Imane Bouhaddou

Abdellatif Benabdelhafid
email: abdellatif.benabdelhafid@uni-lehavre.fr

PLM (Product Lifecycle Management): a key to manage supply chain complexity

Keywords: PLM (Product Lifecycle Management), supply chain, product design, supply chain design, optimization mathematical models, integrated logistics

The ability to optimize the supply chain is becoming the critical issue for companies to win the competitive advantage. Furthermore, all members of a given supply chain must work together to respond to the changes of market demands rapidly. PLM enables a supply chain to become much more competitive by an effective collaboration among customers, developers, suppliers and manufacturers at various lifecycle stages of a product. Our work contributes to the field of integrated engineering, specifically the integrated logistics in the early phases of the product lifecycle using PLM. The supply chain is a complex system and like any complex system, solutions are found by compromise. In this paper, we proposed conceptual models to solve formally the compromise between PLM and mathematical models to optimize the supply chain. With the proposed approach, we have avoided the global optimization of the supply chain (high time solution, approximate solution, complex models, unrealistic hypothesis…) The complexity was treated part by part by local optimization, the solution will be evolved to be more realistic by a continuous optimization.

Introduction

Doing business globally involves very complex and increasingly dynamic processes and demands a high level of flexibility and adaptability from the companies involved [START_REF] Denger | Social Computing: A Future Approach of Product LifecycleManagement[END_REF]. Therefore, the complex management of an extended enterprise has increased needs for information exchange, sharing and archiving.

A supply chain encompass such entities, as suppliers, manufacturers, assemblers, distributors, logistics centers, customers and in some cases even competitors, which are interconnected among by flows of different resources, including goods, information or finance, through physical and virtual network of their performance Managing increasing complexity in supply chains is absolutely necessary to companies to compete better in global market. Complexity in supply chains is associated with material and information flows between supply chain partners. PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) enables a supply chain to become much more competitive by an effective management of the supply chain flows at various lifecycle stages of a product.

2

Supply chain complexity

Characteristics of supply chain complexity

There are some key characteristics of complexity occurring in a supply chain system which need to be discussed to understand the impact of these characteristics on the occurrence of complexity. These characteristics were detailed in [START_REF] Rimiene | Supply chain Mangagement trends in the context of change[END_REF]. We summarize them in the following chart:

Table 1. Characteristics of supply chain complexity.

Characteristic Description

Number of components

Number of items (raw, manufactured or end), products, processes, supply chain partners, relationships, interactions, goals, locations,… Example : A high number level of any components contributes increasingly in a complexity in a supply chain system.

Diversity Related with the homogeneity or heterogeneity of a system

Example : A high level of diversity of any components (supplier, product, mean of transport) along the supply chain leads to system's heterogenzity heterogeneity and results a high level of complexity.

Interdependency

Variety

Uncertainty

Interdependence between items, products and supply chain partners. Complexity increases in direct proportion to the increase of interdependence.

Variety represents dynamical behaviour of a system. Example: a product or a process variety in supply chains leads to increase in complexity level over time.

Uncertainty represents all difficulties to be able to make a clear picture of a system due to the lack of information or knowledge. The more uncertainty in a supply chain system is, the more complexity occurs in this system.

proportion to the increase of Interdependence.

Supply chain flows

Complexity in supply chains is associated with material and information flows between supply chain partners. Traditionally, these flows are organized sequentially from supplier to customer. Today, information flows do not follow this linear form. Information flows rather now look like a simultaneous exchange, especially through electronic exchanges between all supply chain partners. Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of this new pattern. There are internal networks in the firm with simultaneous exchange between all units. Indeed, the emergence of information and communications technology facilitating exchange between all partners, produced a change in the organization of the supply chain flows [START_REF] Monteiro | Distributed Management of cooperation between enterprises[END_REF], [START_REF] Handfield | Introduction to Supply Chain Management[END_REF].

In addition, different industrial activities with strong technological character generate and manipulate a lot of technical data that need to be exchanged, managed and stored in a consistent and standardized manner. They have led to the developing of methods and systems to manage the product information throughout its lifecycle. It is in this context that the paradigm of PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) was born [START_REF] Grieves | Product Lifecycle Management: Driving the Next Generation of Lean Thinking[END_REF].

Product Lifecycle Management

1 Definition of PLM

To meet the challenges of today's global business environment, organizations with complex products and processes need to manage the entire product lifecycle from concept through end of life, working across functions and supply chain partners. Additionally they must ensure they are able to respond quickly to market opportunities as well as changes in technology and customer requirements [START_REF] Cimdata | Empowering the future of business[END_REF].

PLM is an integrated approach that, with information technology aid, realizes an integrated cooperative and collaborative information product management during all the lifecycle [START_REF] Terzi | Product Lifecycle Management: Definitions, Open problems and referenced models[END_REF]. PLM systems allow simultaneous and collaborative product development by taking into account all stages of the life cycle [START_REF] Paviot | Methodology of resolution of interoperability in the field of Product Lifecycle Management[END_REF].

PLM is an application of manufacturing industry that allows to virtually simulate the complete product life [START_REF] Debaecker | Product Life-cycle Management[END_REF]. PLM system should enable the flow of information between different business applications (fig. 2). In fact, PLM enables organizations to develop consistent, repeatable processes that extend through the product lifecycle and enable collaboration across system disciplines and the supply chain. The figure 3 represents an analogy with human body. Indeed, informational connections in the human body are connected by the backbone. We consider that PLM plays the role of the backbone.

2 PLM for supply chain optimization

Optimizing the supply chain and especially the simultaneous optimization of product and supply chain design is a difficult problem. Due to the complexity of the induced mathematical models, very few models address the integrated problems. They use a very large number of variables to model the problem in a comprehensive manner and are therefore difficult to solve [START_REF] Baud-Lavigne | Mutual impacts of product standardization and supply chain design[END_REF].

Centralized approaches used to treat the problem of integrated design of the product and its supply chain generate complex mathematical models, we adopt an approach combining centralized decisions while integrating the constraints of the different supply chain partners during the product design and decentralized decisions when it comes to locally optimize each supply chain partner. The decentralized approach reduces the complexity of solving mathematical models and allows the supply chain to respond quickly to the evolution of local conditions of each partner.

Fig. 2: PLM and other applications [START_REF] Duigou | Modelisation of PLM Systems in extended enterprise[END_REF] Fig. 3: Analogy with human body [START_REF] Aras | Product Lifecycle Management and human body[END_REF] PLM will assure the integration of the different supply chain partners. Indeed, the information centralization by the PLM enables to take into consideration the dependence between these partners, improving therefore local optimization results. With PLM, everyone is contributing to the product design.

The partners of a supply chain are linked by PLM. The PLM structures the design of the supply chain (fig. 4).

The mathematical models to optimize the supply chain cost were detailed in [START_REF] Bouhaddou | Product lifecycle management approach to design a product and its optimised supply chain[END_REF]. They concerned a problem integrating supplying-production-storage-distribution which aims to minimize the supplying costs, production costs, storage costs and distribution costs. The models developed are related tostrategic and tactical decisions for supply chain design.

Framework PLM/Supply chain optimization

The modelled framework using UML class diagram (figure 5) is based on PLM model [START_REF] Bouhaddou | An optimized framework of integrated logistics based on PLM[END_REF] and the methodology for simultaneous design of a new product and its optimized supply chain proposed in our previous paper [START_REF] Bouhaddou | PLM for supply chain optimization[END_REF].

It includes the digital mock-up parameters (product in design) and the different variables needed for supply chain optimization.

This framework highlights the interactions between several factors heavily dependent around the product and consequently the many parameters to manage which illustrates the system complexity.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Material and information flows in supply chain: new pattern [3]

  The local optimization allows to: -Decrease the amount of data to be processed in each resolution process. -Preserve the autonomy of each supply chain partners . -Respond quickly to the evolution of local conditions of each partner.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: PLM as an integrator of supply chain partners

Conclusion

The work presented in this paper is related to the field of integrated engineering, specifically the integrated logistics in the early phases of the product lifecycle using PLM. The supply chain is a complex system and like any complex system, solutions are found by compromise. The objective of the proposed approach is to solve formally the compromise between PLM and mathematical models to optimize the supply chain. The approach is on the one hand centralized while integrating supply chain constraints and decentralized with a series of local optimizations which avoid the global supply chain optimization.


PhD Sarita Monjane Henriksen

Globalisation, Multilingualism and Multiculturalism in Mozambique

Keywords: multilingualism, multiculturalism, globalization and diversity The adoption of Portuguese as Official Language

The present paper discusses the issue of increasing levels of multilingualism and multiculturalism, worldwide, as consequence of ongoing globalization and look at the major challenges involved in managing linguistic and cultural diversity at societal, institutional and academic level, in particular. The paper has as its major focus the Mozambican context and drawing on current research in the country and internationally on the language question, it discusses the various existing challenges and opportunities for devising an inclusive and democratic language and language education policy.

As a background to the present study, it is worth mentioning that switching between two or more languages is part of the daily language practices of the average Mozambican, considering that the majority speaks an L1, usually a Mozambican Bantu Language, in the home domain, an L2, the country's official language, Portuguese, used mostly as the country's Lingua Franca and also for all formal and public administration domains and in a few instances, a foreign language, which in most cases will likely be English.

High levels of linguistic and cultural diversity and bi/multilingualism characterize Mozambique, a country, which as a result of the colonization process, and similarly to other countries in the region, has adopted the ex-colonial language, Portuguese, as the only official language, at the time of its independence in 1975. The adoption of the former colonial languages as official languages has been common practice in many independent countries in Africa. Among the reasons that appear to be behind the choice of the ex-coloniser's languages at the expense of the local African languages is the fact that the newly-independent countries did no really have any other alternative. It should be said that, in many countries, most of the African languages either did not have a written form or decisions had to be made concerning the language to select from amidst the mosaic of languages [START_REF] Henriksen | Language attitudes in a primary school: a bottom-up approach to language education policy in Mozambique[END_REF].

For Ruíz (1988:7), a large part of the work in the field of language planning has, in fact, been inspired by the "preponderance of problem-oriented language planning approaches", which seem to establish a link between language and language diversity with social problems and therefore multilingualism being perceived as ultimately leading to a lack of social cohesiveness 1 ; with everyone speaking their own language, political and social consensus being impossible (pp.10) 2 . In fact, for [START_REF] Tsonope | Prospects of the Indigenous Languages of Botswana: Implications of the Government White Paper No. 2 of 1994[END_REF], it is widely argued that promotion of various languages impairs national cohesion, increasing the risk of the emergence of conflicts between communities 3 .

Still in relation to the adoption of the ex-colonial language, at the expense of the Mozambican Bantu languages, [START_REF] Ganhão | O Papel da Língua Portuguesa em Moçambique'. 1 Seminário Nacional sobre o Ensino da Língua Portuguesa[END_REF] admitted that although spoken by a very small percentage of Mozambicans, at the time of independence, Portuguese was certainly a politically neutral language, which would serve well the purposes of nation building, and surely a better option than any other national language for avoiding conflicts. The view of multilingualism or language diversity as a problem was certainly present in Mozambique at the time of independence. The vision of a multilingual Mozambique was out of the political agenda; the key goal at the time was to urgently build the Mozambican nation and make it work as such. The fact that there were so many languages spoken by the various ethnic groups constituting the new Mozambican state, and the fact that none of them was spoken nation-wide as a common language or Lingua Franca, would probably have constituted a hindrance to the birth of the new Mozambican nation. 1 We have to look at the equationmultilingualism means problems -with caution, as a number of examples exist throughout the world of linguistically homogeneous areas (like Northern Ireland, Rwanda or Somalia), which also lack social cohesiveness; and if we compare them with Switzerland, which is extremely heterogeneous but still cohesive, then it becomes difficult to argue in favour of the equation. 2 A very interesting critical review of the suggested correlation between high linguistic diversity and level of socioeconomic development or the relationship between multilingualism and social wealth of a country is presented by Coulmas 1992, who draws on Pool (1972: 222) who argues that "linguistically highly fragmented countries are always poor". 3 See David [START_REF] Laitin | Language Policy and Civil War[END_REF] for an interesting discussion of the correlation between language policy and civil war and the evidence he presents "against claims that the elimination of minority grievances would be a sure fire way of lowering the incidences of civil war" (p. 178). See also François Grin (2004) for the costs of maintaining cultural diversity.

Portuguese in Mozambique: Status and Attitudes

As a result of its adoption as the only official language, and thus its connection to jobs in the formal labour market, including both the public and private sectors, and its exclusive use in the education system4 , the Portuguese language has enjoyed a very high status and prestige. It is a language, thus, seen as the key to academic, social, professional, and economic ascendance. It is a language linked to the top of the social hierarchy, and a language highly valued by the social and political elites and equally by the masses5 .

The Portuguese language in Mozambique is no longer seen as the ex-coloniser's language, but a Mozambican language in its own right6 . It certainly differs from the Portuguese of Portugal or the Portuguese of Brazil in many respects, and particularly at the lexical and phonological level.

It is quite common, nowadays, to hear and read about the nativisation of the Portuguese language in Mozambique, which according to Firmino (2005: 143) comprises not only a linguistic dimension, as new usages are being developed, but also a symbolic dimension, characterised by the emergence of new social attitudes and ideologies. Gonçalves (1996: 61) points out that Mozambican Portuguese is characterised by the coining of new words, as well as extensive borrowings not only from the Bantu languages, but also from English; although it still draws on the European Portuguese, new semantic values and syntactic properties have developed. Lopes (1998: 475), on the other hand argues that the Portuguese language is no longer foreign, as it "has been evolving as a naturalised variety to serve the needs of Mozambicans". The naturalisation and indigenisation processes have led to the acquisition of new features, adapting the language to the "local realities, including the journalistic and literary registers of use". In [START_REF] Couto | Uma Maneira Moçambicana de Contar Histórias Moçambicanas'. In an interview to the Gazeta de Artes e Letras[END_REF] view, alterations to the Portuguese language go beyond the linguistic domain and reveal a different perception of the world and life. "Mozambicans are in the process of transcending their role as simply users of the Portuguese language and assuming a status in which they are co-producers of this means of expression".

Multilingualism and Multiculturalism in Mozambique

As already mentioned above, Mozambique is a multi-ethnic, a multicultural and a multilingual country, and this heterogeneity is certainly a result of the encounter and contact, over the years, between different groups of people, among them, Islamic coastal traders, European colonizers, and the indigenous populations. Sixteen main ethnic groups, mostly of Bantu origin, are recognised in Mozambique. In addition, we also find population groups of European descent, mixed Euro-Africans, Indians and Chinese.

As a result of ongoing globalisation, the levels of multilingualism and multiculturalism have surely increased in Mozambique, due to the presence of large numbers of Chinese nationals working mainly in the construction industry, Indian and Brazilian nationals working for the mine industry, just to mention a few. Globalisation, characterised by increasing levels of population movements and migration, is just one side of the coin. The other side is certainly the partition of Africa in the 1880s, which in my view, has also contributed greatly to increasing levels of ethnolinguistic and cultural diversity in the African territories and particularly in Mozambique. As Mazrui (1998:5) indicates, the "national boundaries of most African States lack the underpinning of any national linguistic identity"; in the same token, Kashoki (2003: 186)

argues that

The largely arbitrary nature of the manner in which present-day African countries came into being as sovereign nation states is directly responsible for their present highly multi-ethnic, multicultural and multilingual 'national' charactersometimes, as in the case of Tanzania and Nigeria, containing as many as 100 or more 'languages' or 'dialects' within their borders.

Both Mazrui and Kashoki defend the view that the current linguistic diversity of many African countries is in part an artificial outcome of the colonisation process, resulting from the manner in which their borders were conceived by the colonial powers.

The Mozambican National Languages: Status and Attitudes

Until recently, 7 the use of the Mozambican National Languages had mostly been assigned to the home, family, and other informal domains such as shops, market places, etc. In addition, some of the Mozambican languages have also been used in radio broadcasting, particularly for news, and also for religious purposes. In regards to the status of the Mozambican National Languages, it would be quite prudent to argue that feelings and attitudes towards them have, throughout the years, been quite ambivalent; a mixture of positive and negative feelings.

Soon after independence, the use of these languages in the public sphere (particularly schools) was strongly discouraged by the FRELIMO government, the education authorities and also at the level of certain families (especially, urban and literate). In other words, there was no space, in the public sphere, for the use of the Mozambican National Languages. Among the reasons that appeared to have prevented their use in the public sphere were, the need to promote national unity by speaking a neutral language, the fact that these languages were seen as underdeveloped (particularly when it came to their readiness to be used as vehicles of instruction, issues related to their orthography or lack of it, etc.). One could perhaps attempt and say that, in fact, they seemed to be deprived of prestige, considering that during the colonial period and in the preindependence years they were all considered dialects, with all the related connotations. 8 Regarding the question of attitudes to indigenous African languages, Kamwangamalu (2006:730) points out that A set of beliefs ... perpetuate the colonial myth that indigenous African languages do not have the linguistic complexity to be used in higher domains; and that these languages are good only to preserve African cultures and traditions. [Such a model, in his opinion, has] ideological implications 7 Most specifically, early 1990s, with the introduction of the national languages in literacy development and under the umbrella of the Mother Tongue Bilingual Education experimental project 8 In the popular use, the term dialect is commonly seen as a linguistic variety which is 'inferior', less prestigious, and something 'less' than a proper or a fully-fledged language that condemn languages to perennial status as underdeveloped. Consequently, in the post-colonies in Africa the position of the indigenous African languages in education and other higher domains has remained closely linked to the inherited colonizer's model, which perpetuates the hegemony of excolonial languages over the indigenous African languages.

Although the use of the Mozambican National Languages has been excluded from the formal contexts, they are strongly viewed as vehicles and symbols of the Mozambican national ethnolinguistic and cultural identity and, for that reason, their vitality is quite high9 . They are still being transmitted from parent to child, from generation to generation, particularly in the rural areas. In fact, with their introduction in the education system, it is possible to argue, without a doubt, that there is a renewed vigour and even prestige in speaking and using these languages.

Recent developments in Mozambican society point to the introduction of these languages also in the public television, introduction of major and minor courses in the Mozambican Bantu languages at university level (Universidade Pedagógica) and increasing research on these languages.

The English language

Attitudes to the English language are very positive in Mozambique, due to the fact that it is the most spoken foreign language taught and learned in the Country, the main working language at the level of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Commonwealth of Nations, the African Union (AU), of which Mozambique is part of and also the main Lingua Franca used by other international organisations, such as the United Nations (UN).

Mozambique appears, geographically, like an island surrounded by English Speaking countries, such as South Africa, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and Tanzania. Although Portuguese is spoken in countries such as Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Brazil, Portugal, and to a small extent in Macau, in order to communicate with the rest of the world, Portuguese alone would not suffice. However, the findings of the study conducted by [START_REF] Henriksen | Language attitudes in a primary school: a bottom-up approach to language education policy in Mozambique[END_REF] indicate that the English language would neither be enough. While admitting the importance of speaking English, the children in the urban school seem to look at multilingualism (including the use of Portuguese and the Mozambican National Languages) as part of the answer to the challenges of globalisation.

Challenges in managing multilingualism and diversity

Managing multilingualism and diversity at society and school level raise a number of challenges that include, among others, the following:

(1) the need to manage people's attitudes to minority and majority languages or Languages of Wider Communication (LWCs), people's perceptions on the symbolic value of languages;

(2) the issue of the costs involved, for instance, in providing mother tongue education to everyone and the costs of defining a Language Policy that includes all languages and population groups; and

(3) the need to eliminate ethnic and social cleavages.

In spite of the above-mentioned challenges, a number of successful examples are reported from different parts of the world. For instance, among others, we have in Europe the 'European School Model' 10 in providing multilingual education, and in India, there is the case of Tribal Multilingual Education 11 . As many have argued before me, although managing diversity is a very "arduous and expensive" endeavour 12 , it is worth it. Multilingualism and language diversity should be seen as "sources of knowledge and enrichment" (Extra & Yagmur 2004), as "much more of an asset than a disadvantage" [START_REF] Hélot | Imagining Multilingual Education in France: A Language and Cultural Awareness Project at Primary Level[END_REF], or as very appropriately put by Jo Lo [START_REF] Bianco | National Policy on Languages[END_REF] as resources for the individual, the society and the economy. Linguistic Diversity enriches our world and our reality; because, "all languages are depositories of 10 See Baetens [START_REF] Beardsmore | The European School Experience in Multilingual Education[END_REF] for details on the European School Experience, comprising provision of education in eight or nine different languages (majority European languages). Of course, I am not suggesting that this model would be easily replicated in a context such as Mozambique, because of the very favourable conditions of the European School Model, characterised by a whole wealth of resources (human, material, etc); conditions which are not easily available in Mozambique. 11 See Mahendra Mishra (2004) for an account of Tribal Multilingual Education in India. 12 On the 2 nd February 2008, Jutta Limbach, President of the Goethe-Institut, stated the following, in her paper entitled Plurilingualism and Multilingualism -Obstacles on the Route towards a European Public: "For some, the postulate of multilingualism appears to be an annoying national relic within the mosaic of the future European culture. However, this criticism misjudges the very special nature of European integration. The EU member states and their people do not want to follow the model of the nation state when shaping the European Union. When singing the praise of multilingualism, we must not forget a particularly weighty argumentthe fact that language pluralism proves to be arduous and expensive." knowledge and some of the endangered languages constitute the only possibility of access to valuable indigenous knowledge that reaches far back into the history of human species" (Alexander, 2006: 3).

Concluding Remarks

Based on the above and informed by the best international practices, I advocate for the need to devise an inclusive and democratic language education policy for multilingual contexts such as Mozambique, in which there is room for smaller or minority languages and bigger or majority languages. This is a policy that is grounded on the discourse on Linguistic Human Rights (LHRs), it is a policy aimed at maintaining the country's linguistic diversity, while promoting its cultural and economic development, and at the same time fostering national integration, and helping the Mozambicans to keep abreast of world developments and participate actively in the so-called knowledge society.

It should be highlighted that the Plano Curricular do Ensino Básico or the Curricular Plan for BasicEducation (2003: 17) stipulates that the medium of instruction in the whole education system is Portuguese, regardless of the fact that the large majority of children do not speak it when they start schooling.

[START_REF] Firmino | A "Questão Linguística" na África Pós-Colonial. O Caso do Português e das Línguas Autóctones em Moçambique[END_REF] study on attitudes to Portuguese in Maputo city appears to confirm that the Portuguese language is highly valued due to its pragmatic function, or in his own words, "os sentimentos em relação ao Português é de que esta língua se tornou um importante instrumento linguístico em Maputo, em parte como resposta às exigências do Mercado linguístico e socioeconómico, mas também como resultado de uma consciência metapragmática da mudança do seu estatuto social". Essentially what Firmino states is that feelings in relation to Portuguese indicate that this is an important linguistic tool in Maputo, partly as a response to the demands of the linguistic and socioeconomic market, but also as a result of a metapragmatic awareness to change in its social statute. In her study of Trilingualism in Guinea-Bissau, Carol Benson came up with a similar conclusion as per the attitudes of ordinary people towards the Portuguese language. She argues that "although only a small percentage of Guineans claim to speak Portuguese (9% total according to the 1991 census), there is a widespread, unquestioning belief in its value for future employment and other opportunities".(2004: 170).

Although in the official discourse and, most particularly, in the Constitution of the Republic, there is a reference to the national languages, meaning territorially and ethno-culturally Mozambican, and the Portuguese language (still seen as an exogenous language).

It is probably this strong identification with their mother tongues, as markers of ethno-cultural, linguistic and group identity that has contributed to the vitality and maintenance of these languages.


Masatoshi Funabashi
email: masa_funabashi@csl.sony.co.jp

Open Systems Exploration -An Example with Ecosystems Management

Keywords: Open systems, exploration, management, biodiversity, environmental assessment, multi-partite graph, Voronoi diagram, hidden Markov model

come   L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire

Introduction 1.Open Complex Systems and One-time-only Events

Complex systems science has been applied in various domains where theory and experiment meets with a medium of computation (e.g., [START_REF] Funabashi | Dynamical System and Information Geometry -A Complementary Approach to Complex Systems[END_REF]). Complex systems science with external observation drastically advanced laboratory measurements, and in some conned conditions succeeded to analyze the living phenomena as an augmented phenomenology, without reducing the whole process into the parts (e.g. [START_REF] Olivier | Cell lineage reconstruction of early zebrash embryos using labelfree nonlinear microscopy[END_REF]).

On the other hand, complex systems in real world cannot be fully simulated when the observation is limited from inside of the systems. When the system scale is larger than a controlled laboratory , when the sensor resolution is not sucient to reconstruct a predictable model, and when inherent dynamics such as chaos produces principal unpredictability, we are forced to handle internal observation (e.g., [START_REF] Lorenz | Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow[END_REF][4] [START_REF] Kaneko | Complex Systems: Chaos and Beyond, A Constructive Approach with Applications in Life Sciences[END_REF] [START_REF] Funabashi | Synthetic Modeling of Autonomous Learning with a Chaotic Neural Network[END_REF]). Internal observation is not only a compromise of conventional scientic methodology but a subjective strategy to yield an eective description of the system in dynamical functioning, where characteristic measures can only be dened on the transient conguration of many-to-many bodies systems [START_REF] Kaneko | Constructive complexity and articial reality: an introduction[END_REF]. This working hypothesis becomes especially informative when a system is open to external environment. In open complex systems(open systems in short), we cannot fully dene a system's boundary as it interacts with external environment through time line. The conguration of subsystems is also fuzzy and change temporally. The systems may not be possible to model with parent-slave relation in closed environment. The systems are basically unpredictable in a long term by internal observers, uncontrollable depending on the fragility to external disturbance and complexity of interactions, and manifest one-time-only events that are neither fully predictable by modelling nor reproducible by the real phenomenon itself [START_REF] Tokoro | What is Open Systems Science?[END_REF] [START_REF] Tokoro | A New Method for New Challenges[END_REF]. Whether it be technological innovation, social order reformation, natural disasters, etc., transition of history in open systems has been always triggered by a new event of unpredictable scale [START_REF] Taleb | The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable[END_REF] [START_REF] Diamond | Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies[END_REF] [START_REF] Kurzweil | The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology[END_REF].

In such open systems lie greatest challenges of complex systems science, especially those concerned with the sustainability of our civilization, that is left behind as negative legacies of the modern scientic achievement. For examples, environmental problems, epidemic outbreak, life-course chronic diseases, technology-inherent breakdown of social infrastructure, climate change and associated social-ecological transitions are predominant examples of one-time-only events that requires open systems approach [START_REF] Barnosky | Approaching a state shift in Earth's biosphere[END_REF][14] [START_REF] Ben-Shlomo | A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives[END_REF][16] [START_REF] Petherick | The ten countries most vulnerable to climate change and their corruption rating[END_REF]. These tasks require the application of eective measure by internal observers during the operation, as it cannot be halted, analyzed, experimented separately from the real world.

In coping with the needs of such global agenda, we need to explore novel scientic methodologies that can be applied in open complex systems. Based on the past achievement of rigorous science with external observation, we need further extend the eectiveness of internal observers' science in an open environment, where real-world problems remain untouched. In contrast to the perfection myth of science seeking the control of the system as a dominant objective, we rather need to struggle in the real-world operation where the prediction and control is not always valid. How much can we attain with incomplete observation, heterogenous database, in unpredictable environment, with lots of new events that have never happened, but with the aid of ne mathematical theory, ubiquitous sensors, social networks of citizens, and massive computation power? What should we explore during the time-limited operation of open complex systems, in order to survive and create sustainability options in various forms?

In this article, we investigate a conceptual framework of scientic exploration in open complex systems and develop a framework of exploration interfaces taking an example in ecosystems management.

Open Systems and Closed Systems Approximation

Open Systems with respect to Dynamical Systems

Dynamical systems modelling is one of the primary methods in complex systems science [START_REF] Strogatz | Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: With Applications to Physics[END_REF]. Table 1 and gures 1 compare open systems with closed systems approximation in dynamical systems perspective. Dynamical systems, when used in closed systems application, usually treat isolated systems with nite boundary conditions, in which control of reproducible events with a feedback to a desired state is the object of analysis. For such purpose, high-resolution modelling and simulation with external observation is ecient, and controlling the phenomena requires the information quantity in terms of information theory dened on a closed environment without the dynamic exchange of components with external environment.

On the other hand, open systems as it is in real world contain important dynamics in one-time-only events. Such phenomena cannot be externally controlled nor can be nely predicted from past data. Instead, we need to cope with the emerging phenomena and seek for an active transition to an alternative state with strategic adaptation that resolves the conict. This is not a resilient feedback with a xed denition of systems, but rather an expansion of the systems including outer environment that leads to the redenition of the boundary with transition phenomena, in which eective information measures should be redened. This process is associated with both the exploration and management from inside of the systems that precede modelling and simulation. The importance of exploration is not to gain the information quantity with a xed framework of observation, but to explore the extended denition of the systems that can encapsulate necessary information for the management as a result. We call this process of extending the systems denition and evaluate the information within to cope with irreproducible events as information generation.

Open Systems with respect to Machine Learning

Machine learning incorporates a wide forms of statistical modelling in complex systems [START_REF] Murphy | Machine Learning: A Probabilistic Perspective[END_REF]. Theoretically, non-linear statistical measures can classify any kind of statistical dependency within the eective dimensions of feature space [START_REF] Funabashi | Network Decomposition and Complexity Measures: An Information Geometrical Approach[END_REF].

Closed Systems Approximation

Open

Towards Dynamical Assessment of Ecosystems

Ecosystems functions and the services they provide is a major source of socialecological sustainability [START_REF]Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis[END_REF]. Although an increasing number of literatures reveal general positive relation between biodiversity and ecosystems functions, local assessment and its utilization depend highly on local initiative and industrial inertia that devoid of appropriate scientic support [START_REF] Yeo-Chang | Value of Traditional Knowledge in Forest Policy Process[END_REF]. We try to convert the conventional environment assessment protocol with the use of open systems science methodology in order to achieve a dynamical assessment of ecosystems.

Figures 3 and table 3 shows the comparison between typical environmental

assessment and possible open systems extension. Usually, environmental assessment is performed on a basis of static, xed scoring framework that is derived from past empirical studies [24][25]. Current environmental studies are based on sensing parameters and index species whose score in relation to environmental quality is dened with past experience [START_REF] Jensen | A Guidebook for Integrated Ecological Assessment[END_REF]. There is however few consideration of possible future change of base-line ecosystems, especially regime shifts in response to climate change and human perturbation in a global scale [START_REF] Biggs | Turning back from the brink: Detecting an impending regime shift in time to avert it[END_REF]. The number of index species are pre-dened and limited. Observation methods are specied that often require training by professional to assure the quality of data.

By respecting the quality of reproducible observation based on the past statistics, therefore limiting the target systems in space and time, conventional assessment lacks in some aspects the accessibility to a wide public and adaptability to abrupt environmental changes where redenition of the systems, descriptive index, and future insight should be renewed on time.

To cope with an ever-changing open systems that lies in the nature of ecosystems and associated human activities, we need to extend assessment protocols to an interactive and dynamical interface that can treat on-the-y modication of the protocol itself. The acceleration of information sharing, processing, and augmentation of interactivity can further modify the way of environmental assessment, and contribute to the readiness of the management. Information communication technology(ICT) is expected to bring more dynamic and reexive dimension in citizen science, allowing to ll the gap between crude, diverse data and rened governance on multifunctional ecosystems [START_REF]French Roadmap for Complex Systems[END_REF]. Since model-based prediction from physical to biological diversity still confronts complexity of ecological response [START_REF] Xu | Temperature and vegetation seasonality diminishment over northern lands[END_REF], direct biodiversity measurement with human observation still plays an essential role. The distributed measurement of biodiversity with interactive ICT has a potential to shift the modality of indexing and scoring of species, from stable, qualitative description to dynamic, quantitative data-driven assessment in real time. This approach will expand current assessment in its observation network, data quantity, and analytic tools, on an integrated design of distributed ICT. By means of the on-the-y observation, reexive redenition of index species and its environmental score is possible. Such dynamic reconguration of assessment criteria would introduce more exibility for rapidly adapting to changing situation. For that purpose, we propose an iterative framework that comprises database, models, and observation that can modify its relationship according to the actual change of situation.

Observation of multi-scale systems such as society and ecosystems is internal observation in principle. We cannot rely on empirical external measurement in terms of data eciency and analytical predictability [START_REF] Xu | Temperature and vegetation seasonality diminishment over northern lands[END_REF]. Rather, we need to assure a diversity of strategies to allow multiple actors to explore possible scenarios that are rich enough to mitigate unpredictable change. Open systems exploration in ecosystems management may not realize the reproducibility or predictability on what will happen, but should seek for the capacity of exploration on what could happen for a exible planning of strategy portfolio. This is a common principle in ICT-mediated citizen science in the roadmap of complex systems science [START_REF]French Roadmap for Complex Systems[END_REF].

With this respect, structural design of exploratory simulation tools should have emphasis on the diversity of the models, their parameters, and reexive evaluation of substantive variables for dynamic adaptability. For example, data-driven assessment of biodiversity and associated environmental quality can be realized with this framework. Taking environmental variables and biodiversity as a database, a wide range of possible denitions of index species and their environmental scores can be generated from simulators, which will be selected to extract high-resolution assessment scheme as actual measurement continues. Steep change of biodiversity, environment and observation network can be immediately reected to the assessment protocol by producing new possibilities of scoring system with new inputs. We develop basic interfaces and models of such protocol in the next chapters.

Example of Suggestion Tool : Integration of Environmental and Biodiversity Data with Symbolic Dynamics Analysis

Integration of biodiversity and sensor data is a fundamental task in data-driven environmental management. While current studies try to integrate biodiversity records with remote sensing databases [START_REF] Homan | Improved access to integrated biodiversity data for science, practice, and policy -the European Biodiversity Observation Network (EU BON)[END_REF][32], little has been investigated on a local scale under direct eect of management. For example in agricultural land, sensor-based measurement and control of precision agriculture [START_REF] Gebbers | Precision agriculture and food security[END_REF] is not connected with local biodiversity observation. Natural farming practices based on local biodiversity, on the other hand, rely merely on human observation and have little introduced sensor technology [34] [START_REF] Fujita | Nature Farming Practices for Apple Production in Japan[END_REF]. In actual management of farmland with both yield and biodiversity promotion, one needs to consider the integrated aspects of biodiversity and environmental conditions [START_REF] Seifert | Comparing the yields of organic and conventional agriculture[END_REF][37] [START_REF] Bengtsson | The eects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis[END_REF].

We propose a general framework to integrate biodiversity data based on human observation and sensor data in general with the use of symbolic dynamics in dynamical systems [START_REF] Douglas | An introduction to symbolic dynamics and coding[END_REF]. Biodiversity data is a list of species names and related taxonomy in correspondence to its meta data such as observation place and time. This is a symbolic data that refers to the quality of the taxonomic prole of observed biota. In contrast, sensor data are the numerical values of physical characteristics measured on the environment with the meta data. This is in general represented with a real data type that refers to the quantity of each measurement item. The integration of biodiversity and sensor data can be generalised into the following problem: What is the characteristics of the symbolic dynamics of a measured ecosystem, in which sensor data is the estimate of underlying dynamical system and biodiversity data as the symbols that represent the states of the systems?

The reconstruction of symbolic dynamics with given biodiversity and sensor data of an ecosystem is possible by matching the meta data such as place and time between them. As a concrete example, we employ Voronoi diagram [START_REF] Atsuyuki Okabe | Spatial Tessellations -Concepts and Applications of Voronoi Diagrams[END_REF] to segment sensor data phase space with biodiversity symbols. Figures 5 show the it is possible to estimate its niche boundary by an interpolation. Signicant correlation between estimated niches(e.g. order-wise correlation [START_REF] Funabashi | Order-Wise Correlation Dynamics in Text Data[END_REF]) can provide suggestions that there might be underlying ecological dependence between those species.

Theoretically, innite sequence of nite biodiversity symbols can specify any arbitrary trajectory of meteorological data with real-value precision, if the system is deterministic and the partition is generating in terms of symbolic dynamics [START_REF] Hirata | Estimating a generating partition from observed time series: Symbolic shadowing[END_REF]. To enrich the suggestion based on the spatio-temporal structure, this model is further accessible to mathematical analysis of symbolic dynamics that can treat complex trajectories in dynamical systems including chaos.

Example of Model Selection: Seasonal Segmentation and Prediction of Biodiversity Observation

Besides the data interface and integration model that can provide interactive suggestions to the observation, we further consider how to select a better predictive model in a changing situation. We take an example of biodiversity prediction combined with meteorological data in time development. This is again a prototypical model for the integration of sensor and biodiversity data, but with consideration to the renement of real-time feedback on observation based on the model selection.

We employ hidden Markov model(HMM) as a primitive example of seasonal segmentation of meteorological data [START_REF] Baum | Statistical Inference for Probabilistic Functions of Finite State Markov Chains[END_REF]. We applied the standard forwardbackward algorithm for the inference of hidden states from the past AMeDAS data, and the Viterbi algorithm to inversely infer hidden states with new data for each observation. 4. Achievement of basic system properties of 3 example models, multi-partite graph(MPG), symbolic dynamics model(SDM), and hidden Markov model(HMM), for the integration in dynamical assessment.

The correspondences between the processes in the gure 3 (Right) of dynamical assessment and the utilisation of each example model are summarised in the table 5.

The information generation proposed as the essential dynamics of open systems exploration in table 1 can further be explored in the following contexts: Multi-partite graph: Exploration of links and validation by observation The table 7 gives the list of observed species in the table 6. As an example of scoring system generation, the environmental score of these species are calculated from the number of edible species observed in the same date and place as an indicator of the productivity. The environmental score of each species was calculated as follows:

1. Calculate the observation-wise environmental score of each species as the number of edible species for each observation.

2. Take mean value of all observation to obtain the overall environmental score of each species.

These environmental scores will evolve as the observation continues and can serve as a data-driven predictor of edible species diversity. Although the scores

are not yet ne-grained due to the one-year time scale limit, future observations 6. Numbers of generative candidates of index species extracted from dynamical assessment in Synecoculture project. The numbers indicate the number of species that were suggested from the prototypical models, observed on eld, and classied as consistent/past/novelty index species according to the inclusion and exclusion relationships between suggestion and observation: Consistent index species commonly appeared in both suggestion and observation, while past and novelty index species only appeared in either suggestion or observation, respectively. can be evaluated using the generated scoring systems of index species and further rene and expand the list. The time scale of the database that generates a better scoring system can then be selected to optimise the predictability. The scoring systems can also enrich exploration process as species with similar scores are susceptible of ecient exploration to entail more comprehensive observation.

When sucient diversity of observation is assured in the loop of dynamical assessment, the scoring systems are expected to yield an eective measure with available means, timely reecting ever-changing conditions of open systems. Information generation, a crucial requirement for open systems exploration, can therefore be evaluated by the dynamical reconguration of the generative index species scoring system in response to environmental change. The author acknowledges Hidemori Yazaki, Kousaku Ohta, Tatsuya Kawaoka, Kazuhiro Takimoto, and Shuntaro Aotake who worked as research assistant.

Scientic validation

This paper has been unanimously validated in a collaborative review mode with the following reviewers: Reviewer 1 name and institution

  Most of the natural systems can be described as open systems, and open systems science includes a proto-scientic description ranging between phenomenology and science. In a broad term, conventional science, or closed systems science is an approximation of originally open systems with an articial boundary denition that prohibits open interaction with further external environment. We need however clarify what is common with conventional scientic methodology and what is new or explorable with the conception of open systems. For that purpose, we formalise the comparison between open systems and its closed systems approximation that already has specied examples in conventional science.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Conception of open systems in contrast to closed systems approximation in dynamical systems. Left: Resilient feedback to controlled state in closed systems approximation. Right: Active transition to alternative state in open systems. Blue lines indicate the potential of the environment, in which systems depicted with orange circles are controlled and managed with red trajectories.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Conception of open systems in contrast to closed systems approximation in machine learning. Left: Single algorithm optimization on a xed database framework in closed systems approximation. Right: Exploration and optimization with a workow of algorithms in open systems. Blue rectangles correspond to the framework of databases or observation, in which algorithmic optimisations are performed with information criteria depicted as orange distributions.

  Fig. 3. Environmental assessment protocols in closed systems approximation and open systems exploration. Left: Typical conventional protocol with closed systems perspective (based on [24][25][26]). To ensure the objectivity and reproducibility of observation, violet processes are usually xed based on the past assessment data. Orange processes need to respect pre-dened methods that usually call for training by professionals. Right: Dynamical assessment as a process of open systems exploration applied in ecosystems management. Hence the right protocol can include the left one by xing the corresponding parameters.

  agement: Distributed measurements including the sensing of ecosystem agents collect massive data with multiple and uctuating criteria. A copious combination of analytical and numerical simulators produce possible predictions in the background, which are given feedback by the on-going measurement to evaluate the ecacy of each model and weight the data variable in a reexive workow with multiple timescale. Not only the eect of single variable but synergetic effects between variables can be explored with a variety of model functions. The observation network should be recongured according to the eciency of the actual management, in order to assure sucient diversity of substantive variables by eliminating useless ones and investing for novel exploration. Here, the frame problem of determining suciently diverse and eective subset of variables is a consistent task to resolve. Cloud computing resource and parallel-processed simulators would play essential role for the on-site implementation.

3. 2

 2 Example of Data Interface: Multi-Partite Graph Exploration We develop prototypical interfaces for open systems exploration applied in ecosystems management. As a testbed we use an ecological database developed in Synecoculture project [29]. The database comprises biodiversity observation in various Synecoculture farms and surrounding environment in Japan. To assess these environment in open systems perspective, one needs to diversify the observation until it can attain the saturation of the biodiversity measures related to the management principles. For this purpose, extensive link of data and related information is useful as an initial hands-on interface. Figures 4 show a multi-partite graph visualisation of biodiversity records. The observation of plants and insects species are linked according to the geographical cooccurrence with taxonomical relationships and observation places. The users can explore on this graph to seek concurrent and/or allied species, that could extend their observation activity and learn related ecological information. This model can support extensive search for data registration within the framework of cumulative past experience. It represents a simplest model for prediction in which all past cooccurrences are superimposed. Management requires wider choice in response to a change. Ecosystems dynamics under human perturbation is especially irregular and dicult to harness [30]. By combining further information source such as climate data and ecological literature, multi-partite links can provide wider choice triggered by actual observation when a new data is recorded and connected in the web of multipartite relations. The real-time development of complex network of observation with automated link to relevant information is a primary interface that complex systems science can oer to open systems exploration. The evolution of complex network autonomously combines observation and related knowledge, and extends the framework of possible observation to provide collective suggestion between users.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig.4. Snapshots of multi-partite graph between plants(green), insects(magenta), biological taxonomy(orange), and observation place(yellow). The links represent the total co-occurrence in the database (Synecoculture CMS[START_REF] Funabashi | IT-Mediated Development of Sustainable Agriculture Systems Toward a Data-Driven Citizen Science[END_REF]).

  symbolic dynamics analysis of the Synecoculture biodiversity database during April 2011 -March 2013 by matching with the corresponding meteorological data from Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System(AMeDAS) provided by Japan Meteorological Agency [41]. We rst performed principal component analysis to choose the linear combinations of the most distinctive 2-dimensional feature space of meteorological parameters (gure 5 Top Left). Based on the rst 2 principal components space(PC1-PC2), 30 previous days mean of AMeDAS data is segmented with Voroni diagram for each observation date recorded in Synecoculture database. Analysis of observable species diversity(gure 5 Top Right), niche estimation of particular species (gures 5 Bottom Left and Right) are possible on this model. For example, when the meteorological sensor data of a new day are obtained, the model can indicate what is the list of observed species in the past, and whether the observation in the corresponding partition is already rich or poor. The segmentation can further augment resolution as the observation cumulates. When the distribution of a species is conned in a subspace of the Voronoi diagram,

Figure 6 Fig. 5 .

 65 Fig. 5. Example of symbolic dynamics analysis of biodiversity and meteorological data. Top Left: Factor loading of principal components analysis(PC1 and PC2) of 11 daily meteorological parameters(mean/maximum/minimum temperature, daily precipitation, day length, global solar radiation, mean wind speed, mean vapour pressure, mean atmospheric pressure, mean humidity, mean cloud cover, snow depth) in AMeDAS data. Top Right: Voronoi segmentation of AMeDAS data PC1-PC2 space with Synecoculture biodiversity database for each 30 days mean. The colour represents the number of species observed in the same partition. Bottom Left: Example of niche estimation of Parnara guttata guttata (Bremer et Grey, 1852) (in picture) on the symbolic dynamics analysis. Bottom Right: Example of niche estimation of Sonchus asper (L.) Hill (in picture) on the symbolic dynamics analysis. Partitions where the species appeared are lled with red.

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Example of model selection on an integrated model of biodiversity and sensor data with hidden Markov model(HMM). Top: Example of seasonal segmentation of AMeDAS daily mean temperature data with 3 hidden states. Estimated probability of each state is plotted with corresponding colour. Middle: Numerical experiment of model selection based on the likelihood of HMMs with hidden states 2 to 10, for each 30 observations mean. Likelihood of each HMM is depicted as dots with colours that corresponds to the number of hidden states. Bottom: Time development of new species appearance rate for each 30 observations and number of hidden states of selected HMM giving maximum likelihood for prediction. Dynamic trend of model selection and learning occurs with the real-time feedback of observation.

Table 1 .

 1 Conception of open systems in contrast to closed systems approximation in dynamical systems.

	Systems

Table 2

 2

	and gures 2 compare open systems with closed systems approxima-
	tion in machine learning perspective. While standard closed systems approaches
	dene the format of database and observation methods, open systems reality
	do not always guarantee the continuity both in the denition of data items and
	its quality. Ubiquitous sensor network and citizen observation, for example, in-
	evitably contain biases in various scales. This situation has a common challenge
	with the frame problem in articial intelligence [21]. In the open systems reality
	where we do not suciently know how to assume the eective boundary of the
	systems, evaluation with a single algorithm can be a blind measure with respect
	to the global management goal including future utility. We need to prepare a
	portfolio of various evaluations within available resources, with respect to a con-
	ceivable range of future scenarios, in order to set up a try-and-error workow
	that can maximally avoid the operation to fail. This process is not a mere eval-
	uation with an external algorithmic measure, but a creation of novel suitable
	measures for future transition, in which sense we call it ontogenesis associated
	with information generation.

Table 2 .

 2 Conception of open systems in contrast to closed systems approximation in machine learning.

Table 3 .

 3 Characteristics of environmental assessment protocols in closed systems approximation(Current environmental assessment) and open systems exploration(Dynamical assessment).

		Current environmental assessment	Dynamical assessment
	Interface	Static, xed scoring framework	Interactive, dynamical, on-the-y ICT
	Index	Pre-dened and limited	Can be expanded and renewed by observation
	Observation method	Fixed	Can be modied, various
	Accessibility	Mainly for trained professionals	Open to wide public without training
	Evaluation	Based on the past experience	By renewal of the observation scheme
			according to the focused change

Table 5 .

 5 Correspondence between dynamical assessment process in gure 3 (Right) and multi-partite graph(MPG), symbolic dynamics model(SDM), and hidden Markov model(HMM).

	Process in gure 3 (Right)	Process in example models
	Input	AMeDAS and Synecoculture database
	Prediction	Links in MPG
		Suggestion from SDM
		Prediction with HMM
	Feedback	Selection of eective information in MPG
		Selection of time window in SDM
		Parameters selection in HMM
	Selection	Selection of AMeDAS variables in SDM and HMM
	Geographical and time window selection of Synecoculture database
	Registration	Modication of actual observation
		Introduction of new observation method
		Setting of new sensors
	Symbolic dynamics model: Field exploration of suggested species diversity,
	niche condition, and its validation
	Hidden Markov model: Exploration of wider parameter spaces, model selec-
	tion with a real-time observation likelihood during operation
	4.2 Example of Assessment Result: Generative Index Species
	Scoring Systems
	By gradually introducing the suggestion from prototypical models, environmen-
	tal assessment in Synecoculture project started to operate the initial steps of
	dynamical assessment. Data-driven lists of index species candidates are obtained
	from the eld practice between August 2014 -July 2015 as in the table 6. These
	generative index species, when connected with other database that refers to the
	quality of environment such as yield, will serve as timely recongurable mea-
	sures of environmental quality in an ever-changing open systems surrounding
	the practice and management.

Table 7 :

 7 List of observed species and its environmental score based on the edible species diversity during the observations between Au-

	gust 2014 -July 2015.
	Academic name	Score
	Morella rubra Lour.	37
	Ficus carica L.	37
	Zanthoxylum ailanthoides Siebold et Zucc.

Table 7 :

 7 List of observed species and its environmental score based on the edible species diversity during the observations between August 2014 -July 2015.

	Academic name	Score
	Glycine max (L.) Merr. subsp. max	16.5
	Rubus tridus Thunb.	16.5
	Capsicum annuum 'grossum'	16.5
	Nerium oleander L. var. indicum (Mill.) O.Deg. et Greenwell	16.33333333
	Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse, 1894)	16
	Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758	16
	Armeniaca mume (Siebold et Zucc.) de Vriese	16
	Promachus yesonicus Bigot, 1887	16
	Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv.	16
	Atractomorpha lata (Motschulsky, 1866)	15.75
	Cynara scolymus L.	15.66666667
	Papilio machaon hippocrates C. et R.Felder, 1864	15.66666667
	Dolycoris baccalum (Linnaeus, 1758)	15.66666667
	A. ocinalis	15.6
	Aphididae	15.5
	Polistes jadwigae jadwigae Dalla Torre, 1904	15.5
	Mentha suaveolens	15.5
	Cornus controversa Hemsl. ex Prain	15.5
	Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne.	15.5
	Solanum nigrum L.	15.33333333
	Rutaceae	15.33333333
	Mentha canadensis L. var. piperascens (Malinv. ex Holmes) H.Hara	15.2
	Helianthus annuus L.	15
	Capsicum annuum L.	15
	Petroselinum neapolitanum	15
	Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plenck	15
	Solanum melongena L.	15
	Nephotettix cincticeps (Uhler, 1896)	15
	Lavandula ocinalis Chaix.	15
	Colias erate poliographus Motschulsky, 1860	15
	Melissa ocinalis	15
	M. pumila	14.75
	Nysius plebejus Distant, 1883	14.66666667
	Rosmarinus ocinalis	14.66666667
	Pisum sativum L.	14.6
	Zingiber mioga (Thunb.) Roscoe	14.5
	Raphanus sativus L.	14
	Aphis craccivora craccivora Koch, 1854	14
	Vicia faba L.	14
	Dolerus similis japonicus Kirby, l882	14
	Coccinellidae	14

Table 7 :

 7 List of observed species and its environmental score based on the edible species diversity during the observations between August 2014 -July 2015.

	Academic name	Score
	Fabaceae	14
	Canna	14
	Phytomyza horticola (Goureau, 1851)	13.66666667
	Eruca vesicaria	13.5
	Aulacophora femoralis (Motschulsky, 1857)	13
	Nephila clavata	13
	Gryllidae	13
	Xanthophthalmum coronarium (L.) P.D.Sell	13
	Diospyros kaki Thunb.	13
	Brassica rapa L. var. perviridis L.H.Bailey	13
	Illeis koebelei koebeleiTimberlake, 1943	13
	Veronica persica Poir.	12
	Takydromus tachydromoides ( Schlegel, 1838)	12
	Armadillidium vulgare	10
	Cycas revoluta Thunb.	10
	Camellia japonica	10
	Citrus japonica Thunb.	10
	5 Acknowledgement

Mimela splendens(Gyllenhal, 1817)


Jean-Michel Genevaux

Bruno Brouard

Adrien Pelat

Déploiement d'un graphe des compétences L1-M2 en acoustique-mécanique au sein d'une université. . Congrès Français d'Acoustique Avril 2016

1 Ce papier présente la mise en place d'un outil Web permettant la visualisation du graphe des compétences d'un parcours de type Licence-Master. Cet outils est accessible via http ://umtice.univlemans.fr/course/view.php ?id=2619. Un sondage auprès des différents usagers (étudiants, enseignants, administration) permet de recueillir leurs réactions.

Introduction

Une évaluation significative des compétences acquises par un étudiant au cours de sa formation n'est pas facile, d'autant plus que leur pérennité est incertaine. Néanmoins la mise en place d'un graphe des compétences permet à l'étudiant d'avoir une vision un peu plus claire du chemin qu'il lui reste à parcourir, de ce qu'on attend de lui et de se situer par rapport au reste de la promotion. Cette mise en place suscite également un grand nombre de commentaires/inquiétudes de la part des enseignants, des responsables de semestre et des responsables administratifs.

Différents niveaux d'engagement apparaissent au sein des enseignants limitant pour le moment le nombre de compétences apparaissant sur le graphe. Un fort ratio efficacité/investissement semblent nécessaire pour convaincre certains collègues à participer à cette mise en place.

Après une rapide présentation des fonctionnalités actuelles du graphes des compétences, les réactions des publics sondés sont ensuite présentées.

Fonctionnalités

Le graphe des compétences actuellement construit représente une partie des compétences qui sont visées pour les deux formations en continuité : de L1 à L3 Sciences Pour l'Ingénieur et M1-M2 acoustique de l'Université du Maine. Il est basé sur le volontariat de chaque équipe enseignante pour un module : il n'est pas donc exhaustif et est amené à se compléter si l'utilité de celui-ci est à terme avérée.

Pour chaque semestre de formation, une compétence est repérée par un point. Les compétences d'un même module sont à proximité. Le positionnement vertical d'un module est associé à une thématique. Pour ce graphe, il a été choisi : acoustique et électroacoustique vers le haut, enseignement transversaux (math, etc.) vers le milieu et mécanique vers le bas.

Passer la souris sur un point permet de visualiser le contenu de cette compétence et s'allument en bleu les compétences qui lui sont liées (parentes vers la gauche et filles vers la droite). Passer la souris sur un module permet de visualiser le nom de ce module ainsi que celui du ou des responsables pédagogiques. Cliquer sur un point permet d'accéder à une page Web présentant, au choix de l'équipe enseignante, soit une page cours/TD ou un exemple d'évaluation de cette compétence.

Pour chaque étudiant il est possible de visualiser ses réussites aux compétences pour lesquelles il a été testé :

• verte : « a validé »,

• orange : « n'a validé que partiellement »,

• rouge : « n'a pas validé »,

• gris : « n'a pas été testé ».

Tout comme pour un examen, ces validations ne correspondent qu'à la réussite d'un test de compétence à une date donnée : cela ne préjuge pas que celles-ci ont disparues avec le temps.

Le graphique des compétences de chacun est appelé blason. Il est visible par tous les enseignants et tous les étudiants.

Réactions

Les réactions des enseignants, des étudiants et de l'administration à la mise en place de ce graphe des compétences ont été recueillies.

Des enseignants

Lancé début décembre 2015 au sein d'une communauté d'une soixantaine d'enseignants qui interviennent dans le cursus concerné, la figure 2 présente l'évolution du nombre d'enseignants impliqués. Cet engagement peut être de plusieurs niveaux repérés par une couleur : grise : Ne pas avoir été informé de l'existence au sein de L1-M2 Acoustique-Mécanique du graphe des compétence.

blanche : Connaître l'existence au sein de L1-M2 Acoustique-Mécanique du graphe des compétences.

jaune : Solliciter un étudiant en difficulté sur un exercice, pour lui demander de présenter son graphe des compétences, afin de vérifier avec lui si les prérequis à cet exercice sont maîtrisés.

orange : Insérer les compétences visées au sein de l'un de ses enseignements, mettre en évidence les liens avec des compétences d'autres modules. Tenir à jour les validations par les étudiants.

verte : Assurer le fonctionnement du prototype de création des graphes, accompagner les collègues qui souhaitent monter en « couleur » d'engagement.

bleue : Avoir de l'énergie à dépenser (en pure perte ?) pour que le Pôle de Ressources Numériques développe un outil ayant les fonctionnalités de construction et de présentation de ce graphe des compétences. Pour les informer et solliciter leur participation, ont été fait : une réunion, l'enregistrement vidéo de la présentation, deux courriels à deux semaines d'intervalle, des visites physiques auprès des collègues, un courriel un mois après le lancement de l'action informant de l'ouverture de l'accès aux étudiants. De façon logique, un accueil de très réservé à très favorable a été observé. On notera que les collègues sollicités ont pris le temps de s'informer sur cette démarche, qu'une fois la sollicitation physiquement faite : les priorités des enseignants-chercheurs sont effectivement ailleurs que dans l'outil proposé.

À la date de début mars 2016, 57 compétences sont représentées. Les compétences de mécanique sont surreprésentée par rapport aux heures enseignées, du fait du profil des enseignants impliqués.

Si le taux d'enseignants impliqués semble converger vers 30% à la date d'aujourd'hui, ceci nous semble suffisant pour tester jusqu'en juin 2017 si les étudiants et les enseignants consultent ce graphe. Si la pertinence de l'outil est alors montrée, l'implication de nouveaux collègues se fera sans doute par la sollicitation directe entre modules : Un enseignant participant au graphe pouvant demander à son collègue qui en a la charge, d'afficher les compétences pré-requises à son enseignement. La diffusion sera donc nécessairement lente.

Dans cette phase actuelle de mise en place, l'affichage d'une compétence visée par un enseignant, a parfois surpris ces collègues, parfois parce que cette thématique semblait relever de leur « pré carré ». Cet outil de représentation rend visible d'éventuelles redondances et, une fois la surprise passée, un travail d'homogénéisation et de compréhension plus précise de ce que fait le collègue, peut potentiellement se mettre en place. Il apparaît dans le Tableau 1 que les étudiants déclarent qu'ils utiliseront l'outil et qu'il n'est pas gênant qu'un autre étudiant puisse observer leur graphe personnel.

Des étudiants

Une question ouverte supplémentaire a permis aussi de récolter demandes et questionnements.

Leurs demandes concernent une amélioration de la lisibilité du graphe (affichage du regroupement de compétences par thème, sélection d'une thématique ou d'un parcours acoustique ou mécanique pour l'affichage, couleurs différentes pour les compétences parentes et filles...), mais aussi le fonctionnement (pouvoir rattraper des compétences non validées, un lot de compétence est non validées pour l'ensemble des étudiants : « Sommes-nous tous mauvais ? ») et la complétude (démarrer la validation de compétences dès la première année de licence.)

Le lien avec les notes est questionné, mais aucune proposition n'est faite de leur part.

De l'administration

Les avis de 7 des 8 responsables de semestres de L1 à M2, du responsable de l'UFR Sciences de l'Université du Maine, de la responsable de l'Institut Le Mans ACoustique et le responsable de la mise en place d'un Cursus Master en Ingénierie au sein de l'Université du Maine, ont été recueillis par l'intermédiaire d'un entretien semi-directif d'une durée de 10 à 20 minutes.

Selon eux, l'utilisation du graphe des compétences présente certains intérêts :

• Il correspond exactement à l'un des critères de mise en place d'une formation de type Cursus Master en Ingénierie au sein d'une université.

• L'observation des réactions des étudiants peut indiquer leur implication dans le cursus.

• Les liens entre les différents modules de tout le cursus sont mis en évidence.

• L'observation des redondances et manques facilite une dynamique de modification des contenus respectifs.

• La construction de ce graphe, permet au responsable de semestre de recueillir les compétences qui sont effectivement visées par chaque enseignement, et non seulement les compétences affichées dans une maquette.

• Cela permet de lier un diplôme à une liste de compétences.

• Cela peut faciliter le dialogue entre l'enseignant, l'étudiant et le monde socio-professionnel.

• La vision doit permettre à un étudiant de se choisir une formation « à la carte », d'identifier ses lacunes, et de demander d'avoir accès à un système de ressources et d'accompagnement différé sur ces lacunes.

• L'observation à long terme du comportement de cohortes doit permettre de dégager les grandes voies de formation qu'ils utilisent et de mettre en cohérence le cursus aux trajets les plus probables des étudiants.

• L'affichage d'un taux faible de réussite d'une promotion a une compétence, devrait remettre en question l'enseignement associé ou simplement le mode d'évaluation.

• Les compétences sont des indicateurs plus fins que les notes.

• Le incite à ce que des validations puissent être faites au fil de l'eau ou même rétroactivement une fois un module de formation clos.

• L'affichage du graphe nécessite d'aligner les compétences, l'évaluation, l'enseignement, ce qui met en avant les éléments essentiels de l'enseignement.

Néanmoins des risques sont pris :

• Se concentrer sur la construction de ce graphe, c'est dépenser son énergie sur une problématique mineure par rapport à des problèmes bien plus importants de pertinence des examens actuels : si la formation est une robe, le graphe des compétence est la dentelle au poignet droit, alors que la robe est déchirée...

• Ce graphe permet un contrôle entre collègues.

• Avant d'afficher l'efficacité de son travail, l'équipe enseignante devrait se concentrer sur l'amélioration de la qualité intrinsèque de son enseignement.

• Que des enseignants ne participent pas à ce système par manque d'informations et/ou que la participation nécessite « +3dB » de travail.

• Il peut apparaître une incohérence entre les notes et les validations de compétences.

• La non-exhaustivité des compétences représentées pour un semestre, peut induire une demande de la part des étudiants que l'ensemble des enseignements soit inclus.

• Les compétences peuvent être mal définies dans leur libellé et ne pas correspondre exactement à ce qui est évalué lors d'une année n.

• Une granularité trop fine, un morcellement, peut impliquer un « nuage » non utilisable car le lecteur s'y perd.

• Une sensibilité des compétences affichées par un module au desiderata de l'enseignant qui a en charge ce module au cours d'une année n.

• Se contenter d'une évaluation des compétences et non des gens qui possèdent ces compétences.

• Qu'un étudiant n'accepte pas que ses compétences évaluées soient publiques.

• Considérer que la validation d'une compétence à un instant donnée reste valide ad-vitam aeternam.

• Enfermement dans une vision trop rigoriste du fait de cet indicateur.

• La formulation en compétences « universitaire » peut être fort éloignée de la formulation de compétences par le monde socio-professionnel : cela nécessiterait d'établir des correspondances.

• L'efficacité n'est possible que si une grosse majorité d'enseignements participe à ce graphe.

• Pour certaines matières, la déclinaison en compétences est très artificielle et utiliser le graphe des compétences implique que l'on porte à celles-ci plus de poids que nécessaire.

• Avoir accès à la cartographie pour un étudiant en difficulté et présentant beaucoup de lacunes, peut désespérer l'enseignant et le détourner de son rôle d'aide vis-à-vis de cet étudiant.

• Tout comme une note à un module, la durabilité dans le temps d'une compétence chez un étudiant peut être volatile et cela ne reste qu'une validation, une fois, à un instant t, sur un sujet particulier, dans un contexte qui pourrait être un clone d'un exercice fait en travaux dirigés.

• L'enseignant pourrait être amené à n'évaluer que des compétences au sein d'un contrôle.

Les actions envisagées par ces responsables nécessitent qu'ils soient convaincus d'un fort ratio efficacité/investissement. S'ils le sont, devenant ambassadeurs de la méthode, ils pourront alors inviter les collègues à y participer et mettre en place les moyens nécessaires pour que compléter l'information des compétences de chaque étudiant représente un travail supplémentaire négligeable par rapport à celui de fournir des notes, hélas encore indispensable dans le système actuel.

Si ceci est faisable aisément pour les contrôles à venir, c'est bien plus difficile pour les contrôles passés pour les étudiants en cours de cursus à l'Université du Maine : à moins que ces contrôles passés n'aient été faits sous forme de validation de compétences comme cela a été le cas pour quelques-unes sous une modalité de type ceintures [START_REF] Génevaux | Leur remonter les bretelles ou leur faire passer des ceintures ?[END_REF]. La région sera informée de l'approche suivie par l'intermédiaire des rapports d'activité et de perspectives de LMAC.

À la date de début mars 2016, des proposition sont faites afin d'améliorer le graphe

• en présentant par un jeu de couleur, le taux de détention de chaque compétence parmi les étudiants du semestre et des semestres ultérieurs,

• en affichant le mél du/des valideur(s) de chaque compétence,

• de quantifier puis d'afficher les liens entre différents lots de compétences, par l'analyse des flux de réussite des étudiants,

• en affichant sur le graphe, les grandes familles scientifiques (acoustique, mécanique...)

• en complétant les acquisition de compétences des étudiants pour plus de matières,

Conclusion

Comme toute innovation pédagogique, l'introduction d'un graphe des compétences, évoluera suivant l'une des trois modalités [START_REF] Bédard | Innover dans l'enseignement supérieur[END_REF] :

• l'enkystement du fait du non-élargissement du groupe d'acteurs d'où le figeage de l'évolution,

• la disparition par l'épuisement des acteurs s'ils ne reçoivent pas de soutien de la part de l'institution,

• l'institutionnalisation et la dissémination si les structures administratives jouent leur rôle d'accompagnement.

Fasse que la troisième voie soit celle poursuivie localement et que cet article et la présentation faite lors du colloque soit des points d'appui pour les collègues d'autres formations en France qui souhaiteraient mettre en place une démarche similaire et créer un réseau d'échange et d'analyse à ce propos.

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1 -Graphe de compétences d'un étudiant (blason), indiquant le statut de chaque compétence par la couleur.

Figure 2 -

 2 Figure 2 -Evolution avec le temps du nombre d'enseignant impliqués.

  Les 245 étudiants concernés par ce graphe des compétences ont été sondés via un questionnaire informatique. 32 étudiants ont répondu.

	Question	o		n
		taf po pn pdt
	As-tu consulté ton graphe
	personnel des
	compétences ?	28		4
	Penses-tu à terme, suivre
	l'évolution de ton graphe
	des compétences en
	fonction de tes réussites/
	échecs aux examens/TP/
	ceintures/ oraux. . . ?	6 16 6	3
	As-tu consulté le graphe
	des compétences d'un autre
	étudiant que toi-même ?	13		19
	Le fait qu'un autre étudiant
	puisse consulter ton graphe
	personnel te gêne-t-il ?	3	5 10 14
	Les compétences sont
	dépendantes d'autres. -
	Voir ces relations te
	semble-t-il utile ?	13 18 1	0

Tableau 1 : Réponses des étudiants à l'utilisation du graphe des compétences (o/taf=oui/tout à fait, po=plutôt oui, pn=plutôt non, n/pdt=non/pas du tout)

Remerciements Références