W Onno Feikema

Marcell A Marosvölgyi

Johann Lavaud

Hans J Van Gorkom
email: vangorkom@physics.leidenuniv.nl

Cyclic electron transfer in photosystem II in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Keywords: Cyclic electron transfer, Photosystem II, Diatoms, Tyrosine D, Photo-inhibition CET, cyclic electron transfer, NPQ, non-photochemical quenching, OEC, oxygen evolving complex, PSII, photosystem II, RC, reaction center

In Phaeodactylum tricornutum, and presumably in other planktonic marine diatoms, Photosystem II is unusually resistant to damage by exposure to high light intensities. Not only is the capacity to dissipate excess excitations in the antenna much larger and induced more rapidly than in other organisms, but in addition an electron transfer cycle in the reaction center appears to prevent oxidative damage when secondary electron transport cannot keep up with the rate of charge separations. Such cyclic electron transfer had been inferred from oxygen measurements suggesting that some of its intermediates can be reduced in the dark and can subsequently compete with water as an electron donor to Photosystem II upon illumination. Here, the proposed activation of cyclic electron transfer by illumination is confirmed and shown to require only a second. On the other hand the dark reduction of its intermediates, specifically of tyrosine Y D , the only Photosystem II component known to compete with water oxidation under physiological circumstances, is ruled out. It appears that the cyclic electron transfer pathway can be fully opened by reduction of the plastoquinone pool in the dark. Oxygen evolution reappears after oxidation of the pool by Photosystem I, but the pool itself is not involved in cyclic electron transfer.

Introduction

Photosynthetic organisms have to cope with the variable availability of their energy source, sunlight. They may adapt their photosynthetic apparatus to function optimally at the average time-distribution of available light intensities, but will sometimes be exposed to intensity changes that are faster or larger than the dynamic range that photosynthetic reactions can accommodate. At saturating light intensity, accumulation of primary photoproducts may result in destructive side reactions, especially in the reaction center (RC) of Photosystem II (PSII) [START_REF] Kyle | The biochemical basis for photoinhibition of photosystem II[END_REF][START_REF] Barber | Too much of a good thing: light can be bad for photosynthesis[END_REF] where sufficient oxidizing power must be generated to oxidize water and where a back reaction of the charge separated state probably leads to formation of singlet oxygen [START_REF] Van Gorkom | Kok's oxygen clock: what makes it tick? The structure of P 680 and consequences of its oxidizing power[END_REF]. Plants can repair PSII by replacement of the RC protein PsbA, or D1, but when the rate of damage exceeds that of repair, photosynthesis is inactivated by 'photoinhibition' [START_REF] Aro | Photoinhibition of photosystem II. Inactivation, protein damage and turnover[END_REF]. Some protection against photoinhibition may be provided by the induction of 'non-photochemical quenching' (NPQ) in the antenna pigment-protein complexes, which can decrease the excitation rate of the RC [START_REF] Müller | Non-photochemical quenching. A response to excess light energy[END_REF]. The process involves enzymatic de-epoxidation of xanthophyll pigments, triggered by excessive acidification of the thylakoid lumen, and requires some 10 minutes to take full effect.

Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), a remarkably successful group of unicellular algae that may account for 20-25 % of global photosynthesis [START_REF] Field | Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components[END_REF], often dominate the phytoplankton in turbulent coastal waters of the oceans [START_REF] Harris | Phytoplankton ecology: structure, function, and fluctuation[END_REF]. Due to the strong vertical mixing they are continuously exposed to wide fluctuations in the intensity and duration of solar illumination. Diatoms are able to cope with changes from almost complete darkness to full sunlight [START_REF] Richardson | Adaptation of unicellular algae to irradiance: an analysis of strategies[END_REF]. Studies on the marine diatom Phaeodactylum (P.) tricornutum have shown that it can survive days without light [START_REF] Griffiths | Factors affecting the photosynthetic capacity of laboratory cultures of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum[END_REF] and does not suffer damage to its PSII RC protein at high light intensity [START_REF] Olaizola | Non-photochemical quenching and the diadinoxanthin cycle in a marine diatom[END_REF]. It has a xanthophyll-dependent NPQ that is induced more rapidly, and can compete with excitation transfer to the PSII RC much more effectively than does the analogous process in higher plants [START_REF] Lavaud | Influence of the diadinoxanthin pool size on photoprotection in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum[END_REF]. Nevertheless, this appears to be only part of the photoprotection mechanism. In addition, P. tricornutum may be able to 'short-circuit' its PSII RCs by a cyclic electron transfer path when the charge separation cannot be stabilized by normal secondary electron transport [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF].

Evidence for cyclic electron transfer (CET) in the PSII RC has come from measurements of the yield of oxygen production on illumination by a series of 'single turnover' flashes, i.e. flashes that are intense enough to cause a charge separation in all RCs and short enough to allow only a single charge separation in each RC. The amount of oxygen produced on each flash, measured polarographically by a rate electrode [START_REF] Joliot | A polarographic method for detection of oxygen production and reduction of Hill reagent by isolated chloroplasts[END_REF], usually shows a damped period 4 oscillation as a function of flash number, with maxima on flash numbers 3, 7, 11, etc.. This is due to the 4-step oxidation cycle of the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) in PSII and the instability of all but the first oxidation state in darkness [START_REF] Kok | Cooperation of charges in photosynthetic O 2 evolution. 1. A linear 4-step mechanism[END_REF]. In the green alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa, pre-illumination by saturating light leads to decreased oxygen flash yields although the chlorophyll fluorescence yield indicates that normal charge separations are taking place [START_REF] Falkowski | Evidence for cyclic electron flow around photosystem II in Chlorella pyrenoidosa[END_REF][START_REF] Prasil | Cyclic electron flow around photosystem II in vivo[END_REF]. This effect was attributed to cyclic electron transfer (CET) around PSII that might help to protect PSII against photoinhibition. The CET appeared to occur as long as the pool of plastoquinone molecules involved in electron transport from PSII to PSI was in the reduced state [START_REF] Prasil | Cyclic electron flow around photosystem II in vivo[END_REF].

Recently, a similar effect was demonstrated in P. tricornutum [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF]. Cells that had been exposed to a few minutes of saturating light gave oxygen yields in a flash series that were initially lower than in dark-adapted cells and returned to normal in about 15 flashes. The integrated deficit in oxygen yield indicated that up to 3 charge separations per PSII did not contribute to water oxidation but oxidized something else instead. The alternative electron donors were shown to be intrinsic components of each PSII, as opposed to a common pool, but have not been identified. The only PSII cofactor that is known to compete with the OEC as an electron donor is the tyrosine Y D [START_REF] Babcock | Water oxidation in photosystem II: from radical chemistry to multielectron chemistry[END_REF]. The alternative donors were proposed to function in a CET chain that would be switched on during saturating illumination. This was concluded from the observation that the alternative donors were in the reduced state after saturating illumination, whereas their reduction in the dark, e.g. after their oxidation by a flash series, took several minutes.

In this work the pre-illumination conditions that induce the O 2 deficit in P. tricornutum were studied in order to verify the proposed activation, by saturating light, of electron transfer from the acceptor side of PSII to the alternative electron donors. In addition, the proposed participation of Y D as one of the alternative electron donors was tested by measurement of the EPR signal of its oxidized form.

Materials and methods

Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Böhlin) was maintained on agar plates and inoculated in sterile flasks containing ca. 300 ml culture medium. This medium contained a combination of two different culture media, F2 [START_REF] Guillard | Studies of marine planktonic diatoms. 1. C. nana (Hustedt) and D. convervacea (Cleve), Gran Can[END_REF] in sterile natural North Sea water and Artificial Sea Water (ASW, Sigma) and was set to pH = 7.8 (20 mM Tris buffer). Optimal growth was achieved by a mixture of 50 % F2-seawater and 50 % ASW. In 100 % F2 enriched natural sea water or 100 % ASW, the stationary growth phase of the diatoms was attained at about one order of magnitude lower cell densities than in the mixture. Apparently both media contain at least one essential substance at low, growth-limiting concentration, and complement each other in the 50/50 mixture. A continuous flow of filtered air enriched by 5 % CO 2 was passed through the culture. Illumination was supplied by fluorescent lamps at about 50 μE•m -2 •s -1 intensity in a 16 hour light, and 8 hour dark cycle. The temperature was approximately 20 ˚C. Prior to the experiments, 60 ml of the culture in exponential growth phase was centrifuged for 10 min at 3000 g. Samples were dark adapted at least 60 min prior to the experiments.

Chlorophyll a was quantified using an extinction coefficient of 7.68 x 10 4 M -1 cm -1 at its Q Y absorption maximum at 663 nm in 80 % acetone [START_REF] Porra | The chequered history of the development and use of simultaneous equations for the accurate determination of chlorophylls a and b[END_REF]. Before extraction, cells were broken osmotically by resuspension in fresh water.

Steady state oxygen evolution was measured by a Clark electrode. A suspension of diatom cells in freshly replaced growth medium with a chl a concentration of 14 μg•ml -1 was stirred continuously at 22 ˚C and illuminated by a tungsten lamp through a heat filter (λ < 800 nm) and 4 cm of water. The rate of oxygen evolution was calculated based on the O 2 concentration of sea water equilibrated with the atmosphere (225 M O 2 ) [START_REF] Hitchman | Thermodynamic aspects of dissolved oxygen, In: Chemical analysis, A series of monographs on analytical chemistry and its applications[END_REF], and was corrected for aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration was determined by measuring the decrease of the O 2 concentration per unit time in the sample at an initial level between 155 -200 M O 2 , similar to the O 2 concentration during measurements of oxygen evolution.

Oxygen evolution induced by flash illumination was measured polarographically by a home built Joliot type bare platinum electrode [START_REF] Joliot | A polarographic method for detection of oxygen production and reduction of Hill reagent by isolated chloroplasts[END_REF]. To 100 μl of dark adapted sample at a Chl a concentration of about 0.2 mg•ml -1 , NaHCO 3 dissolved into 4 μl of medium was added to a final concentration of 4 mM. The sample was pipetted on a lens cleaning tissue (Whatman) covering the electrode, placed in a small air tight vessel that was purged with water-saturated N 2 gas to make the sample anaerobic during a sedimentation time of 7 min prior to measurements. The sample could be illuminated by a tungsten lamp and by flashes from a xenon arc lamp via a bifurcated optic fiber. This way a flash series could be applied immediately after a period of continuous illumination. Continuous illumination was controlled by a fast shutter (Uniblitz) that closed in less than 10 ms. The xenon flashes were applied at a repetition rate of 2 Hz during a period of 9.5 s (20 flashes). Saturating flashes were obtained by discharging a 4 μF capacitor charged to 2 kV, over the xenon lamp. The voltage between the Pt electrode (-) and the AgCl electrode (+) was set to 600 mV, well below the critical value of 800 mV where reductive inactivation begins [START_REF] Plijter | Oxygen release may limit the rate of photosynthetic electron transport; the use of a weakly polarized oxygen cathode[END_REF] (note that the value of 110 mV vs SHE for the anode potential at 125 mM Cl -mentioned in Ref. [START_REF] Plijter | Oxygen release may limit the rate of photosynthetic electron transport; the use of a weakly polarized oxygen cathode[END_REF] is obviously an error; the original data show that on the anode a value of 305 mV vs SHE was measured). The electrode current was converted to a voltage, amplified, and digitized at 820 Hz, 12 bit resolution.

For measurements on the oxidation state of Y D , a Varian E-9 EPR spectrometer was used. Diatom samples at Chl a concentrations between 0.05 and 0.3 mg•ml -1 were inserted into a quartz flat cell with an optical path length of 0.3 mm. Illumination was provided by a tungsten lamp through a 50 % grid in the EPR cavity after passing a heat filter (λ < 800 nm) and 4 cm water.

Results

The rate of oxygen evolution in continuous light, measured by a Clark electrode and corrected for respiration, saturated at approximately 0.35 mE•m -2 •s -1 , in the range of reported values of 0.27 [START_REF] Owens | Light-harvesting function in the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum II. Distribution of excitation energy between the photosystems[END_REF] and 0.5 [START_REF] Lavaud | Influence of the diadinoxanthin pool size on photoprotection in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum[END_REF]. The saturated rate was 0.23 ( 0.03

) mmol•(mg Chl a) -1 •h -1 .
At saturating intensities, a decrease in O 2 yield was observed in about 2 min, which reflects activation of NPQ. This is too slow to affect the measurements described below.

Fig. 1A shows the pattern of oxygen evolution by P. tricornutum cells induced by a sequence of 20 single-turnover flashes without (a) and with pre-illumination at 450 μE•m -2 •s -1 for 5 minutes (b). Fig. 1B shows the oxygen flash yields as determined by the maximum current increase (ΔI) induced by each flash in Fig. 1A. The experiment is equivalent to that shown in Ref. [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF], and confirms these results. After a saturating pre-illumination the flash yields were initially lower and their period 4 oscillation was strongly damped, indicating an unusually large miss probability, but towards the end of the flash series the oxygen yields returned to the same steady state value.

Normalized to that value, ΔI SS , for which we take the average of the last 4 flashes, the integrated O 2 yield of the 20 flashes is not 20 but somewhat less, 18.5  0.2 in this case, because during dark-adaptation the average number of oxidizing equivalents stored in the OEC falls below that present during steady state turnover and some charge separations, in this case 1.5, are needed to recover it. When measured 5 min after saturating pre-illumination, this deficit in integrated O 2 yield was 4  0.2 ΔI SS , leaving at least 2.5 charge separations per PSII unaccounted for by OEC activity.

The O 2 deficit re-appeared in a next flash series with a half time of 2.5 min (not shown). This also confirms the results of Lavaud et al. [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF], where it was shown to depend on the pool of reductants accumulated during saturating pre-illumination and proposed to proceed via the plastoquinone pool, which is presumably involved in the oxidation of the accumulated reductants by chlororespiration. In order to study the proposed direct reduction of the alternative electron donors by PSII during illumination, we avoided accumulation of the reductant pool by using only 10 s illumination and measured the oxygen yields in a flash series starting 5 seconds later. A clear O 2 deficit was observed (Fig. 2) that did not re-appear in a second flash series fired 5 min later.

Opening the CET switch

The size of the O 2 deficit changed in two steps (Fig. 2) as a function of the intensity of the 10 s preillumination. At very low intensity, about 5 μE•m -2 •s -1 , the deficit of 1.5 equivalents due to the lower oxidation state of the OEC after dark-adaptation decreased to 0.3. The pattern of O 2 yields confirms that this pre-illumination caused the first maximum to shift from the third to the second flash. Reduction of the alternative electron donors appeared to be switched on at an intensity of about 35 μE•m -2 •s -1 , far below saturation of electron transport and even lower than the 50 μE•m -2 •s -1 at which the diatoms were grown. The size of the O 2 deficit, now relative to an integrated O 2 yield of 19.7, was 4.3 ( 0.2) equivalents per PSII at 45 μE•m -2 •s -1 and did not increase further at up to 450 μE•m -2 •s -1 . The deficit is significantly larger than the total capacity of at most 3 equivalents of the alternative electron donors measured 7 minutes after pre-illumination [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF], suggesting that CET has occurred during the flash series. Illumination at 450 μE•m -2 •s -1 for only 1 s induced about 60 % of the deficit.

Closing the CET switch

From the experiments of Fig. 2, where the flash series started 5 seconds after illumination, one might conclude that the switch was still open during the first few flashes only. This would allow reduction of any alternative electron donors oxidized by those flashes, explaining why the observed O 2 deficit was larger than the capacity of the electron donors. Time-dependent closure of the CET switch then should cause a time-dependent size of the O 2 deficit. This was not observed. Extension of the dark period between pre-illumination and the flashes to 10 s did not change the 4.3 ( 0.2) equivalents that represent the deficit.

Most likely, the determination of the deficit relative to the oxygen yields after 20 flashes is not appropriate in these conditions. Modeling of the oxygen yields in the flash series according to the Kok model for S-state turnover [START_REF] Kok | Cooperation of charges in photosynthetic O 2 evolution. 1. A linear 4-step mechanism[END_REF] with a variable probability of electron donation by a variable number of 'alternative donors' did not allow a satisfactory fit to the data. The oscillation of oxygen yields appears to be a superposition of two patterns: a fraction of PSII that shows classic period 4 oscillation and a fraction that hardly oscillates, but contributes mainly an overall increase of the oxygen production during the flash series.

Satisfactory agreement with the experiments could be obtained by assuming such a heterogeneity, a mixture of centers without CET and centers with an open CET switch that initially do not contribute to the O 2 yield (Fig. 3). The conversion of the latter centers into the former during the flash series was modeled as an additional miss factor in the Kok-model that decreased from unity to zero as a function of flash number in proportion to its exhaustion of a pool of 'alternative donors' as proposed in Ref. [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF]. Note that this is equivalent to assuming a decreasing probability of CET as a function of flash number in proportion to exhaustion of something that does not participate in CET but keeps the CET switch open, e.g. the reduced plastoquinone pool. The resulting sequence of O 2 yields varies from a normal oscillation pattern delayed by one flash if only one donor is available to a nearly exponential rise for a donor capacity of tens of electrons, and its shape allows a quite precise estimate at intermediate values. The observed patterns in pre-illuminated samples mostly indicated donor capacities of 4-7 electrons. Due to the strongly inhomogeneous exhaustion kinetics of the donor pool, its underestimation by the O 2 deficit relative to the average yield of flash numbers 16 to 20 becomes important already at capacities of more than 2-3 electrons. This may account for the apparently invariant maximum O 2 deficit of 3 equivalents reported in Ref. [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF].

Redox state of tyrosine Y D determined by EPR

In mono-exponential decay with t 1/2 = 7 min (70 %) and a stable component (30 %) and is shown in Fig. 4, inset. Blocking the light beam by a fast shutter (less than 10 ms) did not influence these properties. If Y D were one of the alternative electron donors involved in CET postulated in Ref. [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF] it should be reduced during and after saturating illumination. It should be oxidized only at low light intensity (or during a flash series after illumination) and then be reduced in 2.5 min by the accumulated reductant pool, if present. The above data indicate that Y D  is not reduced by CET or the reductant pool. It is therefore concluded that Y D is not involved in CET.

Discussion

The data presented here confirm the results on P. tricornutum described in Ref. [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF] and show that the deficit in flash-induced O 2 production caused by CET can also be observed after much shorter pre-illumination, 10 s instead of 5 min, provided that the time between preillumination and measurement is reduced from minutes to seconds as well. In both cases the plastoquinone pool is probably involved, directly after its reduction by PSII under the conditions used here, but also under the conditions where it may be reduced via the chlororespiratory pathway [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF]. When P. tricornutum is exposed to light intensities that generate more electrons than it can use for carbon fixation, apparently some reductant is accumulated in large amounts that reduces the plastoquinone pool in about 3 min after illumination. Consequently, it takes minutes of saturating illumination to generate an O 2 deficit in a flash sequence measured minutes after illumination. On the short time scale of our experiments, however, the O 2 deficit was induced by an illumination that caused only a few tens of charge separations (Fig. 2) and presumably disappears at longer times after illumination due to oxidation of the plastoquinone pool [START_REF] Prasil | Cyclic electron flow around photosystem II in vivo[END_REF].

The results are in agreement with the interpretation proposed by Prasil et al. [START_REF] Prasil | Cyclic electron flow around photosystem II in vivo[END_REF] that the oxygen yields at the beginning of the flash series are decreased by CET and their increase during the flash series reflects the closure of the CET switch. The number of charge separations lost for O 2 evolution does not reflect a number of 'alternative electron donors' or 'CET intermediates', as suggested before [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF], but reflects the number of PSI charge separations required to decrease the reduction level of the plastoquinone pool sufficiently to close the CET switch in PSII. The plastoquinone pool does not seem to be involved as an electron donor but as a regulator: At intermediate reduction levels no intermediate damping of the period 4 oscillation of O 2 flash yields is observed, but a superposition of the patterns seen in fully active PSII and in CET-inhibited PSII. Moreover, it was shown already in Ref. [START_REF] Lavaud | Photosystem II electron transfer cycle and chlororespiration in planktonic diatoms[END_REF] that the electron source causing the O 2 deficit is not shared between PSII centers. Presumably the anaerobic conditions on the electrode were responsible for the fact that the CET switch was opened even at light intensities below that at which the cells were grown, and also for the observation that a significant fraction of PSII was CET-inhibited even in dark-adapted samples.

In these diatoms, CET appears to be a perfect slip mechanism that short-circuits photosynthetic charge separations in PSII whenever the plastoquinone pool is reduced more rapidly than it can be oxidized, perhaps governed simply by the probability that a plastoquinol molecule is present at the Q B site at the moment of Q A photoreduction. The existence of such a safety valve should make PSII immune to 'acceptor side photo-inhibition'. There are indications for an additional mechanism to induce CET, however, when the electron transport bottleneck occurs on the donor side of PSII instead. Photoinhibition in higher plants [START_REF] Hakala | Evidence for the role of the oxygen-evolving manganese complex in photoinhibition of photosystem II[END_REF] as well as in Cyanobacteria [START_REF] Ohnishi | Two-step mechanism of photodamage to photosystem II: step 1 occurs at the oxygen-evolving complex and step 2 occurs at the photochemical reaction center[END_REF] was recently proposed to take place mainly after photoinactivation of the OEC. The action spectrum of the initial step appears to resemble the absorption spectrum of the Mn cluster rather than that of the photosynthetic antenna pigments. After inactivation of the OEC, subsequent charge separations in PSII, with the action spectrum of PSII, will rapidly cause RC protein damage and inactivation of charge separation. In P. tricornutum cells, exposure to white light at 2 mE•m -2 •s -1 was found to inactivate oxygen evolution with a time constant of about one hour, but charge separation was not inhibited [START_REF] Lavaud | Influence of the diadinoxanthin pool size on photoprotection in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum[END_REF].

While CET may prevent RC photodestruction in diatoms, it would indeed not be expected to protect against inactivation of oxygen evolution by direct excitation of the Mn cluster, but neither would NPQ. Yet the same figure in Ref. [START_REF] Lavaud | Influence of the diadinoxanthin pool size on photoprotection in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum[END_REF] shows that NPQ can largely prevent OEC inactivation. This observation rationalizes why diatoms have a uniquely effective NPQ in addition to the much quicker responding photoprotection by CET, but how does it work? If photo-destruction of the Mn cluster is indeed responsible for OEC inactivation, we can only speculate that the quantum yield of that process is strongly temperature dependent and can be diminished by NPQ because it suppresses local heating in the RC protein, where the OEC is located, by causing energy dissipation to take place in the antenna proteins instead.

  Fig. 4a (dotted line) the EPR spectrum of P. tricornutum during saturating illumination (0.6 mE•m -2 •s -1 ) is shown. The solid line shows the EPR spectrum measured directly after 5 min illumination and is characteristic of Y D  of PSII. The difference spectrum of the two spectra in Fig 4a is shown in Fig. 4b which shows a spectrum with ΔH pp ≈ 9 G and is characteristic of P 700 + of PSI. This difference spectrum is clearly devoid of the spectrum of Y D  , indicating that the redox state of Y D did not change significantly upon switching the light off. The decrease in Y D  signal amplitude during the following minutes was best fit by a

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Electrode current changes induced by a series of 20 light flashes applied to P. tricornutum cells on a Joliot-type electrode. A, dark adapted (a) and 7 minutes after preillumination at 0.45 mE•m -2 •s -1 (b). B, amplitude of flash-induced current increase for dark adapted (squares) and pre-illuminated diatoms (circles).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. O 2 production during a series of flashes starting 5 s after a 10 s pre-illumination at the indicated light intensity (values in μE•m -2 •s -1 ). Dotted lines represent zero reference axis for each flash series.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure3. Simulation of the oxygen flash yield patterns in P. tricornutum. Circles: measured oxygen yields in a dark adapted sample; solid line: simulation by assuming heterogeneity in the reaction centers comprising two fractions, a fraction that has no CET and performs normal S-state progression (dashed line), and a fraction that initially has an open CET switch that is progressively closed during the flash series (dotted line).

Figure 4 .Fig. 4

 44 Figure 4. Y D  EPR signal and kinetics in P. tricornutum cells at room temperature. (a) Dotted line: measured during continuous illumination at 0.6 mE•m -2 •s -1 ; solid line: 1 min after illumination. (b) Difference between the spectra in (a). Inset: decay kinetics of Y D  EPR signal in (a), amplitude (squares) determined between g = 2.01 and g = 2.00, indicated by arrows in (a); line: mono-exponential decay fit with t 1/2 = 7 min (see text). EPR settings: microwave power, 5 mW; microwave frequency, 9.52 GHz; field modulation amplitude, 6.3 G; time constant, 1 s.