Michel Marengo
email: marengo@univ-corse.fr

Eric D H Durieux

Bernard Marchand

Patrice Francour

A review of biology, fisheries and population structure of Dentex dentex (Sparidae)

Keywords: Dentex dentex, biology, population structure, fisheries, parasitology, conservation

The common dentex Dentex dentex (Linnaeus, 1758) is an iconic marine coastal fish in the Mediterranean Sea. It is a demersal sparid fish (0-200 m), that grows to a maximum length of 100 cm and a weight of 13 kg, with a relatively long life span (more than 20 years). As a high trophic level predator, it holds a key position in the coastal marine food webs. The common dentex is of great economic importance for both artisanal (small-scale coastal fisheries) and recreational fishing. Despite its economic and ecological importance, scientific data on this species in its natural environment are still very scant. The global commercial catch of common dentex has fluctuated over the last sixty years on a multidecadal time scale, and has declined significantly since the 1990s.

There are few data regarding fishing effort and total catch from recreational fishing for common dentex, but it appears that this species is particularly targeted by this activity. The common dentex is now classified as "vulnerable" in the Red List of Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Sea. This review summarizes the current literature on D. dentex as regards biology, ecology, parasitology, population structure, commercial and recreational fishing, regulation and minimum fish sizes, and management through marine protected areas. It is suggested future research directions to fill the gaps in current knowledge.

Introduction

The common dentex Dentex dentex (Linnaeus, 1758) is an iconic marine coastal bony fish in the Mediterranean Sea. It holds an important place as a fishery resource for both professional and recreational fishing, and a key position at the top of the food chain in coastal ecosystems. It belongs to the Sparidae family [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF], which is represented in the Mediterranean Sea by 10 genera and 22 species that usually inhabit coastal areas [START_REF] Arculeo | The stock genetic structure of two Sparidae species, Diplodus vulgaris and Lithognathus mormyrus, in the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. It was first described in the 18th century as Sparus dentex Linnaeus, 1758, then Sparus cetti Risso 1810 or Dentex vulgaris Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1839 and finally Dentex dentex (Linnaeus, 1758) [START_REF] Tortonese | Check-list of the fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and of the Mediterranean (CLOFNAM). Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Bauchot | Check-list of the fishes of the eastern tropical Atlantic (CLOFETA). Sparidae[END_REF]. This species is of great economic interest and high commercial value for artisanal fishing (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997; [START_REF] Loir | Sexuality and gonadal cycle of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in intensive culture[END_REF]Chemmam-Abdelkader et al. 2007). Dentex dentex is considered as a "noble" species given its high market value (Chemmam- [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Révision qualitative et quantitative des captures des poissons du genre Dentex (Teleostei, Sparidae) sur les côtes tunisiennes. Actes du 6ème Congrès Maghrébin des Sciences de la Mer (Monastir, Tunisie, 18-22 décembre[END_REF]. Prices may range from a minimum of 15 €/kg for whole fish to a maximum of 38 €/kg for fillets and sliced fish. It is a highly prized catch in recreational fishing [START_REF] Morales-Nin | The recreational fishery off Majorca Island (western Mediterranean): some implications for coastal resource management[END_REF][START_REF] Font | Biological implications of recreational shore angling and harvest in a marine reserve: the case of Cape Creus[END_REF]; and is also appreciated by scuba divers [START_REF] Cadiou | The management of artisanal fishing within the Marine Protected Area of the Port-Cros National Park (northwest Mediterranean Sea): a success story?[END_REF]).

As a top predator, the common dentex occupies a key position at the top of the trophic pyramid, and so is a potential indicator species for the structure and functioning of the coastal ecosystems on which it depends [START_REF] Macpherson | Biomass size spectra in littoral fishes in protected and unprotected areas in the NW Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Seytre | The Cap Roux MPA (Saint-Raphaël, French Mediterranean): changes in fish assemblages within four years of protection[END_REF][START_REF] Valls | Modeling trophic interactions to assess the potential effects of a marine protected area: case study in the NW Mediterranean Sea[END_REF].

Dentex dentex is classified by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as "vulnerable" in the Red List of Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Sea (Abdul [START_REF] Malak | Overview of the Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. There are several reasons for this ranking: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has reported that landings for this species have steadily declined over a recent 15-year period, from a peak of ~7,000 tons in 1990 to less than 1,000 tons in 2005. In addition, it is a highly sought-after food fish targeted by recreational fishing. It is relatively long-lived, and its populations are slow to recover. Other "vulnerable" bony fish species in Mediterranean include the dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe, 1834), and the brown meagre Sciaena umbra Linnaeus, 1758, so that D. dentex is the only Sparidae species with this conservation status (Abdul [START_REF] Malak | Overview of the Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. The common dentex is also considered as a potential candidate for aquaculture, due to its commercial success, ease of reproduction in captivity and high growth rates during the first years [START_REF] Abellán | Culture of common dentex (Dentex dentex L.). Present knowledge, problems and perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Loir | Sexuality and gonadal cycle of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in intensive culture[END_REF][START_REF] Rueda | A review on the biology and potential aquaculture of Dentex dentex[END_REF][START_REF] Giménez | Effects of two culturing techniques on the growth, survival and larval quality of Dentex dentex Linnaeus, 1758[END_REF][START_REF] Tomas | The effect of dietary soybean meal on growth, nutrient utilization efficiency, and digestibility of juvenile common Dentex, Dentex dentex (Actinopterygii: Perciformes: Sparidae)[END_REF]. Accordingly, a considerable number of studies have been published concerning the biology of common dentex in captivity (e.g. [START_REF] Rueda | A review on the biology and potential aquaculture of Dentex dentex[END_REF][START_REF] Koumoundouros | The rearing of common dentex Dentex dentex (L.) During the hatchery and on-growing phases[END_REF][START_REF] Suarez | The effects of the diet on flesh quality of farmed dentex (Dentex dentex)[END_REF][START_REF] Rigos | Comparison of muscle fatty acid and vitamin composition between wild and farmed common dentex (Dentex dentex)[END_REF].

Despite its economic and ecological importance, scientific peer-reviewed papers on the biology of this species in its natural environment are still very scant. The most important study described the fishing and biology of Dentex dentex from the Balearic Islands off Mallorca (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997), and another on its age and growth on the Tunisian coast [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF][START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]). While specific studies on this species are scarce, there is piecemeal information on it in scientific reports and in peerreviewed papers, regarding its morphology and geographical distribution [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF], the range of habitats it occupies [START_REF] Bayle-Sempere | Observations on Dentex dentex (L., 1758) in the Spanish Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Ramos-Esplà | Estatuto del Dentex dentex (Linnaeus, 1758) en el Mediterraneo[END_REF], its reproduction and growth [START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF][START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF], parasite communities [START_REF] Radujkovic | Parasites de poissons marins du Montenegro: Monogenes. In Faune des parasites de poissons marins des côtes du Montenegro (Adriatic sud) Radujkovic, BM & Raibaut, A[END_REF][START_REF] Euzet | A checklist of Monogenea of Mediterranean fish[END_REF][START_REF] González | A preliminary study on gill metazoan parasites of Dentex dentex (Pisces: Sparidae) from the western Mediterranean Sea (Balearic Islands)[END_REF][START_REF] Bartoli | Digenean species diversity in teleost fish from a nature reserve off Corsica, France (Western Mediterranean), and a comparison with other Mediterranean regions[END_REF], the fishing gear used [START_REF] Cetinic | Specific method of fishing for Sparidae species in the eastern Adriatic[END_REF][START_REF] Lelli | Commercial landing and fishing metiers within the artisanal fishery of Tyre, Lebanon. In Socio-economic development of the Fishing Community of Tyre, Lebanon' promoted by the[END_REF][START_REF] Sacchi | La sélectivité du gangui à panneaux des côtes varoises : analyse comparative de l'application de la maille carrée de 40mm[END_REF][START_REF] Sacchi | Report of the FAO EastMed Assessment of the Fishing Gears in Lebanon[END_REF], catches and annual production (FAO 2012), regulations and management through marine protected areas (e.g. [START_REF] Francour | Pluriannual analysis of the reserve effect on ichtyofauna in the Scandola natural reserve (Corsica, northwestern Mediterranean)[END_REF][START_REF] Cacaud | Analyse légale des mesures adoptées par les états côtiers méditerranéens en vue de minimiser l'impact des activités de pêches sur les écosystèmes marins et les espèces non cibles[END_REF][START_REF] Sahyoun | Protection effects on Mediterranean fishassemblages associated with different rocky habitats[END_REF]), and on its population structure and stock discrimination [START_REF] Bargelloni | Discord in the family Sparidae (Teleostei): divergent phylogeographical patterns across the Atlantic-Mediterranean divide[END_REF][START_REF] Palma | Morphological study of Pagrus pagrus, Pagellus bogaraveo, and Dentex dentex (Sparidae) in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]Chemmam-Abdelkader et al. 2007). There is a lack of basic biological studies for several Mediterranean fish populations, and yet this information is most important for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable fishery management [START_REF] Tzanatos | Catch length analysis, relation to minimum landing sizes and management implications from a Mediterranean small-scale fishery (Patraikos Gulf, Greece)[END_REF][START_REF] Damalas | Seasonal abundance of non-commercial demersal fish in the eastern Mediterranean Sea in relation to hydrographic and sediment characteristics[END_REF].

This review summarizes the current literature on D. dentex biology, ecology, stock structure, and fisheries, and suggests future research directions to fill the gaps in current knowledge.

General description

The common dentex has a rather short compact oval body [START_REF] Bauchot | Fiches FAO d'identification pour les besoins de la pêche. (rev. 1). Méditerranée et mer Noire. Zone de pêche 37[END_REF]. Its head profile is straight in juveniles and convex in adults [START_REF] Bauchot | Fiches FAO d'identification pour les besoins de la pêche. (rev. 1). Méditerranée et mer Noire. Zone de pêche 37[END_REF][START_REF] Bayle-Sempere | Observations on Dentex dentex (L., 1758) in the Spanish Mediterranean[END_REF]. The oldest specimens have a slight hump at their forehead [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF]. It has several rows of teeth, with 4-6 well-developed anterior teeth on each jaw [START_REF] Bauchot | Fiches FAO d'identification pour les besoins de la pêche. (rev. 1). Méditerranée et mer Noire. Zone de pêche 37[END_REF], and a succession of canine teeth that are much smaller than the frontal ones [START_REF] Bayle-Sempere | Observations on Dentex dentex (L., 1758) in the Spanish Mediterranean[END_REF]. Its gillrakers are present on the first arch, 9 or 10 lower and 8 or 9 upper [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Bauchot | Fiches FAO d'identification pour les besoins de la pêche. (rev. 1). Méditerranée et mer Noire. Zone de pêche 37[END_REF]. Its dorsal fin has 11 spines of increasing length up to the fourth or fifth, and subequal thereafter [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF]. Its ventral fins are characterized by one spine and five radii, the pectoral fins are composed of an average of 15 radii, and the caudal fin present 17 radii [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]). On the anal fin, there are three spines, and between seven and nine radii [START_REF] Bayle-Sempere | Observations on Dentex dentex (L., 1758) in the Spanish Mediterranean[END_REF]. Its lateral line is composed of 62 to 68 scales to the caudal base [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF]. Its colour changes with age, the young of the year displaying yellow fins [START_REF] Louisy | Guide d'identification des poissons marins[END_REF] or even appearing entirely yellow [START_REF] Cheminée | Ecological functions, transformations and management of infralittoral rocky habitats from the North-western Mediterranean: the case of fish (Teleostei) nursery habitats., University of Nice, Nice Chemmam-Abdelkader B[END_REF]; older juveniles are greyish with vertical black bars and are blue-spotted, turning pinkish at maturity, with yellow areas on the ventral part of the head, then grey-blue in the oldest specimens. There are also dorsal spots that are variably shaded with age [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Bauchot | Fiches FAO d'identification pour les besoins de la pêche. (rev. 1). Méditerranée et mer Noire. Zone de pêche 37[END_REF], and green, blue, gold and purple iridescence, especially in the head region [START_REF] Gonzales | Parasitofauna branquial de Dentex dentex (Linneo, 1758) (Pisces; Sparidae)[END_REF]. For Sparidae in general and in particular Dentex dentex, there are no characters that distinguish between sexes. The common dentex is often confused, especially in fisheries statistical data, with other Sparidae such as the red porgy (Pagrus pagrus), which resembles it in shape and body colour. This precise morphological description of the species can be a reliable tool for its identification, for both biologists and MPA managers.

Distribution and habitat

Dentex dentex is a Mediterranean and Atlantic species [START_REF] Bayle-Sempere | Observations on Dentex dentex (L., 1758) in the Spanish Mediterranean[END_REF]. It inhabits the Mediterranean Sea most frequently south of 40°, it is found occasionally in the Black Sea, and occurs in the Atlantic Ocean exceptionally around the British Isles, and also Cape Blanc, the Bay of Biscay, Madeira, the Canary Islands and southward to Senegal (Fig. 1; [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF][START_REF] Bat | A study on the fishes of the Central Black Sea coast of Turkey[END_REF]. In 2008, small juvenile Dentex dentex were observed in the Arcachon basin [START_REF] Quero | Observations ichtyologiques effectuées en 2008[END_REF]). This observation implies that common dentex may spawn in the Bay of Biscay. It has been reported 12 times in all: five times in the 19th century with large erratic individuals, six times in the 20th and once in the 21st century also with the presence of juveniles (< 20 cm) in the Basque country [START_REF] Quero | Observations ichtyologiques effectuées en 2008[END_REF]. Dentex dentex is a demersal sparid fish found from 0 to 200 m depth, living on various substrates such as Posidonia oceanica meadows, rocky bottom with P. oceanica patches, coastal detritic areas, ripples of coarse sand, sandy habitats with Caulerpa and Cymodocea and in the coralligenous community [START_REF] Ramos-Esplà | Estatuto del Dentex dentex (Linnaeus, 1758) en el Mediterraneo[END_REF][START_REF] Abellán | Culture of common dentex (Dentex dentex L.). Present knowledge, problems and perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Guidetti | Differences among fish assemblages associated with nearshore Posidonia oceanica seagrass beds, rocky-algal reefs and unvegetated sand habitats in the Adriatic sea[END_REF][START_REF] Rueda | A review on the biology and potential aquaculture of Dentex dentex[END_REF][START_REF] Ballesteros | Mediterranean coralligenous assemblages: a synthesis of present knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Stobart | Effect of habitat patchiness on the catch rates of a Mediterranean coastal bottom long-line fishery[END_REF]. Juveniles of common dentex (20-50 mm TL, during June-August) inhabit shallow water (2-4 m depth), at the edge between Posidonia oceanica meadows and sand, or close to crevices and small caves [START_REF] Dulčić | Shallow coves as nurseries for non-resident fish: a case study in the eastern middle Adriatic[END_REF][START_REF] Valle | Effects of a marine protected area on fish assemblage associated with Posidonia oceanica seagrass beds: temporal and depth variations[END_REF]. From the perspective of behavioural ecology, the juveniles are gregarious; observations of shoals of Dentex dentex have been made, with individuals of medium size (1-5 kg) especially in summer around rocky outcrops at depths between 20 and 50 m, but also found in shallow waters (-8 to -10 m) [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Bayle-Sempere | Observations on Dentex dentex (L., 1758) in the Spanish Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Ramos-Esplà | Estatuto del Dentex dentex (Linnaeus, 1758) en el Mediterraneo[END_REF][START_REF] Francour | Pluriannual analysis of the reserve effect on ichtyofauna in the Scandola natural reserve (Corsica, northwestern Mediterranean)[END_REF][START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF][START_REF] Sahyoun | Protection effects on Mediterranean fishassemblages associated with different rocky habitats[END_REF]). Behaviour changes with age; the oldest adults animals are solitary [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF]. [START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF] reported that in the Balearic Islands, the adults feed mainly on fish from the coastal zone (74%) and on cephalopods (26%) as secondary prey. The smaller individuals had species from the Posidonia meadow in their stomachs: sparids, clupeids, gadoids, and more frequently labrids such as the peacock wrasse (Symphodus tinca, 22.58%). In larger specimens, fish were the predominant prey, mainly sparids, picarel and anchovy. Whole cephalopods, remains of sepia bone and unidentified beaks were also found (25.62%).

Feeding and behavioural ecology

However, their prey species are diverse, probably depending on availability (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997).

On the Tunisian coast the common dentex feeds preferentially on fish (84%), crustaceans (9%), cephalopods (5%) and plant remains (2%) [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]. Pelagic fish (eg Trachurus sp, Sardina pilchardus) constitute the majority of prey (56.1%), compared with other fish. The group "Crustacea" is composed mainly of the caramota prawn (Penaeus kerathuru), the group "Cephalopods" of the common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), and the European squid (Loligo vulgaris), and the group "Plants" of the Posidonia oceanica and Caulerpa genus.

The common dentex is a high level tropic predator (4.5 TL), and the large size of the adults probably limits the number of predators [START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF][START_REF] Stergiou | Feeding habits and trophic levels of Mediterranean fish[END_REF][START_REF] Froese | [END_REF].

However, a study on the food and feeding habits of the amberjack Seriola dumerili (Risso, 1810) indicates that the common dentex, probably at the juvenile stage, may be considered as an occasional prey for this species [START_REF] Andaloro | Food and feeding habits of the amberjack, Seriola dumerili in the Central Mediterranean Sea during the spawning season[END_REF].

Reproduction

There is almost no information on the reproductive biology of common dentex in the natural environment.

Based on the macroscopic examination of gonads from 210 fish caught from the waters off Mallorca, they reported an equal sex distribution and a gonochorism for the common dentex (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997).

Seasonal variations in the sex ratio of the common dentex were observed on the Tunisian coasts, with an apparent dominance of females compared with males all year round, and a dominance of males during the spawning period (April-June) [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]. This dominance of males during the spawning period could be explained by fertilization of eggs of one female by several males [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]).

In addition, macroscopic examination of D. dentex gonads throughout its life cycle revealed rare cases of hermaphroditism. In this study 3727 individuals were examined, and only 14 immature individuals (with sizes between 17.5 and 24.8 cm) were presented with gonadal parts more developed in females than in males or vice versa.

The species D. dentex can be characterized by a rudimentary nonfunctional hermaphroditism. The reproduction occurs from the end of March until June (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). In winter most of the specimens are immature, with the development of the gonads starting in January, the first mature specimens appearing in March. The size at which 50% of the population is mature is estimated at 34.60 cm for females and 52.02 cm for males for the Balearic Islands (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997), and 23.32 cm for males, 22.58 cm for females, for a total of both sexes of 22.95 cm for the Tunisian coast [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]. Along the Tunisian coast, at 26 cm TL, 75% of the population is mature, and at 33 cm TL 100% of the population is mature for both sexes [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]. The maximum maturity occurred in the second quarter of the year, with the first post-spawn specimens appearing in the third quarter (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). Examination of the ovaries during the spawning period shows that they have different amounts of oocytes corresponding to different stages of oocyte release (nearly full, half full, almost empty) [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]). The analysis of the frequency distribution of egg size shows the existence of four modes corresponding to four categories of oocytes issuable at four different periods [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]. The common dentex is a partial spawner, it emits eggs of the same spawning for several days [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]. Absolute fecundity of Dentex dentex, on average, is equal to 164,195 eggs per fish, and the average relative fecundity is estimated at 217 eggs per gram of fish [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF].

Concerning the spawning areas, there is no information reported in the literature, but we collected information in Corsica (France) based on fishermen's knowledge. According to their observations during the spawning period, the populations of common dentex gather periodically on spawning sites at between 40 and 100 m depth to form shoals. These sites are characterized by hard substrates such as rocky outcrops or wrecks. Most of these sites are identified by fishermen, and each year groups of common dentex come to spawn. Observations made by seine fishers using sonar suggest that the reproductive act occurs mainly during the day, but also at night at full moon.

Age, growth and condition

Dentex dentex may reach a maximum length of 100 cm and a weight of 13 kg (Ramos-Esplà and Bayle-Sempere 1991; Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). There are no morphological differences between the two sexes, and the size-weight relationship is similar in both (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997).

Growth is rapid in the first 2 years of life, 31% of the maximum length being reached in the first year (24.1cm) (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). Reported estimates of von Bertalanffy growth parameters are similar among studies (Table 1; Culioli 1986; Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997; Chemmam- [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF].

The fish has the physiological capacity to withstand long periods of fasting, which can actually form part of its life cycle [START_REF] Vigliano | Adaptaciones metabólicas al ayuno y realimentación en peces[END_REF][START_REF] Navarro | Fasting and starvation[END_REF]. Several factors, such as seasonal fluctuations, reproduction, including pre-spawning and migration, or availability of prey are responsible for this natural fasting (Pérez-Jiménez et al. 2012). Results suggest that it possesses a high capacity to face this nutritional challenge, given that the reduction in body mass induced by prolonged starvation is far lower than that reported for other sparid fish (Pérez-Jiménez et al. 2012). It is relatively long-lived species, its maximum lifespan exceeding 20 years (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997), with up to 33 years reported (Chemmam- [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]). It exhibits a low P/B value (0.24; [START_REF] Valls | Modeling trophic interactions to assess the potential effects of a marine protected area: case study in the NW Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]) and a low resilience, with a minimum population doubling time of 4.5-14 years [START_REF] Froese | [END_REF]. For these reasons, its populations are considered as slow-recovering (Abdul [START_REF] Malak | Overview of the Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]). However, the calculated values of mortality (0.201 for both sexes combined, Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997; 0.24, [START_REF] Valls | Modeling trophic interactions to assess the potential effects of a marine protected area: case study in the NW Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]) indicated a relatively low natural mortality.

Age information forms the basis for calculations of growth rate, mortality rate and productivity, ranking it among the most influential of biological variables [START_REF] Campana | Accuracy, precision and quality control in age determination, including a review of the use and abuse of age validation methods[END_REF]. Several calcified structures produce periodic growth increments useful for age determination in fish [START_REF] Campana | Accuracy, precision and quality control in age determination, including a review of the use and abuse of age validation methods[END_REF]. One of the main problems in ageing is selecting the most suitable and accurate structure [START_REF] Machias | Validation of annuli on scales and otoliths of common dentex (Dentex dentex)[END_REF]. For common dentex, like for most fish, two main structures are used to determine age: scales and otoliths. The direct method by scale reading has been widely used for ageing because scales are easily collected, prepared and read [START_REF] Machias | Validation of annuli on scales and otoliths of common dentex (Dentex dentex)[END_REF]. Chemmam- [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF] showed in D. dentex the presence of a strong positive correlation between scale radius and the standard length of fish. The limitation of this method is that the scales of the common dentex older than five years are illegible owing to the poor definition of the annual rings and the abundance of false rings (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). The use of hard structures such as sagittal otoliths is generally the most reliable method for quantifying age and growth in fishes [START_REF] Zischke | A review of the biology, stock structure, fisheries and status of wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri), with reference to the Pacific Ocean[END_REF]. Sagittal otoliths appear to be more reliable than scales for aging dentex, especially for older individuals. The formation of annuli on scales and the hyaline or opaque zones on otoliths have been attributed to various factors such as seasonal temperature, wet and dry seasons, fish feeding and reproductive cycles [START_REF] Simkiss | Calcium metabolism of fish in relation to ageing[END_REF][START_REF] Beckman | Seasonal timing of opaque zone formation in fish otoliths[END_REF]. The results of [START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF], on the common dentex indicate a period of hyaline zone formation in autumnwinter and an opaque zone formation in spring-summer. The formation of the hyaline rings in the otoliths, as in most fishes, is probably related to the decrease in the temperature and reduction in food availability (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). Apparently, reproduction does not influence the type of ring deposited, since during the period of maximum spawning an opaque ring is formed (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997).

Parasitology

Parasites have been widely used as biological tags to provide information for fisheries management on the movements and population discreteness of their fish hosts [START_REF] Williams | Parasites as biological indicators of the population biology, migrations, diet, and phylogenetics of fish[END_REF]. Along with the need to correctly identify a stock before it can be appropriately managed, parasites also need to be correctly identified before they can be applied as biological tags [START_REF] Catalano | Parasites as biological tags to assess host population structure: Guidelines, recent genetic advances and comments on a holistic approach[END_REF]. The main factor limiting the use of marine parasites as biological tags is insufficient information on their complex biology and ecology [START_REF] Mackenzie | Parasites as biological tags for stock identification of Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus L[END_REF]. Numerous investigations concerning the parasite fauna of several sparid fishes from the Western Mediterranean have been published (e.g. [START_REF] Brian | Copepodi Parasiti dei Pesci d'Italia. Tipo-Litografico R Istituto Sordomuti[END_REF][START_REF] Yamaguti | Copepoda and Brachiura of fishes[END_REF][START_REF] Bartoli | The Opecoelidae (Digenea) of sparid fishes of the western Mediterranean. III. Macvicaria Gibson & Bray[END_REF][START_REF] Ternengo | Site influence in parasite distribution from fishes of the Bonifacio Strait Marine Reserve (Corsica Island, Mediterranean Sea)[END_REF][START_REF] Kaouachi | Monogenean parasites in Sparid fish (Pagellus genus) in eastern Algeria coastline[END_REF][START_REF] Marzoug | Effects of fishing on parasitism in a sparid fish: Contrasts between two areas of the Western Mediterranean[END_REF]. There have been no specific studies on the parasite communities present in the common dentex, but much reported data are nevertheless available. A set of reported parasite species from D. dentex is given in Table 2. There are some studies on abundance, intensity, prevalence, and their descriptions for digeneans [START_REF] Bartoli | Redescriptions of two cryptogonimid digeneans from the fish Dentex dentex (L., 1758) (Sparidae) in the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF][START_REF] Bartoli | The Opecoelidae (Digenea) of sparid fishes of the western Mediterranean. III. Macvicaria Gibson & Bray[END_REF][START_REF] Bartoli | Digenean species diversity in teleost fish from a nature reserve off Corsica, France (Western Mediterranean), and a comparison with other Mediterranean regions[END_REF][START_REF] Foata | Sperm ultrastructure of the digenean Aphallus tubarium (Rudolphi, 1819) Poche, 1926 (Platyhelminthes, Cryptogonimidae) intestinal parasite of Dentex dentex (Pisces, Teleostei)[END_REF][START_REF] Greani | Ultrastructural Study of Vitellogenesis of Aphallus tubarium (Rudolphi, 1819) Poche, 1926 (Digenea: Cryptogonimidae), An Intestinal Parasite of Dentex dentex (Pisces: Teleostei)[END_REF]. For ectoparasites, there are references to the gill parasites, especially copepods [START_REF] Brian | Copepodi Parasiti dei Pesci d'Italia. Tipo-Litografico R Istituto Sordomuti[END_REF][START_REF] Raibaut | Analysis of the parasitic copepod species richness among Mediterranean fish[END_REF][START_REF] Bailly | Dentex dentex (Linnaeus[END_REF]), but data on monogeneans are scant [START_REF] Radujkovic | Parasites de poissons marins du Montenegro: Monogenes. In Faune des parasites de poissons marins des côtes du Montenegro (Adriatic sud) Radujkovic, BM & Raibaut, A[END_REF][START_REF] Euzet | A checklist of Monogenea of Mediterranean fish[END_REF][START_REF] González | A preliminary study on gill metazoan parasites of Dentex dentex (Pisces: Sparidae) from the western Mediterranean Sea (Balearic Islands)[END_REF].

Fisheries

Fish from the Sparidae family are widely distributed along the coastal waters of the Mediterranean Sea, being considered traditionally as an important resource for small-scale fishing [START_REF] Coppola | Inventory of artisanal fishery communities in the western-central Mediterranean. FAO-COPEMED Project[END_REF]. Common dentex are of great economic importance as fished species (Chemmam- [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Révision qualitative et quantitative des captures des poissons du genre Dentex (Teleostei, Sparidae) sur les côtes tunisiennes. Actes du 6ème Congrès Maghrébin des Sciences de la Mer (Monastir, Tunisie, 18-22 décembre[END_REF].

FAO data on global capture production for the last sixty years for D. dentex (Fig. 2 The main fishing gear specifically targeting the common dentex is: bottom long-lines, trammel nets and medium-large mesh gillnets (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997; [START_REF] Lelli | Commercial landing and fishing metiers within the artisanal fishery of Tyre, Lebanon. In Socio-economic development of the Fishing Community of Tyre, Lebanon' promoted by the[END_REF][START_REF] Vandeperre | Fishery regimes in Atlanto-Mediterranean European Marine protected Areas. EMPAFISH project[END_REF][START_REF] Sacchi | Report of the FAO EastMed Assessment of the Fishing Gears in Lebanon[END_REF]. However, it can also be targeted by other fishing gear such as bycatch, especially at the juvenile stage, by traps nets, fyke net, basket traps, bottom-trawl, purse and beach seines, ''Tramata" fishing used only in the eastern Adriatic, or "Gangui" fishing used along Mediterranean north coastline [START_REF] Cetinic | Specific method of fishing for Sparidae species in the eastern Adriatic[END_REF][START_REF] Akyol | Retained and trash fish catches of beach-seining in the Aegean coast of Turkey[END_REF][START_REF] Quero | Observations ichtyologiques effectuées en 2008[END_REF][START_REF] Vandeperre | Fishery regimes in Atlanto-Mediterranean European Marine protected Areas. EMPAFISH project[END_REF][START_REF] Sacchi | La sélectivité du gangui à panneaux des côtes varoises : analyse comparative de l'application de la maille carrée de 40mm[END_REF]. Trammel nets are gangs of three rectangular nets made up of two outer, large-mesh panels and one inner panel [START_REF] Goñi | Differential catchability of male and female European spiny lobster Palinurus elephas (Fabricius, 1787) in traps and trammelnets[END_REF]. For the common dentex fishery, the smaller mesh panel reaches a size of 40 mm stretched, and large-mesh up to 150 mm stretched. It is composed of a bottom rope with sinkers, and a head rope equipped with floats [START_REF] Leleu | Suivi et évaluation de la pêche professionnelle au sein d'une Aire Marine Protégée: protocoles d'enquêtes et indicateurs de pression et d'impact[END_REF], to deploy the net vertically (up to 5.8 m), with a length of 500 m (3-4 units per vessels). In addition to wedging, gilling and entangling (i.e., held by teeth, spines or other protrusions), trammel nets also catch fish in the pocket formed by the inner smaller mesh wall of netting being pushed through one of the larger mesh outer walls [START_REF] Erzini | Size selectivity of trammel nets in southern European small-scale fisheries[END_REF]. It is usually installed in the evening and retrieved at dawn (between 12 and 24 hours). Medium mesh size gillnets are built with a single wall of monofilament net with a stretched mesh size of 48-120 mm, and target medium size fish such as sparids on shallow sandy and mixed sandy rocky bottoms [START_REF] Lelli | Commercial landing and fishing metiers within the artisanal fishery of Tyre, Lebanon. In Socio-economic development of the Fishing Community of Tyre, Lebanon' promoted by the[END_REF].

The length of these nets ranges from a few hundred meters to more than 1000 m [START_REF] Sacchi | Report of the FAO EastMed Assessment of the Fishing Gears in Lebanon[END_REF].

Bottom longlines consist of monofilament mainline to monofilament snoods with hooks about 1 m long, attached at regular intervals [START_REF] Lelli | Commercial landing and fishing metiers within the artisanal fishery of Tyre, Lebanon. In Socio-economic development of the Fishing Community of Tyre, Lebanon' promoted by the[END_REF]. The most common gear used is 1.2 mm diameter mainline with 0.6 mm snood and hooks of length 3 cm and width 1.5 cm [START_REF] Sacchi | Report of the FAO EastMed Assessment of the Fishing Gears in Lebanon[END_REF]. The bait is mainly cephalopods and sardines [START_REF] Sacchi | Report of the FAO EastMed Assessment of the Fishing Gears in Lebanon[END_REF]. During the same fishing day typical artisanal Mediterranean vessels (generally less than 12 m in length) can deploy more than one longline unit (2-3 per vessel) of 200-300 hooks each, for a length of about 1 km of longlines [START_REF] Lelli | Commercial landing and fishing metiers within the artisanal fishery of Tyre, Lebanon. In Socio-economic development of the Fishing Community of Tyre, Lebanon' promoted by the[END_REF]. In sum, the common dentex is targeted by artisanal fisheries throughout the year using different gear. We note that there is an alternation and/or combined use of this gear (top three: longline, trammel and gill net), depending on the season, habitat and geographic areas (Table 3). However, for common dentex fishing, peaks of exploitation were observed, with maximum efficiency between May and September by trammel net/gill nets and between September and April by bottom long-line. The fishing depth is mostly in the range 15-80 m, with a mean value around depth 30 m. The composition by size class also shows broad variations in terms of catches (14-83 cm).

Juvenile stages (mean value 30 cm) are captured especially on the Posidonia oceanica meadows (by trammel net and gill net) or as by-catch (e.g Tramata, gangui), whereas adult specimens are caught mainly on the rocky bottoms (by long-line).

Recreational fishing

Recreational fishing has economic, social, and cultural roles in the Mediterranean [START_REF] Morales-Nin | The recreational fishery off Majorca Island (western Mediterranean): some implications for coastal resource management[END_REF]. It has been recognized as one of the most common leisure activities in coastal zones [START_REF] Albouy | Simulation of the combined effects of artisanal and recreational fisheries on a Mediterranean MPA ecosystem using a trophic model[END_REF]. One of the possible definitions that can be given for recreational fishing is: "Fishing activities exploiting marine living aquatic resources from which it is prohibited to sell or trade the catches obtained" (Anonymous 2011). The common dentex, due to its large size, flesh quality, and high commercial value, is considered as a "noble" species, and is therefore also targeted by recreational fishing. There are few data regarding fishing effort, total catch from most recreational fishing [START_REF] Lloret | A comparative analysis between recreational and artisanal fisheries in a Mediterranean coastal area[END_REF], and fishing for common dentex suffers from similar deficiencies. The most common methods used in recreational fishing for D. dentex are boat fishing, spear fishing, line and shore fishing [START_REF] Morales-Nin | The recreational fishery off Majorca Island (western Mediterranean): some implications for coastal resource management[END_REF][START_REF] Lloret | Spearfishing pressure on fish communities in rocky coastal habitats in a Mediterranean marine protected area[END_REF][START_REF] Gordoa | Characterization of the infralittoral system along the north-east Spanish coast based on sport shore-based fishing tournament catches[END_REF][START_REF] Malak | Overview of the Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF][START_REF] Font | Biological implications of recreational shore angling and harvest in a marine reserve: the case of Cape Creus[END_REF]. The angling techniques used generally to catch D. dentex are varied; bait can be alive or dead, or artificial lures can be used. Along the coast of the marine reserve of Cap de Creus, live fish such as Serranus cabrilla or Coris julis are used to catch valuable fish such as D. dentex, and represented 9.9% of the total bait used by shore anglers in 2007 and 2009. For the common dentex, cephalopods (body portions or dead animals) such as squid, cuttlefish, octopus and bobtail squid, constitute 15.5% of the total baits used, and sardine (Sardina pilchardus) with 13.7% [START_REF] Font | Biological implications of recreational shore angling and harvest in a marine reserve: the case of Cape Creus[END_REF]. The results highlight the relatively high mean vulnerability and trophic level of rocky benthic fish species caught by shore fishing and spear fishing; this is mainly due to relatively large catches in terms of weight of top predators such as D. dentex [START_REF] Lloret | Spearfishing pressure on fish communities in rocky coastal habitats in a Mediterranean marine protected area[END_REF][START_REF] Font | Biological implications of recreational shore angling and harvest in a marine reserve: the case of Cape Creus[END_REF]. Commercial and recreational fishing have similar demographic and ecological effects on fished populations, and they can have equally serious ecological and economic consequences [START_REF] Cooke | The Role of Recreational Fishing in Global Fish Crises[END_REF][START_REF] Font | Biological implications of recreational shore angling and harvest in a marine reserve: the case of Cape Creus[END_REF]. In some geographic areas the spear fishermen are perceived as the main competitors by artisanal fishing, who become strong market competitors by selling their catches (illegally) to local restaurants at a high price without a commercialization license, therefore affecting demand [START_REF] Maynou | Small-scale fishery in the Balearic Islands (W Mediterranean): A socio-economic approach[END_REF]. There is clear evidence that recreational activities not only impact marine resources quantitatively, but in addition modify their structure [START_REF] Rocklin | Spearfishing Regulation Benefits Artisanal Fisheries: The ReGS Indicator and Its Application to a Multiple-Use Mediterranean Marine Protected Area[END_REF]. In particular, the removal of large individuals can adversely affect the reproductive potential of these vulnerable fish populations [START_REF] Lloret | Threats posed by artisanal fisheries to the reproduction of coastal fish species in a Mediterranean marine protected area[END_REF][START_REF] Prato | The importance of high-level predators in Marine Protected Areas management: consequences of their decline and their potential recovery in the Mediterranean context[END_REF].

Regulation and minimum fish sizes

The common dentex seems to be a heavily exploited species, and it is considered to be threatened in the Mediterranean Sea (Abdul [START_REF] Malak | Overview of the Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. Considering the effect of the professional fishing exploitation combined with recreational fishing on coastal ecosystems, it seems important to create new regulation policies [START_REF] Albouy | Simulation of the combined effects of artisanal and recreational fisheries on a Mediterranean MPA ecosystem using a trophic model[END_REF][START_REF] Lloret | A comparative analysis between recreational and artisanal fisheries in a Mediterranean coastal area[END_REF] for both these activities. The measures should consider limiting or banning catching through permanent or seasonal closures during the spawning season, the establishment of a minimum legal length (based on species size at maturity) and/or the enlargement of no-take in critical areas [START_REF] Lloret | Spearfishing pressure on fish communities in rocky coastal habitats in a Mediterranean marine protected area[END_REF][START_REF] Malak | Overview of the Conservation Status of the Marine Fishes of the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. For recreational fishing (including spear fishing), as stated previously, there is a general lack of knowledge on this activity, and it seems urgent, in the light of its impact, particularly on populations of common dentex, to implement effective measures of regulation and control. For commercial fishing, in some Mediterranean countries, there is a regulation imposing a minimum landing size of common dentex (Table 4). Unfortunately, depending on the country, even when there is a minimum landing size, this remains well below the size at which 50% of the population is mature, namely 34.60 cm for females and 52.02 cm for males [START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF].

Marine protected areas

There are important differences in the fish assemblages inhabiting protected and unprotected areas (e.g. [START_REF] Macpherson | Mortality of juvenile fishes of the genus Diplodus in protected and unprotected areas in the western Mediterranean Sea[END_REF][START_REF] Macpherson | Biomass size spectra in littoral fishes in protected and unprotected areas in the NW Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Pinnegar | Trophic cascades in fisheries and protected area management of benthic marine ecosystems[END_REF][START_REF] Guidetti | Community-wide effects of marine reserves in the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF][START_REF] Garcia-Charton | Effectiveness of European Atlanto-Mediterranean MPAs: Do they accomplish the expected effects on populations, communities and ecosystems?[END_REF].

The impact of protection, or the 'reserve effect', can be observed as a clear increase in abundance, the average and maximum individual sizes of most target species, and changes in the spatial distribution through recovery of shallow water habitats (e.g. [START_REF] Francour | A review of marine protected areas in the northwestern Mediterranean region: siting, usage, zonation and management[END_REF][START_REF] Garcia-Charton | Effectiveness of European Atlanto-Mediterranean MPAs: Do they accomplish the expected effects on populations, communities and ecosystems?[END_REF]. The common dentex is one those that benefits from these protection measures, being especially threatened by recreational and professional selective and effective fishing [START_REF] Macpherson | Biomass size spectra in littoral fishes in protected and unprotected areas in the NW Mediterranean[END_REF]. However, results indicate that some relatively highmobility species have benefited from habitat protection, whereas less mobile ones have suffered [START_REF] Gomez | The Decline of the Artisanal Fisheries in Mediterranean Coastal Areas: The Case of Cap de Creus (Cape Creus)[END_REF]). In Port de la Selva (Spain), the proportion of top predators such as D. dentex in total landings increased after the establishment of the MPA at the expense of octopus (Octopus vulgaris), white seabream (Diplodus sargus), scorpionfish (Scorpaena sp), and spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas) [START_REF] Gomez | The Decline of the Artisanal Fisheries in Mediterranean Coastal Areas: The Case of Cap de Creus (Cape Creus)[END_REF]). In the Bonifacio straits (France) the significant decrease in Serranus cabrilla could be linked to the significant increase in D. dentex [START_REF] Rocklin | Spearfishing Regulation Benefits Artisanal Fisheries: The ReGS Indicator and Its Application to a Multiple-Use Mediterranean Marine Protected Area[END_REF]). In the fishing reserves located in Calvi (France), a rearrangement of the demographic structure of some species was also found, with lower ratios of small species to large [START_REF] Pelaprat | Le cantonnement de pêche, un véritable outil de gestion ? Exemple du cantonnement de pêche de Calvi (Corse, Méditerranée nord-occidentale)[END_REF]. The explanation for this difference was based on increased predation within the reserve due to a number of larger predators such as D. dentex [START_REF] Francour | Mediterranean marine protected areas and non-indigenous fish spreading. in: Fish Invasions of the Mediterranean Sea: Change and renewal[END_REF][START_REF] Prato | The importance of high-level predators in Marine Protected Areas management: consequences of their decline and their potential recovery in the Mediterranean context[END_REF]. Such a trend is generally not expected after MPA implementation, but can be explained by trophic interactions between species through a topdown effect, where an increase in predators would lead to a decrease in their prey [START_REF] Pinnegar | Trophic cascades in fisheries and protected area management of benthic marine ecosystems[END_REF][START_REF] Pinnegar | Predicting indirect effects of fishing in Mediterranean rocky littoral communities using a dynamic simulation model[END_REF][START_REF] Seytre | The Cap Roux MPA (Saint-Raphaël, French Mediterranean): changes in fish assemblages within four years of protection[END_REF].

Stock structure and assessment

An important first step toward assessing the sustainability of an exploited population is to define the geographic boundaries, or stock units, for the species [START_REF] Quinn | Quantitative Fish Dynamics[END_REF]. Unfortunately, little is known of the global stock structure and movement of D. dentex.

There is only one study on the population genetics of D. dentex at the global level. This study describes the phylogeography of three sparids including D. dentex based on three geographic areas: the Northeast Atlantic, and the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Sea [START_REF] Bargelloni | Discord in the family Sparidae (Teleostei): divergent phylogeographical patterns across the Atlantic-Mediterranean divide[END_REF]. For the D. dentex, mitochondrial DNA and allozymes have revealed a higher degree of genetic differentiation between the Atlantic and Mediterranean samples. Morphometric measurements were performed on these same samples of D. dentex [START_REF] Palma | Morphological study of Pagrus pagrus, Pagellus bogaraveo, and Dentex dentex (Sparidae) in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. A significant degree of morphological dissimilarity between samples, and a geographical gradient were found [START_REF] Palma | Morphological study of Pagrus pagrus, Pagellus bogaraveo, and Dentex dentex (Sparidae) in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. These results based on genetic and morphological analysis are evidence for a sharp phylogeographic break between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean for populations of common dentex [START_REF] Bargelloni | Discord in the family Sparidae (Teleostei): divergent phylogeographical patterns across the Atlantic-Mediterranean divide[END_REF][START_REF] Palma | Morphological study of Pagrus pagrus, Pagellus bogaraveo, and Dentex dentex (Sparidae) in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. Reported differences in fish size and growth may be due to fishing pressure, changes in oceanographic conditions, food availability, and season [START_REF] Shelton | Fluctuations of fish populations and the magnifying effects of fishing[END_REF].

There seems to be an effective boundary between the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations of dentex, both morphologically and genetically [START_REF] Bargelloni | Discord in the family Sparidae (Teleostei): divergent phylogeographical patterns across the Atlantic-Mediterranean divide[END_REF][START_REF] Palma | Morphological study of Pagrus pagrus, Pagellus bogaraveo, and Dentex dentex (Sparidae) in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF]. It can be hypothesized that the history of the Mediterranean Sea, combined with the present hydrographic patterns, may have promoted and maintained the differentiation of the Mediterranean samples [START_REF] Bargelloni | Discord in the family Sparidae (Teleostei): divergent phylogeographical patterns across the Atlantic-Mediterranean divide[END_REF][START_REF] Palma | Morphological study of Pagrus pagrus, Pagellus bogaraveo, and Dentex dentex (Sparidae) in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea[END_REF].

However, there is a severe lack of information on population structure, and it would require further studies including a higher spatial resolution and more accurate molecular markers (e.g. microsatellites).

To date, the only studies on the stock assessment of common dentex were conducted in Tunisia; three stocks were separately addressed according to different regions: Northern, Eastern and South [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]FAO 2008). These are the first studies on the analysis of the pseudo-cohort of this species in the Mediterranean, which yielded the main components of the stock in Tunisia. In the North, the yield by recruit value was below the optimal level; the stock seems to be under-exploited. The exploitation profile in the Eastern region was in optimal conditions. By contrast, the stock of the southern region is strongly overexploited, with a current yield above the optimum performance [START_REF] Chemmam-Abdelkader | Etude de l'âge et de la croissance de deux espèces de dentés (Dentex dentex et de Dentex maroccanus) des côtes Tunisiennes[END_REF]. The results obtained in the South Tunisian sector show that fishing is carried out on small size classes composed mainly of juveniles (Chemmam- Abdelkader et al. 2007). The current average age of the stock is estimated at 1.9 year, and is very low if we consider the longevity of the species, which can be more than 30 years. The effort to ensure stock replenishment or "turnover" was 48%. For losses, the fishing mortality (63%) outweighed the natural mortality, probably because of overfishing. The profile of Southern stock was characterized by a young average age, a critical size close to that of sexual maturity, reflecting a state of overfished stock. To remedy this, the reduction of the current fishing effort by 44% compared with the optimal effort is recommended (Chemmam-Abdelkader et al. 2007).

The recommendations include as a precautionary measure not increasing the fishing effort in both areas (FAO 2008). At a global level, efforts are to be made on the stock assessment of the common dentex, to better understand its movement and how the individuals comprising the various D. dentex aggregations in different localities are related.

Conclusion and directions for future research

Here we have shown that although the common dentex species is of great interest, both economically and ecologically, some very important questions still remain unanswered about the life of this iconic fish.

As a top predator, it is a key species in the functioning of coastal food webs, and for this reason there is a need to improve the state of knowledge on the biology and ecology of the common dentex. In order to implement proper fishery management strategies aimed at avoiding stock decline, information about connectivity among stocks and populations is critical. There is still great progress to be made in understanding the larval and juvenile stages and the reproductive behavior of the common dentex. There should also be a clear vision of the population state (demographic parameters) and the spatial and temporal structure of the stocks, to implement sustainable management of fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. Consequently, more specific methods may be more helpful in defining stock boundaries for population models. Genetic techniques using specific microsatellite loci may provide a more comprehensive analysis of the genetic population structure of the common dentex [START_REF] Bargelloni | Discord in the family Sparidae (Teleostei): divergent phylogeographical patterns across the Atlantic-Mediterranean divide[END_REF]. Some other specific approaches could be relevant in determining the stock structure of the common dentex, such as parasite abundances (e.g. [START_REF] Williams | Parasites as biological indicators of the population biology, migrations, diet, and phylogenetics of fish[END_REF][START_REF] Mackenzie | Parasites as biological tags for stock discrimination of marine fish: a guide to procedures and methods[END_REF][START_REF] Williams | Stock structure of Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus commerson along the Australian east coast deduced from parasite data[END_REF], stable isotope analysis (e.g. [START_REF] Rooker | Life History and Stock Structure of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus)[END_REF]) and otolith shape and/or microchemistry (e.g. [START_REF] Turan | The use of otolith shape and chemistry to determine stock structure of Mediterranean horse mackerel Trachurus mediterraneus (Steindachner)[END_REF][START_REF] Hamer | Multiple otolith techniques aid stock discrimination of a broadly distributed deepwater fishery species, blue grenadier, Macruronus novaezelandiae[END_REF]. From the perspective of behavioral ecology, one path of research that can be developed is to investigate the movement of individuals, for example using electronic tagging, especially for aggregations at the time of reproduction (e.g. [START_REF] Pastor | Acoustic telemetry survey of the dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) in the Marine Reserve of Cerbère -Banyuls: implications on the territoriality of this emblematic species[END_REF]). However, the development of simultaneous multiple approaches such as analysis of fisheries data, population genetics, and otolith chemistry is probably the most relevant way to favour the efficient management of an exploited species (see Pappeti et al. 2013).

In terms of exploitation, for recreational fishing, it is necessary to have short-term, accurate biological, social and economic data to evaluate this activity [START_REF] Pitcher | Recreational fisheries: ecological, economic and social evaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Arlinghaus | Providing context to the global code of practice for recreational fisheries[END_REF]. Recreational catches are often poorly quantified, but such catch data are essential for estimating total mortality in stock assessment, especially where the recreational catch is high compared with the commercial catch [START_REF] Lloret | A comparative analysis between recreational and artisanal fisheries in a Mediterranean coastal area[END_REF]. Despite its importance, knowledge about fleets and their characteristics, fishing gear, seasonality, catches, and the yields of the professional artisanal sector is still limited [START_REF] Battaglia | Characterization of the artisanal fishery and its socio-economic aspects in the central Mediterranean Sea (Aeolian Islands, Italy)[END_REF]. It is necessary to develop standardized data collection routines and indicators of fishing effort for Mediterranean artisanal fishery that make data comparable on a spatial and temporal basis [START_REF] Colloca | Structure and evolution of the artisanal fishery in a southern Italian coastal area[END_REF]). Data on global catch of common dentex suggests a cyclic fluctuation of the populations, with the appearance of multiannual peaks of activity. The abundance of common dentex has fluctuated over the last sixty years on a multidecadal time scale and has declined significantly since the 1990s. In some areas, populations have decreased significantly in recent years, due to overfishing by artisanal and recreational fishing. Fishing gear such as trawl or seine may make a particular impact on these populations, especially in spawning areas (mature adults) or nursery areas such as in the Posidonia oceanica meadows (juveniles and young of the year). However, the interaction between fishing exploitation and environmental variables can have synchronic effects on the population dynamics of exploited marine fishes [START_REF] Quetglas | Synchronous combined effects of fishing and climate within a demersal community[END_REF]. The improved management of fisheries and marine ecosystems can undoubtedly play an important role in adapting to the impacts of climate change [START_REF] Brander | Impacts of climate change on fisheries[END_REF]. Managers should consider the implementation of specific measures to safeguard the reproductive potential of coastal top predator species, such as D. dentex [START_REF] Lloret | Threats posed by artisanal fisheries to the reproduction of coastal fish species in a Mediterranean marine protected area[END_REF]. There is an urgent need to implement effective protection measures for this species, whether based on a maximum daily catch, minimum catch size, protection through marine protected areas, or period of biological recovery, because recently D. dentex has been classified as "vulnerable" in the Red List of Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Sea and so effective management is now required.

Table captions

Table 1. Growth parameters of Von Bertalanffy equation estimated for Dentex dentex. Lt∞ = theoretical maximum size, TL = total length, K = growth rate, t 0 = age at which the length at age t is theoretically equal to 0, M = Male, F = Female, M/F = Male and Female.

Figure caption

Fig. 1 Global geographical range of Dentex dentex (updated from [START_REF] Bauchot | Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Sparidae[END_REF][START_REF] Morales-Nin | Life history and fishery of the common dentex (Dentex dentex) in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean)[END_REF][START_REF] Bat | A study on the fishes of the Central Black Sea coast of Turkey[END_REF]FAO 2012).

  ) show interannual fluctuations. Time-series analyses show four peaks of production, the first between the years 1950 and 1953 with a maximum production of 5400 T/year, the second during the years 1962-64 with a production that reached 8700 T/year, the third between 1976 and 1980 with a production of 4143 T/year and finally between 1990 and 1994 with a production of 10329 T/year.Assuming that fishing effort did not fluctuate, we note the marked demographic changes experienced by populations every few years. At the national level only two countries contribute significantly to catches of common dentex. The main one is Spain, which alone accounted for almost all the overall common dentex production until 1980, when its production declined until 2010. Considering in detail the catch data for Spain during the years 1950 to 1980, it appears that most fish were caught in Eastern, Central and Northeast Atlantic regions. These areas are not usually the main areas for common dentex; hence caution is needed in data interpretation. From the years 1965-70 Italian production increased, with peaks and troughs, reaching its highest level in 1992. Production then declined abruptly until 2000, to stabilize at lower levels until 2010. It seems that the rapid increase in the exploitation rate observed during the years 1956-63 in Spain, and 1981-92 in Italy seems to have had the major effect of causing sudden depletion, a scenario already reported for other demersal species (e.g.[START_REF] Hidalgo | Intra-annual recruitment events of a shelf species around an island system in the NW Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Quetglas | Synchronous combined effects of fishing and climate within a demersal community[END_REF]. These two countries have successively dominated production from 1950 to 2000, although at the national level there is broad heterogeneity of the catches over time. It seems that researchers and artisanal fishermen share the same opinion on the existence of cyclic fluctuations of D. dentex populations, giving years without catches of this species[START_REF] Bayle-Sempere | Observations on Dentex dentex (L., 1758) in the Spanish Mediterranean[END_REF].

Fig. 2

 2 Fig. 2 Annual catch of common dentex for all nations (grey bars), for Spain and Italy, the two highest contributor nations (lines) and the other nations (lines; Albania, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Latvia, Libya, Malta, Montenegro, Portugal, Romania, Serbia,Tunisia, Turkey, Yugoslavia SFR), for the years 1950-2010 (based on FAO 2012).

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

 12 Fig. 1

Table 2 .

 2 Bibliographical review of the known parasites of Dentex dentex; geographical location, position of the parasites and references.

Table 3 .

 3 Summary of the exploitation of Dentex dentex (abundance), according to the season, sizes class composition, different gear, main depth range of operations and habitat.

Table 4 .

 4 Minimum landing sizes of Dentex dentex for commercial fishing in some Mediterranean countries.

Table 1 .

 1

	Lt ∞ (cm) Length	K	t 0 (years)	Sex	Country	Locality	Citations
		type
	110.000	TL	0.077	-2.304	M/F	France	Calvi	(Culioli 1986)
	84.400	TL	0.100	-2.854	M			(Morales-Nin and
						Spain	Mallorca	Moranta 1997)
	85.622	TL	0.102	-2.874	F			(Morales-Nin and
						Spain	Mallorca	Moranta 1997)
	95.051	TL	0.077	-1.796	M			(Chemmam-
						Tunisia	Tunisian coasts	Abdelkader et al. 2004)
	97.354	TL	0.072	-1.933	F			(Chemmam-
						Tunisia	Tunisian coasts	Abdelkader et al. 2004)
	96.804	TL	0.073	-1.892	M/F			(Chemmam-
						Tunisia	Tunisian coasts	Abdelkader et al. 2004)

Table 2 .

 2

	Parasite species	Class	Geographical	Position	Citations
			location
	Allopodocotyle	Digenea	France, Scandola Posterior intestine	(Bartoli et al.
	jaffensis				2005)
	(Fischthal, 1980)
	Aphallus rubalo	Digenea	France, Scandola Duodenum, rectum (Bartoli et al.
	(Bray, 1986)				2005)
	Aphallus tubarium	Digenea	France, Scandola Posterior intestine,	(Bartoli and Bray
	(Rudolphi, 1819)			rectum	1987; Bartoli et al.
					2005)
	Cainocreadium	Digenea	France, Scandola Pyloric caeca,	(Jousson and
	dentecis			Duodenum, mid-	Bartoli 2001;
	Jousson & Bartoli,			intestine	Bartoli et al. 2005)
	2001
	Hemiurus communis	Digenea	France, Scandola Stomach	(Bartoli et al.
	Odhner, 1905				2005)
	Metadena depressa	Digenea	France, Scandola Pyloric caeca,	(Bartoli and Bray
	(Stossich, 1883)			Duodenum, mid-	1987; Bartoli et al.
				intestine,	2005)
				Posterior intestine
	Pachycreadium	Digenea	France, Scandola Duodenum, mid-	(Bartoli et al.
	carnosum (Rudolphi,			intestine,	2005)
	1819)			Posterior intestine
	Stephanostomum sp.	Digenea	Spain,	Gills	(González et al.
	(Metacercariae)		Balearic Islands		2004)
	Lecithochirium	Digenea	Adriatic Sea		(Carreras-Aubets
	musculus				et al. 2012)
	(Looss, 1907)
	Timoniella	Digenea	Italy, Triest	Intestine	(Stossich 1905)
	imbutiforme
	(Molin, 1859)
	Microcotyle erythrini	Polyopisthocotylea	Spain,	Gills	(González et al.
	Van Beneden &		Balearic Islands		2004)
	Hesse, 1863

Table 3.

Acknowledgements

This research was partially supported by the "Fonds Européen de Développement Régional" (FEDER), the "Collectivité Territorial de Corse" (CTC) and the "Università di Corsica Pasquale Paoli (UCPP). We thank, Prof.

Antoine Aiello, Jean-Michel Culioli, Dr Henri Farrugio, Dr Pierre Lejeune and Dr Dominique Ponton for valuable discussions on the common dentex. Special thanks are extended to the fishermen of the Island of Corsica for their collaboration through their observations.

Cathucotyle acanthura (Parona & Perugia, 1896)

Polyopisthocotylea

Mediterranean Sea [START_REF] Euzet | A checklist of Monogenea of Mediterranean fish[END_REF])

Udonella caligorum Johnston, 1835

Monopisthocotylea Spain, Balearic Islands Gills [START_REF] González | A preliminary study on gill metazoan parasites of Dentex dentex (Pisces: Sparidae) from the western Mediterranean Sea (Balearic Islands)[END_REF])

Encotyllabe vallei

Monticelli, 1907

Monopisthocotylea Montenegro [START_REF] Radujkovic | Parasites de poissons marins du Montenegro: Monogenes. In Faune des parasites de poissons marins des côtes du Montenegro (Adriatic sud) Radujkovic, BM & Raibaut, A[END_REF][START_REF] Euzet | A checklist of Monogenea of Mediterranean fish[END_REF]) Dinemoura producta (Mueller, 1785)

Copepoda

Spain, Balearic Islands Gills [START_REF] González | A preliminary study on gill metazoan parasites of Dentex dentex (Pisces: Sparidae) from the western Mediterranean Sea (Balearic Islands)[END_REF])

Caligus dakari Beneden, 1892

Copepoda Montenegro Kotor Gills [START_REF] Radujkovic | Parasites des poissons marins du Montenegro: copepodes[END_REF])


POLICE

Police is the institution in charge of the protection of public order and the repression of crime, entitled to use physical force in order to meet these functions. Police institutions are the product of a long-term historical trend towards differentiation and specialization.

Differentiation, since contemporary functions of policing (keeping peace and combating crime and disorder) were before the beginning of the 19 th century in the hands of watchmen formed by households, or by family or tribal constables. This "private" policing was spread out in several areas (like China, main parts of Africa and South America) before the Europeled colonization process. Autonomous, professional and permanent police forces have been settled, in the most cases locally, in the wake of urban growth and urban disorders, industrial disputes and riots, and crime fears. This institutionalization process accompanies a specialization process in the continental Europe countries where police encompassed an infinite and messy ensemble of norms, regulations and measures seeking at regulating the entire urban existence, from public hygiene to passport control, from milk inspection to libraries supervision, etc. If not in the hands of watchmen or private forces, like dock bosses" militia, the control of crime and disorder was only a small part of what was then comprised by the police. Police could specialize on these functions in continental Europe only during the 19 th century, apart from administrative law and jurisdiction regulating all other aspects of social life (Napoli, 2003).

From a more theoretical point of view, police show two distinctive features. Police is, firstly, fully instrumental: it is meant to perform a definite task, linked to crime and disorder, under civil supervision (i.e. functional dimension of the police). Police is, secondly defined by its capacity to use physical force (i.e. substantive dimension of the police). A crucial dimension of police relies therefore on its intimate relationship with the monopoly of physical force in which Max Weber sees the distinctive feature of the state. But this crucial dimension is at the same time oxymoronic, since (contrary to the military use of force), police force is expected to be legitimate, i.e. reasonable, proportionate and based on consent. Two terms are antagonistic per se: consent and force (Reiner, 2000). The police can use force either in the context of a local breach of order (contested arrest, unlawful strike, riot…) or in the context of a broader social or political breakdown consisting in a massive hostility to the regime in place… Police legitimacy relies on consent, but police occupation is a tainted occupation.

On a more sociological level, substantial affinity between force and police have been strongly questioned; empirical evidence clearly show that the actual use of force proves to be rather rare. Some police even never use physical force in the course of their occupational lifetime.

On the other hand, trying to list and rationalize all the tasks ever performed by police officers proves to be quite impossible. Therefore, some theorists like Brodeur (2007) incline to define the police as the only public organization aimed at "doing everything". In order to do so, they use means that are illegal or unlawful if taken by ordinary citizens (from driving a one-way street the other way around to bug phone devices). Contemporary evolutions of police organizations contribute to stir up the empirical and theoretical dispute over the accurate definition of police. First, from the initial wave of modernization and professionalisation (from the early 1970s onwards) police institutions have known both an increased specialization and a commodification of the services they are supposed to deliver. Both phenomena are closely linked with a legitimation crisis that occurred during the 70s, An over-specialization has been implemented in order to cope with different aspects of crime and delinquency, leading police organizations to be an archipelago of diverse and isolated occupations (from drug squads to environmental crime enforcement, from juvenile delinquency units to transnational police experts…). The spread of surveillance devices and technologies have been playing a front role in this process. This evolution towards more segmentation into specialized operations and the increased importance of surveillance and proactive activities tend to make physical force a secondary if not purely metaphorical aspect of police work. Some analysts have underlined this phenomenon in stating that police are no violence workers, but "knowledge workers", insisting on the massive amount of data and information they are expected to sort out and analyse in order to meet their tasks. This trend towards an over-specialization, specifically in the most diverse domains of crime fighting, have in no way stopped the decline of police efficiency. Therefore, police organizations have been called to communalise a certain amount of tasks, even if this policy proves not to be uniform among different national cultures. In the course of the last twenty years, there has been a trend toward a kind of "network policing", in which the most diverse private and public institutions or agencies are brought together in order to elaborate joined preventive and sometimes repressive action against crime and urban disorder. Police are now civil servants confronted with private and public agents in different kinds of negotiation arenas. Several labels have been employed to describe these evolutions. The notion of "problem-solving policing" has been first introduced at the beginning of the 1980s in order to force or invite the police to tackle daily local problems like loitering or drinking in public spaces, domestic violence, noise disturbances etc. Police institutions were then asked not to focus solely on the most valued tasks, like car chases and forcible arrests, and to open their eyes to the broader social demand. Facing the difficulty to implement internal police reforms, local or (more rarely) central governments have developed programs like "community policing" or "neighborhood policing" aimed at integrating police organizations into larger institutional structures and, therefore, at resisting against the police"s tendency toward insularity and self-agenda. Moreover, the increasing pluralization of policing (growth of private security forces, informal policing like vigilantism, introduction of local police forces competing with municipal or state police forces, etc.) now threatens the monopoly of the police in the prevention and repression of disorder. Network policing programs (like community policing programs) open a window of opportunity for the police for getting back in the game and being at the node of those networks.

Nevertheless, physical force is a central figure in police organizations

Other transformations have cropped up in the course of these evolutions. The first of them has been the introduction of regulations and guidelines issued from the new public management into police organisations during the 1990s, that is, in the wake of broader public policies reforms initiated by governments of Bill Clinton and Tony Blair. A major accent has been put on individual control over police officers, the stress of individual accountability and the diffusion of "better with less" management policies. As a result, police managers devote a major part of their time to crime and activity statistics in order to comply with political and public expectancies. Such management systems, whose real ability to cope with crime and insecurity has been widely discussed, has been exported throughout the world and adopted by countries or cities in strongly differing manners. One effect of this management tool is the development of gaming strategies, as in other agencies, which lead to an increase in bureaucratic insularity of police organizations and to a further public concern with the ability of police organizations to cope with real crime.

The second trend is the rising importance of law and order policies in the political agenda of many Western. Proving one"s ability to deal with the crime problem and lead police forces tends to be a major personal resource in the political game. The fights against terrorism or against international crime are vital to this trend. In combination with the gaming strategies developed within police organizations, this tendency sheds light on the fact that police have a symbolic, if not an entertaining function, that seems more and more important in today"s political systems.

  in the way that cases of abuse of force weaken the foundation of police's political legitimacy. The beating of the Black car driver Rodney King in Los Angeles in 1991 (and the acquittal of the White police officers one year later) lead to the most violent urban riots in the United States, the death of two minority youths in France in 2005 lead to a three-weeks long period of urban unrests, abusive arrests and stops-and-searches proceedings in London, Birmingham, Liverpool at the beginning of the 1980s also lead to frequent urban riots in British cities from the end of the 1970s to the mid-1980s. It is difficult to assess if substantial changes occurred as a result of these episodes of scandal and protest. Certain is, nevertheless, that police organizations face a legitimation crisis in the course of the 70s, due both to the emergence of urban disorders and/or race riots (in the United States, England and France) on the one hand and to the rise of property crime in a time of mass private property on the other, which lead to comparable waves of change across the countries and political regimes.

  Police are in fact parts of the political system in which they help to consolidate political legitimacy and resources of the (local or national) government. One must here distinguish between regimes in which police organizations are centralized under the direct command of the government (like in France) and countries in which police forces are essentially municipal (United States) or regional forces (Germany, Great-Britain), with some specialized forces devoted to federal issues (like organized crime, terrorism, intelligence). Contrary to a widespread assumption in the political science, the degree of centralization of forces is not correlated to the degree of corruption of the police by the political forces. The Napoleonic model in France offers a speaking example of police organizations heading up numerous and opulent political intelligence and anti-riot sections under the immediate leading of the Ministry of Interior, who can always be devoted to political tasks in order to repress protest, to prevent public disorders, to influence or shape the whole political competition. Municipal police systems in the US were characterized, on the other hand, by a high level of "lawlessness in law enforcement", since police forces were considered to be forces devoted to the personal use of the mayor and part of the local political system. The wave of reform of the police forces during the 1950s resulted in a high level of "professionalism", that is to say quasi military police departments with high standards of integrity, governed by a city manager rather by the mayor and disconnected from local community's asks and needs. As it appears, the nature of the political involvment of police organizations is strongly linked to the organization of the political system. Fabien Jobard, Centre de Recherche Sociologique sur le Droit et les Institutions Pénales, CNRS, Guyancourt (France) See also: Legitimacy, Bureaucracy (street-level), network-model Governance, Institutionalization, Judiciary, New Public Management, Performance Management, Repression, Rights, Urban Governance, Violence Further readings Brodeur, J.-P. (2007), An encounter with Egon Bittner, Crime, Law and Social Change, 48, 3-5, p. 105-132. Manning, P. K., Van Maanen, J. (1977), eds., Policing: A View from the Street, Goodyear Publishing, Santa Monica. Napoli, P. (2003), Naissances de la police moderne. Pouvoirs, normes, sociétés. Paris : La Découverte. Reiner, R. (2000), The Politics of the Police. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wakefield, A., Fleming, J. (2009), eds., The Sage Dictionary of Policing. London : Sage. One of the most spectacular examples of this trend has been the recent presidential race in France (2007) where one of the candidate, who was holding the Ministry of Interior and had the lead over the centralized civil forces of Police and of the military forces of Gendarmerie (ca. 200.000 servants), was able to maximize the effect of the 2005 riots mentioned above in order not only to gain a political profit from the collective fear they initiated but also from the aggressive if not martial operational leading of the police forces in the disadvantaged cities.