Dr M Clara

Dr. P Amorim

Merci À Nicolas

Neeko Boyer

Avelyne Villain

Marie Suzanne

Angela Fernandez

Clémentine Vignal

Emilie Perez-Epalle

Ingrid Boucaud

Mathilde Massenet

Lucie Barluet De Bauchesne

Vincent Médoc

Emilie Rojas

Thibaut Marin-Cudraz

Clément Cornec

Léo Papet

Coralynn Pierrat

Julie Thévenet

Imen Ben

Odile Liset

Anne-Laure Verdonck

Pascal Disle

Marie Russo

Imen Laura Chabrolles

Ben Ammar

Marie S A Fernandez

Nicolas Boyer

Joël Attia

Paulo J Fonseca

Marilyn Beauchaud

Frédéric Sèbe

Nicolas Boyer

bons moments passés ensemble

Keywords: Playback experiments, Visual, Acoustic, Agonistic interactions, Unimodal signals, Olfaction -Chapter 2- Multimodal communication, Cichlids, Agonistic interactions, Visual signals, Acoustic signals, Olfactory signals In prep

Marilyn Beauchaud. Clara, despite the distance you have always been there to help me. Thank you for your advice, your patience, your revisions! Our meetings in Lisbon and Saint-Etienne were both constructive and good times together. Thank you and your family for your hospitality during my stays in Lisbon. Marilyn, merci de m'avoir fait confiance et de m'avoir donné ma chance. En effet, c'est grâce à toi que j'ai pu découvrir le monde de la recherche, en commençant en master et en poursuivant en thèse. Merci pour ton soutien et ton aide tout au long de ces années. Je remercie Isabelle Charrier et Marie-Laure Begout pour avoir accepté d'évaluer mes travaux. Merci également à Paulo J. Fonseca et Gérard Coureaud de participer à mon jury. Paulo, thank you for your help and your patience, especially when it came to explain how to calibrate the speakers. I learned a lot with you. Thank you and your family for your hospitality and for showing us your beautiful country. Gérard, merci pour ton aide et tes précieux conseils que ce soit lors de mon stage de master ou en tant que membre de mon comité de thèse. Je remercie Nicolas Mathevon, de m'avoir accueillie au laboratoire ENES pour cette aventure et pour l'aide apportée lors des moments difficiles et de doute de la fin de thèse.

Je tiens à remercier très chaleureusement toutes les personnes du laboratoire que j'ai pu côtoyer durant ces années. J'ai une pensée particulière pour Colette Bouchut, qui au début de l'aventure m'a aidé à trouver des solutions à des problèmes techniques en tous genres. Un grand

Integrative study of multimodal communication in two models of vertebrates: Maylandia zebra and Crocodylus niloticus.

General Introduction

A. Animal communication and multimodality.

Animal communication is an elaborate system encompassing complex signalling displays to interact with conspecifics and heterospecifics across a variety of social contexts (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011). It implies a signal carrying information and transmitted through an environment, from a sender to a receiver. According to Bradbury & Vehrencamp (2011), signals are "stimuli produced by a sender and monitored by a receiver, to the average net benefit of both parties". It should provide information to another animal about correlated conditions. If those information give mutual benefits for both the sender and the receiver, mutations in either party that improve the process will be favoured over evolutionary time.

When it includes signals from different sensory modalities, simultaneously or in sequence, it is referred to as multimodal communication (Candolin, 2003;Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Partan & Marler, 2005;[START_REF] Smith | A new heuristic for capturing the complexity of multimodal signals[END_REF]. The complexity of animal communication has been known for some time (Darwin & Prodger, 1998) and is now a topic of research interest with more studies on multimodal communication across species (Duistermars & Frye, 2008;Estramil et al., 2014;Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018;Gordon & Uetz, 2011;Halfwerk et al., 2014;[START_REF] Wierucka | Multimodal mother-offspring recognition: the relative importance of sensory cues in a colonial mammal[END_REF]. This growing interest received a new impulse from a study proposing a framework for categorizing multimodal signals based upon receiver behavioural responses to either separate components within a sensory modality or in multimodal composite signals (Partan & Marler, 1999). Even though there is a growing interest for multimodal communication, most studies have investigated signals in isolation or with two modalities combined (Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Higham & Hebets, 2013).

B. Costs and benefits of multimodal communication.

The limitations of the capacities of the different sensory modalities could support the use of the multimodal communication (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011;Higham & Hebets, 2013). Visual and acoustic cues are perceived almost instantaneously but could be easily disturbed by the environment. A visual signal may be blocked by physical barriers. However, although acoustic signals may attenuate with distance they suffer little disruption from physical barriers but will be disrupted by other noise. Olfactory signals travel slowly but remain for longer periods. Multimodal signalling could then compensate the drawbacks of each modality to increase efficacy during communication. But multimodality could also imply costs for the sender and receiver. Complex signalling increase energy expenditure, conspicuousness to predators or eavesdropping (Bro-Jørgensen, 2010;Hebets & Papaj, 2005). Yet, the use of multimodal communication in animals is relatively common (Higham & Hebets, 2013;Rowe & Halpin, 2013;[START_REF] Uy | Variation in the temporal and spatial use of signals and its implications for multimodal communication[END_REF].

C. Classification of multimodal signals.

So far, multimodal signals have been categorized as redundant and non-redundant according to the receiver's response and the information they convey (Johnstone, 1996;Partan & Marler, 1999) Signals providing the same information can increase the accuracy of the receiver response and are called redundant. They also illustrate the 'backup signal' hypothesis as termed by Johnstone (1996). If the receiver response intensity is the same as in an unimodal cue exposure, those redundant signals are qualified as 'equivalent', but if the intensity is increased they are 'enhancement' signals (Partan & Marler, 1999). Non-redundant signals or multiple messages are signals that provide different information (i.e. different types of information or different aspects of the signaller quality) (Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Johnstone, 1996;Partan & Marler, 1999). Then if the response observed to combined signals correspond to the same separate responses to each signal presented alone, those signals are independent. Dominance is when the response elicited by one signal dominates the other, modulation is when a signal modulates the other and finally emergence is when a new response emerges, different from when signals are presented separately (Partan & Marler, 1999). But the redundant/nonredundant framework may not always fit the variation observed (Rowe, 1999). Other classifications have been proposed focusing more on inter-signal interactions and signal efficacy (Hebets & Papaj, 2005). And other factors must be taken into account such as the influence of the environment, the physical properties of sensory cues, the interactions among traits, the perceptive/production abilities of the individuals and their recent experience (Hebets et al., 2016;Higham & Hebets, 2013). Exploring this complex system will help to understand the selection pressures acting on multimodality (Candolin, 2003;Hebets et al., 2016;Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Rowe & Halpin, 2013).

D. Territorial defence in a cichlid, Maylandia zebra, constitutes a good model for studying multimodal communication.

Conflict resolution constitutes a good context for exploring multimodality and intersignals interaction. Each individual involved in this social interaction must assess its own fighting ability, motivation and experience compared to its opponent's (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011). Consequently, both individuals are senders and receivers and must exchange information via signals and cues to accurately process the information and make adaptive behavioural responses (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011;[START_REF] Van Staaden | 3 Signaling Aggression[END_REF].

Selection pressure on communication during conflict resolution ought to be strong, as both competitors would benefit if the contest is settled with displays. An escalated fight could lead to serious injuries which could represent a significant cost for both competitors (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011;[START_REF] Van Staaden | 3 Signaling Aggression[END_REF]. Escobar-Camacho & Carleton (2015) in their review, showed that cichlids rely on different sensory modalities. But we do not know how these modalities interplay during communication. As the different sensory cues do not have the same active space or persistence in time, there could be a hierarchy among the sensory modalities, in the time or the order they are used. For example, when choosing a mate, a female can first evaluate from a distance conspecific males from heterospecific males with visual cues (Fig 2 Maylandia zebra males are consequently ideal for trying to disentangle this complex multimodal communication, because they are highly territorial and they defend their territories by means of conspicuous displays involving multiples senses that are similar to those used during courtship (Escobar-Camacho & Carleton, 2015;Simões et al., 2008)

(Fig 2).
Maylandia zebra is a lek-breeding cichlid living in the sediment-free rocky coast of Lake Malawi. They belong to the most diversified cichlids group, called mbunas. These territories are not only used for mating but also for feeding, and males defend them from other males for prolonged periods (Holzberg, 1978). Their body is blue with some black strips.

Females are less coloured. During agonistic encounters or courtship, the body becomes brighter bringing the black strips out reference.

The agonistic displays of M. zebra consist of a series of behaviours not necessarily performed in the same order. Generally, a dominant male will defend his territory by chasing a rival, and by erecting his fins and trembling (Simões et al., 2008). Those behaviours are respectively named lateral display and quiver. They can produce sounds while quivering but also, although rarely, when they are immobile (Simões et al., 2008). It has been shown in this species that sounds provide reliable estimation of the size of the male sender (Bertucci et al., 2012;Simões et al., 2008). If the use of non-contact fight behaviours during mutual assessment is not sufficient, the fights can increase to the use of contact fight behaviours, like darts, tail beating, mouth wrestling and bites. These close-range interactions during territorial encounters, As it was emphasised by Hebets & Papaj (2005), not enough studies consider how the receivers detect and process signals. And yet the receiver's internal state can greatly influence the signal efficacy. [START_REF] Gong | Reversal of a female preference after visual exposure to a predator in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata[END_REF], for example, showed that females guppy, Poecilia reticulata, exposed to a novel predatory cichlid, entirely change their preferences in mating choice. While half of the females became sexually unreceptive after exposure, the remainder that initially showed strong preference for brighter males, preferred subsequently duller males.

In the wolf spider, Schizocosa uetzi, [START_REF] Hebets | Subadult experience influences adult mate choice in an arthropod: Exposed female wolf spiders prefer males of a familiar phenotype[END_REF] showed that subadult females exposed to experimentally manipulated mature males (either black or brown forelegs) chose preferentially the male to whom they were previously exposed after maturation. The receiver variability could be linked to different levels of sensory detection but also to different internal processes. If receivers vary in their capacity to process information in various modalities, then multimodal signalling would permit signallers to reach a broader audience.

Here we emphasise the importance that could have physiological processes, which could turn into internal conflicts about the appropriate behavioural responses that must be displayed.

To address this issue, we were then interested in a physiological process that could be easily controlled. Crocodiles are good models to address how the physiological state influences animal responses during multimodal communication as they provide a system where physiological process could be easily controlled [START_REF] Grigg | Biology and Evolution of Crocodylians[END_REF]. Crocodilians have a very slow metabolism, which allowed us to measure the impact of internal physiological processes on multimodal communication by accurately monitoring the animals' prandial state. Changes in behaviours according to the prandial state have been indeed documented in crocodilians, with sated individuals selecting places with higher temperatures and fasted individuals selecting places with lower temperatures [START_REF] Grigg | Biology and Evolution of Crocodylians[END_REF]. Nile crocodiles are one of the more social crocodilians species (Vergne et al., 2007) (Fig 3). After hatching, young Nile crocodiles are relatively autonomous and then highly susceptible to predation [START_REF] Pooley | Nest opening response of the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus[END_REF]. While they must find their own food, they also benefit from the mother protection that guards the pod [START_REF] Pooley | Nest opening response of the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus[END_REF] (Fig 4). They are dependent then from multiple sensory information: information coming from siblings to stay nearby the pod and avoid predation, information coming from preys, all of this according to their physiological state as crocodilians are ectotherms. Vocal communication indeed is really important in this species. Young crocodiles start to vocalize inside the egg and they continue to do so even after hatching [START_REF] Vergne | Parent-offspring communication in the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus: do newborns' calls show an individual signature[END_REF]. Mother protection would be induced by young emitting distress calls and the cohesion among juveniles is maintained by contact calls emitted between young [START_REF] Vergne | Acoustic communication in crocodilians: from behaviour to brain[END_REF]. It is then expected that the influence of the individuals physiological state and the selective pressure on the perceptive abilities of young should be strong in this species. We chose to expose young Niles crocodiles (fasted or sated) to food odour and/or social and non-social sounds, to see how those two modalities interacted and if this interaction changed when the prandial state was different.

F. Research objectives

This thesis is composed of three chapters. I detail below the questions addressed in each of them.

Chapter 1: Appraisal of unimodal cues during agonistic interactions in Maylandia zebra

A first step towards the understanding of how different modalities interact during communication, is to investigate the behavioural response in a `cue-isolation' experiment (Partan & Marler, 1999;[START_REF] Smith | A new heuristic for capturing the complexity of multimodal signals[END_REF]. Several communication channels are known to be widely used by fish. Many authors have proposed that visual [START_REF] Chen | Visual Information Alone Changes Behavior and Physiology during Social Interactions in a Cichlid Fish (Astatotilapia burtoni)[END_REF][START_REF] Dijkstra | Frequency-Dependent Social Dominance in a Color Polymorphic Cichlid Fish[END_REF]Mellor et al., 2012;[START_REF] Rosenthal | Visual and acoustic communication in non-human animals: a comparison[END_REF] acoustic (Amorim et al., 2008;Bertucci et al., 2010;[START_REF] Longrie | Behaviours Associated with Acoustic Communication in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)[END_REF][START_REF] Maruska | The African Cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni uses acoustic communication for reproduction: sound production, hearing, and behavioral significance[END_REF] and chemical cues (Keller-Costa, Canário, & Hubbard, 2015;[START_REF] Martinovic-Weigelt | Fishy Aroma of Social Status: Urinary Chemo-Signalling of Territoriality in Male Fathead Minnows (Pimephales promelas)[END_REF]Plenderleith et al., 2005) are highly relevant for intraspecific communication. Additional studies revealed the importance of the lateral line system during social encounters [START_REF] Butler | The mechanosensory lateral line is used to assess opponents and mediate aggressive behaviors during territorial interactions in an African cichlid fish[END_REF], 2016). However, much remains unknown regarding the role of each sensory modality in eliciting behavioural decisions, particularly their relative hierarchy during multi-modal sensory integration. For example, acoustic and chemical cues are rarely analysed alone and typically need a visual trigger to elicit a behavioural response [START_REF] Bayani | To pee or not to pee: urine signals mediate aggressive interactions in the cooperatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher[END_REF]Estramil et al., 2014). The aim of this work was to test with a `cue-isolation' experiment the prioritization of sensory modalities by investigating how fish respond to isolated chemical, visual and acoustic signals in an agonistic context. It further aimed to develop a bioassay to test the role of each sensory channel on behavioural decisions by assessing the response to different stimulus types, e.g., video playback vs. live male stimulus. This chapter was published as a scientific paper in PeerJ.

Chapter 2: Agonistic interactions in Maylandia zebra males go multimodal Animals communicate through multiple senses which allow them to detect and integrate information during social interactions. To better understand animal communication we must consider the role and interaction of the different sensory modalities involved. It is well known that communication usually relies on a multiple sensory system (Darwin & Prodger, 1998), but recently there is a growing interest in understanding how different sensory channels are integrated to produce adaptive behaviour (Higham & Hebets, 2013;Partan & Marler, 2005). Several empirical species-specific studies on multimodal communication used different methodologies and approaches that can be employed in multimodal research and illustrate a variety of behavioural responses (Munoz & Blumstein, 2012). However, the majority of conceptual and empirical studies to date have focused on uni-or bimodal signals (Bertucci et al., 2010;Maruska & Fernald, 2012). Thus, much remains unknown on how composite signals (considering all used modalities) contribute to animal decision making. It is then of prior importance, to fully understand the evolution of the multisensory communication taking into account the full communication repertoire. Following the previous study, we here aimed to investigate how combined chemical, visual and acoustic signals interact to produce an adaptive agonistic behaviour by males of M. zebra.

Chapter 3: Cross-sensory modulation in a future top predator, the young Nile crocodile As animal behaviour is commonly driven by information from different sensory channels, internal conflicts about the appropriate behavioural response regularly arise from concurrent biological stimuli. Inputs from a given sensory modality can thus modulate the perception and behavioural reaction to another stimulus (Munoz & Blumstein, 2012;[START_REF] Otto | Principles of Multisensory Behavior[END_REF]Partan & Marler, 1999). For instance, olfaction has been shown to be modulated by vision [START_REF] Demattè | Olfactory Discrimination: When Vision Matters?[END_REF][START_REF] Gottfried | The Nose Smells What the Eye Sees: Crossmodal Visual Facilitation of Human Olfactory Perception[END_REF] and sounds [START_REF] Wesson | Smelling Sounds: Olfactory-Auditory Sensory Convergence in the Olfactory Tubercle[END_REF]. Although probably widespread, this cross-sensory modulation of perception has mainly been studied through sensory analysis, psychological and neurobiological approaches, but paying no or weak attention to its behavioural and adaptive correlates [START_REF] Belkin | Auditory pitch as a perceptual analogue to odor quality[END_REF][START_REF] Cohen | Multisensory Integration of Natural Odors and Sounds in the Auditory Cortex[END_REF]Duistermars & Frye, 2008;[START_REF] Lewkowicz | The decline of cross-species intersensory perception in human infants[END_REF][START_REF] Wallace | Early Experience Determines How the Senses Will Interact[END_REF]. As other animals, crocodilians routinely experience simultaneous stimuli from distinct sensory channels-chemical, acoustical, visual. From an early age, they have to deal with decisional conflicts emerging from concurrent stimuli, with crucial advantages in integrating various sensory cues to interact with congeners and improve prey localization and capture [START_REF] Grigg | Biology and Evolution of Crocodylians[END_REF]. Using an experimental paradigm with young Nile crocodiles Crocodylus niloticus allowing testing of their behavioural responsiveness to food odour and/or social and non-social sounds, we highlight a crossmodulation effect between olfactory and acoustic inputs. Strikingly, this cross-modulation varies according to an important regulating factor of motivation, the prandial state of the animals.

This chapter was published in Royal society open science.

Introduction

Animal communication is an elaborate system encompassing complex signalling displays to interact with conspecifics and heterospecifics across a variety of social contexts (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011). When it includes signals from different sensory modalities, simultaneously or in sequence, it is referred to as multimodal communication (Candolin, 2003;Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Partan & Marler, 2005;[START_REF] Smith | A new heuristic for capturing the complexity of multimodal signals[END_REF]. The complexity of animal communication is known for some time (Darwin & Prodger, 1998) and multimodal communication across species is now a topic of special interest (Duistermars & Frye, 2008;Estramil et al., 2014;Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018;Gordon & Uetz, 2011;Halfwerk et al., 2014;[START_REF] Wierucka | Multimodal mother-offspring recognition: the relative importance of sensory cues in a colonial mammal[END_REF]. This growing interest received a new impulse from a study proposing a framework for categorizing multimodal signals based upon receiver behavioural responses to either separate components within a sensory modality or to multimodal composite signals (Partan & Marler, 1999). So far, multimodal signals have been categorized as redundant and non-redundant according to the information they convey (Johnstone, 1996;Partan & Marler, 1999). Signals providing the same information can increase the accuracy of the receiver response and are called redundant. They also illustrate the 'backup signal' hypothesis as termed by Johnstone (1996), widely used to secure the transmission of information in environments that are restrictive for propagation. If the receiver response intensity is the same as in an unimodal cue exposure, those redundant signals are qualified as 'equivalent', but if the intensity is increased they are 'enhancement' signals (Partan & Marler, 1999). Non-redundant signals or multiple messages are signals that provide different information (i.e. different types of information or different aspects of the signaller quality) (Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Johnstone, 1996;Partan & Marler, 1999). If the response to combined signals is similar to responses to each signal presented alone, those signals are independent. But we can also observe the establishment of a hierarchy between signals. Dominance is when the response elicited by one signal dominates the other, modulation is when a signal modulates the other and finally emergence is when a new response emerges, different from when signals are presented separately (Partan & Marler, 1999). But the redundant/non-redundant framework may not always fit the variation observed (Rowe, 1999).

Other classifications have been proposed focusing more on inter-signal interactions and signal efficacy (Hebets & Papaj, 2005). And other factors must be taken into account such as the influence of the environment, the physical properties of sensory cues, the interactions among traits and the perceptive/production abilities of the individuals (Hebets et al., 2016;Higham & Hebets, 2013). Exploring this complex system will help to understand the selection pressures acting on multimodality (Candolin, 2003;Hebets et al., 2016;Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Rowe & Halpin, 2013).

The limitations between the capacities of the different sensory modalities could support the use of the multimodal communication (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011;Higham & Hebets, 2013). Visual and acoustic cues are perceived instantaneously but could be easily disturbed by the environment. A visual signal may be completely blocked by physical barriers. However, an acoustic signal would suffer less disruption from physical barriers but could be blocked by other noise. Olfactory signals travel slowly but remain for longer periods. Multimodal signalling could then compensate the drawbacks of each modality to increase efficacy during communication. But multimodality could also imply costs for the sender and receiver. Complex signalling increase energy expenditure, conspicuousness to predators or eavesdropping (Bro-Jørgensen, 2010;Hebets & Papaj, 2005). Yet, the use of multimodal communication in animals is relatively common (Higham & Hebets, 2013;Rowe & Halpin, 2013;[START_REF] Uy | Variation in the temporal and spatial use of signals and its implications for multimodal communication[END_REF].

Although not well known, this multimodality must therefore play an important role in communication networks.

Conflict resolution constitute a good model for exploring multimodality and intersignals interaction. Each individual involved in this social interaction must assess its own fighting ability, motivation and experience compared to its opponent (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011). Consequently, both individuals are senders and receivers and must exchange information via signals and cues to accurately process the information and make adaptive behavioural responses (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011;[START_REF] Van Staaden | 3 Signaling Aggression[END_REF]. Selection pressure on communication during territorial conflict resolution ought to be strong, as both competitors would benefit if the contest is settled with displays. An escalated fight could lead to serious injuries which could represent a significant cost for both competitors (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011;[START_REF] Van Staaden | 3 Signaling Aggression[END_REF]. Escobar-Camacho & Carleton (2015) in their review, showed that cichlids rely on different sensory modalities. But we do not know how these modalities interplay during communication. As the different sensory cues do not have the same active space or persistence in time, there could be a hierarchy among the sensory modalities, in the time or the order they are used. For example, when choosing a mate, a female can first evaluate from a distance conspecific males from heterospecific males with visual cues. If the interaction continues at a closer range, more information could be obtained from acoustic and chemical cues (Escobar-Camacho & Carleton, 2015). The visual component has been thoroughly studied in cichlids as a mechanism responsible for their explosive radiations (Deutsch, 1997;Seehausen & Schluter, 2004). In Maylandia zebra, the view of a live contestant elicited a strong aggressive answer from the subject male (Bertucci et al., 2010). In the same species, sounds have been shown to provide reliable estimation of the size of the male sender (Bertucci et al., 2012;Simões et al., 2008). Chemical cues in cichlids can provide multiple information such as information for species recognition (Plenderleith et al., 2005) or for the identification of the social status in males or the reproductive status of the females (Almeida, 2005;Hubbard et al., 2017).

Maylandia zebra represents a good model for trying to disentangle this complex multimodal communication. Males from this species court females with multimodal signals, allowing species recognition and social status identification (Amorim et al., 2008;Escobar-Camacho & Carleton, 2015). Males make conspicuous visual displays, emit sounds and urine pulses when females approach their territories and vibrations that could stimulate the lateral line of the females when males are doing quivers for example (Simões et al., 2008;Escobar-Camacho & Carleton, 2015). Males are also highly territorial and therefore encounter multiple conflict situation whenever two individuals simultaneously attempt to gain access to the same territory (Holzberg, 1978;Mellor et al., 2012). These close-range interactions lead to situations where signals sent by males using all sensory modalities can be perceived simultaneously by both competitors. However, it is yet to be understood how different sensory modalities interplay during conflict resolution in this species and other fishes (Hebets & Papaj, 2005;Higham & Hebets, 2013).

In this study, we examined the role of acoustic, olfactory and visual signals in opponent assessment in Maylandia zebra. Dominant males were exposed to bimodal and trimodal signals to test the relative importance of each sensory modality in conflict resolution during territorial encounter. Specifically, we measured the male response in terms of aggressive behaviours, space occupancy and territorial behaviours. This study is part of a classic approach of multimodal communication researches with a previous 'cue-isolation' experiment where dominant males were exposed to isolated chemical, visual and acoustic signals in an agonistic context (Chabrolles et al., 2017). Very few studies combined three modalities during their experiments. With this research we provide new inputs for a better understanding of multimodal communication networks.

Materials & Methods

Subjects and Housing Conditions

Maylandia zebra were purchased from Oxyfish (Verlinghem, France) and stored in holding tanks (120 cm long, 60 cm wide and 50 cm height) at ENES laboratory (University of Saint-Etienne, France). Each tank contained 10 males that were fed daily with commercial cichlid food (JBL NovoRift sticks and Tetra flakes). All tanks were equipped with an external filter (Rena Filstar xP3, Rena France, Annecy, France), aeration and PVC tubes as shelters. The water temperature was maintained at 25 1°C with a pH of 8.0 and a 12:12h light: dark cycle was settled. Each fish was identified by a transponder (PSK Transponder, Dorset Identification B.V., Netherlands).

General experimental design

This work follows the protocol described in Chabrolles et al. (2017). The general experimental design was the same between the two studies, but some details differed.

The experimental aquarium (60 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm) was placed on a vibrationinsulated shelf (with a layer of wood-fibre) in a sound-proofed chamber (PRIMO Silence-Box, Tip Top Wood©) to limit background noise. The back of the aquaria was covered on the inside with bubble wrap to break sound reflections on the tank's walls.

Each experimental tank had a filter containing active carbon, aeration, an internal heater, sand substrate, and a terracotta pot usable as a shelter by the fish, all located on the left side of the tank. Because the tested fish stayed in the experimental set up for five days, each aquarium was accompanied by a social group placed in an adjacent tank, to avoid the sense of isolation. These social groups were composed of one male and one female physically separated to avoid any injuries. An underwater loudspeaker developed by [START_REF] Fonseca | A new concept in underwater high fidelity low frequency sound generation[END_REF] was placed in the aquarium of the tested fish and used for playing back sound stimuli. A hydrophone (Aquarian Audio Products H2a-XLR, AFAB Enterprises, Anacortes, WA, USA, sensitivity: -180 dB re 1 V µPa-1, flat frequency response ± 4 dB 20 Hz -4.5 kHz) located in the middle of the tank, monitored sound playback and registered possible sounds produced by the tested fish and the opponent.

The hydrophone was connected to a preamplifier (Yamaha MLA8, Yamaha Music France, Marne-la-Vallée, France) linked to the video capture card (Osprey-450e) of a PC that synchronized audio and video signals. Behaviour was recorded using a camera (BUL520, brand, Active Media Concept, Vallauris, France) positioned in front of the set-up.

When the visual live stimulus was presented (see below), a hermetic jar (20 cm x 11.7 cm x 25 cm) that hosted the intruder fish was left in the experimental tank during the five days of testing to avoid any effect of novelty. A silicone tube (ZOLUX, reference 323 206, ID = 4.00 mm, France) attached to a partition and used during chemical presentation was also left in the experimental tank during the week of experimentation. The presentation of chemical stimuli was controlled through an aquarium pump (Tecatlantis EasyFlux300 and EasyFlux600, Aquatlantis, Guimarães, Portugal) adjusted with a flow rate of about 1 L/10min (Kobayashi, 2002). The pump was located outside the sound-proofed chamber (see Fig. 1 for a complete view of the set-up). was placed under the aquarium to limit background noise. Each experimental tank had a filter, aeration, an internal heater, sand substrate, and a terracotta pot usable as a shelter by the fish, all located on the left side of the tank. In order to avoid sense of isolation for males, each aquarium had a social group placed in an adjacent tank. An hydrophone was placed in the middle to record possible sounds produced by the tested fish and the opponent. The underwater loudspeaker was used for sound playbacks. A silicone tube attached to the partition and linked to an external pump was used for chemical presentation. The hermetic jar hosted intruder fish during visual presentation which was allowed by a removable partition.

Social hierarchies' assessment in community tanks

To establish social hierarchies between males in stock tanks, we observed the group during ten consecutive minutes before each sampling or experiment. Following (Barata et al., 2007), a DI was used to quantify males' social rank. DI was calculated using the ratio between the number of dominant behaviours (aggressive displays or nest-digging) and the number of dominant behaviours plus the number of submissive behaviours (escape from an aggressive opponent).

Only males with a dominance index (DI) above 0.7 (range from 0subordinates, to 1 dominants) were selected for experiments or chemical sampling.

Protocol for stimuli presentation

Twenty dominant males (standard lengths (SL) ranging from 8 to 11.7 cm; mean = 9.7 cm) were used to test behavioural responses to each condition. They were placed in the experimental aquarium 48 hours before the beginning of stimuli presentation. This study consisted in five different treatments: (1) real opponent in the jar (Visual only), (2) real opponent in the jar + agonistic sound playback (Visual + Sound), (3) real opponent in the jar + holding water from dominant males (Visual + Chemical), (4) real opponent in the jar + agonistic sound playback + holding water from dominant males (Visual + Sound + Chemical), (5) agonistic sound playback + holding water from dominant males (Sound + Chemical). Fish received treatment 1 to 5 (one treatment per day) on consecutive days in a random order. After experiments, all subject males returned to their original tank and the whole set up was rinsed with water and white vinegar to eliminate any potential chemical cues in the aquarium, before new males were placed in the experimental tanks.

Each experiment lasted 25 min. Ten minutes before the beginning of the test, filter, aeration, and internal heater were switched off. The visual contact with the social group was interrupted through a partition and the loudspeaker was switched on. The experiment started with a five minutes control period where no stimulus was presented. This was followed by a ten minutes period of stimulus presentation, in which potential combined sound, chemical, and visual stimulation occurred. The stimuli presentation was then followed by a ten minutes of post stimulation period where the visual contact with the real opponent was interrupted through the removable partition. Details of the treatments were as follows:

Treatment 1. Real opponent in the jar (V): a male matched in size with the subject, was introduced thirty minutes before the beginning of the test in the jar located inside the subject's tank to acclimatize. Before the capture, the opponent was observed in the group to ensure that he did not became subordinate.

Treatment 2. Real opponent in the jar + agonistic sound playback (VS): Agonistic sounds were played back (115 dB re. 1 µPa at 3.8 cm, within the range of the natural male sounds) with custom-made underwater loudspeakers (frequency response ± 1.5 dB in the range 20 Hz -2 kHz) and a driver developed by [START_REF] Fonseca | A new concept in underwater high fidelity low frequency sound generation[END_REF]. Sound stimuli were fed to the driver by a D/A converter (Edirol UA-25, Roland, Japan) controlled by Adobe Audition 3.0 (Adobe Systems Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA) on a laptop.

Two agonistic sounds of the same male were used as stimuli per experiment (Chabrolles et al., 2017). These sounds were randomly assigned from seven different males with SL ranging 8.4 cm to 10.8 cm (mean = 9.4 cm) from the ENES sound archive. All agonistic sounds presented 7-9 pulses (mean = 8.0 pulses) and a pulse rate of 18 ± 7 pulses per second. The pulses mean dominant frequency of the sounds was 289 Hz ± 133 Hz (see Bertucci et al. (2012), for the description of the sounds analysis). Pulses dominant frequencies were obtained with the 'dfreq' function from the 'seewave' R package (Sueur, Aubin, & Simonis, 2008).

During the ten minutes treatment phase, the playback was made interactively, sounds were sent each time the opponent displayed a behaviour which is usually associated with a sounds production during real interactions. The stimulus was played back only when the tested individual approached the loudspeaker area, i.e. within 1 to 5 cm in front of the loudspeaker.

Each sound was played back five times in a random order, which represented ten agonistic sounds in a test. All individuals approached the loudspeaker ten times or more. The removable partition was then put back during the post period of ten minutes. The visual contact was interrupted and no more sounds were played back. During the ten minutes treatment phase, the pump was plugged in and one litre of holding water was delivered continuously. Holding water was obtained from fifteen different dominant males (DI > 0.7) and the water from one stimulus male was randomly assigned to tested males. The used holding water came from a male unknown to the subject male. The partition was then put back during the post period of ten minutes interrupting the visual contact.

The pump was also turned off stopping the holding water delivery. But as the aquarium filter was also turned off during the experiment, the chemical information sent during the stimulation period could persist during the post stimulation period, unlike the acoustic or the visual stimuli.

Treatment 4. Real opponent in the jar + holding water from dominant males + agonistic sound playback (VCS): After the control period (five minutes), visual interaction occurred by removing the partition, the holding water pump was plugged in and the playback was sent interactively during the ten minutes of stimulus presentation. The partition was then put back during the post period of ten minutes. The visual contact was interrupted and no more sounds were played back. But the chemical information could persist.

Treatment 5. Holding water from dominant males + agonistic sound playback (CS): After the control period (five minutes), in order to have the same conditions for each treatment, the partition was removed even if no opponent was present. The holding water pump was plugged in and the playback was sent during the ten minutes of stimulus presentation. The sounds were played back only when the tested individual approached the loudspeaker area, i.e. within 1 to 5 cm in front of the loudspeaker, simulating close interaction. The partition was then put back during the post period of ten minutes and no more sounds were played back. But the chemical information could persist.

Behavioural analysis

Videos were analysed using Jwatcher software (v. 1.0) which allows registering systematically the frequency of occurrence and the duration of each variable. Both measures were considered in the statistical analysis.

For both the subject and the opponent, the aggressive behaviours (i.e. lateral displays, quivers, bites, attempted chase, darts and sounds produced) were counted and then summed to produce an aggressive score (Chabrolles et al., 2017). For the subject only, we quantified the number of up-and-down swimming (when a territorial fish was swimming up and down against the wall of the aquarium). We also quantified the tank's exploration score, for which the aquarium was artificially divided in two equal zones and the number of shifts between the two zones was counted. Finally, the nest maintenance behaviour (when a territorial fish was moving sand within its territory) and the number of the shelter visits were also counted.

Statistics

All statistical tests were performed using R software (R Core Team, 2016).

I. Effect of treatment and trial period on the behavioural variables scores (PC1 and PC2)

In order to reduce the number of variables for statistical analysis, the nine selected behavioural measures (aggression (duration and occurrence), up-and-down swimming (duration and occurrence), tank's occupation, maintenance (duration and occurrence) and shelter visits (duration and occurrence)) were grouped using Principal Component Analysis (PCA; [START_REF] Mcgregor | Quantifying Responses to Playback: One, Many, or Composite Multivariate Measures?[END_REF]. The first three principal components (PCs), with eigenvalue above 1 were selected (Table 1). These explained 82% of the total variance. This first analysis tested the effect of treatment and the test periods (control, stimulation and post-stimulation) on overall behaviour. To assess the effect of the different treatments, linear models ('lmer' functions from the 'lme4' R package [START_REF] Bates | Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models using lme4[END_REF]) were performed on values of each principal component that has been kept. Residuals equivariance and distribution were checked using the 'plotresid' function from the 'RVAideMemoire' R package [START_REF] Hervé | RVAideMemoire: Diverse Basic Statistical and Graphical Functions (Version 0.9[END_REF].

PC1 PC2 PC3

To test the two interacting factors, treatment and period the following model was Model 1. The variable period had three levels: the control, the stimulus presentation and the post stimulation period. The variable treatment had five levels. Four random factors were added to the model: the day of the experimentation (1| day), the subject identity (1| subject), if the opponent produced sounds during the stimuli presentation (binary answer: yes or no) (1| opponent sounds production) and the aggressive score of the opponent calculated during the interaction for the stimuli presentation (1| opponent aggressive score). An 'offset' took into account the different recording duration of the control compared to the stimuli presentation and the post stimulation period. P-values were assessed using the 'Anova' function ('car' R package [START_REF] Fox | Multivariate linear models in R. An R Companion to Applied Regression[END_REF]). If one factor had a significant effect, post hoc tests using Tukey's adjustment were performed using 'lsmeans' function ('lsmeans' R package [START_REF] Lenth | Least-squares means: the R package lsmeans[END_REF]).

When all the pairwise comparisons were not necessary, contrast matrices were build and used with the 'contrast' function ('lsmeans' R package [START_REF] Lenth | Least-squares means: the R package lsmeans[END_REF]; 'RVAideMemoire' R package Hervé ( 2017)).

II. Contribution of the behavioural variables for each treatment

This second analysis aimed to see what really changed in each treatment, namely if the contribution of the behavioural variables was different across trial period in the different treatments. This was achieved with five principal component analyses, one per treatment, using transformed data (Box-Cox transformation). For each treatment, the nine selected behavioural measures were grouped in a principal component analysis and only the first three principal components were selected (Table 2). function from 'lsmeans' R package [START_REF] Lenth | Least-squares means: the R package lsmeans[END_REF] and 'contrast' function from 'RVAideMemoire' R package [START_REF] Hervé | RVAideMemoire: Diverse Basic Statistical and Graphical Functions (Version 0.9[END_REF]) allowed post-hoc comparisons when significant main or interaction effects were found. For the pairwise comparisons P-values were adjusted using Tukey's method. Estimates were extracted from the summary of the least-squares means function. Only trial period had an impact on PC2 values (up-and-down swimming and tank's exploration) (Table 7). Up-down-swimming and tank's exploration kept increasing between the control, the stimuli presentation and the post-stimulation period. PC2 was significantly higher during the stimuli presentation in comparison to the control. It was also significantly higher during the post-stimulation period in comparison to both control and stimuli presentation ( and post-stimulation period (Post)) on PC2 values (up-and-down swimming and tank's exploration). Least-squares means ('lsmeans' function from 'lsmeans' R package [START_REF] Lenth | Least-squares means: the R package lsmeans[END_REF] allowed post-hoc comparisons when significant main or interaction effects were found. For the

III. Change in behaviour between the control (Pre) and the stimuli presentation (Stim)

To assess how behavioural variables changed when stimuli were presented, the difference between Stim and control periods of the behavioural Index (the mean value of each behavioural variable weighed by its loading in the 3 first PCA axis; see Methods) was calculated.

During stimuli presentation, the aggressiveness (duration and occurrence) increased for all treatments, especially when the visual component was present (Fig 5).

The maintenance (duration and occurrence) decreased during the stimuli presentation for all treatments, as well as the shelter visits (duration and occurrence) (

Discussion

The use of multiple sensory cues in animal communication is relatively common but although more and more studies explored multimodality, most of the studies available up to now have investigated isolated or bimodal signals (Higham & Hebets, 2013;[START_REF] Uy | Variation in the temporal and spatial use of signals and its implications for multimodal communication[END_REF]. As a result, interactions between the sensory modalities and their actions on the receiver behaviour remain largely unravelled. Here, we investigated the interaction in a trimodal system during territorial encounter between males of a cichlid Maylandia Zebra. The results of this paper have to be interpreted with the results of a previous paper (Chabrolles et al., 2017) where dominant males were exposed to isolated chemical, visual and acoustic signals also in an agonistic context.

In this study we found that when the visual component (alone and combined with the two other modalities) was available for the receiver, his response was essentially agonistic with a high level of aggressiveness towards the opponent. This was associated to a decrease of other territorial behaviours such as maintenance and shelter visits. They also increased the up and down swimming and tank's exploration, especially during the post-stimulation period. Even when the different treatments (V, VS, VC, CS and VCS) were analysed separately (Fig 4 ), changes in behaviour were similar across trial periods. This could suggest that the visual component could be the most important sensory modality in this species. Indeed, Escobar-Camacho & Carleton (2015) consistently suggested that visual system could be the most important sensory system for cichlids in general. Regarding the chemical component, males exposed to male holding water changed their behaviours, by increasing both the up and down swimming and the tank's exploration, and decreasing the shelter visits (Chabrolles et al., 2017).

Similar behavioural responses were observed in this study when the chemical component was associated with the sound and when both sound and chemical were associated with the visual component. We also found that visual signals associated to chemical signals decreased aggression compared to the visual treatment alone. This suggests that chemical component could provide information about status and motivation in this species in accordance with previous studies on another cichlid, the Mozambique tilapia, which showed that males of the latter species could advertise their social rank and motivation to fight with urine pulses and odorants molecules contained in urine during territorial encounter (Barata et al., 2007;Keller-Costa et al., 2016). In addition, the association of the sound with the chemical component triggered aggression even though no visual component was present. They elicited the same behavioural responses as the visual component alone did, except for the number of up and down swimming which increased for the chemical + sound treatment and decreased for the visual treatment. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study looking into the receiver's response to chemical stimuli associated to agonistic sounds but without any visual component.

It highlights the importance to look for inter-signals interaction as it was emphasised by Hebets & Papaj (2005).

As proposed by Escobar-Camacho & Carleton (2015) in their review, the chemical component could be the next most important modality in cichlids after the visual and could be of relative importance during close-range interactions. In comparison, the sound treatment in Chabrolles et al. (2017) did not elicit changes in behaviours by itself. Like in other studies, the view of a live contestant triggers a highly aggressive response from the tested male, while an acoustic playback alone did not change the behaviour of the targeted individual (Bertucci et al., 2010;Ladich & Myrberg, 2006). Agonistic sounds are typically used within short distance and associated with conspicuous visual displays (Ladich & Myrberg, 2006a). This could be linked to the order signals perception, which can be influenced by the modalities active space. In fact, the assessment of multimodal signals could be sequential in this species. [START_REF] Uy | Variation in the temporal and spatial use of signals and its implications for multimodal communication[END_REF] have shown that sequential assessment is widespread across diverse taxa and modalities, with response. This is of great importance in conflict resolution when both competitors would benefit if the contest is settled with displays and not an escalated fight (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011;[START_REF] Van Staaden | 3 Signaling Aggression[END_REF]. Future work needs to address if the different sensory modalities in this species are indeed processed sequentially.

Using the conceptual framework proposed by Partan & Marler (1999) Bertucci et al. (2010) where territorial males decreased their aggressiveness when visual signals were associated to agonistic playbacks. This fact highlight that response could be shaped by prior individuals experiences (Hebets & Vink, 2007). In our experiment, tested males were accompanied by a social group placed in an adjacent tank, as they were maintained in the experimental set up for five days. In contrast, in Bertucci et al. (2010), tested males were visually and acoustically isolated for 24h before the beginning of the experiment. They also used repeated measures with three treatments (visual alone, acoustic alone and visual and acoustic stimuli) in one experiment (one day) while we used repeated measures with five treatments over five days (one treatment per day). These issues emphasise the importance to consider social experience when analysing multimodal communication.

When considering the behavioural responses to the different treatments in this paper, we saw that those responses were expressed in the same way (with increased aggressiveness, decreased maintenance and shelter visits and increased up-and-down swimming and tank's exploration). While the response is less intense for the chemical + sound treatment (CS) and more intense for the visual + chemical + sound treatment (VCS) there is no strong behavioural variability between the other treatments (Fig 5). If you consider the signal content, it might not be completely correct to categorise them as non-redundant. Sound in this species provide information about the size (Bertucci et al., 2012). Another study showed that Maylandia zebra males are able to perceive differences in frequency during playback and use that information for size assessment (Amorim et al., unpublished). Simões et al. (2008) also suggested that in this species, sounds produced by males during agonistic encounters could convey information on the motivation of the producer similar to the chemical signals (Keller-Costa et al., 2015).

The visual component also provides direct information about the individual's size and coloration which is also related to the social status (Holzberg, 1978;Korzan & Fernald, 2007;Simões et al., 2008). In summary, these three signal modalities seem to provide information that overlap and could be used as a 'backup'. Whether redundant or not they could reduce the uncertainty about the environment as proposed by Munoz & Blumstein (2012). In this study, multimodality seem to reinforce the receiver responses with a gradient of intensity and with the number of signals received. This could be directly related to the distance between the two protagonists, which could vary across the situations. It is then possible to secure information according to the propagation constraints (modalities active space in a given environment).

With these results, we stress the complexity of characterising multimodal

A. Research context and original contributions of this study.

The use of multiple sensory signals in animal communication is relatively common (Higham & Hebets, 2013). While the function and role of each signal separately has often been investigated, interactions between the sensory modalities and their actions on the receiver behaviour remain to be unravelled [START_REF] Smith | A new heuristic for capturing the complexity of multimodal signals[END_REF]. Moreover, knowledge is limited about the perceptive abilities, physiological state and psychological framework of the receiver, which is independent of signal content, but should also influence signal evolution (Hebets & Papaj, 2005;[START_REF] Smith | A new heuristic for capturing the complexity of multimodal signals[END_REF].

This thesis aimed to disentangle the complex system of multimodal communication. The originality of my studies lies in the fact that I conciliated both the interactions that could exist between sensory modalities with the potential influence of the receiver physiological state. I tried to provide a research as complete as possible about multimodal communication.

We used two species of vertebrates as models: a cichlid fish Maylandia zebra, and a crocodile Crocodylus niloticus. The first step was to characterize the role of different sensory modalities during territorial defence in Maylandia zebra males, and to understand the synergy between those modalities. The second step was to evaluate the impact of internal physiological processes on multimodal signals processing. We measured the behavioural responses of young Niles crocodiles who were exposed to olfactory and/or acoustic signals. We controlled their physiological state by rigorously modulating the prandial state of the animals.

In order to help with the reading of this discussion, Table 1 summarises the results of both the first and the second chapters. In M. zebra males, the visual channel elicited strong response (Table 1). The view of a real opponent triggered a highly aggressive reaction and increased the subject activity (Table 1). In Bertucci et al. (2010) the view of a live contestant also provoked a high aggressive answer from the subject male. The visual component has been thoroughly studied in African great lake cichlid fishes as it was proposed that the diversity of colours in cichlids could be part of the mechanisms responsible for the explosive radiations observed in cichlids (Deutsch, 1997;Seehausen & Schluter, 2004). Consistently with this hypothesis, it has been shown that females select conspecific mates using visual cues [START_REF] Kidd | A direct assay of female choice in cichlids: all the eggs in one basket[END_REF][START_REF] Selz | Female preference for male color is necessary and sufficient for assortative mating in 2 cichlid sister species[END_REF], though chemical and acoustic signals also seem to play an important role (Amorim et al., 2008;Plenderleith et al., 2005). More recently, male-male competition has also been proposed to be an important agent of diversification among cichlids since owning a territory is a prerequisite to mating [START_REF] Dijkstra | Male-Male Competition as a Force in Evolutionary Diversification: Evidence in Haplochromine Cichlid Fish[END_REF]Seehausen & Schluter, 2004). Males uses colour patterns during their territorial defence from conspecifics and heterospecifics.

Acoustic signals, when presented in isolation, did not change the behaviour of males M.

zebra in our study (Table 1). This result reinforces previous studies with similar results when studying agonistic context in fishes (Bertucci et al., 2010;Ladich & Myrberg, 2006).

Nevertheless, agonistic sounds may impart information about size as the dominant frequency is negatively related to size (Bertucci et al., 2012). Simões et al. (2008) also suggested that in this species, sounds produced by males during agonistic encounters could convey the motivation of the sender. Fish agonistic sounds are typically produced within short distance from the receiver and associated with conspicuous visual displays (Ladich & Myrberg, 2006b).

The absence of behavioural changes during playback could be explained by the fact that it may not be adaptive to respond to sounds unless visual cues confirm the presence of a nearby opponent, as sounds may travel long distances underwater (Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 2011).

As proposed by Escobar-Camacho & Carleton (2015) in their review, the chemical component could be the next most important modality in cichlids after the visual and could be of relative importance during close-range interactions. In the Mozambique tilapia, males could advertise their social rank and motivation to fight with urine pulses and odorants molecules contained in urine during territorial encounter (Barata et al., 2007;Keller-Costa et al., 2016).

In Neolamprologus pulcher, fish that had only had access to visual information increased their urination frequency and showed more aggressive displays than fish that had both visual and chemical information available [START_REF] Bayani | To pee or not to pee: urine signals mediate aggressive interactions in the cooperatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher[END_REF]. In males Maylandia zebra, the chemical channel presented alone did not elicit aggressiveness, but increased males' arousal (Table 1).

These results suggest that males M. zebra could communicate social information and their aggressive propensity via the chemical component. The role of the chemical communication, during agonistic interactions in M. zebra, remains to be clarified.

In contrast to the wealth of research in cichlids available on visual, auditory and chemical communication, little is known about the role of the lateral line system, especially during territorial and aggressive encounters. Although this component is missing in my study it is likely that it also plays a significant role in this species agonistic interactions. Consistent with this suggestion, [START_REF] Butler | The mechanosensory lateral line is used to assess opponents and mediate aggressive behaviors during territorial interactions in an African cichlid fish[END_REF] showed that in the cichlid Astatotilapia burtoni the lateral line plays an essential role for the mutual assessment of opponents during agonistic encounters, facilitating non-contact mutual assessment. Vibrational information could be essential and the role of the lateral line system during agonistic interactions in M. zebra clearly needs further investigation. For this purpose, the ablation of the lateral line would be possible in M.zebra according to the method used in [START_REF] Butler | The mechanosensory lateral line is used to assess opponents and mediate aggressive behaviors during territorial interactions in an African cichlid fish[END_REF].

chemical component triggered aggression even without the visual component (Table 1). When visual signals were combined with agonistic sounds (VS) or with both sound and chemical signals (VCS), they increased aggressiveness (Table 1) pointing to an interaction between the sensory modalities during multimodal communication in Maylandia zebra. The chemical and sound components modulate the visual signals. Another study using mismatched acoustic and visual signals carried out with this species, supports these results. They showed that when the opponent matched in size the subject fish, the sound was prevalent to visual information when it indicated a larger size (lower frequency) than the subject fish (the sound lowered aggression), but when the sound indicated a smaller size than the subject fish, visual information was prevalent (the sound did not lower aggression) (Amorim et al., unpublished). Taken together, these studies highlight the importance to look for inter-signals interaction when studying multimodality, as emphasised by Hebets & Papaj (2005).

The interaction and modulation among sensory modalities could be directly linked to the order of signal perception (i.e. the assessment of multimodal signals could be sequential in this species), which could be influenced by the modalities' active space. In fact, [START_REF] Uy | Variation in the temporal and spatial use of signals and its implications for multimodal communication[END_REF] have shown that sequential assessment is widespread across diverse taxa and modalities, with long-range signals attracting conspecifics for further assessment using close-range signals. An ongoing study using a cross-modal paradigm, has exposed M. zebra males to two experimental conditions: either a congruent context where the speaker that provide the playback is located near the jar containing the opponent, or an incongruent context where the speaker is distant from the visual stimulus. Results from this study should bring new inputs that should shed some light on this question. Synchronisation between different sensory modalities could be of great importance in the relevance and the efficacy of the multimodal communication as emphasised by [START_REF] Narins | Cross-modal integration in a dart-poison frog[END_REF].

Apart from measuring behavioural responses, neural mechanisms of multimodal communication should also be addressed. Future work on brain areas activation could be considered in this species by measuring the level of neural activity and expression of immediate early genes (IEGs). Numerous studies have already focused their research on the transcription factors egr-1 and cfos [START_REF] Burmeister | Rapid Behavioral and Genomic Responses to Social Opportunity[END_REF][START_REF] Desjardins | Female genomic response to mate information[END_REF]Fernald & Maruska, 2012;[START_REF] Maruska | Social Opportunity Causes Rapid Transcriptional Changes in the Social Behaviour Network of the Brain in an African Cichlid Fish[END_REF][START_REF] Okuyama | Induction of c-fos transcription in the medaka brain (Oryzias latipes) in response to mating stimuli[END_REF]. In Astatotilapia burtoni, social opportunity induced expression of the immediate-early gene egr-1 in the anterior preoptic area [START_REF] Burmeister | Rapid Behavioral and Genomic Responses to Social Opportunity[END_REF]Fernald & Maruska, 2012). This change in expression could subsequently induce physiological changes that would increase males' fertility. It has also been shown that social information activates specific brain areas that differ significantly depending on what the female sees [START_REF] Desjardins | Female genomic response to mate information[END_REF]. It should thus be most relevant to test M. zebra behavioural responses in both males and females and IEG expression with an audience effect.

Here we emphasised the complexity of multimodal communication and how behavioural responses may differ according to combinations of stimuli, congruency of signal information or social context (e.g. audience effect). A remaining issue is the effect of internal physiological state which could cause internal conflicts about the appropriate behavioural responses that must be displayed. To address this issue, we were interested in a physiological process that could be easily controlled. Crocodiles were a very good model to test the effect of physiological state as they have a very slow metabolism, allowing to measure the impact of internal physiological processes on multimodal communication by accurately monitoring the animals prandial state.

Question: How the internal physiological state, more specifically the prandial state, can influence this inter-signals interaction during multimodal communication?

In young Nile crocodiles, the prandial state unsurprisingly modulates the responsiveness of the individuals to a congruent (food intake-related) olfactory stimulus. However, in absence of any odour the prandial state also alters the responsiveness to an incongruent (independent of food) stimulus, a social sound (juveniles' contact calls) and a non-social sound (white noise).

Only sated individuals explored the whole experimental arena during playback. Thus, in absence of food odour, social and non-social sounds elicited a locomotor response in sated individuals. Finally, when food odour was available, fasted crocodiles still oriented their head towards the social sound but the noise stimulus was no longer efficient to elicit the same behavioural response. Sated individuals still oriented their head towards the loudspeaker for both playback signals. Thus, young crocodiles prioritize food over sound stimuli whatever their prandial state and the nature of sound, but, when fasted, they display selective attention to socially relevant acoustic signals over noise in presence of food odour.

As young Nile crocodiles must find their own food, the influence of the prandial state ought to be strong in this species. Nevertheless, they must stay close to their siblings in order to be still protected by their mother who guards the pod. In this study, we could clearly see an interaction between acoustic and olfactory modalities, modulated by the internal physiological state of the individuals. Young animals that must be relatively autonomous at the beginning of their life should benefit of this cross-sensory modulation according to the prandial state by prioritizing distinct environmental sensory cues.

Laura CHABROLLES

Title : Integrative study of multimodal communication in two models of vertebrates: Maylandia zebra and Crocodylus niloticus. Abstract : The use of multimodal communication in animals is relatively common, however most of the studies have investigated cues in isolation or in bimodal systems and did not consider how the receivers detect and process signals. This thesis aims to disentangle the complex system of multimodal communication by studying the receiver behavioural responses to unimodal or multimodal stimuli and addressing the potential influence of the receiver physiological state on these responses. I used two vertebrates models that use multimodal signals: a cichlid fish Maylandia zebra, and a crocodile Crocodylus niloticus. The results show an interaction between the different modalities, allowing to modulate and refine the information transmitted during agonistic interactions in Maylandia zebra. In young Nile crocodiles, the prandial state (fasted or sated) is an important regulating factor of motivation which can influence the cross-modulation between olfactory and acoustic inputs. This thesis brings new inputs for a better understanding of multimodal communication in vertebrates. It calls for further studies, empirical, theoretical and integrative, on multimodal signalling systems that should help to clarify why animal communication became so complex.

  (Fig 1).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Classification of multimodal signals according Partan & Marler, (1999). Redundant signals are

  ). If the interaction continues at a closer range, more information could be obtained from acoustic and chemical cues (Escobar-Camacho & Carleton, 2015) (Fig 2).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Behaviours associated with multimodal courtship in cichlids according to Escobar-Camacho &

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus, basking on an artificial riverbank at La Ferme

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Group of young Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus, in the nursery at La Ferme

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Behavioural experiment set-up. Dominant males were placed in the experimental

Treatment 3 .

 3 Real opponent in the jar + holding water from dominant males (VC): After quantifying the social rank, dominant males (DI > 0.7) were selected and placed individually in a jar containing two litres of aerated water at 25 1°C during three hours. One litre of this solution was used during chemical presentation in the same day, to avoid any chemical degradation. Preliminary experiments on chemical communication in the same fish species have shown that if we injected three males with patent blue V (Prolabo, France), they urinated during the next three hours thereby confirming the presence of urine in the holding water.

b

  Column coordinates and transformations used before the PCA. Aggressiveness was inversely correlated with the maintenance and the shelter visits on PC1. Positive values of PC1 values represent increased aggressiveness and negative values mean increased maintenance and shelter visits (see Fig 2). The Up-and-down swimming and the tank's exploration contributed mainly to PC2. Positive values represent an increase in Upand-down swimming and tank's exploration whereas negative values represent a decrease of both parameters (see Fig 3). Although, maintenance also contributed to PC3, we did not represent it to simplify the analysis and because it explained a small amount of variance of this third component (17%).Because the data distributions were not Gaussian, we performed a Box-Cox transformation which computes one parameter transformation using the following formula: parameter (ƛ) = (parameter ƛ -1)/ ƛ, if ƛ ≠ 0 and parameter (ƛ) = ln(parameter) if ƛ = 0. The 'boxcox' function from the 'Mass' R package(Venables & Ripley, 2002) automatically finds the appropriate ƛ value to reach a distribution as close as possible to the Gaussian distribution.

  -lmer (PC values ~ treatment * period + offset (log (Recording duration)) + (1| day) + (1| subject) + (1| opponent sounds production) + (1| opponent aggressive score))

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Effect of the five treatments (Chemical + Sound (red), Visual (grey), V + C (green),

  different across trial period according to the treatments. This was achieved with five Principal Component Analyses, one per treatments(Fig 4).For all five treatments, the period of stimulation (Stim) was characterised by an increase of aggressiveness and a decrease of shelter visits and maintenance in comparison to the control period (Pre) and the post-stimulation period (Post). Similarly, the same applied to the up-anddown swimming which increased during the post-stimulation period (Post) for the different treatments(Fig 4). Although the contributions of the behavioural variables were similar, individuals responded less in the chemical + sound treatment, with overlapping ellipses, compared to the other treatments.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Principal component analysis biplot showing for each treatment (Chemical + Sound

  Fig 5). Up-and-down swimming (duration and occurrence) increased during the stimuli presentation for the CS and VCS treatments (Fig 5). For the V, VS, and VC treatments, the upand-down swimming, decreased slightly or did not change (Fig 5).Finally, the tank's exploration decreased for the VS and VC treatments while it increased for the other treatments (Fig 5). With the exception of three behavioural variables, the other behaviours decreased or increased during the stimuli presentation more importantly for the VCS treatment, while there was no strong behavioural variability between the other treatments (Fig 5).

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Index of the relative importance of the behavioural variables (aggressive behaviours, maintenance, the shelter visits, the up-and-down swimming, and the tank's exploration score)

  long-range signals attracting conspecifics for further assessment of close-range signals. In Maylandia zebra visual signals are used at both short and long ranges. They can be perceived first, however chemical signals could also be carried by water and remain for longer period. In the case where visual signals are disrupted by a physical barrier, it seems plausible that chemical signals are then perceived before the visual signals, while agonistic sounds are used only for close range interactions. If the different modalities in this species are assessed sequentially, visual signals could be perceived and processed before other signals and could elicit a strong

  and the results from Chabrolles et al. (2017) we can suggest that the visual, the chemical and the sound component seem to be non-redundant signals, as those signals in isolation elicited different responses (aggression, arousal and nothing respectively). With this paper we showed in addition that the chemical and the acoustic signals modulated the visual component. For example, when visual signals were combined with agonistic sounds (VS) and with both sound and chemical signals (VCS), it increased a little bit aggressiveness. But this is in contrast with a previous study of

  Summary of the results fromChabrolles et al. (2017) where dominant males of the cichlid fish Maylandia zebra were exposed to isolated chemical, visual and acoustic signals in an agonistic context (chapter 1) and results from the second chapter where dominant males were exposed to combined chemical, visual and acoustic signals in an agonistic context. Arrows upward correspond to an increase of the observed behavioural response, while arrows downward correspond to a decrease of the measured behaviour. The arrows size indicates the intensity of the increase or decrease in behaviours. (-) means no behavioural change. B. Role of each sensory modality in Maylandia zebra males in an agonistic context. Question: What is the role of each sensory modality in this species? What are the behavioural responses of males Maylandia zebra exposed, during agonistic interactions, to isolated chemical, visual or acoustic signals?

Table 1 .

 1 Principal component analysis of the behavioural variables.

	Variance explained a (% cumulative)	41.10 65.12 82.33
	Eigenvalue a	3.70 2.16 1.55
	Aggressiveness (duration) (Box-Coxb)	-0.77 0.17 -0.41
	Aggressiveness (occurrence) (Box-Coxb)	-0.80 0.25 -0.38
	Maintenance (duration) (Box-Coxb)	0.71 0.02 -0.65
	Maintenance (occurrence) (Box-Coxb)	0.68 0.03 -0.69

a Decomposition of total inertia for each principal component ('inertia.dudi' function from 'ade4' R package).

Table 2 .

 2 Decomposition of total inertia for each principal component('inertia.dudi'

	Treatment Principal Components Eigenvalue Variance explained (% cumulative)
	CS	PC1	3.28	36.49
	CS	PC2	1.91	57.76
	CS	PC3	1.79	77.61
	V	PC1	4.05	44.97
	V	PC2	2.16	68.95
	V	PC3	1.63	87.01
	VS	PC1	4.05	44.96
	VS	PC2	2.09	68.23
	VS	PC3	1.48	84.64
	VC	PC1	3.94	43.77
	VC	PC2	2.20	68.26
	VC	PC3	1.13	80.87
	VCS	PC1	3.79	42.16
	VCS	PC2	2.09	65.39
	VCS	PC3	1.72	84.46
	function from 'ade4' R package) from principal component analyses realised on each
	treatments (V: visual, VS: visual + sound, VC: visual + chemical, VCS: visual + sound +

chemical and CS: chemical + sound) for the nine selected behavioural measures (aggression (duration and occurrence), up-and-down swimming (duration and occurrence), tank's

Table 4 .

 4 Mean values for each behavioural variables for the control and the stimulation period. (Post) in the presence of the remaining chemical of the chemical/visual treatment (green) when comparing to the post period (Post) of the visual treatment (grey) (Table 6; Fig 2).

	Significant differences were observed for the control period (Pre) amongst treatments
	due to individual variation in maintenance and shelter visits before stimulation, (Table 6; Fig
	2).
		Chisq	Df	P
	Treatment	33.542	4	<0.001 ***
	Period	330.562	2	<.0001 ***
	Treatment: Period 57.712	8	<.0001 ***

It was calculated from the 'tab' object with the 'dudi.pca' function from 'ade4' R package

[START_REF] Dray | The ade4 Package: Implementing the Duality Diagram for Ecologists[END_REF]

, containing the behavioural values but centred and scaled. This index allow us to represent the behavioural changes observed during stimulation in comparison to the control, while taking into account the different contributions that the variables had according to the treatments. The difference between the index calculated for the stimuli presentation and the control was used to represent if the behavioural variables increased or decreased during the stimuli presentation for each treatment. period

Table 5 .

 5 Effect

	Contrast	Estimate SE	df	t.ratio	p.value
	CS Stim vs CS Post	-0.965	0.294 251.324 -3.277	0.003 **
	CS Post vs CS Pre	-0.696	0.294 251.324 -2.363	0.037 *
	CS Stim vs CS Pre	-1.661	0.294 251.324 -5.639	<0.001 ***
	V Stim vs V Post	-3.463	0.35	66.872	-9.899	<0.001 ***
	V Post vs V Pre	0.029	0.294 251.324 0.098	0.922

of the five treatments (Visual, V + Sound, V + Chemical, V + S + C and C + S) according to the period (Control, stimuli presentation and post-stimulation period) on PC1 values (aggressive behaviours, maintenance and the shelter visits). Linear mixed-effect models ('lmer' function from the 'lme4' R package

[START_REF] Bates | Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models using lme4[END_REF]

) tested the effect of the treatments, the periods and the interaction between treatments and periods. An 'offset' took into account the different recording duration of the control in comparison to the stimuli presentation and post-stimulation. Day of experimentation, subject identity, opponent sound production and opponent aggressive score were included in the model as random factor. P-values were assessed using the 'Anova' function ('car' R package

[START_REF] Fox | Multivariate linear models in R. An R Companion to Applied Regression[END_REF]

).

Table 6 .

 6 Pairwise comparisons of the five treatments (V: visual, VS: visual + sound, VC: visual

	+ chemical, VCS: visual + sound + chemical and CS: chemical + sound) according to the period
	(Control (Pre), stimuli presentation (Stim) and post-stimulation period (Post)) on PC1 values

(aggressive behaviours, maintenance and the shelter visits). Least-squares means ('lsmeans'

Table 8 ;

 8 Fig 3).

		Chisq	Df	P
	Treatment	6.648	4	0.1557
	Period	172.840	2	<.0001 ***
	Treatment: Period 7.662	8	0.4672

Table 7 .

 7 Effect of the five treatments (Visual, V + Sound, V + Chemical, V + S + C and C +

	Contrast	Estimate SE	df	t.ratio	p.value
	Stim vs Post	1.278	0.324 79.3	3.948	<0.001 ***
	Stim vs Pre	-0.786	0.324 79.3	-2.427	0.046 *
	Post vs Pre	-2.063	0.157 225.5	-13.112 <0.001 ***

S) according to the period (Control, stimuli presentation and post-stimulation period) on PC2 values (up-and-down swimming and tank's exploration). Linear mixed-effect models ('lmer' function from the 'lme4' R package

[START_REF] Bates | Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models using lme4[END_REF]

) tested the effect of the treatments, the periods and the interaction between treatments and periods. An 'offset' took into account the different recording duration of the control in comparison to the stimuli presentation and poststimulation. Day of experimentation, subject identity, opponent sounds production and opponent aggressive score were included in the model as random factor. P-values were assessed using the 'Anova' function ('car' R package

[START_REF] Fox | Multivariate linear models in R. An R Companion to Applied Regression[END_REF]

).

Table 8 .

 8 Pairwise comparisons of the three periods (Control (Pre), stimuli presentation (Stim)

  communication. Regarding how you frame the sensory modalities, you can classify them as redundant or non-redundant if you look into the receiver response. But if you look into the information that signals could carry, redundant and non-redundant classification is no longer properly adapted. A new, more complex classification correlating the receiver response and signal content needs to be developed to improve our understanding of multimodal communication. In addition, if you take into account the ecological context and the prior experience of the receiver, the framework may change suggesting that a more dynamic framework should be considered. More studies, empirical, theoretical and integrative, on multimodal signalling systems should help to clarify why animal communication became so complex.

Titre : Étude intégrative de la communication multimodale chez deux modèles de vertébrés : Maylandia zebra et Crocodylus niloticus. Résumé :

  Bien que l'utilisation de la communication multimodale chez les animaux soit relativement courante, la plupart des études jusqu'à maintenant ont porté sur des systèmes uniou bimodaux et n'ont pas examiné comment l'individu qui reçoit les signaux les détectent et les traitent. Cette thèse a pour but d'étudier le système complexe que représente la communication multimodale en conciliant à la fois les interactions qui pourraient exister entre les modalités sensorielles et l'influence potentielle que pourrait avoir l'état physiologique de l'individu recevant les signaux. J'ai utilisé deux espèces de vertébrés comme modèles utilisant des signaux multimodaux : un poisson cichlidé Maylandia zebra, et un crocodile Crocodylus niloticus. Les résultats montrent une interaction entre les différentes modalités, permettant de moduler et d'affiner l'information transmise lors des interactions agonistiques chez Maylandia zebra. Chez les jeunes crocodiles du Nil, l'état prandial (à jeun ou à satiété) est un facteur régulateur important de la motivation qui peut influencer la modulation croisée entre les signaux olfactifs et acoustiques reçus. Cette thèse apporte de nouveaux éléments pour une meilleure compréhension de la communication multimodale chez les vertébrés. Elle appelle à la réalisation d'autres études, empiriques, théoriques et intégratives, sur les systèmes de signalisation multimodale qui devraient aider à comprendre pourquoi la communication animale est devenue si complexe. Ethologie, Biologie Mots-clés : communication multimodale, cichlidés, Maylandia zebra, intéractions agonistiques, signaux visuels, signaux acoustiques, signaux olfactifs, modulation crosssensorielle, crocodile du Nil, Crocodylus niloticus, comportement, état prandial, playback. Laboratoire : Equipe de Neuro-Ethologie Sensorielle ENES / CRNL, University of Lyon / Saint-Etienne, CNRS UMR5292, INSERM UMR_S 1028, Saint-Etienne, France

Discipline :

Acknowledgements

We thank Maud Passelegue for assistance in videos analyses.

Merci à Alain Blanc pour

occupation, maintenance (duration and occurrence) and occupation of the shelter (duration and occurrence)).

III. Change in behaviour between the control (Pre) and the stimuli presentation (Stim)

To quantify the magnitude of the behavioural response during treatment stimulation, an index was built to measure if each behavioural variables increased or decreased between the control and the stimuli presentation for each treatment. To have comparable measures between treatments, the mean value of each behavioural variable was centred and scaled for the control and the stimuli presentation. This value was then multiplied by its absolute value of their contributions on PC1, PC2 and PC3 and then summed (for detail of calculation, see example below). The mean values of each behavioural variable for the control and the stimuli presentation was calculated from the 'tab' object with the 'dudi.pca' function from 'ade4' R package [START_REF] Dray | The ade4 Package: Implementing the Duality Diagram for Ecologists[END_REF]. The 'tab' object returned the data frame containing the behavioural values but centred and scaled. The behavioural variables contribution to the principal components were obtained from the 'co' object with the 'dudi.pca' function from 'ade4' R package [START_REF] Dray | The ade4 Package: Implementing the Duality Diagram for Ecologists[END_REF]. For example, to obtain the index for the aggressiveness (duration) during the control, the contributions on PC1, PC2 and PC2 were 0.52, 0.60 and -0.41 respectively (see Table 3).

Index (for behaviour

The mean value of aggressiveness (duration) during the control, obtained from the data frame centred and scaled, was -0.42 (see Table 4). The index was then :

The same calculation was done for the stimulation period and then the difference between the index for the control and the index for the stimulation period was plotted. The treatment, the trial periods and the interaction between the two factors had an impact on PC1 (Table 5). For all treatments, resident males were more aggressive, and consequently did less maintenance and visited less their shelter, during the stimuli presentation (Stim) compared to the Pre-and Post-stimulation, since PC1 was significantly higher in Stim (Table 6; Likewise the tested fish performed less maintenance and the visits to the shelter during the post pairwise comparisons P-values were adjusted using Tukey's method. Estimates were extracted from the summary of the least-squares means function.

II. Contribution of the behavioural variables for each treatment

In the first analysis we showed an effect of treatment and trial period on male behaviour. This second analysis aimed to examine if the contribution of the behaviour variables was