Olga Nagy

Isabelle Nuez

Rosina Savisaar

Alexandre E Peluffo

Amir Yassin

Michael Lang

David L Stern

Daniel R Matute

Jean R David

Virginie Courtier-Orgogozo

Correlated Evolution of two Copulatory Organs via a Single Cis-Regulatory Nucleotide Change

Keywords: pleiotropy, cis-regulatory, sensory organ, Drosophila, copulation, genitalia, hypandrium, sex comb, microevolution, scute, Abd-B

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Graphical Abstract: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

"Variability is governed by many unknown laws, of which correlated growth is probably the most important." [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Correlated evolution of traits is widespread among taxa [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF][START_REF] Saltz | Trait Correlations in the Genomics Era[END_REF] and can be due to pleiotropy, where a single locus causally affects several traits [START_REF] Paaby | The many faces of pleiotropy[END_REF]. Pleiotropy imposes large constrains on the paths of evolution [START_REF] Fisher | The genetical theory of natural selection[END_REF][START_REF] Orr | Adaptation and the cost of complexity[END_REF], making it crucial to assess the extent of pleiotropy to understand the evolutionary process. Empirical studies suggest that many loci influence multiple traits [START_REF] Paaby | The many faces of pleiotropy[END_REF][START_REF] Wagner | The pleiotropic structure of the genotype-phenotype map: the evolvability of complex organisms[END_REF][START_REF] Stearns | One Hundred Years of Pleiotropy: A Retrospective[END_REF] and current data cannot reject the idea that all genetic elements have pleiotropic roles [START_REF] Paaby | The many faces of pleiotropy[END_REF][START_REF] Lonfat | Convergent evolution of complex regulatory landscapes and pleiotropy at Hox loci[END_REF][START_REF] Preger-Ben Noon | Comprehensive Analysis of a cis -Regulatory Region Reveals Pleiotropy in Enhancer Function[END_REF]. Several pleiotropic substitutions have been associated with natural variation [START_REF] Duveau | Role of pleiotropy in the evolution of a cryptic developmental variation in Caenorhabditis elegans[END_REF][START_REF] Chang | Enhanced Edar Signalling Has Pleiotropic Effects on Craniofacial and Cutaneous Glands[END_REF][START_REF] Kent | The Drosophila foraging Gene Mediates Adult Plasticity and Gene-Environment Interactions in Behaviour, Metabolites, and Gene Expression in Response to Food Deprivation[END_REF][13]: most are coding changes and all underlie intraspecific changes (www.gephebase.org). Nevertheless it remains unclear whether pleiotropic mutations contribute also to interspecific evolution, as experimental evidence suggests that the mutations responsible for interspecies evolution may be less pleiotropic than the mutations underlying intraspecific variation [14].

Here we focused on male sexual bristle evolution between Drosophila yakuba and Drosophila santomea, which diverged approximately 0.5-1 million years ago [15] and can produce fertile F1 females in the laboratory [16], facilitating genetic mapping. We found that hypandrial bristles -two prominent mecanosensory bristles located on the ventral part of male genitalia in all D. melanogaster subgroup species -are missing in D. santomea males (Figure 1). Examination of many inbred stocks and 10 closely related species revealed that the absence of hypandrial bristles is a derived D. santomea-specific trait (Figure 1, see also Extra Tables ). No other genital bristle type was noticeably variable in number between D. yakuba and D. santomea (see Extra Figures).

We performed whole-genome QTL mapping between D. santomea and D. yakuba and found that the left tip of chromosome X explains 44% of the variance in hypandrial bristle number in each backcross (confidence interval = 7 Mb for the D. santomea backcross and 2.6 Mb for the D. yakuba backcross, Figure 2A). Duplication mapping in rare D. santomea-D. melanogaster hybrid males narrowed down the causal region to a 84.6 kb region of the achaete-scute complex (AS-C) (Figure 2B-C, see also Extra Tables ).

The AS-C locus contains four genes, but only two, achaete (ac) and scute (sc), are required for bristle formation [17]. Both genes are co-expressed, share cis-regulatory elements and act redundantly to specify bristles [18,19]. The elaborate expression pattern of ac and sc genes prefigures the adult bristle pattern and is controlled by numerous cis-regulatory elements [18]. We tested which of the two genes, ac or sc, contributes to loss of bristles using null mutants in D. melanogaster. All ac CAMI null mutant males had 2 hypandrial bristles (n=15) and sc M6 null mutants had none (n=15) (Tables S1-2), indicating that sc is required for hypandrial bristle development in D. melanogaster.

We detected 64 nucleotide differences in the sc coding region between D. yakuba and D.

santomea, and all were synonymous substitutions, indicating that coding changes in sc are not responsible for the evolved function of sc. Using molecularly mapped chromosomal aberrations, we identified a 5-kb region located > 46 kb downstream of the sc promoter that is required in D. melanogaster for hypandrial bristle development (Figure S1A, see also Extra Figures, Tables S1-2). Independently we screened 55 GAL4 reporter constructs tiling the entire AS-C locus and identified three GAL4 lines (15E09, 054839 and 18C05) that drive expression in hypandrial bristles (Figures 2C and S1B-E, see also Extra Tables ). Only one of these lines, 18C05, increased hypandrial bristle number with UAS-scute in a sc mutant background or in a sc + background (Figures 2C and S1F-Q, see also Extra Figures). The 2036-bp 18C05 region is located within the 5-kb candidate region identified with ac-sc structural mutations (Figure 2C), suggesting that 18C05 is a good candidate region for hypandrial bristle evolution.

To test whether loss of hypandrial bristles in D. santomea resulted from changes(s) in the 18C05 cis-regulatory region, we assayed whether orthologous 18C05 regions from D. melanogaster, D. yakuba and D. santomea driving a sc coding region could rescue hypandrial bristles in a D. melanogaster sc mutant. The D. melanogaster 18C05 enhancer rescued two bristles in both sc 29 and sc M6 mutant backgrounds, indicating that this construct mimics normal levels of sc expression (Figure 3). The D. yakuba 18C05 enhancer rescued on average 2 hypandrial bristles in sc M6 and 0.5 bristles in sc 29 whereas the D. santomea 18C05 enhancer rescued significantly fewer bristles (1.1 in sc M6 and 0 bristles in sc 29 , Figure 3). For another measure of 18C05 enhancer activity, we compared the ability of enhancer-GAL4 constructs containing the 18C05 region from D. melanogaster, D. yakuba or D. santomea to induce extra bristles in sc mutants using the UAS-GAL4 system with UAS-sc. In this assay the D. santomea 18C05 region also induced fewer bristles than the corresponding D. yakuba region (Figure 3, GLM-Quasi-Poisson, F(19, 509) = 161.7 , p < 10 -5 for sc 29 ; F(19, 415) = 125.9 , p < 10 -5 for sc M6 ). Together, these results suggest that changes(s) within 18C05 contributed to hypandrial bristle evolution in D. santomea.

To narrow down the region responsible for hypandrial bristle loss, we dissected the 18C05 element from D. melanogaster, D. yakuba and D. santomea into smaller overlapping pieces and quantified their ability to produce hypandrial bristles with the GAL4 rescue experiment. For all three species we found that smaller segments rescued significantly fewer bristles than the corresponding full region (Figure S2A-B, see also Extra Figures). Thus, transcription factor binding sites scattered throughout the entire ~2 kb of the 18C05 element are required to drive full expression in the hypandrial bristle region.

Sequence alignment of the 18C05 region from multiple species revealed 11 substitutions and one indel that are fixed and uniquely derived in D. santomea. Among them, seven substitutions altered sites that are otherwise conserved in the D. melanogaster subgroup (Extra Figures). We tested the effect of these seven D. santomea-specific nucleotide changes by introducing them one at a time or all together, into either a D. yakuba 18C05 enhancer or into the inferred ancestral enhancer driving sc expression (Figure S2, see also Extra Tables andExtra Figures). The ancestral 18C05 sequence was resurrected by reverting the D. santomea-specific and D. yakuba-specific mutations to their ancestral states and it produced the same number of bristles as the D. yakuba construct (Figure 3, Extra Figures). Four substitutions (G869A, T970A, T1008C and T1482C) had no effect, whether in the D. yakuba or in the ancestral background (GLM-Quasi-Poisson, p>0.6). Three substitutions (T1429G, A1507G and T1775G) decreased the number of rescued bristles in both the D. yakuba and the ancestral sequence, and these effects were highly significant, except for A1507G in the D. yakuba background, which was slightly above statistical threshold (using the most stringent correction method) (Figure 3). These results are consistent with analysis of smaller pieces of 18C05 and of 18C05 chimeric constructs containing DNA fragments from D. yakuba and D. santomea (Figure S2C). When combined into the D. yakuba background, the seven D. santomeaspecific substitutions rescued the same number of bristles as the D. santomea 18C05 construct (Figure 3, GLM-Quasi-Poisson, p>0.9 in sc M6 ). We conclude that at least three fixed substitutions within a 350-bp region located 49 kb away from sc contribute to the reduction in hypandrial bristle number in D. santomea.

Analysis of 18C05-GAL4 and 18C05-GFP reporter constructs revealed that the 18C05 region drives expression not only in male genital discs [20] but also in male developing forelegs in the presumptive sex comb domain [21](Figure 4A-B,D-F). The 18C05-GFP reporter constructs drive expression in fewer cells than sc-GFP (Fig. 4C), indicating that sc expression in the presumptive sex comb domain is also regulated by cis-regulatory regions outside of 18C05. Sex combs are sensory organs used for grasping the female during copulation [22]. They differ in bristle number between D. santomea and D. yakuba (Figure 4G-I, see also Extra Figures), and 35% of the species difference is attributed to the X chromosome [23], where sc is located. These results prompted us to test whether the mutations contributing to hypandrial bristle evolution also affect sex combs. Significantly more GFP-positive cells were detected in the first tarsal segment at 5h after puparium formation (APF) with 18C05yakT1775G-GFP than with 18C05yak-GFP (GLM-Poisson , Chi-squared (20,2) deviance = 9.75, p = 0.033), suggesting that T1775G increases sc expression in the first tarsal segment. Sex comb tooth number was reduced in sc M6 and sc 6 mutants and significantly rescued with several 18C05-sc constructs (Figure 4J-K). Analysis of sc M6 and sc 6 mutants rescued with the yak18C05-sc constructs containing the D. santomea-specific substitutions showed that T1429G and T1507G have no effect and that T1775G increases the number of sex comb teeth (Figure 4J-K). We conclude that the T1775G substitution contributes to both the increase in sex comb tooth number and the loss of hypandrial bristles.

A bioinformatics search revealed that the T1775G substitution is predicted to alter a binding site for the Hox protein Abdominal-B (Abd-B) (Table S3). Abd-B is expressed only in the posterior part of the fly, where it directs the development of posterior-specific structures such as the genitalia [24]. We found that reducing Abd-B expression, using either genetic mutations or RNA interference, resulted in loss of hypandrial bristles (Figure S3 and Table S4), indicating that normal levels of Abd-B expression are required for hypandrial bristle development. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that Abd-B proteins bind more strongly to a 54-bp fragment of the 18C05 sequence containing the D. yakuba-specific T at position 1775 than the D. santomea-specific G at this position (Figure S4). These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the T1775G substitution decreases ABD-B binding, contributing to reduction in sc expression levels, and ultimately reducing the number of hypandrial bristles. Since Abd-B is not expressed in developing legs, T1775G is expected to affect binding of other factors to increase sex comb tooth number. Overall, our study suggests that T1775G alters overlapping binding sites for distinct factors in the leg and the genitalia. All our analyses of the effects of individual substitutions have been carried out in D. melanogaster background. It is thus possible that the 18C05 enhancer represents only part of the effect of the sc locus on bristle divergence.

Intriguingly, the two organs affected by substitution T1775G -hypandrial bristles and sex combs -may both aid the male to position himself on top of the female during copulation [22,25]. Genitals are the most rapidly evolving organs in animals with internal fertilization [26]. To our knowledge, only two other mutations contributing to the evolution of genital anatomy are known. First, a 61-kb-deletion of a cis-regulatory region of the androgen receptor (AR) gene in humans is associated with loss of keratinized penile spines in humans compared to chimpanzees [START_REF] Mclean | Human-specific loss of regulatory DNA and the evolution of human-specific traits[END_REF]. Second, an amino acid change in the nath10 acetyltransferase gene which probably appeared recently in laboratory strains of the nematode C. elegans, alters morphology in the presence of some mutations but not in a wild-type genetic background [START_REF] Duveau | Role of pleiotropy in the evolution of a cryptic developmental variation in Caenorhabditis elegans[END_REF]. Both mutations appear to be pleiotropic: the AR deletion is associated with loss of facial vibrissae in humans and the nath10 mutation affects egg and sperm production as well. The paucity of known mutations responsible for genital evolution makes it currently difficult to propose general rules for the causes of rapid genital evolution. Our results are reminiscent of Mayr's pleiotropy hypothesis [START_REF] Mayr | Animal species and evolution[END_REF], which posits that certain characters may evolve arbitrarily as a result of selection on other traits due to pleiotropic mutations. In our case, whether the evolutionary change in sex comb tooth number or in genital bristle number has any effect on fitness is unknown.

We report here the first experimental evidence for a cis-regulatory substitution between species with pleiotropic effects. Given the large number of bristle types regulated by sc (>100 in adult flies), it is possible that no cis-regulatory mutation in sc can affect only one bristle type. Our results challenge the idea that cis-regulatory enhancers are strict tissue-specific modules underlying evolutionary changes in targeted traits [START_REF] Carroll | Evo-devo and an expanding evolutionary synthesis: a genetic theory of morphological evolution[END_REF]. Even though cis-regulatory mutations may affect several tissues, it is probable that they still tend to be less pleiotropic than coding changes. Our results are thus compatible with the idea that cis-regulatory changes tend to have fewer pleiotropic effects than coding changes on average. Enhancer sequences evolve rapidly, with rapid turn over of individual binding sites while maintaining transcriptional output over millions of years by compensatory mutations [START_REF] Cheng | Principles of regulatory information conservation between mouse and human[END_REF]. Since pleiotropic mutations can have deleterious off-target effects, we propose that evolution of pleiotropic sites within enhancers should trigger the subsequent selection of compensatory mutations in cis, thus contributing to rapid divergence of cis-regulatory sequences. Overall, our results suggest that pleiotropic cis-regulatory mutations may play a more important role in evolution than previously thought.

13. Endler, L., Gibert, J.M., Nolte, V., and Schlötterer, C. (2018)

STAR*METHODS

CONTACT FOR REAGENT AND RESOURCE SHARING

Further information and requests for resources and reagents should be directed to and will be fulfilled by the Lead Contact, Virginie Courtier-Orgogozo (virginie.courtier@normalesup.org).

EXPERIMENTAL MODEL AND SUBJECT DETAILS

The origin of all the fly strains used can be found in KRT Table, Table S1 and Extra Tables. All flies were cultured on standard cornmeal-agar medium in uncrowded conditions at 25°C unless stated.

We used Canton-S as a wild-type D. melanogaster strain. Transgenic constructs were integrated into the attP2 landing site in D. melanogaster w 1118 by BestGene Inc. Hybrid males between D. yakuba and D. santomea were obtained by collecting 20 virgin females with 20 males from each stocks and crossing them reciprocally in both directions. At least 10 such crosses were made and flipped every 4-5 days for several weeks. For QTL mapping, D. yakuba yellow [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] virgin females were crossed en masse to D. santomea SYN2005 males to generate F1 hybrid females, which were subsequently backcrossed, separately, to both parental strains. Genitalia of backcross males were isolated for dissection and the remaining carcass was stored at -20 °C for subsequent sequencing library preparation.

METHOD DETAILS

Genotyping of backcross males for QTL mapping The carcass of each male was crushed in a 1.5-ml Eppendorf tube with a manual pestle in 180 μl of Qiagen Tissue Lysis buffer. DNA of individual flies was extracted using Qiagen DNeasy Blood & Tissue extraction kit (cat #69506). A Multiplexed Shotgun Genotyping sequencing library was made from 189 D. santomea backcross males and for 181 D. yakuba backcross males as described previously [START_REF] Andolfatto | Multiplexed shotgun genotyping for rapid and efficient genetic mapping[END_REF]. The list of barcodes used in this study can be found in Mendeley (http://dx.doi.org/10.17632/xjvz2m8z6r.1) or in the Extra Data files, within the names of the individuals that were sequenced. D. yakuba and D. santomea parental genome sequences were generated by updating the D. yakuba genome sequence dyak-4-chromosome-r1.3.fasta with Illumina paired-end reads from D. yakuba yellow [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] and D. santomea SYN2005 (sequenced by BGI) using the msgUpdateParentals.pl function of the MSG software package. The resulting updated genome files are dsan-all-chromosome-yak1.3-r1.0.fasta.msg.updated.fasta and dyak-4chromosome-r1.3.fasta.msg.updated.fasta. Ancestry was estimated for all backcross progeny using MSG software (github.com/YourePrettyGood/msg). Ancestry files were reduced to only those markers informative for recombination events using the script pull_thin_tsv.py (github.com/dstern/pull_thin). Markers were considered informative when the conditional probability of being homozygous differed by more than 0.05 from their neighboring markers.

QTL mapping QTL mapping was performed using the R/qtl package version 1.4 [START_REF] Broman | A Guide to QTL Mapping with R/qtl 1st ed[END_REF][START_REF] Broman | R/qtl: QTL mapping in experimental crosses[END_REF]. The thinned posterior genotype probabilities were imported into R/qtl using the R function read.cross.msg.1.5.R (github.com/dstern/read_cross_msg). QTL mapping was performed independently on each backcross population. We performed genome scans with a single QTL model ("scanone") using the Haley-Knott regression method [START_REF] Haley | A simple regression method for mapping quantitative trait loci in line crosses using flanking markers[END_REF] which performs well with genotype information at a large number of positions along the genome. The genome-wide 5% and 1% significance levels were determined using 1,000 permutations. One QTL peak above the 1% significance level was found for both backcrosses. To check for additional QTL, we built a QTL model with this single QTL using the "fitqtl" function and scanned for additional QTL using the "addqtl" function. A second QTL was found on chromosome 3 for both backcrosses. When introduced into a new multiple QTL model, refined and fitted to account for possible interactions, a third significant QTL was found. Based on the full three-QTL model, no additional significant QTL were found with the function "addqtl": the highest LOD score for a fourth QTL reached only 1.8 and 1.2 for the D. yakuba backcross and the D. santomea backcross, respectively. Various three-QTL models with different interactions between loci were assessed. Positive significant interaction was detected between the QTL on chromosome 1 and both QTLs on chromosome 3. The interaction between the two QTLs on chromosome 3 was not significant. For the three-QTL model with interactions between the QTL on chromosome 1 and both QTLs on chromosome 3, we computed the LOD score of the full model and the estimated effects of each locus. The 2-LOD intervals were calculated using the "lodint" function with parameter drop of 2. Analysis of F1 hybrid males is consistent with a large effect of the X chromosome on hypandrial bristle number: male F1 hybrids carrying a D. yakuba X chromosome have on average 1.9 hypandrial bristles (n=34) while reciprocal hybrid males possessing the D. santomea X chromosome have none (n=29) (Extra Tables). Note that few informative markers are found on the right arm of chromosome 2, suggesting the presence of an inversion between parental lines. In both backcrosses the large-effect QTL is estimated to cause a decrease of 0.9±0.1 bristles between a D. yakuba hemizygote and a D. santomea hemizygote male (Extra Data Files). The QTL peak is at position 46,886 and 221,928 for the D. santomea and D. yakuba backcross, respectively. The AS-C locus is at position 179,000-290,000.

Duplication Mapping in D. santomea-D. melanogaster hybrids We used a set of D. melanogaster duplication lines to test overlapping parts of chromosome X for their effect on hypandrial bristle number [START_REF] Venken | A molecularly defined duplication set for the X chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster[END_REF]. Each line contains a fragment of the chromosome X inserted into the same attP docking site on chromosome 3L using ΦC31 integrase, allowing direct comparison between fragments. Each duplication was used to screen for complementation of the loss of function allele(s) from D. santomea. We exploited the fact that rare D. santomea-D. melanogaster hybrid males can be produced by crossing D. melanogaster females carrying a compound X chromosome with D. santomea males [START_REF] Turissini | The rate of evolution of postmating-prezygotic reproductive isolation in Drosophila[END_REF]. The resulting hybrid males carry a D. santomea X chromosome. We first created a D. melanogaster stock whose genotype is TM3, Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Ser [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]/Nup98-96[339] by crossing Nup98-96[339]/TM3, Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] with Df(3R)D605/TM3, Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Ser [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]. We then performed three successive crosses at room temperature in glass vials: (a) C(1)RM, y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] w [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] f [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] ; +/+  +/+; TM3, Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Ser [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]/Nup98-96[339], (b) C(1)RM, y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] w [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] f [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] ; TM3, Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Ser [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]/+  +/Y; Dp(1,3)/Dp [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF][START_REF] Paaby | The many faces of pleiotropy[END_REF], (c) C( 1)RM, y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] w [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] f [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] ; TM3, Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Ser [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]/Dp(1,3) D. melanogaster females  D. santomea males. The same procedure was followed for 21 duplication lines and progeny was obtained for 17 of them. Hybrid males from the last cross were sorted in two pools, the [Sb -, Ser -] males who carried the duplication and the [Sb + , Ser + ] males which were used as controls which carried no duplication but the balancer chromosome TM3 Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Ser [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]. In D. melanogaster/D. santomea hybrids, dominant markers are not always fully penetrant.

A few progeny males exhibited [Sb + , Ser -] or [Sb -, Ser + ] phenotypes; they were considered as control individuals carrying the balancer chromosome TM3, Sb [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Ser [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]. Males were stored in ethanol until dissection. Duplication mapping narrowed down the causal region to a 84.6 kb region (DC097) of the achaete-scute complex (AS-C) (Figure 2.B-C, see also Extra Tables, GLM-Poisson, Chisq(17,478)=398.44, p = 10 -4 ).

Examination of Hypandrial Bristle Phenotypes

Male genitalia were cut with forceps and then hypandria were dissected with fine needles or forceps Dumont #5 (112525-20, Phymep) in a drop of 1x PBS. For D. melanogaster in order to see the hypandrial bristles better we removed the aedeagus by holding the aedeagal apodem with forceps and gently pushing the hypandrium upwards with an other forceps until it separated. Hypandria were mounted in DMHF (Dimethyl Hydantoin Formaldehyde, Entomopraxis). Before dissection, males were sometimes stored at -20°C in empty Eppendorf tubes or in glycerol:acetate:ethanol (1:1:3) solution. For analysis of non-hypandrial bristles, males were stored at -20°C in glycerol:acetate:ethanol (1:1:3) solution. We never stored these males in empty tubes because we found that such a storage procedure can break and remove external bristles (but, as far as we know, hypandrial bristles were not affected by such a procedure, maybe because hypandrial bristles are relatively internal and protected by the epandrium). Furthermore, we never observed a single socket devoid of shaft on the male hypandrium, indicating that hypandrial bristles cannot be accidentally cut or lost with our experimental protocol. 3D projection images of the preparations were taken at 500X magnification with the Keyence digital microscope VHX 2000 using optical zoom lens VH-Z20R/W.

Examination of Other Bristles

Since genitalia are the most rapidly evolving organs in animals with internal fertilization [26], we compared the number of genital bristles between two strains of D. yakuba and two strains of D. santomea. We found no difference between D. yakuba and D. santomea in any genital bristles except for anal plate and clasper bristles, where a slightly significant interspecific variation was detected (Extra Figures). The loss of hypandrial bristles in D. santomea is thus the major change in genital bristles between D. santomea and D. yakuba. Genitalia were dissected in 1X PBS, hypandria were removed and the epandria were mounted in 99% glycerol. Gentle pressure was applied on the cover-slip with forceps to flatten the preparations in order to see all bristles. Pictures were taken at a 500X magnification with a digital microscope VHX 2000 (Keyence) using lens VH-Z20R/W. Bristles were counted on the images. For sex comb preparations, prothoracic legs were dissected at the coxa with forceps Dumont #5 and were mounted in DMHF (Dimethyl Hydantoin Formaldehyde, Entomopraxis). Images of the sex combs were taken at 1000x magnification with the Keyence digital microscope as written above.

Sex comb teeth were counted on the images with Image J [START_REF] Schneider | NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis[END_REF].

Analysis of scute coding sequence

The scute coding sequence (CDS) of D. melanogaster iso-1 was retrieved from FlyBase. We blasted the updated genome sequences of D. yakuba yellow [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] and D. santomea SYN2005 (see above) with D. melanogaster scute coding region and retrieved only one locus in each species. The scute coding region was then annotated with Geneious and no intron was found, as in D. melanogaster.

Screening as-GAL4 lines for expression in the hypandrium

The as-GAL4 lines were ordered from VDRC [START_REF] Kvon | Genome-scale functional characterization of Drosophila developmental enhancers in vivo[END_REF] and Bloomington Stock Center (Extra Tables). Two lines were not available (GMR1509 and VT054822) so we created new transgenic lines for these regions, named GMR15X09-GAL4 and VT054822b-GAL4 (see below). Because screens are easier on adults than on genital discs, and also because the exact developmental stage and location of hypandrial bristle development are unknown [START_REF] Taylor | Sexually dimorphic neurons in the terminalia of Drosophila melanogaster: I. Development of sensory neurons in the genital disc during metamorphosis[END_REF], we decided to look for GAL4-triggered phenotypes in adult males. As a readout of GAL4 expression, we tested various UAS lines (UAS-mCD8-GFP, UAS-yellow in a yellow mutant background, UAS-sc.RNAi, UAS-achaete.RNAi, UASforked.RNAi, UAS-singed.RNAi) (lines are listed in KRT Table, see also Extra Tables) together with DC-GAL4, which drives expression in the dorso-central thoracic bristles [START_REF] Dietzl | A genome-wide transgenic RNAi library for conditional gene inactivation in Drosophila[END_REF]. To enhance RNAi potency we also used UAS-Dicer-2 [START_REF] Dietzl | A genome-wide transgenic RNAi library for conditional gene inactivation in Drosophila[END_REF]. With UAS-mCD8-GFP and UAS-yellow the change in fluorescence or color was hardly visible. The most penetrant bristle phenotype was obtained with UAS-Dicer-2 UAS-singed.RNAi1 05747 at 29 °C (Extra Tables). Therefore this line was chosen for screening all the as-GAL4 constructs.

Five as-GAL4 males of each as-GAL4 line were crossed to five Dcr2; UASsinged 105747 .RNAi/CyO virgin females. Crosses were kept at 29 ºC. The non-curly males (Dcr2; UAS-singed 105747 .RNAi/+; +/as-GAL4) were collected for dissection and kept at -20 °C. Hypandrium dissection and image acquisition were performed as indicated above. For each as-GAL4 line at least 5 genitalia were examined (Extra Tables).

To test whether the 15E09, 18C05 and 054839 enhancer-GAL4 drive expression in the hypandrial bristle region in absence of sc, we crossed five sc 29 ; UAS-scute (III) females with five males of each respective GAL4 line, as well as five sc M6 /FM7 ; UAS-scute (III) females with five males of each respective GAL4 line. Of the three GAL4 lines, only 18C05 could induce hypandrial bristles with UAS-sc in a sc mutant background. The 18C05-GAL4 line produced approximately 10 bristles, where normally only two develop, which may reflect the amplification of gene expression that is inherent to the UAS-GAL4 system. These results suggest that only 18C05 drives sufficiently strong expression in the hypandrial region to alter bristle patterning.

Cloning of enhancers into pBPGUw and pBPSUw

Enhancers were cloned into the GAL4 reporter vector pBPGUw using the same strategy as in [START_REF] Kvon | Genome-scale functional characterization of Drosophila developmental enhancers in vivo[END_REF][START_REF] Jenett | A GAL4-driver line resource for Drosophila neurobiology[END_REF]. Enhancer sequences were amplified by Phusion® High Fidelity Polymerase (New England Biolabs) in two steps reaction using the primers and templates (Extra Tables). PCR products and vectors were purified by Nucleospin Gel and PCR Clean-Up Kit (Machery-Nagel). Clones were purified by E.Z.N.A.® Plasmid Mini Kit I (Omega Bio-tek). All GAL4 constructs were cloned using the Gateway® system (ThermoFisher Scientific). The enhancer fragments were first ligateded into KpnI and HindIII restriction enzyme site of the vector pENTR/D-TOPO (Addgene) (Extra Tables). Recombination into the destination vector pBPGUw was performed using LR clonase II enzyme mix (Invitrogen) and products were transformed into One Shot® TOP10 (Invitrogen) competent cells. Recombinant clones were selected by ampicillin resistance on Amp-LB plates (100 μg/ml)

The pBPSUw vector was constructed by replacing the GAL4 cassette of pBPGUw by scute CDS. The scute CDS was amplified from D. melanogaster iso-1 with Scute-CDS-Rev and Scute-CDS-For primers and ligated into pGEM-T Easy (Promega). The sc-CDS insert was cut out using KpnI and HindIII and cloned into KpnI and HindIII sites in pBPGUw, thus replacing GAL4. The vector was named pBPSUw where "S" stands for scute. 18C05 sequences from D. melanogaster, D yakuba and D. santomea were cloned into pBPSUw and tested in rescuing hypandrial bristles in sc mutants as written above. We found that 18C05 from D. melanogaster rescued two hypandrial bristles in both sc 29 and sc M6 mutants. D. santomea 18C05 enhancer rescued fewer hypandrial bristles on average than the D. yakuba 18C05 region (Figure 3., bristle number for D. yakuba 18C05 in sc 29 is significantly different from 0 (Exact-Poisson, p < 10 -16 ) and bristle number for D. santomea 18C05 in sc M6 is significantly different from 2 (Exact-Poisson, p =0.0008)). The 18C05 full length sequences were amplified by PCR from D. melanogaster iso-1 (BL2057), D. melanogaster T-7, D. yakuba Ivory Coast and D. santomea SYN2005 with the primers described in Extra Tables. The PCR products were cloned into pBPSUw as described above. Three different D. melanogaster 18C05 sequences were tested with UAS-sc in the hypandrium in sc 29 and sc M6 . GMR-18C05 (BL2057) was obtained from the Janelia Farm collection [START_REF] Jenett | A GAL4-driver line resource for Drosophila neurobiology[END_REF] and 18C05_BL2057 and 18C05_T7 were cloned in this study. Hypandrial bristle number was found to be significantly higher for GMR-18C05 than for 18C05_BL2057 and 18C05_T7 in both backgrounds (GLM-Quasi-Poisson, F(2, 63) = 16.88 , both p < 10 -6 for sc 29 ; F(2, 58) = 20.9 , p < 10 -10 and p < 10-5 for sc M6 ). The GMR-18C05 fragment is inserted in the expression vector 3'-5' compared to the D. melanogaster genome sequence. In contrast, the 18C05_BL2057 and 18C05_T7 are cloned 5'-3'. All the 18C05 constructs we made were inserted in the same orientation, 5'-3'. GMR-18C05 and 18C05_BL2057 are the same sequences (from D. melanogaster Bloomington Stock Center Strain #2057), but cloned in opposite directions. 18C05_T7 contains the 18C05 sequence of D. melanogaster T.7 strain. Comparing bristle number between GMR-18C05-GAL4 and 18C05_BL2057-GAL4 shows that the orientation of the cis-regulatory region has an effect on bristle number. The 18C05-chimera-pBPSUw constructs were cloned using Gibson Assembly [START_REF] Gibson | Enzymatic assembly of DNA molecules up to several hundred kilobases[END_REF] by fusing together different lengths of 18C05 sequences from D. yakuba Ivory Coast and D. santomea SYN2005. The different chimeras are described in Extra Tables. Cloning primers were designed using NEBuilder Tools (http://nebuilder.neb.com/). Primer sequences and templates used in PCR are listed at Extra Tables. To assemble the 18C05 fragments in pBPSUw (Extra Tables), the vector was linearized by AatII and FseI restriction enzymes (New England Biolabs Inc.). After digestion thermosensitive alkaline phosphatase (FastAP, ThermoFisher Scientific) was added to the reaction to prevent self-ligation of the plasmid. PCR products and the linearized plasmid were isolated from 1% agarose gels and spin column purified. Gibson Assembly was performed as in [START_REF] Gibson | Enzymatic assembly of DNA molecules up to several hundred kilobases[END_REF], except that the assembly reactions were incubated at 37 °C for 10 minutes and then 3 hours at 50 °C in a PCR machine. 2 μl of assembly mixtures were transformed into NEB® 10-beta (New England Biolabs Inc.) competent cells and ampicillin-resistant colonies were selected on 100 μg/ml Amp-LB plates. The Gibson Assembly Master-mix was prepared according to [START_REF] Gibson | Enzymatic assembly of DNA molecules up to several hundred kilobases[END_REF], its components were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.

The 18C05-yakubaSNP-pBPSUw constructs were cloned by Gibson Assembly as described above, except for 18C05yakT1008C and 18C05yakT1482C sequences, which were synthesized and cloned by GenScript ® (Extra Tables). The 18C05-ancestral sequences were synthesized and cloned by GenScript ® into pBPSUw AatII and FseI sites, except for the 18C05_AncG869A, 18C05_AncT670G and 18C05_Anc-7SNP sequences, which were cloned by us by Gibson Assembly into pBPSUw AatII and FseI sites using the 18C05_Ancestral_Gibson_forward and 18C05_Ancestral_Gibson_reverse primers (Extra Tables).

All transgenic constructs were integrated into the attP2 landing site in D. melanogaster w 1118 by BestGene Inc. The T1775G substitution affects nucleotide position 447,055 in the Dm6 reference assembly.

Genomic DNA preparations for sequencing the 18C05 region Genomic DNA was isolated with Zymo Research Quick-DNA™ Miniprep Plus Kit from 3 males and 3 females from the D. yakuba, D. santomea and D. teisseri lines listed in the summary of the alignment of 18C05 sequences available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.6972707. 18C05 sequences were amplified with San-Yak_lines_sequencing-For and San-Yak_lines_sequencing-Rev primers (Extra Figures) using Phusion ® High Fidelity Polymerase (New England Biolabs).

Sequence Analysis Geneious software was used for cloning design and DNA sequence analysis. Nucleotide positions are given according to the alignment of D. yakuba Ivory Coast 18C05 sequence with D. santomea SYN2005 18C05 sequence. The 18C05ancestral sequence of D. yakuba and D. santomea was reconstructed in Geneious based on the 18C05 sequence alignment of multiple Drosophila species available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.6972707 . Manual parsimony reconstruction of all the ancestral nucleotides was unambiguous, except for one position (766, indel polymorphism), where the sequence is absent in the simulans complex and in D. santomea, while it is present in D. teissieri and polymorphic in D. yakuba. For this position we chose D. teissieri as the ancestral sequence. The 18C05 sequences of D. melanogaster subgroup species were retrieved by BLAST from the NCBI website. Transcription Factor (TF) binding sites in 18C05 were predicted using the JASPAR CORE Insecta database (http://jaspar.genereg.net [START_REF] Bryne | JASPAR, the open access database of transcription factor-binding profiles: new content and tools in the 2008 update[END_REF] ). 25-60 bp sequences of 18C05

were scanned with all JASPAR matrix models with 50-95% Relative Profile Score Thresholds to test for sensitivity and selectivity [START_REF] Bryne | JASPAR, the open access database of transcription factor-binding profiles: new content and tools in the 2008 update[END_REF] (Table S3). For TFs which were absent in JASPAR (Scute), we used Fly Factor Survey [START_REF] Zhu | FlyFactorSurvey: a database of Drosophila transcription factor binding specificities determined using the bacterial one-hybrid system[END_REF] to analyze their putative binding affinities to the probe. As sc cisregulatory region is known to contain binding sites for Scute itself [START_REF] Culi | Proneural gene self-stimulation in neural precursors: an essential mechanism for sense organ development that is regulated byNotch signaling[END_REF], we looked for Scute binding sites in 18C05, 15E09 and 054839. Two putative Scute binding sites (consensus motif CAYCTGY, Fly Factor Survey [START_REF] Zhu | FlyFactorSurvey: a database of Drosophila transcription factor binding specificities determined using the bacterial one-hybrid system[END_REF] were found in 15E09 and 054839 but not in 18C05. Given the present results, we cannot exclude the involvement of 15E09 and 054839 in the evolution of hypandrial bristle evolution in D. santomea. In this paper, we decided to focus on the 18C05 enhancer, whose effect could be studied in a sc mutant background.

Abd-B homeodomain (Abd-B-HD) purification and EMSA The Abd-B-HD-pGEX-4T-1 plasmid [START_REF] Jeong | Regulation of Body Pigmentation by the Abdominal-B Hox Protein and Its Gain and Loss in <em>Drosophila</em> Evolution[END_REF] (kindly provided by Sangyun Jeong) was transformed into BL21 (DE3) chemically competent cells. Protein expression was induced by 0.1 mM IPTG (isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside, Sigma Aldrich). Recombinant protein was purified from 500 ml of bacterial culture as described in Frangioni [START_REF] Frangioni | Solubilization and purification of enzymatically active glutathione S-transferase (pGEX) fusion proteins[END_REF] except that proteins were eluted into 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 500 mM NaCl, 10mM reduced glutation (Sigma-Aldrich, G-4251) and 5% glycerol. Concentrations and purity of the protein were determined by SDS-PAGE and Qubit 2.0 Fluorometer (Life Technologies). Protein aliquots of 20 μl were snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80 °C.

The HPLC-purified biotinylated and non-labelled oligonucleotides (Sigma-Aldrich) were used in PCR to obtain 54 bp probes yak and san (san=yakT1775G) from 18C05yak-pBPSUw and 18C05yakT1775G-pBPSUw plasmid templates. Oligonucleotides are listed in Extra Tables. PCR products were column-purified.

We then used electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) to test whether the purified Abd-B homeodomain (ABD-B-HD) can bind directly to a 54-bp fragment of 18C05 with the T1775G site at position 13 containing either T (yak probe) or G (san probe). In each binding reaction, 20 fmol of probes were mixed with the purified ABD-B HD ranging from 0-1.25 μg (0 μg, 0.75 μg, 1 μg and 1.25 μg) in binding buffer containing 10mM TRIS pH 7.5, 50 mM Kcl, 0.5 mM DTT, 6.25 mM MgCl2, 0.05 mM EDTA, 50 ng/μl Salmon Sperm DNA (Sigma Aldrich) and 9.00% Ficoll 400 (Sigma Aldrich). The competition assay was performed by adding 9 pmol of unlabeled probes (450fold excess) to the binding reaction. The reaction mixtures were incubated at 22 °C for 30 min and run on a non-denaturing 6% polyacrylamide gel (Invitrogen) in 0.5X TBE (Eurofins).

Labeling reactions were carried out with LightShift TM Chemiluminiscent EMSA Kit (ThermoFisher Scientific) according to the provider instructions with the following modifications: after electrophoresis, gels were blotted overnight in 20X SSC using the TurboBlotter Kit (GE Healthcare Life Sciences) and cross-linking of the probe to the membrane UV-light was performed at 254 nm and 120 mJ/cm2 (UV stratalinker® 2400, STRATAGENE). Chemiluminescence stained membranes were exposed to a CDD camera (FUJIFILM, LAS-4000) for 50x 10 sec exposition time increments. The last images were used for quantification and were never saturated according to LAS 4000 software. To quantify the binding affinity of Abd-B-HD to the probes, the fractional occupancy (ratio of bound/(free+bound) probe) was calculated for three replicate experiments (Figure S4E) using the intensity values of the bands measured in ImageJ [START_REF] Schneider | NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis[END_REF]. The mean fractional occupancy was significantly lower with D. santomea probes than with D. yakuba probes (ANCOVA, F(1,15)=10.58, p = 0.005). We found that ABD-B-HD binds both D. yakuba and D. santomea DNA (Figure S4B-D). ABD-B-HD binding to the D. yakuba probe always resulted in a stronger shift than to the D. santomea probe. Furthermore, the D. santomea cold probe did not compete as efficiently as the D. yakuba cold probe to prevent formation of the D. yakuba DNA-ABD-B-HD complex (Utest, p=0.05).

Abd-B RNAi and clonal analysis

To test whether Abd-B is required for hypandrial bristle development, we reduced Abd-B expression using either genetic mutations or RNAi. Two UAS.Abd-B-RNAi lines (#51167 and #26746) were crossed with 3 different GAL4 lines, GMR18C05-GAL4, NP5130-GAL4 and NP6333-GAL4.

Crosses were kept at 29 °C and the hypandrium phenotype was examined in 10-50 F1 males (Table S4). Using the genitalia GAL4 drivers esg-GAL4 NP5130 [START_REF] Fan | Multifunctional RNA Processing Protein SRm160 Induces Apoptosis and Regulates Eye and Genital Development in Drosophila[END_REF] and NP6333 [START_REF] Chatterjee | The female-specific Doublesex isoform regulates pleiotropic transcription factors to pattern genital development in Drosophila[END_REF] to express Abd-B.RNAi 51167 , we obtained 20 males out of 100 with developed hypandrium, among which two aberrant hypandrial bristle phenotypes were found, either bristle size reduction or bristle loss (Figure S3A-F, n=9/11 for NP5130, n=8/9 for NP6333, Table S4). Smaller bristles might arise from a delay in sc expression during development [START_REF] Skaer | Transcriptional heterochrony of scute and changes in bristle pattern between two closely related species of blowfly[END_REF]. Since Abd-B null mutations are lethal [START_REF] Casanova | Identification and characterization of a parasegment specific regulatory element of the abdominal-B gene of Drosophila[END_REF], we produced mitotic mutant clones for two null mutations, Abd-B M1 [START_REF] Casanova | Identification and characterization of a parasegment specific regulatory element of the abdominal-B gene of Drosophila[END_REF] and Abd-B D18 [START_REF] Hopmann | Transvection in the iab-5, 6, 7 region of the bithorax complex of Drosophila: homology independent interactions in trans[END_REF]. Abd-B mutant mitotic recombinant clones were induced by the FLP/FRT system [START_REF] Xu | Analysis of genetic mosaics in developing and adult Drosophila tissues[END_REF] using Abd-B M1 and Abd-B D18 null mutations. To induce clones, ten yw hsflp122; FRT82B hs-CD2 y + M(3) w 123 /TM2 virgin females were crossed to ten y; FRT82B Abd-B M1 red [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] e [START_REF] Chang | Enhanced Edar Signalling Has Pleiotropic Effects on Craniofacial and Cutaneous Glands[END_REF] ro [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] ca [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]/TM6B or y; FRT82B Abd-B D18 /TM3 males (stocks were kindly provided by Ernesto Sánchez-Herrero). Crosses were flipped every 24 hours and F1 progeny were heat-shocked at 38 °C for 1 hour at different stages of larval development: 24-48, 48-72, 72-98 and 96-120 hours after egg laying [START_REF] Estrada | The Hox gene Abdominal-B antagonizes appendage development in the genital disc of Drosophila[END_REF]. From both crosses, a total of 82 F1 males (Table 4) with the genotype of yw hsflp122; FRT82B hs-CD2 y + M(3) w 123 /FRT82B Abd-B M1 red [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] e [START_REF] Chang | Enhanced Edar Signalling Has Pleiotropic Effects on Craniofacial and Cutaneous Glands[END_REF] ro [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] ca [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] and yw hsflp122; FRT82B hs-CD2 y + M(3) w 123 /FRT82B Abd-B D18 were examined. Hypandria were mounted and bristle clones were screened as described above. Most of the resulting males showed extreme transformation of the genitalia (Figure S4G-H, O-P) but 12 males out of 82 had analyzable hypandrium (twelve males for Abd-B M1 and two males for Abd-B D18 ). Among them, 6 males were devoid of one or both hypandrial bristles (Figure S4I-N, Table S4). When hypandrial bristles were present, most of them were heterozygous for the Abd-B mutation according to the visible markers associated with somatic recombination. Together, our results suggest that Abd-B is required for hypandrial bristle development.

Immunostaining

For leg disc stainings the larvae were fed on freshly prepared Formula 4-24 ® Instant Drosophila Medium, Blue (Carolina) and staged by the presence of blue staining in their gut [START_REF] Maroni | Developmental profile and tissue distribution of alcohol dehydrogenase[END_REF]. Larvae were chosen with the most clear gut, indicating a developmental stage of 1-6 hours before pupa formation [START_REF] Andres | Methods for quantitative analysis of transcription in larvae and prepupae[END_REF]. Head parts of the larvae were cut and fixed in 4% PFA in PBS pH 7.4 for 20 minutes at room temperature. For pupal leg preparations the anterior part of the pupae were cut and fixed in 4% PFA in PBS pH 7.4 for 50 minutes at room temperature. Following fixation, samples were washed three times for 5 minutes in PBS containing 0.1% Tween20 and then permeabilized in TNT buffer (TRIS-NaCl buffer containing 0.5% Triton X-100) for 10 minutes. Samples were washed in 5% BSA in TNT for up to 5 hours at room temperature and then incubated with rabbit anti-GFP primary antibodies (Thermofisher #A6455) diluted in 1:1000 in TNT overnight at 4 °C and rinsed in TNT three times for 10 minutes at room temperature. Then, samples were washed in 5% BSA in TNT for up to 5 hours at room temperature and incubated with donkey Anti-Rabbit Dylight ® 488 (Thermofisher) secondary antibodies diluted 1:200 in TNT overnight at 4 °C. After washing the preparations in TNT for 5 minutes DNA was stained in 1μg/μl DAPI solution (Sigma-Aldrich) for 30 minutes at room temperature. The preparations were finally washed in TNT three times for 5 minutes and the imaginal discs and pupal legs were dissected in PBS and mounted in Vectashield ® H-1000. Images were acquired using Spinning Disc CSU-W1. Number of GFP-positive cells were counted in the z-stack using ImageJ [START_REF] Schneider | NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis[END_REF] in a blind fashion regarding the genotypes using randomized file names.

Since bristle number is a classical type of count data, we performed statistical analysis using generalized linear models (GLM) and generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) where bristle number, the response variable, is assumed to follow a Poisson distribution [START_REF] Crawley | The R book[END_REF][58][START_REF] Zuur | Mixed Effects Models and Extensions in Ecology with R Softcover[END_REF]. All statistical analyses were performed using R 3.4 [START_REF] Team | R: A language and environment for statistical[END_REF]. GLM were fitted with the function glm() ("stats" core package 3.5.0) and GLMM with the function glmer() ("lme4" package 1.1-14 [START_REF] Bates | Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4[END_REF] with the parameter "family" taken to be "Poisson". We tested differences in bristle number by comparing two wild-type stocks of D. yakuba with two wild-type stocks of D. santomea. We tested the difference between species, using a GLMM of the Poisson type (GLMM-Poisson) where the number of bristles was the response variable, species was a fixed effect to test and stock a random effect. For all other analyses, we tested differences in bristle number between genotypes using GLM of the Poisson type (GLM-Poisson) where the response variable was bristle number and genotype, a categorical variable, was the fixed effect. When we noticed important differences between residual deviance and residual degrees of freedom, we also fitted a quasi-likelihood model of the type "quasi-Poisson" (GLM-Quasi-Poisson) which allows for a model of the Poisson type, but where the variance can differ from the mean and is estimated based on a dispersion parameter (see for example [START_REF] Zuur | Mixed Effects Models and Extensions in Ecology with R Softcover[END_REF] p. 225). For each model, in order to retain the model that fitted best to the data, analysis of deviance was performed using the anova.glm() with "test = Chisq" for GLM-Poisson and "test = F" for GLM-Quasi-Poisson. When needed, we performed multiple comparisons using the glht() function and the "Holm" adjustment parameter ("multcomp" package 1.4-7 [START_REF] Hothorn | Simultaneous inference in general parametric models[END_REF]) which performs multiple comparisons between fitted GLM parameters and yields adjusted p-values corrected according to the Holm-Bonferroni method [START_REF] Bretz | Multiple comparisons using R[END_REF][START_REF] Holm | A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure[END_REF] also performed an exact Poisson test (R function "poisson.test") to test sample mean to a reference value assuming a Poisson distribution. Mean and 95% confidence intervals were directly extracted from the fitted GLM and transformed using exp(coef()) and exp(confint.default()).

For EMSA data, response curves were compared between yak probe and san probe using an ANCOVA after natural log transformation. The unlabeled san 450x responses were compared between yak probe and san probe using a one-sided Mann-Whitney U-test.

KEY RESOURCES

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. D. santomea lost hypandrial bristles. (A) Drosophila melanogaster male genitalia. (B) Phylogeny of the Drosophila melanogaster species subgroup. All species of have two hypandrial bristles (black circles) except Drosophila santomea, which lacks hypandrial bristles (white circle). n: number of scored males, with the number of scored strains in parentheses. Asterisk indicates that 4 males out of 306 had three hypandrial bristles. (C-H) Light microscope preparations of ventral genitalia (C,E,G) and hypandrial bristles (D,F,H) in D. melanogaster (C-D), D. yakuba (E-F) and D. santomea (G-H). Hypandrial bristles are indicated with arrowheads on A, C and E.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Mapping of the cis-regulatory element involved in hypandrial bristle evolution. (A) QTL analysis of hypandrial bristle number in a D. santomea backcross (left) and a D. yakuba backcross (right). On the y-axis are the LOD profiles from a Haley-Knott regression analysis. The x-axis represents physical map position in the D. yakuba genome. Ticks represent recombination informative markers. Dotted lines represent the 1% (top) and 5% (bottom) significance thresholds. (B) Schematic representation of the left tip of chromosome X and of 19 duplicated fragments of chromosome X that were tested for their effect on hypandrial bristle number in D. santomea-D. melanogaster hybrid males. All duplications had no significant effect (orange) except Dp(1;3)DC097 (purple), which significantly increased hypandrial bristle number. (C) Genomic organization of the AS-C locus in D. melanogaster. Arrows indicate the coding regions of yellow (y), achaete (a), scute (sc), lethal of scute (l(1)sc), pepsinogen-like (pcl), asense (ase) and cytochrome P450-4g1(Cyp4g1) genes. The light green box represents the insertion of a 3S18{}4/TF9523 natural transposable element. Boxes indicate cis-regulatory elements whose corresponding GAL4 reporter lines have been tested. Expression of UAS-singed.RNAi with 52 GAL4 lines (yellow boxes) has no effect while it results in singed hypandrium bristles with 15E09-, 18C05-and 054839-GAL4. Extra hypandrial bristles are found with UAS-sc and 18C05-GAL4 (dark brown box) but not with 15E09-and 054839-GAL4 (light brown boxes).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Three D. santomea-specific substitutions in 18C05 contribute to the loss of hypandrial bristles. Rescue of the hypandrial bristle loss of sc 29 (left column) and sc M6 (right column) D. melanogaster mutants by expression of either GAL4 with UAS-sc or sc driven by 18C05 sequences from D. melanogaster (brown), D. yakuba (blue) and D. santomea (orange). Seven D. santomea-specific substitutions (vertical orange bars) were introduced into either the D. yakuba region (blue) or the ancestrally reconstructed 18C05 region (grey). Distribution of hypandrial bristle number (black histogram), together with mean (white dot) and 95% confidence interval (grey rectangle) from a fitted GLM Quasi-Poisson model are shown for each genotype. Note that for a given rescue construct, 18C05-GAL4 UAS-sc produces more hypandrial bristles than 18C05-sc, probably due to the amplification of gene expression caused by the GAL4/UAS system. n: number of scored individuals. *: p<0.05

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. D. santomea-specific substitution T1775G contributes to increase in sex comb tooth number. (A-F) GFP staining (green) in T1 leg discs of late L3 larvae (A-B) and in 5h APF pupal legs (C-F) in D. melanogaster containing 18C05 reporter transgenes or sc-GFP. Genotype is indicated on top of each panel. Tarsal segments are numbered. Arrowheads point to the presumptive sex comb regions. "X" indicates non-leg tissue. (G-I) Leg sex comb in D. yakuba (G), D. santomea (H) and D. melanogaster (I). Average sex comb tooth numbers per leg are shown in squares. n: number of scored individuals, with the number of scored strains in parentheses. (J-K) Sex comb tooth number in wild-type (T7 and Canton-S), sc M6 (J) and sc 6 (K) mutants rescued with different 18C05-sc

TABLE REAGENT

 REAGENT

	Achaete-scute GAL4 lines and their hypandrial bristle 18C05_D. teis_(Mt. Selinda) E. coli One Shot® TOP10	This paper This paper Invitrogen	Figshare: GenBank #C404003
	or RESOURCE rabbit anti-GFP primary antibody Antibodies donkey Anti-Rabbit Dylight ® 488 Chemicals, Peptides, and Recombinant Proteins Dimethyl Hydantoin Formaldehyde Paraformaldehyde Dapi Vectashield® H-1000 reduced glutation Abdominal-B-HD protein Critical Commercial Assays Qiagen DNeasy Blood & Tissue extraction kit Nucleospin Gel and PCR Clean-Up Kit E.Z.N.A.® Plasmid Mini Kit I Quick-DNA™ Miniprep Plus Kit LightShiftTM Chemiluminiscent EMSA Kit TurboBlotter Kit phenotype with Dcr2; UAS-singed.RNAi 10574 Cloning strategy 18C05_D. san_A1200.4 18C05_D. san_car1490.3 18C05_D. san_BS14.1 18C05_D. san_51.7.3_1560 18C05_D. san_OBAT_1200.13 18C05_D. san_Quija650.37 18C05_D. teis_(SDSC#14021-0257.01) E. coli NEB10-beta E. coli BL21 (DE3) 18C05_D. mel_BL2057 Oligonucleotides Primers 18C05_D. sim_w501 18C05_D. sim_M252 Recombinant DNA pBPGUw Experimental Models: Organisms/Strains D.melanogaster pBPSUw: GAL4 cassette of pBPGUw replaced by scute CDS. 15X09-pBPGUw VT054822b-pBPGUw D.melanogaster VT054839yak-pBPGUw VT054839san-pBPGUw 18C05_T7-pBPGUw 18C05_BL2057-pBPGUw 18C05_D. san_Quija650.22 D.melanogaster 18C05Yakfull-pBPGUw 18C05_D. san_Quija650.14 18C05_D. san_C1350.14 18C05_D. san_B1300.13 18C05Sanfull-pBPGUw 18C05AmelBL-pBPGUw D.melanogaster 18C05BmelBL-pBPGUw 18C05CmelBL-pBPGUw 18C05ABmelBL-pBPGUw 18C05BCmelBL-pBPGUw 18C05_D. san_Rain42 18C05_D. san_Field3.4 D.melanogaster 18C05Asan-pBPGUw 18C05Bsan-pBPGUw 18C05Ayak-pBPGUw 18C05Byak-pBPGUw 18C05_D. san_STO4 18C05_D. san_SYN2005 18C05_D. yak_15.6.8 D.melanogaster T.7 18C05Cyak-pBPGUw VT054839mel-BL2057-pBPGUw VT054839yak-pBPGUw VT054839san-pBPGUw 18C05_D. yak_LP1 18C05_D. yak_2.22.1 D.melanogaster T.4 18C05_SSSY-pBPSUw 18C05_YYSS-pBPSUw 18C05_SSYS-pBPSUw 18C05_SYYY-pBPSUw D.melanogaster 18C05_YYYS-pBPSUw 18C05_D. yak_4.23.1 18C05_SSYY-pBPSUw 18C05_D. yak_4.32.1 18C05_D. yak_Tai18E2 18C05_D. yak_Ivory Coast 18C05_D. yak_Tai18E2 (NCBI) 18C05_YYSY-pBPSUw D.melanogaster 18C05_YSYY-pBPSUw 18C05_YSSY-pBPSUw 18C05yakT970A-pBPSUw 18C05YyakT1429G-pBPSUw 18C05yakA1507G-pBPSUw D.melanogaster T.1 18C05yakt1775G-pBPSUw 18C05_Anc-pBPSUw 18C05_D. yak_PB 3.1.3 18C05_D. yak_PB 3.4.1 18C05_D. yak_PB1.4.21 18C05_D. yak_5.3.1 D.melanogaster 18C05_AncT1008C-pBPSUw 18C05_AncT1429G-pBPSUw 18C05_AncT1482C-pBPSUw D.melanogaster 18C05_AncA1507G-pBPSUw 18C05_AncT1775G-pBPSUw 18C05_yakG869A-pBPSUw 18C05_yakT1008C-pBPSUw	SOURCE Thermofisher Thermofisher Entomopraxis Sigma-Aldrich Sigma-Aldrich Vector Laboratories Sigma-Aldrich This paper Qiagen Machery-Nagel Omega Bio-tek Zymo Research ThermoFisher Scientific GE Healthcare Life Sciences This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper New England Biolabs Nicolas Joly This paper This paper This paper This paper Addgene, [66] Tony Long UC Irvine, This paper RVC 3. Collected from This paper Riverside, California, This paper USA in 1963 Tony Long UC Irvine, BS1. Collected from Barcelona, Spain in 1954 This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper Tony Long UC Irvine, This paper This paper This paper This paper BOG1. Collected from Bogota, Colombia in This paper This paper 1962 Tony Long UC Irvine, KSA2. Collected in 1963 This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper Tony Long UC Irvine, KI2. Collected from Israel in 1954 This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper Tony Long UC Irvine, Collected from Taiwan in 1968 This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper Tony Long UC Irvine, Collected from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in This paper This paper This paper This paper 1962 Tony Long UC Irvine, This paper This paper VAG1. Collected from This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper Athens, Greece in This paper 1965 Tony Long UC Irvine, This paper This paper Wild 5B. Collected This paper from Red Top This paper Mountain, Georgia in This paper 1966 Tony Long UC Irvine, Collected from Ica, This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper This paper Peru in 1956 Tony Long UC Irvine, BER1. Collected from Bermudas in 1954. This paper, GeneScript N/A IDENTIFIER #A6455 #SA5-10038 N/A #158127-5G #D9542-1MG #H-1000 #G-4251 N/A #69506 #740609 #D6942-01 #D4069 #20148 #10416314 https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 40.v3 Figshare: https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 40.v3 GenBank #MG460738 GenBank #MG460742 GenBank #MG460740 GenBank #MG460737 GenBank #MG460744 GenBank #MG460753 #C3019H GenBank N/A #MG460754 GenBank Figshare: #MG460736 https://doi.org/10.608 GenBank 4/m9.figshare.69727 #MG460752 40.v3 GenBank #MG460751 #17575 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A San Diego Stock N/A Center #14021-N/A 0231.60 N/A #MG460747 San Diego Stock N/A GenBank #MG460746 GenBank #MG460745 GenBank #MG460741 GenBank Center #14021-N/A 0231.59 N/A N/A San Diego Stock N/A Center #14021-N/A 0231.64 N/A #MG460739 GenBank #MG460748 GenBank N/A San Diego Stock N/A Center # 14021-N/A 0231.68 N/A #MG460743 GenBank #MG460749 GenBank #MG460750 N/A San Diego Stock N/A Center #14021-N/A 0231.07 N/A GenBank #MG460759 GenBank #MG460761 GenBank N/A San Diego Stock N/A Center #14021-N/A 0231.04 N/A San Diego Stock N/A #MG460756 Center #14021-N/A GenBank #MG460757 GenBank #MG460758 GenBank #MG460765 GenBank #MG460760 GenBank 0231.69 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A San Diego Stock Center #14021-N/A #MG460765 GenBank #MG460763 GenBank #MG460764 GenBank #MG460762 GenBank #MG460755 0231.04 San Diego Stock This paper, GeneScript N/A Center # 14021-This paper, GeneScript N/A 0231.58 Tony Long UC Irvine, CA1. Collected from Cape Town, South Africa. This paper, GeneScript N/A San Diego Stock This paper, GeneScript N/A Center #14021-This paper, GeneScript N/A 0231.62 This paper, GeneScript N/A

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Tucson Drosophila Species Stock Center, the VDRC, Kyoto and Bloomington Stock Centers for flies. We thank São Tomé authorities for allowing us to collect flies. We thank S. Picard for help with MSG, E. Sánchez-Herrero for Abd-B flies, F. Schweisguth for GFP-sc flies, J. Selegue and S.B. Carroll for the Abd-B construct, L. Pintard and N. Joly for help in protein purification, R. Mann, S. Feng and G. Rice for EMSA and immunostaining suggestions, F. Mallard and T. Tully for advices on the statistical analyses, J. L. Villanueva-Cañas for help with JASPAR. We thank Q.D. Tran, M. Notin, V. Ludger, A. Matamoro-Vidal, C. Nobre, G. Verebes, S. El Ouisi, A. La, F. Foutel-Rodier, C. Guillard-Sirieix and A. Aydogan for their contributions and C. Desplan, D. Petrov, B. Prud'homme, A. Martin and J.A. Lepesant for comments on the manuscript. We acknowledge the ImagoSeine core facility of the Institut Jacques Monod, member of IBiSA and France-BioImaging (ANR-10-INBS-04) infrastructures. We thank the Courtier-Orgogozo team for providing a stimulating environment and technical support.

FUNDING

The research leading to this paper has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013 Grant Agreement no. 337579) to VCO, from the labex "Who am I?" (ANR-11-LABX-0071) funded by the French government through grant no. ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02 to AEP and from NIH (1R01GM121750) to DRM.

DATA AVAILABILITY

Sequences were deposited into GenBank (accession numbers MG460736-MG460765). Source data for Bristle Number, QTL mapping analysis, EMSA and immunostaining are available in BioRxiv and at Mendeley: http://dx.doi.org/10.17632/xjvz2m8z6r.1. Additional Data Figures and Data Tables are available in BioRxiv and at Figshare: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.6972707 and https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.6972740, respectively. Deposited Data Raw and analyzed data This paper Mendeley: http://dx.doi.org/10.1 7632/xjvz2m8z6r.1 (DOI: 10.17632/xjvz2m8z6 r.1) Genitalia Bristle Number This paper Figshare: https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 07.v1 Alignment of 18C05 sequence from D. santomea SYN2005 and D. yakuba (Ivory Cost) This paper Figshare: https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 07.v1 Twelve substitutions are fixed in D. santomea 18C05 This paper Figshare: https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 07.v1 Sex comb tooth number in D. yakuba and D. santomea and D. melanogaster scute mutants This paper Figshare: https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 07.v1 Hypandrial bristle number in pure species and F1 hybrids This paper Figshare: https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 40.v3 Test of various UAS-reporter constructs with DC-GAL4 This paper Figshare: https://doi.org/10.608 4/m9.figshare.69727 40.v3

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

J.R.D. found that D. santomea lacks hypandrial bristles and that the trait difference is X-linked, D.L.S. genotyped flies with MSG, A.Y., I.N. and V.C.O. performed the QTL mapping experiment, D.R.M. made the D. santomea-D. melanogaster hybrids, I.N. dissected them, O.N. did all other fly crosses and dissected them, O.N., I.N., R.S. and A.E.P. phenotyped >3000 males for hypandrial bristles, O.N. phenotyped all other bristles, O.N. and M.L. did EMSA, O.N. and I.N. constructed the plasmids, O.N. performed immunostainings and microscopy, A.E.P. performed all statistical analyses with feedback from O.N. and M.L., D.R.M. collected wild flies, V.C.O. supervised research, performed bioinformatics sequence analysis and wrote the paper with O.N. All authors provided feedback on the text.

DECLARATION OF INTEREST

The authors declare no competing interests.

D.melanogaster Sam

Tony Long UC Irvine, DSPR line. originally from TFC Mackay Sam; ry506 N/A D.melanogaster iso-1 y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]; Gr22b[iso-1] Gr22d[iso-1] cn [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] CG33964[iso-1] bw [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] sp [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]; LysC[iso-1] MstProx[iso-1] GstD5[iso-1] Rh6 [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Bloomington Stock Center Bloomington Stock Center #2057 D.melanogaster Canton-S Roger Karess Kyoto DGGR #105666 D.melanogaster dor [START_REF] Fisher | The genetical theory of natural selection[END_REF]/C(1)RM, y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] w [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] f [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Bloomington

D. melanogaster ac CAMI y[1] P{w[+mW.hs]=GawB}CG32816[NP6014] ac[cami]

Bloomington Stock Center #36540

D. melanogaster sc 6 sc[6] w[a]

Bloomington Stock Center #108

D. melanogaster ase 1 Df(1)ase-1, sc[ase-1] pn[1]/C(1)DX, y[1] f[1]

Bloomington Stock Center #104 D. melanogaster sc 5 y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] sc [START_REF] Orr | Adaptation and the cost of complexity[END_REF] Bloomington Stock Center #178

D. melanogaster ac 1 y[1] ac[1] w[1118]; P{w[+mC]=GAL4-ac.13}1

Bloomington Stock Center #8715 D. melanogaster sc 1 y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] sc [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Bloomington Stock Center #176

D. melanogaster ac sbm ac[sbm]

Given by P. Simpson N/A

D. melanogaster ac Hw-1 Df(1)sc10-1, sc[10-1]/y[1] ac[Hw-1]

Bloomington Stock Center #109 D. melanogaster sc 29 In( 1)sc [START_REF] Carroll | Evo-devo and an expanding evolutionary synthesis: a genetic theory of morphological evolution[END_REF], sc [START_REF] Carroll | Evo-devo and an expanding evolutionary synthesis: a genetic theory of morphological evolution[END_REF]

w[a] eag[sc29]

Bloomington Stock Center #1442 D. melanogaster ac 1 sc 1 y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] ac [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] sc [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] pn [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Bloomington Stock Center #4596

D. melanogaster sc H C(1)DX, y[1] f[1]; T(1;4)sc[H], sc[H]

Bloomington Stock Center #4055 D. melanogaster sc 9 In(1)sc [START_REF] Preger-Ben Noon | Comprehensive Analysis of a cis -Regulatory Region Reveals Pleiotropy in Enhancer Function[END_REF], sc [START_REF] Preger-Ben Noon | Comprehensive Analysis of a cis -Regulatory Region Reveals Pleiotropy in Enhancer Function[END_REF] w[a] f [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Bx [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] DGRC Kyoto Stock Center #102028

D. melanogaster sc S2 T(1;2)sc[S2], y[+] sc[S2]: cn[1] M(2)53[1]/+; CyO

Bloomington Stock Center #3333

D. melanogaster sc 7 Df(1)B/In(1)sc [START_REF] Stearns | One Hundred Years of Pleiotropy: A Retrospective[END_REF], In(1)AM, sc [START_REF] Stearns | One Hundred Years of Pleiotropy: A Retrospective[END_REF] ptg [START_REF] Fisher | The genetical theory of natural selection[END_REF] Bloomington Stock Center #723 D. melanogaster ac 3 sc 10-1 In(1)ac [START_REF] Paaby | The many faces of pleiotropy[END_REF], sc ac [START_REF] Paaby | The many faces of pleiotropy[END_REF] w [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] sable [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF]

/FM7i, P{w[+mC]=ActGFP}JMR3

Bloomington Stock Center #36541

D. melanogaster sc 4

In( 1)sc [START_REF] Fisher | The genetical theory of natural selection[END_REF], y [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] sc [START_REF] Fisher | The genetical theory of natural selection[END_REF] ABO-X [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] Bloomington Stock Center #789 D. melanogaster sc 8 T(1;3)sc , sc[260-15]/FM6 B [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] dm [START_REF] Darwin | On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life[END_REF] sc [START_REF] Lonfat | Convergent evolution of complex regulatory landscapes and pleiotropy at Hox loci[END_REF]