olivier
email: olivier.marty@canm.fr

Cnam -Crf

How technique impacts morality and deontology

Keywords:

Using a hybrid episteme of descriptive education science and prescriptive philosophy of education, I will question the problem of distance education ethics, focusing on how new techniques are impacting morality and deontology. I will focus on every aspect of these ethics: accessibility and neutrality of media as to what concerns morality; then transmission of values and engineering of organizational culture concerning deontology. I will finally study the relationship between morality and deontology, prescribing distance education elitism in order to promote a deontology that will not only be shaped by current morality but will also shape future generation ethics -education being a link between generations.

Definitions: on ethics and distance education

To begin with, I will put forward a French philosophical distinction that I defended in 2011, for my PhD in ethics (Anonymous, 2011, p6) 1 . Based on etymology, I defined ethics as the study of one's ethos, that is to say behavior, life-style or practices. Within ethics, one can distinguish moral and deontology: moral is about the study of consistency with customs of a society (not necessarily a national society); deontology is about the study of rules, norms and values of a profession. On the one hand, one's ethics are judged according to external fitness to standards of behavior within his or her society, on the other hand, one's ethics are judged according to internal obligations to his or her profession.

In this document, I will apply this framework for ethics studies on education, and more precisely on distance education. One can base a definition of education on its etymology linked to the Latin word "conduct" -the idea of accompanying someone -and the Ancient Greek pedagogy: it has to do with leading someone younger, very often on the path of knowledge.

Distance education is a specialized version of education: through the media, the learner is guided distantly by his master. There is an old tradition of books as a media but this is only based on contents and method: there is no proper guidance. Therefore, modern form of distance education was developed in the 19 th century with postal correspondence and industrialized in the second half of the 20 th century with the rise of radio, television and Internet -today known as open education or e-learning. Distant interactions between masters and learners were allowed by these media: thanks Is morality linked to deontology within the ethics of distance education?

We will study the ethics of distance education by analyzing the impact of new technologies on teaching and learning. I mentioned the common techniques of distance education having an impact on didactical practices: postal correspondence, radio, television, email, online forum… In this contribution, I will focus on the latest techniques and look at massive online open courses that are creating a mass pedagogy based on e-learning. For example, a team of three teachers can educate many thousands of students in a very efficient way: a few pedagogues educate a mass of learners. I

will first analyze the morality of this media and secondly how the deontology of the profession is being transformed. Last but not least, I will make an enquiry into the link between moral and deontology of distance education.

In my PhD, I defended a principle of independence between the two realms of ethics: morality and deontology were not correlated. Therefore, one could be a deontological person (following all the rules of his profession) without being a moral person (because his or her profession 2 Distance education can be more precisely defined by "six key elements (…) : Separation of teacher and learner-Influence of an educational organization-Use of media to link teacher and learner-Two-way exchange of communication-Learners as individuals rather than group-Education as an industrialized form.". See Mohsen Farmahini, 2012, "Ethics principles in distance education", in Social and Behavioral Sciences,46, was independent of contemporary standards of behaviors). I will show at the end of this contribution that this principle of independence is not true in the case of education. Indeed, education as a profession has an important role within our societies. John Dewey wrote:

"a community or a social group sustains itself through continuous self-renewal, and this renewal takes place by means of the educational growth of the immature members of the group" (Dewey, 2008, p15) 4 .

Since the best of a given society is transmitted to the next generation through education, educators are highly controlled: they are seen as role models by the next generation and cannot be independent from the rest of society. In the case of educators, deontology seems to be strongly and positively linked to morality.

Epistemology: distance, description, prescription.

In a recent conference in Prague (Anonymous, 2013) 5 , I promoted an epistemology for education ethnography that can be applied to this contribution on the ethics of distance education.

The whole idea is to take distance to one's practices (I am an engineer in French distance education, managing teachers and designing curricula) as well as one's scientific community (I am a researcher

?

in education sciences at Cnam's Centre de Recherche sur la Formation) -without being too distant from oneself, that is to say avoiding identity shifts and hesitations.

In this case of studying ethics, I distance myself from my practices as well as from the scientific reviews focused on distance education (including the one of the institution I work for).

These educational practices and scientific scripts will be taken as raw material for a philosophical Adopting the same hybrid episteme, I will first describe the morality of media in distance education, then describe the deontology of distance education professionals. Last but not least, I will prescribe a link between deontology and morality, in order to discuss the inner consistency of distance education ethics.

1/ Description of the morality of media

My first part deals with the morality of media: whether the use of media in distance education is in tune with customs and traditions. An evident answer is "yes": distance education institutions (in Western Europe : French Centre national d'enseignement à distance, British Open university, Spanish Universidad nacional de educación a distancia… followed by many universities since the late 20 th century) have always used the latest technologies to share their lectures. They have experimented and industrialized postal learning, radio lectures, video lectures and nowadays elearning tools such as virtual classrooms or virtual learning environments.

But when thinking twice about their practices, two problems arise. We can take as raw material the very titles of scientific reviews on distance education currently published. Let's start with the French Distances et Médiations des Savoirs (Distances and Mediations of Knowledge). This scientific review emphasizes the importance to think about the mediations of knowledge and individuals during a learning process. There is a technical media interposed between learners and this very media entails ethical issues. Does everyone have access to these media (nowadays mainly the Internet in Western countries, but also the radio in Africa for forty percent of the learners)? Is it equally distributed among the population? Our first sub-section will therefore deal with the problem of accessibility as a moral issue.

A second problem arises when considering English-speaking titles of scientific reviews dealing with distance education: the American Journal of Distance Education (AJDE), the Australian Journal of Educational Computing, the British Journal of Educational Technology, etc.: all note their national identity. There is a paradox between a scope of scientific truth that is universal and a perspective that is local. They try to grasp the universality of media or techniques bias through a regional approach. Therefore, the question is: are media neutral? Can they be considered as a universal and invisible tool or do they imply local and specific bias?

Henceforth, I will deal with the morality of media in two successive discussions: first the question of accessibility and second the question of neutrality.

A/ The accessibility of media: equality at stake

The question of accessibility of media is of uppermost importance: how can distance education be moral if it uses technology that is not available to the society? It is what Philip Brey, from the department of philosophy at the university of Twente in the Netherlands, discussed in his 2006 article "Social and ethical dimensions of computer-mediated education" 7 : "distance education does not seem to help people low on the socioeconomic scale who have traditionally been underrepresented in higher education (minorities and the economically less advantaged), and in fact seems to create new obstacles for them. Therefore, distance education may work to deepen the divide between educational haves and have-nots." (p.5) Media accessibility, in this sense, is twofold: on the one hand there is the question of having the media (nowadays in developed countries a connected computer) and on the other hand the knowledge and the cultural habit of using that media to be educated. It is for this reason that governments foster the spread of tools, such as computers, and decide to educate the pupils with them. In France, for example, the ministry of education is debating about giving tablets to primary school children and computer-based education at the high school level is becoming a reality. There is a coupled policy: giving access to the media before teaching through the media. This entails a specific ethic: image copyright, best practices of electronic mail and websites to surf on, computer settings and privacy, brand standards and bias and so forth.

I tried to show that equality could be at stake when it comes to media accessibility. On the very same topic of accessibility, another perspective is more positive: the case of people with disabilities. In 2013, French government gave a multi-million euro grant to a public distance education institution in order to give to disabled persons an easier access to education. Indeed, a person who is hard-of-hearing, partially-sighted or in a wheel chair may have difficulties going to school whereas the media can open up education for them, by compensating their handicap. Turning on the volume, zooming on the text or simply staying at home connected to the Internet, disabled persons can have a full new access to education. In that sense the media is highly moral: it allows the whole society, without discrimination, to have access to the contents.

Last but not least, another issue about accessibility and morality of media was raised by Philip Brey in the same article (p.5): "Positively, distance education has been argued to be an equalizer by making academic education more accessible. Most importantly, it has been claimed that distance education may shatter geographical barriers to educational access and provide educational opportunities to people who may otherwise have not been in a position to enter the higher education system". And indeed, the European Union, through the lifelong learning policy, thinks about how distance education can facilitate migrations of populations. It can be the case when a person takes a distance course before migrating, in order to attain a specific knowledge that will help him/she to integrate easily into the country he/she will live in. It can also be reciprocal, once in the new country, to keep in touch with one's previous country and find a better balance. For example, when I was an Erasmus student in England, I kept studying philosophy with a French university through a distance degree program. I could therefore attend both the English university system and the French, acculturating my learning abilities progressively to the former one.

The question of the morality of media has therefore three common good public policy dimensions as to what concerns accessibility: is the technology equally accessible within a society?

Can the media open education to disabled persons? Can the media facilitate mobility, migration and integration? The adaptability of distance education to a society's custom is therefore mainly an issue of accessibility. It is however also a question of neutrality: whether the medium used by distance education have an impact on the teaching it conveys or not.

B/ The neutrality of media: a cultural and gender issue

Since 2011, distance education has been shaken by Massive Online Open Courses (Mooc).

Created in North-America, theses free online courses open to any web surfer and often counting thousands of students for a few weeks' time, question the homogeneity of media and teaching.

Philip Brey develops his argument in writing: "How can diversity of culture and language be valorized in an emerging market dominated by Anglo-American content, supply and technology investment?"

As a matter of fact, most of the Moocs on Coursera necessitate Google applications to develop content linked to the North-American culture. There is a mass pedagogy where knowledge is recorded and broadcasted by the media and is no longer attached to any particular teacher. The educational performance is raised: with a minimum of costs (video recording, basic programming development within a virtual learning environment thanks to specialized engineers), thousands of students are taught in the American way. Thus, there is a moral concern in the ethics of distance education: the media is not neutral and homogenizes the mind of learners living on five continents.

Sharon Todd has offered a new perspective on the problem of morality, questioning feminism with the French philosopher Emmanuel Levinas. In 2003, she wrote an article untitled "A fine risk to be run? The ambiguity of Eros and teacher responsibility" 8 . In this article, she tries and stresses how a medium interposed between the (male) teacher and the (female) learner, facilitates neutrality and minimizes ethical risks such as sexual harassment. Thus she writes (p.1): "The idea that Eros might constitute part of an ethical response toward another is of utmost concern in developing a notion of teacher responsibility, one that can be attentive to the dilemmas facing teachers around questions of intimacy, closeness and physical contact with their students.". Here the technical device buffers the interactions between teachers and learners and neutralize any misbehavior.

Last but not least, I suggest that a medium anonymizes the educative relationship and avoids cultural or gender preconceived ideas. The teacher may not see his student and therefore is more impartial when grading him or her. Learning interactions are standardized and facilitated by a neutral media. Cultural or gender parameters are less of a stigma and equality, once again, is preserved. In this first part, I discussed the question of the morality of media, that is to say the conformity of distance education with the rest of society. The two questions of accessibility and neutrality were raised, both of them concerning education equality.

It appears that distance education institutions follow the society's evolution and keep up with the latest technical devices, making them available to all and using them in a neutral way. Let's now look into distance education institutions in order to discuss the other part of their ethics: deontology.

2/ Description of deontology within distance education

Deontology is about professional obligations and duties; here it deals with internal values, The fundamental value of academic freedom is a specific case. Indeed, with the webmaster and community manager censorship, there is a tierce intervention between the teacher and the learner that limits freedom. Other limitations come from technical standards used in the discipline taught (peer evaluation, weekly video lecturing, accounting of 'upvotes' in forums…) or within the community of practices represented by the distance education institution (providers chosen, virtual learning environments imposed…). However, one can argue that these are "best practices", that is to say positive limitations aiming at enhancing the quality of the training and therefore fostering students' trust and optimal teacher-learner cooperation. One can argue that this limited freedom has specific rules that strengthen the transmission of academic values, including freedom.

It appears that a specific set of values are created and transmitted by distance education academics. This deontology is about connectivity (to others through the media, to new technologies experiences), compliance of web rules (mutual help on the forum, respect of differences…) and, last but not least, correspondence habits (to answer on forums, to be reactive). How are these values implemented?

B/ Engineering an organizational culture Kunda9 wrote an important ethno-anthropological book about the corporate culture of American high tech firms and how it is implemented within private organizations. This book is relevant to this analysis in two ways. Firstly, because distance education institutions are embedded within the values of these high tech corporations. Secondly, because this culture constitutes a deontology to be promoted.

Distance education institutions in Western Europe are using the latest technologies, whether they are open and traditional universities or other public organizations. Nowadays it is about the industrialization of virtual learning environments (Moodle, Blackobard, online campuses…) and virtual classrooms (with interactive visual presence of the teacher) on a large scale. On the one hand there is a trend for Moocs and mass pedagogy; on the other hand there is an individualization of training through optional services such as tutoring and dissertation guidance. In both of these cases, the teacher has to deal with online student behavior and reaction to his or her own teachings. He or she has to be as deontological as possible, representing the rules and good behaviors in this high tech culture.

Richard Smith comments in the Journal of Philosophy of Education: "when I write about 'university teaching' I am referring to the activity of academics employed in universities of the sort we find in the Western world. That activity is usually taken to include teaching, research and management or administration, in varying proportions."10 . This three dimensional description of academic activities (teaching-research-management) is rather common -it is for example what is required to become a French university teacher. I defend the thesis that, at least in the management dimension, it is the duty of academics to engineer an organizational culture that is in tune with new technological devices he uses when teaching and researching.

The academic manager has to improve the deontology of his or her distance education institution, by setting up the right culture (norms, values, rules, codes of honor) within the structure he/she works in. He or she can implement his/her deontological strategic vision by choosing the right techniques, promoting the best practices among his/her colleagues and delivering the optimal messages to the students. This can be done when recruiting his colleagues, when organizing rites and ceremonies of the institution (prizes and awards celebrations), when choosing the titles of his/her team of teachers. When researching, one has to be exemplary as to what concerns plagiarism, privacy policies, image copyright… In a way, this conscious engineering of deontology is paradoxical:

whereas the academic works in an old institution aiming at transmitting the best of the past to the new generation, he has to promote an innovative deontology, stressing peer evaluation, online mutual assistance, etc.

To resume, I showed in this part that the transmission of values, and specifically the value of freedom, was not endangered by distance education; and that a conscious effort to enhance one's deontology should be made. I will achieve my development by analyzing how deontology is embedded within morality. Doing so, I will leave the realm of descriptive education science to enter the realm of prescriptive philosophy of education.

3/ A moral deontology: two prescriptions for distance higher education

This section relies on previous descriptions in order to prescribe a moral deontology: firstly by promoting an elitist distance education system whose deontology will shape next generation morality; and secondly by placing distance education deontology at the center of society's morality.

By doing so I will answer the question of research: is there a link between morality and deontology?

This section is therefore no longer a discussion about scientific results but consists of propositions in philosophy of education. Following a discussion about Jasper's 11 argument, it is no longer the realm of scientific knowledge: we are entering the realm of philosophical consciousness - massive issue, but also a qualitative and elitist curriculum? What if schools of merit were created online to replace French grandes écoles or worldwide institutions alike?

Richard Smith, in his introduction to Education Policy: Philosophical Critique12 , defines the "education establishment" (p.2) as an elite who decide educational policies and authorized debates about the future of universities. What if this "education establishment" was to be trained by distance education institutions? As a consequence, distance educated women and men, whose values were shaped by a distance education deontology in tune with the previous generation morality, would rule the future -deciding about the right policies to undertake, including education policies. Such distance education elite institutions or programs would be the way to keep up with numeric society.

Let's now answer more accurately our initial problem about whether there is a link between deontology and morality. I showed that there were many relationships; I will now try to define their respective position.

B/ Core culture: distance education deontology at the center of moral requirements I've described how current distance education institutions are using the latest techniques when delivering their courses to learners. By doing so, they were promoting a deontology in tune with a society's morality. I then promoted elite distance education institutions, shaping the future morality by their deontology. Current moral norms frame distance education deontology and this distance education deontology shapes future morality.

Thus, there is a strong link between morality and deontology as to what concerns distance education ethics. Deontology is both moral and moralizing: distance education deontology is structured by present morality and is structuring future morality. Let's try to visualize this embeddedness of morality and deontology.

  to this epistemology of distance a useful distinction of another member of the International Network of the Philosophers of Education (INPE). Andrés Mejia, in his article "My selfas-philosopher and my self-as-scientist meet to do research in the classroom: Some Davidsonian notes on the philosophy of educational research" (Mejia, 2008) 6 uses a double epistemology, based on both scientific description and philosophical prescription. He reminds us (p.4) about the classical "separation between on the one hand the activities of educational scientists, doing fieldwork and observing the way the pedagogical world is; and on the other hand the activities of philosophers of education, reflecting in their offices about the meanings of pedagogical concepts". The former being descriptive and the later being prescriptive or normative.

  rules and norms within distance education institutions. The word deontology therefore encompasses the values that an institution wants to transmit to the learners (academic values) and the organizational culture to be engineered (shared rules, norms and believes framing the community of practice).A/ About values and their transmission Philip Brey, page 2 in the article previously quoted within Info,Comm & Ethics in Society (2006), asks the question whether mediated distance education encounters difficulties with the transmission of academic values. Indeed, one could think that the absence of a teacher prevents the students from understanding academic values. He then eludes to this difficulty by stating that there is a distant presence (video recorded or, even better, interactions on a forum or through emails and phone calls) that allows the learners to feel and adopt the values of their teachers. Often, an honor code for the forum and the exams, written by the head of distance teachers, strengthens these values. Philip Brey then quotes John Daniel, vice chancellor of the U.K. Open University. He "argues that 'distance learning can be absolutely consistent with academic values,' if faculty and administrators are committed to them and distance education courses are set up in the right way.".As a result, academic values are transmitted properly if distance education is taken seriously by the academics and the students.

  we are leaving science (results) for conscience (what do to with these results).A/ Towards elitist distance education: when academic deontology shapes future moralityWe have discussed the recent trend of Moocs, focusing on mass pedagogy of thousands of students learning degree contents. This industrialization of online methods, broadcasted on the Internet with a few services (evaluation, certification, guidance and help on the forum), improves the image of traditional distance education -and all along challenging older distance education institutions, which have now to face this competition by moving on from paper-based distance learning to online devices.A predicable consequence of this distance learning development and broad recognition is the shaping of tomorrow's morality. Since a large number of learners will have gone through distance education, distance education institution's deontology will have a strong impact on the next generation. The young students are now learning -online and with a remote university -what is good or bad, what ought to be done or avoided. And in twenty years' time, when occupying power positions, they will shape the world according to the values transmitted.They will be open to what is now considered as marginal: mobility when studying might become a norm. New social models might be valued: a one year sailing family trip while attending distance high school, being an athlete or an artist, constantly moving from one place to the other while graduating at university... Sending children to a remote school for a better education might sound strange, whereas a whole family temporary residency in Eastern countries, while learning in Western countries could become normal. And new opportunities might open up students' visions, like taking parallel courses in North and South countries at the same time, ubiquitously. This is about the evolution of the deep structure in mentality and social habits. Our academic way of life and deontology may pass on to most average educated citizens in the next generation.However, there is another challenge: what if distance education was not only a quantitative and 11 This movement from science to conscience is expressed here: "In another attempt Jaspers tries to clarify the role of philosophy and its difference with science. (...) Based on such a view he calls the results of science as knowledge but the result of philosophy as consciousness". Quotation by Saeid Zarghami Hamraha, 2011, "Investigating the relationship between virtual education and social aims of education from the viewpoint of existence philosophy with an emphasis on Jaspers thoughts", paper presented in the International Conference on Education and Educational Psychology(ICEEPSY 2011), published by Procedia -Social and Behavioral Sciences 29 (2011) pp.1750 -1758 ; page 3.

  Ethiques héroïques et tauromachie. Les valeurs du combat selon Frédéric Nietzsche. Available on www.theses.fr : http://bdr.u-paris10.fr/theses/internet/2011PA100067.pdf email, online forum… the younger are educated by the older, collectively or individually guided towards a learning objective 2 .I therefore distinguish open resources, such as the ones that can be found on the Internet (on Unesco's online platform http://www.oerplatform.org/ ; or Europa's equivalent: http://www.openeducationeuropa.eu) and a complete educational device, including a range of services: orientation, advising, help, motivation, certification… like in Open universities and Massive online open courses. The flow of knowledge available online is channeled by distance educational devices in order to be better absorbed by the learners. Information therefore turns into formation, that is to say in both method and pedagogy. This new social fact of distance education triggers many ethical questions: what is distance education deontology -or internal rules and values of the profession? Which of the professional

	to letters,
		Ethics
		norms of behaviors
	Morality	Deontology
	according to society's	according to professional's
	standards	standards

1 Anonymous O, 2011, practices are moral -in tune with society? Last but not least, with Stephan Ramaekers 3 , one can question the social and societal role of the educator: is there a link between moral and deontology within the ethics of distance education?

http://ppw.kuleuven.be/home/english/research/ecs/les/staff/stefan-ramaekers

Mejia A, 2008, "My self-as-philosopher and my self-as-scientist meet to do research in the classroom: Some Davidsonian notes on the philosophy of educational research". Studies inPhilosophy and Education, vol.27,. Available online: http://wwwprof.uniandes.edu.co/~jmejia/PDF/empirical_research_in_pedagogy.pdf

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Distance education's ethical structure

To come back to John Dewey's words that we quoted at the beginning (from Democracy and Education), the core culture of our society is concentrated within schools and universities' deontology -and distance education institutions are part of them. Around this center of the present time, there is an external circle of current morality (legitimate knowledge and practices, authorized arts and crafts). The center of a given society, the core of its culture, is transmitted to the next generation by education: it is the smallest circle at the very center of our graph, representing what is transmitted to the next generation.

It is therefore of upmost importance to know whether educational institutions' organizational culture, and their deontology, is in tune with what they have to transmit: that is, the morality of society they are embedded within.

Conclusion: ethics as a condition for education

Using both descriptive education science and prescriptive philosophy of education, I have questioned the problem of distance education ethics, focusing on how new techniques are impacting morality and deontology. I have focused on each aspect of these ethics; first accessibility and neutrality of media as to what concerns morality; and second the transmission of values and engineering of organizational culture as to what concerns deontology. I have finally studied the relationship between morality and deontology, prescribing distance education elitism in order to promote a deontology that will not only be shaped by current morality but will also shaping future generation morality.

future morality present deontolgoy present morality

To open up the debate of distance education ethics, I want to come back to Emmanuel Levinas' source of discussion on the relative place of ethics and education. Commenting the French philosopher, Sharon Todd (p.5) 13 writes: "Rather than assuming that education can teach ethics, what I am advocating there is an understanding of education as a condition of ethics itself, education as a site of implied ethics." Indeed, it is of uppermost importance to know how to behave with the Other using new techniques such as Internet -this ethical issue is a condition of possibility for distance education. 13 Todd, Sharon, 2001, "On Not Knowing the Other, or Learning from Levinas", York University. Philosophy of Education, see also the quotation p.1: "Philosophy's commitment to viewing ethics as a question of knowledge might be summed up as "what do we need to know in order to live well together?" This commitment informs much of our educational attention to difference. Alternatively, Levinas' work asks us to consider knowledge as an ethical question: "what relation to the Other is necessary in order for knowledge to be possible?" In so doing, his work centers ethics at the heart"