Karine Picot-Coupey

Steve L Burt

Gérard Cliquet

Retailers expansion mode choice in foreign markets: Antecedents for expansion mode choice in the light of internationalization theories

Keywords: Foreign operation mode, retail internationalization, internationalization theories, PLS-SEM, fashion retailing

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Introduction

Retailers are increasingly being challenged to operate and expand their store networks across borders and cultures (Deloitte, 2012;2014a). Internationalization consumes significant amounts of management time, resources, and expertise, so retailers seek foreign operation modes that minimize risk and maximize the potential for success (Deloitte, 2009).

The foreign operation mode (FOM) decision is a major concern in the international business literature, with a rich tradition of research into this question (e.g. [START_REF] Wind | On the Identification of Frontier Issues in International Marketing[END_REF][START_REF] Welch | Foreign Operation Methods -Theory, Analysis, Strategy[END_REF]. However, the issue remains under-researched in international retailing [START_REF] Swoboda | Internationalisation of Retail Firms: State of the Art after 20 Years of Research[END_REF], despite it being recognized as a strategic decision with far-reaching implications for performance [START_REF] Gielens | Do international entry mode decisions of retail chains matter in the long run?[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Psychic distance: antecedents, retail strategy implications and performance outcomes[END_REF].

Existing studies have usually analyzed the "entry mode" choice as an end in itself, and not as the start of a firm's international development. Whilst retail internationalization is acknowledged as a dynamic and ongoing process [START_REF] Alexander | The retail internationalisation process[END_REF][START_REF] Dawson | Scoping and conceptualising retailer internationalization[END_REF], the FOM question is typically considered from a static perspective [START_REF] Quinn | International retail franchising: a conceptual framework[END_REF]. In reality, retail companies tend to enter foreign markets initially through a small number of locations before progressively expanding their store networks over time.

Consequently, when attempting to understand retailers' international strategies, examining how companies pursue their growth strategies once they have entered an international market becomes more important than only analyzing the initial entry mode choice. In this context, there is also still a need to understand the antecedents of retail FOM decisions and the extent to which they are consistent with those suggested by the generic internationalization theories.

Indeed there is much debate about the applicability of these theories to retailing [START_REF] Dawson | Internationalisation of Retailing Operations[END_REF]2007;[START_REF] Wrigley | Globalizing retail: conceptualizing the distribution-based TNC[END_REF].

Important issues in relation to FOM choice in retailing remain unaddressed in the literature and prompted this research. The overall aim of this paper is to examine FOM decisions in retailing in the light of the generalized internationalization theories. More specifically, the research purpose is two-fold: (1) to investigate the paths of entry, and subsequent expansion mode(s), pursued by retailers in international markets, and (2) to develop and test a model of expansion mode antecedents in the light of internationalization theories. In doing so, this paper contributes to the existing literature by (i) developing knowledge on the evolution of FOMs over time, and (ii) suggesting an overall framework for retail post-entry mode antecedents, at least for fashion retailers. Such a framework should facilitate retailers' decision making as it highlights when it is pertinent to choose one expansion mode over another. A final contribution of this paper arises from a discussion of how well generic internationalization theories help our understanding of retail expansion mode decisions.

The following section summarizes the theoretical background provided by existing research on the reasons for retail FOM evolution over time, and the antecedents for FOM choice. An empirical study conducted with French fashion retailers is then presented. Given the diversity of FOMs and the high degree of internationalization amongst fashion retailers, this sector provides a suitable frame in which to explore the dynamics of FOM choice.

Subsequently, the main findings are presented, the key results are discussed, and an explanatory framework grounded in the generic internationalization theories is proposed. The article concludes with key implications for research and retail management and by identifying some promising directions for future research.

Retailers' foreign operation mode decisions: the theoretical background

A FOM can be defined as "the organizational arrangement that a company uses to conduct international business activities" [START_REF] Benito | Towards more realistic conceptualisations of foreign operation modes[END_REF](Benito et al., : 1458)). Given its influence on the success of the operation, it is a critical choice in how to operate abroad. Theoretically, options are plentiful. The store network may be managed from the domestic market or via a wholly-owned subsidiary or joint venture and may take the form of shop-in-shops, franchised stores, company-owned stores (flagship stores, pop-up stores or traditional stores) or concessions and licenses. Wholesale stockists and agents can also help support the physical store presence, as well as websites which can provide international visibility. The pros and cons of each individual FOM are well documented [START_REF] Alexander | International Retailing[END_REF], as is their use in combination in plural forms [START_REF] Quinn | International retail franchising: a conceptual framework[END_REF][START_REF] Perrigot | Intangible Resources and Plural Form as Drivers of Franchise Internationalization: Examination within a Two-Country Perspective[END_REF] and, to a lesser extent, in multimodal forms [START_REF] Waldman | Strategies of International Mass Retailers[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | Americans in London: the internationalisation of fashion designer retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Petersen | Foreign Operation Mode Combinations and Internationalization[END_REF]. FOMs are usually categorized according to the degree of control a parent company has over decisions [START_REF] Anderson | Modes of foreign entry: a transaction cost analysis[END_REF]Treadgold and Davis, 1988), and the amount of the parent company's own resources that are committed to the project [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF][START_REF] Gielens | Do international entry mode decisions of retail chains matter in the long run?[END_REF]. The degree of strategic flexibility each option offers i.e. the possibility to change FOM without incurring high switching or withdrawal costs [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF], and the degree of protection against the dissemination risk of the retailer's specific assets provide further grounds for categorization [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF].

The case for a richer conceptualization of FOMs [START_REF] Benito | Towards more realistic conceptualisations of foreign operation modes[END_REF] has highlighted two topics of high relevance for retail internationalization: (i) the evolution of FOMs, suggesting a dynamic approach with possible mode changes or combinations in place over time; (ii) the antecedents of FOM decisions. General internationalization theories suggest various explanations for FOM dynamics and choices, but their relevance to the retailing sector is disputed [START_REF] Vida | International Expansion of retail firms: a theoretical approach for future investigations[END_REF][START_REF] Dawson | Scoping and conceptualising retailer internationalization[END_REF].

Foreign Operation Mode changes and dynamics

A mode change means that a company decides to operate in a country with a FOM different from the one previously used [START_REF] Swoboda | Internationalisation of Retail Firms: State of the Art after 20 Years of Research[END_REF]. This may take the form of (i) mode switch i.e. shifting from one mode to another, (ii) mode stretch i.e. extending and expanding the use of an existing mode, or (iii) mode package i.e. combining a new FOM to enhance the utility and value of the initial FOM.

FOM change and the inherent dynamic are seldom addressed in retailing research, with the exception of [START_REF] Petersen | International retailing operations: downstream entry and expansion via franchising[END_REF] and [START_REF] Quinn | International retail franchising: a conceptual framework[END_REF] who shed light on the switch to international retail franchising from other entry modes. They suggest that franchising is mainly used as an expansion mode rather than an entry mode because it recognizes learning benefits from previous experiences and it subsequently generates faster rates of growth. FOM changes over time may be all the more important in retailing since retailers often enter a new market cautiously, in a small number of locations, and then open new stores over time as they extend their store network's market coverage [START_REF] Lafontaine | Beyond Entry: Examining McDonalds' Expansion in International Markets[END_REF]. A dynamic approach to further understand "what happens once entry mode choice has been made" seems to be needed (Canabal and White, 2008: 267).

Explanations for FOM changes can be derived from the two main streams within the internationalization literature. On the one hand, the economic-strategic stream suggests that radical FOM changes occur only when there are drastic modifications in the circumstances pertaining to the operation [START_REF] Welch | Foreign Operation Methods -Theory, Analysis, Strategy[END_REF]. Internal and external contingencies impact upon the choice of degree of control, resource investment and flexibility, and lead to an increase or decrease in commitment depending on the type of change. From this perspective, the FOM dynamic consists in a series of static choices, where each decision is treated as a static phenomenon dictated by efficiency considerations and relative costs and benefits. The expansion mode is not directly related to the entry mode.

On the other hand, the behavioral stream suggests two explanations. First, from the Uppsala internationalization process perspective [START_REF] Johanson | The internationalization process of the firm -a model of knowledge development and increasing foreign commitments[END_REF]1990), changes are unavoidable and have to be expected given the dynamic nature of the internationalization process. Changes are incremental depending on the experiential knowledge of the company.

Initially, the range of FOMs considered is constrained because knowledge is limited but the way of operating in foreign markets changes as the company gains experience. Over time a company moves step by step towards higher commitment modes with appropriate experience and knowledge. From this perspective, the FOM dynamic consists of a sequence of steps by which companies acquire experience and knowledge about foreign markets through gradual commitment of resources and learning by doing. The expansion mode therefore enlarges the possibilities explored through the entry mode. Second, from the perspective of the network approach [START_REF] Welch | The internationalization Process and Networks: A Strategic Management Perspective[END_REF], the formal and informal business networks from which inward-outward connections emerge and develop influence the range of FOMs considered.

High commitment modes can be chosen from entry if strong relationship networks exist. In the network perspective, the organic path-way is moderated by the relationship networks.

Empirical evidence is mixed on how well these explanations of FOM dynamics apply to the retailing sector. From the internationalization process perspective, the expected sequential pattern of development is not always evident: retail companies often move directly to foreign investment [START_REF] Moore | L'internationalisation du prêt-à-porter: The case of Kookai and Morgan's entry into the UK fashion market[END_REF][START_REF] Vida | An empirical inquiry into international expansion of US retailers[END_REF][START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF]); yet, knowledge transfer appears to be vital to the process [START_REF] Jonsson | International expansion through flexible replication: Learning from the internationalization experience of IKEA[END_REF]. Likewise, despite difficulties in measuring retail internationalization through the lens of the economic-strategic theories, existing empirical studies do not support the view of static FOM choices independent of each other [START_REF] Doherty | Explaining international retailers' market entry mode strategy: internalization theory, agency theory and the importance of information asymmetry[END_REF][START_REF] Huang | Retailers' foreign market entry decisions: an institutional perspective[END_REF].

The antecedents of foreign operation mode choice

The antecedents of FOM choice have received broad attention in the international business literature from different theoretical perspectives [START_REF] Morschett | Decades of research on market entry modes: What do we really know about external antecedents of entry mode choice?[END_REF] 1 . In parallel, research in international retailing has explored the antecedents of FOM choice mainly in an atheoretical manner [START_REF] Picot-Coupey | Determinants of a Retailer's Choice of International Expansion Mode: Conceputal Model and Empirical Validation[END_REF]. It is therefore of interest to compare the antecedents observed in retailing to those proposed in international business in order to discuss potential connections. Such a comparison allows the identification of similarities, differences or linkages between the antecedents of entry and expansion mode selection.

Explanations for FOM choice in the international business literature

For the economic-strategic stream, the choice of a FOM is determined by the optimal degree of control over the foreign operation, given internal and external contingencies [START_REF] Welch | Foreign Operation Methods -Theory, Analysis, Strategy[END_REF]. From the behavioral approach, FOM choice is bounded by limited rationality and considerable perceived uncertainty. The choice relies on organizational learning and is influenced by a mix of external and internal factors. Each theoretical stream suggests a number of internal and external explanatory variables, which are summarized in table 1.

Table 1 goes about here

Overall, these antecedents of FOM choice cover different levels of analysis and encompass environment-specific (psychic or geographical distance, cultural differences, target market advantages), company-specific (resources, strategy, brand, product entrepreneurial orientation, knowledge, experience) or transaction-specific (tacit know-how) antecedents. Past research reveals heterogeneous results for each factor [START_REF] Morschett | Decades of research on market entry modes: What do we really know about external antecedents of entry mode choice?[END_REF]. Reasons for such conflicting findings may be that FOM decisions are a function of different factors and their interactions. Such complex interdependencies are rarely taken into account. Moreover, the choice is dynamic but most studies do not differentiate between entry and expansion mode and do not explicitly look into individual decisions at each stage [START_REF] Wrona | Re-explaining international entry modes -Interaction and moderating effects on entry modes of pharmaceutical companies into transition economies[END_REF].

Explanations for FOM choice in the retailing literature

Simultaneously, a stream of exploratory research on FOM decisions in retailing provides insights into the antecedents governing this choice, although mostly independently from any underlying theoretical framework [START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF]2007;[START_REF] Hutchinson | SME retailer's internationalization: case study evidence from British retailers[END_REF]. The observed antecedents can be categorized into four key groups [START_REF] Picot-Coupey | Determinants of a Retailer's Choice of International Expansion Mode: Conceputal Model and Empirical Validation[END_REF]. First, there is a consensus that factors related to the retail marketing policy (format, brand, location, assortment and market coverage strategy) are highly influential [START_REF] Fernie | The internationalization of the high fashion brand: the case of central London[END_REF][START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Picot-Coupey | Determinants of International Retail Operation Mode Choice: Towards a Conceptual Framework Based on Evidence from French Specialised Retail Chains[END_REF][START_REF] Park | The global retailer's strategic proposition and choice of entry mode[END_REF][START_REF] Lu | Factors influencing international fashion retailers' entry mode choice[END_REF]. FOM determines the extent to which a retail company is involved in designing and implementing marketing plans in the target market; therefore the nature of the marketing policy influences retail FOM decisions. Second, factors associated to the retailer's business strategy are important in retail FOM choice [START_REF] Salmon | The internationalisation of retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Dawson | Strategy and Opportunism in European Retail Internationalization[END_REF] as the FOM has to reconcile the growth strategy with the resources of the company. Third, retail company characteristics are important. Motives for internationalization, company size and experience are factors often discussed [START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF] but there is no consensus either on the nature or on the impact of their influence. In addition, networking -regarded as a facilitator of international development and a source of opportunism [START_REF] Dawson | Strategy and Opportunism in European Retail Internationalization[END_REF] encourages retailers to choose more risky modes [START_REF] Picot-Coupey | Determinants of International Retail Operation Mode Choice: Towards a Conceptual Framework Based on Evidence from French Specialised Retail Chains[END_REF][START_REF] Elg | The role of networks and matching in market entry of emerging retail markets[END_REF]. The top managers' degree of involvement in the internationalization process is said to shape FOM choices [START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF]. Fourth, the influence of factors relating to the host country and market environment is acknowledged [START_REF] Gielens | Do international entry mode decisions of retail chains matter in the long run?[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Psychic distance: antecedents, retail strategy implications and performance outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF] but debated: geographical or psychic distance is viewed as requiring either control or delegation. Overall, how these antecedents influence the final choice is unclear: the decision is complex, being the net result of various factors often with complementary but sometimes contradictory effects. Heterogeneous findings can also be attributed to the fact that most studies do not differentiate between the entry and expansion modes, yet the degree of influence of factors could be different at each stage. These antecedents for FOM choice observed in retailing research match most of the firm-specific (product characteristics, brand, international strategy, resources, network, experience) and environment-specific antecedents listed in the international business literature (table 1). Marketing factors play a more specific and prominent role in the case of retailing.

Retail format, brand and product assortment have been identified as key specific assets of retailers [START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Goldman | The transfer of retail formats into developing economies: the case of China[END_REF] -in effect they are the product or output of individual retail business models -which may explain the greater emphasis placed upon them.

A conceptual model of retail expansion mode choice and hypotheses

From the literature review of FOM dynamics and antecedents, we conclude that (i) the FOM decision has to be explicitly looked at as a distinct stage, and (ii) various factors in relation to firm characteristics and environment characteristics determine the appropriate choice of FOM.

We focus on the expansion mode and suggest a comprehensive framework of the antecedents that impact upon the expansion mode decision for retailers. Hence, a total of five expansion modes which are those most commonly used to develop store networks in a foreign market have been identified [START_REF] Petersen | International retailing operations: downstream entry and expansion via franchising[END_REF][START_REF] Alexander | International Retailing[END_REF] and are therefore considered in our model: store networks can be operated through: (1) companyowned stores; (2) franchised stores; (3) shop-in-shops; (4) a plural form associating franchised-and company-owned stores; and (5) a composite form combining shop-in-shops, franchised-and company-owned stores. The focus of the research is on stores as the dominant format of internationalization despite the growing importance of on-line presence in international markets. Each expansion mode option exhibits specific characteristics in terms of dissemination risk, control over decisions, resource commitment, and flexibility [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF][START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF]. Our framework integrates the assessment of expected mode characteristics against mode antecedents. In doing so, our purpose is to overcome inconsistencies arising from the analysis of the direct influence of antecedents on FOM choice as a given antecedent may exercise contradictory effects on a given FOM [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF][START_REF] Welch | Foreign Operation Methods -Theory, Analysis, Strategy[END_REF][START_REF] Wrona | Re-explaining international entry modes -Interaction and moderating effects on entry modes of pharmaceutical companies into transition economies[END_REF]. Regarding antecedents, variables were directly selected from previous research results which have identified a number of factors at each time. These dispersed factors are integrated into an encompassing model. The antecedents include company-specific antecedents relating to marketing [START_REF] Fernie | The internationalization of the high fashion brand: the case of central London[END_REF]; strategy [START_REF] Salmon | The internationalisation of retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF]; relationship networks [START_REF] Elg | The role of networks and matching in market entry of emerging retail markets[END_REF] and managers' orientation towards internationalization [START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF] as well as host environment-specific antecedents [START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF]. Hence, the retailer's international marketing plan; its business strategy and ownership structure; and the perceived attractiveness of the foreign market, are hypothesized as explaining the FOM choice.

Relationship networks and top managers' involvement in internationalization are hypothesized as moderators. These marketing, strategic, environmental, relational and entrepreneurial attitude antecedents are also noted in existing internationalization theories, as displayed in table 1. Figure 1 sets out our conceptual model which provides an integrated framework that conceptualizes multi-faceted antecedents pertaining to retail foreign expansion mode choice. Twelve interviews with international retail managers supported the development of the model and its underlying hypotheses.

Figure 1 goes about here

Evolution of retail FOMs over time

Discussion of the FOM concept highlighted its dynamic character. Whatever the reasons for the choice of a specific FOM, circumstances (market conditions, relationships, company context) are liable to change over time, which may lead to a perception that the initial mode should be altered in a certain way. Mode adjustments are driven by a mix of internal and external opportunities. Consequently, the market entry mode has to be distinguished from the market expansion mode, as the needs and priorities of the internationalizing company are likely to be different at each stage [START_REF] Fischer | International Market Entry Strategy: A Source of Late Mover Advantage?[END_REF].

According to both the economic-strategic and behavioral streams of internationalization theory, retail companies may experience FOM changes; however they each suggest diverse internationalization paths, with different linkages between the entry mode and the expansion mode resulting in different FOM dynamics. The entry mode and expansion mode therefore need to be considered separately as well as in relation to each other. Thus: H1 -Retail companies use different modes for entry and expansion.

The international marketing plan

The choice of expansion mode appears to be a decision that is connected to the retailer's international marketing policy, i.e. to the decisions regarding the underlying marketing strategy and retail format, product, service mix in a foreign country [START_REF] Alexander | International Retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Goldman | The transfer of retail formats into developing economies: the case of China[END_REF]. The expansion mode determines the context of implementation of the international marketing plan [START_REF] Bradley | Does the Firm's Technology and Marketing Profile Affect Foreign Market Entry?[END_REF]. An international marketing plan articulates an organization's overall marketing efforts, both in terms of international marketing strategy and international marketing mix. The retailer's marketing plan is grounded in retail positioning, and broadly speaking is associated either with functional or symbolic attributes [START_REF] Morschett | Competitive strategies in retailing-an investigation of the applicability of Porter's framework for food retailers[END_REF][START_REF] Dolbec | The Impact of a Flagship vs. a Brand Store on Brand Attitude, Brand Attachment and Brand Equity[END_REF]. Positioning based on symbolic attributes typically requires an emotion-focused retail brand, supported by a specific brand image and a strategy of unchanged format transfer [START_REF] Burt | The role of store image in retail internationalization[END_REF][START_REF] Goldman | The transfer of retail formats into developing economies: the case of China[END_REF]. This corresponds to leveraging specific intangible assets through respect of the underlying retail concept [START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF]. Such specific assets must be simultaneously disseminated and protected [START_REF] Goldman | The transfer of retail formats into developing economies: the case of China[END_REF][START_REF] Dolbec | The Impact of a Flagship vs. a Brand Store on Brand Attitude, Brand Attachment and Brand Equity[END_REF]. Therefore, the dissemination risk of specific assets, that is to say the degree of risk perceived by a firm that a partner in a foreign market will appropriate its specific advantages [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF], impacts upon the choice of an international expansion mode. Moreover, the international marketing plan could also influence expansion mode choice through the degree of control over decisions that the marketing approach necessitates. Thus:

H2 -An international marketing plan based on differentiation through symbols (versus differentiation based on functional attributes) results, for expansion mode choice,

H2.1 in a greater desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets; H2.2 in a greater desire for control over decisions.

The retail company's strategic and ownership profile

The FOM directly interplays with the core business strategy of the retail company. Finding a way to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage is essential when elaborating a strategy.

Competitive advantage in retailing stems from high levels of efficiency in the management of the retail network supported by cost control and supply chain optimization, from high levels of differentiation from competitors, or from different ways of combining both [START_REF] Morschett | Competitive strategies in retailing-an investigation of the applicability of Porter's framework for food retailers[END_REF]. The ability of companies to pursue a business strategy is directly influenced by company ownership structure [START_REF] Carney | Corporate governance and competitive advantage in family-controlled firms[END_REF]. Business strategy implementation has direct and interactive relationships with dominant ownership [START_REF] Goodstein | Turbulence at the top: A new perspective on Governance Structure Changes and Strategic Change[END_REF]Gloden and Zajac, 2001). Such complex interdependencies have to be considered in order to better understand expansion mode antecedents [START_REF] Welch | Foreign Operation Methods -Theory, Analysis, Strategy[END_REF][START_REF] Wrona | Re-explaining international entry modes -Interaction and moderating effects on entry modes of pharmaceutical companies into transition economies[END_REF].

Therefore, the strategic and ownership profile construct captures the strategy of the retail company in relation to its perceived source of competitive advantage, and its ownership structure which is critical for strategy execution. The type of competitive advantage operated, combined with family business ownership or financial shareholder ownership, leads to the choice of one expansion mode over another, as requirements differ in terms of the appropriate degree of control and of the nature and amount of resources dedicated to the project [START_REF] Ramon-Rodriguez | Determining factors in entry choice for international expansion -the case of the Spanish Hotel Industry[END_REF][START_REF] Chang | Ownership structure, diversification strategy and performance: implications for Asian emerging market multinational enterprises[END_REF]. Thus:

H3 -A strategic and ownership profile based on differentiation (versus cost optimization) and family ownership (versus financial shareholders ownership) results, for expansion mode choice,

H3.1 in a greater desire for control over decisions; H3.2 in a lower desire for resource commitment.

Perceived attractiveness of the foreign country

Environmental determinants are considered as highly influential in FOM choice. Yet empirical results are inconsistent. Large geographical distance from the home market and high market potential have been observed as leading to either limited or greater resource commitment [START_REF] Burt | Temporal trend in the internationalisation of British Retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF]. The same dichotomy is evident in respect of the impact of psychic distance i.e. the differences in culture and business practices perceived by individuals between domestic and foreign markets [START_REF] Evans | Psychic distance: antecedents, retail strategy implications and performance outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF]. Analysis of the direct impacts of environmental antecedents on FOM choice have focused on isolated decisions and on a few selected factors, which may result in findings specific to a decision context [START_REF] Wrona | Re-explaining international entry modes -Interaction and moderating effects on entry modes of pharmaceutical companies into transition economies[END_REF]. Environmental antecedents could consider a mix of objective and subjective criteria about the foreign country. Therefore, the combined effect of psychic distance and degree of attractiveness of the market is captured within the construct of perceived attractiveness of the foreign market. If the perceived degree of attractiveness is high, this could imply, for expansion mode choice, a higher level of resource commitment and a lower level of importance placed upon flexibility i.e. the ability to adapt the network rapidly with limited cost implications. During expansion, the target market may be perceived as promising, with no need to withdraw rapidly and with a willingness to commit in the market. Thus: H4 -Important (versus limited) perceived attractiveness of the foreign country results, for expansion mode choice, H4.1 in a greater desire for resource commitment; H4.2 in a lower desire for flexibility.

Involvement of top managers in internationalization

Individual attitudes play an important role in FOM decisions [START_REF] Wrona | Re-explaining international entry modes -Interaction and moderating effects on entry modes of pharmaceutical companies into transition economies[END_REF].

The involvement of top managers in internationalization reflects their attitudes, either favorable or unfavorable, towards international projects [START_REF] Gençtürk | International Marketing Involvement: The Construct, Dimensionality and Measurement[END_REF]. The intensity of interest from a senior retail manager in internationalization plans "contributes by emphasizing the importance of key personnel in shaping (...) the entry or the expansion mode choice" (Doherty, 2000: 234), suggesting that this factor acts as a moderator in FOM choice.

A proactive attitude is seen as a factor likely to reduce the negative effect of a strategic and ownership profile based on differentiation and family control over resource commitments. In contrast, an unfavorable attitude towards internationalization is seen as a factor likely to accentuate approaches towards resource commitment minimization. Thus: H5 -The involvement of top managers in internationalization decreases the negative effect of the strategic and ownership profile based on differentiation and family ownership on resource commitment.

Relationship networks

Relationship networks between a retail company and its stakeholders provide both better knowledge related to the target market, and access to the resources needed for expansion of the retail network in that foreign country [START_REF] Elg | The role of networks and matching in market entry of emerging retail markets[END_REF]. These networks provide a sense of familiarity which is influential in shaping perceptions of the attractiveness of the foreign market [START_REF] Dawson | Strategy and Opportunism in European Retail Internationalization[END_REF][START_REF] Picot-Coupey | Determinants of International Retail Operation Mode Choice: Towards a Conceptual Framework Based on Evidence from French Specialised Retail Chains[END_REF]. The stronger the relationship networks, the more likely retail managers are to endorse a choice of an expansion mode requiring greater resources. Thus: H6 -Relationship networks of retailers increase the positive effect of the perceived attractiveness of a foreign market on resource commitment.

Foreign expansion mode options and their dimensions

Antecedents result in desired expansion mode characteristics. The choice of a retail expansion mode is seen to be driven by considerations over the dissemination risk of specific assets; control over decisions; resource commitment; and flexibility, which are the dimensions along which FOMs are usually categorized [START_REF] Anderson | Modes of foreign entry: a transaction cost analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF][START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF]. Managers analyze each mode alongside these considerations and choose the one which fits the best. The five most common modes to expand a store network in a foreign market can be assessed on these dimensions, as presented in table 2.

Table 2 goes about here

Company-owned stores provide the greatest protection of specific assets, as they are not entrusted to stakeholders [START_REF] Fernie | The internationalization of the high fashion brand: the case of central London[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | L'internationalisation du prêt-à-porter: The case of Kookai and Morgan's entry into the UK fashion market[END_REF], and the greatest levels of control over decision making [START_REF] Dawson | Internationalisation of Retailing Operations[END_REF]. The resources committed in expansion plans via company-owned stores are however significant and flexibility is limited due to the costs of network adjustment [START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF]. Thus: H7-It is more likely for a retail company to expand its store network in a foreign market with company-owned stores if there is H7.1 a greater desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets; H7.2 a greater desire for control over decisions; H7.3 a greater desire for resource commitment; H7.4 a lower desire for flexiblity.

Resource commitment minimization and high levels of flexibility are qualities justifying the choice of expanding a foreign store network through franchised stores. Yet difficulties have been experienced by retailers in controlling their foreign franchisees [START_REF] Hutchinson | SME retailer's internationalization: case study evidence from British retailers[END_REF].

These control issues may be managed to some extent through the legal contract between partners [START_REF] Pederzoli | Conception and test of a comprehensive model of international strategy for retail companies[END_REF]. However, the risk of disseminating the retailer's specific assets, especially marketing assets, exists [START_REF] Quinn | Power and control in international retail franchising: evidence from theory and practice[END_REF], even if the franchising contract provides some legal protection [START_REF] Watson | Retail franchising: an intellectual capital perspective[END_REF]. Thus: H8-It is more likely for a retail company to expand its store network in a foreign market with franchised stores if there is H8.1 a lower desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets; H8.2 a lower desire for control over decisions; H8.3 a lower desire for resource commitment; H8.4 a greater desire for flexiblity.

Shop-in-shops require far fewer resources and offer greater flexibility because of the shortterm contract and limited investment required [START_REF] Alexander | International Retailing[END_REF]Jerath and Zang, 2010). However, they also offer limited protection of the retail network's specific assets and limited control over operations due to the role of the retailer hosting the shops [START_REF] Petersen | International retailing operations: downstream entry and expansion via franchising[END_REF][START_REF] Hutchinson | SME retailer's internationalization: case study evidence from British retailers[END_REF]. Thus: H9-It is more likely for a retail company to expand its store network in a foreign market with shop-in-shops if there is H9.1 a lower desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets; H9.2 a lower desire for control over decisions; H9.3 a lower desire for resource commitment; H9.4 a greater desire for flexiblity.

Plural networks are acknowledged as providing both local responsiveness and global adaptation [START_REF] Botti | Plural forms versus franchise and company-owned systems. A DEA approach of hotel chain performance[END_REF]. In an international perspective, this could allow some adaption of the retail concept to the local market whilst limiting the resource invested through the use of franchised units. Meanwhile company-owned units in the plural network could allow relative control over decisions. Thus: H10-It is more likely for a retail company to expand its store network in a foreign market with company-owned and franchised stores if there is H10.1 a greater desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets; H10.2 a greater desire for control over decisions; H10.3 a lower desire for resource commitment; H10.4 a greater desire for flexiblity.

The key benefit of combining company-owned stores, franchised stores and shop-in-shops in a composite form is a faster pace of expansion [START_REF] Petersen | Foreign Operation Mode Combinations and Internationalization[END_REF]: numerous units can be opened with limited investment. Yet, the dissemination risk of specific assets can be relatively high as they are shared with numerous and various partners [START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF]. Thus: H11-It is more likely for a retail company to expand its store network in a foreign market with company-owned stores, franchised stores and shop-in-shops if there is H11.1 a lower desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets; H11.2 a lower desire for control over decisions; H11.3 a lower desire for resource commitment; H11.4 a greater desire for flexiblity.

Control variables

We controlled the effect of several variables to account for alternative influences on foreign expansion mode decisions. First, following the behavioral approach, we controlled for experience and size. Second, considering prior research we controlled for the impact of the domestic operation mode on FOM choice [START_REF] Benito | Towards more realistic conceptualisations of foreign operation modes[END_REF].

Methodology

Sample and data collection

In order to investigate the path of entry and subsequent expansion mode and to test expansion mode antecedents, we conducted a questionnaire survey of the top managers of French fashion retail companies managing a minimum of 10 outlets abroad. To ensure high internal validity, the sample is French-based to control for country effect [START_REF] De Mooij | Convergence and divergence in consumer behavior: implications for international retailing[END_REF] and is sector-specific to control for sector effect [START_REF] Laanti | The globalization strategies of B to B born global firms in the wireless technology industry[END_REF]. We chose the French fashion retailing sector as it has developed a significant presence internationally over time (Deloitte, 2011;[START_REF]The path to 2020 Taking the long view of retail market entry[END_REF] and operates very diverse organizational structures [START_REF] Chauday | Contractual design and networks performance: empirical evidence from franchising[END_REF]. Such organizational variety combined with a high international profile allowed observations of expansion decisions and FOM dynamics.

We derived a list of 210 French fashion retail companies operating internationally from various publications and directories2 , cross-checked with the retailers' websites. Our key informants were the President, C.E.O. or top manager in charge of international operations.

The unit of analysis consisted of one international (country) operation, not multiple ones.

Respondents were asked to think about the most important international expansion decision they had recently been involved with and respond with reference to that experience.

Questionnaires were first mailed, with three follow-up steps by e-mail and phone. This procedure resulted in 43 usable responses. Although a small number due to a narrow population, this corresponds to a response rate of 20.5 percent which is satisfactory when compared to previous research in international business [START_REF] Ekeledo | International market entry mode strategies of manufacturing firms and service firms: a resource-based perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Krafft | Relative explanatory power of agency theory and transaction cost analysis in German sales forces[END_REF]. The sample characteristics are presented in table 3.

Table 3 goes about here

The competence of the key informants to comment on the research question was checked by considering the respondent's position in the company, the length of her/his international experience, and the importance of her/his role in the decision. Of the 43 respondents, 39 of them were either the President, CEO or the top manager in charge of international development and the other four were in charge of the international operation under consideration; 35 had international experience of more than 5 years, and two-thirds of the respondents had played an "important" or "very important" role in the decision process.

Consideration of potential non-response bias mainly involved comparisons between initial and late respondents, which is the standard method of evaluation when true values of the population parameters are unknown [START_REF] Armstrong | Estimating non response bias in mail surveys[END_REF]. The sample did not suffer from response bias as no statistical difference was found when comparing early and late responses by testing with t-tests for group mean differences on each of the variables.

Construct operationalization and measures

To develop our measures, we undertook an extensive literature review and conducted 11 indepth interviews with international fashion retailers. Construct measures were all drawn from former studies yet adapted to our research context. Content analysis of the interviews helped refine both content specification and indicator specification, and structure the item list in the retail context. We used multi-item measures of FOM antecedents and FOM dimensions to take into account their multi-faceted character. The specification of the measurement models, either formative or reflective, followed the recommendations of [START_REF] Diamantopoulos | Index Construction with Formative Indicators: An Alternative to Scale Development[END_REF], [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF] and [START_REF] Jarvis | A Critical Review of Construct Indicators and Measurement Model Misspecification in Marketing and Consumer Research[END_REF].

The international marketing plan captures the marketing strategy and retail mix defined for a foreign market. It was measured by eight items adapted from [START_REF] Gannon | Towards a composite theory of foreign entry mode choice: the role of marketing strategy variables[END_REF] and [START_REF] Bradley | Does the Firm's Technology and Marketing Profile Affect Foreign Market Entry?[END_REF], referring to retail positioning, brand image, assortment, location, strategy of retail format transfer, and international marketing mix. These are different and non-interchangeable indicators covering all aspects of marketing strategy and retail mix. It implies that they form the construct, in line with [START_REF] Albers | PLS and Success Factor Studies in Marketing[END_REF]. The retail company's strategic and ownership profile captures the competitive advantage the company takes advantage of, combined with its ownership structure. We used five items based on [START_REF] Contractor | Franchising versus Company-Run Operations: Modal Choice in the Global Hotel Sector[END_REF] and [START_REF] Ramon-Rodriguez | Determining factors in entry choice for international expansion -the case of the Spanish Hotel Industry[END_REF], referring to competitive advantage (economies of scale, logistic efficiency, critical size, image differentiation, vertical integration) to which we added one item about the ownership structure of the retail company. These items cover all facets of the construct and therefore are formative. The perceived attractiveness of the foreign market captures both objective and subjective aspects of foreign market attractiveness, namely market potential and psychic distance. We drew the market potential measure from [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF]; this captures the upper limit of the total demand in the foreign market considering seven items referring to GDP per inhabitant, competition, geographic distance, sales potential, risk of counterfeiting and overall quality of country environment. We assessed the psychic distance, i.e. the perceived differences in business and cultural practices between the foreign market and the domestic market, through a six item scale drawn from [START_REF] Evans | Psychic Distance and Organizational Performance: An Empirical Examination of International Retailing Operations[END_REF]. The involvement of top managers in internationalization captures the attitude, either favorable or unfavorable, the manager shows for international projects and was assessed through a five item scale taken from [START_REF] Gençtürk | International Marketing Involvement: The Construct, Dimensionality and Measurement[END_REF]. Relationship networks, which capture the set of specific relationships developed by managers with various stakeholders, were measured taking as a base four items from Bell (1997) to which we added four items derived from our qualitative study. These indicators form the networks of relationships.

We followed the research tradition on the measurement of foreign expansion mode and its dimensions. Respondents were asked to describe the expansion mode used, and the information was then coded. We again drew from commonly used measures of FOM dimensions with items adapted to the retail context. Dissemination risk of specific assets captures the perceived threat of opportunistic partners appropriating the specific advantages of a company [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF]. Protection against such a risk was measured taking as a base the five items proposed by [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF] and [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF]. Control over decision making refers to the authority over strategic and operational decision making [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF]Treadgold and Davis, 1988). This was measured via six items based on [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF], to which we added two items on the control of brand image and of store window display. Resource commitment measures the amount of resources dedicated to the project that cannot be reorganized without costs [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF]. For this, we used four items proposed by [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF], and adapted to the retail context. As most of retailers express their concern in choosing a mode that involves minimal resource commitment, the scale items were worded accordingly. Finally, flexibility captures the ability to adapt quickly without incurring high costs [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF]. The three indicators selected came from a scale proposed by [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF].

Constructs were validated by expert opinion, used as an alternative to multiple data collection and deemed appropriate with a small population [START_REF] Hardesty | The use of expert judges in scale development -Implications for improving face validity of measures of unobservable constructs[END_REF].

Five experts judged the item relevance and assessed if the measures included all of the relevant attributes. Then, we analyzed the multi-dimensional structure of our constructs.

The scales show high reliability as evidenced by the statistical criteria presented in table 4: Cronbach Alpha between 0.80 and 0.90; the Dillon-Glodstein Rho between 0.88 and 0.93 and the Average Variance Extracted between 64 and 77 percent. The factor analysis shows a strong factorial structure for the constructs, and suggests removing because of low factor loading one of the items initially suggested for dissemination risk, three of the items initially suggested for control over decision making, and one of the items initially suggested for involvement of top managers in internationalization. Discriminant validity was unsatisfactory for resource commitment and flexibility: a strong correlation between items existed. No empirical distinction was found between these two dimensions of an expansion mode. Flexibility appeared as a related consideration of resource commitment rather than a dimension in itself. It may be that, at the expansion stage, flexibility may be a less important dimension as the company considers the target market to be promising. Only one scale was validated; H4.2 and H7.4 -H11.4 regarding flexibility cannot be discussed separately.

Table 4 goes about here

Formative measurement models were assessed by evaluating (1) the relative magnitude of factor weights, which reflects indicator contribution to the construct, (2) the consistency of sign between weights and correlation, which is an indicator of nonmulticollinearity and by checking (3) the possible co-occurrence of positive and negative weights [START_REF] Diamantopoulos | Advancing formative measurement models[END_REF]Cenfetelli and Bassellier, 2009). Results show the relevance of the indicators to their respective constructs except for two items of relationship networks. They also show differences in terms of sign between indicator weights and correlations, reflecting multi-collinearity due to conceptual overlap between collinear indicators. Five iterations finally generated stable coefficients for the four indices and suggested removing three of the indicator initially suggested for international marketing plan (product range, location and promotion correlated to positioning), two of those for strategic and ownership profile (image differentiation correlated to vertical integration; critical size to economies of scales), three of those for market potential (geographic distance correlated to risk of counterfeiting; sales potential; and legal environment to competitive intensity) and two of those for relationship networks (personal relationship correlated to suppliers relationships, and relationship with competitors to contacts with journalists). Each final formative variable shows minimal collinearity, with the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) of all indicators ranging from 1.02 to 4.04, far below the common critical value of 10. The results lastly show cooccurrence of negative and positive indicator weights for five indicators neither suppressors nor collinear. Those indicators were then interpreted as having a negative effect when controlling for the influence of other indicators [START_REF] Cenfetelli | Interpretation of Formative Measurement in Information Systems Research[END_REF]. When the most important weight of a formative variable is negative, this leads to a reverse interpretation of the sign of the path coefficient [START_REF] Chin | A Partial Least Squares Latent Variable Modeling Approach for Measuring Interaction Effects: Results from a Monte Carlo Simulation Study and an Electronic-Mail Emotion / Adoption Study[END_REF]Cenfetelli and Bassellier, 2009). Overall, five scales and four indices were used which are displayed in Appendix B.

Method

To test our model, we used a Partial Least Squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM).

This was particularly appropriate as it is perfectly suited to deal with small samples [START_REF] Hair | An Assessment of the Use of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling in Marketing Research[END_REF]; complex causal models can be estimated [START_REF] Hair | PLS-SEM: indeed a silver bullet[END_REF]; both reflective and formative variables can be easily incorporated [START_REF] Diamantopoulos | Advancing formative measurement models[END_REF], and moderator effects can also be estimated [START_REF] Chin | A Partial Least Squares Latent Variable Modeling Approach for Measuring Interaction Effects: Results from a Monte Carlo Simulation Study and an Electronic-Mail Emotion / Adoption Study[END_REF]. Data were analyzed with the SmartPLS 2.0 software (Ringle et al., 2009) following the specifications of [START_REF] Henseler | The use of Partial Least Squares path modeling in international marketing[END_REF] and [START_REF] Götz | Evaluation of Structural Equation Models using the Partial Least Squares (PLS-) Approach[END_REF]. Prior to this, a post-hoc power analysis on sample size was performed to make sure the study detected significant effects, using G*Power3 software [START_REF] Faul | G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences[END_REF]. The power was found to be good, at 0.828 (alpha 0.05 -2 tailed; number of predictor: 3; intermediate effect size) which is above the cut-off threshold of 0.80.

Results

The dynamics of retail foreign operation mode choice

Table 5 displays the entry and expansion modes used by the French fashion retailers who responded to the questionnaire.

Table 5 goes about here

Nearly 40 percent (17) of companies entered a foreign market with shop-in-shops, whilst 32.6 percent ( 14 The conclusion of [START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF] is supported: the incremental commitment approach, posited by the internationalization process perspective, is not confirmed in retailing.

By contrast, franchised stores appeared to be more attractive as an expansion mode than an entry mode. Such changes over time concur with the conclusions of [START_REF] Petersen | International retailing operations: downstream entry and expansion via franchising[END_REF]: franchising is a way to further expand in a foreign market once knowledge and competences have been acquired via another entry mode. Shop-in-shops were less frequently chosen to expand a store network than to create one.

Distinguishing the entry mode from the expansion mode appears to be appropriate since there is a statistically significant but moderate association (Cramer's V = 0.536; p = 0.000) [H1 supported]. While considering it, fashion retailers do not systematically pursue their in-country expansion with the mode initially chosen to enter the foreign market. Overall, internationalization initiated via franchised stores and 80% of those started via companyowned stores continued to use the same modes to expand, in contrast entry through shop-inshops switched to expansion via any mode. Evidence suggests that retailers experience mode switch, mode stretch and mode package. They clearly differentiate between entry mode (shopin-shops and/or company-owned stores) and expansion mode (franchised stores and/or company-owned stores) and experience varied internationalization paths. These results empirically corroborate the dynamic analysis of retail FOM decisions proposed by [START_REF] Vida | International Expansion of retail firms: a theoretical approach for future investigations[END_REF] and [START_REF] Petersen | International retailing operations: downstream entry and expansion via franchising[END_REF]. In this context, investigating the drivers of retail expansion mode choice seems particularly relevant.

Determinants of foreign expansion mode choice

The results of the analysis with PLS-SEM are depicted in figure 2 and appendix C. The model goodness-of-fit is assessed for each endogenous variable through the coefficient of determination R²: results are satisfactory.

Figure 2 goes about here

The findings show the explanatory power of:

• the international marketing plan of the retail company [H2 supported]: an international marketing plan based on differentiation through symbols (brand, range uniqueness) results in a greater desire for protection against the dissemination risk of specific assets (p 14 = 0.485; p= 0.000) and for control over decisions (p 15 = 0.249; p= 0.008).

These conclusions are consistent with previous results [START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Jonsson | International expansion through flexible replication: Learning from the internationalization experience of IKEA[END_REF]: a key decision driver of a FOM lies in the potential to apply the international marketing plan efficiently. This is all the more important at the expansion stage when marketing decisions have to be consistently implemented across a growing store network.

• the strategic and ownership profile [H3 supported]: a strategic and ownership profile based on differentiation and family ownership results in a high desire for control over decisions (p 25 = 0.444; p= 0.000) and a high desire to minimize resource commitment (p 26 = -0.304; p= 0.002). This result confirms previous conclusions suggesting that strategic and ownership considerations influence expansion mode decision [START_REF] Sternquist | International expansion of US retailers[END_REF][START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF].

• the perceived attractiveness of the foreign market [H4.1 supported]: high perceived attractiveness of the foreign market results in a high desire for committing resources in the operation (p 36 = 0.308; p= 0.001). Considering both the psychic distance and the attractiveness of the market is a way to overcome the "paradoxes of psychic distance" [START_REF] Evans | Psychic Distance and Organizational Performance: An Empirical Examination of International Retailing Operations[END_REF]. A retailer can perceive both a high attractiveness and a large psychic distance, the overall assessment leading to the choice of a resource-intensive mode.

In addition, two moderating effects are observed. The top managers' involvement in internationalization decreases to a limited extent (f² = 0.025) the negative effect of the strategic and ownership profile based on differentiation and family ownership on the amount of resources committed to the project [H5 supported]. The more involved in internationalization the top managers are, the more likely they are to favor approaches towards resource commitment in an expansion mode. However, it plays a less important role than observed in previous research [START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Quinn | International retail franchising: a conceptual framework[END_REF]. It may be that in an era of increasing internationalization or at the expansion stage, most senior managers are sensitive to this issue, so it no longer has an important moderator effect. The relationship networks built by retailers largely increase the positive effect of the perceived attractiveness of a foreign market on resource commitment (f² = 0.314) [H6 supported]. For a given perceived level of foreign market attractiveness, strong relationship networks result in higher resource commitment, confirming the importance of relationship networks in retail internationalization [START_REF] Sparks | Reciprocal retail internationalization: the Southland corporation, Ito-Yokado and 7-eleven convenience stores[END_REF][START_REF] Elg | The role of networks and matching in market entry of emerging retail markets[END_REF].

The control variables (age, experience, domestic operation mode) were not statistically significant.

These determinants of expansion mode choice echo previous findings from the retailing literature [START_REF] Doherty | Factors influencing International Market Entry Mode Strategy: Qualitative Evidence from the UK Fashion Sector[END_REF][START_REF] Picot-Coupey | Determinants of International Retail Operation Mode Choice: Towards a Conceptual Framework Based on Evidence from French Specialised Retail Chains[END_REF], as well as results from the international business literature [START_REF] Morschett | Decades of research on market entry modes: What do we really know about external antecedents of entry mode choice?[END_REF]. In particular, the impact of factors such as brand and positioning strategy is consistent with the results reported in a fashion context [START_REF] Bridson | The secret to a fashion advantage is brand orientation[END_REF][START_REF] Lu | Factors influencing international fashion retailers' entry mode choice[END_REF]. The antecedents influence the expansion mode decision through three dimensions along which the various modes are evaluated. The results point to the indirect relationships between FOM and the determinants, confirming the conclusions of [START_REF] Hill | An Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode[END_REF] and [START_REF] Driscoll | Dimensionalizing International Entry Mode Choice[END_REF]. Results show the relative importance assigned to these three dimensions by fashion retailers for the expansion modes studied.

Company-owned stores are chosen as an expansion mode when the desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets is high (p 47 = 0.217; p= 0.001) and the willingness to limit resource commitment to the project is low (p 67 = -0.391; p= 0.000) [H7.1; H7.3 supported]. The control dimension has no significant impact [H7.2 not supported],

which is surprising when compared to previous research conclusions [START_REF] Dawson | Internationalisation of Retailing Operations[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | The internationalisation of Foreign Fashion Retailers into the UK -Identifying the motives, methods and operational challenges[END_REF]. It may be that measuring individual dimensions allows precise observation of their respective importance. As the dissemination risk dimension was rarely considered and measured in previous research, the control consideration may have been theoretically overestimated. Another possible explanation is that, at the expansion stage, control decisions are less important than preserving retail specific assets which are entrusted to a growing number of shareholders in the foreign market.

Franchised stores are chosen as an expansion mode when the desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets is moderate (p 48 = 0.153; p= 0.000) [H8.1 not supported] and the desire to limit resources committed to the operation is high (p 68 = 0.271; p= 0.011) [H8.3 supported]. The financial rationale of international franchising is therefore supported [START_REF] Quinn | Towards a framework for the study of franchising as an operating mode for international retail companies[END_REF][START_REF] Quinn | Power and control in international retail franchising: evidence from theory and practice[END_REF]. Although inconsistent with traditional views [START_REF] Quinn | Power and control in international retail franchising: evidence from theory and practice[END_REF], the positive relationship of dissemination risk with franchised stores can be justified by the argument of [START_REF] Watson | Retail franchising: an intellectual capital perspective[END_REF] who state that a comprehensive franchise contract can protect a retailer's assets. The control dimension has no significant impact [H8.2 not supported], contradicting the views of [START_REF] Hutchinson | SME retailer's internationalization: case study evidence from British retailers[END_REF].

Shop-in-shops are chosen as an expansion mode when the desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets is low (p 49 = -0.285; p= 0.002) and the desire for control over strategic and operational decisions is also low (p 59 = -0.389; p= 0.001) [H9.1; H9.2 supported]. An unexpected result in the light of previous conclusions (Jerath and Zang, 2010) is the non-significant impact of the resource dimension [H9.3 not supported]. Resourcerelated issues can be less critical at the expansion stage than at market entry.

The plural form is chosen as an expansion mode when the desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets is moderate (p 410 = 0.119; t= 0.028), the desire for control over decisions is high (p 510 = 0.372; p= 0.001) and the desire to limit the resource committed to the operation is high (p 610 = 0.352; t= 0.002) [H10.1, H10.2, H10.3 supported].

Resource and control concerns are important in the choice of an expansion mode combining company-owned and franchised stores.

The composite form is chosen as an expansion mode when the desire for protection against dissemination risk of specific assets is very limited (p 411 = -0.408, p= 0.014) and the desire for control is low (p 511 = -0.362; p= 0.029) [H11.1, H11.2 supported]. Combining company-owned stores, franchised stores, and shop-in-shops is a powerful mode to develop a tight and balanced network, build a distinctive position and a strong brand image. The strength of these assets may self-protect the company and reinforce its ability to work with partners in the foreign market without incurring dissemination risk. The resource dimension has no significant impact [H11.3 not supported]. Retailers expanding with a composite form pursue ambitious objectives of development so the resource issue may be of minor importance.

Discussion

This research studied the dynamics of retail FOMs. The antecedents observed in previous research were organized into an integrative framework and tested, to investigate their influence on expansion mode choice in the French fashion sector. The results showed that (i) retailers clearly differentiated between entry and expansion modes; (ii) retailers associated company-owned stores as the FOM for expansion characterized by a high degree of protection of specific assets and requiring a willingness to commit resources; franchised stores provide moderate protection of specific assets and require limited resource commitment; shop-inshops provide limited protection of specific assets and limited control over decisions; plural forms provide moderate protection of specific assets, high control and require limited resource commitment and, finally, composite forms provide very limited protection of specific assets and low control; (iii) the international marketing plan, the strategic and ownership conditions and the perceived attractiveness of the foreign market were the key antecedents for the choice of an expansion mode while managers' involvement in internationalization and relationship networks moderated the choice.

We now discuss further these results alongside existing internationalization theories to assess if they are consistent with or deviate from the motives for the choices suggested by these generic theories. In other words, does this study provide evidence to support the generalized explanations found in internationalization theories in a retail context? According to our sample of fashion retail managers, the expansion mode decision is the result of a dynamic process initiated from the entry stage: this conflicts with the economic-strategic perspective on internationalization but is consistent with the temporal perspective supported by the Uppsala internationalization process model [START_REF] Welch | Foreign Operation Methods -Theory, Analysis, Strategy[END_REF].

However, the expansion mode decision deviates from that suggested by this latter model as the incremental path is not verified, corroborating previous expectations [START_REF] Vida | International Expansion of retail firms: a theoretical approach for future investigations[END_REF][START_REF] Vodlan | Multinationals in Central and Eastern Europe: a case study of international expansion by a Slovenian retailer[END_REF]. Industry-specific characteristics play an important role in this, especially the necessity to operate a full business system [START_REF] Dawson | Strategy and Opportunism in European Retail Internationalization[END_REF].

We further examine each antecedent observed in our model in the light of internationalization theories. The expansion mode choice is implemented by consideration of the international marketing plan, the strategic and ownership conditions and the attractiveness of the foreign market as perceived by managers, rather than being determined by the size of the company and the length of its international experience. Such antecedents relating to marketing and strategic objectives, resources, foreign market and country environment and managers' perceptions are consistent with those proposed in the new behavioral internationalization theories -the born-global theory and the network theory -but conflict with the Uppsala internationalization process perspective. Besides, for fashion retailers, the relationship networks they develop play a facilitating role in assessing a foreign market and, as a consequence, help to speed up in-country expansion. This antecedent is considered a key issue in network theory [START_REF] Coviello | Network relationships and the internationalization process of Small Software Firms[END_REF] and the Uppsala internationalization process model [START_REF] Johanson | The Uppsala internationalization process model revisited: From liability of foreignness to liability of outsidership[END_REF]. Finally, the involvement of top managers in internationalization echoes the views expressed in the new behavioral internationalization theories (i.e. the born-global theory and the network theory) on the role of personal attitudes in shaping the internationalization path [START_REF] Welch | The internationalization Process and Networks: A Strategic Management Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Laanti | The globalization strategies of B to B born global firms in the wireless technology industry[END_REF]. Our results therefore support a multi-theoretical framework combining elements drawn from the Uppsala internationalization process model with the network theory and the born-global theory. Figure 3 shows how each of the antecedents observed in our model relates to a specific internationalization theory and proposes a formalized synthesis of explanatory and moderating variables and their theoretical roots.

Figure 3 goes about here

Overall, the results of our quantitative study of French fashion retailers suggest that a framework combining core concepts from the Uppsala internationalization process model, the network theory and the born-global theory contributes to improving our understanding of the expansion mode choice in an international retailing context. The antecedents for the choice of expansion mode can be appropriately explained from a multi-theoretical perspective: taken individually, each of the theories only considers a few of the antecedents. The idiosyncrasies of the retail sector in its internationalization process [START_REF] Dawson | Internationalisation of Retailing Operations[END_REF] are more appropriately addressed by the so-called new theories of the internationalization process, whilst the Uppsala internationalization process model provides insights into the temporal dynamic of internationalization [START_REF] Johanson | The Uppsala internationalization process model revisited: From liability of foreignness to liability of outsidership[END_REF][START_REF] Jonsson | International expansion through flexible replication: Learning from the internationalization experience of IKEA[END_REF]. Thus, our results suggest that these theories may be considered to be complementary. They support the view of earlier research positing that the combination and integration of several internationalization theories provide a more appropriate explanation of FOM choice than single theories [START_REF] Davies | The International Activities of Japanese Retailers[END_REF][START_REF] Canabal | Entry mode research: past and future[END_REF][START_REF] Lu | Factors influencing international fashion retailers' entry mode choice[END_REF]. Despite specific challenges, generic internationalization theories can be meaningful in a retail context.

Conclusion: implications, limitations and perspectives

Distinguishing the entry mode from the expansion mode provides further insights into the growth process of retailers in foreign markets. Within the sector investigated, fashion retail companies develop additional locations via a mode that may be different from the one initially chosen to enter the foreign market, with a number of factors affecting entry and expansion decisions in various ways. This research developed and tested an encompassing framework of the antecedents that influence the foreign expansion mode choice within a retail context. Such an empirical analysis helps evaluate the role of internationalization theories in retailing and overcomes some of the tensions over their application in this sector, as suggested by [START_REF] Dawson | Scoping and conceptualising retailer internationalization[END_REF] and [START_REF] Jonsson | International expansion through flexible replication: Learning from the internationalization experience of IKEA[END_REF]. This research proposed a new multi-theoretical framework for expansion mode choice, following discussion of how each part of the results was consistent with each theory. The contribution of this article to the literature on retail internationalization is three-fold: (i) it enhances empirical observations of the dynamics of retail FOM choice; (ii) it allows a better understanding of the antecedents of retail expansion mode choice by considering an enlarged range of alternatives (five expansion modes) and numerous and interacting selected antecedents; (iii) it confronts the results relating to retail expansion mode antecedents alongside existing theoretical perspectives, thus grounding the proposed framework and offering an encompassing view of retail international activities. It also develops complementary approaches which make it possible to grasp the complexity of the factors influencing retail internationalization, including the FOM decision.

How can retailers benefit from these findings when they select a foreign expansion mode? This research has observed the dynamics of retail FOMs over time and the interdependencies between the entry and the subsequent expansion modes. Consequently, an entry mode in a foreign market has to be chosen with regard to the potential expansion modes in the future. This research has identified the key factors justifying the choice of one foreign expansion mode over another and when it is preferable to use particular post-entry modes.

Each operation in a given foreign market is specific: as a consequence, an appropriate mode can be selected only on the basis of a structured diagnosis. The systematic use of the same mode is not efficient. Mode evaluation is a complex exercise. For retail managers in charge of international development, identifying the reasons influencing FOM choices allows them to focus on a number of key factors which they should consider when organizing their international expansion. Considering our results, retail managers should first evaluate their objectives in terms of dissemination risk minimization, willingness to control decision making, and degree of resource commitment regarding their international marketing plan, their business strategy and the foreign market context. An evaluation of the FOM characteristics alongside these objectives would then help them determine the most appropriate expansion mode. For example, considering its objectives, a retail company that is concerned to minimize dissemination risk and which can commit resources to the operation should favor companyowned stores as a foreign expansion mode. If the company is less concerned by dissemination risk issues but constrained by resources, its choice process should lead it to favor franchised stores or, if control issues are important, a plural form. Conversely, when the assessment of objectives against mode characteristics requires neither high protection of specific assets nor high control over decisions, a composite form should be favored. Moreover, the results highlight that relationship networks facilitate the decision making process when it comes to choosing the expansion mode. Networking is key to retail managers' international activities.

The contribution of this research cannot be considered without highlighting its limitations. One relates to the sample size: stemming from only one sector and one country, as a consequence of the efforts to limit sources of variability and improve internal validity with an homogeneous population. Nevertheless, this research is one of the first to examine the expansion mode choice with primary data from senior managers through a causal perspective, rather than an exploratory one.

The study's findings, as well as its limitations, provide several opportunities for further research, especially into foreign expansion mode changes and adjustments. Future

Legend:

imp: international marketing plan sop: strategic and ownership profile pafm: perceived attractiveness of the foreign market ctrl: control over decision making rc: resource commitment dr: dissemination risk cos: company-owned stores franc: franchise stores shop-: shop-in-shops plural: plural form compo: composite form

Choice of an expansion mode

  ) decided to create company-owned stores straight from the market entry stage. Furthermore, almost 40 percent (17) of expansion operations were based on company-owned stores. Fashion retailers are likely to open company-owned stores right from the entry stage, contradicting the view of incremental development in international markets.

  work is also needed to improve the external validity of the results. Research might be extended to other retail sectors as patterns and processes in internationalization may be different for fashion retailers or grocery retailers. The study might also be replicated with retail companies from countries other than France, as country effects have been documented in previous studies. Such cross-sector and cross-culture studies on entry and expansion mode decisions may open promising avenues for retail research.

  All measured on a five-point Likert Scale: 1= strongly disagree 5= strongly agreeDISSEMINATION RISKIn this foreign market, our company has chosen the expansion mode (XX) because it DR 1 limits the risk of collections being imitated DR2 limits the risk of partners appropriating our marketing know-how DR4 limits the risk of partners appropriating our management know-how DR5 it ensures that the concept will be respected in the marketCONTROL OVER DECISION MAKINGIn this foreign market, our company has chosen the expansion mode (XX) because it provides CT2 control over all decisions on strategic positioning CT3 control over the store window display CT4 control over the work in the stores CT5 delegation to local partners of decisions related to the choice of the assortment (reverse scoring) CT7 delegation to local partners of decisions related to the merchandising of the products in the stores (reverse scoring) RESOURCE COMMITMENT In this foreign market, our company has chosen the expansion mode (XX) because RC1 the financial resources invested in the market are limited RC2 it limits the number of employees in the stores FX3 it provides the possibility of withdrawing from the market quickly without high costs INVOLVEMENT OF TOP MANAGERS IN INTERNATIONALIZATION I1 our management committee considers that activities in foreign markets have a positive impact on the financial results of our company I2 our management committee considers that international expansion has a positive impact on company growth I4 our management committee shows no intention of further developing foreign activities (reverse scoring) I5 Expansion in foreign markets is considered as a waste of resources by the management committee Appendix C -Bootstrap results on the structural model

Figure

  Figure 1-Theoretical framework for retailers' foreign expansion mode choice

Table 1 -Antecedents for FOM choice in internationalization theories Internal antecedents External antecedents Economic-strategic perspective

 1

		-Product characteristics	-Location advantages (market
		-Ownership advantages (brand,	attractiveness)
		production technique,	-Industry characteristics
		entrepreneurial skills)	-Opportunism
		-International strategy
		-Internalization advantages (tacit
		knowledge, organization of core
		competencies)
		-Experiential knowledge	-Psychic distance
		-Learning	-Geographical distance
		-Resource endowment (financial,	-Cultural differences
	Behavioural perspective	human, technical resources)	-Inter-organisational relationship
		-Entrepreneurial orientation	networks
		-Entrepreneurs' international
		networks

Table 2 -Categorization of retail FOMs along four characteristics

 2

		Degree of protection against dissemination risk of specific assets	Degree of control over decisions	Amount of resource commitment	Degree of flexibility
	Network operating company-owned stores	Very high	Very high	Very high	Very low
	Network operating franchised stores	Intermediate to low	Intermediate to low	Low	Intermediate to high
	Network operating shop-in-shops	Low	Intermediate	Low	Very high
	Network operating a plural form	Intermediate to high	Intermediate to high	Low to intermediate	Intermediate
	Network operating a composite form	Intermediate to low	Intermediate to low	Intermediate	High

Table 3 -Characteristics of the sample

 3

	Age of the Company		Turnover (Million €)*
	< 5 years	1	0 to 15	9
	5 to 10 years	3	15 to 30	5
	10 to 20 years	10	30 to 50	9
	20 to 50 years	18	50 to 100	6
	> 50 years	11	> 100	12
	Domestic Operation Mode (France)	International Turnover (% of total)
	Company-owned stores	6	< 10%	11
	Franchised stores	0	10 to 25%	9
	Plural form	8	25 to 50%	17
	Composite form	23	50 to 80%	5
	Company-owned stores	6	> 80%	1
	and shop-in-shops
	On-

line presence to serve international customers* Ownership Structure of the Company

	Separate local country website only	17	Family ownership	28
	Home country website only	14	Listed company	6
	Home country and local country websites	9	Financial shareholders ownership	9

* The sample number does not add up to 43 because of non-responses to these questions.

Table 4 -Scales and Indices Properties

 4 Cronbach alphaρ = Dillon-Goldstein Rho -AVE = Average Variance Extracted -FA = Factor Analysis

	Scales	Manifest variables	Original sample	Correlation Sample mean	Standard error
		DR1	0,7085	0,7269	0,0466	α = 0.81
	Dissemination risk of specific assets	DR2 DR4	0,8354 0,8828	0,8431 0,8824	0,0383 0,0328	ρ= 0.88 AVE = 64%
		DR5	0,7634	0,7689	0,0432	FA ok
		CT2	0,7829	0,7953	0,0425
		CT3	0,7562	0,7624	0,0437	α = 0.87
	Control over decision making	CT4 CT5	0,8738 0,8179	0,8743 0,8238	0,0339 0,0396	ρ= 0.91 AVE = 66% FA ok
		CT7	0,8287	0,8298	0,0383
		RC1	0,8732	0,8726	0,0339	α = 0.80
	Resource commitment	RC2	0,8063	0,8177	0,0409	ρ= 0.87 AVE = 70%
		FX3	0,8373	0,8342	0,0372	FA ok
	Involvement of top managers in internationalization	I1 I2 I4 I5	0,8521 0,9220 0,8772 0,8649	0,8502 0,9355 0,9093 0,9004	0,0360 0,0296 0,0367 0,0379	α = 0.90 ρ= 0.93 AVE = 77% FA ok
		Dy1	0,8654	0,8677	0,0355
		Dy2	0,8596	0,8481	0,0346	α = 0.91
	Psychic distance	Dy3 Dy4	0,8729 0,8257	0,8752 0,8229	0,0350 0,0388	ρ= 0.93 AVE = 64%
		Dy5	0,8193	0,8196	0,0395	FA ok
		Dy6	0,7207	0,7126	0,0452
	Indices	Manifest variable	Original sample	Weights Sample mean	Standard error
		Mk10	0,2540	0,2185		0,2040
	International marketing plan	Mk14 Mk22 Mk41	-0,1572 0,5747 0,3705	-0,147 0,4865 0,3330		0,2143 0,1509 0,1589
		Mk42	0,2688	0,2152		0,2255
		Pf12	0,4465	0,4552		0,2041
	Strategic and	Pf14	0,0978	0,0716		0,2228
	ownership profile	Pf15	-0,7516	-0,6735		0,1851
		Pfc1	0,4385	0,4334		0,1766
		Av1	-0,7645	-0,573		0,2461
	Market potential	Av4 Av5	-0,6019 0,4283	-0,5702 0,3661		0,4317 0,3328
		Av7	0,7572	0,5615		0,2086
		Rl3	1,0118	0,9804		0,0890
	Relationship	Rl4	-0,4288	-0,4138		0,1836
	networks	Rl7	0,4869	0,4480		0,1919
		Rl8	-0,0085	0,0105		0,1773
	α =

A synthesis of the literature is presented in appendix A.

Retail yearbook Mode -Textile -Maison of the French Fashion Institute; yearbook of the French Federation of Franchise and Directory of the European Federation of International Retailers.

Indices indicators INTERNATIONAL MARKETING PLAN OF THE RETAIL COMPANY(list questions)

Mk10

The brand is positioned in France: with a low price & discount image / as a high-end brand

Mk14

The image associated with "styled-in France" or "made-in France" or "Paris" is a key element of our marketing strategy in foreign markets.

Mk22

The company sells store brands: yes, for the whole range of the assortment/ yes, for the main part of the assortment

Mk41

In general, the network develops the same positioning strategy in France and in foreign markets.

Mk42

Depending on the characteristics of the different markets, certain aspects of our marketing mix Cramer V = 0,536 ; p = 0,000 -Contingency coefficient = 0,731 ; p = 0,000