Seyed Hossein Hodjat

Maryam Kamali

Dr Hodjat ; Shariati

HOW APHIDS AND HYGIENE INSECT PESTS RESPOND TO STRESSFUL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Running title: Insect pest responses to stress

Keywords: Aphids, Pests, Hygiene, Stress

ABSRACT

The insect pest fitness is reduced by stressors and new genotypes may appear in their population. The reaction of insect pests to stressors may be by entering diapauses, aestivation or other various traits. Neuroendocrine system hormones can increase the pest tolerance by secretion of alarm pheromones. Hormones cause behavioral, morphological or physiological variations seen in a pest population. Insect immediate reaction to stress is to disperse or leave the stressful situation. Defense system of insect reacts to stressors such as toxins, plants defense, or insecticides. Stress and internal insect parasites change their metabolism and produce stress signal. Mild stress often is tolerated by insect pests. Mimicry and camouflage in insects are reactions to escape from the stresses of natural enemies. Fluctuating asymmetry and morphological character change in pest population is also caused by stress. The reaction of cells to stress is by changing the formation of various proteins by genetic signals that changes the cell metabolism. In this review we only mention important factors producing stress in insects for relieving them from stress.

INTRODUCTION

Insects are very sensitive to environmental stress and are known to be stress indicators. Insect brain reacts quickly to stress by Neurohormones, Octopamine, Serotonin, Diamine, and other biogenic amines (Peric-Mataruga et al, 2006[START_REF] Farooqui | A review of octopamine in insect nervous system[END_REF][START_REF] Orchard | Octopamine in insects neurotransmitter, neurohormone and neuromodulator[END_REF]. Environmental stress influence life process of insects and their host plants. Myzus persicae with more than a hundred summer host plants in Iran is adapted to live on local available plants through summer. In Iran its primary host is Prunus persica and in regions with cold winters they spend winters in egg stage [START_REF] Hodjat | A list of aphids and their host plants in Iran[END_REF]. Heat stress changes the morph of aphid to winged form for leaving stressful conditions [START_REF] Verdugo | A review on the complexity of insectplant interactions under varying levels of resources and host resistance: the case of Myzus persicae-Prunus persica. Agrobiochem. Functional and Evolutionary Entomology[END_REF]. Rarity or extinction of aphid natural hosts or grasshopper's ecosystem has resulted to their extinction from many localities in Iran [START_REF] Hodjat | A view on the historic and contemporary acridid fauna (Orthoptera: Caelifera: Acrididae) of Iran-A call for conservation efforts[END_REF]. Various aspects of research activities are for understanding the genetic variation of local pest populations indicating their adaptive trait genes in their population [START_REF] Hodjat | Trait in insects and trends for thei control[END_REF]. Insect fitness is reduced by feeding on unsuitable plants and as a result of malnourishment or starvation their reproduction and activity decreases. Examining how climate change, including drought, might influence aphid fitness is a major avenue of current research, specifically with regards to examining how this might affect the productivity and functioning of agricultural, horticultural, and natural vegetation systems (Romo & Tylianakis 2013;Teixeira et al., 2020;[START_REF] Leybourne | Stressful times in a climate crisis: How will aphids respond to more frequent drought? BioRXiv preprint[END_REF][START_REF] Ma | Toxicity and sublethal effects of two plant allelochemicals on the demographical traits of cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)[END_REF] Mosquitoes feeding on human blood face severe oxidative stress due to the release of iron from hemoglobin which in turn can potentially induce oxidative damage and eventually their death. To face such odd situation, blood-feeding insects evolved with strong defense mechanisms against the stress. The basic effects of stress on insects beside brain are fluctuating asymmetry (FA). physiological, developmental, ecological, cellular, and genetic traits (Li 2018;Dara, 2019[START_REF] Davies | Cell signaling mechanisms for insect stress tolerance[END_REF][START_REF] Lexer | Adaptation to environmental stress: a rare or frequent driver of speciation (mini review)[END_REF][START_REF] Hetz | The unfolded protein response: controlling cell fate decisions under ER stress and beyond[END_REF][START_REF] Isaksson | The challenge of integrating oxidative stress into life-history biology[END_REF]. The fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is very common method for measuring stress effects on insect morphology [START_REF] Beasley | Insects as indicators of environmental stress[END_REF]. Exposition to nutrition deficiency, toxicants, pesticides, or excessive heat or cold conditions may produce asymmetry.

A stressor signal received by extra receptor transmitters via sensory nerves is carried to brain along insect cardiac nerves signaling for release of corpora cardiac (CC) hormones. It mobilizes the fat body adipokinetik hormone (ADPKH) and activates biogenic amines. In case of continuous or severe stress stimulates ecdysteroids and can regulate secretion of ecdisidropic neurohormones. Most insect activities such as, Flight, photoperiodic or circadian rhythms and migration are regulated by endocrine biogenic amines and neurosecretory hormones such as octopamine (Peric-Mataruga et al, 2006).

Insects feel stress by their sensory organs and cause brain reaction by octopamine, ecdysteroids, and glucocorticoids secretion.

Stress hormones change insect physiology and behavior and with its continuous stimuli metabolic hormones may cause morphological changes. Its reactions on honeybee is intensively studied and reviewed by [START_REF] Even | General stress responses in the honeybee[END_REF]. Stress effects on insect pests also has been extensively studied in common agricultural (Hodjat,2016[START_REF] Hodjat | Ecological stress and locust outbreak, an outlook at locust phase research[END_REF] and medical pests. Environmental stressors can affect mosquito or cockroach and increase their developmental instability (DI) in their offspring [START_REF] Coster | Fluctuating Asymmetry and environmental stress: Understanding the role of trait history[END_REF][START_REF] Beasley | Insects as indicators of environmental stress[END_REF].

Body cells and molecular signals secrete hormone in reaction to stress. Octopamine for flight and leg muscle activation, neuropeptides and biogenic amines in honey bee are examples stress secretions in insects through signaling process [START_REF] Even | General stress responses in the honeybee[END_REF][START_REF] Malhorta | Endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress: A vicious cycle or a double edged sword? Forum Review[END_REF][START_REF] Cui | The structure and function of Neuropeptide F[END_REF].Biotic and abiotic stress change insect metabolism and behavior. Crowding stress in aphids, locust and army worm causes changes in morphology and produce migratory forms by increasing their activity as a result of stress [START_REF] Hodjat | Ecological stress and locust outbreak, an outlook at locust phase research[END_REF]2016). Biogenic amines play a crucial role in the regulation of basic life processes [START_REF] Farooqui | A review of octopamine in insect nervous system[END_REF]. They act not only as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in nervous tissues but also, depending on the situation, they can release hormones into body fluids in reaction to stress [START_REF] Lubawy | Role of the Insect Neuroendocrine System in the Response to Cold Stress[END_REF]. The neurohormones are the master regulators of all life processes in insects and they create a strategy of stress protecting events. Neurohormones are synthesized mainly in insect brain neurosecretory neurons. Various stressors of different intensity cause specific changes which influence on neurosecretory neurons activity and synthesis of neurohormones (biogene amines, ecdysiotropins, ecdysiostatins, allatoregulatory neurohormones, adipokinetic neurohormones, etc. Biogenic amines in insect may function as neurohormones controlling carbohydrate and lipid metabolism as the primary response of the insects to the effect of stressors. Intermediary metabolism in insects is mainly regulated by adipokinetic hormones which supply organism by energy especially in extreme conditions. Stress induces changes in release of ecdysioregulatory and allatoregulatory neurohormones and modificates ecdysones and juvenile hormones synthesis in prothoracic gland and corpora allata. The involvement of hormones of an ecdysteroid or JH type in response to stress creates the danger of an untimely induction of morphogenetic process in target cells. Limiting the quantity of secreted hormones and shortening the period when target cells are sensitive to morphogenetic stimuli removes this danger (Peric -Mataruga et al, 2006). Survived houseflies are evolved by antioxidant capacity to produce H 2 O 2 and detoxification enzymes. Suproxide dismutase is well known enzyme that catalises suproxide anion to (O 2 -) as defense line against oxidative stress. Glutathion peroidase and peroxiredixins are group of enzymes mediating cell signal transduction. They are stress-related proteins with some evidence of acting as aging process in flies. The evolutionary reaction of houseflies to stressors needs further genome sequencing research that may affect their evolution [START_REF] Hao | Defense against oxidative stress and insecticides in Musca domestica[END_REF]. Octopamine modulates the control of numerous metabolic and life history traits against environmental stressors and increase the survival chance of aphids. They influence secretion of various hormones which mediate in producing appropriate reaction to important stressors such as starvation and heat [START_REF] Li | Octopamine controls starvation resistance, life span and metabolic traits in Drosophila[END_REF].

Insects have evolved a variety of genetic responses to stress. Their evolutionary reaction to toxic materials in their body is genetic, epigenetic or physiological. Biological reaction to metal toxic concentrations may be directly damaging DNA or producing oxidative stress. Oxidative stress (OS) and antioxidant enzymes have major roles in insect migration and metal response [START_REF] Tarpyl | Migratory management and environmental conditions affect lifespan and oxidative stress in honey bees[END_REF][START_REF] Merritt | Genetic diversity in insect metal tolerance[END_REF]. The main relation of pest stress in variable environment is rooted in gene expression, cellular stress, specialization and adaptive process caused by selection and evolution. Following is a short description of stress effects on insects in A, [START_REF] Cui | The structure and function of Neuropeptide F[END_REF][START_REF] Li | Octopamine controls starvation resistance, life span and metabolic traits in Drosophila[END_REF][START_REF] Orchard | Octopamine in insects neurotransmitter, neurohormone and neuromodulator[END_REF]. Specific stress effects on aphids in B, and medically important pests in C. (Fig. 1). expression is responsible to transcribe the reaction of environmental stress effects in cells. Insect genomic differentiation of characters may increase in parts of insect population and create new genotype. The genotype new characters increase the adaptive trait in insect population. Fixed characters may initiate rapid pest evolution by selection. Environmental effects are often multivariate and insect is exposed to multiple stressors simultaneously. Insect fitness is reduced by stressors and a combination of other factors that are indicated in boxes may cause pest outbreak.

Environmental stress

Effects on insect life

A-FACTORS RELATED TO INSECTS STRESS

1-Environmental stress: Abiotic environmental stress such as heat, cold, strong winds and unsuitable living conditions may affect insets in the same way as biotic stress such as food shortage, plant defense or natural enemies. Insect defense to stress depending to duration and severity of stress varies from evolutionary adaptation of pest populations to movement and leaving the stressful surroundings. The involved organs defending stress are mainly malpighian tubules or endoplasmic reticulum in body cells. Various other factors help insect to prevent the effects of stress. Adipokinetic hormones (AKH) is actively causing the signaling for various genetic markers to recognize and reduce appropriate reaction to stress [START_REF] Beasley | Insects as indicators of environmental stress[END_REF].

2-Fluctuating asymmetry (FA):

To define stress and FA effects on living organisms is like explaining the struggle that living organism have to take for continuation of his survival. (Dancewicz and Markunas, 2018). Stressors can change fitness, traits and FA in plants and insects after one to few generations. Many leaves of Betula pubescens increased deviation from symmetry by stress but slight damage by insects to shoots and leaves showed reduction of leaf FA on the next year. It is concluded that slight pest damage of leaves can decrease the next generation FA stress effects [START_REF] Kozlov | Local Insect damage reduces fluctuating aAsymmetryin next-year's leaves of downy birch[END_REF]. Therefore FA is considered to be a good biomarker for future studies of environmental stress effects on living organisms [START_REF] Beasley | Insects as indicators of environmental stress[END_REF]Marazita et al, 2020).

Stress can changes gene markers through epigenetic factors and affect FA in the insect offspring that may create an adaptive population to live or leave stressful situations. FA in housefly can be the result of genetic signals imposed by stressful environmental and changing their morphology [START_REF] Chapman | Environmental and genetic influence of fluctuating asymmetry in house fly Musca domestica[END_REF]. Stress in the leaf roller (Deporaus betulae), leaf miner and other betula defoliators can also affect insect pest symmetry [START_REF] Beasley | Insects as indicators of environmental stress[END_REF][START_REF] Kozlov | Local Insect damage reduces fluctuating aAsymmetryin next-year's leaves of downy birch[END_REF].

3-Symbionts: Important changes in insects that enabled them to feed on plants caused by evolutionary coexistence with symbionts. Selection of adapted insects are genetic divergence and forces for insects to escape the dangerous or unsuitable environments. Continuous interactions between insect and hosts during the evolutionary periods have created variation and diversification of insect species. Symbionts help insect to acquire nutrients and resist stressors. In aphids symbionts are in special cells called bacterocytes and assisting them to survive from stress [START_REF] Sudakaran | Evolutionary transition in symbiotic syndromes enabled diversification of phytophagous insects on an imbalanced diet[END_REF].

Buchnera aphidicola and nine other symbionts are commonly found in aphid cells. Their reaction to aphid stress is regulating aphid physiology by providing cells with needed proteins through endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The cellular proteins can change the aphid morphology in pea aphid (Gerardo et al, 2010). The bacteriocyte cell death caused by stress is through accumulation of non apoptotiv vacuoles and a sequence of biochemical alteration in various biochemical steps that increase the vacuoles. Therefore cell death in bacteriocytes starts by hyper-vacuolation. Stress can activate the cell defense system by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Lysosome cell organelles are involved in various cell processes such as breaking down excess or worn-out cell parts or the particles presence during the cellular stress. Lysosomes are serving to digest obsolete components of the cell. The organelles are morphologically diverse in cells but are defined by their common function of degrading intracellular materials. Their function through the ER for the cell digestive system is described by [START_REF] Davies | Cell signaling mechanisms for insect stress tolerance[END_REF].

4-Gene expression:

The genetic basis of adaptation is known only from a few organisms. A wide variety of cardenolids compounds in plants are for defense against insects. Cardenolids are steroid that have produced resistance in some insects or they use them as a defense against predation. Insensitivity to cardenolides is studied by molecular research in various insects. They have specialized reaction for pumping (Na,K-ATPase) for their internal metal metabolism. So far 18 species of insects feeding on cardenolide-containing plants have lowered their sensitivity to it by amino acid substitutions. Oxidative stress (OS) and anti-oxidant enzymes have major roles in their adaptation. Metals such as Zn, Cd, Cu affected only four genes in Pterostichus, Phyllobius or Anopholese gambiae with different responses [START_REF] Merritt | Genetic diversity in insect metal tolerance[END_REF].

Phenotypes of aphid species are changed and wingless aphids in reaction to crowding or heat stress change to winged forms. Changing aphids to winged form is accompanied by reduction in reproduction [START_REF] Hodjat | Ecological stress and locust outbreak, an outlook at locust phase research[END_REF]2016). New aphid clones with distinct genotypes are produced early in the spring after the emergence of fondatrice. The genetic structure of A. gossypii collected from north of Iran was variable and survey carried out for, seven polymorphic microsatellite loci with different multilocus genotypes, indicated that from 240 individuals 142 of them were different genotypes (Gholamian et al 2012). A. gossypii, A.glycines and A. rhamnicola are morphologically indistinguishable. A. gossypii is changing its minor characters in various environments or on different hosts. A. frangulae, A. rhamnicola and other aphids in this group respond differently to their stressors. Gene expression of Aphis species are separated in a neighbor-joining tree in East Asia [START_REF] Lee | A cryptic species of Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera:Aphididae) complex revealed by genetic divergence and different host plant association[END_REF].

Aphid clones survive and increase their population until autumn and with the start of cold seasons they die out. Sometimes variability by mutation in asexual aphids is produced otherwise few aphid clones survive the winter. Polymorphic microsatellite marker with different set of multi-locus genotypes or MLGs of Metopolophium and Macrosiphoniella had single or low number of repeats rather than large multiple copies. Therefore it indicates that the production of sexual morphs in aphids increase their genotypes variation and survival chance [START_REF] Loxdale | Why are there so few aphid clones?[END_REF].

5-Aphid hosts interactions: Insect-plant interactions are affected directly or indirectly by stress factors. The effect of environmental resource availability on insect-plant interactions is focused on aphid-host plant interactions. Aphids are poikilothermic and temperature is the main factor influencing their survival and distribution. Ambient temperature influence their life cycle and reproduction. An increase of temperature to 28 C. had a negative effect on development of Macrosiphum rosae and reduced their reproductive longevity [START_REF] Dampe | Changes in aphid-plant Interactions under increased temperature[END_REF]. Low light stress and complete darkness decreased chlorophyll, cartenoids, saccharides and phenols and the aphid activity (Dancewicz, 2018).

How aphids will respond to drought and high temperature stress depends to regional climate conditions. In favorable conditions the basal level of aphid fitness will differ between the susceptible clones to resistant. Plant-mediated responses to drought stress are likely to cause a reduction in plant vigor and a decrease in plant palatability and aphid population, but differential levels of basal fitness between the two plant types leads to differences in the extent to which aphid fitness is affected [START_REF] Leybourne | Stressful times in a climate crisis: How will aphids respond to more frequent drought? BioRXiv preprint[END_REF]. Meta-analysis of published articles on climatic drought stress has shown that stress reduces the fitness of aphids and plant vigor. In other words drought stress reduces both agricultural crop yields and aphid rate of reproduction [START_REF] Leybourne | Stressful times in a climate crisis: How will aphids respond to more frequent drought? BioRXiv preprint[END_REF].

6-Stress affecting crop and pests: For agricultural forecasting of pest population weather data especially temperature and rain are key factors. Other important factors are natural enemies, phenology, pathogens and insect-cropweed relationship (Olatinwo and Hoognboom,2013;[START_REF] Dawidziuk | The effect of winter weather conditions on the ability of pseudothecia of Leptosphaeria maculans and L. biglobosa to release ascospores[END_REF][START_REF] Capinera | Relationship between insect pests and weeds, an evolutionary perspective[END_REF].Before humans learn to cultivate crops for food 10000 years ago ants, termites and beetles had fungiculture in their nests about 20-60 Mya [START_REF] Muller | The evolution of agriculture in insects[END_REF]. Pest control research is now carried out in various research institutes for breeding resistant crops to pests. Selection of pest resistant crops or genetic modification (GM) technologies is new. The production of GM plants is a common practice in many countries and in pest management is considering the Spectro-radiometer changes of crop color damaged by pests and diseases in various ecosystems [START_REF] Thrall | Evolution in agriculture: The application of evolutionary approaches to the management of biotic interactions in agro-ecosystems[END_REF][START_REF] Pralihakas | Chapter 16 of the Book: Crop Stress and its management[END_REF].

Stress on crops by global climate change can integrate into plant for natural resistance to local conditions and a new approach to produce genetic resistance into plants to prevent pest damage are also new research trends in pest management [START_REF] Karley | Editors) Crop traits for defense against pests and diseases: durability, break down And future prospects[END_REF]. Stem borers and internal feeder of insect pests such as leaf miners or root nematodes and diseases will change the type of proteins in them. By comparing proteomics in healthy and damaged plant it is possible to identify the damage caused by pests. For date palm weevil the proteomic analysis of leaves indicate the tree infestation [START_REF] Rasool | Differential proteomic analysis Of date palm leaves infested with red palm weevils[END_REF].

7-Toxins and toxicants:

The earliest insects were not plant feeders, but insect diversity expanded greatly as angiosperms became diverse and abundant in the Cretaceous period (about 100 million years ago) [START_REF] Zherikhin | Ecological history of the terrestrial insects[END_REF]. Relationship between weeds, insects and plant cultivars started before crops were bred from natural plants [START_REF] Norris | Interactions between weeds, arthropod pests, and their natural enemies in managed ecosystems[END_REF][START_REF] Capinera | Relationship between insect pests and weeds, an evolutionary perspective[END_REF]. Plant defenses to stress are in two ways, by resistance and by tolerance, both of which are affected by abiotic factors. The information gathered from studies on plant-aphid interactions show that water availability in plant increase aphid resistance to drought stress and high temperature (Guerrieri and [START_REF] Digilio | Aphid-plant interactions: a review. Taylor an Francis[END_REF]. They elicits that when plants need water; in other words plants with 34.5%, 20.1% and 3.4% of water content, showed higher, no change and conditional effects on plant resistance to drought respectively.

8-Neuroendocrines and stress metabolic pathways: Changes in the main metabolic pathways is made in response to stress through neurotransmitter by biogenic hormones or peptide markers giving direct and indirect signals. Gprotein-coupled receptor kinas are a family of proteins such as serine, threonine, protein kinaseare biogenic amines signaling mediators in mammals acting in response of stress in cells or kidneys. Octopamine (OCT) acts like norepinephrine in regulating aggression and starvation resistance in insects [START_REF] Li | Octopamine controls starvation resistance, life span and metabolic traits in Drosophila[END_REF]. It can accumulate in nervous system and is found in neuronal tissues of most invertebrate species. It can also modulate the activity of flight muscles, peripheral organs, and most sense organs. In the central nervous system regulate motivation, desensitization of sensory inputs, arousal, initiation, and maintenance of various rhythmic behaviors, hygiene behavior, and complex social behaviors, including establishment of labor, as well as learning and memory in social insects. As a neurohormone, OCT is released into hemolymph, transported to target tissues, and induces mobilization of lipids and carbohydrates, preparing insects for a period of extended activity or assisting recovery from a period of increased energy demand. OCT modulates hemocytic nodulation in nonimmune larvae and enhances phagocytosis as a neurohormone (Peric-Mataruga et al, 2006;[START_REF] Li | Octopamine controls starvation resistance, life span and metabolic traits in Drosophila[END_REF]. Activation of octopaminergic receptor types is coupled with different second messenger pathways depending on the species, tissue source, receptor type, and cell line used for expression of the cloned receptor. OCT is associated with changes in cellular response, affecting insect cells.

9-Aphid-Ants Relationship:

Ecology and evolution of ant-aphid relationship is reviewed in a book [START_REF] Stadler | Ecology and evolution of aphid-ant interactions Annual Review of Ecology and Evolution Systematic[END_REF].

Their social relationship is benefitting aphids to free the colony from sticky honey dew and to give ant rich food. Aphids are stressed when natural enemies are in their colonies. Ants use specific mixtures of cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) in the presence of natural enemies as recognition factor to protect aphids. CHCs effects are frequently neutralized by chemical mimicry produced by aphid natural enemies. Ants tending Prociphilus tessellatus (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Chrysopa slossonae (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), and Syrphus ribesii (Diptera: Syrphidae) attack secrete three distinct CHC for each predator. CHCs in aphid natural enemies are recognition cue for ants [START_REF] Lohman | Convergence of chemical mimicry in a guild of aphid predators[END_REF].

Solenopsis invicta (Myrmecinae) are very vulnerable and feign death because of their relatively soft cuticle. After danger has passed, they look around before fully reviving. This seems a sensible strategy. It was shown that death feigning increases their chances of survival fourfold compared to older workers. This is important, because these young workers have the longest life expectancy and are hence most valuable to the colony (Holldobler and Wilson, 1995).

10-Cellular stress: Stress at cell level are affecting insects or influencing insect behavior by neurohormones and endoplasmic reticulum (Peric-Mataruga and Ivanovic, 2006;Mahlhorta and Kaufman, 2007). Unfolded protein in cells at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contribute to biogenesis of the protein folding machinery for activating cell mechanisms to adapt insects against variable environmental conditions [START_REF] Hetz | The unfolded protein response: controlling cell fate decisions under ER stress and beyond[END_REF]. Biogenic amines bind to G-Protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and, depending on the receptor type and target tissue, stimulate different types of secondary messengers, mainly cAMPor Ca2C [START_REF] Farooqui | A review of octopamine in insect nervous system[END_REF]. The pathways of cell specific signals in Drosophila melanogaster from Malpighian tubule's epithelial cells or digestive tract principal cells are V-type proton-motive ATPase (V-ATPase) at apical membrane. Cell signaling in the principal cell are for oxidative stress, immune stress, salt stress or desiccation stress [START_REF] Even | General stress responses in the honeybee[END_REF]Li et al, 2018;[START_REF] Davies | Cell signaling mechanisms for insect stress tolerance[END_REF]. Biotic factors influencing honey bee health and colony productivity is commonly measured by malondialdehyde (MDA) biomarker. Reactive oxygen species are the main cause of oxidative stress and bees suffer from diminished redox homeostasis. Cells that lose their ability to remove excess ROS undergo oxidative stress causing damage of proteins, and membrane instability. Oxidative stress can lead to apoptosis and cellular damage and is linked to aging. The MDA biomarker is a common measure of oxidative stress in honey bees. It is the main organic compound produced from lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in cellular membranes. Gene expression in relation to pathogen loads, metabolic stress, and organ function is studied in honeybee (Simone-Finstorm et al, 2021). For gathering information and knowledge about the biological reaction to stress within ER it is necessary to know how the machinery in enzyme production is working. A forum review and explanation of other researchers help reader to understand how cell stress affect defense system of insect and Galeria melonella [START_REF] Malhorta | Endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress: A vicious cycle or a double edged sword? Forum Review[END_REF]Hetz,2012;[START_REF] Kazek | Conidiobolus Coronatus induces oxidative stress and autophagy response in Galleria melonella larvae[END_REF].

11-Specialization and traits to escape stress: Escape from heat, cold, and natural enemies will reduce the harmful environmental stress effects. Adaptation or selection is gradually introduced into the genome and caused new genetic, physiological or morphological traits in successive population of insects. As a result of variation or plasticity and survival of fittest pest populations that fit the local habitat is increased in various localities. Crypsis, mimicry, camouflage are some factors that are combined with life cycle variation increase insects' ability to avoided stress [START_REF] Sheikh | Diverse adaptations in insects[END_REF][START_REF] Howard | Endless forms-Species and Speciation[END_REF].

B-STRESS AFFECTING APHIDS SPECIES

Aphis Linnaeus, 1758: Five genera of the subtribe Aphidina have been recorded from Iran. Absinthaphis Rem.Brachyunguis Das, Protaphis Borner, Toxoptera Kesch, and Aphis L. Fifty Aphis species are recorded in Iran but four species are very polyphagous i.e. A. frangula Kalt subsp gossypii Glover, A. fabae Scopand its subspecies, A. craccivora Koch, and A.citricola van Der Goot. Most of other aphid species are either on trees or are scattered on various herbaceous plants. This is why aphids are also called plant lice (Hodjat, 1985).

Aphids with many species are difficult to identify because of high plasticity and quick response to environmental stress. The main cause of their variations in their characters is their response to host plant metabolites and rapid speciation by host shift (Kartestev, 2011). Host shift and their close genetic distance on various host species is the main taxonomist problem to identify them. This is why similarly looking aphids in various genotypes are grouped together. Environmental stress affects plants and aphids by molecular genetic markers and various groups have shown differences in stem cells and genomes (Laray, 2019). Stress and hox genes differential transcriptions in cells affect physiology and morphology in their populations affecting life cycle and can produce new genotype (Pasquier, 2014). Heat shock environmental stress can regulate a set of genetic characters in histone assembly on chromosomes and change genes by reacting to various stressors [START_REF] Enders | Abiotic and biotic stressors causing equivalent mortality induce highly variable transcriptional responses in the soybean aphid[END_REF]. Efforts is made to study the effect of stress on most common aphid hosts are described for the following species.

(1)-Aphis gossypii group: Aphis gossypii group is classified as A. frangulae ssp gossypii Glover and commonly found on cotton, tomat0, melon and many other plants. Many other aphids with similar morphology to A. gossypii are also regarded as members of this group [START_REF] Stroyan | Aphids-Pterocommatinae and Aphidinae (Aphidini). Handbook for the identification of British Insects[END_REF]. At warm districts with mild winters, it produces parthenogenetically on more than fifty hosts in Iran (Hodjat,1993). The survival of clones on new hosts might also have been reinforced by mutation [START_REF] Loxdale | Why are there so few aphid clones?[END_REF].

There is an indication that environmental stress by physiological change in body function can cause variation among populations for the host plant choice [START_REF] Sano | ER stress-induced cell death mechanisms[END_REF]: Kim et al, 2011;[START_REF] Lee | A cryptic species of Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera:Aphididae) complex revealed by genetic divergence and different host plant association[END_REF]. The host plant virus aphid transmission (Vat) gene can react to stress of aphid by feeding on Cucumis melo. Callose and lignin in the cell increases after peroxidase is deposited on walls adjacent to the stylet path (Boissot et al, 2016s). Vat gene produce an active defense mechanism in A. gossypii hosts that by cell apoptosis produce plant resistance to aphids and viruses [START_REF] Villada | Hypersensitive response to A. gossypii Glover in melon genotype carrying the Vat gene[END_REF].

Abiotic and biotic effects of stress in Aphis glycines produced variable molecular response in Wisconsin. Heat and starvation induced variable transcriptional response. There was minimal overlapping effect on aphids affected by different stressors. Glutathion is antioxidant defense mechanism that increase oxidization in cells. Continuous stress reaction is caused by mitogen activated protein kinase and NF.kB (nuclear factor light chain of activated B-cells) proteins and cell apoptosis follows [START_REF] Enders | Abiotic and biotic stressors causing equivalent mortality induce highly variable transcriptional responses in the soybean aphid[END_REF]. The stress effects of plant allelochemicals from two of its hosts produced new trait on parts of their population [START_REF] Ma | Toxicity and sublethal effects of two plant allelochemicals on the demographical traits of cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)[END_REF].

(2)-Pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum: A. pisum (Harris, 1775) is a large green to rosy aphid with thin long sipjunculi measuring 2.2 -4.4 mm. Many populations or subspecies are living on alfalfa, clover, beans and peas. Pea aphids are a model system for understanding how facultative symbionts protect their hosts from thermal stress. Obligate symbionts in this species increase their tolerant to heat (Dunbar et al., 2007). Acyrthosiphon pisum under heat shock stress were assisted by symbionts that provide them with necessary nourishments and increasing their fitness [START_REF] Heyworth | Environmental conditions affect insect fitness, with many species constrained by specific[END_REF]. For aphid protection from heat proteins are deployed (Wilcox et al., 2003).

(3)-Myzus persicae: Myzus persicae only in cooler regions where winter temperatures reach subzero at least more than a weak produce sexual and females that lay egg on peach or almond trees. In warmer regions they live and reproduce parthenogenetically on many different herbaceous plants. Host specialization by Myzus persicae needs selection of suitable hosts. Aphid needs to use their vision, olfaction, mechano-sensation, and gestation to settle on their hosts. Vision interacts with olfaction because similar colors exist in a wide range of plants. The olfaction is primarily mediated by volatiles emitted by plants. Aphids are attracted and repelled by plant volatiles after active flight during host selection. Mechano-sensation and phloem tasting are also used for host recognition by aphids, and these can take place even without probing at the surface of the plant. A lack or excess of nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, water, CO 2 ) and stress factors (e.g., heat, radiation) alter natural interactions that are emphasized on the signals of abiotic stresses on Myzus persicae and its hosts [START_REF] Verdugo | A review on the complexity of insectplant interactions under varying levels of resources and host resistance: the case of Myzus persicae-Prunus persica. Agrobiochem. Functional and Evolutionary Entomology[END_REF].

(4)-Wheat aphids: Wheat is infested by ten species of aphids but its common aphid pests are: Sitobion avenae, Rhopalosiphum padi, Rhopalosiphum maidis, Diuraphis noxia and schizaphis graminum [START_REF] Hodjat | A list of aphids and their host plants in Iran[END_REF]. The main stress affecting what aphid populations are heat and drought. Plant reaction to aphid infestation is production of reaction oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide anion radical and hydrogen peroxide. Aphid defense is by secretion of ascorbate peroxide that catalyze hydrogen peroxide [START_REF] Iwona | Activity of cereal aphid enzymes Towards scavenging hydrogen peroxide[END_REF]. Heat and drought together decreased aphid reproduction and increased plant defense against aphids [START_REF] Xie | Aphid fecundity and defenses in wheat exposed to a combination of heat and drought stress[END_REF].

C-HYGIENE PESTS 1-Bed bugs:

Bed bugs (Cimex spp.) are important blood sucking insect with high tolerance to survive and recover from environmental stress. Bed bugs have an extraordinary power of resisting starvation and dehydration between blood meals. They are adapted to tolerate various stressors such as heat, cold or lack of sufficient humidity. They live in rural old houses with old furniture and in walls cracks or in old beds or under the carpets. They feed at night by sucking human blood. Cimex lectularius and C. hemipterus can survive long-term exposure to temperatures above 35 °C. Heat and a long period of starvation cause the heat shock proteins expression (Hsps). Disturbing or distressing copulation can produce microbial infection in females and reduce their population. Bed bugs are controlled by washing beds, cloths and applying seam to infested furniture [START_REF] Benoit | Stress tolerance of bed bugs: A Review of Factors That Cause Trauma to Cimex lectularius and C. Hemipterus[END_REF].

2-Moaquitoes:

Increasing the population of mosquito larvae in breeding waters and exposure of larvae up to third instars to temperatures of 40-50 and 45 C. and chromosomal assay show their cell proliferation at 50 C is inhibited with increased death and decrease in their miotic index. Heat stress can induce chromosome aberration and reduced micronuclei affecting their development. Stress also increased the hemolymph antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH). Predator pressure on larvae of Aedes, Culex and Anopheles increased as a result of higher temperatures in central district of Botswana Predators play a critical role in regulating larval mosquito prey populations in aquatic habitats and their presence around mosquito larvae is stressful (Buxton et al, 2020).

Mosquitoes by feeding on blood are facing osmotic misbalance stress. Stress of ingesting warm blood disturbs mosquito cellular homeostasis. Mosquitoes produce a drop of blood on their anus while feeding. The repletion is reaction to hot blood entering their digestive system. This action decreases their body and surrounding temperature by evaporation. The cooling is more effective in Anopheles by distancing the terminal part of the body away from its host. Prediuration also reduce body weight and easier take off from the host. Scape of mosquitoes from heat stress is believed to be adaptive (Lahondere and Lazzari, 2013).

3-House Fly:

Stress decreases the wing length in housefly but increase their mating frequencies [START_REF] Chapman | Environmental and genetic influence of fluctuating asymmetry in house fly Musca domestica[END_REF]. Stress of crowding and starvation show a high rate of mortality. By increasing the number of fly larvae in similar sized containers from 2 to 6-12-24-74 their mortality and the size of their adults decreased [START_REF] Yahaya | Density and Feeding Related Mortality of Musca domestica (Lin.) Larvae (Diptera: Muscidae). Ecological history of the terrestrial insects[END_REF]. Stress also affects the efficiency of their defensive system. Proteomes associated with oxidative stress in cytochrome P450 and acetylcholinesterase genes become upgraded in response of sublethal dose of nicotinoid pesticides and CYPGDs increase fly resistance to treatments [START_REF] Hao | Defense against oxidative stress and insecticides in Musca domestica[END_REF]. Stress increases the antioxidant activity. The increases in total antioxidant capacity, measured by sequencing the primers, enhance the cytotoxic effects. The reaction of defense system to stressful conditions is also identifiable by the prevalence of cytotoxicity in housefly body. [START_REF] Ekrami | Enhanced Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Potentials of Lipopolysaccharides-Injected Musca domestica Larvae[END_REF]. 4-Cockroaches: Periplaneta americana (American cockroach) were treated with conidia of entomopathogenic fugal isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae. Body defense of cockroaches revealed a decrease in the thiol content and an increment in the levels of oxidized glutathione (GSH). Thiol content in treated cockroach suggested oxidative stress. Enzymatically glutathione acts as electron donor to detoxify hydrogen peroxide. Dynamics in the levels of GSH, H 2 O 2 and thiols in the insects treated with different fungal isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae in a time and dose dependent manner reveals oxidative stress induced by the fungal infection [START_REF] Babu | Changes in thiol content, glutathione and hydrogen peroxide levels as of oxidative stress in Periplaneta americana treated with Metarhyzium anisopliae spp[END_REF]. This method of stressing insect by fungal toxin can be used as biological control method for the control of this pest.

CONCLUSION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Stress, trait, adaptation and selection in insects are interconnected to many other subjects such as polymorphism, plasticity and systematic. Subjects from cell biology to applied pest control have been dealt by numerous authors that make the task of describing stress effects on pest insects difficult. The author had to summarize literatures at introductory section of this review and give examples of research carried out on a few pest insects. The author hopes that his article stimulates readers to follow research by reading more about problem of aphid identifications.

The first author is grateful to Dr. V. F. Eastop at the British Museum, London; Dr. Georges Remaudiere, Professeur honoraire de l'Institut Pasteur, Paris; Dr. G. Lampel University of Fribourg, Switzerland and Dr. G. Bishop, University of Idaho, Moscow, Entomology Department, USA, for helping the first author with the aphid projects.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: This hypothetical figure is with description in boxes that indicating the importance of various factors affecting insect life by environmental stress. Gene


domain: info spi

text:
Eliel R Silva
email: elielsilva@ufrj.br

Jonice Oliveira
email: jonice@dcc.ufrj.br

Tiago Cruz De França

CidadeSocial: A social sensing model for urban dynamics *

In everyday urban life, people see and face different problems and challenges. Citizens may face criminal activity, poor public transportation, and other difficulties. If their claims were gathered and used to highlight urban problems, they could draw attention from authorities to such issues, saving time to solve the problems and thus improving their quality of life. People would behave as (very sophisticated) sensors of the urban environment. However, allowing anyone to share and interact with others about topics of interest to them is a necessary step toward such big-picture thinking. As a proposal to reach this goal, we describe CidadeSocial, a platform for participatory and passive sensing in a dynamic urban setting. Next, we describe the main features of a developed mobile client. Afterwards, we exemplify how to use the platform in two different application scenarios. The proposed platform contributes to the development of smart and participatory communities in which everyone plays an important role in the information economy.

Introduction

A city is defined as an "urban agglomeration" of continuous urban areas (or built-up areas) [START_REF] Cody | Historic Cities: Issues in Urban Conservation[END_REF]. In this area, it is possible to observe activities that are performed with frequency between the geographical space and its inhabitants, like commuting to work, going to school, and getting public transport. Because of the large number of people who live in cities, these activities, known as "urban dynamics," have become even more important. Nowadays, most of the population lives in cities. For example, in Europe, more than 70 percent of people already live in urban areas [START_REF] Albino | Smart Cities: Definitions, Dimensions, Performance, and Initiatives[END_REF].

In urban dynamics, residents and public organizations collaborate to address issues related to the environment that they live in. For example, people who go to similar places (such as classrooms, bus stops, or hospitals) face similar challenges in these settings. They can interact with each other (actively or involuntarily) to solve problems or simply to share information that interests them. This collaboration can take place in person or via social media (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn, Instagram, or Twitter).

Although social media platforms facilitate remote interactions, we would like to draw attention to the fact that, on such platforms, the information generated by user interactions just flows through their pre-existing networks (a group of pre-connected users) [START_REF] Dijkstra | Applying The Degree Of Urbanisation To The Globe: A New Harmonised Definition Reveals A Different Picture Of Global Urbanisation[END_REF]. This means that the information spreads in a connection-oriented way. So, even if someone is outside of a network where information is propagated, he will not receive it. To exemplify, we can consider a scenario where a certain public service uses a Twitter profile to share useful public information (such as schedules, alerts, and problems with a mode of public transportation). Such public information will only spread up to the boundary of the group of a service's profile followers. As a result, other users of the same platform won't even get information relevant to their interests.

Aside from the restrictions on information dissemination, it is possible to notice that opportunistic interactions-spontaneous interactions that do not make use of social connectivity-are not taken into account on social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and so on. Their communication models are insufficient to support the day-to-day, opportunistic interactions [START_REF] Correa | CidadeSocial: An Application Software for Opportunistic and Collaborative Engagement of Urban Populations: First Workshop, BiDU 2018[END_REF][START_REF] Tabak | Campus Social: uma ferramenta para trocas oportunísticas de informações em campi universitários[END_REF].

Opportunistic interaction are spontaneous interaction that occurs between strangers. In addition, the citizens' information available on the digital world could improve services in cities. When a person shares information about a problem in a city, public departments may be able to use such information. In other words, humans could provide useful information about the city.

When someone shares information related to urban dynamics, he behaves like an electronic sensor. To put it another way, everyone could utilize their five senses to record experiences and share them as data in the digital world. Citizens are indeed the most adaptable (and much smarter) sensors. They understand context well, and unlike electronic sensors, humans can go wherever they want, observe, and share information about what they deem relevant [START_REF] Wang | Social sensing trends and applications[END_REF].

However, there are some needs to be addressed. What parts of information and communication technology can help people act as "sensors" of urban spaces (sources of information about how urban dynamics work) and help them work together in a way that allows them to share and use this information?

As a proposal, this paper presents an adaptation of a platform named CidadeSocial, which means "Social city" in free translation to English [START_REF] Correa | CidadeSocial: An Application Software for Opportunistic and Collaborative Engagement of Urban Populations: First Workshop, BiDU 2018[END_REF][START_REF] Tabak | Campus Social: uma ferramenta para trocas oportunísticas de informações em campi universitários[END_REF][START_REF] Oliveira | Collaborative information gathering and recommendation using mobile computing[END_REF][START_REF] Oliveira | UFRJ Social -Propagação Colaborativa e Recomendação De Informações Utilizando Computação Móvel e Dados Georreferenciados[END_REF]. Our proposal, which is a work in progress, makes use of mobile devices, sensors (e.g., GPS), and a recommendation system (oriented to geolocation and interests) in order to allow citizens to monitor the city at the same time that they consume information and interact with other users in a connectionless way. Then, citizens can act as "sensors" of urban dynamics and perform opportunistic collaboration by sharing and consuming as much information as they want.

Our goal is to define a system that will aid in the formation of opportunistically dispersed networks of humans acting as urban dynamics sensors. Humans can sense a lot of physical variables and deal with different contexts. The sensed information could flow beyond their already-established social connections into a different network composed by human sensors.

This paper is organized as follows: the methodology is presented in Section 2. In Section 3, we present the literature. In Section 4, we describe the proposal. In Section 5, we present possible application scenarios. Finally, we present the final considerations in Section 6.

Methodology

The motivation for CidadeSocial development is a lack of appropriate models that use ICT-Information and Communication Technologies-to support humans in sharing information about urban dynamics without the need to be part of a network of people. To fulfill this motivation, it will be necessary to implement an artifact that will give humans this sensing capability.

First, the research question was defined and analyzed from different perspectives in order to enhance our understanding of the problem statement. This was followed by the development of prototypes, designs, and models based on the functional requirements collected from the problem statement. The requirements highlighted the need to make solutions that focus on people, since people are the most important part of this architecture and work as an intelligent network of human sensors.

Considering the requirements, in the second stage of the methodology, we proposed a model that combines different ICT such as mobile devices, GPS, a gamification approach, a content recommendation engine, and other minor components to address the elucidated requirements. This work divided the solution into two parts-client and server-to aid comprehension. The first is the back-end, with its services like the recommendation service. Following the description of the mobile client and its components.

Related Work

A city is a concept with numerous definitions that vary depending on the context and domain in which it is used. Dijkstra et al. [START_REF] Dijkstra | Applying The Degree Of Urbanisation To The Globe: A New Harmonised Definition Reveals A Different Picture Of Global Urbanisation[END_REF] say a city may be defined based on the number of people who live in a specific area. Other countries consider factors such as the presence of public essential services-public health and education-or the number of people engaged in non-agrarian activities. In the context of this work, the main factor is the level of urban dynamics performed in these places. Urban dynamics include, among other things, commuting, migration, the formation of dynamic events like protests, and changes in population density caused by new housing or industrial developments in the city.

In this context, each city is unique in terms of characteristics, dynamics, and issues that affect its inhabitants. These differences have motivated different researchers in the last few years to understand and document these phenomena [START_REF] Dobler | Dynamics of the urban lightscape[END_REF][START_REF] Kinoshita | Real-time traffic incident detection using a probabilistic topic model[END_REF]. In that work, their intention was to document and understand aspects of mobility, emergency events, urban violence, energy use, communications, economics, and so on. [START_REF] Dobler | Dynamics of the urban lightscape[END_REF] referrers to these categories of dynamics as the "pulse of the city". In general, the researchers aimed to identify anomalies and identify new trends while analyzing the crowd's behaviors.

Santos et al. have evaluated the use of data in the macrourban region of São Paulo. They discovered some interoperability issues after analyzing governmental open data platforms, which may make the use of city data for understanding city dynamics difficult. The main contribution of this work was the proposal of a structure responsible for ingesting and processing this data from different sources and making it available to the public. In [START_REF] Freitas | Predição de Casos de Dengue na Cidade de Fortaleza-CE Utilizando Internet das Coisas e Aprendizado de Máquina[END_REF], the authors made use of passive sensing to collect data about the levels of rain in the city of Fortaleza, Brazil, in order to predict the emergence of dengue fever cases. These studies try to understand, document, and model urban dynamics in the domains of governmental data ingestion and public health, respectively. They did not propose an artifact to enhance the inhabitants' communication and collaboration in their day-to-day lives. CidadeSocial is concerned with the human exchange of information in urban areas.

Another important related concept is "passive sensoring" which refers to the capture of information that does not require users' active input while they go about their daily lives [START_REF] Sujen Man Maharjan | Passive sensing on mobile devices to improve mental health services with adolescent and young mothers in low-resource settings: the role of families in feasibility and acceptability[END_REF]. In this field, Kubicek et al. ( 2019) provided a case study of cellular phone information for situational awareness. Cellular phones, perhaps the most ubiquitous personal technology available to society, provide a unique platform from which people can communicate not only verbally, but also through social media. Although cellular phone data is not easy to access because of privacy concerns, this data contains a wealth of useful information for understanding the site and situation of users. In this context, CidadeSocial proposal differs from the other study because it not only focus to gather information passively from a part of the city, however, it also gives the possibility to users posts actively information.

Trivedi et al. investigated how mobile phones functioned as contact tracing sensors. In their work, they have modeled a network-centric contact tracing method that uses enterprise Wi-Fi networks for contact tracing in office and campus settings. These models were capable of determining when a human in an office had contact with another person who was infected with another disease, using passive sensing as a tool for controlling diseases' spreading. The present work also aims to use involuntary sensing techniques, but it is not limited to the use of Wi-Fi networks to perform the data gathering.

The Stack Exchange1 is a tool that supports the web forums creation. It proposes is that each forum had its own subject. Users can collaborate by sharing both doubts (as topics) and answers (as topic's comments). The effective management of topics to avoid repeating questions and the gamification approaches has been leading the Stack Exchange to get success. Different instances of Stack Exchange are running nowadays, each one focuses on specific subjects. The most well known by information technology professionals are the Stack Overflow2 and the Ask Ubuntu3 . This software application does not explore functionalities as user localization as CidadeSocial do. Besides, in CidadeSocial, the communications are based on interests related to urban day-to-day subjects.

An Instagram4 and Foursquare5 evaluation was made in [START_REF] Thiago | Largescale study of city dynamics and urban social behavior using participatory sensing[END_REF]. The authors wanted to investigate these media as being participatory sensing networks, where data from sensors (e.g., GPS and barometers, etc.) captured by the mobile devices are attached to the user-provided data [START_REF] Thiago | Largescale study of city dynamics and urban social behavior using participatory sensing[END_REF]. Then, they described Instagram as being a media focused on cultural issues, and Foursquare as being a participatory sensing network for the definition of way finding. Thus, these authors pointed out the usefulness of these media as tools to understand both the dynamics of displacement (by tourists, for example) and the acquisition of information concerning cultural events. The aim of CidadeSocial is in communication centered on user interests (which are related to city dynamics) and not only on cultural or issues of location.

Proposal

This proposal intends to take an important step for society to collaborate on understanding the main social demands and problems of urban centers in collaboration with CidadeSocial. We believe that it is necessary to have a means to obtain and recover information that can be useful to improve urban spaces and people's quality of life. Therefore, we would like to have and provide data in order to support (but not address) future analyses (e.g., data fusion or new scales) and get new knowledge on different urban domains (such as public transport and air pollution, among others).

Using CidadeSocial, people will be able to send data about their urban spaces. Such data could be about physical infrastructure, services, or events that happened nearby. Since humans use their senses (and even perception) to obtain information from the real world, we made an analogy using the expression human acting as a sensor. When combined with computer technology, sensors are capable of taking information from the real world and sending it (in some representation of measurements) in the digital world.

Humans are much smarter, more adaptable, and more sophisticated than electronic sensors. They can create, feel, and do not have to follow repetitive procedures [START_REF] Wang | Social sensing trends and applications[END_REF]. They send what they want, when they want. People open up new possibilities, but they are also far more complex than an electronic sensor, which brings new challenges.

CidadeSocial is a platform for exchanging information about citizens' daily lives and their surroundings. Like in a sensor network platform, people can also send messages in a distributed way. However, human nature and ability enable them to create new connections, creating new and dynamic networks according to their interests.

The CidadeSocial Description

The communication on CidadeSocial is based on users' common interests and locations. The interests are defined as the strategy to link users, their interests, and message content. All information is associated with an interest. Therefore, users receive information according to their interests. The user's interests are upon account creation and can be modified at any time. The set of predefined interests is shown in Table 1. In CidadeSocial, communication (the content of messages) comes before a person-to-person relationship, unlike more popular social media platforms (such as Facebook). In other words, the primary goal of CidadeSocial is to facilitate information dissemination in order to reach everyone and anybody interested in a subject (or interest), even if they are strangers to one another.

Topics can be linked to a location or an organizational unit. Places can be found in identifiable areas or regions. Places include, but are not limited to, streets, squares, bus stops, subway or train stations, beaches, tourist attractions, and so on. an organizational unit in which a unit represents an organization with several units (or departments) The City Hall of Rio de Janeiro (an organizational unit), for example, is located in Floriano Square (a place), Cinelândia, at coordinates -22°54'36.175" N -43°10'36.108" E. Administrators record places and organizational units in the database, each with a unique name and location (geography coordinates are also used, for example, to pin places and organizations on a map). The primary goals are to connect places and organizations with subjects.

The user timeline is made up of topics categorized by interests and published near the user's current geo-coordinates. The timeline appears as the user's initial screen after logging in. It is a map with icons indicating the user's timeline's subjects. Users can also view a list of recommended topics. The topic list is a custom-built object list of the data generated on the server, and there is a recommendation engine that takes care of the user's interests. Another screen is the discover screen (topic visualization), which displays all of the user's topics (topics created by the user). Due to external factors, users' access to the Internet might be lost during the day; however, there is an offline mode that enables usage of some features without the Internet, and as a result, there is a client sync component. A user can create topics, view their timelines (limited to the content currently there), rate topics, and comment on subjects that have become accessible since the last synchronization while in offline mode. When an Internet connection is or becomes accessible, synchronization invariably takes place. To ensure that the user will have access to updated information, the mobile device automatically initiates an update with the server (for instance, every 30 seconds). When the connection to the Internet is restored, the data that were generated while it was disconnected and are delivered to the server.

Every time the user utilizes the system, the system may record his geocoordinates. When it becomes available, the GPS will be used to determine the coordinates. When a user conducts a search for information, the coordinates are used. The data will be arranged in accordance with how near the user is to the location where the messages retrieved by the search were published. There are other search options available, including searches by interests, locations, or organizational units. A system for gamification was created. It is thoroughly explained in [START_REF] Thiago | Largescale study of city dynamics and urban social behavior using participatory sensing[END_REF]. Its goal is to motivate users to collaborate. The user's actions within the application result in points and level advancement. There is a ranking that is dependent on user progress.

CidadeSocial Architecture

The distributed system CidadeSocial has a client-server architecture. To construct the application over HTTP, we use the Representational State Transfer (REST) architectural style. Every communication is conducted over HTTPS in secure channels. User authorization was controlled using the OAuth2 protocol. The distributed model of the CidadeSocial is shown in Fig. 1. Both client and server are essentially made up of components, and each has a unique interface that enables communication between them. The client-side components offer user interfaces for tasks like syncing, logging in, and signing up. The server side, on the other hand, will set up and offer end destinations for web requests.

Client-side components

The client-side of CidadeSocial is currently a mobile application that runs on top of the Android operating system. The client, as previously stated, is an offline-first application. To accomplish this, it includes data management components that allow the app to keep all data on the mobile in case of an internet connection failure. Furthermore, the mobile software includes components aimed at determining the client's geolocation. These components update the app based on the geo-location, allowing it to construct a feed of topics based on interests and proximity.

The components of participatory sensing are in charge of topic posting, timeline processing, and evaluation registration. They work together to let users share information like text to express thoughts, pictures, or videos from the real world and to rate how useful a topic is.

There is also a component specialized in implementing gamification to help engage users For example, if a user posts a topic and it is evaluated 100 times, the user should be rewarded with points and a badge. [START_REF] Silva | Aumento da Adesão e do Engajamento de Usuários do Campus Social com Uso de Mecanismos de Gamificação[END_REF] contains more information on CidadeSocial Gamification. Also, a more detailed explanation about the client side can be found in [START_REF] Correa | CidadeSocial: An Application Software for Opportunistic and Collaborative Engagement of Urban Populations: First Workshop, BiDU 2018[END_REF].

Server-side components

In this application architecture, the server is responsible for acting as a single source of truth. As this work is describing a distributed system that aims to gather and process data coming from the physical world, due to consistency purposes, all messages (or evaluations) published by clients are sent to the server, which registers the activities and stores the data in a database. The API Gateway is the component that acts as a gateway to all other components via the web. It is called CidadeSocialAPI and is built on REST principles. All HTTP requests for each service (resource) offered by the server are received by the CidadeSocialAPI. Based on the REST principles, all resources have at least one URL. Table 4 depicts some URL examples.

All requests rely on the authorization component to obtain the client application's credentials. This component is in charge of handling client credentials. To authorize access, the OAuth2 protocol is used. The authorization is defined by the component using the client's credentials (which are associated with their level of permission for each server resource). The client must send the credentials associated with each request. Because the application has no state, all requests must be self-contained (they must have all the information necessary for its processing).

The Topic Manage Service contains all of the logic for performing operations such as timiline building operations, data CRUD (create, read, update, and delete), user ranking based on gamification techniques, and information retrieval. This service is also in charge of processing Finally, the recommendation service is used to generate personalized topic recommendations based on the users' ratings, interests, favorite locations, and current location. This service uses the user's latitude and longitude to perform geo-queries against a text-indexed repository of topics and interests. A process called ETL (extract, transform, load) is used by this base to index data from the Topic Manage Service.

The CidadeSocial Implementation

A solution for a real-world problem must be developed and validated, as described in the methodology session. To accomplish this, the proposal described in the architecture section was implemented to test its viability. To accomplish this, both the Topic Manage Service and the Recommendation Service were built on the server side with Java and the SpringBoot6 framework. The Hibernate Object-Relational Mapping framework was used to connect Topic Manage Service and PostgresSQL 7 .

Elastic Search8 , a search engine based on the Lucene library, was also used to implement the recommendation service. It provides a multitenant, distributed full-text search engine. The need to perform geo-queries based on user location was the motivation. In addition, Logstash9 was used as an ETL tool to index data from the relational database.

The client was built with React Native with Platform Expo in order to generate the app in the future for IOS. This paper presents the main flows of use of CidadeSocial as an app in order to better understand the app. The topics-geolocation features are connected to the use cases. Along with this description, the client's user interfaces will be presented as usage flows.

The first use case is the sign in, where the user could insert his personal information and select his interests from a list of interests. Fig. 2 shows the sign in flow. After completing the sign in, a user could access a map with topics published by other users in the same region (defined by a radius size of 1 km). As shown in Fig. 3, the main application's screen shows a map in which the user can see the nearby topics according to his or her interests. Other important screens related to the user's timeline enable users to just list the topics. The topics that will compound the user timeline are returned as pageable responses that enable users to get more and more topics up to the end of available data.

The user could also navigate using other functionalities. As shown in Fig. 3, a user posted a topic from the main screen. The right button on the first screen will give them access to the form to publish a topic. The user enters the title and text and then proceeds to select interests related to the topic. At the end of this flow, the user would see his topic on the screen of topics. That screen also shows some elements of the gamification approach.

Gamification is the strategy used to encourage users to use CidadeSocial, by given then the feeling of progress while using the plataform. People tend to feel motivated by actions that bring a direct reward, like when they interact with game like elements (gamefulness) [START_REF] Silva | Aumento da Adesão e do Engajamento de Usuários do Campus Social com Uso de Mecanismos de Gamificação[END_REF].Users receive insignias according to the comments they receive and publish topics. The insignias are bronze, silver, gold, and platinum. Other activities contribute to the user experience, and they receive titles on the app. The user starts as a baby and grows in experience until he reaches a mythological level (see the last screen in Fig. 4). Gamification provides the user with a sense of evolution and significance. The evaluation of topics and messages allows other users to identify the best answers (comments) to a question and the top topic evaluated by people.

Application Scenarios

The major motive for this proposal and its implementation is to give people the ability to act as sensors and report problems and ideas connected to their reality and community. In this context, we discovered that citizens may desire to communicate and exchange information in cities on a daily basis in a variety of settings. As a result, we've identified two scenarios in which the CidadeSocial may be useful.

Sensory Participation and Passive Sensing in Urban Mobility

Consider the following scenario: the government invests heavily in a new bus model (bus rapid transit) and heavily in new autos. The bus service has been adjusted in the hopes that the new transportation service will improve people's journeys. However, in a large city, it may be difficult to track which routes have buses in bad condition or if drivers are driving dangerously. CidadeSocial encourages people's engagement in this scenario by making it simple to speak with others, even strangers. They can upload articles with pictures showing that a certain car is not well taken care of, and CidadeSocial can passively collect GPS data to see if the bus is taking the right route.

Engage pople by making easy get and share information

CidadeSocial helps people get information from others or find the information they need because others have had the same problems. In a previous experience, CidadeSocial was instantiated as "CampusSocial" [START_REF] Tabak | Campus Social: uma ferramenta para trocas oportunísticas de informações em campi universitários[END_REF]. In this use case, the academic community of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro was able to share information based on their interests and get answers to daily questions like "Where are the libraries located on the campus?" "Is the university open 24 hours a day?" or "When is the university restaurant less crowded?" At this scene, the academic. The community was a human network sensor, sharing knowledge that machine sensors wouldn't be able to do.

Final Considerations and Future Works

This paper presented a platform of opportunistic collaboration that results in networks of information produced by humans about urban dynamics. This platform is named CidadeSocial. CidadeSocial is a model that employs participatory and passive sensing. Humans are capable of detecting and measuring events in urban dynamics. CidadeSocial supports the sharing of human-produced data and combines it with others produced by the electronic sensors of mobile devices. Furthermore, the application may offer content depending on the user's interests and location, as well as provide gamification approaches to engage and motivate users. The goal is to support the broad spread of information in urban areas, as the city could be sensored and the new information could be useful for improving the lives of citizens.

The primary purpose of this research was to create and implement a model that would aid in the establishment of opportunistically distributed networks of individuals acting as urban dynamics sensors. This goal was accomplished through the design of the "CidadeSocial" architecture and the deployment of both the backend service and the mobile client, which have the ability to help gather, process, and generate information derived from urban dynamics. CidadeSocial's methodology differs in that by using humans as active and passive sensors, the platform may transform itself into a powerful network of sensors.

Challenges to the Validity of the Proposal

The effectiveness of CidadeSocial is dependent on widespread adoption and use because all information and its validity are dependent on human usage. Even the proposed gamification approach may not be sufficient for this purpose. Besides, important issues such as fake news or rumors were outside the scope of this paper.

Future Works

There is the interest of evaluating and aligning CidadeSocial with the content-based publishsubscribe communication paradigm because of its characteristic of proactive distribution of interest-based content, as we intended for CidadeSocial. Furthermore, in the future, it will be necessary to address the adoption and engagement of CidadeSocial's users (experience, acceptance, and intent to use). The evaluation may be made through the application of well-known models of adoption of new technology. We hope to do that in alignment with the real use on Brazilian university campuses, since some of them are managed as cities. The real and free use and adoption of a social sensor platform could increase our knowledge of it.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: High-Level Overview of CidadeSocial architecture

Figure 2 :Figure 3 :Figure 4 :

 234 Figure 2: The Flow of a sign in CidadeSocial

Table 1 :

 1 List of interests adapted from[START_REF] Correa | CidadeSocial: An Application Software for Opportunistic and Collaborative Engagement of Urban Populations: First Workshop, BiDU 2018[END_REF]

		Interests
	Art	Comedy	Crime	Elections
	Employment/Work Entertainment	Event	Exposition
	Fashion	Food	Government Health
	Infrastructure	Judiciary	Legislation	Mass Gathering
	Mobility	Municipal Council Music	Politics
	Protest	Recreation	Security	Service
	Social Network	Sport	Trade	Transport
	Violence	Other

Table 3 :

 3 Example of URLs of CidadeSocial API. Adapted from[START_REF] Correa | CidadeSocial: An Application Software for Opportunistic and Collaborative Engagement of Urban Populations: First Workshop, BiDU 2018[END_REF] API Gateway requests. It is built on a relational database that stores all information about topics, places, users, and interests. Correa et al.[START_REF] Correa | CidadeSocial: An Application Software for Opportunistic and Collaborative Engagement of Urban Populations: First Workshop, BiDU 2018[END_REF] previously explained specific details about this service.

	Request Method	Path	Description
	POST	/users	Send the new user JSON representation to create a new user
	PUT	/users/{user id}	Send the JSON user representation with new data to update the logged user
	GET	/topics/timeline/{user id}	Topics recommended to a user
	GET	/topics/{user id}	A list of 20 first topics of a user
	and responding to

https://stackexchange.com/

https://stackoverflow.com/

https://askubuntu.com/

https://www.instagram.com/

https://foursquare.com/

https://spring.io/projects/spring-boot

https://www.postgresql.org/

https://www.elastic.co/elasticsearch/

https://www.elastic.co/logstash/

This work was supported in part by Oracle Cloud credits and related resources provided by the Oracle for Research program (award number CPQ-2160239). Also, we would thank CNPq and CAPES for all support.