Charlène Bouchaud

Jean-Bernard Huchet

Thomas Faucher

Bérangère Redon

Camille Noûs

Providing fuel, building materials and food for gold exploitation in the Eastern Desert, Egypt: Multidisciplinary dataset of the Ptolemaic site

Introduction

Egypt's Eastern Desert, located between the Nile and the Red Sea, is one of the most arid regions of the world, with important thermal amplitudes [START_REF] Barron | The topography and geology of the Eastern desert of Egypt: central portion[END_REF]. Vegetation is sparse, except in some well-watered temporary watercourses (wadis) or in the mountains close to the Red Sea [START_REF] Andersen | Vegetation and Management Regime Continuity in the Cultural Landscape of the Eastern Desert[END_REF]. The region is mainly occupied by pastoral tribes and has seen neither permanent agriculture nor permanent occupation during the last 10,000 years. However, it has been visited, crossed and exploited since Predynastic times because of its strategic position and its natural mineral resources, ranging from gold, copper and emeralds to high quality stones [START_REF] Barnard | The History of the Peoples of the Eastern Desert[END_REF]. While the overall pattern of human occupation in the Egyptian Eastern Desert seems clear, the Roman and Late Roman periods (1 st -5 th c. CE) are by far the best documented through archaeological studies [START_REF] Cuvigny | Didymoi. Une garnison romaine dans le désert Oriental d'Egypte (Praesidia du désert de Bérénice IV)[END_REF][START_REF] Peacock | Myos Hormos-Quseir al-Qadim, Roman and Islamic Ports on the Red Sea[END_REF]Peacock and Maxfield, 2007), including archaeobotanical works focusing on the acquisition and trade of food and wood [START_REF] Cappers | Roman foodprints at Berenike: archaeobotanical evidence of subsistence and trade in the Eastern Desert of Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Tengberg | L'acquisition et l'utilisation des produits végétaux à Didymoi[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Veen | Consumption, Trade and Innovation: Exploring the Botanical remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt[END_REF], 2001;[START_REF] Van Der Veen | Food, fodder and fuel at Mons Porphyrites: the botanical evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF][START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF][START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF]. In comparison, the Ptolemaic period, from the end of the 4 th c. to the end of the 1 st c. BCE, has received little attentionmost of the available data comes from textual studies, with none of the known 60 Ptolemaic sites being excavated until 2013, aside from the harbours of Berenike and Myos Hormos (Figure 1). This period, however, is extremely important, as it was during this time that the Graeco-Macedonian dynasty massively invested in the area, equipping roads with way stations, wells, watch towers and activating/reactivating dozens of gold mines [START_REF] Redon | La prise en main du désert Oriental par les Lagides : nouvelles données archéologiques[END_REF][START_REF] Redon | Exploiter et traverser le désert oriental d'Egypte sous les premier Ptolémées : recherches récentes dans le district de Samut[END_REF]. Samut North is one of these key gold mining sites, occupied at the very beginning of the Greek domination of Egypt. Archaeological campaigns conducted between 2013 and 2015 by the Mission archéologique française du désert Oriental (MAFDO), under the direction of B. Redon and co-direction of Th.

Faucher, provide new data on the organization of mining works and the miners' daily life. Due to desert climatic conditions, the specificity of the mining work and the difficulties of the water supply obtaining fuel was key. In addition, edible plants could not be cultivated locally in large enough quantities and the use of local plant resources required knowledge of the desert. Food, fuel and building activities were therefore constant challenges which we explore through archaeobotanical, archaeoentomological and textual sources.

The Ptolemaic Site of Samut North

The mining district of Samut is located in the south-centre of the Eastern Desert, in a region rich in gold resources that have been exploited since the Predynastic times (Figure 1). Samut North (E 33°54'18", N 24°48'35") is located within the mountains, close to an auriferous vein that was exploited through open-air pits and small galleries (Figure 2). Excavations revealed several zones of ore crushing as well as two huge mills for grinding. After grinding, the quartz flour was washed and the gold was smelted. No traces of gold washing or melting process (except one testing furnace) was found, indicating that this took place in the Nile Valley. A nearby structure (Building 1) hosted the command, the troop and some of the miners. All the rooms of Building 1 were excavated, except those destroyed by recent mining work. Almost all yielded artefacts evidencing several room's function: a kitchen (Room 116), storerooms (117, 120-122, 135, 137, the last being full of charcoal), living quarters (north wings), dormitories (129, 132 and maybe 138) were recognised (Figure 2). Externally, one forge (402-403) was presumably dedicated to producing and repairing iron mining tools, and one furnace (152) may have been sporadically used for melting gold and refining tests. Analysis of the pottery and the few texts found on the site, mainly tituli picti, i.e. inscriptions on vases, that record the name of the addressee, the contents of the jars, or their quantity, demonstrates that the occupation of Samut North dates back to the last quarter of the 4 th c. BCE, probably around 310 BCE, and was short and seasonal (For more details on the site, see [START_REF] Redon | Conclusions sur la mine de Samut nord et l'exploitation de l'or du désert Oriental au début de l'époque ptolémaïque[END_REF].

Present climate and vegetation

Egypt's Eastern Desert has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), with average rainfall of around 0-5 millimetres and extreme heat during the summer months. These conditions began some 6,000 years ago, as shown by paleoclimatic studies in the Red Sea mountains [START_REF] Butzer | Climatic history[END_REF][START_REF] Moeyersons | Holocene environmental changes in the Gebel Umm Hammad, Eastern Desert, Egypt[END_REF], as well as in the wider north-eastern African region [START_REF] Hoelzmann | Palaeoenvironmental changes in the arid and sub arid belt (Sahara-Sahel-Arabian Peninsula) from 150 kyr to present[END_REF][START_REF] Kuper | Climate-Controlled Holocene Occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa's Evolution[END_REF].

Trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants are absent today in Samut North and in the immediate area, partly because of current intense mining works. Some isolated acacia trees (Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne, 1827, A. tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne ( 1827)), overexploited for fuel and grazing, grow a few miles away, along with bushes of Zilla spinosa (L.) Prantl, 1898. Wadis, located further afield, host greater biodiversity, with gallery forests composed of acacia and shrubs, and herbs, such as Artemisia Judaica L., Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A.Mey., 1831, Forskholea tenacissima L., Fagonia spp., Farsetia longisiliqua Decne., Morettia philaeana (Delile) DC., at a lower layer (Figure 3).

Materials and Methods

Archaeobotanical data

Samples selection and processing Soil and hand-picked plant material were randomly sampled from different excavated areas in Samut North, namely Building 1, Forge 402-403 and Furnace 152 (Figure 2), corresponding to various occupation and destruction layers (see details Table 1).

For time and logistic reasons, only small volumes of sediment (0.15 to 3 litres) were sampled. In total, 21 soil samples, representing 16 loci and 33.15 litres of sediment were dry-sieved with coarse (2 mm) and fine (0.4 mm) sieves. All fine fractions from Room 116 (six samples) were manually floated. The dry-sieved or floated fractions were sorted by eye and under a stereoscopic microscope to extract seed, fruit, chaff elements, charcoal and non-plant remains, such as animal droppings, insect, microfauna, artefacts, etc. (Table 1). All the soil samples contained plant remains. Fourteen contained wood charcoal (13 samples studied) and eight samples had charred and uncharred seeds and fruits. Coprolites were present in five samples and insect remains in three. Twenty-nine hand-picked samples, corresponding to 28 loci, included twigs and processed wooden elements, as well as fragments of a wooden door and a bowl (Figure 4). Almost all were studied (27 samples out of 29).

Identification and counting

Identification was conducted at the materials research laboratory of the archaeometrical centre at the IFAO (Institut français d'archéologie orientale). Wood charcoal fragments and desiccated wood were identified by anatomical criteria using a reflected light microscope at 50x to 500x magnification. Archaeological specimens were compared to reference atlases [START_REF] Fahn | Wood anatomy and identification of trees and shrubs from Israel and adjacent regions[END_REF][START_REF] Neumann | Woods of the Sahara and the Sahel: an anatomical atlas[END_REF] and a modern wood and charred wood reference collection. Fruits, seeds and other non-woody plant remains were identified by morphological criteria under a stereoscopic microscope (up to 60x magnification) using reference seed atlases [START_REF] Cappers | Handbook of plant palaeoecology, Groningen archaeological studies[END_REF][START_REF] Neef | Digital atlas of economic plants in archaeology, Groningen archaeological studies[END_REF] and botanical reference collections. Egyptian flora were used for complete the plant descriptions and phytogeographical data [START_REF] Boulos | Monocotyledons (Alismataceae-Orchidaceae[END_REF][START_REF] Boulos | Flora of Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Boulos | Flora of Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Boulos | Flora of Egypt[END_REF]. Taxonomical nomenclature follows that proposed by APG III and IV [START_REF] Chase | An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV[END_REF]The Angiosperm phylogeny group, 2009) for hardwood and Boulos's Egyptian flora for softwood [START_REF] Boulos | Flora of Egypt[END_REF].

Common indices were used to evaluate the charcoal assemblages, namely relative abundance, ubiquity rate, as well as ecological and economic/functional criteria. Due to the limited study time, only 50 charcoal fragments were analysed per sample, with the exception of two samples taken from the forge (403.06_Bot1, 403.06_Bot2; 11 and 10 fragments, respectively, analysed) (Table 2). The qualitative representativeness of the data was explored through taxonomic saturation curves. Five samples are stabilized, while five others are not (Supplementary data 1). Therefore, we cannot exclude a problem of representativeness, which should lead us to be cautious when interpreting the results. An initial dendroanthracological approach on acacia wood (Acacia sp.) was carried out by recording the morpho-anatomical features cited in the literature [START_REF] Allué | Charcoal taphonomy: the study of the cell structure and surface deformation of Pinus sylvestris type for the understanding of formation processes of archaeological charcoal assemblages[END_REF][START_REF] Dufraisse | Anthraco-typology as a key approach to past firewood exploitation and woodland management reconstructions. Dendrological reference dataset modelling with dendroanthracological tools[END_REF][START_REF] Théry-Parisot | Anthracology and taphonomy, from wood gathering to charcoal analysis. A review of the taphonomic processes modifying charcoal assemblages, in archaeological contexts[END_REF], which inform on the growth conditions and physiological state of the wood before, during and after carbonization. The relevance of several morpho-anatomical criteria were questioned, such as radial cracks to highlight green wood burning, microbiologial and entomological traces as indicator of seasoned wood or vitrified structure to show high temperature [START_REF] Marguerie | Charcoal analysis and dendrology: data from archaeological sites in north-western France[END_REF][START_REF] Mcparland | Is vitrification in charcoal a result of high temperature burning of wood[END_REF][START_REF] Hoyo | Preservation of fungi in archaeological charcoal[END_REF][START_REF] Théry-Parisot | Seasoned or green? Radial cracks analysis as a method for identifying the use of green wood as fuel in archaeological charcoal[END_REF]. Previous studies on Roman sites in the Egyptian Eastern Desert have highlighted charcoal making based on low taxonomic variability, the charcoal quality when broken, i.e resistant (hard) or not (soft), the important size of fragments and the absence of twigs [START_REF] Van Der Veen | Consumption, Trade and Innovation: Exploring the Botanical remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt[END_REF], pp. 221-223, 2001, pp. 203-205;Van der Veen and Tabinor, 2007, pp. 110-111;[START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF][START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF]. In this study, the following criteria were recorded: maximal length, presence of bark and heartwood, tyloses (cell proliferation or gummy secretion), fungi hyphae, insect damage, radial cracks, vitrification features, reaction wood and the hardness of charcoal, although this last measure is highly subjective. The evaluation of diameters was carried out only on fragments with bark and heartwood (Table 3, Supplementary data 2).

All processed desiccated wood (objects) were described and taxonomically identified. Desiccated twigs/branches were classified according to their appearance and diameter for each sample and only a selection of each category were analysed (Table 4). Measurements were made directly after the excavation. All the desiccated wood was fragmented, so lengths represent the minimal dimensions.

Seeds, fruits and other non-woody plants were classified by taxa, type of organs and ecological habitat or functional (type of use) groups. Counting was based on the total number of remains, comprising whole and fragmented elements and the estimated minimal number of items (MNI) (Table 5 and6). These numbers and the ubiquity rate were used to discuss the results.

Archaeoentomological data

Insect remains came from locus 125.05, corresponding to an ashy occupation layer in Room 125, a distribution room leading to a chapel (126) and two storerooms (123)(124). The locus also contained charred and desiccated plant remains. Two other contexts provided isolated insect fragments, but were not considered here. The dataset includes 43 well-preserved insect fragments recovered from both coarse and fine sieves. Identification was made according to anatomical criteria and comparison with a modern reference collection. Counting was based on the number of fragments, the number of determined fragments, as well as the minimal number of items, which was carried out by counting single pieces (head, thorax, abdomen, etc) or side components (elytra, legs).

Results

Charcoal

Taxonomical diversity

Wood charcoal fragments constituted the majority of plant remains found at Samut North.

The charcoal analysis was based on 13 samples (12 loci) and 575 wood charcoal fragments (Table 2). They were well preserved and few remain undetermined (3% of total amount of studied charcoal). As indicated by the taxonomic saturation curves, we do not have a complete representation of the potential plant diversity (Supplementary data 1). Four taxa were recognised. Acacia sp. is present in all samples (547 fragments, 95% of the total number of studied fragments, including five cf. Acacia sp.). Taxonomical identification of acacia species is virtually impossible based on anatomical observations only (Neumann et al., 2001, p. 286). However, all fragments have axial parenchyma aliform and confluent to a broadly banded transversal section and broad homocellular rays from 1 to 8(10) cells wide in longitudinal tangential section (Figure 5). We, therefore, identified them as one group, ehrenbergiana/etbaica/tortilis, as these are the main acacia tree or shrubs growing locally.

Common acacia of the Egyptian Eastern Desert corresponds to trees up to several meters high, namely Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana (Savi) Brenan and A. tortilis subsp. tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne, and shrubby species, including A. ehrenbergiana and A. etbaica Schweinf. (Mahmoud, 2010, pp. 27-30). The uses and properties of these acacias are manifold. Hard and dense wood is a popular fuel and is sometimes used in construction; the leaves, twigs, bark and fruits are an important source of fodder (especially A. tortilis subsp. tortilis leaves), the gum of A. tortilis subsp. raddiana is used for food and medicine purposes, bark is used as tannin and the thorns are used to make traps (Hobbs, 1989, pp. 43, 52, 98-101;Mahmoud, 2010, pp. 27-30). Acacia trees are thus widely promoted in semi-arid and arid regions [START_REF] Fagg | The value of Acacia and Prosopis in arid and semi-arid environments[END_REF][START_REF] Floc'h | Acacia raddiana, un arbre des zones arides à usages multiples[END_REF]Wickens, 1995). Nile acacia (Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb., 2008) growing along the Nile or in shallow water table areas (Boulos, 1999, p. 368) is the only species to have distinctive anatomical criteria and it is not identified in the assemblage. Three fragments of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.) Decne., 1838 were found in two loci. This shrub, up to three meters high, does not grow in or around the Samut District today, but it is frequently seen in the Southern Sahara and Northern Sahel. It is important fodder for camels and is also commonly used as fuel. Seeds and young stems are sometimes eaten by local populations and the fibres can be used for making clothes (Hobbs, 1989, pp. 53, 101). Three fragments of Tamarix sp. were present in three loci. Six distinct species occur in Egypt, which cannot be differentiated through anatomical observation (Neumann et al., 2001, p. 415). The two commonest species are a tree, 3 to 12 meters high, T. aphylla (L.) Karst., 1882 and a shrub, T. nilotica Ehrenb. ex Bunge, 1852. Both grow in the desert and the Nile Valley (Boulos, 2000, pp. 126-129). Tamarisk is commonly used by Bedouin populations as fuel and timber (Mahmoud, 2010, p. 128).

Finally, one fragment of a possible caper tree, cf. Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew., was identified. This tree or shrub, up to 8 meters high, grows in wadis and sandy and alluvial plains in the Egyptian Desert area (Boulos, 1999, p. 171), although it is no longer present in or around the Samut District. Its hard, compact, imputrescible and termite-resistant wood is used as fuel and for making beams and small tools. The fruits, flowers and flower buds are edible and have medical properties [START_REF] Mahla | decidua</i> (Forsk.) Edgew.: an underutilized multipurpose shrub of hot arid region-distribution, diversity and utilization[END_REF]Mahmoud, 2010, p. 49).

Dendro-anthracological description

The maximal length of the charcoal fragments ranged from 2 to 55 mm (Table 3). With the exception of the two samples from locus 403.06 that have small fragments (mean: 5 mm), all the samples showed similar means, from 9 to 13 mm. Fragments with bark (N=32) or heartwood (N=26) were common but in low quantity; tyloses were unevenly distributed, from 2% (116.17_Bot1) to 80% (117.05_Bot1) of the total amount of acacia fragments. Fungi hyphae were rarely noticed, with sample 137.02_Bot1 having the highest proportion (36%). However, microscopic fungi hyphae are sometimes difficult to observe with an incident light microscope and some observations may be missing here. Radial cracks were observed in almost all the samples, with irregular distribution. All the samples had vitrification elements, from 19% (116.17_Bot1) to 88% (117.05_Bot1). Six samples had twigs with diameters ranging from 1 to 10 mm. Branches (diameter > 10 mm) were recognised in three samples from Room 116. We were not able to measure the other diameters precisely but most of the fragments had parallel rays that indicate bigger diameters. However, there is no way of knowing if these elements correspond to branches or trunks. Charcoal consistency when breaking was more generally soft (75% of the total amount) than hard. No entomological or reaction wood was observed.

Wood

Wood elements mostly included twig branches, as well as beams, planks, a door and a bowl. In total, 27 samples, some of them including several of the above were analysed. Five taxa were identified: Leptadenia pyrotechnica (16 items), Acacia ehrenbergiana/etbaica/tortilis type (6), Cupressus/Juniperus (cypress/juniper, 3), Tamarix sp. (2) and cf. Capparis decidua (2).

The only new taxa when compared to the charcoal assemblage was cypress/juniper.

Branches

The studied twigs and branches contained 173 fragmented elements from destruction and accumulation layers (Table 4), of which most (121 fragments) corresponded to Leptadenia pyrotechnica. They were classified according to their size, including small-medium diameter [1-13 mm] and large calibres [15-25 mm] (Figure 4A). Branches of acacia were noted in two samples.

Beams and planks

Nine beam and plank items were uncovered from Building 1 (Table 4). These terms refer to their calibre and cross-section shape, not to their function; thus, a beam designates any element with a circular or square cross-section greater than 2.5 cm side or diameter. A plank is wider than it is thick (Chabal, 2014, p. 118). All lengths follow fibre direction. There were six beams, including three acacia rectangular beams. Two beams had similar dimensions (119.02_Bot1 and 122.05_Bot1). The large width (140 mm) suggests that they were cut from the longitudinal section of an acacia trunk. Two circular beams are possibly made of caper tree (Figure 4B) and Leptadenia pyrotechnica. Three planks uncovered in three different loci were of similar thickness (10-15 mm) and were of coniferous wood. All have rays of 1-8 cells high observed in longitudinal transversal section and may correspond to either cypress branchwood or juniper stemwood (Fahn et al. 1986, p. 56). Neither grow in the desert or the Nile Valley, except on some modern plantations. Phoenicean juniper (Juniperus phoenicea L.) naturally grows in the Sinai Mountains and cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) grows all around the Mediterranean belt (Boulos, 1999, p. 10).

Bark elements

Six bark fragments, sometimes significant in size, were present. It was not possible to positively identify them because of the lack of diagnostic tools and criteria, but acacia is the most plausible proposal based on simple morphological comparison. They may have been brought involuntary to the site with branches and trunk elements, directly used as caulk, as fodder or for tanning skins (Hobbs, 1989, p. 52).

Door in Room 125.03 A wooden door was uncovered in the south-west corner of Room 125 (Figure 4C). Despite its exceptional appearance, it was very badly preserved and crumbled at the slightest contact. It measures 1.60 m high and 0.70 m wide and is constituted of three vertical panels on which two uprights and three crosspieces are studded with nails. The size of the iron nails indicates a thickness of at least 6 cm. The upper and lower pivots are not visible. The lock case, if it existed, was on the side embedded in the sediment. Two wooden fragments of the right panel and intermediate crosspiece were analysed and both correspond to acacia wood. Furthermore, a free-standing well-preserved quadrangular element uncovered in the sediment and possibly corresponding to the door was also made of acacia wood. The dimensions of the panels, uprights and crosspieces imply the use of large acacia trunks, such as those of Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana. Doors are rarely found in Egyptian archaeological contexts. The Greco-Roman examples from Tebtunis (Gallazzi and Hadji-Minaglou, 2000, p. 142, fig. 46) and Karanis (Gazda, 2004, p. 24, fig. 57) have been differently crafted and are of variable quality; the species have not yet been identified.

Bowl Po202

The almost complete bowl from 121.07 is 85 mm high and 110 mm in diameter (Figure 4D). It is made of tamarisk wood and was realised with a lathe. The flat bottom is covered with a black/brown substance (not analysed). The drilling was probably done with scissors or a gouge and grooves are still visible on the inside surface. Tamarisk wood is commonly used for everyday objects, as at Tebtunis [START_REF] Marchand | Bols en bois peint d'Egypte d'époque ptolémaïque, IIe-Ier s. av. J.-C. Instrumentum[END_REF].

Seeds, fruits and other non-woody plants

Nine samples (6 loci) from Building 1 contained 903 remains of fruits, seeds and other nonwoody plant remains, including 777 charred items and 126 desiccated items (Table 5). Five cultivated plants and at least five wild taxa were represented. The fragmentation rate (26%) and the number of taxa ( 7) was lower among charred items than desiccated ones (59% of fragmentation, 8 taxa).

Cereals

Hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare L. 1753) grains and chaff represent the majority of cultivated plants of MNI (charred 44 grains and 20 rachis fragments, desiccated 26 grains and 20 rachis fragments) and ubiquity (6 loci). All desiccated barley grains had their lemma and palea (Figure 6A) but the charred ones did not, probably because of the charring rather than the dehusking process. Indeed, dehusking is generally not done on the whole grains but occurs after grinding by winnowing the obtained product. For animals, florets are often slit to make them easier to digest [START_REF] Cappers | Digital atlas of traditional agricultural practices and food processing, Groningen archaeological studies[END_REF](Cappers et al., , p. 1320)).

Seven desiccated whole grains of free-threshing wheat were identified (Figure 6B). It was not possible to identify the exact species based only on the morphology of the grain. However, these grains likely correspond to tetraploid free-threshing wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum/polanicum/turgidum) which has already been identified on contemporary sites in Egypt (Agut-Labordère et al., in press;Murray, 2000a, p. 513). The cultivation of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. subsp. aestivum) is not attested in Egypt before the modern period [START_REF] Cappers | Modelling shifts in cereal cultivation in Egypt from the start of agriculture until modern times[END_REF].

Some desiccated and charred remains of grains, rachis segments and straw of undetermined cereals were identified.

Pulses

Lentil, Lens culinaris Medik. 1787, was the only pulse found at Samut North. The seeds were mainly present in and around a lead plate (123.02, Po100, Figure 7). The ten perfectly preserved lentils on the plate and their location leaves no doubt as to their function as food. Lentils have to be soaked or leached, then rinsed and boiled to soften, detoxify and make them digestible. Simple experimentations showed that lentils tend to swell and crack when they are cooking. However, most of the lentils here have complete testa, showing that they are either raw or very lightly cooked, meaning they could either represent the remains of food that was about to be cooked, or uneaten, uncooked scraps of an already prepared dish.

Other plants Sample 117.05_Bot1 contained one charred black mustard seed (Brassica cf. nigra (L.) W.D.J. Koch 1833). This plant is an important ingredient in mustard and is used in traditional medicine in Egypt for its digestive, diuretic and stimulating properties (Boulos, 1999, pp. 211-212). It is also a common arable weed in winter crops [START_REF] Boulos | The weed flora of Egypt[END_REF]; the seed, therefore, may have arrived at Samut North as a contaminant (Van der Veen, 2011, p. 167). A concentration of charred fruit (Zilla spinosa) was present in two ovens from the kitchen (Room 116). Other taxa remains include charred acacia seeds and desiccated acacia leaves, desiccated and charred colocynth seeds (Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad., 1838) and Medicago sp. and desiccated seeds of Panicum turgidum Forssk., 1775 and cf. Trifolium sp. Aside from acacia, which is a tree species, all of the wild plants were common herbaceous desert plants.

Their presence could result from wind dispersal or show different uses: fodder, food, medicine, fuel, etc. Panicum turgidum seeds are one of the main fodder resources encountered in the desert, and they can also be cooked (Mahmoud, 2010, p. 104). The presence of these seeds, therefore, can indicate both the combustible use of dried fruit and the consumption of seeds by animals (especially donkeys) or, if roasted, by humans. The oil extracted from roasted seeds could also have been used as medicine or tannin (Hobbs, 1989, pp. 53, 93;Osborne, 1968, p. 167;Zahran and Willis, 2009, p. 87).

Among undetermined plants, the category called "half-moon" refers to charred curved elements from 1 to 5 mm in length, with an irregular surface or cross ribs on the convex part, sometimes tied in pairs (Figure 6). Similar remains were also found at Wadi Kubbaniya (Paleolithic, Upper Egypt) and interpreted as bird droppings, presumably from wild ducks of the Anserinae or Anatinae family (Hillman et al., 1989, fig. 7.3). Krystyna Wasylikova noted the same hypothesis at Nbata Playa (Neolithic, Egyptian Western Desert) (Wasylikowa et al., 1964, p. 139, pl. 26); however, when compared with modern bird droppings, these identifications are not convincing. "Half-moon" elements are always charred and frequently associated with desert sites (Figure 6). One element from Samut North was found adhering to acacia charcoal, but a precise identification and nature are yet to be determined.

Coprolites There were at least two types of coprolites. The first one corresponds to ovicaprids coprolites, present in two loci. These testify to the presence of animals in or around Samut North and could explain the presence of possible grazed and undigested plants in the same contexts, such as cf. Trifolium sp., Medicago sp. or Panicum turgidum. Charred elements probably highlight their use as fuel [START_REF] Charles | Fodder from dung: the recognition and interpretation of dung-derived plant material from archaeological sites[END_REF][START_REF] Marinova | Bioarchaeological research on animal dung-possibilities and limitations[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | The use of dung as fuel : an ethnographic example and an archaeological application[END_REF]. The second type includes rodent droppings that were uncovered in huge quantities in sample 132.08_Bot1.

These remains evidence the presence of rodents in Building 1 during its occupation or shortly after its abandonment.

Insects

The archaeoentomological analysis, based on 43 insect fragments from locus 125.05, showed a wide diversity with 11 species of beetles (Coleoptera) belonging to eight families. The study of desiccated sclerites highlights the presence of two main ecological groups: woodborers and crop pests.

Woodborers insects

Three woodborer species belonging to Bostrichidae, all dependent on acacia for the Saharan region [START_REF] Mateu | Les insectes xylophages des Acacia dans les régions sahariennes[END_REF], were identified at Samut North: Enneadesmus forficula Fairmaire, 1883, Calopertha truncatula Ancey, 1881, and Acantholyctus cornifrons (Lesne, 1898). All these species are attested for the first time in an archaeological context. E. forficula (Figure 8) is a common species of the Saharo-Sahelian region which lives at the expense of several acacia species [START_REF] Beeson | On the biology of the Bostrychidae (Coleopt.) Indian forest records[END_REF][START_REF] Halperin | The Bostrychid beetles (Coleoptera) of Israel[END_REF][START_REF] Lesne | Les coléoptères bostrychides de l'Afrique tropicale française[END_REF], notably Acacia tortilis (Lesne, 1901, p. 608). C. truncatula is smaller (3-4.5 mm, Figure 8) and digs deep galleries in acacia sapwood to lay its eggs, specifically in A. tortilis subsp. raddiana, A. scorpioides, A. flava and Fadherbia albida [START_REF] Lesne | Les coléoptères bostrychides de l'Afrique tropicale française[END_REF][START_REF] Mateu | Les insectes xylophages des Acacia dans les régions sahariennes[END_REF]. It has been observed on the dead branches of A. seyal and A. tortilis subsp. raddiana [START_REF] Español | Pselafidos, Cleridos y Bostriquidos (Col.) del Sahara español[END_REF].

A. cornifrons belongs to the Lyctinae subfamily ("powderpost beetles"), which are among the most harmful woodworm species. This insect has been observed on dead and living Acacia tortilis [START_REF] Alfieri | The Coleoptera of Egypt, Mémoires de la société entomologique d'Egypte[END_REF][START_REF] Halperin | Lyctidae (Coleoptera) of Israel, their damage and its prevention[END_REF].

Crop pests

Four crop pests belonging both to primary and secondary species were identified within the archaeoentomological assemblage: Sitophilus granarius (L., 1758) (Dryophthoridae), Rhyzopertha dominica (F., 1792) (Bostrichidae), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L., 1758) (Silvanidae), and Stegobium paniceum (L., 1758) (Anobiidae) (Figure 9). Primary pests grow inside the grain and feed on nutrient grain reserves; secondary pests live off the debris and grain already damaged by the primary pests. The grain weevil (S. granarius, MNI=1) is the most famous and harmful primary pest in the world. Although it shows a clear predilection for wheat, it attacks a wide variety of cereals, such as barley, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), oat (Avena sativa) and also some pulses such as chickpea (Cicer arietinum). The lesser grain borer (R. dominica, MNI=1) is also a primary pest [START_REF] Edde | A review of the biology and control of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), the lesser grain borer[END_REF]. It often cohabits with the grain weevil and infects wheat, barley, along with other cereals and spices. The sawtoothed grain beetle (O. surinamensis, MNI=1) is a secondary pest of small size (2.5-3.5 mm) which can infest a large diversity of plant food, such as wheat, barley, flax (Linum usitatissimum), flour and dried fruits, such as dates (Phoenix dactylifera), etc. The bread beetle (S. paniceum, MNI=1 larva) is one of the most damaging pests being extremely polyphagous, resistant and indistinctly degrading wheat grains, semolina, porridge, couscous, coffee [START_REF] Lepesme | Les coléoptères des denrées alimentaires et des produits industriels entreposés, Encyclopédie entomologique[END_REF]. All of these crop pest beetles have been recorded in different Egyptian archaeological contexts (Alfieri, 1976, p. 188;[START_REF] Leek | Further studies concerning Ancient Egyptian bread[END_REF][START_REF] Panagiotakopulu | New records for Ancient pests: archaeoentomology in Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Panagiotakopulu | An insect study from Egyptian stored products in the Liverpool museum[END_REF][START_REF] Solomon | Archaeological records of storage pests: Sitophilus granarius L. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) from an Egyptian pyramid tomb[END_REF]Zacher, 1937) Other insects Teretrius cf. pulex Fairmaire, 1877 (Histeridae) (MNI=11), like other Teretrius representatives, is a predator living within Bostrichidae galleries, especially those of E. forficula and A. cornifrons where it preys on the eggs and larvae of the latter [START_REF] Gomy | Description d'une nouvelle espèce de Teretrius Erichson, 1834 du Maroc (Coleoptera, Histeridae)[END_REF]. Dessicated larval remains attributed to the genus Dermestes L., 1758 (Dermestidae), a genus grouping species living on carrion in various stages of post-mortem decomposition figured among the remains. These carrion beetles are often found associated with mummies [START_REF] Alluaud | Note sur les coléoptères trouvés dans les momies d'Egypte[END_REF][START_REF] Hope | Notice of several species of insects found in the heads of Egyptian mummies[END_REF][START_REF] Huchet | Des insectes, des momies : l'apport de l'entomologie à l'étude des pratiques funéraires des sociétés anciennes[END_REF][START_REF] Huchet | Des insectes, des momies : l'apport de l'entomologie à l'étude des pratiques funéraires des sociétés anciennes[END_REF][START_REF] Huchet | Insectes et momies égyptiennes[END_REF]. Finally, Mesostenopa picea (Kraatz, 1865) (Tenebrionidae) (MNI=1), as with the other members of the family, figures among the main representative insect of desert environments. Its presence does not provide any specific information since it is extremely polyphagous. In archaeological contexts, M. picea is recorded both in Egyptian cereal stocks and in association with mummies [START_REF] Attia | The fauna of stored products[END_REF][START_REF] Curry | The insects associated with the Manchester mummies[END_REF][START_REF] David | The fauna[END_REF].

Discussion

Wood management in desert environments

Plants as witnesses of artisanal and domestic activities

There was no archaeological trace of accidental fire, so the presence of charcoal fragments probably results from their use as daily fuel. The specific context of Samut North, mainly defined through mining and metallurgical activities that require a priori large amount of fuel, combined with the desert environment offering a priori limited resources, should have impacted fuel management. Gold melting and refining probably did not take place on site, or only occasionally (such as in Furnace 152, see introduction). The presence of a forge, used to produce and repair iron tools, requires a controlled heating processes to reach and maintain temperatures above 1000°C. The charcoal stock from storeroom 137 (Figure 10) confirms the local use of charcoal fuel. In parallel, the use of green and seasoned wood must be considered, notably for domestic activities (i.e. cooking, heating, lighting), although we do not have any robust argument to confirm or discard this hypothesis. A charcoal study did not allow the differentiating of charcoal fuel from burnt wood. Moreover, the charcoal dataset might result from a mix of heating activities [START_REF] Théry-Parisot | Anthracology and taphonomy, from wood gathering to charcoal analysis. A review of the taphonomic processes modifying charcoal assemblages, in archaeological contexts[END_REF]. With the exception of specific contexts (i.e. charcoal stock 137.02 and Forge 403.06) the functional understanding of other charcoal assemblages is tricky. Correspondence analysis (CA) was carried out in order to hierarchize relations between archaeological contexts (individuals) containing charcoal, seeds and fruit remains, and archaeobotanical/coprolites components (variables) (Figure 11, Supplementary data 3). Contextual structuring defines the two axes. On the one hand are clear artisanal contexts, (i.e.

charcoal storage room 137 and Forge 403), characterized by the absence of seeds, coprolites and similar dendro-anthracological criteria (hyphae and vitrification, see discussion and criticism in the following section). On the other hand, utility rooms, such as kitchen 116, storeroom 125 and guard room 130 are associated with the presence of seeds, coprolites, charred twigs and branches. In between, there are a bulk of contexts which cannot be assigned but tend to be related to the first group. The analysis shows how fuel resources strongly structure the archaeobotanical assemblages, by splitting contexts where charcoal fuel has been exclusively stored or used and contexts with more variable fuel resources.

Charcoal making in the desert

Charcoal from Room 137 (storeroom) had low taxonomic diversity (a single taxon, acacia) and no twigs or seeds. These observations are in line with Roman studies where the presence of charcoal fuel was assumed (Krzywinski, 2001, p. 346;[START_REF] Van Der Veen | Consumption, Trade and Innovation: Exploring the Botanical remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt[END_REF], 2001;[START_REF] Van Der Veen | Food, fodder and fuel at Mons Porphyrites: the botanical evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF][START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF][START_REF] Vermeeren | Wood and charcoal[END_REF], and considered fragment size, hardness criteria, presence of radial cracks and the puffing effect to emphasize its presence. The charcoal fragments from 137.02_Bot1 are no bigger or smaller than charcoal fragments from other contexts, showing that size, also subject to other constraints [START_REF] Théry-Parisot | Anthracology and taphonomy, from wood gathering to charcoal analysis. A review of the taphonomic processes modifying charcoal assemblages, in archaeological contexts[END_REF], cannot be used as a diagnostic criteria like radial cracks (Théry-Parisot and Henry, 2012).

Hardness and the puffing effect as indicators of high combustion temperature have never been scientifically tested, while numerous intrinsic (wood density, anatomy and state of preservation) and extrinsic (combustion quality, taphonomy) factors affect charcoal consistency.

The hypothesis based on archaeobotanical and textual sources during the Roman period indicates that Nile acacia charcoal was imported from the Nile Valley to supply stone quarries [START_REF] Bouchaud | Fuelwood and Wood Supplies in the Eastern Desert of Egypt during Roman Times[END_REF]Van der Veen and Tabinor, 2007 O.Claud. I 21, O. Claud. IV 697, 742, 826, 850). In contrast, no Nile acacia was observed at Samut North, and charcoal fuel likely corresponds to local acacia species (A. tortilis, A. ehrenbergiana, A. etbaica). This is significant and show that the need for charcoal could be met using local species and that the situation is different from Roman times. Acacia is still the most favoured tree to make charcoal, probably because of its intrinsic properties [START_REF] Andersen | Vegetation and Management Regime Continuity in the Cultural Landscape of the Eastern Desert[END_REF]Krzywinski, 2007a, 2007b;[START_REF] Durand | Le charbonnage en fosse. Approche ethnoarchéologique d'une pratique méconnue dans le Rif marocain[END_REF] and availability. An acacia tree produces between 50 and 250 kg of charcoal depending on the species, its size, the cutting method and technique used [START_REF] Belal | Bedouins by the lake: environment, change, and sustainability in southern Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Floc'h | Acacia raddiana, un arbre des zones arides à usages multiples[END_REF][START_REF] Houérou | Man-Made Deserts: Desertization Processes and Threats[END_REF][START_REF] Springuel | Economic Value of Desert Plants: Acacia Trees in the Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve[END_REF]. Charcoal making is a common practice in the present Saharo-Sahelian region [START_REF] Floc'h | Acacia raddiana, un arbre des zones arides à usages multiples[END_REF][START_REF] Houérou | Man-Made Deserts: Desertization Processes and Threats[END_REF][START_REF] Houérou | Agroforestry and sylvopastoralism to combat land degradation in the Mediterranean Basin: old approaches to new problems[END_REF] and is well documented for the Eastern Desert [START_REF] Belal | Bedouins by the lake: environment, change, and sustainability in southern Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Christensen | Charcoal and coffee[END_REF][START_REF] Christensen | Faham fi! Charcoal production as part of urban-rural interaction in the Red Sea Hills, Sudan. Department of geography/Nansen environmental and remote sensing center[END_REF][START_REF] Hobbs | Bedouin Life in the Egyptian Wilderness[END_REF][START_REF] Krzywinski | Charcoal in the Eastern desert in Roman and Byzantine times[END_REF][START_REF] Springuel | Economic Value of Desert Plants: Acacia Trees in the Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve[END_REF]. During 19 th -20 th c., Bedouins produced acacia charcoal in a sustainable way by cutting branches instead of trunks and by using two different techniques: open burning or in a pit/kiln (more details in [START_REF] Christensen | Charcoal and coffee[END_REF]Christensen, , pp. 112-114, 1998;;[START_REF] Durand | Le charbonnage en fosse. Approche ethnoarchéologique d'une pratique méconnue dans le Rif marocain[END_REF][START_REF] Krzywinski | Charcoal in the Eastern desert in Roman and Byzantine times[END_REF], pp. 135-136) (compilation in Bouchaud, 2020). No charcoal burning platforms have been identified at Samut North; however, one can assume that the pit/kiln model may have been used to ensure sufficient charcoal production for artisanal activities, as already suggested by Krzywinski (2001, pp. 138-139). This author also suggests the use of green wood. The correspondence analysis (Figure 11) shows that the samples associated with charcoal production have more fragments affected by bacteriological elements (hyphae fungi), that could indicate the use of seasoned or dead wood (Moskal-del [START_REF] Hoyo | Preservation of fungi in archaeological charcoal[END_REF]. However, we lack robust taphonomic and experimental works on acacia tree, as it has been done for other species [START_REF] Henry | La gestion des combustibles au Mésolithique : orientation actuelles de la recherche en archéobotanique[END_REF][START_REF] Vidal-Matutano | Dead wood gathering among Neanderthal groups: Charcoal evidence from Abric del Pastor and El Salt (Eastern Iberia)[END_REF] to know the original state of the wood gathered. Charcoal production needs a workforce, possibly ensured by the mine workers, and know-how. It must therefore have required the presence of charcoal burners coming from the Nile Valley, or exchanges (of know-how or trade) with local Bedouin populations.

Selection of ligneous plants

There is a clear distribution of ligneous plants according to their use, with acacia dominating as fuel. The presence of charred acacia seed and leaves suggests branch use, although the cutting of trunks for fuel cannot be excluded. Acacia tortilis, whose presence is confirmed by woodborer insects, could indicate large branches and trunks for its probable use as beams and the door. Leptadenia pyrotechnica is mainly used for its flexible branches and its trunk serves as a beam, while fuel use is sparsely recorded. Tamarisk and possibly caper trees are occasionally used as fuel and building material. The fruits of Zilla spinosa probably highlight the use of twigs as fuel which disappeared while charring. All these taxa are known for their high-fuel or building qualities [START_REF] Belal | Bedouins by the lake: environment, change, and sustainability in southern Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Hobbs | Bedouin Life in the Egyptian Wilderness[END_REF] and likely grew in the area. The presence of cypress/juniper shows that wooden furniture partly come from Sinai or the Mediterranean region.

Building material

Leptadenia pyrotechnica twigs and branches have a singular horizontal arrangement within the destruction layers (Figure 12), showing that they were used for covering some if not all the rooms of Building 1, probably mixed with clay, as is the case elsewhere [START_REF] Vandenbeusch | Roofing houses at Amara West: A case study[END_REF]. Leaflets, possibly of date palms, were uncovered in Room 125, as were bark fragments, indicating their possible use for roofing systems, like in some traditional Egyptian houses (Henein, 2001, pp. 42-43). The accumulation of Leptadenia pyrotechnica and acacia branches in dormitories (129.03, 129.05, 129.07, 132.13) indicate other uses. The high amount of acacia in one of the locus, while it is virtually absent from the branches of the destruction layers, suggests other purposes, such as fuel storage or fodder. We can reasonably think that beams were used to support the roofing system made of branches and clay, according to a simple system of superimposition [START_REF] Vandenbeusch | Roofing houses at Amara West: A case study[END_REF], see type n°2 on Figure 10). [START_REF] Cappers | Modelling shifts in cereal cultivation in Egypt from the start of agriculture until modern times[END_REF]Murray, 2000aMurray, , 2000b)). The presence of free-threshing wheat matches with the general chronology of wheat in Egypt established through written and archaeobotanical sources (Agut-Labordère et al., in press;[START_REF] Cappers | Modelling shifts in cereal cultivation in Egypt from the start of agriculture until modern times[END_REF][START_REF] Crawford | Food: Tradition and Change in Hellenistic Egypt[END_REF][START_REF] Préaux | L'économie royale des Lagides[END_REF][START_REF] Schnebel | Die Landwirtschaft im hellenistischen Ägypten[END_REF]. The Ptolemaic period is a milestone during which tetraploid wheat increases and replaces emmer wheat (T. turgidum subsp. dicoccon), but, although this phenomenon is well known, chronology and geography still need to be specified. Wheat from Samut North provides new clues showing that free-threshing wheat was traded and consumed in the Eastern Desert from as early as at the late 4 th c. BCE on a site managed and supplied by the royal administration. No fruits were found, although they were cultivated at the same time in the Nile Valley or Western Desert oases [START_REF] Grüss | Das ägyptische Bierbrot und Bier der heutingen Zeit[END_REF]Newton et al., in press;Newton and Clapham, in press). Notably, there are no date palm stones, though they are generally well preserved in archaeological contexts. We assume, therefore, that date palm was not part of the general diet of the Samut North inhabitants. Among the Greek ostraca, there were two mentions of black fig, Ficus carica (ἰσχάδες μέλαιναι, O.Sam. 4) and cress, Lepidium sativum (κάρδαμον, O.Sam. 8) showing that other uncommon products were consumed, at least occasionally [START_REF] Redon | Approvisionnement et population du site ptolémaïque minier de Samut nord: analyse des ostraca démotiques et grecs[END_REF]. There is no direct evidence of desert wild plant consumption but the presence of several edible seeds, with medical properties, such as Panicum turgidum and Citrullus colocynthis, indicate that some local plants were used for purpose other than for fuel.

The number of food remains were surprisingly low in the domestic and culinary rooms, with bacteriological attacks, as well as insect pests and rodents most likely to blame. However, this cannot be the only argument since numerous other organic items, namely wooden building material, were found in almost all the rooms. We put forward two other reasons. First, the site generally yielded little material, showing that the occupation was short and seasonal (Redon et al., 2020). Secondly, inhabitants were mostly workers, probably prisoners, with access to little food diversity which was partly infested -primarily cereals and lentils, perhaps irregularly supplemented by meat, as shown by the remains of old slaughtered animals (camels, equids), and sheep, goat and pig bones [START_REF] Leguilloux | Utilisation et exploitation des animaux domestiques : les données archéozoologiques de Samut nord[END_REF]. The figs, cress, honey and cheese, mentioned in the few texts were surely exceptions, primarily given to those in charge of the mine and the miners, high-ranking soldiers and the administration.

Ritual food

The lead plate containing lentils was located in a sedimentary matrix (123.02) where uncharred lentils, whole and fragmented barley grains and one wheat grain were found. Broken barley florets could indicate the partial crushing with a mortar to make porridge or fereek (roasted and crushed grains). It is worthwhile noting that one amphora found in Room 110 contained broken cereal, χόνδροϲ, O.Sam. 6. This assemblage was discovered next to a votive mud foot and a mollusk operculum, two possible cultic objects in Room 123, near to a possible chapel (Room 126). We cannot exclude that the lead plate of lentils and cereals grains belonged to this votive set. Offering food was a common practice in Greco-Roman and Egyptian worlds, as shown through iconography [START_REF] Barakat | La végétation antique de Douch (oasis de Kharga), une approche macrobotanique[END_REF]Peters-Destéract, 2005, pp. 341-375), Greek sources (Pausanias, Description of Greece III.23.8) and archaeobotanical data in religious contexts [START_REF] Megaloudi | Burnt sacrificial plant offerings in Hellenistic times: an archaeobotanical case study from Messene, Peloponnese, Greece[END_REF]. The presence of raw food products, therefore, may mean that they were not dedicated to human consumption but were an offering to a divinity.

Conclusion

Different strategies were developed at Samut North to ensure fuel, woodworking and food needs were met. Acacia was the most important fuel used for all heating activities, and the production of charcoal was ensured by local workers or Bedouins and stored in Building 1.

Other fuel resources (twigs, shrubs, maybe coprolites) were used sporadically, and are only associated with domestic contexts (cooking, heating, lighting, etc.). Roofs were composed of Leptadenia pyrotechnica, acacia and possible caper beams supporting branches (mainly of Leptadenia pyrotechnica) and clay. Other wooden elements were made from acacia, tamarisk and coniferous woods. Food products show little diversity, including barley, free-threshing wheat and lentils. Plant resources for fuel and woodworking are mostly of local, i.e. desert, provenance. The majority of food remains came from the Nile Valley or Western Desert oases, with a limited supply of local wild desert fruits and seeds. Only coniferous planks attest to the use or re-use of wood imported from the Sinai or the Mediterranean region. This model is far from the one observed during the Roman period (1 st -3 rd c. CE) in the Eastern Desert, which highlights more varied plant resources, of different origins, regardless of the site [START_REF] Bouchaud | Fuelwood and Wood Supplies in the Eastern Desert of Egypt during Roman Times[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Veen | Roman life in the Eastern Desert of Egypt: food, imperial power and geopolitics[END_REF]. Similar conclusions were reached from the analysis of the other artefacts, texts, pottery, and faunal remains, found at Samut North [START_REF] Redon | Conclusions sur la mine de Samut nord et l'exploitation de l'or du désert Oriental au début de l'époque ptolémaïque[END_REF] and from other recently excavated Ptolemaic sites (study in progress). This analysis offers an original dataset for a poorly documented though critical period, at the very beginning of the Ptolemaic period, and reveals an elaborate economic system with local supply networks and imported products, mostly aimed at essential needs. The presence of local plants show that the inhabitants had a good knowledge of desert resources and used them wisely, perhaps thanks to exchanges of knowledge or materials with local Bedouin populations. Consist=consistence; React w=reaction wood 1=present and 0=absent for column "Bark", "Heart", "Thyles", "Fungi Hyphae", "Insect degra", "Radial cracks", "Vitrif" and "React w".

Captions list

Supplementary data 3. Details of the correspondance analysis on archaeological contexts with charcoal, seed and fruit remains. Cons=consistence, Copro=coprolite, DIV=charcoal taxonomical diversity, Rad-C=radial cracks, Hyp=fungi hyphae, Tw-Br=twigs, branches, Vitr=vitrification. See table 3 for details. The variable "consistence" is a supplementary variable.

The correspondence analysis was created with the software AnalyseSHS (http://analyse.univ-paris1.fr/).

  Providing fuel, building materials and food for gold exploitation in the Eastern Desert, Egypt: Multidisciplinary dataset of the Ptolemaic site of Samut North (late 4th c. BCE) Charlène Bouchaud, Jean-Bernard Huchet, Thomas Faucher, Bérangère Redon, Camille Noûs To cite this version: Charlène Bouchaud, Jean-Bernard Huchet, Thomas Faucher, Bérangère Redon, Camille Noûs. Providing fuel, building materials and food for gold exploitation in the Eastern Desert, Egypt: Multidisciplinary dataset of the Ptolemaic site of Samut North (late 4th c. BCE). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2021, 35, pp.102729. 10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102729. mnhn-03215881

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Location of Samut District and main sites of Eastern Desert during Ptolemaic period (© MAFDO, A. Rabot, Th. Faucher, B. Redon, 2018).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Satellite view of Samut North (left, ©GeoEye1) and plan of Building 1 -scale 1/200 (right, © MAFDO, survey B. Redon, Th. Faucher, J.-P. Brun, F. Téreygeol -Photogrammetry G. Pollin (Ifao) -DAO M. Vanpeene).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Present vegetation around Samut North (© C. Bouchaud) A. Isolated recently cut acacia (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana) B. Gallery forest of acacia trees (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana/tortilis, A. ehrenbergiana) with lower stratum of green shrubs (Zilla spinosa) and herbaceous plants (Fagonia sp., Morettia philaeana).

Figure 4 .Figure 5 .

 45 Figure 4. Wooden elements A. Twigs and branches of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (© C. Bouchaud) B. Beam of cf. Capparis sp. (© C. Bouchaud) C. Door from 125.03 (orthophoto, Photogrammetry: G. Pollin, DAO: O. Onézime, IFAO) D. Bowl PO 202 (© MAFDO, A. Bülow-Jacobsen)

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. Plant macroremains from Samut North (© C. Bouchaud). (a) Hordeum vulgare grain with lemma and palea; (b) free-threshing wheat grain, probably Triticum turgidum subsp. durum/polanicum/turgidum; (c) Panicum turgidum seed; (d) Undetermined "half-moon" type from Samut North (left), Xeron Pelagos, 1 st -3 rd c. CE, Eastern Desert (centre), Dumat al-Jandal, 1 st -3 rd c. AD, Saudi Arabia (right).

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. Lentils (Lens culinaris) contained on a lead plate, inside the red square (a) and details (b). (© MAFDO, A. Bülow-Jacobsen) Only one lentil (top left) does not have testa.

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. Bostrichidae insects from Samut North. Modern specimens are indicated by an arrow (left) Enneadesmus forficula, right elytra; (right) Calopertha truncatula, right elytra (left) and fragment of pronotum (right). Photos of the archaeological specimens: J.-B. Huchet; modern specimens © F. Génier, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. Crop pests from Samut North. (left) Sitophilus granarius, pronotum; (centre) Rhyzopertha dominica, left erytra; (right) Oryzaephilus surinamensis, left erytra. Photos: J.-B. Huchet.

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Charcoal fragments from Room 137 (© MAFDO, J.-P. Brun).

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. Correspondence analysis on archaeological contexts with charcoal, seed and fruit remains. Cons=consistence, Copro=coprolite, DIV=charcoal taxonomical diversity, Rad-C=radial cracks, Hyp=fungi hyphae, Tw-Br=twigs, branches, Vitr=vitrification.

Figure 12 .

 12 Figure 12. Horizontal arrangement of branches within the destruction layers of Building 1 (© MAFDO, C. Bouchaud).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Location of Samut District and main sites of Eastern Desert during Ptolemaic period (© MAFDO, A. Rabot, Th. Faucher, B. Redon, 2018).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Satellite view of Samut North (left, ©GeoEye1) and plan of Building 1 -scale 1/200 (right, © MAFDO, survey B. Redon, Th. Faucher, J.-P. Brun, F. Téreygeol -Photogrammetry G. Pollin (Ifao) -DAO M. Vanpeene).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Present vegetation around Samut North (© C. Bouchaud) A. Isolated recently cut acacia (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana) B. Gallery forest of acacia trees (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana/tortilis, A. ehrenbergiana) with lower stratum of green shrubs (Zilla spinosa) and herbaceous plants (Fagonia sp., Morettia philaeana).

Figure 4 .Figure 5 .

 45 Figure 4. Wooden elements A. Twigs and branches of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (© C. Bouchaud) B. Beam of cf. Capparis sp. (© C. Bouchaud) C. Door from 125.03 (orthophoto, Photogrammetry: G. Pollin, DAO: O. Onézime, IFAO) D. Bowl PO 202 (© MAFDO, A. Bülow-Jacobsen)

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. Plant macroremains from Samut North (© C. Bouchaud). (a) Hordeum vulgare grain with lemma and palea; (b) free-threshing wheat grain, probably Triticum turgidum subsp. durum/polanicum/turgidum; (c) Panicum turgidum seed; (d) Undetermined "half-moon" type from Samut North (left), Xeron Pelagos, 1 st -3 rd c. CE, Eastern Desert (centre), Dumat al-Jandal, 1 st -3 rd c. AD, Saudi Arabia (right).

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. Lentils (Lens culinaris) contained on a lead plate, inside the red square (a) and details (b). (© MAFDO, A. Bülow-Jacobsen) Only one lentil (top left) does not have testa.

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. Bostrichidae insects from Samut North. Modern specimens are indicated by an arrow (left) Enneadesmus forficula, right elytra; (right) Calopertha truncatula, right elytra (left) and fragment of pronotum (right). Photos of the archaeological specimens: J.-B. Huchet; modern specimens © F. Génier, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. Crop pests from Samut North. (left) Sitophilus granarius, pronotum; (centre) Rhyzopertha dominica, left erytra; (right) Oryzaephilus surinamensis, left erytra. Photos: J.-B. Huchet.

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Charcoal fragments from Room 137 (© MAFDO, J.-P. Brun).

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. Correspondence analysis on archaeological contexts with charcoal, seed and fruit remains. Cons=consistence, Copro=coprolite, DIV=charcoal taxonomical diversity, Rad-C=radial cracks, Hyp=fungi hyphae, Tw-Br=twigs, branches, Vitr=vitrification.

Figure 12 .

 12 Figure 12. Horizontal arrangement of branches within the destruction layers of Building 1 (© MAFDO, C. Bouchaud).

SN_110

  Food products were mainly present in Room 123, 125 and 130, and secondarily in Rooms 116 and 117, which are all dedicated to food preparation, storage or consumption. Local agriculture is hardly conceivable due to extreme aridity, water scarcity and mine function; however, the vase inscriptions show that a variety of foodstuff -honey, cheese, wine, figs, cereals -was imported from the Nile Valley[START_REF] Redon | Approvisionnement et population du site ptolémaïque minier de Samut nord: analyse des ostraca démotiques et grecs[END_REF], about four days walk away. The archaeobotanical results complete this data and are in line with other Egyptian corpuses. Barley and lentils are the most common eaten cereal and pulse in Egypt since Neolithic times

	Food supply
	Scarce and unvaried food products

The use of twigs, branches, trunks (for beams and planks) show a complete exploitation of local desert trees and shrubs. Planks made of coniferous wood may indicate other potential uses or re-uses, in architecture, support or transport.

  Wasylikowa, K., Schild, R.,Wendorf, E., Krolik, H., Kubiak-Martens, L., Harlan, J.R., 1964. Archaeobotany of the Early neolithic site E-75-6 at Nbata Playa, Western desert, South Egypt (preliminary results). Acta Palaeobotanica 35, 133-155. Wickens, G.E., 1995. Rôle des acacias dans l'économie rurale des régions sèches d'Afrique et du Proche-Orient / Role of Acacia species in the rural economy of dry Africa and the Near East, FAO Conservation Guide. FAO, Rome. Zacher, F., 1937. Vorratsschädlinge und vorratsschutz, ihre Bedeutung für Volksernährung und Weltwirtschaft. Zeitschrift für hygienische Zoologie und Schädlingsekämpfung 29, 193-202. Zahran, M.A., Willis, A.J., 2009. The vegetation of Egypt, Springer. ed. Springer e-books, Dordrecht.

Table 1 .

 1 List and description of samples.

Black=presence of ecofacts Grey=charcoal, wood or insect sample that have not been studied Volume (l)=volume of soil sample, in litre. H-P=hand-picked material.

Table

2

. Charcoal analyses. Taxonomical identification and counting (ubiquity). Volume (l) = volume of bulk sediment, in litres.

Table 3 . Resum of dendro-anthracological criteria. See supplementary data 2 for details.

 3

	Only acacia charcoal are included (cf. and other taxa excluded)
	Nb fgmt=number of fragments analysed
	Nb tax =number of taxa identified
	Av. Length=average maximal length.

Table 4 . Analysis of processed and unprocessed desiccated wood. Taxonomical identification, description and counting.

 4

	Measures indicated in [ ] are diameter categories; NR=number of items; Leng=length; Wid=width;
	Heig=height; diam=diameter.

Table 5 . Desiccated seed and fruit remains data. Taxonomical identification and counting.

 5 NRw=number of whole remains; NRfr=number of fragmented remains; MNI=minimal number of items.

Table 6 . Charred seed and fruit remains data. Taxonomical identification and counting.

 6 NRw=number of whole remains; NRfr=number of fragmented remains; MNI=Minimal number of items.

	Supplementary data 1

. Taxonomic saturation curves of charcoal samples. Supplementary data 2. Details of dendro-anthracological criteria.

	Dom=domestic; Stor=storage; Smit=smithy (see table 1 for details of contexts); N°=charcoal
	numbering; Heart=heartwood; Insect degra=insect degradation; Vitrif=vitrification; diam=diameter;

Table 1 . List and description of samples

 1

	Black=presence of ecofacts
	Grey=charcoal, wood or insect sample that have not been studied
	Volume (l)=volume of soil sample, in litre.
	H-P=hand-picked material
	Year	Sample	Room	No. IFAO	Description	Volume (l) Charcoal Seed&fruit Wood Insect
	2015	SN_107.05_Bot1	107	9276	North wing. Destruction	H-P	OUI
	2015	SN_108.02_Bot1	108		North wing. Destruction	H-P
	2014	SN_110.03_Bot1		5803	North wing. Destruction	H-P
	2014	SN_110.04_Bot1	110	5804	North wing. Destruction	H-P
	2014	SN_110.05_Bot1		5832	North wing. Ashy layer	2
	2014	SN_116.17_Bot1		5833	West wing. Filling of the amphora (n°94)	2
	2014	SN_116.21_Bot1		5835	West wing. Filling of one oven (n°76)	2
	2014 2014	SN_116.21_Bot2 SN_116.22_Bot1	116	5836 5837	West wing. Filling of one oven (n°77)	2 2
	2014	SN_116.22_Bot2		5838		2
	2014	SN_116.25_Bot1		5840	West wing. Oven n° 74. Ashy slab overlay	2
	2014	SN_117.02_Bot1		5805	West wing. Destruction layer	H-P
	2014	SN_117.03_Bot1	117	5806	West wing. Destruction layer	H-P
	2014	SN_117.05_Bot1		5841	West wing. Ashy layer	2
	2014	SN_119.02_Bot1	119	5808	Main entrance. Destruction layer	H-P
	2014 2014	SN_120.05_Bot1 SN_120.07_Bot1	120	5809	South wing. Destruction layer South wing. Destruction layer	H-P H-P
	2014	SN_121.04_Bot1		5810	South wing. Destruction layer	H-P
	2014	SN_121.05_Bot1	121	5811	South wing. Destruction layer	H-P
	2015	SN_121.07_Bot1			South wing. Destruction layer = Po202	H-P
	2014 2014	SN_122.05_Bot1 SN_122.07_Bot1	122	5812/5813 South wing. Destruction layer 5814 South wing. Destruction layer	H-P H-P
	2014 2014	SN_123.02_Bot1 SN_123.02_Bot2		5842 5843	South wing. Inside and outside of a lead plate	--
	2014	SN_123.06_Bot1	123	5815	South wing. Destruction layer	H-P
	2014	SN_123.07_Bot1		5816	South wing. Destruction layer	H-P
	2014	SN_124.02_Bot1		5817	South wing. Destruction layer	H-P

Table 3 . Resum of dendro-anthracological criteria (acacia charcoal only). See supplementary data 1 for details.

 3

	Nb=number of acacia fragments analysed; M.=mean; diam=diameter; H=hard; S=soft
	Sample	Nb M.

Length Nb Bark Nb Heart Nb Tyloses Nb Fungi Hyphae Nb Radial cracks Nb Vitrification Nb diam Consistence

	SN_110.05_Bot1	47	12	1	1	31	5	24	36	1	12 H / 35 S
	SN_116.17_Bot1	47	12	7	7	1	1	25	10	10	4 H / 43 S
	SN_116.21_Bot1	46	12	0	3	9	0	43	31	2	2 H / 44 S
	SN_116.25_Bot1	49	13	2	5	2	10	25	19	1	16 H / 33 S
	SN_117.05_Bot1	50	10	1	1	40	7	16	44	1	31 H / 19 S
	SN_125.05_Bot1	43	9	0	0	30	6	3	31		12 H / 31 S
	SN_130.06_Bot1	45	9	6	5	30	6	32	16	6	9 H / 36 S
	SN_132.06_Bot1	47	11	0	0	26	2	25	30		6 H / 41 S
	SN_137.02_Bot1	50	10	0	0	34	18	5	42		31 H / 19 S
	SN_152.03_Bot1	49	10	0	0	27	5	36	26		4 H / 45 S
	SN_152.06_Bot1	49	11	1	0	20	8	17	12		8 H / 41 S
	SN_403.06_Bot1	11	5	0	0	5	0	0	11		7 H / 4 S
	SN_403.06_Bot2	10	5	0	0	6	0	0	8

Table 4 . Analysis of processed and unprocessed desiccated wood. Taxonomical identification, description and counting.

 4

	Measures indicated in [ ] are diameter categories; Nb=number of items; Leng=Length; Wid=width; thick=thickness;
	heig=height; diam=diameter
	Locus	Sample	Taxa	Type	Nb Comments
	107.05 107.05_Bot1 Cupressus/Juniperus	plank	1	leng= 100 mm, wid=20 mm, thick= 15 mm, 2 mortises
	110.03 110.03_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	2	[15-25 mm]
	110.04 110.04_Bot1 Cupressus/Juniperus	plank	2	thick=10 mm
	110.04 110.04_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	1
	117.02 117.02_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	1
	117.03 117.03_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	3	[1-13 mm]
						Rectangular section, leng=120 mm, wid=140 mm,
	119.02 119.02_Bot1 Acacia etbaica/tortilis type	beam	2	thick=60 mm
	120.05 120.05_Bot1 cf. Capparis decidua	beam	1	Circular section, beam
	120.05 120.05_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	18 [1-13 mm], [15-25 mm]
	121.04 121.04_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	1
	121.04 121.04_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	8	[1-13 mm], [15-25 mm]
	121.05 121.05_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	4	[15-25 mm]
	121.07 121.07_Bot1 Tamarix sp.	bowl	1	Bowl, heig=85 mm, diam=110 mm
						Rectangular section, leng=400 mm, wid=140 mm,
	122.05 122.05_Bot1 Acacia etbaica/tortilis type	beam	1	thick=80 mm
	122.05 122.05_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	1	[15-25 mm]
	122.05 122.05_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	1
	122.07 122.07_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	11 [1-13 mm]
	122.07 122.07_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	beam	1	Circular section, diam=52 mm
	122.07 122.07_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	2
	123.06 123.06_Bot1 cf. Capparis decidua	beam	1	Circular section, leng=70 mm, diam=58 mm
	123.07 123.07_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	2
	124.02 124.02_Bot1 cf. Acacia etbaica/tortilis type twigs/branches	1	[1-13 mm]
	124.02 124.02_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	4	[1-13 mm], [15-25 mm]
	124.02 124.02_Bot1 Tamarix sp.	twigs/branches	1	[1-13 mm]
	124.02 124.02_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	2
	124.03 124.03_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	2	[1-13 mm]
	124.04 124.04_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	2	[1-13 mm]
	124.05 124.05_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	4	[1-13 mm]
	124.07 124.07_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	1
	124.08 124.08_Bot1 Indéterminable	bark	2
	125.03 125.03_Bot1 Acacia etbaica/tortilis type	door	1	Badly damaged door
						Rectangular section, leng=55 mm, wid=17 mm,
	125.03 125.03_Bot2 Acacia etbaica/tortilis type	beam	1	thick=15 mm
	128.02 128.02_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	2	[1-13 mm], [15-25 mm]
	129.03 129.03_Bot1 Cupressus/Juniperus	plank	1	thick=10 mm
	129.03 129.03_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	2	[15-25 mm]
	129.05 129.05_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	5	[1-13 mm], [15-25 mm]
	129.07 129.07_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	3	[1-13 mm]
	132.13 132.13_Bot1 Acacia etbaica/tortilis type	twigs/branches	50 [15-25 mm]
	132.13 132.13_Bot1 Leptadenia pyrotechnica	twigs/branches	50 [1-13], [15-25 mm]

Table 5 . Desiccated seed and fruit remains data. Taxonomical identification and counting.

 5 Volume (l)=volume of bulk sediment, in litres; NRw=number of whole remains; NRfr=number of fragmented remains; MNI=minimal number of items.

		Locus	116.22			123.02				125.05		130.06	132.08
		Sample 116.22_Bot1	123.02_Bot1	123.02_Bot2	125.05_Bot1	130.06_Bot1	132.08_Bot1
		Volume (l)	2								1		0,5	0,15
			NRw	NRw	NRfr	MNI	NRw	NRfr	MNI	NRw	NRfr MNI NRw	NRfr	MNI	NRw
	Cultivated plants	Type of remains
		Caryopsis/
	Hordeum vulgare hulled	floret					21	17	25	1		1
	Hordeum vulgare hulled	Lemma basis			2	1
	Hordeum vulgare hulled	Lemma, palea						17	3		20	5
	Hordeum vulgare hulled	Rachis fgmt						1	1				2	2
	Triticum aestivum/durum	Caryopsis					1		1	6		6
	Cerealia	Caryopsis									1	1
	Cerealia	Straw									5	5
	Lens culinaris	Seed		10	1	10	2		2
	Lens culinaris	Cotyledon						2	1		1	1
	Lens culinaris	Seed coat			1
	cf. Phoenix dactylifera	Leaflet									4	1
	Wild plants
	Acacia sp.	Leaf								1		1
	Citrullus colocynthis	Seed						1	1
	cf. Medicago sp.	Fruit								1		1
	Panicum turgidum	Caryopsis								1		1
	cf. Panicum turgidum	Caryopsis								1		1
	Panicum turgidum	Spikelet								1		1
	cf. Trifolium sp.	Seed								3		3
	Other plants
	Undetermined	Pericarp						1	1
	Undetermined	Thorn								1		1
		Sum		10	4	11	24	39	35	16	31	29	2	2
	Non-plants items
	Coprolites ovicaprid									1			1
	Coprolites rodent		14	1						2			100

Table 6 . Charred seed and fruit remains data. Taxonomical identification and counting.

 6 NRw=number of whole remains; NRfr=number of fragmented remains; MNI=minimal number of items.

		US		116.21				116.22				117.05		125.05	130.06
		Sample	116.21_Bot1	116.21_Bot2	116.22_Bot1	116.22_Bot2	117.05_Bot1	125.05_Bot1	130.06_Bot1
		Volume (l)		2	2			2			2			2		1	0,5
			NRw	NRfr MNI NRw NRfr	MNI	NRw	NRfr	MNI	NRw NRfr	MNI	NRw	NRfr MNI NRw	NRfr MNI NRw	NRfr MNI
		Type of
	Cultivated plants	remains
	Hordeum vulgare hulled	Caryopsis	2	2			9		9	5	3	7		1	1	15	32 25
	Hordeum vulgare hulled	Fgmt rachis														20 20
	Cerealia	Caryopsis			1	1
	Lens culinaris	Seed											1	20	3	4	3	5
	Lens culinaris	Cotyledon														14	6
	Brassica cf. nigra	Seed											1		1
	Wild plants
	Acacia sp.	Seed					10		10
	Medicago sp.	Seed														3	3
	Citrullus colocynthis	Seed														1	1
	Zilla spinosa	Fruit	17	52 27	84	84	66		66 106 23 112
	Other plants
	"Half-moon" type		65	65	66	66	35		35	33		33	4		4	6	6	47
	Undetermined	Seed														26	26
	Sum		84	52 94 151	151 120		120	170		152	6	21	9	6	4	9	96	67 81
	Non-plant items
	Organic remains		1				4			14						1
	Coprolites undetermined															5
	Coprolites ovicaprid									1						4
	Coprolites rodent

Acknowledgement

MAFDO thanks the IFAO, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the CNRS for their financial and logistic support. We warmly thank the SCA inspector M. Abdelrahim Mahmoud Ahmed and Dr Ashraf and Dr Dalia El Meleigy for their help transferring the samples to the IFAO, with authorization from Ministry of Antiquities. We also thank Anita Quiles and Nadine Mounir for their help and support at the archaeometrical center of IFAO (Institut français d'archéologie orientale). J.B.H thanks his entomologist colleagues Yves Gomy (Histeridae) and Julio Ferrer (Tenebrionidae) for confirming identifications, as well as François Génier (Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) for authorizing the reproduction of modern specimen photographs of Enneadesmus forficula and Calopertha truncatula. Finally, we thank the two reviewers for their useful comments improving the paper.

Factor scores

Supplementary data 2. Details of dendro-anthracological criteria. Dom=domestic; Stor=Storage; Smit=Smithy (see table 1 for details of contexts); N°=charcoal numbering; Heart=heartwood; Insect degra=Insect degradation; Vitrif=vitrification; diam=diameter; Consist=consistence; React w= reaction wood. 1=present and 0=absent for column "Bark", "Heart", "Thyles", "Fungi Hyphae", Insect degra", "Radial cracks", "Vitrif" and "React w"