Fabien Jobard

René Lévy

Racial Profiling: the Parisian Police Experience

The controversy over racial profiling in policing, started within the pages of CJCCJ, echoes the violent debates within French society regarding its police -debates that happen not only in specialized journals, as one only has to think about the recurring episodes of urban riots, or "race riots", if one wants to use the term common in the US (Waddington, Jobard, King 2009). One of our research projects, which focused on racial profiling, has been at the origin of numerous discussions in France (Open Society 2009[START_REF] René | Identity Checks in Paris[END_REF].

More precisely, our research examined racial profiling within stop and searches (contrôle d'identité) executed by the police. Financed by the Open Justice program, it has been carried out with the help of John Lamberth (Lamberth Consulting), Indira Goris and Rachel Neild (Open Justice Initiative).

On 5 highly frequented places in Paris, we tasked observers to furtively follow police officers, and to register, via mobile phone, the characteristics of the persons who were being stopped and searched. The telephones allowed the observers to remain unrecognized, and to send their coded data via SMS to a server located in the US. More than 500 stopped and searched persons have been recorded, of which we know gender, age (young or not young), type of bags (no bag, big bag, other bag), dresscode and race. We have also coded and registered the traits of the overall population at these places (benchmarking), thus cataloging the variables related to around 37.000 persons. Comparing the variables of the persons stopped and searched with those of the overall population, we could demonstrate potential profiling practiced by the police.

In their response to Satzewich and Shaffir, Henry and Taylor note that "while the discourse of denial of racism is one of the most powerful in the public arena, it also permeates the research perspectives in scholarship". With this, Henry and Taylor mean that racism denial distorts and undermines scientific perceptions. In our case, the anticipation of police' discourses has actually permeated our research, in strongly influencing its design.

We did find it necessary to establish a reference population. The main reason for that relies in the famous "denominator problem" [START_REF] Melchers | Do Toronto Police engage in "racial profiling"?[END_REF][START_REF] Meaghan | State of Science in Racial Profiling Research[END_REF]. But it also relates to the police' discourse, particularly to the "Jane & Finch motive" of Hamilton's police officers: the minority's over-representation among the stopped people is explained by the minority's over-representation in the available population. Behind the long and costly deployment of observers aiming to record dozens of thousands of individuals was the goal to anticipate these discourses.

In the same way, we have anticipated the terrorism argument, making the carrying of bags and their aspects one of our variables. We have also aimed to introduce the clothing aspect, distinguishing three types: casual, business, youth culture. This last type is crucial, because one of the targets staked out by police officers in France are young people from suburban housing projects (cités de banlieue), who are essentially identifiable by their clothing style (in mundane discourses, they are sometimes described as jeunes à capuche -"hooded youngsters").

But our first methodological choice has in fact been to undertake a quantitative research on the topic.

We feel dissatisfaction, if not exasperation, when faced with what Henry and Taylor defend as "anecdotal evidence". In our view, sociology in France, when studying youth/police relationships, is all too often content with relying on the accounts put forward by the young people themselves, acquired in series of semi-directed interviews. This elevation of "anecdotal evidence" to the level of legitimate sociological method has been sanctified by the volume edited by Pierre Bourdieu, The Weight of the World. We do not negate the force of anecdotal evidence. Yet we insist that it is the professional duty of sociologists to offer more insights than simply those furnished by the persons being studied.

What is the result of our research? Unsurprisingly, police officers over-stops, in all the places, young men dressed in youth culture style carrying no bag (which, in passing, destroys the argument of the fight against terrorism…). But among each sub-population (men, youth, etc.), the police over-stop and search minorities. This being the case, the variables are difficult to disentangle. Among the benchmarked overall population, two thirds of the persons dressed in "youth culture" style belong to racial minorities; thus, if the police would only stop and search the "youth culture", two thirds of the targeted persons would be Black or Arab looking people.

It is impossible to know the respective influence of direct and indirect discrimination: we don't exactly know how much minorities are targeted because they solely belong to a minority, or because they carry signs (like being youth culture style dressed up) which are relevant in police eyes. Does this represent racism? Yes, in the sense of Henry and Taylor's "democratic racism", or in the sense of the British MacPherson Commission's "institutional racism" (Rowe 2009). Were there expressions of intentional racism or racism denial in the police' discourses engendered by our research?

The responses to our inquiry have been immediate and massive. We had accorded exclusive media coverage to the French Le Monde and Mediapart, and the New York Times also reported our research results directly after their publication [START_REF] Luc | La police mise en cause pour ses contrôles au faciès[END_REF][START_REF] Erlanger | Study Says Blacks and Arabs Face Bias From Paris Police[END_REF], Incyian 2009a). A press conference was organized at the French parliament, and during the three days following the presentation of our study, we were invited over twenty times by radio and TV channels and the press. For the first time in France, the public had access to quantitative evidence of profiling by the police.

Not a single police officer tried to contest the seriousness of our inquiry; the size of the populations studied (dozens of thousands of individuals) and the odds ratios' values appeared overwhelming. The rhetorical strategies employed by the police elites (police chiefs or police unions' leaders) all resemble the strategies described by Satzewich and Shaffir, though with strong singularities.

The union closest to the law-and-order stance of the government launched a classical "blame the victim" strategy: the main if not sole police mandate is to enforce the law and to fight public disorders, which are being caused by young men dressed in "youth culture" style, which happen to be primarily of foreign origin. Of course, this strategy rests in part on a circular reasoning according to which the police officers see their intuition validated by crime statistics, to the production of which they in part contribute via their own profiling -and the debate therefore concentrates on the weight of "in part".

Borrowing from this line of reasoning without fully subscribing to it, the Paris police force (via its spokesperson, a high-ranked female police officer) underlined the quality of the research ("This study delivers statistical information that appears scientifically unquestionable") and worried about the harmful consequences of the practices that, in the end, lead to over controlling racial minorities (Incyian 2009b). Using expressions similar to those of the Hamilton Police Service, thus suggesting a universal culture of police professionalism, the representative of the Paris police force explained that the police officers employed "empirical criteria" deriving from their "intuition", according to which "one has higher chances to find cannabis on a Rasta". Nevertheless, her argumentation was more than just a simple defense of police instinct. She actually regretted that one lets "business men … carrying drugs" pass, implying that police intuition can fail. From another perspective, she emphasized (like many police union members that expressed themselves) the new racial diversity among the French police force. This was a smart move: it was put forward by the police in order to demonstrate its opening up to racial diversity, as part of its damage control strategy. But that institution did so far nothing to fight against the practices revealed by the study.

Last but not least, another type of response came from the main police union (Unité Police), which is hostile towards the conservative government of Nicolas Sarkozy. It employed a deflection strategy or a blame shifting strategy that is not part of the repertoire presented in Satzewich and Shaffir's article.

Their position reflects the centralized and politicized character of the French police. For this union, the fault for the profiling lies not with the police force, but with the government. The union deplores that the police has been used or even abused for executing a shameful mission, namely the fight against illegal immigrant workers and their families. On other occasions, moreover, the unions have drawn on our study in order to put blame on the public solicitor, who can also launch stop and search operations. Whoever the targets (criminal justice or government), the majority union tried to benefit from the emotions stirred by our study: on the one hand, to express a humanistic position hostile towards profiling (speaking to the general public), and, on the other hand, to reclaim more police autonomy towards the government or the solicitor (speaking to the rank and file).

The repertoire of motives is very similar in Canada and in France. Still, we do not fully subscribe to the conclusion of Satzewich and Shaffir with regard to the unity (or even universality) of the police subculture. In reality, the police leadership and the union representatives have, as one can see, not at all responded with one voice. In addition, though the police officers show commonalities, the police elites know how to articulate strong internal differences, which can become very pronounced in the context of police elections (as in January 2010), or even fratricidal in the case of political crises as in 1944or 1958[START_REF] Jean-Marc | Competing Memories: Resistance, Collaboration and the Purge of the French Police after World War II[END_REF]. The notion of a police subculture is inapt to describe the diversity of positions expressed by the police elites.

Our study has been costly in terms of means and time. Has it changed the character of public debate, the manner in which police legitimacy is being discussed in France?

Our reply to this question is mixed, and we will draw upon a recent polemic to buttress this sentiment. A columnist who shares the stance of the government, Eric Zemmour, has been violently attacked after pronouncing on television in March 2010 that "the French citizens with a migration background are being stopped and searched more often than others, because the majority of drug dealers are Black and Arab… That's a fact." He was threatened with being fired by his TV station, a complaint for racism was lodged against him, the solicitor general of the Paris' Court of Appeal defended him and had to explain himself before his own hierarchy, etc. What is interesting to note is that the columnist responded with this phrase, during a TV talk show, to another participant who used our study as an example in order to show the institutional racism of French authorities. In contrast to what had been the standard response until then, the columnist did not deny racial profiling. He attempted to justify it.

Ainsi sont payés les efforts de la recherche… Il est désormais en France périlleux de nier les contrôles au faciès. Notre recherche a simplement élevé le coût de la défense aveugle de la police traditionnelle : on ne peut plus nier la réalité, on doit faire l'effort de la justifier. Ainsi, si la recherche scientifique est une arme contre les prejudices, cette arme gagne des batailles, mais ne remporte pas la guerre.

The efforts of our research have thus been worthwhile… It is henceforth risky to deny that stops and searches have a racial component. Our study has basically elevated the costs of the blind defense traditionally mustered by the police: one can no longer deny reality; one has to make efforts to justify it. Thus, if scientific research is a weapon against prejudices, this weapon wins battles, but it won't win the war.


M Chakroun
email: chakroun@latmos.ipsl.fr

M Chiriaco

S Bastin

H Chepfer

Using regional simulations and spatial lidar to study regional cloud variability

This work aims to study the clouds' role on regional climate variability. At first order, European climate is driven by large scale circulations. However, clouds are known to have two major radiative effects impacting the surface's temperature: the greenhouse effect and the mask effect. These effects are strongly dependent on macrophysical and microphysical properties of clouds. It is then necessary to consider the vertical distribution of clouds to better understand their impact on regional climate. Since June 2006, A-train observations are available and allow the description of this vertical distribution and of other microphysical properties. However, the sampling is limited. To complete these observations, we use a regional climate model which may allow to extend the period of study and to better understand the link between clouds and surface temperature. In this study we are evaluating our tools and estimating the sampling bias in order to know which scale we can consider with these tools. We are also considering clouds' distribution of the particularly warm winter of 2007.

A. Calipso Sampling evaluation GOCCP (GCM Oriented Calipso Cloud Product)

Using the microphysics properties of the simulated clouds, we compute the SR that would be observed by the CALIOP lidar. We can then use the same clouds diagnostics for both observations and simulations

Acknowledgements:

This

B. Model evaluation

Fig2:

  Fig2: SR mean profile 12/2009

Fig10:•

  Fig10: time evolution of the daily minimal temperature anomaly with 10 best circulation analogues (dots) and their range (blue shade)(Yiou et al. 2007)

WRF-MedCordex simulations Adaptation of COSP Lidar Simulator

	-Active measurements
	-Vertical structure of
	clouds (40 levels)
	-Products comparable
	to GCM data
	2 GOCCP products have been used for this study:
	o Scattering Ratio:
	o Cloud fraction (z) : % of computed on 20km
	grid
	altitude

work is a contribution to the EECLAT project through LEFE/INSU and TOSCA/CNES supports and to the HyMeX program through INSU-MISTRALS support, and the Med-CORDEX program. Simulation was performed using GENCI with granted access to the HPC resources of IDRIS (under allocation i2011010227). The authors would like to thank climserv team for computing and storage resources.

altitude latitude Fig4: Instant SR 2009 01 19 night: Observations, WRF simulations and WRF+lidar simulator simulations


Ligia M Ayres-Ostrock

Stéphane Mauger

Estela Maria Plastino

Mariana C Oliveira

Myriam Valero

Christophe Destombe
email: destombe@sb-roscoff.fr

Development and characterization of microsatellite markers in two agarophyte species Gracilaria birdiae and G. caudata (Gracilariaceae, Rhodophyta) using next-generation sequencing

Keywords: microsatellite, NGS, cross-amplification, diagnostic loci, seaweed, conservation

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Microsatellite markers are short tandem repeats (STRs) of 2-6 nucleotide motifs randomly distributed throughout the genome; they are highly polymorphic due to their high mutation rate [START_REF] Tautz | Simple sequences[END_REF][START_REF] Jarne | Microsatellites, from molecules to populations and back[END_REF].

Given their high level of variability, single-locus inheritance, and codominance, microsatellite markers are used for parentage analyses [START_REF] Avise | Molecular markers, natural history and evolution[END_REF][START_REF] Pemberton | Wild pedigrees: the way forward[END_REF]) and genetic mapping [START_REF] Jarne | Microsatellites, from molecules to populations and back[END_REF][START_REF] Röder | A Microsatellite Map of Wheat[END_REF]. In red algae, microsatellite markers have been used to retrace paternity in intertidal rocky shores in Gracilaria gracilis (Stackhouse) M.

Steentoft, L.M. Irvine & W.F. Farnham [START_REF] Engel | Performance of non motile male gametes in the sea: analysis of paternity and fertilization success in a natural population of a red seaweed, Gracilaria gracilis[END_REF] and in Chondrus crispus Stackhouse [START_REF] Krueger-Hadfield | O father where art thou? Paternity analyses in a natural population of the haploid diploid seaweed Chondrus crispus[END_REF]. These markers are also efficient for describing intraspecific genetic diversity, and are used to estimate population size or connectivity for conservation genetics purposes (for review see [START_REF] Sunnucks | Efficient genetic markers for population biology[END_REF]. For example, microsatellites have been used to assess the effects of domestication and human activities on the genetic diversity of the cultivated G. chilensis C.J. Bird, McLachlan & E.C. Oliveira, revealing that the reduction in genetic diversity is driving this species to extinction [START_REF] Guillemin | Genetic variation in wild and cultivated populations of the haploid-diploid red alga Gracilaria chilensis: how farming practices favor asexual reproduction and heterozygosity[END_REF][START_REF] Guillemin | Tracing the trans-Pacific evolutionary history of a domesticated seaweed (Gracilaria chilensis) with archaeological and genetic data[END_REF]. In Asparagopsis armata Harvey, STRs have been used to evaluate the genetic similarities of populations from the Mediterranean, Hawaii, and California [START_REF] Andreakis | Microsatellite markers in an invasive strain of Asparagopsis taxiformis (Bonnemaisoniales, Rhodophyta): insights in ploidy level and sexual reproduction[END_REF]. In Furcellaria lumbricalis (Hudson) J.V. Lamouroux, neutral and EST-derived microsatellite markers have been developed to examine the genetic structure of northern European populations inhabiting different salinity conditions [START_REF] Kostamo | Comparative study on the population genetics of the red algae Furcellaria lumbricalis occupying different salinity conditions[END_REF].

The need for de novo development using costly and time-consuming methods, as well as the low success rate of cross-species transfer, have been a major obstacle to the application of these markers in poorly studied taxonomic groups [START_REF] Squirrell | How much effort is required to isolate nuclear microsatellites from plants?[END_REF]. Moreover, cross-amplified markers often show lower allelic diversity and higher frequency of null alleles than in the source species [START_REF] Selkoe | Microsatellites for ecologists: a practical guide to using and evaluating microsatellite markers[END_REF]. With the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, the identification and characterization of microsatellites in non-model species have become more feasible. In red algae, polymorphic microsatellite markers have been reported for only 16 species from seven orders [START_REF] Pardo | Development and multiplexing of the first microsatellite markers in a coralline red alga (Phymatolithon calcareum, Rhodophyta)[END_REF] , including only three species of Gracilaria: G. changii (B.M.Xia & I.A.Abbott) I.A.Abbott, J.Zhang & B.M.Xia [START_REF] Song | Microsatellite markers from expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of seaweeds in differentiating various Gracilaria species[END_REF], G. chilensis (Guillemin et al. 2005), and G. gracilis [START_REF] Wattier | Single locus microsatellites in Gracilariales (Rhodophyta): high level of genetic variability within Gracilaria gracilis and conservation in related species[END_REF][START_REF] Luo | Characterization of microsatellite markers in the red alga Gracilaria gracilis[END_REF][START_REF] Song | Microsatellite markers from expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of seaweeds in differentiating various Gracilaria species[END_REF].

Gracilaria birdiae Plastino and E.C. Oliveira and G. caudata J. Agardh are important sources of agar in Brazil [START_REF] Plastino | Gracilaria birdiae (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta), a new species from the tropical South American Atlantic with terere frond and deep spermatangial conceptacles[END_REF]. The commercial exploitation of Gracilaria spp. in Brazil began in the 1960s, with the direct harvesting of seaweeds in natural beds [START_REF] Câmara-Neto | Seaweed culture in Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil[END_REF]. However, in the 1970s, it became clear that intensive and uncontrolled exploitation of natural beds was leading decline of native populations [START_REF] Hayashi | Cultivation of red seaweeds: a Latin American perspective[END_REF].

Hence, the cultivation of selected agarophyte species was proposed [START_REF] Oliveira | The cultivation of seaweeds for the production of agar and agaroids in Brazil actual state and future perspectives[END_REF]. Today, artisanal mariculture of G.

birdiae and G. caudata in the Northeast State of Ceará, Brazil offers an important source of income for the local fishing community [START_REF] Araujo | Maricultura da alga marinha vermelha Gracilaria birdiae em Icapuí, Ceará[END_REF][START_REF] Costa | Cultivating algae marines and values for the development of a coastal community in the city of Icapuí/CE[END_REF]).

In the present study, we report the development of microsatellite markers in the G. birdiae and G. caudata. The polymorphism of these markers was assessed in the Ceará region of northeastern Brazil, where both species are probably highly affected by human activities.

Materials and methods

Data pre-processing and microsatellite discovery

To develop and characterize microsatellites loci in these species, we employed the 454 pyrosequencing system (Roche, Basel Each DNA sample was appropriately tagged using two different multiplex identifiers (MIDs) to enable pooling for simultaneous sequencing. DNA library fragments were then captured onto beads and clonally amplified within individual emulsion droplets (emPCR). Finally, amplified fragments from both species were evenly mixed and sequenced using Titanium GS-FLX chemistry (454 Life Sciences). Each read was automatically assigned to its correct library using GS-FLX software (454 Life Sciences) based on the sample-specific MID sequence. The 454 sequencing data received was screened for SSRs using SPUTNIK [START_REF] Abajian | SPUTNIK[END_REF]. Results were then parsed to Primer3 for locus-specific primer design [START_REF] Koressaar | Enhancements and modifications of primer design program Primer3[END_REF][START_REF] Untergrasser | Primer3 -new capabilities and interfaces[END_REF]). The resulting tab-delimited files were converted to spreadsheet files for use in Microsoft Office Excel 2007 (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA). Microsatellite frequencies for each species were expressed as the total number of identified microsatellites per million base pairs (Mbp), and subsequent data analysis included sorting according to microsatellite category (i.e., di-, tri-, tetra-, and pentanucleotides), specific motifs, and number of tandem repeated units. Moreover, PCR product size (< 400 bp) and melting temperature (T m ) of 60 °C were also considered during primer selection. Reverse-complement repeat motifs and translated or shifted motifs were grouped together so that there were 144 microsatellite loci for G. birdiae and G. caudata (72 each), with 12 dinucleotide repeats, 24 trinucleotides, 24 tetranucleotides, and 12 pentanucleotides. To increase the chance of obtaining polymorphic loci, we selected motifs with the highest number of repetitions.

Test for polymorphism and PCR amplification

A total of 144 primer pairs were designed and tested for amplification on 15 DNA samples (7 individuals of G. birdiae and 8 of G. caudata) with indirect labelling markers. A subset of the primer pairs that amplified correctly (32 pairs for each species) was tested for polymorphism on 48 individuals of both species from nine locations covering seven regions along the Brazilian coast, according to the distribution range of each species (for more details see Table 1).

PCR amplifications of the direct labeling markers were performed in 10 µL, containing 2µL of template DNA Fragments were separated using an Applied Biosystems 3130XL Genetic Analyzer (Life Technologies Corporation).

Genotypes were scored manually using GeneMapper® v4.0 software (Life Technologies Corporation) and microsatellite loci selected for subsequent population analyses according to their polymorphic information content (PIC), calculated with

Cervus software [START_REF] Marshall | Statistical confidence for likelihood-based paternity inference in natural populations[END_REF][START_REF] Kalinowski | Revising how the computer program CERVUS accommodates genotyping error increases success in paternity assignment[END_REF]).

Sampling and DNA extraction for population analyses

Fifty diploid individuals of G. birdiae and 50 of G. caudata were sampled in the region of Ceará (CE), northeastern Brazil, at two locations 1.45 km apart: Pedra Rachada and Naufrágio, Paracurú (Table 1). These locations were situated at about 30.97 km from the nearest cultivated farms in Trairi (CE). Samples were collected along a 20 m transect placed perpendicularly to the shoreline during low tide. Reproductive diploid individuals (tetrasporophytes) identified under stereoscopic microscope (American Optical FORTY) were selected for genotyping.

DNA was extracted and purified using the NucleoSpin® 96 Plant II kit (Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany). Apical fragments of approximately 8 mg of silica-dried sample were powdered using mechanical tissue disruption with 3 mm diameter steel beads. Extraction was carried out according to the manufacture instructions, except for incubation in cell lysis buffer: samples were left at room temperature overnight rather than heating to 65 °C for 30 minutes. PCR amplifications and genotype scoring were carried out using the procedures described above.

Population Data Analyses

Prior to analysis and for each species, the frequency of null alleles was estimated using MicroChecker software [START_REF] Van Oosterhout | Micro-checker: software for identifying and correcting genotyping errors in microsatellite data[END_REF]). The power of the developed markers to discriminate all the multilocus microsatellite genotypes (MLG) present in the sample was tested using the Monte Carlo procedure implemented in GenClone 2.0 (Arnaud-Haond and [START_REF] Arnaud-Haond | GENECLONE: a computer program to analyse genotypic data, test for clonality and describe spatial clonal organization[END_REF]. Genotype diversity was calculated as R= (G-1)/(N-1), where G is the number of distinct genotypes identified and N is the number of individuals (Dorken and Eckert 2001). Linkage disequilibrium was assessed using a single multilocus measurement of LD that is provided by the association index d [START_REF] Brown | Multilocus structure of natural populations of Hordeum spontaneum[END_REF] modified by Agapow and Burt 2001) and was computed using Multilocus ver. 1.2 [START_REF] Agapow | Indices of multilocus linkage disequilibrium[END_REF]. Significance tests were based on the comparisons of the observed values with those of randomized data sets generated from 1000 permutations [START_REF] Burt | Molecular markers reveal cryptic sex in the human pathogen Coccidioides immitis[END_REF]. Single and multilocus estimates of gene diversity were calculated as the mean number of alleles per locus (Na), expected heterozygosity (He, sensus Nei 1978) and observed heterozygosity (Ho) using GENETIX 4.05 software [START_REF] Belkhir | GENETIX 4.05, logiciel sous Windows TM pour la génétique des populations[END_REF][START_REF] Belkhir | GENETIX 4.05, logiciel sous Windows TM pour la génétique des populations[END_REF]). Single and multilocus estimates of deviation from random mating (F is ) were calculated according to [START_REF] Weir | Estimating F-statistics for the analysis of population structure[END_REF], and significant departure from panmixia was tested by running 1000 permutations of alleles among individuals within samples, using GENETIX 4.05 software [START_REF] Belkhir | GENETIX 4.05, logiciel sous Windows TM pour la génétique des populations[END_REF][START_REF] Belkhir | GENETIX 4.05, logiciel sous Windows TM pour la génétique des populations[END_REF]. To test for differences in gene diversity between species, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were performed on Na, He, Ho, and F is values considering each locus as random repeat of these estimates, using Minitab® (2009).

Results

Development of microsatellites

In G. birdiae of the 14,358 reads obtained, 464 (3.2%) contained (perfect) microsatellite inserts. Once the redundant sequences have been removed, there were 318 microsatellite loci and they contained dinucleotide (48.7%) or trinucleotide (32.7%) motifs. The other motifs were less frequent (8.8% tetranucleotides, 9.7% pentanucleotides). Of the 318 potentially amplifiable loci, 72 primer pairs were tested and 32 were selected according to their amplification. Twenty-two primer pairs were validated on a panel of samples, i.e. produced specific PCR products of the expected size, and tested for polymorphism.

Thirteen of these 22 loci (59.1%) proved to be polymorphic in populations. These loci were dominated by tetranucleotide (50%) and trinucleotide (25%) motifs followed by pentanucleotide (18.7%) and dinucleotide (6.2%) repeats.

In G. caudata, of the 24,757 reads obtained, 487 (1.9%) contained (perfect) microsatellite inserts. Of these, there were 403 microsatellite loci and they contained dinucleotide (43.9%) or trinucleotide (34.2%) motifs. The other motifs were less frequent (12.4% tetranucleotides and 9.4% pentanucleotides). Of the 403 potentially amplifiable loci, 72 primer pairs were tested, and 32 were selected according to their amplification. Twenty-seven primer pairs were validated on a panel of samples, i.e. produced specific PCR products of the expected size, and were tested for polymorphism. Seventeen of these 27 loci (63.0%) proved to be polymorphic in populations. These loci were dominated by tetranucleotide (39.1%) and trinucleotide (26.1%) motifs followed by dinucleotide (21.7%) and pentanucleotide (13.0%) repeats.

Overall, five microsatellite loci cross-amplified in both species, eight were diagnostic loci for G. birdiae and 12 for G. caudata (Table 2). Clear differences in allele size according to the species were found for the five loci that cross-amplified (Figure 2).

Genotypic and genetic diversity within the Ceará state

As shown above, the entire data set included 25 loci (13 loci for G. birdiae and 17 loci for G. caudata, including the 5 common loci). We characterized 107 alleles across the 13 microsatellite loci in G birdiae, whereas only 69 alleles were found across the 17 loci in G. caudata over the whole data set (i.e. 50 individuals sampled in the Ceará state for both species, Table 3).

The frequency of null alleles was significant for six loci in G. birdiae (GraB_03, GraB_05, GraB_07, GraB_08, GraBC_03, and GraBC_04) and for three loci in G. caudata (GraC_06, GraC 09, and Gra C11) (Table 3). These loci were therefore eliminated from subsequent analyses. The final data sets consisted of 50 individuals genotyped at 7 loci for G.

birdiae and 50 individuals genotyped at 12 loci for G. caudata. The combinatory procedure implemented in GenClone 2.0 indicated that the discrimination power of our loci set was adequate in both species. In fact, even after excluding the locus suspected to harbor null alleles, a combination of all 7 loci in the case of G. birdiae (Figure 1a) and 10 loci in the case of G. caudata (Figure 1b) was enough to distinguish among all genotypes. All the individuals analyzed in both species had unique multilocus genotypes leading to a value of clonal richness (R) equal to 1.

Tests of linkage disequilibrium (LD) revealed an overall P-value of 0.391 in G. caudata with d (i.e. LD estimator) values of 0.0029. In G. birdiae, the d value of 0.0919 was significant with a P-value < 0.001.

The single and multilocus estimates of gene diversity are given in Table 3. The number of alleles per polymorphic locus (Na) (excluding loci with null alleles) ranged for G. birdiae from 2 (locus GraB_02) to 15 alleles (locus GraBC_05) and for G. caudata from 2 (locus GraC_10) to 10 alleles (locus GraC_04). The mean Na values were not significantly different between species (ANOVA, F (1,17) = 1.80, P= 0.197), although larger in G. birdiae (6.86) than in G. caudata (4.58).

The expected heterozygosity (He) ranged for G. birdiae from 0.059 (locus GraBC_02) to 0.854 (locus GraBC_05) and for G.

Excluding loci with null alleles, 7 microsatellite loci in G. birdiae and 12 in G. caudata were used to assess population genetic diversity of both species in the Ceará region of Brazil, their main area of harvest and cultivation. The mean numbers of alleles per locus did not differ significantly between species, Na= 4.6 for G. caudate and Na= 6.8 for G.

birdiae; and were similar to the values reported for other red algae species: Na= 4.4 for Gracilaria gracilis [START_REF] Luo | Characterization of microsatellite markers in the red alga Gracilaria gracilis[END_REF]Na= 4.6 for Asparagopsis taxiformis (Delile) Trevisan de Saint-Léo [START_REF] Andreakis | Microsatellite markers in an invasive strain of Asparagopsis taxiformis (Bonnemaisoniales, Rhodophyta): insights in ploidy level and sexual reproduction[END_REF]); Na=5.1 for Grateloupia filicina (J.V.Lamouroux) C.Agardh [START_REF] Wang | Isolation and characterization of microsatellites of Grateloupia filicina[END_REF]); Na= 6.6 for Furcellaria lumbricalis [START_REF] Kostamo | Comparative study on the population genetics of the red algae Furcellaria lumbricalis occupying different salinity conditions[END_REF], with the exception of the Chilean populations of Gracilaria chilensis for which the remarkably low diversity (mean allelic richness of 0.95) is attributed to a recent genetic bottleneck due to over-exploitation of natural stocks [START_REF] Guillemin | Tracing the trans-Pacific evolutionary history of a domesticated seaweed (Gracilaria chilensis) with archaeological and genetic data[END_REF]). Similarly, the genetic diversity observed for G. birdiae (He= 0.43) and G. caudata (He= 0.42) was similar to the values found for other Gracilaria species such as G. gracilis (from He= 0.45 to 0.52) [START_REF] Luo | Characterization of microsatellite markers in the red alga Gracilaria gracilis[END_REF][START_REF] Engel | Mating system and gene flow in the red seaweed Gracilaria gracilis: effect of haploid diploid life history and intertidal rocky shore landscape on finescale genetic structure[END_REF]), but greater than the overharvested Chilean populations of G. chilensis (He= 0.32, [START_REF] Guillemin | Tracing the trans-Pacific evolutionary history of a domesticated seaweed (Gracilaria chilensis) with archaeological and genetic data[END_REF]. A better assessment of the effect of the harvesting of natural stocks in the two Brazilian study species of Gracilaria requires further comparison of their genetic diversity with non-harvested natural populations along the Brazilian coast.

Our results suggest that G. birdiae and G. caudata differ in their reproductive systems and/or their population structure. The studied population of G. birdiae exhibited a significant heterozygote deficiency compared with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, whereas the population of G. caudata showed an excess of heterozygotes. This difference can be due to the life history of these two species. Red seaweeds typically have complex sexual haploid-diploid life cycles with the alternation of haploid (gametophytic) and diploid (tetrasporophytic) individuals. Variations in the frequencies of haploid and diploid individuals are due to the reproductive system (sexual vs. asexual) and/or to differences in fertility and survivorship (for a review see Kain and Destombe 1997). In our study, the population of G. caudata was composed almost entirely of tetrasporophytic (diploid) individuals (90.5%), whereas in G. birdiae the haploid:diploid ratio was more balanced (Ayres-Ostrock and Plastino, unpublished data). The low frequency of gametophytes (haploids) and the heterozygote excess found in G. caudata highly suggests that asexual reproduction occurs in this species [START_REF] Guillemin | Genetic variation in wild and cultivated populations of the haploid-diploid red alga Gracilaria chilensis: how farming practices favor asexual reproduction and heterozygosity[END_REF], even though there were no repeated multilocus genotypes. In G. birdiae, significant heterozygote deficiency may be explained by the occurrence of null alleles, bi-parental inbreeding or by a Wahlund effect. Additional population genetic studies are needed to test these hypotheses.

In conclusion, the 7 polymorphic microsatellites markers developed for G. birdiae and the 12 markers developed for G. caudata proved reliable for population genetic studies. The study of genetic variation is the basis of any breeding or conservation program. Therefore, future studies using these polymorphic microsatellites will lead to a better understanding of the patterns of genetic diversity in G. caudata and G. birdiae, providing information on population structure and dynamics that can be useful in guiding management strategies, as well as for the exploitation and culture of these agarophyte species in Brazil. F is : single locus and multilocus estimates of deviation from random mating [START_REF] Weir | Estimating F-statistics for the analysis of population structure[END_REF].

F is values significantly different from zero are shown in bold

  Switzerland)[START_REF] Margulies | Genome sequencing in open microfabricated high density picoliter reactors[END_REF]. Genomic DNA was extracted and purified from haploid individuals of G. birdiae from ), and of G. caudata from São Paulo State (23 o o , using around 500 mg of dried sample. DNA extraction, library preparation, amplification, and sequencing were carried out by Ecogenics GmbH (Zürich-Schlieren, Switzerland). A sample of DNA from each species was used to prepare their respective GS-FLX Titanium general libraries (454 Life Sciences) according to the included quality control steps.

  diluted 1:50, 150 µM dNTPs (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA), 30 pmol forward fluorescent-labelled primer FAM, Yakima Yellow (VIC), ATTO550 (NED) or ATTO565(PET) (Eurofins MWG Operon, Ebersberg, Germany), 30 pmol reverse primer (Eurofins MWG Operon, Ebersberg, Germany), 2.5 mM MgCl 2 (Promega Corp.), 1 X GoTaq® Flexi Buffer (Promega Corp.), and 0.35 U GoTaq® DNA polymerase (Promega Corp.). PCR amplifications of the indirect labeling markers using the standard M13 universal sequence were performed in 10 µL, containing 2 µL of DNA template diluted 1:50, 150 µM of dNTPs (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA), 30 pmol forward primer, 30 pmol reverse -labelled M13(-21) primer FAM, Yakima Yellow (VIC), ATTO550 (NED) or ATTO565(PET) (Eurofins MWG Operon, Ebersberg, Germany), 2.5 mM MgCl 2 (Promega Corp.), 1 X GoTaq® Flexi Buffer (Promega Corp.), and 0.35 U GoTaq® DNA polymerase (Promega Corp.) (--TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT-oration of the (-21) primer for detection on an ABI3130 XL DNA Analyzer (Life TechnologiesCorporation). Amplifications were carried out separately for each primer pair on a DNA Engine Peltier Thermal Cycler (Bio-Rad, Corporation). For the direct labeling markers, PCR cycling consisted of an initial denaturation at 95 °C for 5 min followed by 30 cycles: denaturation of 95 °C for 30 s, annealing at 54 °C for 30 s, and extension at 72 °C for 30 s, with a final extension of 72 °C for 10 min. For the indirect labeling marker cycling conditions included an initial denaturing at 95 °C for 5 min followed by 10 cycles: denaturation of 95 °C for 30 s, annealing at 58 °C for 30 s and extension at 72 °C for 30 s; followed by 30 cycles of denaturation at 95 °C for 30 s, annealing at 53 °C for 30 s, and extension at 72 °C for 30 s, with a final extension of 72 °C for 10 min. Each microsatellite amplification was diluted with distilled H 2 O (1

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Table 1

 121 Fig. 1 Plots describing the genotypic resolution of microsatellites for all 50 samples of (a) Gracilaria birdiae and (b) G. caudata, giving the average clonal diversity R (±SE) for each loci. Clonal diversity was estimated by R=G-1/N-1, where G is the number of genotypes and N is the sample size

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP: 2010/50175-3; 2011/10189-8), the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq: 300148/93-3; 301491/2013-5), the program of international cooperation USP/COFECUB between the University of São Paulo and the Comité Français d´Evaluation de la Coopération Universitaire avec le Brésil, and the International Research Network "Diversity, Evolution and Biotechnology of Marine Algae" (GDRI CNRS 0803). We are also most grateful to the Biogenouest Genomics core facility for its technical support and to Carolyn Engel-Gautier for the English review of this manuscript.

caudata from 0.059 (locus GraBC_01) to 0.830 (locus GraC_04). The mean He values were similar between G. birdiae (0.435) and G. caudata (0.420) (ANOVA, F (1,17) = 0.02, P= 0.904). The observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged for G. birdiae from 0.060 (locus GraBC_02) to 0.580 (locus GraB_01) and for G. caudata from 0.060 (locus GraBC_01) to 0.780 (locus GraC_01). The mean Ho values were similar between G. birdiae (0.342) and G. caudata (0.460) (ANOVA, F (1,17) = 0.92, P= 0.350).

F is values were highly variable among loci and species. The number of significant F is values per locus was higher in G. birdiae (9/13) than in G. caudata (6/15) (Table 3). Excluding loci with null alleles, the F is values ranged from -0.205 (locus GraB_02) to 0.5 (locus GraBC_05) in G. birdiae and from -0.343 (GraC_03) to 0.112 (GraC_04) in G. caudata. The mean F is value was significantly higher in G. birdiae (F is = 0.150, SE= 0.103) than in G. caudata (F is = -0.083, SE= 0.037) (ANOVA, F (1,17) = 6.61, P= 0.020).

Discussion

In the current study, we used 454 pyrosequencing to obtain sequence reads for microsatellite primer development in Gracilaria birdiae and G. caudata. Our newly developed microsatellite marker set is highly informative. Seven polymorphic microsatellites markers amplified in G. birdiae and 12 in G. caudata. In our results, only five loci (20%) were able to crossamplify in both species. These results are in agreement with previous observations in the genus Gracilaria that demonstrated that microsatellite loci are often poorly conserved between related species [START_REF] Wattier | Single locus microsatellites in Gracilariales (Rhodophyta): high level of genetic variability within Gracilaria gracilis and conservation in related species[END_REF][START_REF] Song | Microsatellite markers from expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of seaweeds in differentiating various Gracilaria species[END_REF].

Based on the primer pairs initially tested, the percentage of amplified markers of the expected size was similar for G. caudata (27/72: 37.5%) and G. birdiae (22/72: 30.6%), but generally lower than those reported for other organisms using the same method; ranging from 44% to 100% in plants, invertebrates, vertebrates, and fungi (for a review see [START_REF] Schoebel | Lessons learned from microsatellite development for nonmodel organisms using 454 pyrosequencing[END_REF], and in red algae from 57.1% in Phymatolithon calcareum (Pallas) W.H.Adey & D.L.McKibbin [START_REF] Pardo | Development and multiplexing of the first microsatellite markers in a coralline red alga (Phymatolithon calcareum, Rhodophyta)[END_REF] to 82.6% in Grateloupia lanceolata (Okamura) Kawaguchi [START_REF] Couceiro | Microsatellite development in Rhodophyta using high-throughput sequence data[END_REF]). However, among the correctly amplified markers, the percentage of polymorphic markers in G. birdiae (59.1%) and G. caudata (63.0%) were higher than in other red algae (36.8% in G. lanceolata and 45.8% in P. calcareum). Overall, the rate of success of the current work was thus similar to other studies that employed the same technique.


Claire Chédot Leduc

Joachim Schöpfel

Usage of E-Journals in French Business Schools

HAL is

Introduction

Most of the usage studies on academic e-journals have been conducted with samples from research organisations or universities. This is not surprising in so far as they are the most important consumers of scientific information. Yet, they are not the only ones, and there are other institutions and organisations subscribing to e-journals, such as industrial research laboratories, engineering schools or business schools. Business schools are interesting in so far as they are in a rapid transition. Initially, their goal was to develop business skills for top-level executives. Today, their scope is larger and includes management and other economic fields. In the past, they generally gave priority to the quality of teaching, professional experience and knowledge transfer from the corporate sector. Today, they also invest in research in order to gain scientific status and credibility and to improve their position in academic rankings (Shanghai, Financial Times etc.). For instance, they develop "impact strategies" and "centres of excellence" in specific domains so as to increase international visibility, attraction and expertise (social economy, wines and spirits market, Asia Pacific region etc.). At the same time, they are merging into more important structures, on different sites (multi-campus Paris/regions), with international partnerships. In France, there are around 250 business schools. Some are public structures, for instance the IAE institutes 3 , others are private institutions or run by local or regional Chambers of Commerce (consular schools). A few of them enjoy a wide renown and excellent reputation, such as HEC, Insead or ESSEC. On account of the Bologna process, many French business schools have adapted their programmes to common European standards, with three (degree), five (executive) or even eight years (PhD programmes), and have often recruited academic faculty members for the development of research and scientific activities. In this dynamic environment it is interesting to explore their usage of digital resources, especially of academic e-journals as the main vector of scientific information. In past studies we described trends in usage of French universities and compared them to international findings [START_REF] Boukacem-Zeghmouri | On the usage of e-journals in French universities[END_REF]. More recently, we conducted a nationwide usage study with French public and private customers of an international academic publishing house specialising in management, business and marketing [START_REF] Schöpfel | Big deal and long tail: a case study on e-journal usage and subscriptions[END_REF]. Our empirical data allowed for comparisons of usage from different sectors. In this sample, business schools represented 23% of the customer accounts but 36% of the overall budget, 69% of the subscriptions and 82% of the usage statistics. These figures were somewhat intriguing, suggesting specific features and high usage compared to other sectors. For this reason we decided to re-analyse our empirical data with a focus on business schools. What is their usage in terms of widely-known indicators? How do they compare to their public competitors, namely universities? What do we know from other studies? This is the first usage study involving French business schools.

Review of literature

Recent research on usage and practice of academic e-resources reveals the disparity of digital usage and information behaviour between different disciplines or subjects [START_REF] Boukacem-Zeghmouri | Beyond the Google generation: towards community-specific usage patterns of scientific information[END_REF]. Among this growing body of evidence and knowledge, so far only a small number of papers have been published on business schools and related disciplines such as business, management and economics. The published data on usage related to business schools provides three different kinds of information:

Evidence on usage of digital resources in business schools as a specific environment. These are studies on usage statistics and digital information behaviour in business schools.

Evidence on usage of digital resources in Higher Education institutions that differentiates between scientific departments, including business, management and/or economics. These are mostly papers with results of usage studies in universities that distinguish between statistics and information behaviour from scientists, scholars and students from different scientific departments.

Evidence on usage of digital resources in different subjects, including business, management and/or economics. These are papers that compare usage statistics from different journals and journal packages. Some studies focus on usage statistics derived from weblog analysis while others deal with quantitative or qualitative data on information behaviour. Yet it is generally admitted that usage and practice are closely related and that "computer usage logs provide an accurate picture of online behaviour" [START_REF] Nicholas | Researchers' e-journal use and information seeking behaviour[END_REF]. In the following section we outline some recent papers which focus on business schools, together with other studies that include business schools in their sampling or that cover the subjects mentioned above. These papers are exploratory and empirical, and they mostly apply COUNTER standards for data and metrics, such as full text article requests. 4Swain & Panda (2009a) highlight the specificity of usage in business schools, such as "their keenness on the use of various (...) e-resources available exclusively in the broad subject areas of management which includes economics, finance, marketing, international business, human resource management, and more" and their interest in keeping "a very close watch of the fast changing economic scenario of the world market (...) through some precise strategies for which they might prefer to access specific business-related web sites, e-news, and e-reports (...)". At the same time, they state that the most preferred e-resources remain journals and articles. Their interesting paper from India was accompanied by two other publications: Swain (2010) evaluated "the extent of students' curiosity in the use of e-information for supplementing their scholarly needs" in the business schools of Orissa (India). His objective was to optimize the usage of electronic resources. [START_REF] Swain | Use of electronic resources in business school libraries of an Indian state: a study of librarians' opinion[END_REF] conducted a survey with librarians to raise awareness, create tools and make available more e-resources. This need for collaboration between library and academic areas, i.e. specific training and promotion, was put forward by [START_REF] Colvin | Supporting undergraduate learning through the collaborative promotion of e-journals by library and academic departments[END_REF]. In a study on a business school at the University College Worcester they observed that introducing new and more digital materials is not enough to change students' research behaviour and to increase usage. In a quite different environment -a Greek campus -high use of e-resources in a business school was reported by [START_REF] Korobili | Factors that influence the use of library resources by faculty members[END_REF]: "Faculty within the School of Business Administration and Economics are heavier users of all the sources". High usage means here, "higher than in other academic departments". Another, quite unique publication by [START_REF] Dewland | Collective serials analysis: the relevance of a journal in supporting teaching and research[END_REF] compared usage statistics with citation data for the local business school's faculty, in order to evaluate the value of journal titles from the business library. Their usage data from 200 journals "while slightly concentrated, fell close to what the Pareto model predicts with 18% (36) of the journals accounting for 80% (14,558) of the use". They also drew attention to the fact that a business collection is not homogenous but made up of different specialties that may be used and cited in different ways and by different communities. Some of the research the CIBER group at University College London5 conducted in the last decade contains results that are of interest for business schools. In 2008, CIBER published data from a survey on information behaviour with 757 researchers matched to log files from Elsevier (Nicolas et al., 2008). 4% of the surveyed sample belonged to economics, mostly from Western Europe, the USA and UK. Compared to ten other subjects (life and medical sciences, social sciences …), this subsample differed in regard to five aspects:

They performed a lower number of visits. They viewed a lower number of articles and journals per session. They showed a high use of abstracts and regular or current material, but a lower use of articles in press or older material.

They used less material from other disciplines, i.e. they were less interdisciplinary compared for instance to researchers from engineering, chemistry or computer sciences.

They relied to a high extent on the journal and its prestige for the quality of an article. Another study with usage statistics from the Oxford University Press journal collection included data from 19 titles in economics, 31% of the total corpus [START_REF] Nicholas | Online use and information seeking behaviour: institutional and subject comparisons of UK researchers[END_REF]. Based on 24,490 sessions and 66,827 page views, the data confirmed the high use of abstracts in this discipline but also, in contradiction to the former study, the use of older articles with a median age of six years. The authors added that apparently "economists use working paper repositories, such as SSRN and personal websites, for disseminating research but continue to rely upon society and commercial journals for final, archival publication" (see [START_REF] Harley | Assessing the future landscape of scholarly communication: an exploration of faculty values and needs in seven disciplines[END_REF] for further evidence). [START_REF] Nicholas | Researchers' e-journal use and information seeking behaviour[END_REF] produced evidence on usage and practice from a qualitative survey with 1,400 researchers belonging to six subjects. The subsample "economics and econometrics" was rather small and less representative, with only 1.7% respondents. Again, the study revealed a high use of abstracts but, inconsistent with the 2008 paper, stated that "economics researchers held (peer reviewed) journals in the lowest esteem (...) probably explained by the 'working paper' system in economics". More than in other disciplines, they gave preference to team work, also for their information needs, and were least likely to undertake advanced searching. Data from a joint JISC-CIBER project illustrated "considerable subject diversity in information seeking behaviour with respect to e-books" (JISC, 2009). The paper presented evidence that e-book collections were highly popular in business and management studies : "super-users (are) more likely to be found in business studies". For instance, people spent longer time on page views in this subject. Taken together, this small body of empirical evidence is not really consistent. There may be a variety of reasons, such as small samples, different methodology (quantitative vs. qualitative data), and different objects (usage vs. behaviour, researchers vs. journals/e-books). Moreover, usage and information behaviour may have changed since the cited studies were conducted (nomadism, mobile device, new services for example). Our intention is to add more evidence to this field, applying a confirmed standard methodology of usage assessment to a consistent and representative sample of business schools and e-journals on business, management and economics. The objective is to explore the usage in this specific field and to compare the results with data from higher education and research, whenever possible.

Methodology

The empirical data on usage and subscriptions was provided by an international academic publisher considered as one of the most relevant and best known publishers of business and management journals (Swain & Panda 2009a). The sample consisted of 253 English language journals, all of them available via the publisher's online platform, and of 21 business schools with nearly 56,000 authorized end users (students, scholars, staff). The surveyed usage period was January to December 2010. In other words, we analyzed all usage statistics from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2010, as produced by the publisher for all business schools and all journals. The surveyed sample contained only privately run business schools in Paris (seven schools) and in other French towns (fourteen schools); no public university business schools of management -"Instituts d'Administration des Entreprises" (IAE) -were included in this analysis, because IAE are integral parts of universities and it is not possible to distinguish their resources and usage from those of other university departments. A recent survey6 listed 65 private business schools in France. Because of their sometimes complex organisation and partnership structures it is not always easy to identify if and how schools are working together and sharing resources or if they are simply part of the same entity. Sometimes a business school is just a programme of another school; other schools are part of a network located in different towns. Not all of our surveyed schools could be matched against this list. Yet, even if the data is not totally reliable, the representative nature of the sample (i.e. the publisher's market share) can be estimated at 20%. The 14 French business schools with accredited fulltime or part-time Master of Business Administration (MBA) programmes are often considered as the best and most attractive establishments for graduate business education. With the exception of one, all of these schools are part of the sample. Two of them are among the top 20 schools in the Global MBA Rankings 2012 published by the Financial Times.7 A total of 2,302 subscriptions and 54,751 online requests were analysed. The usage statistics were analysed in the JR1 format of the COUNTER Code of Practice as produced by the publisher, counting successful full-text article requests by month and journal (=usage) 8 . This means that in the following, if not otherwise indicated, usage will always be understood as "successful full-text article requests". Some journal subscriptions were ordered individually, title by title, with acquisition of the print version and access to the online version on the publisher's platform. Other subscriptions were part of big deals, e.g. access to journals on the publisher's platform was licensed via packages (bundling). Our study did not consider the potential level of access for each customer institution (number of subscriptions) but put the focus on the real usage and on the actual costs (expenditures, budget) for digital resources from this specific publisher. Online requests which could not be associated with a subscription were removed, and the usage data was enriched by additional data on packages, subjects and customers from the publisher's catalogue and customer file. Our methodology follows former studies such as [START_REF] Bevan | How usage statistics can inform national negotiations and strategies[END_REF], Boukacem-Zeghmouri & [START_REF] Boukacem-Zeghmouri | On the usage of e-journals in French universities[END_REF] or the cited CIBER papers, with additional data on the cost of digital subscriptions (from the publisher) and on the number of students (from the schools' web sites). In those studies, the indicators proved to be efficient. The presentation of local metrics generally keeps to the COUNTER definition 9 if not otherwise indicated. The discussion relies on the comparison with the French universities that were present in the sample. Indeed those institutions offer similar teaching and research features, unlike specialized research centres. Moreover, they count up to a significant number that allows for the comparison with business schools.

Findings

Full-text article requests

During the surveyed period (January to December 2010), all business schools except three requested and accessed the subscribed journals on the publisher's platform. Together, they performed 54,751 full-text article requests in 2010, ranging from 29 to 13,237 requests, with a median of 1,894 (mean value 3,220). The deviation from the mean is important: standard deviation is 3,703. The vertical axis in figure 5 shows significant differences between business schools. Apart from two institutions with high figures, most of the business schools had relatively low usage statistics, often with less than 3,000 requests in 2010.

Full-text article requests per title

The business schools accessed together 245 different journals with a large range from only 1 to 229 titles (median 153 titles, mean value 131, standard deviation 71). Again, the scattergram reveals significant differences (horizontal axis in figure 5). Three schools had low values, and while the majority had request figures around the mean value, a group of five schools accessed a relatively high number of journals. The average number of full-text article requests per title was 223, again with important differences, ranging from zero to a maximum of 2,646 requests for the European Journal of Marketing.

Full-text article requests per domain

The journal titles belong to thirteen different editor eras, according to the publisher's indexing. Two of them -Marketing and Business, Management & Strategy -attracted 49% of all requests. Figure 1 shows the most important domains. The category "Others" covers subject such as tourism, library studies, education, health and engineering -all more or less marginal with regards to business schools.

Full-text article requests per user

The mean number of article requests per user (student) for the whole sample in 2010 was 1.24, with a variation ranging from 0.01 to 4.72 requests. For the major part of the schools, students requested on average less than two articles in 2010. There is no strong link between the school size and the average full-text article request per student (figure 2). The points are rather scattered; in addition, some outliers should be, because of the small sample size, interpreted with caution. Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient rho is .1642.

Most requested titles

The ten most requested titles or "high range titles" [START_REF] Conyers | Building on sand? Using statistical measures to assess the impact of electronic services[END_REF]) received 27% of the overall traffic which indicates a relatively "centralised" usage, a result that confirms observations made by [START_REF] Dewland | Collective serials analysis: the relevance of a journal in supporting teaching and research[END_REF]

Cost per full-text article request

The mean cost per full-text article request in 2010 was €9.11. Yet, the variation between institutions was important, with costs ranging from €1.04 to €30.41, and a standard deviation from the mean equaling €9.31. For about 60%, the costs per article request ranged between €1 and €5 (median €4.33). On average, larger schools had lower costs per article request than medium or small-sized schools; the highest cost (€30.41) matched with the smallest school. The Pearson correlation coefficient between the number of users and the cost per full-text article request is .49.

Cost per user (students)

Related to the number of students, the differences of investment were significant, ranging from €0.15 to €15.75. The average cost per user was €4.58 (median €4.17). Here again, larger schools usually performed better than smaller ones in so far as they spent on average less money per student. Perhaps a kind of economy of scale?

Extent of usage

A significantly large proportion of the journals were subscribed via big deals (packages or bundling) while others were ordered individually, title by title. 62% of the titles subscribed individually were not accessed at all on the publisher's platform, probably because of a preference for the print version. The extent of online usage for journals subscribed via packages was significantly higher -the business schools requested on average about 85% of the journals that are part of big deals. Four schools downloaded articles from more than 95% of the subscribed journal titles. Obviously the mode of subscription has an impact on the usage of online resources. This difference is interesting because it may indicate that schools with a preference for individual subscriptions are just at the start of the transition from traditional print documentation to the hybrid or total digital library.

Discussion

Methodological shortfalls

The significance of our empirical results may be impacted by two methodological shortfalls. It was difficult to obtain reliable figures on user numbers. Thus, we only considered students as users, excluding faculty and other staff. Also, in some cases it may be difficult to attribute a request to a business school or a university since sometimes they overlap. Indeed, as mentioned above, many partnerships have been established between the two types of institution (even if in the surveyed sample none of the universities was a parent institution of a business school, but they have their own business programs), and one user may take advantage of the resources offered by the other. It has to be noticed that in our sample, the number of users for business schools is less important than for universities (up to 8 times less, in average). Indeed, since resources are available for all students in universities, the number was not limited to students following business studies. As a consequence, cost per user may appear more advantageous for business schools, and cost per request less advantageous. While these aspects do not appear to invalidate our results, we should be careful not to overinterpret our data because of the so-called "law of the small numbers" (Kahnemann 2011), i.e. statistical anomalies caused by a small sample.

Comparison with universities

Compared to university data from our national study on usage statistics of the same publishers and the same collections [START_REF] Schöpfel | Big deal and long tail: a case study on e-journal usage and subscriptions[END_REF], we can observe some significant differences (tables 1 and 2) which may be characteristic for business schools, at least for this sample and these special collections in business, marketing and management. In terms of expenses per user (students), the business schools spend more for the subscription of these journal collections than universities do. At the same time, the average cost per full-text article request is lower than in universities. Note that the maximum value (€901.96) is reached by a university with only one request! Taken together, these results indicate a more intensive usage per student of these collections than in universities. Business schools pay more but their students use these resources more heavily than in universities. There may be more than one explanation: greater ease of use of English material because of the international orientation of business schools, a collection portfolio that fits better with the programmes and needs of business schools, perhaps also the lack of traditional academic library infrastructure. Also, the annual distribution (monthly variation) of online usage is different especially between April and July when the usage statistics are higher in universities (period of exams) than for business schools (period of internships) (figure 3). The study also reveals different preferences at the level of domains and journal titles. Business schools accessed relatively more articles from the fields of Business, Management, Strategy, Operations, Logistics and Quality while universities requested relatively more documents from Accounting, Finance, Economics, Library Sciences, Information and Knowledge Management and Engineering, topics which are (at least partially) not covered by business schools. In contrast, journals from the domain of Marketing appear to be of similar high interest for both institutions, just as titles on Human Resources, Learning and Organization Studies. These differences may, at least to some extent, reveal a kind of cartography of contents, programmes and research interests from both institutions. The comparison of the twenty most requested journals for both types of institutions reveals significant differences for one part of them (figure 4). For instance, the journals Management Decision (+1 The mean number of requests per user (student) is higher in business schools than in universities, which means that students of business schools accessed the resources more often than university students especially in the fields of science, technology and medicine (STM).

The average costs per user and per full-text article request correspond to the mean level in French academic departments of business, law, social sciences and humanities but are higher than in STM [START_REF] Boukacem-Zeghmouri | On the usage of e-journals in French universities[END_REF].

The overall usage distribution in business schools is more centralised, with a concentration on some high ranked titles, i.e. a reduced number of journals attract a larger part of the requests, without a long tail of usage statistics, which may point to the same observation as made by [START_REF] Nicholas | User diversity: as demonstrated by deep log analysis[END_REF] -that users in the field of business, management and marketing rely more on quality and reputation of journals than others.

Clusters of business schools

We already spoke of some specific features and differences between business schools woth regards to full-text article requests and requests per title. Merged together in the same graphic, both usage data, i.e. number of full-text article requests (vertical axis) and number of accessed journal titles (horizontal axis) reveal four or five clusters of business schools (figure 5). 1. Low usage: On the left side, three business schools have very few journals and perform only a small number of requests. 2. High usage: On the opposite side, two business schools have a high number of journals and a high number of full-text requests. These clusters may correspond approximately to the [START_REF] Bevan | How usage statistics can inform national negotiations and strategies[END_REF] description of "high use, high cost subscription" vs. "lower use but lower cost" institutions. Between these two extreme clusters, we can identify a group of twelve institutions with a mean to high number of journals and low or mean usage statistics. In fact, we can distinguish three clusters: 3. Limited usage: Five business schools produce low usage statistics in spite of a higher number of accessed journals. 4. Mean usage: Four schools with mean levels of journals and usage. 5. Reduced usage: Three schools with a higher number of accessed journals but a comparatively low level of usage statistics. Maybe these last three clusters need advice and help for more intensive usage of their online subscriptions.

Metrics

Number of students (size) and usage statistics are correlated but the correlation is relatively weak, obviously because of some "extremes", two or three schools with relatively high requests and three or four schools with relatively low requests, with regards to their size (figure 6). But again, attention should be paid to the small sample size and the risk of statistical extremes ("law of the small numbers"). It may be more useful for this reason to consider the relationship between the ranking of size and usage and then to compare only the two clusters of "small and low usage" schools (top right) and "big and high usage" schools (bottom left), without interpreting the two other quarters (see figure 7). The greater the usage (resp. size), the lower the rank. The best ranked French business schools appear on the lower side of the figure ( ).

The French business schools generally top ranked in national and international rankings, such as HEC, ESSEC or INSEAD, are all in the lower side of the figure, with relatively high usage figures even in smaller institutions. This may be related to more research activity (Williams et al. 2010) and/or a higher degree of internationality and usage of English-language resources.

Conclusion

Our study provided empirical evidence for usage of digital resources in business schools. As expected, the usage appears to be relatively intensive, especially when compared to usage statistics from universities in the same fields. This result may reflect an emerging research activity in business schools and a projected and required international orientation. Yet the study also reveals important differences between schools, a fact that should not be overestimated because of the small sample size, even if the sample is representative for French business schools. Our recommendation for the business schools would be that, in order to increase usage and efficiency of subscribed digital resources, they should improve promotion and communication on these resources, facilitate access through portals, gateways and discovery tools, and monitor usage statistics and metrics. Furthermore, we did not try to analyse the sample in connection with the disciplines and fields covered by the subscribed and accessed journals and collections. Subscriptions and usage figures reveal domain-specific preferences and options that may, following [START_REF] Dewland | Collective serials analysis: the relevance of a journal in supporting teaching and research[END_REF], explain and be the source of variations and differences in usage features. This could be the object of another study with a larger sample, with more institutions and different collections. In order to distinguish usage-related clusters of schools, we could also apply more sophisticated scientometric approaches inappropriate in a smaller sample, such as concentration metrics and multifactorial analysis. In addition, we did not take into account all the other digital resources available in business schools, on-site or at distance. Yet, usage is not practice. Statistics contain valuable information but do not explain information behaviour. For this reason we suggest a follow-up study that would integrate quantitative usage statistics and qualitative survey methodology, such as interviews, questionnaires and observations in the field, and include other items than journal collections, such as databases, working papers, reports, proceedings and dissertations. Nevertheless, so far as we can see, it is to be anticipated that such a study would probably confirm the intensive use and need of digital resources, outside of traditional library structures, which are quickly evolving and related to the development strategy of the business schools.

Figure9

  Figure 1 : Requested domains

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2 : Mean number of full-text article requests per student (vertical axis) vs number of students (horizontal axis)

  on concentrated use and no real long tail. All these titles are in the fields of marketing or management. The most requested titles were the European Journal of Marketing, the Journal of Consumer Marketing, Management Decision, the Journal of Product & Brand Management and the International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Annual distribution of usage statistics (full-text article requests)

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Usage differences for the 20 most requested journals (business schools in blue, universities in red)

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Full-text article requests (vertical axis) and requested journal titles (horizontal axis)

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Correlation between school size (number of students) and usage (number of requests)

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Ranking of schools by size (number of students) and usage (number of requests), with medium rank (horizontal line).

Table 1 : Cost metrics, in euros

 1

		Cost per full-text article request	Cost per user
		Mean nb (std dev)	Mean nb (std dev)
	Business Schools	9.11 (9.31)	4.58 (3.29)
	Universities	114.67 (222.38)	2.25 (5.91)

  .3%) and Marketing Intelligence & Planning (+1.2%) are more requested in business schools than in universities, while the Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management and the Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal have more success in universities than in business schools. Compared to results from other studies, with different publishers, collections and customers and in other disciplines (in particular,[START_REF] Bevan | How usage statistics can inform national negotiations and strategies[END_REF][START_REF] Boukacem-Zeghmouri | On the usage of e-journals in French universities[END_REF] or Suseela 2011), we can add that the average number of full-text article requests per title is higher in business schools, which confirms a higher and more intensive use of subscribed digital resources (table 2).

Table 2 : Usage metrics

 2

		Full-text article	Full-text article	Full-text article
		request	request per title	request per user
		Mean nb (std dev)	Mean nb (std dev)	Mean nb (std dev)
	Business Schools	3,220 (3,704)	131 (71)	1.24 (1.28)
	Universities	675 (1187)	45 (62.7)	.16 (.43)

International Business Institute ISCID-CO, University of the Littoral and Côte d'Opale, Dunkirk, France

Information and Document Science, University of Lille

3,Villeneuve d'Ascq, France 3 Instituts d'Administration des Entreprises, i.e. management departments in public universities.

COUNTER is an "agreed international set of standards and protocols governing the recording and exchange of online usage data" that is useful for understanding, interpretation and comparison of usage statistics. See Shepherd 2010 and the COUNTER website at http://www.projectcounter.org/

See http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/research/ciber/downloads/

Published by the French magazine of economics Challenge 2011(255).

http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings-2012

See the latest release of the COUNTER Code of Practice http://www.projectcounter.org/code_practice.html


E Delcourt
email: delcourt@enssat.fr

L Bodiou
email: loic.bodiou@univ-rennes1.fr

J Charrier
email: joel.charrier@univ-rennes1.fr

S Achelle

J Lemaitre
email: lemaitre@enssat.fr

N Lorrain

D Bosc
email: bosc@enssat.fr

Integrated polymer waveguides incorporating nonlinear chromophores for all-optical signal processing

In order to obtain non-linear waveguides for all-optical signal processing, new nonlinear polymer waveguides incorporating chromophores have been designed and processed using standard photolithographic steps. Polymer refractive index changes with chromophore concentration are presented. Waveguides exhibiting single mode propagation and high optical field confinement are demonstrated and optical propagation losses of 4.1 dB/cm at 1550 nm are measured.

Introduction:

Passive and active optical components for applications in optical fiber communications, optical interconnects inside and between CMOS chips, and in biophotonics (integrated sensors, lab-on chips) are readily available due to progresses in silicon photonics technologies. One of the major future challenge still concerns the development of compact optical components operating at low power, to process high-bit rate signals (about 100 Gbit/s and above). Although several high-speed components have been demonstrated using the high third-order nonlinearity of silicon based waveguides 1 , these devices suffer from limitations arising from two-photon absorption (TPA) and free-carrier absorption processes in silicon. To overcome these detrimental effects, integrated structures based on higher bandgap materials, such as AlGaAs, GaInP or chalcogenide glasses have emerged 2 . An alternative approach, which we describe in this paper, could take benefit from the potentially larger third-order susceptibility χ (3) of organic based materials. Indeed, nonlinear refractive index (n 2 ) values for organic materials like Polydiacetylene para-toluene sulfonate (PDA-PTS) or Poly(p-PhenyleneVinylene) (PPV) can reach 2.10 -16 m 2 .W -1 which is one order of magnitude larger than conventional inorganic semiconductors (Al 0.2 GaAs, Si) or chalcogenides (As 2 Se 3 ).

Design and fabrication:

A molecular engineering methodology is now emerging to further improve the nonlinear efficiency of these organic molecules 3 . The current knowledge of the structure-property relationships indicates a certain number of important trends 4 to design efficient third-order NLO materials as increasing the conjugation length for quasi one-dimensional molecules (such as polymethines), enhancing the intramolecular charge transfer by heteroatomic conjugation incorporation or designing quadrupolar (D-π-A-π-D like DDMEBT molecule 5 used by Koos and co-workers to demonstrate all-optical demultiplexing 5 ) and octupolar structures. Following these guidelines, quadrupolar molecules based on pyrimidine and triphenylamine units with a D--A--D structure 6 have been synthesized via short and high-yielding reactions. Polymeric buried waveguides with different core dimensions have been processed using standard i-line photolithography and reactive ion etching process. PMATRIFE (Poly(2,2,2 MethAcrylate of TRIFluoro-Ethyl) was used for both lower and upper claddings (n=1.41 at 1.55 µm). The waveguide core of the structure is made from chromophores (Fig. 1a) incorporated (20 % by weight) in PolyMethyl MethacrylImide (PMMI). Fig. 1b shows the cross section of one of the processed waveguides. Using the prism coupling technique, the refractive index of this core layer was measured to range from n=1.515 to 1.55 at a wavelength of 1.55 µm depending on the chromophores concentration (see Fig. 1c). UV-Visible spectra (not shown) of chromophores dissolved in in CH 2 Cl 2 show two absorption bands located at 301 and 427 nm. All polymer layers were deposited by spin-coating. To avoid subsequent dissolution, thin inorganic barriers layers (SiO 2 or SiN X ) were deposited by PECVD between the different organic layers. The core dimensions were designed using Olympios software to maximize the optical density in the nonlinear region of the waveguide.

Optical characterizations of waveguides:

To minimize coupling losses, microlensed fibers were used to launch a broadband laser source around 1550 nm into the waveguides and to collect outcoming light. Using far field experiments, mode diameter of 2.2 µm were measured at 1550 nm for microlensed fibers. Single mode propagation in the waveguide was confirmed by imaging the output facet of the waveguide on an infrared camera through a high magnification and numerical aperture microscope objective (Fig. 2a). A 2.4 µm mode field diameter was measured (at 1/e 2 ) by comparing this intensity profile to that of microlensed fibers. Waveguide propagation losses of 4.1±0.3 dB/cm were determined using the cut-back technique (Fig. 2b). Several waveguides of the same size (width=1.5 µm, height=2 µm) were characterized for three different sample lengths (0.4, 1.2 and 1.6 cm) without facet polishing after cleaving.

Conclusions:

Nonlinear molecules potentially fulfilling simultaneously the main requirements of all-optical processing applications (large nonlinear refractive index n 2 at 1.55 µm, reduced losses related to TPA around 1.55 µm and ultrafast response (<ps) of the nonlinear refractive index) have been synthesized. The fabrication process of single mode organic-based nonlinear waveguides exhibiting propagation losses of 4.1±0.3 dB/cm has been described. These results show that the incorporation of nonlinear chromophores in standard polymers could be a way to implement waveguides dedicated to efficient all-optical signal processing.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: a) Molecular structure of the chromophores, b) SEM image of the waveguide cross section and c) Wavelength dependence of the core material refractive index for different chromophore concentrations.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: a) Intensity profile of the waveguide output (w=1.5 µm, h=2 µm) b) Loss measurements of the polymer waveguide (w=1.5 µm, h=2 µm) derived from the by cutback method.