Yaacov J Katz
email: yaacov.katz@biu.ac.il

The Historical Relationship between Affective Variables and ICT Based Learning and Instruction and Achievement in the Israeli School System

Keywords: ICT based learning and instruction, behavioral theory, constructivist theory, scholastic achievement, affective variables

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Introduction

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as an educational medium has not made the impression on educational outcomes as expected. Since the 1960s when the first attempts were made to implement ICT based learning and instruction in the school classroom, much experience has been gained and much frustration that has been generated. The idea of using ICT based learning and instruction as a foolproof educational methodology is far from been fulfilled. Achievement levels attained by students in different subjects in which ICT has been used for learning and instruction have not improved dramatically, neither has affective education progressed significantly resulting from the use of ICT. Research studies have indicated that only under certain circumstances are educational outcomes improved by the use of ICT in the learning and instructional processes. This chapter will address the Israeli context of the direct relationship between ICT based learning and instruction and enhanced educational achievement as well as the mediating contribution of affective variables to the relationship.

ICT Based Approaches to Learning and Instruction: Past and Present

In order to understand the complex issues and problems associated with the utilization of ICT based approaches to learning and instruction in the Israeli school system, the development and progressive implementation and utilization of different ICT learning and instructional methodologies will be examined. [START_REF] Naim | Attitudes of elementary school pupils and teachers towards a technology-based learning environment[END_REF] described the significant reasons for the implementation of ICT based learning and instruction in the educational system in Israel. The first reason was the rapid development of technology that put computers within reach of Israeli schools. The second reason resulted from the belief that computerized learning programs would significantly improve the learning process and suit it to the needs of the individual learner. A third reason proposed by Naim was the fact that Israeli public opinion positively adopted the belief that computers were vitally necessary all walks of daily life including the educational arena. Therefore the educational system could not possibly halt progress and began using computers in the school system just as computers became popular in commerce, industry, medicine, transportation and other fields in daily life. [START_REF] Offir | The utilization of "open" courseware for developing an inquiry approach in the study of non-scientific subjects[END_REF] historically described the development of ICT use in the educational process and indicated that the "closed -open" courseware continuum succinctly and accurately depicts the progress made in the use of technology for learning and instruction. The "closed -open" continuum provides an insight as how ICT methodologies evolved and developed in the Israeli educational system since the early 1960s up till the present time.

The theoretical basis of the early ICT learning approaches used in Israel drew from the behavioral school of thought. [START_REF] Skinner | The science of learning and the art of teaching[END_REF][START_REF] Skinner | Teaching machines[END_REF] published a series of papers predicting that "teaching machines" would make learning dramatically more efficient and emphasized the "the constant interchange between program and student". Thus the first computer introduced into the Israeli educational system in the mid 1970s was a Digital "Toam" minicomputer to which individual terminals were connected. These terminals were used by individual elementary school students for diagnostics, drill and practice and evaluation of their work in English and mathematics. The system was totally "traditional", i.e. closed, with teachers unable to effect any changes in the computer software and served as a complementary learning system to the traditional classroom lesson. The general atmosphere that pervaded the use of the "Toam" system was one of precision regarding the diagnosis and evaluation of students' ability in English and mathematics. Teachers religiously followed students' progress as mapped out by the Toam computer and planned their English and mathematics lessons accordingly. The Toam system was widely used and popularized the initial use of ICT in the Israeli classroom.

In the late 1970s when first generation of personal computers became commercially available in Israel, Apple IIs, Ataris, and Commodore CBMs personal computers connected in rudimentary networks, began replacing the Toam system in the Israeli school system. [START_REF] Offir | Attitudes toward courseware as a function of high school students' creativity level[END_REF] reported that the first PCs were used for traditional computer assisted learning and computer assisted instruction, based on drill and practice. Teachers closely followed inflexible computerized syllabi in a number of subjects, among them languages, mathematics and science. All students in elementary and junior high schools studied the same content and learning materials and progressed according to a rigid timetable. This generation of PCs also drew on behavioral theory and the software offered to the educational system was used to complement traditional teaching and was considered to be especially advantageous in providing students with a sound revision platform.

In the mid-1980s Israeli educators began asking pointed questions regarding the validity of behavioral learning as a valid theoretical source and inspiration for ICT use in the educational system. Addition questions raised addressed the relative advantages, effectiveness, and cost-efficiency of ICT based drill and practice as well as the advantages to be gained from the study of basic programming. Heated debates characterized the Israeli educational establishment regarding the direction to be taken in the use of ICT in the educational system [START_REF] Mevarech | Computerized learning environments: For whom and why?[END_REF] and as a result of these debates other theoretical approaches were suggested. The constructivist theory of learning came to the fore in Israel, albeit alongside the behaviorist approach [START_REF] Salomon | Technology based learning environments: a conceptual framework[END_REF], and led to the development and adoption of more flexible learning and instruction programs that were introduced into the Israeli educational system. These included the development of the use of electronic spreadsheets [START_REF] Dreyfus | The electronic spreadsheet and cognitive skills in inquiry oriented biology[END_REF][START_REF] Givon | The characteristics of open-ended software[END_REF] that enhance learner independence and creativity and provide students with sophisticated graphic assistance that enhances the understanding and dissemination of complicated subject matter. Databases, which were also developed and incorporated in this stage of ICT development [START_REF] Appelberg | Communication-learning-information technology applied examples[END_REF], provided students with the opportunity of enriching their knowledge and comprehension of subject matter by facilitating the search for sources hitherto available only in libraries and museums. [START_REF] Ernst | The personal computer: growth patterns, limits and new frontiers[END_REF] noted that the introduction of the use of spreadsheets and databases in the educational process contributed to the promotion of improved learning and instruction and superior ICT applications in education. He added that the use of electronic spreadsheets accounted for almost 90% of computer assisted instruction and computer assisted learning in the late 1980s.

In the next stage of development in the 1990s, the constructivist learning model almost totally replaced the behaviorist approach and motivated the introduction of simulation software into the Israeli educational system [START_REF] Hativa | Integrated learning systems[END_REF]. Simulation, as described by Offir and Katz (1994), is a sophisticated, progressive and improved ICT methodology designed to electronically generate situations that exist in reality and to introduce these situations into learning and instruction. [START_REF] Baranauskas | Domain oriented modelling: A balance between simulation and programming[END_REF] noted that educational computer simulations are based on dynamic interaction between the learner and the computer program and may be defined as part of a modeling process that involves the execution of the model by the learner. Through the methodology of simulation, teachers are able to provide their students with realistic models of subject matter as experienced in real life situations thereby facilitating students' understanding and mastery of the learning situation. [START_REF] Givon | The characteristics of open-ended software[END_REF] cited simulation as especially effective for the science and technology subjects where experiments can be conducted using ICT instead of having to prepare and use materials in the traditional science or technology laboratory. [START_REF] Leary | Computer simulated laboratory experiments and computer games: A designer's analysis[END_REF] confirmed that the achievement of learners using ICT simulation are on a par with and even outstrip achievement in non-simulation learning situations.

The next stage of ICT development in the Israeli educational system took place in the late 1990s and early 2000s and focused on virtual reality software. [START_REF] Turman | Virtual reality: towards improvement in simulation based training[END_REF] defined virtual reality as a highly interactive ICT based environment in which the user becomes a fully-fledged partner in a virtual world. When experiencing virtual reality the user becomes an immersed participant in the computer generated virtual reality program. [START_REF] Bricken | Summer students in virtual reality: a pilot study on educational applications of virtual reality technology[END_REF] stated that in order to enter the world of virtual reality the learner wears a computerized helmet and gloves which allow him or her to see, hear and touch objects in the virtual world. [START_REF] Henry | Spatial perception in virtual environments: evaluating an architectural application[END_REF] stated that on entry into the virtual world the learner feels physically immersed in that world. [START_REF] Regain | Virtual reality: an instructional medium for visual and spatial terms[END_REF] reported that learners who enter a virtual world undergo physical and emotional experiences very similar to those that exist in the real world in which they really live. Thus virtual reality provides an all-encompassing learning opportunity that promotes constructivist learning and understanding that surpass other ICT approaches [START_REF] Katz | Kindergarten teacher training through virtual reality threedimensional simulation methodology[END_REF]. [START_REF] Passig | The why and how VR in schools: A preferred future pedagogic mission by a group of worldwide experts in VR and education[END_REF] as well Passig, Klein and Newman (2001) confirmed that the use of virtual reality technology in learning and instruction positively contributes to enhanced performance of both teachers and learners.

In order to take advantage of all the ICT developments in the Israeli educational system that took place from the mid-1970s until the present time, much educational thought and effort has been put into developing the various stages of software development into an integrated multimedia system. Multimedia methodology, which includes closed and open software as well as simulation and virtual reality packages, has become an important component of the ICT based educational process. [START_REF] Passig | Gender differences of favored multimedia learning interfaces[END_REF] provided an in-depth analysis of multimedia packages suitable for the educational process and stated that when utilizing multimedia methodologies in learning the student does not only study the subject matter, but also learns how to deal with the synthetically programmed environment. The relatively easy use of technology and the uniformity of the multimedia interface have significant implications for both teacher and student, since they may provide a platform for a higher level of motivation, concentration, and understanding of the content being studied. The design of multimedia educational packages provides a clear, consistent and attractive ICT platform, which contributes towards the ability of teachers and students to reach excellence through user-friendly learning and instruction methodologies.

Distance Learning Approaches: Past and Present

Since its inception as a mass delivery system in the early part of the twentieth century, distance learning has been utilized in order to provide students in the educational system the opportunity to study in locations separated by large distances from centers of learning. [START_REF] Chu | The development of interactive distance learning in Taiwan: Challenges and prospects[END_REF] intimated that the first generation of distance learning approaches, which utilized traditional printed material and communication by mail and telephone, served essentially as a one-way communication technology that, while providing students with content matter, inhibited interaction between teachers and learners. In the late 1960s and the early 1970s first generation distance learning technology was superseded by second generation audio recordings, radio and television broadcasts [START_REF] Southworth | Computers in education: International multi-node electronic conferencing[END_REF] which provided students with an improved delivery platform. Both first and second generation distance learning delivery systems were designed primarily to produce and distribute learning materials as efficiently as the technology of the day permitted. Both generations of distance learning lacked the key element of real-time interactive communication between students and teachers. The 1980s and 1990s saw the development of sophisticated third generation distance learning systems which include interactive video, email, internet, and intranet technologies. Learning and instruction activity through the medium of these distance learning systems was redefined to include and focus on teacher-student interaction [START_REF] Trentin | Telematics and on-line teacher training: the POLARIS project[END_REF]. Interactive videoconferencing, and interaction through the medium of internet or intranet offer one-to-many or one-to-one tuition in which teachers and students are able to communicate on-line thereby solving key instructional and learning problems in real time [START_REF] Katz | The relationship between distance learning methods and satisfaction and achievement of college students[END_REF]. Third generation distance learning systems are flexible and present teachers with the opportunity of continuously monitoring overall progress of their students. These systems also allow tutors to modify, reinforce and even model educational processes, thereby fulfilling the cognitive as well as affective needs and requirements of students. Interactivity, which characterizes third generation distance learning, has also been shown to meet student needs more fittingly and comprehensively than the older distance learning modes. Interaction provides the student with a new cognitive environment that both activates and motivates learning and contributes to student satisfaction as well as to a feeling of control of the learning process [START_REF] Finnie | Switching the U.S. on to ISDN[END_REF]. [START_REF] Trentin | Telematics and on-line teacher training: the POLARIS project[END_REF] confirmed that interactivity available in third generation distance learning methodologies promotes active engagement of students in the learning process and leads to improved academic achievement. [START_REF] Katz | The relationship between distance learning methods and satisfaction and achievement of college students[END_REF] described how the three generations of distance learning technology sophisticated were utilized in the Israeli educational system beginning with first generation technology in the 1960s, continuing with second generation technology in the 1970s and 1980s, and with the implementation of third generation technology in the 1990s. Third generation distance learning systems that include synchronous interactive video, asynchronous learning and instruction, email, internet and intranet technologies are still popular in the Israeli educational system mainly at the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels. According to Katz learning and instruction through the medium of synchronous distance learning methodologies has been redefined to include and focus on teacher-student interaction. Interactive video-conferencing, and interaction through the medium of internet or intranet and email, offer one-to-many or one-to-one tuition in which teachers and students are able to communicate on-line thereby solving cardinal instructional and learning problems in real time. Third generation distance learning methodologies are characterized by their flexibility and allow teachers to continuously monitor overall progress of students. These methodologies also permit tutors to modify, reinforce and model educational processes, thereby fulfilling the cognitive needs and requirements of students. Interactivity available in third generation distance learning methodologies enhances active engagement of students in the learning process and leads to improved academic achievement. The implementation of distance learning technologies at different educational levels (elementary, secondary, tertiary) has been found to promote efficient and effective learning and instruction [START_REF] Katz | The relationship between distance learning methods and satisfaction and achievement of college students[END_REF][START_REF] Katz | Kindergarten teacher training through virtual reality threedimensional simulation methodology[END_REF].

As a result of the increasingly successful adoption of distance learning methodologies in the Israeli educational system, fourth generation distance learning is gradually being introduced at the secondary and tertiary levels. [START_REF] Ismail | Acceptance on mobile learning via SMS: a Rasch model analysis[END_REF] confronted the implications of learning and instruction using fourth generation technology based distance learning courses. Learning has become significantly more flexible and content sources more accessible. Creating, sharing and knowledge capitalization are all facilitated by fourth generation distance learning. Wider sources of learning are provided in ICT based distance learning courses and worldwide expertise can systematically be brought to the student's desktop.

With the rapid development of fourth generation distance learning delivery, increasingly more research studies have been conducted in an attempt to evaluate the major issues related to ICT based distance learning. For example [START_REF] Chandra | Re-thinking physics teaching with web-based learning[END_REF] indicated that learning physics through the medium of fourth generation technology not only enhanced students' learning outcomes, but also had a positive impact on their attitudes toward the study of physics. [START_REF] Valaitis | Problem-based learning online: perceptions of health science students[END_REF] found that students who experienced up to date technology based distance learning courses perceived that the methodology increased their learning flexibility and enhanced their ability to process content, and provided access to valuable learning resources. [START_REF] Abdallah | Learning with online activities: What do students think about their experience?[END_REF] found that latest technology based distance learning methodologies contributed to improved quality of students' learning experiences.

One of the emerging learning strategies that has developed in technology based distance learning in recent years and is receiving growing attention from both students and teachers is in the domain of mobile learning [START_REF] Prensky | Listen to the natives[END_REF]. It should be noted that the use of mobile learning is multi-dimensional and mobile technology now provides technological possibilities including voice, text, still-camera, video, paging and geo-positioning capabilities. These tools provide a rich variety of platforms that enhance the learning process. Moreover, mobile learning is not bound by space or time and students can choose to engage in learning without almost any limitations [START_REF] Dieterle | Building university faculty and student capacity to use wireless handheld devices for learning[END_REF]. Thus fourth generation distance learning technologies and methodologies are perceived to make a positive contribution to education and the Israeli educational authorities are increasingly insistent on the adoption of such technologies for teaching and learning [START_REF] Naim | Attitudes of elementary school pupils and teachers towards a technology-based learning environment[END_REF].

Affective Variables and ICT

The research to date conducted to determine the relationship between ICT based learning and instruction and achievement is inconclusive. On the one hand, [START_REF] Hunley | Adolescent computer use and academic achievement[END_REF], [START_REF] Gonzalez | A comparison of online with onsite learning of undergraduate students in behavioral science and criminal justice as related to their attitudes toward computers and academic achievement[END_REF], [START_REF] Alsafran | The relationship between classroom computer technology and students' academic achievement[END_REF], [START_REF] Townsend | Computer technology, student achievement, and equity: A multilevel analysis of the relationship between high school students' use of computers, Gender, and mathematics achievement[END_REF], [START_REF] Fairlie | Experimental evidence on the effects of home computers on academic achievement among schoolchildren[END_REF] in the United States and [START_REF] Mevarech | Intrinsic orientation profiles and learning mathematics in CAI settings[END_REF], [START_REF] Katz | Achievement level, affective attributes and computer oriented attitudes: a profile of a successful end-user[END_REF] as well as [START_REF] Katz | Mobile learning: a major e-learning platform[END_REF]2011a;2012) The evidence regarding the relationship between ICT based learning and instruction on the one hand and achievement on the other is inconclusive, [START_REF] Mevarech | Computerized learning environments: For whom and why?[END_REF] and Katz and Yablon (2011a) suggested that the findings and results of research projects that examined the mediating effect of affective variables on the relationship between ICT based learning and instruction be studied. [START_REF] Mevarech | Intrinsic orientation profiles and learning mathematics in CAI settings[END_REF], [START_REF] Katz | Achievement level, affective attributes and computer oriented attitudes: a profile of a successful end-user[END_REF], [START_REF] Ellington | A meta-analysis of the effects of calculators on students' achievement and attitude levels in precollege mathematics classes[END_REF], and [START_REF] Liu | Middle school students' selfefficacy, attitudes, and achievement in a computer-enhanced problem-based learning environment[END_REF] indicated that the relationship between ICT utilization in the educational system and academic and scholastic achievement is largely dependent on affective variables that seemingly mediate ICT based learning and instruction on the one hand and achievement on the other. Thus it was postulated that affective variables that act as mediators may hold the key to understanding the relationship between ICT based learning and instruction and academic and scholastic achievement. [START_REF] Mevarech | Intrinsic orientation profiles and learning mathematics in CAI settings[END_REF] emphasized the fact that affective variables are of major importance when assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of ICT based learning and instruction approaches. According to Mevarech attitudinal research can shed light on how effectiveness and efficiency may be enhanced in the course of the educational process. One of the major issues apparently related to positive ICT attitudes as well as to efficient ICT in the classroom, is that pertaining to teachers' as well as students' attitudinal profiles [START_REF] Kulik | Effects of computerbased teaching on secondary school students[END_REF]. [START_REF] Chandra | Introducing computers into school management issues[END_REF] stated that the attitudinal sets that teachers bring with them to the instructional situation seem to be important factors in their decisions to utilize ICT in the instructional process or to disregard them as instructional aids.

Research studies carried out in a number of countries have indicated the relationship between affective variables characterizing teachers and ICT based learning and instruction. [START_REF] Stibble | Managing the curriculum[END_REF], [START_REF] Smylie | The enhancement function of staff development :Organizational and psychological antecedents to individual teacher change[END_REF] and [START_REF] Van Deusen | The teacher's role in using the computer to teach thinking skills[END_REF] suggested that self-need for innovation among teachers contributes significantly toward their utilization of ICT based learning and instruction processes. [START_REF] Yaqhi | The role of the computer in the school as perceived by computer using teachers and school administrators[END_REF] indicated that teachers felt that the use of computers in the school classroom made a positive contribution to students' achievement. They emphasized the motivational advantages of computer use in the instructional process. [START_REF] Bradley | Computer experience, school support and computer anxieties[END_REF] indicated that Australian teachers perceived that attitudes such as anxiety and social embarrassment were negatively correlated with a feeling of computer competence and inversely related to a feeling of control when using ICT based learning and instruction in elementary schools. [START_REF] Harris | Attitudes towards end-user computing: A structural equation model[END_REF] postulated that teacher autonomy and product involvement are two major attitudinal factors that positively correlate with enhanced computer use by teachers at the tertiary educational level. [START_REF] Van Braak | Explaining different types of computer use among primary school teachers[END_REF] found that technological innovativeness and positive feelings towards the efficacy of ICT based instruction as well as gender (male) were related to effective computer use in the school classroom. [START_REF] Sadik | Factors influencing teachers' attitudes toward personal use and school use of computers: New evidence from a developing nation[END_REF] confirmed that Egyptian teachers, characterized by computer confidence, computer liking and computer usefulness (factors developed by [START_REF] Loyd | Reliability and factorial validity of Computer Attitude Scales[END_REF], were able to more efficiently utilize ICT to enhance the instructional process in their classrooms. [START_REF] Karim | Exploring head and deputy headteachers' attitude towards using computers in education[END_REF] found that head teachers as well as deputy head teachers in Pakistan who held positive attitudes toward the use of computers in learning and instruction were confident that the use of ICT enhanced the quality of the educational process.

Research studies were conducted in a the United States as well as in a number of European and Asian countries in order to examine the relationship between students' attitudes to ICT based learning and instruction and scholastic achievement. [START_REF] Griswold | Elementary students' attitudes during two years of computerassisted instruction[END_REF] found that positive attitudes such as self-recognition and self-confidence in computer assisted learning are related to higher levels of achievement attained by elementary school students. [START_REF] Munger | Gender and attitudes toward computers and calculators: Their relationship to math performance[END_REF] found that both male and female high school students who held more positive attitudes toward computers were found to attain a higher level of achievement in than students of both sexes with more negative attitudes. [START_REF] Woodrow | Locus of control and computer attitudes as determinants of the computer literacy of student teachers[END_REF] described the existence of a significant relationship between locus of control and students' attitudes toward the use of computers in the classroom. [START_REF] Kirkman | Computer experience and attitudes of 12-year-old students: Implications for the UK National Curriculum[END_REF] indicated that 12 year-old students who held more enthusiastic attitudes toward computers, were more confident using computers and spent more time using them, attained a higher level of scholastic achievement that students whose attitudes and experiences with computers were less positive. [START_REF] Anderson | Computer attitudes and the use of computers in psychology courses[END_REF] pointed out that participation of students in ICT based learning at the tertiary level leads to more positive computer attitudes than those held by students who did not experience ICT based learning. [START_REF] Tsai | Student computer achievement, attitude, and anxiety: The role of learning strategies[END_REF], in their research study of elementary school students, indicated the existence of a positive relationship between higher computer mastery, more positive computer attitudes, and lower computer anxiety on the one hand and higher-order metacognitive skills in selecting main ideas and using resources helpful for learning language comprehension on the other. The results of a study conducted by [START_REF] Pilli | The effects of computer-assisted instruction on the achievement, attitudes and retention of fourth grade mathematics students in North Cyprus[END_REF] confirmed the existence of a positive relationship between fourth grade students' attitudes toward computer-assisted learning of mathematics, their attitudes towards mathematics and their scholastic achievement in mathematics.

Studies have been conducted over the years in the Israeli educational system with regard to the relationship of affective variables towards ICT based learning and instruction. These studies have yielded empirical evidence similar to that found in other countries as described in the above paragraphs. Following are studies that examined affective attitudes of Israeli teachers to ICT based learning and instruction. [START_REF] Offir | Computer oriented attitudes as a function of risk-taking among Israeli elementary school teachers[END_REF] indicated that risk-taking was an important variable related to teachers' positive perceptions of computers as making a significant contribution to the learning and instructional processes. Teachers were took risks in their daily lives were more positive about ICT based learning and instruction than teachers who were more cautious and avoided risk-taking behavior. [START_REF] Katz | The relationship between personality and computer related attitudes of Israeli teachers[END_REF] reported that teachers, whose attitudinal profiles included a clear tendency toward extraversion, personal stability, and tough mindedness, were more positive about using computers in learning and instruction and were more successful in their educational roles than teaches who were introverted, less stable and sensitive. [START_REF] Katz | Kindergarten teacher training through virtual reality threedimensional simulation methodology[END_REF] studied a group of kindergarten teachers who underwent 10 hours of ICT based virtual reality simulation as opposed to 10 hours of workshop activity experienced by a comparison group of their counterparts. Both ICT and workshop methodologies were designed to promote improved understanding of kindergarten children's needs. Results of the study indicate that the kindergarten teachers who were trained through the ICT virtual reality technology developed a better understanding of children's needs and perceptions than those trained through the workshop method. [START_REF] Passig | Gender differences of favored multimedia learning interfaces[END_REF] indicated that in schools where sophisticated multimedia learning and instructional packages were introduced into the school curriculum, teacher motivation and interest in the instructional process was increased and contributed to the enhancement of student achievement. [START_REF] Katz | Distance learning approaches in teacher training[END_REF] studied two groups of final year teacher trainees who were exposed to instruction presented in two different distance learning delivery systems. The first group of teacher trainees experienced instruction via a sophisticated flexible ICT based platform and the second group was exposed to an advanced but rigid video-conferencing instructional delivery system. Results of the study indicate that the students exposed to the flexible ICT based instructional approach indicated significantly higher levels of student satisfaction and control over the learning process than their counterparts who were instructed via video-conferencing methodology. [START_REF] Katz | A model of the psycho-pedagogical and ICT interface[END_REF] noted that affective attitudes such as independence, creativity, tough-mindedness, sociability, risk-taking, and stimulus-seeking have been shown to make a positive impact on teachers in their willingness to use ICT based learning and instruction in their classrooms. It is evident from the empirical evidence quoted above that these affective attitudes of teachers are vital to positively enhanced ICT utilization that conceivably leads to an improvement in the educational process.

Studies were conducted in Israel in which the relationship between students' affective attitudes and ICT based learning and instruction was examined. [START_REF] Katz | Computer assisted instruction and students' social orientations[END_REF] found that positive attitudes toward ICT based learning and instruction were related to self-esteem, school motivation and satisfaction. Elementary school students with positive self-esteem preferred ICT based learning as did students who expressed dissatisfaction with teachers who used traditional and conservative teaching methods. [START_REF] Katz | Self-image, locus of control and computer related attitudes[END_REF] investigated attitudes of Israeli junior high school students who excelled in their ICT based learning. Results of the study indicate that pupils with higher learning self-image, higher social self-image, and internal locus of control tend to hold more positive computer related attitudes than pupils not characterized by these personality traits. [START_REF] Barak | Majoring in technology studies at high school and fostering learning[END_REF] described how Israeli high school students, characterized as having high scholastic potential but functioning as underachievers, were taught higher order thinking skills and strategies via ICT based learning and instruction. As a result of the utilization of computers in the learning process these students' scholastic achievement, self-efficacy and study motivation were significantly enhanced. [START_REF] Katz | A model of the psycho-pedagogical and ICT interface[END_REF] demonstrated how affective attitudes held by students, such as self-image, social-image, self-confidence, internal locus of control, satisfaction, and study motivation are related to students' willingness to participate in ICT based learning and instruction. [START_REF] Katz | Student assessment of affective variables in an internet-based 'Introduction to quantitative research methods' course. EURODL[END_REF] showed in their study that students who received ICT based learning and instruction were significantly more positive on three affective variables, namely learner motivation, learner autonomy and learner control of the learning process than students who received traditional class-based instruction.

Conclusions

Empirical evidence has clearly indicated the existence of a relationship between affective variables and teachers' as well as students' perceptions of ICT based learning and instruction. Need for innovation, risk-taking, stimulus seeking, tough mindedness, extraversion, personal stability, sociability, self-image, social image, self-confidence, study motivation, learner autonomy, control of the learning and instructional process are just some of the affective attitudinal variables related to enhanced ICT based learning and instruction as well as to enhanced scholastic achievement. There is growing empirical evidence that the abovementioned affective variables serve as mediators between ICT based learning and instruction and achievement. Because of the affective nature of the mediating variables and the vast intricacies of the psychological basis of these variables, it is impossible to suggest a unitary model that can adequately describe the relationship between ICT learning and instruction and achievement under all circumstances. Therefore the model, being dependent on the affective make up of teachers as well as students, is one that can only address the principles of the relationship between ICT based learning and instruction and educational achievement. Furthermore it would be a serious misjudgement to assume that all teachers and learners perceive ICT in the educational framework from the same point of view. Just as in traditional learning and instruction teachers usually prefer instructional approaches that impress them as suitable for their own particular instructional needs and students usually prefer learning methods that correlate with their own particular learning needs, the same is correct vis-à-vis the use of ICT based learning and instruction. Not all teachers perceive ICT based teaching as suitable for their needs and not all students feel that ICT based learning is suited to them. Thus differential ICT based learning and instruction is necessary in the educational process, a situation not yet recognized as valid or necessary by educators and educational policy planners.

It should be noted that although ICT based learning and instruction is now part and parcel of daily educational routine and one could intuitively conclude that attitudinal structures or constraints are relatively unimportant when considering the motivation to use ICT based methodologies in education in general and in the learning situation in particular, the evidence presented in this chapter confirms the chain of findings reviewed above that indicate that affective variables and attitudes of teachers and students are primary differential factors to be taken into consideration when assessing their capacity to best utilize ICT in learning and instruction.

  in Israel found no significant relationship between the use of ICT technologies in learning and instruction and academic and scholastic achievement. On the other hand[START_REF] Huffman | Using computers to create constructivist learning environments: Impact on pedagogy and achievement[END_REF],[START_REF] Lowther | When each one has one: The influences on teaching strategies and student achievement of using laptops in the classroom[END_REF],[START_REF] Judge | The impact of computer technology on academic achievement of young African American children[END_REF] in the United States,[START_REF] Cheema | Quantity and quality of computer use and academic achievement: Evidence from a large-scale international test program[END_REF] in the 2003 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) study, and[START_REF] Liao | Effects of computer-assisted instruction on students' achievement in Taiwan: A meta-analysis[END_REF] in Taiwan found that ICT based learning and instruction are positively related to academic and scholastic achievement.


Richard Taylor
email: richard.taylor@ibo.org

Predicting the Future of Computers in Schools -A Reflection Paper?

Keywords: Computer, convergence, ubiquitous, ethical norms, behavioural norms

Over the last 25 years advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have led to significant changes in the way that computers 1 are used within an educational context. As schools in many ways reflect a microcosm of society, one consequence for the school community is that the relationship between the computers and the computer users has become increasingly complex. There has been a blurring of the traditional clearly defined boundaries, not only between home and school computer use, but also within schools in the way that teaching and learning are carried out. This blurring may be attributed to many factors, but the continuing miniaturisation, portability and ubiquity of the computer itself is probably the most important. For many students the computer, as well as being an obligatory fashion accessory, is seen as indispensable. The thought of having to function without a computer is something for many students is hard to envisage. The only certainty for students, teachers and school managers is the continuous evolution of computers will lead to a constantly changing digital landscape.

Computers in Schools -Case Studies

In such an ever-changing landscape, school managers2 will need to be aware of both the physical environment related to the computer and network infrastructure as well as the wider ranging social and ethical impacts related to computer use. They will need coherent strategies to harness the benefits that computers bring and to minimise any potential problems that may result. This is something that has not always been done successfully in the past.

The advances in computers have impacted on schools in a number of ways. These increasing capabilities that result from upgrading the computers every few years have led to the expansion and further development of the network infrastructure, the introduction of new software as well as changes in curriculum development and pedagogy to utilise these new opportunities. However, this increasing usage of computers can be a 'double-edged sword'. While computers can provide opportunities, each of these changes usually requires professional development for staff and may inadvertently shape behavioural and ethical norms. One example in the United Kingdom (UK) is the use of statistical packages such as a School Information Management System (SIMS), introduced during the 1990s, to track the progress of students. While in some ways SIMS can provide significantly more information about student performance, it may have unintentional longer term effects; the over-reliance of a data driven approach in the performance management of teachers, and a modification of pedagogy leading to the compartmentalisation of learning to ensure the meeting of short term targets at the expense of allowing the students to develop a holistic subject knowledge.

The mid 1970s saw a drastic change in the use of computers in schools. As the cost of personal computers (PCs) became increasingly affordable, increasing numbers were purchased. By the early 1980s many managers could see the potential benefits that computers could bring, for example purchasing the BBC Micro for tasks such as data logging in subjects like Science and Geography or to enable the introduction of Computer Science. Throughout the 1980s computers became widespread across schools as their capabilities continued to increase and their relative cost continued to decrease. One result was the development of a small number of classrooms that provided each student with sole access to a networked computer for duration of the lesson; a dedicated computer room.

By the mid-1990s there was a realisation by managers that computers could be included in whole school strategies that extended beyond a few dedicated computer rooms supported by small clusters3 or individual computers scattered across the school. These strategies included becoming a laptop school, or implementing 1:1 (one computer per child) schemes or Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) / Bring Your Own Technology (BYOT). The aim of these strategies was to increase the availability of computers for students, with the ultimate goal of providing every student with continuous access to a computer such as an iPad™, tablet or laptop.

Carey Baptist School (Melbourne, Australia) 4 was a pioneer among laptop schools. In the mid-1990s a decision to introduce one laptop per student was based on the potential educational benefits from allowing each student continuous access to a laptop computer. There were also other factors that lay behind this decision such as recognising the marketing potential of introducing the laptop initiative in a highly competitive marketplace with many fee paying schools within a few kilometres of each other, as well as a relatively affluent parent community that would enable, if necessary, the costs of implementation being shared between the school and the parents to ensure each student had access to a laptop. However, this scheme was not straightforward as it required an intensive and protracted staff training programme (estimated to be at least 8 years before the laptops became fully integrated into daily teaching across the whole school) and the purchasing of a sizable number of computers to effectively create the critical mass for the scheme to succeed. In addition to the purchase of computers, other hardware was purchased such as data projectors to supplement the use of laptops, the school IT network infrastructure was upgraded providing access to the Internet from every classroom through Wi-Fi. A significant proportion of resources were also allocated to create a dedicated IT Support Team whose sole role was to the support all members of the school community without any responsibility for the teaching of the students.

As computers have become increasingly less expensive and portable, other schools have introduced 1:1 policies. Some 1:1 policies have been made possible by collaboration between the school, such as Nan Chau Primary School (Singapore) which has teamed up in 2012 with Microsoft and Qualcomm Incorporated to create a 21 st century classroom using smartphones (Tech&Learning International 2012). It provides a learning environment accessible to its 350 third grade students as well as staff and parents. Staff training has been provided through the National Institute of Education of Singapore to ensure a successful implementation of the policy. Other schools such as Essa Academy in the UK market themselves as iPad schools where every teacher and student uses an iPad rather than traditional pen and paper [START_REF] Muffett | Essa Academy: Bookless school where everyone has iPad[END_REF]. Like Carey Baptist School, these schemes rely on significant investments in infrastructure, staff training and parental "buy-in" and the benefits of this intensive use of computers may take a number of years to reach fruition.

Other schools, such as Westwood High School (South Carolina, USA) have taken a different approach. Since 2012 Westwood has mixed 1:1 and BYOD policies. "We have a system that is 1:1 take-home. That requires parents to pay a self-insurance fee each year to cover the cost of repairs for damages. For parents who don't want to pay the fee, we offer a daily checkout option. We also allow students to bring their own devices, provided they run Google Chrome. We use Google Apps for Education and help students set up their Google Drive Offline so they can work on projects at home without internet access" [START_REF] Coulter | Have any of you had a BYOD or 1 to 1 initiative in your districts whereby parents wanted to opt out? If so, were teachers at your school willing to provide alternative assignments[END_REF].

Unlike laptop and 1:1 initiatives, the decision to use BYOD to ensure the intensive use of computers is one that may reflect the ability of schools to raise the necessary capital; the average cost of a tablet in 2012 was about $US200. In the UK, in a survey carried out by the British Educational Suppliers Association (BESO) between 50% -80% of schools indicated they would be prepared to implement some form of BYOD policy [START_REF] Ghosh | Schools warm up to BYOD for tablets[END_REF]. Although this approach would enable students to have constant access to computers and not overstretch school budgets, it does raise significant questions about management of the school network and the computers themselves. With a more decentralised BYOD approach come potentially significant compatibility, appropriate use, ownership and ultimately trust issues which may not have been fully investigated in the initial implementation of the BYOD scheme.

Computers in Schools -a Blurring of the Boundaries

The delineation of the computer-based environment within and beyond schools is becoming more and more blurred. In the early 1990s, many homes in the UK had access to a computer but not to the Internet. It would not be until 2000 that 25% of the population has Internet access. Throughout the 1990s computers were used in designated spaces such as in the home or at school to provide additional skills, for example being able to proficiently use word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, data logging and database software to complement learning activities. Any transfer of information between the home and school computers would have been on a floppy disk. Today, the school student exists in a networked world, [START_REF] Wenmoth | The emerging paradigm[END_REF]: the "cloud" acts as the mechanism to ensure the continuity of access to resources and ubiquitous use of computers. Some schools such as United World College (Singapore) have since 2011 implemented cloud storage strategies, such as Google Drive. This cloud-based approach could be used to support laptop, 1:1 or BYOD strategies. This ubiquitous use of computers in a networked world is also represented in the Bradley Convergence Model, in particular in the life role of the individual. The model focuses on the convergence and integration for people through the technology which is becoming increasingly ubiquitous, the different roles of people such as their private or public role, their life environment which may be home or at work and the effects of increasing globalisation which may shape their work patterns, values and norms [START_REF] Bradley | The Convergence Theory on ICT, Society and Human Beingstowards the Good ICT society[END_REF]. This merging of roles, as illustrated in Figure 1 above and the image below, encapsulates the problems that may arise when developing school policies linked to contemporary computer use. In many cases it is almost impossible to distinguish whether the computer is being used for school work, for gathering images for the writing up of field work outside the classroom on return to the classroom, for example, from a museum, or for social purposes.

The School as a Digital Society -Developing New Strategies

While many schools have seen the use of computers as a mechanism to support the digital citizenship (people who use IT systems extensively) of the students and teachers, BYOD schools may extend digital citizenship into the development of a digital society. [START_REF] Kwon | Index development and application for measuring the level of digital culture[END_REF] define this as being when the "social and cultural impact of digitalization has increased to a point where it cannot be separated from daily lives of citizens". A digital society, or digital school, is characterised by three cultures: the digital tools which allow humans to maintain his/her social life in the digital society and considered as the ground for other elements of the digital culture, the digital values which form a belief system that provides meanings or goals for human behaviours or social activities in the digital society and the digital norms which represents normative procedures and rules that are socially acknowledged in carrying out digital activities. [START_REF] Kwon | Index development and application for measuring the level of digital culture[END_REF]. The culture of tools, which equates to the acquisition of computers, may be easier and quicker to achieve than the other two elements, those of the values and norms.

With such profound changes to computers and the digital landscape occurring so rapidly, many managers have struggled to adapt their strategies accordingly. A prerequisite for the successful implementation of BYOD policies is manager readiness: "in many cases managers in schools will to ensure they remain up to date with their understanding of role of technology and how this will be reflected through school policies, pedagogical practices and change management as their ICT resources will be undergoing an almost constant evolution" [START_REF] Kelly | What are the biggest challenges facing BYOD and BYOT in education?[END_REF]). However, these disparities between the manager's understanding of the role of technology and the nature of the digital landscape they exist within are not a recent concern. Many "managers do not include staff development in the equation, instead they provide programs that do little more than ensure that teachers are able to unjam the printer or use one piece of canned instructional software" [START_REF] Stager | Laptop schools lead the way in professional development[END_REF]. Therefore in the intervening 18 years, rather than reducing these disparities, they appear to be increasing.

If managers are not able to understand the implications of the changing digital landscape, the rapid evolution and proliferation of computers may outstrip the capabilities of the school's infrastructure. This may result in technical problems for both teachers and students. The managers also face a range of technical, social and ethical issues when the same computer is used by the student or teacher in schools, at home and socially. This constant use of computers is also leading to intended or unintended changes in the behavioural norms of the computer user. Managers need to decide to what extent they accept that the ubiquitous nature of computers is leading to ethical and behavioural changes, for example the perception of privacy being less important for students, 'the Facebook generation', and how the school will need to adapt their acceptable computer use policies accordingly.

Many schools are already struggling to formulate appropriate computer use policies as almost all students carry cell (mobile) phones and many use them during lessons. One teacher in the United States (US) noted that its managers have already adapted their cell phone policy to address this issue: "School cell phone (electronic device) policy changed this year. They can only be used before school, during lunch, and after school. It seems too many students were busy texting and were tardy to class. I do like the fact that students are not tempted to pull phones out of their pockets/purses/backpacks during class anymore6 ." However, if the school decides to implement a BYOD policy, this will require a significant re-evaluation of this type of policy and a re-education of students about the appropriate use of cell phones. It is possible that this dash towards technology may have unexpected results and not lead to the desired outcomes.

There is also the risk of managers being "seduced" by technology as they attempt to enable the school to keep pace with the advances in computers. An alternative approach, the slow tech approach, is based on the premise that "society has been seduced by a rapid pace of development of ICT, progressively celebrated year on year for its growing speed and power". For society in general, and in this case for school managers, they may need to reflect on "a new way of thinking about ICT in the future: a slower, more careful, more considered, and more ethical manner; a slow tech approach" (Whitehouse and Patrignani 2013).

A key role of schools is to prepare their students to act as informed citizens in a digital world so managers must decide to what extent they wish to reflect the changing nature of computer use in society. These changing patterns of use are leading to an evolution of new behavioural norms. These include the need for immediate gratification (an almost instantaneous response to a call, text or tweet), the development of a new lexicon that terms such as 'Big Data', lol, folksonomies, and verbs such as 'to Google'. Managers must determine the extent to which these changes should be incorporated into the formal and informal curriculum.

Furthermore, all societies experience inequalities. They face difficult decisions in determining what can be considered as an acceptable level of inequality between citizens. For schools the poorly managed implementation of strategies such as becoming a laptop, iPad, 1:1 or BYOD School may unknowingly exacerbate these inequalities. For the school to ensure its transition to an effective digital society, it is not enough to simply increase the provision of computers. Digital values and digital norms must also be addressed.

4.

Towards the Future: the Difficult Decisions Ahead

If the boundaries between students' homes, schools and leisure lives become so indistinct, the traditional home / school model, and the policies and procedures associated with computer use will need to be constantly updated. In 10 years time, the role of the computer will most probably be as the facilitating device that enables students and teachers to remain constantly part of a networked world. In such a rapidly evolving digital landscape it is almost impossible to envisage what computers will be like in 2024, perhaps all students will be wearing Google Goggles™. It is almost inevitable that if the continued rate of the evolution of computers remains unchecked, schools will always be playing catch-up with any policies linked to computer procurement and usage. Alternatively, after so much change, perhaps a period of reflection will take place with managers adopting the slow tech approach.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: A representation of cloud computing environment that many school students use (Wikipedia 2011)

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: A museum visit: educational or social use of computers? 5

Computers are used as a generic term to include any digital device such as a desktop personal computer, laptop, tablet or mobile device. The software and platforms that are used alongside computers are included within this generic term.

The term manager is used to refer to senior managers (school administrator in the United States of America (USA)). Within a school managers can exist at a range of levels from the classroom teacher who will manage the use of computers within the classroom, to departmental or faculty heads who will manage the teachers and computer use at a departmental level and senior managers.

Clusters refers to a small numbers of computers, usually about 5, that were located in a classroom to assist with the teaching and learning that students could use as and when required.

Information provided by Mike Fitzpatrick, Carey Baptist School, Melbourne, Australia.

Photo used courtesy of Gunilla Bradley.

Information provided by Carol Mathis, St Petersburg High School, Florida, US

Acknowledgements:

Mike Fitzpatrick and Carol Mathis for sharing their thoughts and experiences from their respective schools. Gunilla Bradley for the image from the museum. Sandra Stark and Diane Whitehouse for their feedback during the authoring of this text.