Z Kosmadoudi
email: z.kosmadoudi@hw.ac.uk

T Lim
email: t.lim@hw.ac.uk

J Ritchie
email: j.m.ritchie@hw.ac.uk

Y Liu

R Sung

J Baalsrud Hauge

S Garbaya
email: samir.garbaya@ensam.eu

R Wendrich
email: r.e.wendrich@utwente.nl

I A Stanescu
email: ioana.stanescu@adlnet.ro

Harmonizing interoperability -Emergent serious gaming in playful stochastic CAD environments

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) applications often promote memorable experiences for the wrong reasons. Coupled with complex functionality and poor user experience the learning curve is often steep and overwhelming. Invoking design creativity remains limited to conveying established geometry. Gameplay conversely excels in memorable and formative experiences and could spur intuition and natural creativity. If games are profoundly imbued for purposeful play, thriving on tacit and explicit user knowledge, a CAD system carefully stylized with ludic mechanisms could potentially be highly productive. An emergent serious game (SG) and CAD system may then hold promise. Preliminary feedbacks suggest a game-CAD environment incorporating interoperable mechanisms of CAD and SG systems to exchange creation improves user interactions resulting in better evolution of the workflow. The emerging scenarios presented reports a transformative approach to understanding of relationships in CAD use, learning and play mechanisms that enhance creativity and innovation.

Introduction

Product design is a complex set of activities beset not only by the limiting enablers but also by the unwitting impact of mediocre designs. Small errors in the early design phases may not be apparent until it becomes too late. Consequently, co-design ideation spaces, where product ideation is first developed and designs made become central to the development cycle, innovation and creativity [START_REF] Hesmer | Supporting the ideation processes by a collaborative online based toolset[END_REF][START_REF] Cross | Developments in Design Methodology[END_REF]. Ideation is the "ability one has to conceive, or recognize through the act of insight, useful ideas" [START_REF] Vaghefi | Strategic Management for the XX Century[END_REF]. However, current CAD systems (enabler) are governed by rigid rules and predetermined "canonical" procedures that limit user/designer creativity.

Gaming, though, has extended beyond its natural boundary of entertainment and is now associated with the process of problem solving and even questioning of scientific viewpoints through active game-play. The rules of game interaction or game mechanics include the concepts of usability and playability which are focused in a less stringent environment which provides a more intuitive user experience (UX). The transition from masses to user centered design paradigms sees engineering creativity being compromised. One reason is that the problem-solution space is challenging, a complex balance between representation, generation, and search of a design space in pursuit of original design solutions.

This paper presents the notion of playful CAD environments as a transformation technology to address current drawbacks such as complex menus, limited interactive assistance during the design task, informal conceptual design tool and the fixation on design routines that stifle users' creativity and intuitive notions.

The CAD-Game Conundrum

Research has showed that CAD users spend more time in learning the CAD system than actually using it [START_REF] Kosmadoudi | Engineering design using game-enhanced CAD: The potential to augment the user experience with game elements[END_REF]. The most important challenges facing novices are: the ease of learning, memorization and error-free use. The hypothesis is that such skills can be acquired much faster by experiencing product design in a gaming world. User experience and "interactional intention" are fundamental in design process; however, they are not easy to formalize in standard CAD systems. Games though provide enhanced cues and/or error notification instantaneously. This contrasts with CAD where users themselves judge errors.

A game is an abstract control system [START_REF] Grünvogel | Formal Models and Game Design[END_REF] where state-change during play and progress are controlled by rules [START_REF] Tabuada | Compositional Abstractions of Hybrid Systems[END_REF]. In comparison, CAD (e.g. SolidWorks, Catia, ProE) operates via variations of sets of parametric functions. This approach creates a gap between the user and the CAD system where user experience, learning threshold, system functionality, performance and productivity are directly influenced and constrained (Fig. 1a). Design tasks instead become one of finding alternative event structures. Not surprisingly engineers' perception and UX have been compromised by the system's functionality and step-by-step evolution (for example the function structures of Pahl & Beitz) [START_REF] Pahl | Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach[END_REF].) In "Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants" [START_REF] Prensky | Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 1[END_REF], Marc Prensky cites a case where mechanical engineers learned CAD software by playing an FPS-like game called "The Monkey Wrench Conspiracy." Then, perhaps enriching CAD environments by applying gaming techniques and mechanisms may improve the efficacy of design and productivity while enhancing user experience (memorable and formative). Digital gaming systems are complex and comprise interactive technologies, media, and simulation technologies [START_REF] Narayanasamy | Distinguishing games and simulation games from simulators[END_REF], often with a story/plot. Games could provide a context for creativity coupled with challenges ranging from decisionmaking and problem solving strategies through to action reflexes [START_REF] Lindley | Game Taxonomies: A High Level Framework for Game Analysis and Design[END_REF].

A game architecture can be approached using the tetrad of Schell [START_REF] Schell | Art Game Design -A book of lenses[END_REF]: aesthetics, mechanics, technology and storytelling. However, as Church [START_REF] Church | Formal Abstract Design Tools[END_REF] cites, "The design is the game; without it you would have a CD full of data but no experience." Games and their design approach are different compared to traditional design and productivity domains such as CAD. Games actively encourage a variety of experiences while CAD strives for consistency at all times. Design is often viewed as a transformation from function to form, while the process of synthesis is the creation of a form that meets functional requirements. To create a synthetic CAD-game ecosystem both game design and design synthesis methods must be extrapolated to allow metacognition to be triggered and enhanced through enriched visualization of the design/process flow.

User centered playground with stochastic CAD eco-system

A design solution space is always infinite and includes past, present, and future design states. If this space is describable to a computational game-based eco-system, then the challenge is to effectively find, search, and explore the solutions that best meet the demands of the design problem. A game-like environment has the potential to directly and positively reinforce the user experience and its creativity, as well as enhance new insights in understanding and learning. This design solution space enables the challenging task to target the problem definition in direct assimilation with the possible solutions that are emulated and represented by the CAD-Game System (CGS) (Fig. 1b).

Furthermore, the CAD-Game System could introduce some randomness in finding neighboring solutions preventing to become trapped in a local neighborhood. The CGS nudges (Fig. 2) the CAD-players to keep on creatively tracking and backtracking to iterate and re-iterate in the design solution process to provide more than one final design outcome. The general consensus is that bringing product design as CAD play and SG mechanisms/concepts together is fundamental to the future development of next generation intuitive design environments.

CAD-Game for enhanced creativity and motivational design

A game is an effective and engaging environment that is accessible anywhere, at any time, on demand, at your leisure and to your liking. Game playing offers learners motivation for acquiring new skills and/or to enhance the current skill-sets to improve individual capabilities [START_REF] Kosmadoudi | Engineering design using game-enhanced CAD: The potential to augment the user experience with game elements[END_REF][START_REF] Sivanathan | Temporal Synchronisation of Data Logging in Racing Gameplay[END_REF]. Games can be a cost-effective solution (savings) to support just-in-time ideation and/or creative design with periodic or continuous feedback. The ubiquity of games thus provides rich resource for improvement and adaptation in contextualized environments to communicate design. Since communication is a critical component of any design process, it fundaments the premise of using a game-infrastructure for CAD in support of users.

Some games are very difficult to play, not least to master. The demands for the user(s) are based on a serendipitous combination of skills (i.e. awareness, hand-eye coordination, tacit knowledge, creative cognition, etc.). The various levels of complexity and challenges are dominant features of game environments and are interoperable with CAD Game Eco-systems. Koestler's [START_REF] Koestler | The act of creation[END_REF][START_REF] Wendrich | The Creative Act is done on the Hybrid Machine[END_REF] view of creativity considers the externalization during the early stage of the design process, wherein the ideational concepts stemming from the mind's eye (inner visions), metacognitive aspects, imagination, mental divisions and distractions are transformed and represented. Design intents are fused together to create content through this in the creative act. The creative act initiates with a complete and boundary-less attitude towards inner and outer space. As with state changes in game play a current design state and context has no bearing until a cognitive nudge (Fig. 2) forms a solid representation. From this point on the challenge is to complete the design task at hand by bringing possible conclusions with iterative solutions. To paraphrase Dalcher [START_REF] Dalcher | Consilience for universal design: the emergence of a third culture[END_REF] we concur that design is neither orderly nor linear; it implies a continuous and active search to resolve trade-offs and satisfying constraints.

Initial CGS research [START_REF] Wendrich | The Creative Act is done on the Hybrid Machine[END_REF][START_REF] Sung | Automated Capture of Design Knowledge Using a Virtual Creature Design Environment[END_REF] in Fig. 2 and3 show how the creative human capability (imagination and inspiration) and capacity to playfully collaborate in design processing coincide with the intuitive natural human ability to interact, communicate and challenge conventional thinking. When a CAD system is designed to accept input with the user defining the rules in comparison with the game system, is it possible for the game UX to be transferred to fit a CAD system? If so, could gaming make the user design process in CAD more interactive and meaningful? Many studies providing a useful list of game-relevant issues and cognitive models that aid the understanding of the outcome of the experience [START_REF] Wendrich | Bridging the Design Gap: Towards an Intuitive Design Tool[END_REF][START_REF] Jennett | Measuring and defining the experience of immersion in games[END_REF] yet none has been able to evaluate which game mechanics or set of game mechanics cause engagement with a system. There is lack of statistical models to evaluate whether engaging and enjoyable interactions have taken place and under which specific game mechanics.

Implemented Playful CAD Environments

To establish a trace about the usefulness of a CAD-game environment and UX, a study with industrial stakeholders were asked to optimize the design of an existing bracket to meet an engineering product design specification. As part of this activity participants used a parametric CAD design system [START_REF] Liu | Capture User Emotions during Computer-Aided Design[END_REF]. Each session comprises two different user interface (UI) settings (Fig. 4a andb) with no time restriction for task completion. Analyzing the psycho-physiological signals and action data, an interaction model was established identifying which of the proposed game mechanics contributed the most to enhance the user experience and to relay gain and winnings to the user's efforts (rewards & achievements). The affective response (Fig. 4c) indicated a clear preference of CGS over conventional CAD. The approach towards a boundary free Playful CAD environment to author and build hybrid design tools is to create blended virtual environments (Fig. 5). Designers are tethered to virtual digital realities where tools are developed and designed by system engineers and software programmers. It is apparent that loss of control, manual dexterity and intuitive interactions surface as a result of this mismatch [START_REF] Wendrich | Multimodal Interaction, Collaboration, and Synthesis in Design and Engineering Processing[END_REF]. Virtual reality environments are also eluding, and to paraphrase Lanier [START_REF] Lanier | You are not a gadget[END_REF], users are reduced to conforming to the system rather than demanding the system be adaptive.

Meta-cognitive aspects, creativity and intuitive user interactions are measurable. By observing the creation of mental models of objects (representation) and design creation (generation), an analysis of how well an iterative outcome (solutions) meets the design goals and constraints (evaluation) can be understood [START_REF] Bellotti | Assessment in and of Serious Games: An Overview[END_REF]. Feedback on improvements to the design for the next iterative sequences (performance feedback & status) provides further subjective and objective groundings (Fig. 6).

Emergent progressions towards such environments have already been conducted to investigate how game mechanics are implemented in CAD UI and how a new model with psychological relationships (engagement) mapped to the user interactivity with a system (user actions), can provide an insight in the metrics of specified game mechanisms progress in a system [START_REF] Liu | Capture User Emotions during Computer-Aided Design[END_REF]. A preliminary study [START_REF] Liu | Capture User Emotions during Computer-Aided Design[END_REF] conducted involved users divided in two groups -A & B -designing both in the game-like environment of BAMZOOKi and the commercial CAD package of Solid Edge V20 (Fig. 7a). Group A designed a given task from a CAD perspective, focusing in the exact dimensions of the task. Group B designed a given task from a game perspective, focusing in the successful simulation of the task. The psycho-physiological measurements (EEG and GSR) of both groups were recorded, through physiological monitoring and feedback device. The results showed there was a positive response of the users whose design interface was embedded with a game element. Especially the stress levels (GSR) and the creativity levels, which can be seen with an increase of theta waves (EEG), differed from the users who designed a task without the game element and who didn't show any significant changes in their emotional responses (Fig. 7b). Design apart, assembly activity represents over 60% of the manufacturing costs therefore a system whereby engineers can build mental models for assembly planning in VE could be beneficial for the conceptualization/ideation stage and the products' competitive route to market. In this respect it is important to meet the requirements of design for manufacturing and assembly (DFMA) [START_REF] Garbaya | Modelling Dynamic Behaviour of Parts in Virtual Assembly Environment[END_REF], Fig. 8. Fig. 8. Assemblability testing and generation of assembly plans in virtual environments [START_REF] Garbaya | Modelling Dynamic Behaviour of Parts in Virtual Assembly Environment[END_REF].

The integration of sensory feedback, such as haptics and audio, has already shown to enhance user performance [START_REF] Lim | Haptic virtual reality assembly -Moving towards Real Engineering Applications[END_REF]. However, there is limited reported research that includes SG in virtual assembly environment [START_REF] Yu | Exploring the Application of Computer Game Theory to Automated Assembly[END_REF]. The generation of assembly sequence is a task that requires building mental models to develop strategies necessary to obtain not only feasible assembly sequence but also the most feasible sequence or optimum assembly sequence. The potential of including SG in assembly design and planning would provide important assistance to the operator in making decisions on which part should be assembled first in order to build the product. Operation sequencing via assembly trials for which the operator get notified about his performance with reference to the optimum assembly plan could enhance his skills by building mental models of assembly operations.

Conclusions

For CGS, as with the design and development of SG, it is important to integrate the game aspects into the CAD Eco-system, i.e. supporting the co-creative product development process; this will contribute to a stimulated and improved userexperience. Employing game mechanisms as pointed out above in conjunction with a multi-disciplinary and cross-domain approach can create an enriched stochastic design space. Contextual knowledge and content developed using a CGS would document and present to users an immediate insight to understanding the design process in a superfluous and engaging way. This means users acquire a full understanding, have real-time access to data, get instant-rewards and rich iterative content for future ideation and work.

Initial implementation and testing the usefulness of experimental CGS environments have been conducted. The measures of meta-cognitive aspects, creativity and intuitive user interaction indicate the benefits of CGS in terms of gaining user experience.

The results of research in CGS have also revealed many emergent issues and challenges. These manifest in many different forms and areas across the domains of SG and CAD. The rapid technological change impacts on users and influences perceptions of uptake. Sustainable adaptation of SG and CAD development requires further insights of the dynamic and synthetic mechanisms to avoid functional redundancies. Awareness and adoption of CGSs within industrial environments continues to be limited, and actions need to be taken to reveal the benefits of a CGS oriented approach not only in industry but also in education.

Interoperability is fundamental to CGS deployment. The transition from process base to knowledge embedment in engineered products mean industries now require formats to unobtrusively capture and externalize knowledge for reuse [START_REF]Assuring the future of manufacturing in Europe[END_REF][START_REF]Manufuture Platform STRATEGIC RESEARCH AGENDA[END_REF]. However, a means of evaluating design quality, engineers' confidence levels and solution integrity is not trivial.

The research presented herein show promise and evidence that SG in CAD supports this direction.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. (a) Identification of gaps in user experience in CAD systems [18]. (b) User centered playground with stochastic CAD eco-system.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. (a) Scenario for Game-based CAD [16]. (b) Possible collaborative interactive solutions.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Comparative game-CAD design and simulation scenarios [17]. (a) CAD-game. (b) Conventional CAD.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. UI of Bracket Design Experiment. (a) Conventional UI/CADT. (b) Game-like UI/CADG. (c) Affect response of design task in CAD-game environment [20].

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Flow diagram of user-centered hybrid CAD environment embedded with fuzzy and logic mode [16].

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Representation and generative content [16, 21].

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. (a) Design parameters: CAD-game vs. conventional CAD. (b) Behavioral and neurophysiological response in CAD-game and conventional CAD [20].

Acknowledgments

This project is partially funded under the European Community Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007 2013), Grant Agreement nr. 258169 and EPSRC/IMRC grants 113946 and 112430.


Gamed Task 9 Game Engine 9 On9line performance 9 Rules and Mechanics 9 Challenges

I. INTRODUCTION

lobal competition and pressure is forcing system developers to reduce production cycles and enable product design agility. The use of Virtual Reality (VR) environments and games and edutainment are resulting in an innovative output that foreshadows a new Renaissance in learning -affording entirely new options for human creativity and global social interaction in science, business, and government [START_REF] Psotka | Educational games and virtual reality as disruptive technologies[END_REF]. The disruptive innovations and creative destruction that stem from these technologies are transforming the Human and Machine Interaction (HMI) paradigm completely and continuously. The need for simple, effective and efficient tools and systems is adamant in order to maximize potential in uptake and increase benefit for all users. Combining gaming and Computer9aided design (CAD) provide users with more enhanced sensory information and perform interactions that are readily (instant) visualized, in such that they can explore and manipulate a variety and diversity of virtual entities in the virtual realm.

Virtual Environments (VE) and virtualization attract a lot of attention because of the numerous applications and possibilities ranging from the educational and training area to entertainment and research. Virtualization could optimize for example the resource sharing among applications by collated cloud services. A current issue however is how to account for shared infrastructure usage? How to do chargeback of the costs running these services over existing physical infrastructures? [START_REF] Gmach | Resource and virtualization costs up in the cloud: Models and design choices[END_REF] state, "… that when multiple virtual machines with different resource requirements are deployed to a resource pool and when the virtual machines may be frequently reassigned to different physical servers, the question becomes more complex: "who is responsible for the incurred costs?" and "how to attribute the cost recovery"?" So, the complexity and accounting increases exponentially when virtualization becomes part of shared resource pools that act and interact as private and public clouds and/or ecosystems. This is one of the major drawbacks and concerns in uptake of virtualization and widespread of integration of VE's.

Despite their popularity, the design and development of these environments are time consuming and require sophisticated tools which limits their widespread among a larger population of users. Most of the times, VEs are developed from scratch based on design needs. [START_REF] Oliveira | An innovative design approach to build virtual environment systems[END_REF] identified a number of reasons that lead to the high complexity of developing VE which include; non9extensibility, non9interoperability, VEs system latency, current high cost of VE systems, bandwidth, and poor scalability of existing systems. Another issue is that most of the efforts are dedicated to ensuring the visual quality and rendering efficiency against meeting user's needs and usability [START_REF] Gabbard | Use9rcentered design and evaluation of virtual environments[END_REF]) compromising the user9system interaction. There is a general trend towards applying virtualization techniques to almost all ICT infrastructure machinery [START_REF] Miller | Virtualization: virtually at the desktop[END_REF], so we can expect more and more virtualization everywhere across all domains (education, business, industry, public space). Moreover, there is the current trend of blending technologies to gain value has opened new directions of research. This paper explores a mix of technologies that can enhance VEs. Since haptic technologies have been proved to enhance learning experiences in terms (Hamza and Stanescu, 2010), haptics are the key player in this game9based approach. Measuring user performance, parameters such as movement times, error rate or throughput have recorded significant improvements, leading to the premises that haptic technologies are promoters of performance.

II. GAME)ENHANCED VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS

In this section the authors present insights on the positive impacts game9 driven approaches can have on VE.

Design Processing with VE

Generally, the design process of VR systems is divided into capturing the end9user requirements, the creation of the initial design of the VE, the verification of the functionalities and human related aspects through the process of incremental design: prototyping, evaluation and redesign and the final validation by the application domain expert (Figure 1, 2). This workflow is time consuming, requires significant budgets, involves multiple interactions, is prone to errors and does not allow proactive involvement of the end user. The attempts to accelerate the design process by using VR authoring tools have not, in general, been successful due to the required training and the initial cost of the software [START_REF] Ramirez | Authoring Software for Augmented Reality Applications for the Use of Maintenance and Training Process[END_REF]. Another reasons for this lack of success is that the user experience is not taken into account until achieving the final version

) 3D objects creation ) Interactive properties attribution

Specification of the end user needs

Modelling and Programming

VE Application

of the VE when a great deal of efforts was made in the cycle of trial and error. Some design parameters are dependent on a great deal of the domain expert knowledge, which has proved to be very difficult to formalize. Significant advances in gaming could be beneficial to the design of VE, notably by incorporating the game player into the design process.

Although there is research in creating VE environments from semantics representation as means of reducing the development phase and including novice user in the design phase (Pelens et al., 2005;[START_REF] Gutierrez | Semantics9based representation of virtual Environments[END_REF], there is still a need to develop easy9to9use and efficient tools, taking into account the user experience and performance scores to create VE. Also a few approaches [START_REF] Gaildrat | Declarative Modelling of Virtual Environments, Overview of issues and Applications[END_REF][START_REF] Trescak | A virtual world grammar for automatic generation of virtual worlds[END_REF] were developed for automatic generation of VEs, they require extensive modelling and exclude the end9users from designing virtual worlds and applications.

The significant advancement of VR and gaming offers the potential to improve the quality of interaction. If they are coupled together they can produce more satisfying and enjoyable applications, therefore offering benefits at the design and usability levels since human perceptual capabilities and performance become considered as design criteria of the interactive environment.

The literature showed that most of the reported studies use data collected from experimental design such as the virtual task completion time and error rates as measures of human performance in VEs. This performance metrics is often used to refine of the VE in order to meet the requirement of the application. There is no work to suggest automatically integrating these data in the VE development cycle at early stages of the VE creation.

The role of the player and associated affects in digital gaming

When it comes to gaming, the way players play and their preferences in terms of game9play determine to a large extent game rules and game mechanics. Player motivations have been extensively studied in terms of commercial games over the last couple of decades.

Bartle's approach (Bartle R. ( 1996)) is a key reference in digital gaming research and was based on the identification of player types in MMORPG online video games (Massively Multiplayer Online Role9Playing Games). The model identifies four types of players (Achievers, Explorers, Socializers and Killers), each driven by their own distinctive motivations. The Achievers are basically players whose main objective is to beat the game and achieve the game's desired goals in order to advance in the game. The Explorers play so as to discover the surrounding environment and its components. They interact with the world from that perspective. Socializers use their communication skills in order to interact with other players in the game and focus on interaction rather than actual game play.

Finally, the Killers play to maintain imposition upon other players. In other words, they play with the intention of dominating other players in the story. Similarly, Lazzaro (Lazzaro N. ( 2004)) proposed a player classification based on the perceived emotions experienced by players while playing. According to Lazzaro's experimental results, most people play to get immersed in the game experience rather than the game story and mental challenges are experiences considered independently from the story content. He identified several player categories. The internal experience category relates to players whose main concern is an experience based on emotion transformation. This is closely related to the movie spectator experience. Hard Fun is based on challenges and strategies. The player is expected to overcome obstacles and challenges so as to progress within the game. This category is similar to Bartle's achievers' type. Easy Fun is a category within which players enjoy the immersive aspect of exploring vast virtual environments. This is similar to Bartle's explorer type. In addition to these, Lazzaro, like Bartle, identified a socially oriented category of player where the main concern is to build up relationships with others through communication and observation. Finally, (Fullerton T. ( 2004)) identified 10 player types that reflected the wide variety of digital games available and shared similarities with the ones described by both Bartle and Lazzaro. Fullerton's model comprises: Competitor, Collector, Explorer, Achiever, Joker, Artist, Director, Craftsman, Performer and storyteller. Foo et al [START_REF] Foo | Grief Player motivations[END_REF]), concluded that while some categories are directly matched to each other, some are not related to any other types or motivations. It seems that classifying the players and building conclusion on what motivates them based on their type is not an altogether reliable approach.

Beyond the problem of structuring motivations in categories, players will exhibit a set of motivations for gaming activities and will probably cover several categories, making an accurate assessment of their motivations difficult. Yee (Yee, N. ( 2005)) argued that to define an efficient motivation model, proposed motivations should be tested rather than brainstormed to reveal contradictions between recorded data and the theoretical framework. Yee conducted a series of survey so as to formalize a motivation model for players. He first identified five categories based on behavioural observation of players: Achievement, Socialization, Immersion, Escapism and Competition. While most players would fall within these categories, the model needed to be refined and Yee identified additional components and subdivided his model. The achievement category integrated the sub9components of Advancement, Mechanics and Competition. The social category was extended so as to include Socializing, Relationships and Teamwork. Immersion was identified as the final category and was comprised of the Discovery, Role9Play, Customization and Escapism components. By scoring players interest for each sub9component, Yee (Yee, N. ( 2005)) was able to identify their major preferences in terms of game play and interaction. For instance, a player with a low score in the socializing category was likely to avoid interacting with others and favouring on other aspects of the gaming spectrum. Ryan et al (Ryan, R. ( 2000)) took a different approach and based their motivation theory on the self9determination theory, and stated that one should investigate both the players' motivation to play a game but also the factors that may motivate the player to act within the game. The Self9Determination theory was based on the belief that the motivations to play video games is influenced by variables and factors associated with certain components in any game context, namely: Autonomy (Flexibility over movements and strategies, freedom in decision9making in choosing tasks and goals), Competence, Presence (Graphic environment, Compelling storyline) Intuitive controls and Relatedness (connecting with others).

Understanding the user's intention is crucial. Gamers make decisions in accordance to their acquired knowledge, affect and context. The identification and understanding of the player's strategies in problem solving are important for the game design and interactive virtual environment. The work carried out in the Digital Game domain has shown that context should not be underestimated and played a role in how receptive or reactive one is depending on the context in which a task is conducted. It is it important to not only monitor the player for cues and indication of affect but also the situational context in which interactions are taking place so as to maximizing the impact of interventions on users.

Coupling Gaming and VE

Different approaches for the design of games and virtual environment were developed, however, despite the acquired advancement in knowledge and technologies virtual environment and gaming were not coupled. Taking advantage of the aspects specific to gaming such as the user experience, motivation, self9 determination, online feedback on performance would have a great positive impact on the design of virtual environment and at the same time would be beneficial to the design of enriched gaming with multisensory feedbacks such as immersion, haptic sensation and spatialized audio. Kousmadoudi et al. ( 2013) state that Computer9Aided Design (CAD) applications often promote memorable experiences for the wrong reasons. Coupled with complex functionality and poor user experience the learning curve is often steep and overwhelming. Invoking design creativity remains limited to conveying established geometry. Gameplay conversely excels in memorable and formative experiences and could spur intuition and natural creativity. If games are profoundly imbued for purposeful play, thriving on tacit and explicit user knowledge, a CAD system carefully stylized with ludic mechanisms could potentially be highly productive. Furthermore, when a CAD system is designed to accept input with the user defining the rules in comparison with the game system, is it possible for the game UX to be transferred to fit a CAD system? If so, could gaming make the user design process in CAD more interactive and meaningful? Many studies providing a useful list of game9relevant issues and cognitive models that aid the understanding of the outcome of the experience [START_REF] Wendrich | Bridging the Design Gap: Towards an Intuitive Design Tool[END_REF][START_REF] Jennett | Measuring and defining the experience of immersion in games[END_REF] yet none has been able to evaluate which game mechanics or set of game mechanics cause engagement with a system. There is lack of statistical models to evaluate whether engaging and enjoyable interactions have taken place and under which specific game mechanics (Kousmadoudi, 2013).

This prospective approach aims at shortening the development cycle of the VE and extending the concept of the game design currently restricted to linear approach. Moreover, coupling VE with gaming would improve the presence of the user interacting with the virtual environment, hence the learning effect in gaming context.

Audio)Visuo)Haptic interaction for navigation game

The integration of different sensory feedbacks in the interaction with VE or in game design provides the user/player with natural sensations as in the real world. The integration of senses such as vision, audio and haptics improves the user engagement, his learning capabilities and his performance (Ermi, L.2005).

The virtual environment for multisensory interactive game was developed at the ENSAM9Image Institute (Figure 4). The initial setup was developed using OPENHAPTICS software for haptics rendering, FMOD sound library for spatialized audio feedback and OPEGL library for 3D object creation and graphics rendering. The virtual environment is made of a labyrinth with a network of paths, an entrance and a way out, displayed on a 21,5" PC screen with a resolution of 1920 x 1080 and in another setup the scene is displayed in a VR4 Head Mounted Display. The interactive mode consists of following the optimal path leading to the way out with the minimum deviations and in the shorter possible time. In the future setup the interactive mode will be designed as a game with a complex maze for which the player will have to find the path leading to the way out with the minimum flaws. In order to evaluate the contribution of the different sensory feedbacks to the player performance the following interaction conditions were designed: audio9visuo9haptic, audio9haptic, audio9visuo and visuo9haptic interaction.

Haptic feedback and 3D sound

The haptic sensation is provided by a Phantom Premium device (Figure 5) rendering a 3D force upon the collisions of the device pointer with the walls of the labyrinth. The collisions are accompanied with the display of a non9speech spatialized sound emerging from the end effector of the haptic system. Additionally, speech sounds are included to display alerts and cues for the player through a pair of headphones. In order to obtain a quantitative evaluation of the affects of the sensory feedbacks on the user performance an experiment was conducted for each of the interactive conditions. The followed trajectory was recorded and used for the performance metrics. The rendered force was also recorded for further analysis of the quality of the interaction.

The experiment was conducted with subjects who were all familiar with 3D interaction systems and gaming. The initial results showed the potential added value of the audio9visuo9haptic condition, nevertheless the visuo9haptic, the audio9 haptic and the audio9visuo also indicated relatively good performance (Fig. 6).

Low Cost Strategies for Virtualization

VR is considered as a way to improve upon limitations of ordinary human computer interfaces. Thereby this technology cumulates the use of complex and highly integrated interfaces to yield solutions to new applications [START_REF] Mathew | Importance of Virtual Reality in Current World[END_REF]. VR had its breakthrough with innovative applications like its high technology system which correlates with the display technology, simulation technology, network technology, sensor technology artificial functions as well as computer graphic technologies [START_REF] Saldana | Software and Virtual Reality[END_REF].

Virtualization technologies promise great opportunities for reducing energy and hardware costs through server consolidation. Moreover, virtualization can optimize resource sharing among applications hosted in different virtual machines to better meet their resource needs. Virtualization offers the potential for cost9effective service provisioning [START_REF] Gmach | Resource and virtualization costs up in the cloud: Models and design choices[END_REF]. The use of low cost products, COTS components and developing affordable services are key for the promotion and uptake of virtualization and VE's. According to Klasing Chen (2013), there are two main low cost models that can be distinguished; 'low cost adaptation' and 'smart low cost design' (SLCD). The former is the restructuring of products towards its basic core9functionality to reduce costs, the latter is frugal product development in the early stages of design processing. Both strategies have similar effects, although SLCD is considered richer (Klasing Chen, 2013) Affordability and low9cost (i.e. products, services, devices) and addressing emerging markets and the bottom of the pyramid (BOTP) have been discussed in literature extensively (e.g. Prahalad ). In gaming and edutainment (e.g. World of Warcraft; Final Fantasy; Sims; Angry Birds; MInecraft) we witness the application of the same low9cost strategies and models whereby players and/or users play affordable games and use low9cost services for entertainment or edutainment. The impact and effect of low9cost strategies on emerging markets and BOTP are highly disruptive and bring about massive changes in society around the globe. Likewise in gaming where hundreds of thousands or millions of participants are supported in Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs). This virtualization created the emergence of high9 bandwidth and low9latency network infrastructures and the development of large9 scale DVE applications (Liu and Theodoropoulos, 2014). In the design and engineering domain the uptake, distribution, and emergence of DVE's is generally restricted to large multi9national companies, military, or global OEM partnerships that have extensive budgets to invest in such VE systems and infrastructures. However, more than 90% of the world population makes a living working in SME's, is self9employed or runs brick9and9mortar stores Accessibility, low cost strategies, and virtualization for the masses would democratize the uptake and popularity of not only gaming but also in combination with CAD (DVE's) could lead to disruptions in the current industrial production, manufacturing and processing paradigms. Therefore it is imperative that adaptation, implementation, and transformation of game9mechanics and gamification techniques should be applied towards design, engineering and production domains to distribute, expand, and share knowledge, resources and communications on a grand9scale to reach society at large. Playing and gaming in combination with sensorial VE's (DVE's) are a possible combinatorial solution towards improved products and enhanced user experiences, at lower costs and with reduced time budgets.

III. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECIVES

Coupling human sensory feedbacks allows representing natural interaction in real world. The improvement of the user performance is an indicator for the quality of the interaction. This finding is useful for the development of virtual environment and gaming. If the virtual task is designed as a game and the player's scores are used as feedback loop to the process of VE design, the development cycle time will be reduced and the user preferences will be addressed proactively. This approach will create a pleasurable and joyful gamed virtual environment that could enhance learning.

In future research the full coupling and the interoperability of VE and gaming will be carried out and investigations will be conducted on the impact of this approach on the process of designing gamified virtual environment.

  , Chekra MIRAOUI * , Robert WENDRICH ** , Theodore LIM *** , Ioana Andreea STĂNESCU **** , Jannicke Baalsrud HAUGE *****

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Exchange between the programmer and the domain expert for the VE design

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Traditional workflow for the design of VE

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Coupled Gaming and Virtual Environment

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Virtual environment for multisensory interactive game

Figure 5 .Figure 6 .

 56 Figure 5. Experimental setup with different interaction modes

  and Allen, 2002; London et al., 2010; de Wit and Zuidberg, 2012; Basker, 2005; Gmach et al, 2011; Klasing Chen, 2013

AUTHORS

Dr. Samir GARBAYA is Associate Professor at the ENSAM 9 ParisTech. His research interests include physically9based modeling, multisensory interaction with a particular focus on haptic and spatialized audio feedbacks and assembly planning in virtual environment with the gamification concept. Samir is a founder member of the French Virtual Reality Society (AFRV), he served as expert for many international committees and institutions for the evaluation of research projects and the development of the future research in the domain of emerging technologies.

Chekra MIRAOUI is graduated in computer science and currently doing her master of research at the ENSAM school of Engineering. Her research interests include Human9computer interaction, multisensory feedbacks with a focus on sensory integration in the interaction with virtual environment. Dr. Theodore LIM is an active member within the Digital Tools Group; part of the EPSRC9funded Innovative Manufacturing Research Centre (IMRC) at Heriot9 Watt University (www.smi.hw.ac.uk). As both an academic and researcher with considerable industrial experience, he has been instrumental in the research, analysis and development of virtual engineering environments in a variety of product engineering domains and now focuses his work on the acquisition of engineering knowledge information management systems within all aspect of product engineering; with a particular emphasis on conceptual design. He has also implemented game9based learning methods in design and manufacturing taught courses. With over 40 international publications, a book and the successful commercialisation of his novel feature recognition algorithms, he is now applying his knowledge and expertise to the domain of serious games, game ware and computational biometrics for next generation engineering applications.

Prof. ing. Robert E. WENDRICH is project founder of Rawshaping Technology

Ioana Andreea STĂNESCU, Phd Candidate, works as a researcher at the Carol I National Defence University. Her research focuses on knowledge management, game ecosystems, game9based learning, interoperability and semantics, decision support systems, and creative learning. She also is the Scientitic Director and International Relations Coordinator at Advanced Distributed Learning Romania. She is an ICT evaluator within the Joint Call SEE9ERA.NET PLUS and a member of the European Association for Language Testing and Assessment (EALTA). She is a PhD candidate in Computer Science at the Romanian Academy, Information Science and Technology Department, Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence. She has been involved in the development and management of national and international RDI initiatives and currently activates within several European projects: the European Game and Learning Alliance (GaLA) Network -leading the technical Committee on Interoperability and Semantics; Serious Games for Computer Aided Engineering and Product Prototyping; Game9Enhanced Learning (GEL).

Jannicke Baalsrud HAUGE -Research scientist at Bremer Institut für Produktion und Logistik (BIBA). She has been responsible for and managed the BIBA contribution in several EU and national projects in the field of serious games development and application, Innovation in and ICT for logistics and productions, as well as education/training. Furthermore she has been responsible for requirements engineering in several projects on ICT (ERP and PPS systems) and business models development. She has been project manager, quality& risk manager as well as dissemination and exploitation manager as well as WP leader in several of the national and EU projects. She is responsible for the BIBAgaming lab. Main topics: development of SG concepts, scenario and learning content for games for manufacturing, logistics and innovation, curricula development( same field), Requirements engineering (ERP; PPS and SG), process analysis and business modelling. She is currently involved in the Games and Learning Alliance (GaLA) project and the Loginn Project. She is teaching project and risk management, decision making and collaboration and innovation uptake in SC at the University of Bremen, Univ. of Nottingham and Jacobs University. Authored 100+ papers


Marie Laure Guillemin
email: marielaure.guillemin@gmail.com

Paula Valenzuela

Juan Diego Gaitán-Espitia

Christophe Destombe

Marie Laure

Evidence of reproductive cost in the triphasic life history of the red alga Gracilaria chilensis (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta)

The extent of changes in basic physiological and demographic traits associated with reproduction was investigated in the highly cultivated haploid-diploid red alga, Gracilaria chilensis. Sixty individuals bearing vegetative and reproductive fronds collected in the natural population of Niebla (39° 52' S, 73° 23' W), in Chile, were cultivated under control culture conditions. Our results demonstrated that vegetative fronds have a higher survival rate and a better growth rate than reproductive ones whatever the type of individual analyzed (male gametophyte, female gametophyte and tetrasporophyte). Moreover, the reproductive fronds clearly showed a decrease in photosynthetic activity compared to non-reproductive ones. In males and tetrasporophytes the photosynthetic reduction in reproductive individual could be explained by a physical effect of reproductive structure development as well as spores release, disrupting the continuity of the photosynthetic cortical tissues. Translocation of photoassimilates from nearby vegetative tissue or on the previous accumulation of photosynthetic products seems to be a prerequisite for reproductive structure development in this species. Altogether, these results document for the first time in G.

chilensis that reproduction has a strong physiological effect on male, female and tetrasporophyte fronds. This trade-off between reproduction, growth and survival, suggest the existence of reproductive costs in the life history of G. chilensis.

Introduction

The existence of reproductive cost has been demonstrated in various animals [START_REF] Reznick | Big houses, big cars, superfleas and the cost of reproduction[END_REF] and plants [START_REF] Obeso | The costs of reproduction in plants[END_REF]. The concept of reproductive cost, developed by [START_REF] Fisher | The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection[END_REF] and [START_REF] Harper | A Darwinian approach to plant ecology[END_REF], provides the conceptual framework of the theory of resource allocation (for review see [START_REF] Bazzaz | Reproductive allocation in plants[END_REF]. This theory predicts the existence of a resource trade-off between reproduction, growth and survival, assuming that reproductive effort imposes a cost on an organism in terms of reduced growth or lower survival [START_REF] Fisher | The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Bell | Measuring the cost of reproduction. 1. The correlation structure of the life table of a plankton rotifer[END_REF][START_REF] Stearns | The Evolution of Life Histories[END_REF]. Consequently, the study of resource investment in reproduction constitutes a crucial parameter in the understanding of life history strategies of any given species [START_REF] Harper | A Darwinian approach to plant ecology[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Bell | Measuring the cost of reproduction. 1. The correlation structure of the life table of a plankton rotifer[END_REF], reproductive cost is a necessary condition for the optimization of life histories. Indeed, the evolution of life history is constrained by the presence of trade-offs among some of the traits that contribute to fitness [START_REF] Stearns | The Evolution of Life Histories[END_REF].

In terrestrial plants, such trade-offs have been demonstrated experimentally in limited resources conditions either between sexual reproduction and vegetative growth [START_REF] Obeso | The costs of reproduction in plants[END_REF] or between reproduction and survival rate [START_REF] Rameau | Resource allocation to growth, reproduction and survival in Gladiolus : The cost of male function[END_REF]. In dioecious plants, studies have shown clear differences in responses among sexes, with females investing more carbon, nitrogen, and other resources in reproduction than males [START_REF] Obeso | The costs of reproduction in plants[END_REF]. This difference in reproductive effort has been mainly related to the production of seeds, fruits and associated structures [START_REF] Ashman | A dynamic perspective on the physiological cost of reproduction in plants[END_REF] and has often been linked with differences in photosynthetic performance [START_REF] Wheelwright | Previous-year reproduction reduces photosynthetic capacity and slows lifetime growth in females of a neotropical tree[END_REF].

In seaweed, cost of reproduction remains poorly documented (for review see De Wreede and Klinger 1990) and has been mainly addressed in Phaeophyceae species in which reproductive organs are clearly differentiated (e.g. receptacles and sporophylles) [START_REF] Vernet | The costs of sex in seaweeds[END_REF][START_REF] Mccourt | Reproductive biomass allocation in three Sargassum species[END_REF][START_REF] Ang | Cost of reproduction in Fucus distichus[END_REF][START_REF] Mathieson | Patterns of fucoid reproductive biomass allocation[END_REF][START_REF] Åberg | Patterns of reproductive effort in the brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum[END_REF][START_REF] Zou | Photosynthetic carbon acquisition in Sargassum henslowianum (Fucales, Phaeophyta), with special reference to the comparison between the vegetative and reproductive tissues[END_REF]. While a reproductive cost, like growth reduction or decrease of survival rate, has been observed in various fucoids [START_REF] Mccourt | Reproductive biomass allocation in three Sargassum species[END_REF][START_REF] Ang | Cost of reproduction in Fucus distichus[END_REF][START_REF] Mathieson | Patterns of fucoid reproductive biomass allocation[END_REF][START_REF] Åberg | Patterns of reproductive effort in the brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum[END_REF][START_REF] Chu | Trade-off between vegetative regeneration and sexual reproduction of Sargassum thunbergii[END_REF], the existence of resource trade-off in algae has been discussed, because reproductive organs are normally pigmented and potentially able to photosynthesis before the release of spores or gametes [START_REF] De Wreede | Reproductive strategies in algae[END_REF]. However, the reproductive period coincide generally with the end of growth and can be followed by the senescence and the death of the parental thallus [START_REF] Zou | Seasonal pattern of reproduction of Hizikia fusiformis (Sargassaceae, Phaeophyta) from Nanao Island, Shantou, China[END_REF].

In Rhodophyta species, resource trade-off between reproduction and vegetative growth was more difficult to assess because reproductive organs are generally embedded in the cortical tissues of the photosynthetic thallus except for female individuals showing a parasitic-like development of cystocarp on the female thallus after fertilization [START_REF] Hommersand | Sexual reproduction and cystocarp development[END_REF]. In Gracilaria chilensis and G. domingensis, it has been shown that vegetative growth of female gametophyte decreases after fertilization during the development of cystocarps [START_REF] Santelices | Regenerative capacity of Gracilaria fragments: effects of size, reproductive state and position along the axis[END_REF][START_REF] Guimarães | Life history, reproduction and growth of Gracilaria domingensis (Graciliariales, Rhodophyta) from Brazil[END_REF], suggesting that resources were limited. Similarly, the results obtained in the three Ceramiacean species, Antithamnion nipponicum, Ceramium boydenii and C. japonicum, demonstrated that the number and size of spores released depends on the length of the vegetative branch on which cystocarps were produced [START_REF] Kamiya | Dependence of the carposporophyte on the maternal gametophyte in three ceramiacean algae (Rhodophyta), with respect to carposporophyte development, spore production and germination success[END_REF]. All these results support the existence of a high photosynthetic investment in reproductive structures of female gametophyte in Rhodophyta. In male and tetrasporophyte individuals, the influence of reproductive structure on survival and growth was rarely assed (but see [START_REF] Santelices | Regenerative capacity of Gracilaria fragments: effects of size, reproductive state and position along the axis[END_REF]. In these two types of individual, the reproductive structure derives from cortical tissues, and the dual role of the thallus (i.e., photosynthesis and reproduction) raises questions regarding the potential trade-offs involved in the maintenance of these two functions. [START_REF] Thornber | Functional properties of the isomorphic biphasic algal life cycle[END_REF] hypothesized that haploid (male and female gametophytes) and diploid (tetrasporophytes) individuals could differ in vegetative growth, survival and respective investment in reproductive structures.

The aim of this study was to analyze the ecophysiological outcomes of the development of reproductive structures in the red seaweed Gracilaria chilensis for the three types of individuals (males, females and tetrasporophytes). This species is the most commercially important agarophyte in Chile [START_REF] Buschmann | Red algal farming in Chile: a review[END_REF]. We studied the influence of the reproductive status on survival and growth rates as well as basic physiological parameters of interest (i.e., respiration rate, net primary production and pigment content) by comparing reproductively and vegetative fronds of male gametophyte, female gametophyte and tetrasporophyte individuals.

Materials and methods

Species under study

Gracilaria chilensis exhibits a typical Polysiphonia-type life cycle with two freeliving isomorphic generations. Meiosis occurs in the reproductive diploid individuals (tetrasporophytes) to produce haploid spores (tetraspores). When liberated, tetraspores attach to the substratum, develop perennial holdfasts, and grow into haploid dioecious gametophytic males and females. Male gametes are liberated in the water column, whereas female gametes are retained on the female thallus. After fertilization the carposporophyte (cystocarp) develops on the female haploid plant and the zygote undergoes successive mitoses to produce a gonimoblast from which many thousands of identical diploid spores are formed. When liberated, carpospores attached to the substratum develop into perennial holdfasts, subsequently growing into a tetrasporophyte, completing the complex life cycle. In Chile, natural populations formed by individuals growing from a perennial holdfast and attached to the rocky substratum are encountered between Coquimbo and Raul Marin Balmaceda (30°S and 45°S; [START_REF] Bird | The effect of salinity on distribution of species of Gracilaria Grev. (Rhodophyta, Gigartianles): an experimental assessment[END_REF]. As vegetative fronds share the same morphology, phase and sex of individuals can be recognized only during the reproductive period.

Laboratory experimental design

Individuals of G. chilensis were collected at low tide in the natural population of Niebla (39° 52' S, 73° 23' W, Region XIV, Chile) in March 2010. The type of individuals was identified according to their reproductive structures (tetrasporangia for tetrasporophytes, spermatangia for males and cystocarps for fertilized females), using a binocular microscope (SMZ-10; Nikon Co., Tokyo, Japan) [START_REF] Guillemin | Genetic variation in wild and cultivated populations of the haploid-diploid red alga Gracilaria chilensis: how farming practices favour asexual reproduction and heterozygosity[END_REF]. Even if reproductive individuals of G. chilensis could be encountered all year round [START_REF] Meneses | Sources of morphological variation in populations of Gracilaria chilensis Bird, McLachlan & Oliviera of Chile[END_REF], a three-year survey of the Niebla population has shown that the highest percentage of reproductive individuals was encountered during summer (December to April) with at least 85% of reproductive individuals (Guillemin M-L. unpublished data). Twenty tetrasporophytes, 20 females and 20 males, were sampled and cleaned of epiphytes. For each individual, two grams of fresh weight of vegetative fronds and two grams of fresh weight of reproductive fronds were selected to obtain six groups of fronds (vegetative females, males and tetrasporophytes; and reproductive females, males and tetrasporophytes). photon flux density (60 μmol m -2 s -1 ), temperature (15 ± 1°C) and salinity (35 PSU). An important spore released was observed during the first 48h for both tetrasporophytes and females. However, a continuous and low spore shading was observed until the end of the experiment for these two types of individuals (spores not counted during our study).

Basic physiological parameters and survival rate and growth rates of vegetative fronds were measured on fronds without visible reproductive structure under binocular microscope observation. For reproductive fronds, measures were performed on male and tetrasporophyte fronds showing reproductive structures and, on female fronds, with at least two cystocarps per centimeter. Male and tetrasporophyte reproductive thalli selected presented a continuous and homogenous cover of reproductive structures (100% covering).

Pigments content

Chlorophyll a (Chl a) was extracted from 10-15 mg fresh weight samples in N, Ndimethylformamide (DMF) following the protocols of [START_REF] Gómez | Photosynthesis of the red alga Gracilaria chilensis under natural solar radiation in an estuary in southern Chile[END_REF]. Absorbance values of the supernatant were measured using a spectrophotometer (SUV-2120; Scinco Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea). Chl a concentration were estimated by the equation of [START_REF] Inskeep | Extinction coefficients of chlorophyll a and b in N,Ndimethylformamide and 80% acetone[END_REF]. The phycobilins were extracted from ~ 50 mg fresh weight samples in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH = 6.5). After centrifugation (30 min at ca. 4500 x g) the concentrations of phycoerythrin (PE) and phycocyanin (PC) were determined spectrophotometrically (SUV-2120; Scinco Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea) using the equation of [START_REF] Beer | Determining phycoerythrin and phycocyanin concentrations in aquaeous crude extracts of red algae[END_REF]. For each pigment concentration measurement performed, eight samples of the six frond groups were selected randomly.

Metabolic rates and primary productivity

Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and Respiration (R) were measured using the light and dark bottles methodology described in [START_REF] Howarth | The measurement of primary production in aquatic ecosystems[END_REF]. Fresh fronds of 0.1 ± 0.02 g were placed in Falcon tubes of 50 mL (Becton Dickinson, Cowley, Oxford, UK) filled with filtered seawater sterilized with UV light (QL-40; Rainbow Lifegard; El Monte, California, USA) and kept in a temperature-and light-controlled incubation chamber (60 μmol m -2 s -1 and 15 ± 1°C) for twelve hours. Initial and final dissolved O2 concentrations were estimated using an YSI 550A oxymeter (YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, Ohio, USA). No blank correction was applied since oxygen values in light and dark control bottles remained constant. All oxygen values (mg O2 L -1 h -1 ) were converted into carbon values (mg C L -1 h -1 ) by using a factor of 0.375/PQ (i.e., photosynthetic quotient). The PQ value was taken as 1 and expressed as a fresh weight basis. Eight replicate measurements were taken for each of the six groups of fronds. After incubation, the algae from the respective bottles were dried at 60 °C until a constant weight was reached.

Survival and growth

Fifty frond segments (without apex), 1 cm in length, were excised from each group of fronds (vegetative and reproductive male, female and tetrasporophytes).

Separately for each group of fronds, ten segments were randomly selected and placed into a 50 mL culture flask (Orange Scientific, Braine-L'Alleud, Belgium) with filtered seawater without aeration and under low light intensity of 20 μmol m -2 s -1 (5 replicates).

Filtered seawater was changed weekly and segments were cleaned using a soft brush.

After 50 days, the survival rate was estimated by counting the number of healthy segments (i.e., highly pigmented) and was expressed as a percentage of the original number of segments at the beginning of the experiment. After 60 days, all the bleached fronds fragments had died. The growth rate was estimated after 50 days by measuring the number of new tips formed along the 1cm length frond segment.

Data analysis

Physiological parameters of interest, survival and growth estimated under laboratory conditions were compared using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) tests (STATISTICA 7.0, StatSoft, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA). The type of individual (female, male and tetrasporophyte) and the reproductive status of the fronds (vegetative or reproductive) were used as fixed factors. ANOVA assumptions (homogeneity of variance and normal distribution) were examined using Cochran and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests respectively. Transformations preceded the analyses when needed (log10 (x+1) for all three pigment concentrations and Arc Sen √ (x/100) for the survival rate).

Results

There was a significant interaction between the type of individual (female gametophyte, male gametophyte and tetrasporophyte) and the reproductive status of the frond (vegetative or reproductive) with respect to the concentration of phycoerythrin (PE), net productivity, respiration and growth rates (Table 1). Reproductive females (showing cystocarps) presented the lowest values of pigment content, net productivity and respiration rate of all the fronds measured (Figure 1).

The reproductive status of the frond in G. chilensis strongly affects all the seven ecophysiological measurements performed during our study (p < 0.001, ANOVA Table 1, Figure 1). Regardless of sex or phase, vegetative fronds were characterized by a higher pigment content, net productivity, survival and growth rates, than reproductive fronds (Figure 1). Concentration of Chl a and PE were 1.2 to 4.5 times greater in vegetative fronds than in reproductive ones (Figure 1A andB). Net productivity for vegetative fronds was almost twice that of reproductive fronds for all three individual types (Tukey HSD p < 0.05, Figure 1D). On the other hand, the respiration rates were roughly similar for all groups of fronds, with the exception of reproductive females, which presented a reduction in the respiration rate (Figure 1E). Striking differences between vegetative and reproductive fronds were observed for survival and growth rates. Indeed, after 50 days, whereas male and female reproductive gametophytes segments had not generated new apex, vegetative segments of 1 cm length (whatever the sex or phase) have generated approximately two new apices (Figure 1F andG). The most conspicuous differences between reproductive and vegetative fronds were observed in female gametophytes and the differences were significant for all the seven measures (Tukey HSD p < 0.05, Figure 1). There were no consistent differences between the three types of individual except for the phycobilin concentrations (PC), the net productivity and respiration rate (ANOVA Table1). PE and PC were slightly higher in tetrasporophytes than in gametophytes, and the lowest net productivity and respiration rate was seen in female gametophytes (Figure1).

Discussion

The results of this study indicate that (1) vegetative fronds of Gracilaria chilensis from the natural population of Niebla (Chile) have a higher survival rate and a better growth rate than reproductive ones and (2) the reproductive fronds clearly show a clear decrease in photosynthetic activity compared to non-reproductive fronds.

Previous studies in Rhodophyta species demonstrated the effect of reproduction on the photosynthetic activity, such as Gelidiella acerosa (Ganzon-Fortes 1999), Schottera nicaeensis [START_REF] Perrone | Physiological ecology of Schottera nicaeensis (Phyllophoraceae, Rhodophyta): functional significance of heterotrichy[END_REF] and Porphyra yezoensis [START_REF] Yang | Morphological and photosynthetic variations in the process of spermatia formation from vegetative cells in Porphyra yezoensis Ueda (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) and their responses to desiccation[END_REF]). These authors suggested that development of new reproductive structures depends on translocation of photoassimilates from nearby vegetative tissue, or on the previous accumulation of photosynthetic products. [START_REF] Yang | Morphological and photosynthetic variations in the process of spermatia formation from vegetative cells in Porphyra yezoensis Ueda (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) and their responses to desiccation[END_REF] demonstrated that complete maturation of the spermatia in P. yezoensis was determined by photosynthetic activity at the beginning of the spermatangial development (i.e. the four-cell stage), while in the Chlorophyta Ulva prolifera, the formation of the mature sporangia depended directly on the thallus accumulation of photosynthetic products [START_REF] Gao | A strategy for the proliferation of Ulva prolifera, main causative species of green tides, with formation of sporangia by fragmentation[END_REF]). In the red algae Gracilaria cornea, [START_REF] Guzmán-Urióstegui | Polyamines influence maturation in reproductive structures of Gracilaria cornea (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta)[END_REF] pointed out the importance of nutrient supply in the development of cystocarps, and [START_REF] Kamiya | Dependence of the carposporophyte on the maternal gametophyte in three ceramiacean algae (Rhodophyta), with respect to carposporophyte development, spore production and germination success[END_REF] demonstrated in Ceramiales species that female reproductive effort depends on the length of the vegetative branch where cystocarps are produced. The dependence of reproductive structure upon nearby vegetative tissues in algae are generally associated to (i) a positive correlation between plant size and fecundity [START_REF] De Wreede | Reproductive strategies in algae[END_REF][START_REF] Åberg | A demographic study of two populations of the seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum in stochastic environment[END_REF][START_REF] Mathieson | Patterns of fucoid reproductive biomass allocation[END_REF][START_REF] Pfister | Costs of Reproduction in an Intertidal Kelp: Patterns of Allocation and Life History Consequences[END_REF][START_REF] Åberg | Patterns of reproductive effort in the brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum[END_REF][START_REF] Zou | Seasonal pattern of reproduction of Hizikia fusiformis (Sargassaceae, Phaeophyta) from Nanao Island, Shantou, China[END_REF]) and (ii) the existence of a threshold size necessary to achieve reproductive maturity [START_REF] Gómez | Frond regrowth from basal disc in Iridaea laminarioides (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) at Mehuín, southern Chile[END_REF]Dyck and De Wreede 2006).

Interestingly, in our study, cystocarps, spermatangia and sporangia development was concomitant to a reduction of photosynthetic rate. This was usually associated to a slower growth rate and a higher mortality rate of reproductive fronds in comparison to vegetative fronds. We can hypothesize that the lower net productivity observed in reproductive fronds of G. chilensis is directly linked to lower pigment concentration as suggested by [START_REF] Yokoya | Growth responses and photosynthetic characteristics of wild and phycoerythrin-deficient strains of Hypnea musciformis (Rhodophyta)[END_REF]. In Gracilaria, development of reproductive organs as well as the release of tetraspores borne in cortical tissue could affect directly the photosynthetic activity, decreasing the pigment concentration. The negative effect of carposporophyte (cystocarp) on female growth rate has been reported previously in different Gracilaria species (G. sjoestedtii: Zhang and van der Meer 1988;G. chilensis: Santelices and Varela 1995;G. domingensis: Guimarães et al. 1999). These results suggest that the development of carposporophyte depend nutritionally on the female gametophyte [START_REF] Hommersand | Sexual reproduction and cystocarp development[END_REF]. Similar relationship showing a negative trade-off between gametophyte growth rate and sporophyte production were also observed in some bryophytes (Bisang and Ehrlen 2002;[START_REF] Rydgren | Short-term costs of sexual reproduction in the clonal Moss Hylocomium splendens[END_REF]. Our results corroborate previous studies on G. chilensis showing that the reproductive stages have lower growth rate compared to the vegetative stages [START_REF] Santelices | Patterns of reproduction, dispersal and recruitment in seaweeds[END_REF]Varela 1995, Halling et al. 2005) and suggest that reduce growth rate is due to extra energy costs for producing gametes and spores [START_REF] Kain | A review of the life history, reproduction and phenology of Gracilaria[END_REF].

Generally, the existence of long-term demographic effects of current reproduction on subsequent mortality, growth, or reproduction has remained somewhat unclear in algae, as incongruent results have been reported [START_REF] De Wreede | Reproductive strategies in algae[END_REF][START_REF] Ang | Cost of reproduction in Fucus distichus[END_REF]Dyck and De Wreede 2006). Low reproductive costs were suggested since reproductive structures are potentially capable of photosynthesis [START_REF] Santelices | Patterns of reproduction, dispersal and recruitment in seaweeds[END_REF]).

Moreover, it has been hypothesized that the comparatively low cost of reproductive structures in relation to the overall energy budget of the plant might minimize the cost of reproduction in algae. In fucoid species, [START_REF] Vernet | The costs of sex in seaweeds[END_REF] estimated that a very low proportion of body weight was invested in gamete production (< 0.4 % for female gametes and < 0.02 % for male gametes). [START_REF] Pfister | Costs of Reproduction in an Intertidal Kelp: Patterns of Allocation and Life History Consequences[END_REF], suggested that plastic or compensatory responses to the environment may minimize reproduction cost on kelps, and [START_REF] Ang | Cost of reproduction in Fucus distichus[END_REF] argued that the failure to detect cost of reproduction with respect to mortality and longevity in F. distichus may be due to the modular nature of the plants, where cost occurs at the level of the modules (branches or fronds) rather than at the level of the whole plant (individual). In fact, in G. chilensis, [START_REF] Santelices | Regenerative capacity of Gracilaria fragments: effects of size, reproductive state and position along the axis[END_REF] have proposed that the negative impact of reproductive structures in female (i.e. cystocarps) could be highly localized. Even though the long-term cost of reproduction at the individual level was not measured in our study, the lower growth and survival of reproductive fronds may have a strong impact on individual fitness. In short-lived seaweeds (or semelparous), release of gametes or spores usually initiates the degradation of the photosynthetic tissues and bouts of sexual reproduction have a clear negative impact on local algal abundance [START_REF] Clifton | The phenology of sexual reproduction by green algae (Bryopsidales) on Caribbean coral reefs[END_REF][START_REF] Sánchez | Distribution, abundance and phenology of two species of Liagora (Nemaliales, Rhodophyta) in northern Spain[END_REF]. In perennial species (or iteroparous), reproduction is generally delayed and depends on the individual size (Åberg, 1992). While fronds constitute the primary photosynthesis organ and only seasonally bear reproductive structure, spores production and individual volume are inextricably linked in G. gracilis [START_REF] Engel | Population dynamics and stage structure in a haploid-diploid red seaweed, Gracilaria gracilis[END_REF]. In G. chilensis, reproductive cost could have a higher demographic impact in estuaries, where populations reproduce mostly by vegetative fragmentation of fronds than in rocky shore, where individuals are fixed by a perennial holdfast and reproduce solely by spores [START_REF] Guillemin | Genetic variation in wild and cultivated populations of the haploid-diploid red alga Gracilaria chilensis: how farming practices favour asexual reproduction and heterozygosity[END_REF].

In conclusion, the physiological and demographic parameters analyzed in this study allowed the exploration of reproductive cost in red haploid-diploid seaweeds. The results revealed the existence of short-term reproductive cost in G. chilensis whatever the type of individual studied (male gametophyte, female gametophyte and tetrasporophyte), providing valuable insight into demographic processes at a local scale. In fact, our results demonstrated that vegetative fronds have a higher survival rate and a better growth rate than reproductive ones. These findings could have useful implications in the management and farming practices of G. chilensis. Nevertheless, there is a need to carry out new experimental approach at the population level to estimate the impact of reproduction on individual survival in different local ecological environments, such as muddy or rocky

  Following the criteria suggested by Guzmán-Urióstegui et al. (2002), we selected for experimental analyses only the healthy fronds with no damage (i.e., alteration of the cortical tissue) or discoloration. Only fronds with early stages of reproductive structures where selected to form the three groups of reproductive fronds. The fronds were incubated during two weeks in 1 L Erlenmeyer flask (Schott Duran, Elmsford, NY, USA) of culture medium (Modified SFC culture medium, Correa and McLachlan 1991) aerated with ambient air under controlled photoperiod (12:12 h L:D),

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Comparison between reproductive and vegetative fronds of female

Acknowledgments

We thank P. Antileo and K. Contreras for their technical assistance in algae maintenance; I. Gómez, M. Orostegui and C. Rosas (Inst. De Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Universidad Austral de Chile) for providing their expertise and facilities for pigment analyses; S. Woelfl (Inst. De Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Universidad Austral de Chile) for facilitating us access to the oxymeter. JDGE acknowledges support provided by a Conicyt Doctoral fellowship. MLG was supported by FONDECYT grant N° 1090360.

shore. Similarly, since ecological differences have been reported in this species [START_REF] Santelices | Ecological differences among Chilean populations of commercial Gracilaria[END_REF], it is important to understand to what extend environmental variation can influence changes in the energy allocation and trade-offs between reproduction, growth and survival across the geographical range of distribution of G. chilensis and future studies should be performed in natural populations located in other regions in order to generalized our results.


Necessity of archaeology and architecture of Knowledge

This article aims to present to an international public some research on media and information literacy using key concepts. We have chosen to look at them through the constructs of apparatus and phénoménologie.Thus, we will be able to see the heuristic contribution of this Wittgensteinian analysis (looks like a duck or a rabbit).

The phenomena of Web 2.0 are phénoménotechniques (production of pnenomna) [START_REF] Bachelard | L'Intuition de l'instant[END_REF], and understanding them needs an "archaeology of knowledge", which is defined as ananalytical method that determines the boundaries of thought in a given domain and period (Foucault, 1969). This is the reason why we will present our three research projects in different perspectives.

The first one is to look at these projects as an apparatusthrough Foucault, who said: What I'm trying to pick out with this term is, firstly, a thoroughly heterogeneous ensemble consisting of discourses, institutions, architectural forms, regulatory decisions, laws, administrative measures, scientific statements, philosophical, moral and philanthropic propositions-in short, the said as much as the unsaid. Such are the elements of the apparatus. The apparatus itself is the system of relations that can be established between these elements. Secondly, what I am trying to identify in this apparatus is precisely the nature of the connection that can exist between these heterogeneous elements." (1977) We will attempt to show what kind of apparatus each project is. We can tell immediately that "dispositif" is a French concept, and if Foucault was translated as "apparatus" in English, this choice is not so obvious, while "dispositif "is translated differently, even in the same book, as "device", "machinery", "apparatus","construction" and "deployment". Agamben'spraxeologic definition of the apparatus is the most insightful for us: I shall call an apparatus literally anything that has in some way the capacity to capture, orient, determine, intercept, model, control, or secure the gestures, behaviors, opinions, or discourses of living beings. Not only, therefore, prisons, madhouses, the panopticon, schools, confession, factories, disciplines, judicial measures, and so forth (whose connection with power is in a certain sense evident), but also the pen, writing, literature, philosophy, agriculture, cigarettes, navigation, computers, cellular telephones and--why not-language itself, which is perhaps the most ancient of apparatuses. (2009,14) In other words, our question will behow each project is a "various institutional-, physical-and administrative mechanisms, as well as knowledge structures that enhance and maintain the exercise of power within the social body."

In a second step, we will see how these projects contribute to an architecture of knowledge in Salaun's perspective (2012), whocitesRichard Saul Wurman (1976):

Thought "architecture" was a better way of describing what I thought was the direction that more people should look into for information, and I thought the explosion of data needed an architecture, needed a series of systems, needed systemic design, a series of performance criteria to measure it.

In this perspective, our point of view will be the phénoménotechnique described by Bachelard. Indeed,"one of the most interesting of his philosophy is the erosion of the boundary between the theoretical and the technical part of science" (Chimisso, 2008, 386). In fact, for Bachelard, scientific phenomena are today caused by instruments, particularly instruments of inscriptions [START_REF] Latour | Laboratory Life: The social construction of scientific facts[END_REF].

However, Bachelard doesnot impose only approach as stated by Castelao-lawless (1995, 58): "Finally, because it accepts that both the study of each science and of each stage of development of science require different types of philosophical and historical analysis, it opens the way of pluralistic models of scientific explanation." Finally, Bachelard distinguishes the production of phenomenon (phénoménotechnique) and the (high)lighting that he calls phénoménographie.

Project 1: Dictionary and integrators concepts in information literacy

After this section centred on theoretical tools, we presented the three projects in chronological order by relying on the concepts we have defined. The first began in 2006.

Two teachers (Ballarini-Santonocito and Duplessis) with a group of "professeursdocumentalistes" (teacher-librarians), a specificity of the French education system, worked on an online search.

They built a map with the concepts used in this activity. The production apparatus is likeaction research. The phénoménographique used a specific instrument of inscription: map minding, like in Figure 1. After that, this small team, including a third researcher (Serres), built a dictionary consisting of a culture of information, especially for "professeurs-documentalistes". They aimed to overlay the field and spot 133 concepts for a first base of knowledge to teach, which was adapted to the level of education. For this work, the inscriptions were brought forth using a private wiki.

The difference between phénoménotechnique and phéoménographie is never easy, on account of goings and comings, but here for this last partof the project, we can identify a particular production: 64 main concepts, including seven core ones (information, document, source, indexation, information space, information search and information exploitation). This phénoménotechniquework was published by a professional association (Fadben) in a professional journal called Mediadoc (2007). Here, we propose two inscriptions of the core concepts: the concept of source (Figures 2 and3). This huge work was necessary in the first place, as quite a few "professeurs-documentalistes" have used it, but not really the institution. It is the production of activists, and they take care to ensure direct links with teaching. We can remark that this work only mentions information culture, and says nothing at all about media culture. However "source" is not the same concept in these two cultures.

Another aspect of this first apparatus is the small place for archaeological aspects, and the culture of information is not really positioned relative to information literacy. This work was done by le Deuff, who distinguished among three aspects of literacy (Figure 4) and their main features. An important aspect of these apparatuses is to feed the second and the third projects, as we shall proceed to demonstrate.

Having some skill and competence

Element of learning

Project 2 -GRCDI: Report on information culture

The second project was produced by a research group created in 2007 (GRCDI: Groupe de recherchesur la culture et la didactique de l'information. http://culturedel.info/grcdi/) that is still active, and in 2011 weproduced an outlookreport (media, digital andinformationcultureandeducation).

Here, the production apparatus is different, as the group consisted of researchers and other different types of actors (mostly librarians, but mainly "professeurs-documentalistes" in secondary schools and high schools). The group was not affiliated with a lab, but took part in ERTE,a national research programme during the period from 2006-2009.

At the beginning, the primary aim of this group was to make an archaeology of information culture and didactic reflections. This is why we wrote an important report within a collaborative work, and extracted 12 recommendations (Figure 6).

Here, the phénoménographiqueaspect is based on a blog, presenting more than 150 texts from all the members of GRCDI and completed by a private wiki for writing the report. The phénoménotechnique aspect of this group is an annual seminar gathering researchers and teachers.

Olivier Le Deuff oledeuff@gmail.com Olivier Le Deuff oledeuff@gmail.com Olivier Le Deuff oledeuff@gmail.com (digital, computer, media…). Therefore, we can show the overlap of some aspects of these different cultures. So, after Alan Liu in the US (Santa Barbara University) and Sue Thomas in Great Britain (De Montfort University), we have introduced the idea of transliteracyin France. We used the definition of the latter author."Transliteracy is the ability to read, write and interact across a range of platforms, tools and media from signing and orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio and film, to digital social networks. (Thomas, 2007) This topic was on the menu of the 5 th seminar of GRCDI in September 2012, and this idea was further developed by another group, Limin-R, which was created in 2010 to focus on this issue.

Project 3 -Limin-R and evolutions: Translit

We discussed the Limin-R project 2 (2010-11), "Literacies: medias, information and digital studies",in the previous section, whichis explicitly connected with a previous project: The ERTE: Technological Research in Education Task Force: "Information Literacy and curriculum in documentation" (2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010),and finished with an International symposium: Information Literacy Education (October 16-18, 2008) at the University Charles de Gaulle Lille3.

2 http://www.iscc.cnrs.fr/spip.php?article1115

This apparatus was funded by CNRS (PIR) for the period from 2010-2011, and operated by various research laboratories or groups: CREW, PREFics GRCDI, STEF, GERIICO-ISCC and IMS. This objective was to operate a prior census of academic works on the concept of "information" related to media, information and computer literacies, and to produce an interdisciplinary research restructuration of the three separate fields (overlapping concepts, methodologies and finalities).

The phénoménotechniqueof this projectis based on a platform (Figure 7) and a glossary. As in the first project, the first word put to work was "source", but here in various senses. The main interest of this work is based on the turn and return shuttle process between these two inscription instruments (Figure 8).

Here, we only propose two maps produced by the research team (Figures 9 and10). The insertion in academic circuits has consequences at the level of the involvement of people who are not researchers. It is also the reason why this group, which is directed by the main professors: Divina Frau-Meigs (media), Eric Delamotte (information & knowledge literacy and Eric Bruillard (computer literacy), aims to create an association and review for the phénoménographie aspects.

Maps Glossary

Hence, we can already find a first publication on the INA site (Institut National de l'Audiovisuel) called "l'éducation aux cultures de l'information 3 " that lays the emphasis on "translittératie" (à la French), which is open to numeracy and visual cultures.

Currently, an ANR (French National Research Agency) project takes over for four years (2013-2016), though only with researchers from four labs: CREW, STEF, GERIICO and IMS, but with a convention that will allow all the other partners of LIMIN_R to be involved.

The project aims at continuing the various trends of investigation already described.

Perspectives

Three research questions are proposed by this reconstructed group:

1 -What new sharing of competences between these three disciplinary fields do these uses of transliteracy generate?

Through an analysis of the old and new forms of engagement with information evinced by young people, the purpose is to check and qualify their viability and their finalities.

2 -What are the new collective dynamics, on the scale of the school and of the territory, that may be set up with the development of the transliteracy in learning events with varied configurations?

The purpose is to explore the new issues that may arise at the articulation between the individual and the collective, and in the digital space as much as in the geographical space.

3 -What are the political and educational options that might appear to reach a fully-fledged transliteracy?

The purpose is to identify and qualify the practices and the uses of transliteracy currently in development, as they could lead to new reconfigurations of the three scientific domains involved to unheardof processes of regulation, as well as to shifts in the borders between private and public uses.

These three questions lead to four tasks: T1: Mapping "information" in the three fields considered, via a dedicated search engine;

T2: Observing transliteracy situations in both semi-formal and non-formal settings;

3 http://www.ina-sup.com/ressources/dossiers-de-laudiovisuel/les-e-dossiers-de-laudiovisuel/e-dossierleducation-aux-cultures T3: Processing the collected data to identify strategies for transliteracy in "information cultures"; T4: Modelling conceptual relations linking transliteracy, knowledge building and e-learning.

This attractive programme shows that the research apparatus became more structured and more related with empirical fields by dint of cooperative design. The balance between phénoménotechnique and phénoménographiqueseems to be a good way to ensure that.

Beyond this chronological presentation, it is clear that these three types of apparatus must continue together, and that it is primordial at best to articulate these two inseparable Bachelardian dimensions of research. In conclusion, we can write that this particular manner of describing theses three projects allows a focus on important aspects, but at the same time prevents us from seeing other aspects of projects, such as, for example, their social value.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: A map ofthe online search

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: A map of a main concept:Source

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: A didactic approach of source

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Three aspects of literacy -Olivier Le Deuff

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Culture of information vs. Information literacy

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: 12 recommendations published on the blog

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: A private platform website: Aladoc

Figure 9 :

 9 Figure 9: Keyword map of experts

Positions held:

ESPEde Bretagne: Teachertrainer (2007/2013) Secondary lower schools in Fouesnant and Quimper Teacher of documentation (1995/2007) Primary schools in Brest andQuimper (1985/1995)