Silvia Cruz

Faïz Gallouj

Sônia Paulino

Innovation in Local Public Services -the Solid Waste Sector from the perspective of Clean Development Mechanism landfill projects 1

This paper is devoted to public services innovation in the municipal solid waste sector. It analyses the implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects in the Bandeirantes and São João landfills in the municipality of São Paulo, Brazil. The analysis is based on the concept of Public-Private Innovation Networks in services (ServPPINs). Using the ServPPIN concept it was possible to identify competence gaps affecting the stakeholders involved in these CDM projects. We focus in particular on those organisational and relational competence gaps that are likely to weaken innovation feasibility and reduce the quality of solid waste services supply. In fact, innovation is closely linked to the development of new competences among service providers and users. For the most part, these will arise out of changes in interactions between actors -given that the projects in question include the coordination of various actors (public, private, and citizen). Such innovations will also arise out of changes in the environmental aspect, since in addition to monitoring of the technical parameters required for the general operation of landfills which implement CDM projects, auditing is also carried out by the Designated Operational Entities (DOE), which are responsible for validation of these projects.

Introduction

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 at the Third Conference of Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and came into force in 2005. This Protocol established that countries included in Annex I 2 were to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by at least 5% between 2008 and 2012, in relation to 1990 emission levels.

At the United Nations Climate Conference COP-18, held in Doha, Qatar, in December 2012, it was confirmed that the Kyoto Protocol would continue until 2020 (UNFCCC, 2013).

In order to assist Annex I countries to comply with their GHG emission reduction targets, the Protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which entails the implementation of project activities in emerging and developing countries, resulting in Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), which can be bought by Annex I countries.

CDMs encompass activities for reducing GHG emissions by establishing projects across a wide range of sectors, including landfill sites. These projects have excellent potential for GHG reduction given that, due to the urban solid waste management model adopted in countries like Brazil, which is characterized by the disposal of its waste via intensive use of landfills, and other disposal methods in the ground (controlled landfills, and open dumpsites) with common practice allowing gas to escape directly from landfills to the atmosphere via a methane drainage pipe.

Methane is a greenhouse gas, the global warming potential of which is 25 times higher than that of carbon dioxide. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), it is estimated that methane emissions from landfills comprise about 6% to 13% of total global emissions of methane [START_REF] Rubio-Romero | Profitability analysis of biogas recovery in Municipal Solid Waste landfills[END_REF].

It is worth noting that the CDM concept encompasses both global issues linked to climate change and the promotion of development in the local context (Brazil, 1997).

In this way, beyond the objective of assisting Annex I countries to fulfil their goals of GHG emission reduction (in line with article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol) these projects must also assist in promoting sustainable development in the host countries in which they are held.

The importance of civil society's effective participation throughout the approval process of a CDM project cannot be overstated. Another crucial point is that project proponents should send letters of invitation to all project stakeholders, taking into consideration the following agents in the case of Brazil: local authorities and chamber of deputies for all municipalities involved, municipal and state environmental departments; Brazilian NGOs and social movement forums, community associations both directly and indirectly associated with project activities, as well as both State and Federal Public Prosecution offices.

Within this general context, this paper aims to discuss the challenges raised by the promotion of public services innovation in the municipal solid waste sector. We focus on the implementation of CDM landfill projects in the municipality of São Paulo, Brazil. The theoretical background of the analysis is the concept of Public-Private Innovation Networks in Services (ServPPINs), highlighting the important role played in various types of innovation by public and private organisations working in collaboration.

Rather than being implemented with the explicit goal of promoting service innovation, the CDM landfill projects aim to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, in line with the Kyoto Protocol. However, these projects must also promote local sustainable development in host countries (by creating local co-benefits) and this can also lead to innovation dynamics.

In this paper, we focus on competences development based on interactions and relationships between the stakeholders involved in CDM landfill projects, highlighting the importance of network construction and opportunities for achieving local cobenefits from this.

Discussion of the development of organisational and relational competences for public services innovation is apt, since most studies on this subject are still technology-biased [START_REF] Schmidt | Non-technological and Technological Innovation: Strange Bedfellows?[END_REF][START_REF] Mothe | The impact of non-technological innovation on technical innovation: do services differ from manufacturing? An empirical analysis of Luxembourg firms[END_REF]. Therefore, for better comprehension of public services innovation, it is necessary to examine other aspects, going beyond technological factors.

Innovation studies concentrate on the private sector. The literature generally neglects or underestimates the role of public services in the innovation process (Djellal et al., 2013, Windrum;García-Goñi, 2008). The public sector is often portrayed as a facilitator of innovation activities, merely drafting the legal framework. However, there is a growing literature pointing out a more active role played by the public sector in innovation (both its own innovation and that of other sectors) [START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in Services[END_REF][START_REF] Mulgan | Innovation in the Public Sector, Strategy Unit[END_REF][START_REF] Hartley | Innovation in Governance and Public Services: Past and Present, Public money & management[END_REF][START_REF] Halvorsen | On the differences between public and private sector innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Koch | Innovation in the public sector[END_REF]Windrum and García-Goñi, 2008;[START_REF] Potts | Public sector innovation research: what's next? Innovation: Management[END_REF][START_REF] Fuglsang | Bricolage and invisible innovation in public service innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Sundbo | User-employee encounter based service innovation and blocking of innovation processes[END_REF]Djellal and Gallouj, 2013;Djellal et al. 2013).

The public sector is extremely heterogeneous. Although public services are often provided by public organisations, other provision modes have recently emerged. Public services can be provided by public actors, private actors, or both [START_REF] Di Meglio | The place of ServPPINs in the range of public-private collaboration arrangements for services provision[END_REF][START_REF] Weber | ServPPINs as instruments for realizing system innovations: two case studies in passenger transport in Austria[END_REF].

The multi-faceted and heterogeneous nature of the public sector is a result of the multiple interfaces which characterize public organisations: 1) interface with the private sector; 2) interface between the public sector and citizens, and 3) internal interfaces within the public sector (between government levels and between different areas of activity) [START_REF] Bugge | The public sector in innovation systems, Project -Measuring Public Innovation in the Nordic Countries: Toward a common statistical approach[END_REF]. These various interfaces, which illustrate the heterogeneity of the public sector, can be useful in understanding the logic of public service innovation.

Therefore, in the case of the municipal solid waste sector and the implementation of carbon market projects within landfills, innovation opportunities are strongly related to the interactions and relationships built by stakeholders at the different levels at which they are involved.

The paper is structured in four sections. Following the introduction, section 2 discusses the Public-Private Innovation Network in Services (ServPPIN) 3 concept, focusing on the development of relational and organisational competences for service innovation. Section 3 is devoted to presentation of the empirical cases, focusing on the competences that should be developed by each stakeholder involved in the selected CDM landfill projects. Our conclusions are set out in section 4.

Public Services through the Public-Private Innovation Network concept

The purpose of this section is to discuss the concept of Public-Private Innovation Network In Services (ServPPIN) (Gallouj et al., 2013), highlighting the roles played by public and private actors, and the interaction processes between them, in order to promote innovationboth technological and non-technological.

Public-Private Innovation Networks in Service: relational and organisational competences

Innovation networks and systems have been the subject of an extensive literature [START_REF] Callon | The dynamics of techno-economic networks[END_REF]; [START_REF] Edquist | Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Latour | Actor network theory and after[END_REF]Lundvall, 1992;Nelson, 1993 among others). In the same vein, more recently, there has been a growing literature on Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). Although these are not necessarily devoted to innovation (being mainly set up to produce infrastructure and/or services), PPPs can also be used as mechanisms for the production of innovations.

One of the factors encouraging interest in examining Public-Private Innovation Networks is the growing recognition of the important role played by public sector organisations in the innovation process.

The network concept is biased towards manufacturing and technology. It has only recently been applied to innovation in services -which is surprising, given the interactional nature of service activities.

A network is the establishment of relationships based on trust [START_REF] Fuglsang | Collaboration and trust in a public-private innovation network: a case study of an emerging innovation model[END_REF], on reputation, and on mutual dependency between selected partners. From the perspective of innovation, the network can be considered not only as most efficient (it reduces transaction costs), but also as more effective than hierarchical coordination [START_REF] Siemiatycki | Public-Private Partnership Networks: Exploring Business-Government Relationships in United Kingdom Transportation Projects[END_REF]. However, the concept of the innovation network (in the traditional sense) does have a certain number of shortcomings, namely: a technology bias, a manufacturing bias (linked to the previous one), and a market bias (centrality of the private actors in the innovation dynamics).

The ServPPIN concept provides a way of overcoming these various biases, reaching beyond the technologistic view of innovation dominating in innovation networks (IN) (Djellal and Gallouj 2013;Gallouj et al., 2013;[START_REF] Labarthe | Effects of institutions on the integration of endusers' knowledge in ServPPINs: lessons from two case studies in agroenvironmental knowledge-intensive services[END_REF]. It adopts a broader perspective, incorporating non-technological aspects of innovation, including organisational innovation, ad hoc innovation, social innovation, and bricolage innovation, i.e. innovation through non-programmed activities, trial-and-error processes and adaptation to random events [START_REF] Fuglsang | Bricolage and invisible innovation in public service innovation[END_REF].

The ServPPIN concept contributes to opening up the traditional innovation network concept to new actors: all market services, as well as third-sector organisations. It extends potential forms of participation for certain actors. Public organisations are thus no longer restricted to playing a support role in the innovation process. They may be active participants in that process, particularly insofar as their own activity is concerned.

Although ServPPINs are networks of collaborative partnerships between public and private organisations, they are more comprehensive than traditional innovation networks in order to promote changes in coordination actions among participants, so as to combine productivity and welfare expansion. Moreover, ServPPINs are more open and flexible structures than are traditional PPPs, which entail relations between actors that are more closed, with predefined functions, rules and formal procedures (particularly contracts) that can bureaucratize the process, and limit the potential for innovation.

The high number, and diversity, of participants in a ServPPIN can lead to a complex and intensive process of interaction in which a large amount of heterogeneous information and knowledge (tacit and non-tacit) are likely to be exchanged, since plenty of channels are opened for interaction.

According to Bučar et al. ( 2013), ServPPINs can be understood as a place for social interaction and the construction of social relations aimed at innovation. Nevertheless, of all case studies provided by the ServPPIN research project4 , several were not explicitly oriented towards the innovation target. For example, in some hospital case studies the main objective was to reduce costs in the use of technologies. Similarly the CDM landfill projects we examined were implemented in order to reduce GHG emissions, rather than with the explicit goal of promoting service innovation. In fact, the technology and innovation outcomes appear to be additional results of the local co-benefits generation.

In other words, interesting changes and innovations are likely to arise out of such networks -which can then be retrospectively labelled 'innovation networks'. Taking into account non-technological, incremental and programmed innovations (ad hoc, bricolage, rapid application, etc.) it is also possible to consider even those networks which are not explicitly (or immediately) oriented towards innovation to be ServPPINs. This is one difference between ServPPINs and traditional innovation networks (IN).

It should be noted that in ServPPINs, interaction between the public and private sectors occupies a central position. This interaction is favourable to the various parties involved, and not just in monetary terms. In this sense, from a perspective based on the notion of network, ServPPINs are a means of deepening studies related to public services innovation -an innovation field that is yet to be explored in depth (Djellal and Gallouj, 2013;Gallouj et al., 2013;[START_REF] Windrum | Innovation in Public Services: Entrepreneurship, Creativity and Management[END_REF].

The ServPPIN concept is particularly relevant as a theoretical basis for our research since it allows us to take into account the relational and organisational competences, as well as the goals, of the various stakeholders involvedand these are important elements of service innovation (Djellal and Gallouj, 2013;[START_REF] Labarthe | Effects of institutions on the integration of endusers' knowledge in ServPPINs: lessons from two case studies in agroenvironmental knowledge-intensive services[END_REF][START_REF] Weber | ServPPINs as instruments for realizing system innovations: two case studies in passenger transport in Austria[END_REF].

One of the essential characteristics of the service supply is the inseparability of the productive process from its results. The output of a service cannot be dissociated from its process. Therefore, in such activities (characterized by the interaction between customer/user and service provider) the service interface component should be taken into account, as well as the human or technical competences necessary to service provision.

Organisational processes and innovation management are important issues in service innovation, since, in services, innovation processes are rarely carried out in a particular R&D or innovation department. In other words, organisational structure and competences play an important role in the processes of innovation in services [START_REF] Hertog | Capabilities for managing service innovation: towards a conceptual framework[END_REF]Djellal et al., 2013, Gallouj et al., 2013). However it should be noted that even in manufacturing industries, organisational factors are often singled out as mechanisms that block innovation [START_REF] Sundbo | User-employee encounter based service innovation and blocking of innovation processes[END_REF]. These factors include: poor targeting of resources; motivation and decisions; inadequate employee competences or weak company culture; an inefficient communication system, and lack of technology or knowledge.

Figure 1 provides a list of limitations/barriers to innovation in public services in a multi-agent context. These are subdivided into organisational and relational barriers. Windrum and García-Goñi, 2008;[START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF].

Public and private actors must be able to cooperate in order to share risks and mobilize resources and complementary competences devoted to non-technological as well as to technical innovations. This cooperation is especially important for traditional public services such as the solid waste sector, which (in this context) require new structures -in terms of approaches, strategies, solutionsin order to adapt to the rapid and complex changes induced by new environmental policies.

Mainly because of their important institutional and regulatory role, public institutions are decisive in the success and sustainability of ServPPINs (Djellal et al, 2013;[START_REF] Weber | ServPPINs as instruments for realizing system innovations: two case studies in passenger transport in Austria[END_REF][START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF].

Public-Private Innovation Networks in Service and the goals and competences of multiple agents

This section aims to present and discuss the contributions and limits of the ServPPIN concept in the definition, identification and analysis of the goals and competences of the network's various stakeholders.

Different types of actors are involved in the innovation process and the provision of services in a multi-agent configuration, each having its own specific goals and competences [START_REF] Weber | ServPPINs as instruments for realizing system innovations: two case studies in passenger transport in Austria[END_REF]Windrum and García-Goñi, 2008;[START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF] allowing complementarities and synergies to develop among them. Djellal and Gallouj (2013) propose a typology of ServPPINs, based on the specificities of the innovation implemented. The criteria used for this typology are: the nature of the innovation (visible/ invisible); its degree of simplicity; its origin (adoption/ production) and the planned or unplanned nature of the innovation. It should be noted that a scale of complexity can also be introduced into simple ServPPINs, reflecting not the number of different types of innovation but the nature of the innovation and the forms it takes.

Four types of ServPPINs are identified. These are, in increasing order of complexity: 1) simple ServPPINs set up to adopt a technology; 2) simple ServPPINs set up to produce technological innovation; 3) simple ServPPINs set up to produce nontechnological innovation; 4) complex or architectural ServPPINs. These ServPPIN types are also related to traditional service innovation perspectives: assimilative (or technologistic), demarcative (or service-oriented), and Integrative [START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in Services[END_REF]. In addition, it is possible to highlight how competences and goals issues are handled in each of these approaches, as set out in the Figure 2 below. It turns out that innovation dynamics within an architectural ServPPIN are the result of complex and non-complex processes of interactions between various actors having heterogeneous competences and goals (Djellal and Gallouj, 2013), whereas the various stakeholder goals influence the adoption and/or production of innovations. The complex nature of this type of ServPPIN describes the multiple forms of innovation that it includes and, consequently, the various competences and goals to be considered.

Complexity

Service innovation approach

ServPPIN type

Goals/Competences

Assimilative

The emergence of an open and collaborative culture is crucial to the development of such a network. Organisational boundaries need to be opened up to facilitate the collaboration and integration of various competences and (sometimes divergent) goals.

In the case studies analysed by the ServPPIN project, another factor stressed (beyond the importance of flexible arrangements between the different actors) is the presence of strong leadership in the network, at both operational and strategic levels. This highlights the important role of the entrepreneur profile in the management of public and private organisations.

Thus, it should be noted that public actors are able to exercise such leadership and also to develop the competences necessary to broadening organisational boundaries, adopting some of the cultural features and practices of collaborative partners. These changes imply the need for development of a different set of competences, resources, and expertise, as well as different modes of communication, coordination, and governance.

However, the scope and the trajectory of service innovations are governed not only by provider competences, but also by the need to mediate the (probably conflicting) preferences of decision-makers, service providers, and users (Windrum and García-Goñi, 2008). Where these preferences diverge strongly, the relative power of the different agents can be a deciding factor [START_REF] Di Meglio | The place of ServPPINs in the range of public-private collaboration arrangements for services provision[END_REF][START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF].

The Windrum and García-Goñi (2008) model5 (inspired by [START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in Services[END_REF]) is an analytical framework representing the interactions between the various agents from the political, economic and social spheres, and allowing their preferences and competences to be identified. It is particularly well-suited to the study of public-private innovation networks.

Although this model emphasises the importance of organisational and relational competences, it does not ignore the important role of technical knowledge, which is also part of service supply. This model allows a focus on stakeholder perspectives in the innovation process, and also incentivizes the identification of opportunities for the promotion of innovation in the supply of public services (in this case, the municipal solid waste sector). Data was also collected through semi-structured interviews organised into six categories (environmental quality monitoring, gas emissions monitoring, closing of the landfill, access to CDM projects, relationships between stakeholders, and the contribution of CDM project resources to the management of solid waste). These interviews were conducted with both public and private sectors, and with service users, in the second semester of 2011.

Empirical results: the case of two

Application of the ServPPINs concept made it possible to map and systematize the competence gaps of the stakeholders involved in the Bandeirantes and São João CDM landfill projectsand in particular, the competence gaps relating to interactions between stakeholders, making innovation feasible and improving the quality of solid waste services supply in the city of São Paulo. Using the ServPPIN concept, the analysis assists in the identification of important elements for innovation promotion in public services, and highlights the relational and organisational aspects.

It is observed that it is common practice in CDM landfill projects to have several parties involved in the landfill gas (LFG) recovery activities: concession-holders responsible for managing the landfill, for capturing LFG, Municipal Departments, and representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills.

The challenge is thus to elucidate the goals of each of these, as well as the competence gaps that need to be remedied in order to promote public services innovation. According to Di Meglio ( 2013), collective action is essential to ensuring the adequate supply of public goods and services.

In this sense, focusing on CDM project implementation -which demands publication of the activities and civil society participation-service users also have an important role to play within the context analysed.

In other words, there is a need to develop interaction between private, public and third sector organisations, aimed at restructuring the municipal solid waste sector. It will then be pertinentgiven that these projects involve the interaction of different actors -to discern these aspects in the analysis of GHG reduction projects in the solid waste sector.

Characterization of the landfills, and identification of stakeholder preferences

The Bandeirantes and São João landfills have distinct characteristics (Table 1). Application of the multi-agent model (Windrum and García-Goñi, 2008;[START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF] adapted to the context studied has enabled systematization of the agents identified as stakeholders involved in the Bandeirantes and São João landfill CDM projects (Table 2). According to [START_REF] Windrum | A neo-Schumpeterian model of health services innovation[END_REF] and [START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF], agent preferences are related to the motivations, inclinations and requirements of the innovation process. Figure 4 summarizes the differences in preferences between the various stakeholders involved in the development of CDM projects in the Bandeirantes and São João landfills. As highlighted in Figure 4, the agents for the four types of stakeholders involved in the projects developed in landfills are distinct in their guiding preferences. The possibility of different -or even conflicting -preferences has been pointed out by [START_REF] Windrum | A neo-Schumpeterian model of health services innovation[END_REF] and [START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF]. These conflicts make it necessary to develop competences for interaction and joint performance that enable improvements within the municipal solid waste services.

In the next section, we discuss the competence gaps and service innovation opportunities emerging from the relation/interaction between the various stakeholders identified (public, private and user).

Competence gaps and service innovation opportunities

The analysis of the CDM landfill projects from the ServPPIN perspective (using interstakeholder relation/interaction) shows that the promotion of innovation is limited by a wide range of factors (Table 3).

Table 3 -Limitations on inter-stakeholder interaction

Interaction between...

Key points identified a)... representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills and municipal departments and private concessionholders

-the need to develop a common language -the need to publicize activities related to CDM

. municipal departments and the private concession holders responsible for LFG recovery and power generation

-absence of local regulatory standards for fugitive gas monitoring, as well as regarding the establishment of criteria for the surface waterproofing system that enables LFG recovery -ongoing implementation of legal requirements regarding the solid waste inventory in the municipality There is a need to develop competences in order to meet the above-mentioned gaps, specifically with regard to the following points: 1) understanding of complementarities between actors; 2) flexibility; 3) coordination; 4) training and 5) communication.

a) Interaction between the representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills and municipal departments and private concession-holders

Regarding the relational aspect, communication between the representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills and the other agents was identified as a core competence to be promoted. One challenge was to improve channels for the presentation of information about the objectives, and technical parameters to be met -in landfill management as well as in the development of CDM projects.

Two key points were identified as limiting and obstructing the process of innovation: lack of a common language and the need for the public sector and the private sector to publicize6 the activities related to CDM projects. In other words, the establishment of an effective communication channel with the surrounding communities is required.

Without a common language, surrounding communities may remain unaware of any possible benefits arising out of project implementation. Furthermore, the establishment of a common language can improve exposure of the different interests at stake. Publicizing activities related to CDM projects and implementing an effective communication channel would improve discussions, negotiations and disclosure to the various stakeholders via public consultations and dialogue mechanisms.

In terms of organisation, in the projects studied those competences aimed at establishing new organisational models need to be better exploited. This is particularly important for models supporting the role that civil society/ service users and the third sector could play in order to promote improvements to public services. In this sense, third sector organisations can be important protagonists in ServPPINs, particularly with regard to social innovations.

b) Interaction among private concession-holders: both those managing landfills and those responsible for LFG recovery and power generation

In terms of the relational aspect, the empirical investigation highlights the importance of the development of competences aimed at improving interaction between private concession-holders in landfills: those who are responsible for managing landfill areas and those who are responsible for LFG recovery and power generation. Once again, the difficulty of organising competences for the purposes of cooperation and communication was acknowledged.

With regard to the organisational aspect, the empirical investigation identifies a gap in competences for working in a network (lack of complementary competences, lack of ability to make use of a partner's competence).

Private companies could better interact by seeking to solve everyday problems, aggregating their knowledge of events occurring in a variety of situations in landfillsfor example the problems of impermeability, or of capturing biogas.

Relational performance development would also improve landfill closure processes (for example, in relation to the material used for the landfill cover layer; maintenance of the landfill plant cover; damage to the biogas drains caused by the pruning of vegetation; cases of breakdowns to the LFG recovery system). In addition, other CDM projects in this sector may benefit from the replication of these learning processes.

c) Interaction among municipal departments and representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills

With regard to the relational aspect, the communication issue was once again identified as a core competence to be promoted. It is thus necessary to develop the competences of the associations (from the communities surrounding the landfills) to discuss technical indicators about landfill operation and closure plans, as well as other alternatives for final disposal of waste. There is a need on the part of technicians at the municipal departments to ensure that data communicated about CDM projects can be easily understood by the communities surrounding the landfills.

With regard to the organisational aspect, it should be noted that access to CER resources occurs through tenders. However, sub-districts need to develop competences in order to be able to publicize good quality projects and thus access revenue from the sale of carbon credits.

Monitoring and management of budgetary compliance with the Special Fund for the Environment and Sustainable Development (FEMA) (the Municipal Fund of the Municipal Secretariat for the Environment, which receives the CER revenues) requires the development of competences for financial management of these revenues, as well as staff training aimed at improving management of these various revenue streams.

The São Paulo Municipal Annual Accounting Reports confirm that FEMA's 2008 and 2009 revenues from the carbon credits of the Bandeirantes and São João CDM landfills projects were applied in programmes and projects. However, according to the data analysed, it was observed that only a small amount of the resources from the auctions of the Bandeirantes and São João projects was employed, as a proportion of the updated budget (24.21% in 2008 and 12% in 2009).

In addition, the need to develop competences was noted, with a view to developing actions directed at environmental education and the inclusion of informal rubbish collection linked to landfill CDM projects, so as to provide opportunities for improving the services linked to landfill operations.

d) Interaction between municipal departments and the private concession-holders managing landfills

With regard to the relational aspect, the investigation highlights the feedback gap among the actors involved; a serious lack of communication was identified. It is fundamental that clear communication channels be established between private and municipal organisations working on CDM projects.

One practical example is the issue of fugitive gas emission and gas monitoring. If technical personnel, within both public and private sectors, were to enjoy more effective communication, sharing and communicating sampling results, the control of fugitive gas emissions could be improved, increasing the efficiency of the gas capture system.

The lack of empirical data relating to the characterization of municipal waste also harms development of landfill GHG emission reduction projects, since this diagnosis allows the recognition of types of materials contained in the waste, facilitating a realistic estimate of the amount of LFG to be generated. This means that the project proponents avoid being surprised by outlined values of CER generation that are too different from those calculated at the phase of project design.

Residues characterization could also provide a diagnosis that would support a recycling market analysis seeking to understand the actual levels of demand and supply in terms of materials. This would contribute to an increase in the useful life of landfills.

With regard to the organisational aspect, the gap linked to networking competences is highlighted. This is likely to result from the (behavioural/ cultural) heterogeneity of the public and private sectors. More open organisational boundaries are therefore necessary in order to facilitate collaboration as well as the integration of various competences and goals.

e) Interaction between municipal departments and the private concession-holders responsible for LFG recovery and power generation

Once again, with regard to the relational aspect, the investigation identifies a feedback gap among the actors involved, especially concerning the lack of data characterization of municipal waste. Characterization data should describe the type and quantity of municipal waste generated locally, defining the amount of organic waste produced, thus facilitating a realistic estimate of the amount of LFG to be generated. The availability of such data could better align the methodology to the reality of the landfill, making calculations more precise.

Data offered by the IPCC (1996 and[START_REF]Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[END_REF]) is generally used. The difficulty is that this information is based on average values for medium and low-income economies, which may be inconclusive and merely extrapolated to arrive at average values for a country of continental dimension, such as Brazil.

Regarding the organisational aspect, besides the networking competences gap, a further gap is highlighted relating to the absence of local regulatory standards for fugitive gas monitoring. The concession-holders apply the standard developed by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) even though this is not designed for local conditions in Brazilian landfills. The development of competences based on the establishment of a standard suited to local conditions would improve the efficiency of the biogas capture system.

Conclusion

The Public-Private Innovation Network in Services (ServPPINs) concept can be useful in establishing new approaches to public, private and user interactions, based on the identification of competences and preferences, existent or to be developed.

The analysis of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) landfill projects studied using the ServPPINs perspective (i.e. through relation/interaction between stakeholders) shows that a wide range of factors limits and affects the promotion of innovation -mainly in terms of relational and organisational aspects, highlighting the lack of involvement of citizens/service users and the lack of synergy between public and private sectors.

There is need to develop competences in order to meet the above-mentioned gaps, generally with regard to the following points: 1) understanding of complementarities between actors; 2) flexibility; 3) coordination; 4) training and 5) communication.

  competences (lack of complementary competences, lack of ability to use the competence of partners) 2) Appropriability problems (mainly related to trust) 3) Timing (of network establishment and of governmental and political change) 4) Rigidity of the public sector 5) Heterogeneity (behavioural/cultural) of public and private sectors 1) Effective feedback among the actors involved 2) Mutual trust 3) Asymmetrical information 4) Common language 5) Involvement of the local community (users/ citizens) 6) Common goal Figure 1 -Barriers to innovation in public services in a multi-agent context Source: the authors, based on Di Meglio (2013); Djellal et al (2013); Gallouj et al (2013); Weber and Heller-Schuh (2013);

Figure 3 -

 3 Figure3-Multi-agent model applied to the urban solid waste sector Source: The authors, based onWindrum and García-Goñi (2008) and[START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF].

Figure 4 -

 4 Figure 4 -Stakeholder Preferences in the Bandeirantes and São João landfill operations Source: The authors

  projects -the need to open up a communication channel b)... concession-holders: private concession holder managing the landfills and private concession holders responsible for LFG recovery and power generation -coordination issues between concession-holders at the landfills c)... municipal departments and representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills -problems of access to revenue from the sale of Certified Emission Reductions d)... municipal departments and private concession-holders managing the landfills -lack of communication -lack of characterization of the municipal waste -absence of empirical data on local climate and humidity conditions e)..

  ServPPINs types related to service innovation approaches and competences and goals Source: The authors, based onDjellal and Gallouj (2013)

				still emergent
	Figure 2 -
			Public and private agents
		1)Simple ServPPIN set up to adopt a technology	cooperate to adopt planned and simple technological innovation developed in the	Competences linked to the implementation of technological innovations
	(Technologist)		manufacturing sector
		2) Simple	The production of planned
		ServPPIN set	and simple technological	Competences linked to the
		up to produce	innovation is the main goal	development of technological
		technological	for cooperation between	innovations
		innovation	public and private agents
	Demarcative (service-oriented)	3) Simple ServPPIN set up to produce non-technological innovation	Public and private agents cooperate, in particular, to produce simple and unplanned non-technological innovation	Competences related to the implementation/development of non-technological innovations (organisational, social, intangible product and process innovations)
				Allows a different set of
				competences, resources, and
	Integrative	4) ServPPIN set up to adopt/produce complex or	Considered the most complex ServPPIN type, since it can cover various	expertise, and thus, also engenders a different composition of communication, coordination and governance within the network
		architectural innovation	modes of innovation	Managerial problems due to the interactions between these different
				forms of innovation as well as to the
				fact that some of these forms are

Brazilian landfill CDM projects 43

  of the 300 Brazilian CDM projects are developed on landfills -22 of which are located in the State of São Paulo (UNEP RISOe, August, 2013). The landfills selected for our empirical research are the Bandeirantes and São João landfills, both located in the municipality of São Paulo, a city of great complexity in terms of the role played by local government management.

	The data on the CDM landfill projects was obtained through documentary research in
	Monitoring Reports (MR) and Project Design Documents (PDD), between 2003 and
	2010. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP Risoe) database was
	also consulted: this provides monthly updates on CER status, generation, purchas-
	ers, and the Designated Operational Entity (DOE) responsible for CDM landfill project
	validation. Another data source used was the CDM registry (UNFCCC) -the online
	platform for CDM project registration.

From 1979 to 2007 these landfills received almost all of the municipal solid waste collected in São Paulo -Brazil's most populous city, with around 11 million inhabitants -and the country's largest generator of municipal solid waste. In addition, 50% of CER (Certified Emission Reduction) revenues are allocated to the municipal City Hall, specifically for the Environment and Sustainable Development Fund (FEMA) which is administered by the Municipal Department for the Environment.

Table 1 -

 1 Characterization of the Bandeirantes and São João Landfills This data is based on the preliminary modelled/ projected emission reductions from the PDD.

	Characteristic	Bandeirantes	São João
	Year of beginning landfill opera-tion / closure	1979 / 2007	1992 / 2009
	Tons of waste / day	4,000 to 5,000	6,000
	Project registration date on CDM Registry	Feb 20, 2006	Jul 02, 2006
	Average tCO 2 e / year*	1,070,629 tCO 2 e	816,940 tCO 2 e
	Power plant: Installed capacity	20 MW	24.64MW
			Concession-holder
		Concession-holder responsible for	responsible for landfill
	Concession-holders	landfill management; and concession-holder responsible for	management; and concession-holder
		biogas recovery	responsible for biogas
			recovery
	Municipal waste received over	37,226,873	26,153,980

*

Table 2 -

 2 Agents involved in the Bandeirantes and São João CDM landfill projects

	Sector	Agents
	Public	Municipal Services Department; and Municipal Department of Green Areas and the Environment
	Private	The concession-holder responsible for landfill management; and the concession-holder responsible for biogas recovery and power generation
	Users	Representatives of associations from the communities surrounding Bandeirantes and São João landfills

This work was supported by grant

2011/00081-5, São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP); CAPES Foundation/Ministry of Education of Brazil; and Centre Lillois d'Études et de Recherches Sociologiques et Économiques (CLERSÉ).2 OECD Member-States considered, in 1992, to be economically developed, and in-transition countries such as Germany, Belgium, Croatia, Russia, France, Spain, Sweden, and Greece.

This concept was developed in the ServPPIN project funded by the European Commission. The main results of that project are published inGallouj, Rubalcaba and Windrum (2013).

ServPPIN is an EU-funded research project which focuses on the role of public and private services on growth and welfare and the particular role of public-private innovation networks. For more information: http://www.servppin.com/. Main results of the project are also published inGallouj, Rubalcaba and Windrum (2013).

See also[START_REF] Windrum | Innovation and entrepreneurship in public services[END_REF]

The São Paulo Municipal Accounting AnnualReports (2008 and[START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in services a review of the debate and perspectives for a research agenda[END_REF] shows that no plan was published showing how revenue would be employed -which relates to the disclosure of plans, programmes and projects developed with the resources of the Environment and Sustainable Development Fund (FEMA) which is administered by the Municipal Department for the Environment Fund that receives 50% of the CER (certified emission reduction) revenue deriving from these projects.

Although CDM landfill projects are implemented with the purpose of reducing GHG emission, rather than with the explicit goal of promoting service innovation in the project host countries, technology and innovation issues are aspects of local cobenefits generation, which have to be managed.

ServPPINs are useful insofar as they provide a theoretical framework for addressing contexts that are marked by multiple agents, and the role of competences and goals in promoting public services innovation.

The carbon market's potential for promoting improvements in urban solid waste management by using CDM projects in landfill sites and resources from certified emission reductions need to be better understood. Both public and private proponents must interact and plan how the Bandeirantes and São João CDM projects can be turned into an effective tool for local sustainable development -taking into account the surrounding communities' participation. The public sector could have a prominent coordinating role in this sense, favouring the promotion of improvements to services.

Opportunities for innovation relating to the final disposal of solid waste in the Bandeirantes and São João landfills are associated with the establishment of a new organisational structure, guided by the inclusion and participation of the various stakeholders identified in the research -who are already engaged in implementation of the CDM projects.

Innovation is dependent on the development of new competences by service providers and service users. These competences will mainly arise out of changes in interactions between these agents (public, private, and citizen) in the relational and organisational aspects. Such innovations will also arise out of changes in the environmental aspect, since in addition to monitoring of the technical parameters required for general operation of landfill sites in landfills which implement CDM projects -auditing is also carried out by the Designated Operational Entities (DOE), which are responsible for validation of these projects.


Soha Maad

Samir Garbaya

Nizar Ayadi

Saida Bouakaz

Boosting Economic Growth Through Advanced Machine Vision

Introduction

In this chapter, we overview the potential of machine vision and related technologies in various application domains of critical importance for economic growth and prospect.

Considered domains include healthcare, energy and environment, finance, and industrial innovation. Visibility technologies considered encompass augmented and virtual reality, 3D technologies, and media content authoring tools and technologies.

We overview the main challenges facing the application domains and discuss the potential of machine vision technologies to address these challenges.

In healthcare, rising cases for chronic diseases among patients and the urgent need for preventive healthcare is accelerating the deployment of telemedicine. Telemedicine as defined in the EU commission staff working paper on "Telemedicine for the benefit of patients, healthcare systems and society" (COM-SEC, 2009) is the delivery of healthcare services at a distance using information and communication technologies. There are two main groups of telemedicine applications: (1) applications linking a patient with a health professional; and (2) applications linking two health professionals (such as tele-second opinion, teleradiology). Machine vision technologies, coupled with reliable networking infrastructure, are key for accelerating the penetration of telemedicine applications. Several examples will be drawn illustrating the use of machine vision technologies in telemedicine.

Sustainable energy and environment are key pillars for a sustainable economy. Technology is playing an increasing vital role in energy and environment including water resources management. This would foster greater control of the demand and supply side of energy and water. On the demand side, technologies including machine vision, could help in developing advanced visual metering technologies. On the supply side, machine vision technologies could help in exploring alternative sources for the generation of energy and water supply.

In the finance domain, financial crises and the failure of banking systems are major challenges facing the coming decade. Recovery is still far from reach entailing a major economic slowdown. Machine vision technologies offer the potential for greater risk visibility, prediction of downturns and stress test of the soundness of the financial system. Examples are drawn from 3D/AR/VR applications in finance.

Innovation could be seen as the process of deploying breakthrough outcome of research in industry. The innovation process could be conceived as a feedback loop starting from channelling the outcome of basic research into industrial production. Marketing strategies and novel approaches for customer relationship management draw a feedback loop that continuously update the feed of breakthrough research in industrial production. In this respect, machine vision technologies are key along this feedback process, particularly in the visualisation of the potential market and the potential route to market.

CYBER II technology [START_REF] Hasenfratz | Real-Time Capture, Reconstruction and Insertion into Virtual World of Human Actors VVG-, Vision, Video and Graphics -2003 Health-EU[END_REF][START_REF] Banta | Health Care Technology and Its Assessment in Eight Countries[END_REF] is described in section 6 as a machine vision technology that has a potential use in the various application domains considered in this chapter. CYBER II technology is based on multi-camera image acquisition, from different view points, of real moving bodies. Section 6 describes CYBER II technology and its potential application in the considered domains.

The chapter concludes with a comparative analysis of the penetration of machine vision in various application domains and reflects on the horizon of machine vision in boosting economic growth.

Machine vision in healthcare

Challenges facing the healthcare domain

All healthcare and scientific authorities worldwide are realising the importance of developing global healthcare infrastructures and access, at least at information and communication technology levels, for exchange of patient and healthcare data, services and to provide wider opportunities for clinical research. The US National Research Council (NRC-US, 2008) has stressed the need to invest in information technology and infrastructure for efficient communication among players in the global health arena. Adopted healthcare models in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, UK and USA suggested an added value from adopting an integrated health care model incorporating international healthcare practices [START_REF] Banta | Health Care Technology and Its Assessment in Eight Countries[END_REF]. The Irish health policy is influenced by the developments at the international level and by the standards set by the World Health Organisation (WHO). In recent times, the Irish health policy has emphasised the importance of prevention, healthy living, more active lifestyles and community-based services and noted that these are highly influenced by globalisation. In particular, the 2001 Irish government strategy for the development of primary care services proposed a wider availability of general practitioners (GP) services through teams and GP co-operatives and the establishment of multi-disciplinary primary care teams [START_REF] Harvey | Evolution Of Health Services And Health Policy In Ireland[END_REF]Government of Ireland, 2001).

In the wider European arena, the policy "Better Healthcare for Europe" is an EU policy, research and development agenda involving eHealth policy development, development of EU public health portal (EU Portal, 2009;Health-EU) and eHealth interoperability (i.e., cross-border interoperability of electronic health records, telemedicine, healthcare and society, eHealth Resolution).

Globalisation is influencing to a large extent social behaviour and fosters a greater diversity of local communities. The adoption of open economies, markets and systems created an unprecedented impact on the culture and practices of individuals including their health knowledge and behaviours. Various research studies has been undertaken to assess the impact of globalisation on healthcare. It is widely recognised that globalisation is a complex, multidimensional phenomenon that has already influenced the way in which hospitals operate and will increasingly impact the healthcare landscape and patients experience worldwide. Globalisation is a key context for the study of social determinants of health (e.g., the conditions in which people live and work) [START_REF] Labonté | Globalization and social determinants of health: The role of the global marketplace (in 3 parts)[END_REF].

The tools of the modern digital world, in conjunction with the novel technologies, especially those in the biological and medical sciences have dramatically changed the potential for obtaining and using new information. In the field of global health, the benefits can be seen in many ways, e.g. how medical research is conducted; how new information is published, stored, retrieved and used; how scientists and clinicians communicate; how diseases are monitored and tracked; and how medicine is practiced. In regional development agenda, IT solutions for life sciences are considered at a global infrastructural level [START_REF] Maad | A concept for a long-term scalable bioengineering model of primary care[END_REF][START_REF] Maad | A Concept for a Long-Term Scalable Primary Care Model, CD-ROM/Online[END_REF].

Potential application of machine vision in healthcare

Machine vision has a great potential in the advance and development of telemedicine. The EU commission working paper on telemedicine (COM-SEC, 2009) defines the main classes of telemedicine applications and discusses the potential benefits accruing from the implementation of these systems. The benefits can potentially be felt by many different levels of society through the empowerment of individual patients, healthcare systems and the EU marketplace more generally. This document also identifies significant barriers to A potential application of machine vision in healthcare is the one developed at the Image Institute in France. It covers visualization for medical applications, training and assisted surgery. Since 2008, the research group is developing applications for medical rehabilitation [START_REF] Van Hanh Nguyen | TRAINING-BASED ON REAL-TIME MOTION EVALUATION FOR FUNCTIONAL REHABILITATION IN VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT", to appear in special issue of "Image and graphics for virtual reality in medicine[END_REF] using virtual reality and training junior doctors in performing surgical gestures (see Figure 1). The Virtual Reality Assisted Triangulation Gesture is one the most important project which led to important results obtained in collaboration with medical schools in Spain and in France.

Machine vision for sustainable growth

Challenges facing sustainable growth

The Europe 2020 strategic agenda highlighted the extent of the crisis that wiped out progress bringing Europe Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth to -4% in 2009 and industrial production to -20% with skyrocketing unemployment levels. The Europe 2020 Strategy, the EU's growth strategy for the coming decade draws the road to the exit from the crisis to a lasting recovery by focusing on three priorities for sustainable growth and jobs: 1) growth based on knowledge and innovation; 2) inclusive high employment society; and 3) green growth (Europe-2020).

The Annual G20 World Economic Forum, held in Davos, Switzerland on the 27th of January 2011 addressed the challenge of global risks, developed risk mitigation strategies and captured related opportunities. A Risk Response Network was launched to improve global risk management.

UN secretary general urged the need of revolutionary thinking and policy to bring about sustainable economic growth that can both protect the environment and raise living standards. He emphasised the global nature of the challenges and the need for a global, multinational response.

The world is facing scarcity in environmental resources. For instance, the world statistics on water (UN-Water) reveals that the world average water requirement is about 6,000 cubic meters per person per year. Water problems create opportunities to develop new water producing technologies and industries. Extensive flooding put great pressure on developing integrated waste water systems. There is an urgent need to speed up investment in water projects. Foreign investors experiencing the negative effects of recession on prestigious assets may now be more ready to put their money into sectors such as power and water where future demand is assured. Throughout the world, governments are realizing water is a scarce resource, especially as population grow and emerging market countries industrialise. China recently declared water to be a strategic resource and is planning to spend billions of dollars on water infrastructure to underpin its rapid growth.

While abundant oil and gas reserves may provide wealth in Gulf Cooperation Council GCC countries, they cannot substitute for that most basic of commodities: water. Forecasts of severe shortages by 2015 are concentrating the mind of officials eager to increase supplies and reduce consumption.

Mobilising the regions capital resources to support joint ventures and private investment in water demand as well as water supply could help insure the security and sustainability of a commodity vital to health and life as well as prosperity.

Potential application of machine vision for sustainable growth

Machine vision has a great potential in visualizing water and energy demand and could be useful in depicting and controlling the supply infrastructure.

Machine vision in finance 4.1 Challenges facing the finance domain

The recent financial crisis and its aftermath motivate our re-thinking of the role of IT as a driver for change in the global financial enterprise and a critical factor for success and sustainability. We attribute the recent financial crisis that hit the global market, causing a drastic economic slowdown and recession, to a lack of state visibility, inadequate response to events, and a slow dynamic system adaptation to events. There is evidence that ICT is still used mainly as the tool to store and process data, but not yet as a tool to create business value and business intelligence capable of counteracting devastating events.

Machine Vision technologies offer a great potential in supporting the dynamics of global financial systems and in addressing the grand challenges posed by unexpected events and crisis. Advanced high end state visualization supported by dynamic networking, einfrastructures, system adaptation and multimodality can support a greater potential for intelligent financial analysis and perception and increase business value of IT.

Potential application of machine vision in finance

Below we describe two potential applications for machine vision in finance:

1. Financial state visibility application;

financial education

The technology focus is on 3D Internet technologies (image processing, advanced visualisation, augmented and virtual reality).

Financial state visibility

The urgent economic problem, linked to the financial crisis, challenges current research and technological development. The scale of the fiscal crisis that undermined the credibility of the financial system motivates the consideration of "Global Financial State Visibility" as a key global challenge that validates research and technological development activities to support the engineering dynamics of automatically adaptable software services along the "global financial supply chain" (Maad et al, 2010-A;Maad, 2010-B). Financial state could be conveyed in various ways:

• perception the state of financial risk

• perception of financial events

• perception of the financial activity

• perception of the financial system and regulatory framework Our aim is to align the prevalent thinking in terms of mediating the financial state using reports or static models to mediating the financial state using advanced visualisation and interaction technique. Key issues to consider are who will access, manipulate, and govern the financial state. Various entities (policy makers, regulators, auditors, accountants, investors, consumers, suppliers, producers, individuals) need to access /govern / adapt Financial state Visibility depending on service level agreements Service Level Agreement SLA (see Figure 3 below). • Converged ICT and media dimension: this involves the development of an interoperability layer at the service infrastructure and interface levels to guarantee instant access to financial state via various converged ICT and media devices.

• Global factors dimension: financial state knowledge is stored and manipulated in different languages and different structures and formats. This raises geographical cultural, and accessibility technical challenges. Rendering of the financial state needs to adapt to "global context on demand".

• Governance dimension:

There is an urgent need to support the governance of the financial state with greater perception and manipulation capability tools.

Various financial state visibility services, depicted in Figure 8 below, could be developed taking into account the above considered dimensions. These services can be grouped into various levels and categories:

Financial education

This section describes a virtual reality application in financial trading developed by the author at the University of Warwick in UK in collaboration with Laboratoire de Robotique de Paris [START_REF] Maad | Realising Virtual Trading: What Price Virtual Reality?, Usability Evaluation and Interface Design: Cognitive Engineering, Intelligent Agents and Virtual Reality[END_REF]. The virtual reality application, depicted in Figure 5 below, involves a user playing the role of a dealer who sets his/her bid/ask spread to attract buyers and sellers. The presence of the dealer in the rendered virtual reality scene is a simulated presence. As such the virtual reality simulation is fully detached from the real world. The user needs to wear a head mounted display to have a feeling of immersion in the virtual reality scene. Moreover the interaction with the virtual world is carried out using a pair of Pinch™ Gloves. The dealer manipulates bid and ask prices (red and blue cylinders) to attract buyers and sellers (informed and uninformed traders).

While an improved perception of the financial market activity and of the role of the dealer in manipulating the true price of a security is gained from the use of Virtual Reality in the financial trading application, the isolation from the real world and the constrained interaction (the user needs to wear a head mounted display and a pair of Pinch™ Gloves to acquire a feeling of immersion in the virtual world) made the experience lived by the user (dealer) less realistic [START_REF] Maad | Realising Virtual Trading: What Price Virtual Reality?, Usability Evaluation and Interface Design: Cognitive Engineering, Intelligent Agents and Virtual Reality[END_REF].

Machine vision in innovation

Challenges facing Innovation

The EU policy challenge for smart, sustainable, and green growth (2020 Strategic priorities) requires bringing the competences of various sectors together to develop innovative services from an end-to-end perspective in ways that may not have been possible before. It has been widely acknowledged that the effort required to do this, measured in terms of investment or skills, is not within the reach of a single company, a single sector, or a single country. Consequently, the complexity of the EU policy challenge largely exceeds the individual capabilities of today's European stakeholders (higher education institutions, businesses, vertical and application markets and public authorities). There an urgent need in developing innovation in education design and delivery, innovation in service modelling and delivery, and the promotion of entrepreneurial skill (Digital Agenda-EU, Innovation Union-EU, Future Internet-EU).

The potential application of machine vision for innovation

Machine vision has the potential to depict various stages along the innovation process. The following figure 6, developed within the framework of the Sprint-Start program2 funded by Dublin City Enterprise Board, visualize the challenges facing a new business. In this respect three key views of the company are considered: Business, Leadership, Personal.

CYBER II: A machine vision technology for various application domains

This section describes CYBER II technology as a machine vision technology with potential application in the various considered domain. Section 6.1 overviews the CYBER II technology and section 6.2 unveils its potential in various application domains.

Description of CYBER II technology

The CYBERII project [START_REF] Hasenfratz | A Real-Time System for Full Body Interaction[END_REF][START_REF] Hasenfratz | Real-Time Capture, Reconstruction and Insertion into Virtual World of Human Actors VVG-, Vision, Video and Graphics -2003 Health-EU[END_REF] aims at simulating, in real-time, the presence of a person (e.g. a TV presenter or a teacher) in a virtual environment. Novel paradigms of interaction were proposed within the context of the project. These paradigms involve full body interaction with the virtual world in real time. This goes beyond traditional modes of interaction involving the use of mouse, remote control, power gloves, or human sensor equipments.

The CYBERII project adopts a five steps technique to insert one or several humans in a virtual interaction space. It uses the notion of "Active Regions" to initiate the interaction with the virtual world. Actions are triggered upon body interaction with "Active Regions". This interaction may take the form of touching the "Active Region" and may be technically sensed using image analysis techniques that identify a body presence in the "Active Region". As described in (Hazenfratz et al., 2004;Hazenfratz et al., 2003), the CYBERII project adopts the following five steps :

• Multi-camera image acquisition, from different view points, of real moving bodies (see Figure 7 -left image).

• Reconstruction, modelling, and motion tracking of the acquired bodies and the surrounding environment (see Figure 7 -right image).

•

Rendering of the reconstructed bodies and their surrounding.

•

The creation of patterns of interaction in the rendered world using "Active Regions" as shown in Figure 8. Examples of "Active Regions" in a virtual interaction space include: the On/Off Button "Active Region" (see Figure 8 -left image) and the moving slider (see Figure 8 -right image).

• Data management and distributed parallel computing to meet the real time and realistic rendering constraints. The CYBERII project targets various industries including: (1) the TV industry (e.g. virtual sets and online presentations) ; (2) the game industry (e.g. inserting real persons in the game world); and education and entertainment (e.g. allowing visits and presentation of remote places). The proposed novel paradigm of interaction developed within the scope of the CYBERII project, namely full body interaction with active regions, promises universal accessibility to media content. For instance, physically impaired users may find a greater convenience in full body interaction with a virtual scene instead of interaction with a mouse, a keyboard, or a remote control.

Use of CYBER II technology in various application domains

In this section we briefly describe the potential use of CYBER II technology in various health, water, finance, and innovation.

CYBER II in healthcare

Preventing the elderly from falling has been a priority on the EU healthcare agenda COM-SEC ( 2009). Telemedicine application involving CYBER II technology could be used to track elderly motion and report directly any risk of falling.

Figure 9 shows the use of CYBER II of Multi-camera image acquisition of real moving bodies to detect the risk of falling for the elderly. The healthcare professional could be monitoring the motion tracking of the elderly and real time data on risk of failure could be generated as shown in the healthcare profession screens.

Fig. 9. CYBER II technology used in healthcare telemedicine to detect the risk of failure of the elderly

CYBER II in water management

CYBER II technology could be used to provide immersive interaction with utility, for instance water data, generated by SCADA systems. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It generally refers to the control system of the industry which is a computer system that controls and monitors a process. This process can be infrastructure, facility or industrial3 . SCADA systems are used in energy and water resources management.

For instance CYBER II interaction with slider active region could be interfaced with SCADA System water or energy data to inform the user (the consumer) about his water and energy consumption in an interactive way. A slider active region could be the indicator of water consumption of the user.

Figure 10 depicts the potential of CYBER II technology to transform visual data on water and energy that may be produced by SCADA systems, into an immersive knowledge consumption environment based on CYBER II slider active region techniques. The consumer will have better conveyed knowledge about his water and energy consumption levels through immersive interaction.

CYBER II finance

Reference to the AR/VR financial application described in section 4.2.2, advanced machine vision in finance could be further deployed using the CYBERII technology to extend the functionality of the financial trading application. The CYBER II financial application, depicted in Figure 11 and 12 below, involves the insertion of a user (playing the role of a financial dealer) in a virtual world, and the use of the technique of sliders "Active Regions" to enable the body interaction of the user (dealer) to set his/her bid/ask prices for attracting buyers and sellers [START_REF] Maad | From Virtual to Augmented Reality in Finance : A CYBERII Application[END_REF]. The flow of buyers and sellers is abstractly represented by synthetic objects generated in the augmented scene following the user interaction with active regions. Figure 6 shows how the technique of slider "Active Regions" can help the dealer adjust his quotes to attract buyers and sellers. The flow of buyers and sellers is represented by red balls (for sellers flow) and yellow balls (for buyers flow). This flow is triggered through body interaction with the sliders "Active Regions". This illustrates how the CYBERII concept of full body interaction with a virtual environment and the technique of slider "Active Regions" could be used for greater engagement and unconstrained immersion in a virtual world of financial indicators. The simulation augments the real world with perceptual knowledge about bid-ask spread variation and about the flow of traders (buyers and sellers) as a result of this variation.

CYBER II for innovation

Similarly, CYBER II technology could be used to immerse the business entrepreneur in a virtual immersive environment where he/she can have better perception of the challenges facing a new business. CYBER II novel interaction techniques of active regions and slider bars can be used to interact with the company the three company views identified in section 5.2 above as Business, Leadership, and Personal (see Figure 13 below).

Conclusion

This chapter reflected on the potential of machine vision in various application domains.

Various examples are drawn for the use of machine vision in the considered domains. The chapter reveals that there is a great potential to be harnessed in the use of machine vision technologies, including Augmented and Virtual Reality and rich visual media technologies, in various application domains.

Machine vision would support application domains to a various extent in providing:

• rich medium for education and knowledge building • greater visibility of risks and events • alternative environment for safe interaction • a tool for policy modelling and decision • a medium for innovation While machine vision found a greater penetration in application domains such as e-health and finance, a great potential is foreseen for the application of machine vision in sustainable growth and in depicting and advancing the innovation process.

Various advantages could be drawn from the deployment of machine vision in various application domain including enhanced knowledge and perception of state leading to better planning and decision support.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. The Application of virtual reality assisted medical gesture developed at the ENSAM-Image Institute.

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2 depicts the potential of machine vision in conveying better understanding of the water cycle. It shows an animated visualization of the water cycle. The application depicted in the figure is developed by WssTP 1 , the Water supply and sanitation Technology Platform. WssTP was initiated by the European Commission in 2004 to promote coordination and collaboration of Research and Technology Development in the water industry. Through our Strategic Research Agenda we provide strategic answers for the water research future challenges. WssTP has 61 members and 210 contributors from Industries, Academics, Research, Policy Makers and Water Utilities

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Actors that need to access /govern / adapt Financial state Visibility The Financial state visibility challenge has various dimensions: • Domain knowledge dimension: this involves building the financial state knowledge base (the development of techniques to store and manipulate the semantic representation of the financial state by various stakeholders including regulators, investors, and central banks worldwide); and the visual rendering (using techniques such AR/VR) of the financial state knowledge base.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Financial state visibility services

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. The Virtual Reality simulation

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Visualization of the various company views (source: Sprint-Start Program funded by Dublin City Enterprise Board)

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. CYBER II technology: image capturing (left image); image-based reconstruction (right image)

Fig. 10 .

 10 Fig. 10. CYBER II technology to transform visual data on water and energy into immersive knowledge consumption environment based on CYBER II slider active region techniques

Fig. 11 .

 11 Fig. 11. The CYBERII financial application

http://www.dceb.ie/networking/sprint-start

Definition extracted from http://www.scadasystems.net/