Mateusz Chmurski

From Autobiography to Fiction, or Translating Géza Csáth's Diary from Hungarian to French and to Polish

Keywords: Géza Csáth, diary, translation, reception, morphine, sexuality

The aim of this paper is to analyze the complex relation between autobiography and fiction in the work of the Hungarian psychiatrist, writer and music critic Géza Csáth (the pen name of József Brenner ), in particular his 1912-1913 diary, usually called the morfinista napló [diary of a morphine addict], by comparing its Polish and French translations as a means of highlighting alternative interpretations of the diary itself. Because the choices that were made when translating such fragmented texts already imply more or less developed interpretations of them, variations between them can be examined side by side in order to reveal sometimes widely diverging understandings of the diaries' meaning, purpose and general structure. The decision-making that led to the translators' choices is not only examined here case by case, but also in the context of an assumed overarching reading of these diaries, accounting for a sense of consistency in their differentiation patterns. Scrutinizing these choices allows for the discussion of relevant internal contradictions within the text itself, which in turn accounts for its richness and poetic value; they invite us to immerse ourselves into a world of tangled streams of thoughts where life and work crisscross, into a narrative that is neither a proper diary nor a novel. Beyond attempting to assess the degrees of validity of the given translations, this paper focuses mainly on showcasing them as alternative yet equally relevant interpretative stepping stones into Csáth's monstrously complex and tormented literary world.

 Central-European Literatures (1900-1914)Through the Works of Karol Irzykowski, Ladislav Klíma and Géza Csáth (2012). His research interests focus on comparative approach to Czech, Hungarian and Polish modernist literature, especially in Galicia, Prague and Vojvodina; diary studies, multilingualism, as well as Frédéric Chopin's reception. With Ewa Paczoska, he recently edited a special issue of the Philosophical-Literary Review, published by the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, the Institutes of Philosophy and Polish Literature of Warsaw University, entitled Modernism(s) in Central-Eastern Europe (2013). He is currently preparing a new French edition of Karol Irzykowski's novel The Hag, to be published this year, a volume on Vojvodina's literary heritage, as well as a new Polish anthology of Csáth's works.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the complex relation between autobiography and fiction in the work of the Hungarian psychiatrist, writer and music critic Géza Csáth (the pen name of József Brenner ), in particular his 1912-1913 diary, usually called the morfinista napló [diary of a morphine addict], by comparing its Polish and French translations as a means of highlighting alternative interpretations of the diary itself. The choices made when translating such a fragmented text a priori already constitute an interpretation of them. In the case of diaries, and of this diary in particular, comparing different translations can be an Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 dec. Tánulás után. Neki! Szorgalom! Irigykedés ([olvashatatlan szó] "Mihalkovicsnak rossz a zsigertani része.") Gyengeség érzése. / IV. Kupleráj. Sikerek. Nők. (Egyetem. Színház. Kávémérés.) Háziasszonyok. Virágáruslányok. Zene. Zene. Zene. Az egyetem nyeregbe. Látni kezd. Cigaretta] (Géza Csáth, Az új nemzedék in Szajbély 2004: 77-78).

In fact, contrary to Csáth's expectations, everything does change for him at that time. Having failed the entrance exam for the Music Academy, he refuses to begin law studies-a path encouraged by his father-and chooses medicine. He seeks new inspirations, from Ernst Haeckel's monism to Freud, whom he was eagerly reading from 1904 to 1906. Almost literally entering the narrative himself, he assigns his own Budapest address (Ferenc körút 44) to the hero of his (unwritten) work. His dreams of writing a novel were in part inspired by the great Mór Jókai, one of his favorite authors, yet also by the controversial Émile Zola, whom he even portrayed in his diary (Csáth 2007a: 109). Csáth, however, never did write that great novel; rather, as Frigyes Karinthy put it in his obituary of Csáth, it was his real life that became a "Hungarian novel," "romantic and unbounded" [az élete magyar régény volt, romantikus és szeretlen], one that ends with the tragic murder of his wife, Olga Jonás, and the author's suicide.

Csáth's (double) intoxication's esthetics

The discovery of Csáth's diary or, rather, diaries (since its text has been fragmentally published through years by different editors), is a specific story in itself. Its manuscripts were conserved in the Kosztolányi's family villa in Palics, near Szabadka-Subotica, where both Kosztolányi and Csáth were born. Those documents were found by the Vojvodine journalist Zoltán Dér in 1945, right after the war, and conserved unpublished almost until his death. It is only after the discovery of the 1912-1913 diary, published in 1988 in Novy Sad-Újvidék by the Híd literary review and in 1989 as a book by Babits Kiadó in Szekszárd, that Dér also decided to publish Csáth's subsequent diary part in his possession, i.e. the notes on his fight with addiction written during the First World War (Csáth 1997), and, later on, the diary from 1897 to 1911 (Csáth 2005(Csáth , 2006(Csáth , 2007)). Today, all the manuscripts-i.e. 1,429 naplók [diary] folios in 20 notebooks and 841 folios in 18 more notebooks with his notesare archived in the Petőfi Museum (Csáth 1919a-b); yet, their important sections still remain unpublished. Fortunately, a complete edition of the diary is currently being worked on by Mihály Szajbély.

The incredible extension of Csáth's diaries could be a proof that, as Catherine Bogaert and Philippe Lejeune claim in their recent studies, diary writing is a phenomenon that exceeded literature and should be defined first and foremost as a practice that embodies itself in material form; the text of the diary alone remains only a layer among the two others, i.e. the writing process in itself and the diary as object. From the particular rhythm of adding new notes to the types of materials that are selected, diaries play an important role in their authors' lives. Writing a diary means not only noting some text in a relatively regular way, but also structuring time through writing while possibly becoming attached to the manuscript as if it were capturing-even possibly embodying-a part of one's life experience, thoughts and emotions. The French-Swiss Henri-Frédéric Amiel's diary of 16,847 pages from 1839 to 1881 is a good example of how an author might become attached to diaristic writing as a practice: he sewed his diary notebooks himself and travelled everywhere with a chest containing all his previous notes. While Amiel began his diary at the age of eighteen, Csáth started his at the early age of ten: 30th April 1897 Friday This morning the weather was lovely. I went to the school in the morning, stayed there until 11 am. In the evening I repeated my Hungarian lesson. Now I am already sitting here at the table after dinner, my father is writing staves and smoking a pipe.

[1897 ápr 30 Péntek Ma reggel gyönyörű idő volt. Reggel az iskolába elmentem 11 óráig ott maradtam. Délután magyarból feleltem. Most már itt ülök az asztalnál vacsora után az Apuka kottát ír és pipázik]. (Csáth 2005: 11. Underlining according to manuscript, Csáth 1919a).

Even if it is in a very naïve way, the beginning of Csáth's diary already shows his relation to the text and the rules that are to shape all of his future diaristic writings, a practice that can be described as a self-reflexive yet identity-halting narrative. Shifting from meditative introspection to medical observation, his diary can be seen as a particularly sharp and truthful mirror which allows him to become more conscious of his own existence and evaluate his well-being, to "see himself (through) writing." At same time, Csáth's deliriums, his plays on words and on literary conventions, along with the seemingly out-of-control outgrowth of his writings in terms of form and content all actually converge into attaining the opposite effect: an oniric, if not intoxicating, state of self-forgetfulness, a playful interlude in his life when, one might say, "he is nothing (but text)." Repeating self-referential comments, Csáth negotiates his relation with the text; from the first one quoted here to notes that open the 1912-1913 diary. Furthermore, as he repeats similar notes, he observes as continuity is being established in his diary notebooks. In some sense, they become a chronicle of teenage life in separate sections such as weather, health, writing, family life, and so on. Thus, a few months later, Csáth feels that he is supposed to explain himself to his diary (i.e. to himself): "(On 29 th March 1898 I am writing this diary that deals with my illness because my illness didn't allow me to […])" [(ezt a naplót, amély betegségemről szól, 1898 Március 29en írom mert a betegségem nem engedte ezt (…)] (Csáth 2005: 42). In other words, he becomes progressively aware of the role diary practice plays in his everyday existence.

As he established continuity in his writing by constant repetition of everyday details, Csáth understood that he had established an individual model of writing his life, in some sense an unwritten contract with his notebooks. He gained self-assurance and permitted himself to open his notes on more difficult issues, such as his relationship with his stepmother and, later on, with his mother, Etelka Decsy, who had died when he was eight: "Today's the day when three years ago our Mother died. I was outside with my daddy, at the cemetery, now I am reading one of the Mór Jókai's novels, Greek Notebook [sic]" [Ma 3 esztendeje hogy Anyikánk meghalt. Kinn voltam apuskával a temetőben mostolvasom a Görög Füzet Jokai Mór regényeinek egyiket.] (Csáth 2005: 36). Almost every anniversary of his mother's death is celebrated in the diary, and even her signature is pasted at the end of one of the diary notebooks (Csáth 1919a, 3 III f° 131r;e.g. anniversaries: Csáth 2006: 8;Csáth 2007a: 36;Csáth 2007b: 33). The parallel referring in the same phrase to his mother's death and Jókai's Görög tűz might be seen as a first symbolic crisscrossing of Csáth's biographical intimacy with his literary fascinations. Later on, he not only comments on weather and daily menus, school successes and failures, but also on his sexual life, from his nocturnal emissions to his visits to Budapest brothels. He writes without any self-censorship and with such intensity that it would seem that he is re-living these events and that there was no difference between his writing and his experience. This unity between the real and the symbolic, text and experience, Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 can be depicted as a multiform, if not monstrous, text-body, a concept particularly relevant in the light of Csáth's emphasis on psychosomatic considerations in his diary.

Today, observing the development of his writings from the beginning to 1903-1904, followed by its sudden decrease at the moment when he arrives in Budapest, the precise moment when he starts using a literary pseudonym shows how the progressive deterioration of his writings in terms of structure and quantity becomes a premonition to his later crises, including his morphine addiction (Kosztolányi noted in the obituary that he wrote for Csáth that "morphine is never a reason, always a consequence" [A morfinizmus mindig okozat és nem ok]). In other words, the diary might be a sign that Csáth's life had begun to fracture very early, probably as early as the loss of his mother. When he came to the Hungarian capital, he seems to have led a somewhat balanced lifestyle for a while, he began to publish his first stories with success, discovered Freud, brilliantly studied at the medical university, visited brothels on Bástya Street-and interrupted his diary. The fracture in notation after 1904 is a trace of initial unity between himself and his writings built through years and then, after his arrival to Budapest, suddenly lost. Csáth's eagerness in writing, growing in many different directions (musical critics, short stories, essays, plays, scientific studies) can be seen in the light of his lifelong search for an existential narration-in the sense of a writing form that would be him-in continuity with his earlier diaristic practice. Here also begins his dream of an autobiographical novel, a novel that he never wrote.

The fracture in Csáth's diary practice might be seen as parallel to the fracture of his life that occurred when he first came to Budapest. His more or less normal life was dramatically altered, and this may have made him more eager to write in order to find some relief by confiding to his diary as he did in the past.

The 1912-1913 diary can be seen as one of the results of Csáth's search for a form of narration that could replace his earlier diary writing, for it shows how Csáth's life and work intertwine in a puzzling manner. The text of Csáth's diary consists of three parts. It begins with Feljegyzések az 1912. évi nyárról [Notes on the Summer of 1912], an intradiegetic firstperson narrative on a spa doctor's sexual exploits, in which every new woman is supposed to be, as Csáth claims, a "new chapter." However, already the first lines emphasize the text's fictional character and might be read as a provocative ars poetica, i.e. an attempt to define a new form of narration on the author's life and work (see Varga 2011):

A terrible and depressing thought: I no longer have any inclination to write. Since I began to work penetratingly with analysis and to examine my unconscious spiritual life in all its facets, I have no more need to write. Yet analysis only brings suffering, bitter recognition, and disappointment, while writing brings joy and sustenance. But still I can't! I write with difficulty, anxiously. The thought is killed in the bud by criticism. And I can't put my innermost, unsettled affairs onto paper. I am inhibited by the feeling that others can read between the lines as clearly as I-the psychoanalystcan read into the writing of other authors. Nevertheless, with iron will, I force myself to write. I must write. Even if writing will never be my life's work again, at least it should be fun. I must play, even if I can't enjoy myself, because it's the only chance I have of ever making a lot of money. (Csáth 2000: 17-18).

[Rettenetes és nyomasztó gondolat, hogy nincs többé kedvem az íráshoz. Mióta az analyzissel behatóan foglalkozom, és minden ízében elemezem az öntudattalan lelki életemet, nincs többé szükség rá, hogy írjak. Pedig az analyzis csak szenvedést hoz, Even if the personal tone of the opening might seem credible, it is also very surprising that the diary begins with such an unusual and provocative overture, announcing the character of the following notes and setting up the tone for a constant oscillation between the autobiographical and the fictional. Reading Csáth's diary, one can easily forget that it is a fictional work, dealing not only with medicine and drugs, but also with Casanova or Wagner (that the doctor-author plays naked on the piano after intercourse). This fictional aspect of his diary becomes clear as early as in the first part:

The chambermaid! This is a new chapter. Short but poignant. She was 36-year old, big-nosed nymphomaniac, procuress for the chambermaids, with huge buttocks, slightly sagging but beautiful breasts, masterfully formed on the whole, with velvetsmooth pink skin. Her brutal healthiness and terrible sensuality captured my attention, calling to mind a Bacchante. On one occasion I saw her in the baths. The wet bathing suit clung to her skin and revealed splendid curves. (…) I intended to be completely loyal to my Olga [i.e. Olga Jonás, Csáth's wife since 1913, murdered by him in 1919] in our married life, and this type of woman had never appeared on my menu. At noon of 19 July, I trapped her in my room. (Csáth 2000: 47).

[A szobaasszony! Ez új fejezet. Rövid, de velős. Egy 36 éves, testes, nagy orrú nymphomániás nő volt ez, a szobalányok kerítőnője, óriási seggel, kissé lógó, de szép mellekkel, egészben mesteri megromlás és bársony sima, rózsaszín bőr. Brutális egészsége és rémes érzékisége, amely egy bacchánsnőére emlékeztetett, keltették fel figyelmemet. Egy alkalommal a fürdőben láttam. A nedves fürdőruha szorosan tapadt hozzá, és pompás idomokat mutatott. A csípők megalkotása, a hátba való áthajlása, az egész test egészében ritka szép volt. Ekkor határoztam el, hogy komolyan hozzálátok a megszerzéséhez, annál is inkább, minthogy házaséletemben teljes hűséget óhajtottam majd Olgám iránt meghonosítani -és ez a typusú nő még sohase szerepelt menümön. Júl. 19-én történt, hogy szobámban egy délben elfogtam]. (Csáth 1989: 33).

The many stories of this type reveal the (real or accomplished) sexual fantasies of the author, a "would-be" Casanova, as Arthur Philips puts it (Csáth 2000: 5). This "would-be" character within the autobiographical narrative seems far more likely to be fictional, in particular if we consider the extremely masculine character of Csáth's discourse when exposing the male (sexual) potential. In Csáth's diary, women exist only as objects of desire, soon replaced by others, and described only externally. They are only bodies, not persons, they are projections necessary to his chauvinist vision of masculine power rather than characters of his narrative (see Gergely Angyalosi's and Zoltán Németh's analyses). Yet, Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 Csáth's twofold desire for sexual accomplishment and career soon merges with morphine addiction. Without any transition, the second part of his diary moves on to more typical diaristic notes consecrated to the fight against his drug addiction:

12.15 a.m. Today I begin a new era in my life. I must give up my M[orphine] habit for good and relegate use of P[entapon, ersatz to morphine, MCh] to rare instances. In the last two days, there have been symptoms indicating that my system craves a serious increase in dosage. I must therefore put an end to the perilous game. (Csáth 2000: 115).

[-Reggeli 1/4 1. A mai nappal új korszakot nyitok meg életemben. Végképp le kell szoknom az M-ről, és mint ritkán használt szert kell szabályoznom a P vételét. A két utolsó napon olyan tünetek mutatkoztak, amelyek arra engednek következtetni, hogy a szervezet most a dosisok nagyfokú emelését követelné. Végét kell tehát vetnem a veszedelmes játéknak.] (Csáth 1989: 93-94).

Regardless of the author's plans, the "perilous game" he speaks of continues. Is it a play of self-revelation and hiding or rather a game of drugs and sexuality? Regardless of the answer, the last part of the diary consists of a separate text, Morfinizmusom története [The Story of My Morphine Addiction], accompanied by a few notes and three annexed documents addressed to Csáth's cousin, Kosztolányi, as it was his wish that the latter would tell his story in a novel:

Jegyzetek D-nek [Notes to D.], Általános megjegyzések [General Remarks], Desirének [To Desiré].
No more provocative narration on sexual life in this latter part of the diary, but only despair.

Hence, no wonder that Csáth's "morphinomania diary"-replete with descriptions, ranging from sexual ecstasies to drug-addict depression, surrounded by the aura of the author's biography made of brilliant beginnings followed by tragic events including murder and suicide-rapidly became a sensation, discussed by writers, researchers and critics (e.g. Éva Hózsa, Zoltán Farkas or László F. Földenyi). In the late 1980s, Csáth's legend was already rich, founded on short stories dealing both with the dark side of human existence in contrast to recollections of happy childhood memories, as well as a psychoanalytic study from 1911, On the Psychic Mechanisms of the Mentally Ill [Az elmebetegségek pszichikus mechanizmusáról], just as the diary better known under another title, The Diary of a Madwoman [Egy elmebeteg nő naplója] (Csáth 1978). Because of the diary's particularly explicit themes, or perhaps because the original text had mysteriously disappeared (the text was published from a typescript version)the 1912-1913 diary only strengthened the author's reputation as one of the finest examples of the Hungarian fin-de-siècle tormented soul, the cursed poet, an incarnation of both the Marquis de Sade and Casanova (see [START_REF] Keresztúrszky | Az örök áfium -Megalkotható-e Csáth Géza Ópium című novellájának új olvasata? [The Eternal Opium, Or Is it Possible to Propose a New Reading of Géza Csáth's Opium Short Story?[END_REF].

In some sense, Csáth's legend developed according to the rhythm of their translation/publication after his death: his short stories or musical critics were known and republished since 1950, later the reedited psychiatric studies increased interest in Csáth, that finally led to publishing his diary parts; it is only today that their complete edition is being prepared. Based on The Diary of a Madwoman and morfinista napló, Jánosz Szasz' film Ópium. Egy elmebeteg nő naplója [Opium: Diary of a Madwoman] (2007) could be seen as this legend's visual equivalent. After the German translation of the diary in 1990, Csáth's fame spread all over Europe, as further translations were also published in Serbian (1991), Italian (1998), Polish (2001), English (in Budapest, 2002), Bulgarian (2005), Macedonian Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 (2007), and Spanish and French (2009). In many translations, the diary's usual name was chosen as a (sub)title, even if it never appears in the text itself.

(Completing) the incomplete in Csáth's diary

Thierry Loisel, Csáth's diary French translator had a particularly bold strategy when he chose the title Dépendances. Journal 1912-1913[Addictions: Diary 1912-1913]. Besides the title, the reader's expectations are further directed by several other very explicit indications, such as the book's cover image by Jean-Michel Perrin where a doctor is listening to his own chest while having an intercourse with one of his patients, and, by the blurb on the back cover, which, in the first words, advertises Csáth as follows:

Erotoman, Graphomaniac, Morphine addict. Each of those attributes defines at one moment or another Géza Csáth's character, the man with multiple addictions. (…) In his diary finally translated into French, we discover the hidden face of this brilliant writer so peculiarly passionate about torturing himself.

[Érotomane. / Graphomane. / Morphinomane. / Chacun de ces qualificatifs définit à un moment ou un autre la figure de Géza Csáth, homme aux multiples dépendances. (…) Avec son journal enfin traduit en français, on découvre la face cache de cet écrivain génial qui mit à se torturer une passion toute particulière]. (Csáth 2009: back cover).

Through an advertising strategy based on added paratextual elements that form a large frame for the main text, the French translation plays in a very explicit way with Csáth's sexual and addictive side using a psychological contrast inspired by Dr Jekyll & Mr Hide. Loisel is a French translator known for his earlier edition of Kosztolányi's Nero, a véres költő [The Bloody Poet. A Novel about Nero] (2011). His Csáth volume is a complete edition of all the three parts of morfinista napló, accompanied by a long preface by the translator (5-37) and an afterword written by Jean-Philippe Dubois, a contemporary French psychoanalyst. The small volume was published by L'Arbre vengeur, an editing house that specializes in forgotten as well as "exotic" writers from all over the world. Three years earlier, the same company published a selection of Csáth's short stories, Le Jardin du Mage [A Magician's Garden], also illustrated by Perrin (Csáth 2006). Loisel considers Csáth's diary as-to quote once again the book cover -" an exceptional literary work born on the fringe of babbling psychoanalysis" [une oeuvre littéraire exceptionnelle née en marge de la psychanalyse balbutiante]. Yet, he suggests that we are dealing with an autonomous literary work, speaking in his foreword of the diary's "remarkable homogeneity" [homogénéité remarquable], due to "a spiral writing" [une écriture en spirale] (20-25).

Considering the text as almost a particular variation of Imre Madách's The Tragedy of Man, the translator is convinced that, in 1912, Csáth already felt his own approaching death to such extent that his "diffuse despair" [désespoir diffus] might explain the diary's "testamentary character" [caractère testamentaire] (31). Hence, it might seem that Loisel sketches a common plot between Csáth's life and work as if it were some kind of Shakespearian tragedy, in which the 1912-1913 diary or events like his marriage are supposed to be an overture, while the author's personal crisis and war diaries become a logical development before Csáth's final act of suicide in 1919. Thus, the translator indirectly transposes his interpretation on the text, adding not only the new title as well as a complex paratext but also organizing the diary as if it consisted in three acts, "1912," "1913" and "Three annexes" [Année 1912;Année 1913;Trois annexes], when, in the original, there is no Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 clear distinction between the parts. By this reorganization, Loisel seems to suggest not only a chronological development, but also a causal development that led to Csáth's tragic finale.

In the contents of the volume, he treats the Notes on the Summer 1912 and the following diary notes as if they were equivalent chapters ("September 1912", "October 1912" and so forth [Septembre 1912;Octobre 1912], 117, 148). However, there is no direct proof that the "three annexes" were written later than the diary itself. Csáth did leave to Kosztolányi a very poignant note before his death: "young people have to learn from my novel, doctors, too, but most of all, men! Future husbands! Write a 500-pages novel and publish it…" [Tanuljon regényemből az ifjúság, az orvosok, de főleg a férfiak! A házasulandók. Írd meg egy 500 oldalas regénynek és add ki...] [START_REF] Balogh | Új regényen dolgozik Kosztolányi Dezső'. Az el nem keszült Mostoha cimű keletkezéstörténete[END_REF](Balogh : 1404) ) but to interpret this statement as Csáth's literal "last will and testament" is highly questionable.

J.-P. Dubois' afterword to Loisel's translation begins by comparing Csáth with other authors inspired by Freud (258), even if, in his eyes, doctor Brenner was never a true pupil of Freud because he had "too much lucidity as far as his psychic troubles and fragilities are concerned" [une trop grande lucidité à propos de l'ampleur de ses difficultés et fragilités psychiques] (259), therefore, he developed-as Dubois states-a form of "paranoiac destructiveness" [destructivité paranoïaque] against himself, to which the diary is supposed to be a "cruel testimony" [un témoignage cruel] (260) written from the position of an "observer/observed" [observateur/observé] (267). Observing himself, the Hungarian author through his diary as another psychoanalytic case, Dubois reads the text almost literally, mostly disregarding its fictional dimension, he considers e. g. that "Csáth soon takes on his patients" [Csáth s'attaque bientôt à ses patients] (263). Loisel, and especially Dubois, seem to forget that Csáth was not only an obsessively self-documenting morphine and sex addict, but also a creative author trying to liberate and express himself through writing. In fact, the way he projects himself through his notes resembles what Jean-Marie Schaeffer calls "fictional immersion" [l'immersion fictionnelle]. Even if it is plausible that Csáth is telling mostly the truth, the diary alone cannot be a sufficient proof. Embracing the fictional and creative aspects of his writings helps us see Csáth not only as a subject but also as creative hero/narrator of the events depicted in his diary.

In contrast to Loisel's French translation, the Polish edition of two long fragments of Csáth's 1912Csáth's -1913 diary by Anna Górecka seems less directive in terms of interpretation. Górecka, a translator known for her editions of such different authors as Sándor Weöres, Attila Bartis, Frigyes Karinthy and Imre Kertész published the work in the 2-3/2001 issue of the review Literatura na świecie [World Literature], in a number which also contains seven of Csáth's short stories; another fragment of Csáth's diary from 1915 and a short presentation of the writer himself by Elżbieta Cygielska (Csáth 2001). Unfortunately, there are no notes from Csáth's 1913 diary and his previously-quoted diary beginning was also omitted, along with the three last additions to the text addressed to Kosztolányi. Thus, the reader does not know the end of Csáth's story until he reads Cygielska's article, a useful biography, enriched with quotations from and on Csáth and suggested parallels between him and his contemporary writers, Artur Schnitzler and Georg Trakl. All in all, compared to the French translation this partial Polish edition is comparatively more reserved and allows the reader to build his own opinion on the diarist-author Csáth. Yet, one may wonder why Górecka, who translated only part of the 1912-1913 diary, specifically chose to include a portion of Csáth's 1915 notes dealing mainly with the author's struggle with addiction in this edition. Could it be that the inclusion of these texts was meant to reinforce the importance of the writer's fight with morphine and psychoanalytic self-analysis, and a way to present these aspects of his work as leading threads to the diary as a whole? The 1915 part of the Polish translation was taken Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 from Csáth's war diaries, more and more focused on his fight with morphine. An essay by Mihály Szajbély that closes their Hungarian edition might have indirectly hinted at not only the choice by the Polish translator to include the 1915 diary, but also the idea that Csáth's texts may be perceived as a (psychoanalytical) endeavor. Szajbély discusses that, to doctor Brenner, Freud was of equal importance as Copernic or Darwin, and that it was for this reason that Csáth decided to posthumously pass his brain to Doctor Gyula Schuster for a histological analysis. His diary could thus be seen as an intellectual examination of his mind through writing similar to the medical dissection to which he destined his brain to be submitted. In Csáth's notes:

Light and shade metaphors are not only counterpoints; from a psychological point of view they authenticate one another. It is in the light of the idyll that the present seems to be so desperately dark, and it is because of this darkness that the idyll is so desired. The vibrating tension between those two poles is perhaps the main reason (...) why we can appreciate the diary not only as a biographical document, but also as a literary work (...).

[A napfény és a sötétség képei nem csupán ellenpontozzák, hanem lélektanilag hitelesítik egymást. A jelen az idill perspektívájából tűnik reménytelenül sötétnek, az idill a jelen sötétjéből olyannira kívántosnak. A közöttük vibráló feszültség pedig egyegy részlet különös megmunkáltságán túl talán a legfontosabb oka annak, hogy a napló szövege nem csupán életrajzi dokumentumként élvezhető, hanem sajátosan ágasbogas, szabálytalan szépirodalmi alkotásként is]. (Szajbély 1997: 316).

As the following excerpt will illustrate, the fictional and autobiographical dimensions of Csáth's texts seem to be represented in different ways in the Polish and French editions, not only in terms of structure but also in the translations themselves (the following excerpt is Reich's English version, the Hungarian, Górecka's translation, Loisel's translation):

During this time, we slept poorly. Especially on days without P, sexual desire troubled me too. Recent trysts would replay themselves in my imagination with almost painful accuracy. I saw Olga as she walked to and fro my room, in a shirt, as she bent at the waist, and the flesh of her little legs glowed through the thin black stockings.

That's how I came, not long afterwards, faute de mieux, to seduce the hotel chambermaid, named Terez or something of the sort. I banged her a few times with a condom, because she had quite a tight vagina. Her virginity had been taken two years before by the spa's Dr Mahler. This 21-year-old girl with her thin, pale body was not an appetizing morsel, but as soon as her vapid blue eyes grew inflamed by lust, as soon as her face blushed and she started to make violent counter-thrusts, there was something interesting in that. Dezső tried communing with her as well, but the boy's penis drooped, and he called off the attack in vexation. (22)[START_REF] Nagyszerű | Nyers westphaliai sonkát ettünk, romadour sajtot, zöldpaprikát, szőlőt és körtét. Majd malátasört és Marsala bort ittunk. Mint a ketten berúgtunk, és olyan közvetlenül beszéltünk egymással, mint még soha. O. kedves volt és naív, és emellett rokonszenvesebb, mint valaha. Egy gyereklány kedélyét mutattavalósággal úsztam az örömtől és megelégedettségtől[END_REF] [Ez időben nehezen aludtunk. Különösen a P-mentes napokon bántottak engem is a szexuális vágyak. Olykor szinte fájdalmas tökéletességgel jelentek meg a képzeletemben nemrég múlt idők pásztorórái. Láttam Olgát, amint ingben ide és oda jár a szobámban, amint hajladozik a dereka, és apró lábainak húsa átcsillan a vékony, fekete harisnyán. Already in this fragment, which is where the Polish translation begins, important problems arise. First, how to deal with the change in narrative's voice between the first person plural and singular grammatical persons? We know from the full Hungarian text that aludtunk [we slept] concerns Csáth and his brother Dezső (Jász), and in this part Olga is present only "in imagination." Górecka chooses to change the first verb to the first-person singular in the frequentative form sypiałem [I used to sleep] and not spałem [I slept]; Loisel stays in plural and renders the same nuance using the imperfect tense. Both translators look for equivalent grammatical forms in their own language, a task that is easier in Polish, e.g. when it comes to Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 verbal prefixes át|csillan [glow through] can be easily translated as prze|świtują. Secondly, Csáth's language notably includes the use of rather obscure terminology (medical, musical, literary, etc.), and that of foreign languages such as French or, more rarely, German, whereby he maximizes the contrasts in his narration, especially where sexual themes are present. In fact, when Csáth was writing words and expressions as e.g. múlt idők pásztorórái [recent trysts], condommal [with a condom], anatomical terms such as a penis [penis] or French expression faute de mieux, the tension between foreign languages and the Hungarian was much stronger than today. Thus, the difficult task of the translators is to try to render it nowadays, when their controversial nature is no longer what it used to be in the Hungarian, Polish and French societies at the time. Again, those disparities are easier to understand in Polish, where foreign and Slavic terms still function alongside one another and substantives such as penis or idylla exactly equal Hungarian terms. Yet, when it comes to the French expression, Górecka decides to correct his "feau de mieux", whereas Loisel leaves the original and adds a footnote.

In fact, even if he does not have the same liberty and sometimes needs to compensate these language limitations by using different levels, the general tendency of Loisel's version is rather to provide a reader-friendly translation. He chooses to make explicit expressions such as condommal [with a condom] or "P-mentes napokon" [on days without P]: "après avoir enfilé un préservatif" [having put on a condom], "les jours où moi je ne prenais pas de P" [on days I did not take any P], instead of leaving the reader that aim to guess e.g. what might be "les jours sans P" [the days without P]. The problem of how to translate enigmatic or taboo words is far more important than it might seem, for Csáth shortens his daily notations as far as sex, morphine or money are concerned; he even develops a particular form of abbreviated notation in "psychosomatic tables" enumerating morphine consumption, weight, sexual intercourses, afternoon catnaps or lectures. At the same time, as Attila Sebestyén states, Csáth even formulated in his essays a theoretical basis for a psycho-somatic observation.

A few psychosomatic tables developed by Csáth have been preserved in the Budapest Petőfi Irodalmi Múzeum Csáth Archive (Csáth 1919a-b), twelve more in the Széchényi National Library [START_REF] Csáth | Orvosi Zseb-könyv [Medical Pocket Diary[END_REF][START_REF] Magvető | Fej a pohárban: napló és levelek, 1914-1916[END_REF], see Chmurski 2013a-b). The originals testify to the fact that such expressions as "days without P" are etiquettes through which Csáth organizes his subjective time perception. He used a system of abbreviation, which included, for example, signs or letters specific for intercourses, masturbation, defecation or his state of mind during different parts of the day; elements that might be called parts of his addiction discourse. In diaries-and in the case of this diary in particular-this peculiar discourse should be conserved, even for the price of (relative) loss in readability. Similar cases are abbreviations, dates or enumerations such as "szanat. orvos" [spa's Dr]. Here, both Górecka and Loisel choose to explain the shortened forms [Polish "sanatoryjny lekarz", French "le médecin du sanatorium"], write numbers in full words, standardize the dates' format. Thus, they diminish the author's hesitations (and the diary's rough character):

[date lacking] A wonderful, unforgettably beautiful day. In the morning I stayed away from the poison. Life gave me a regal reward. In the afternoon, with Olga, from 3:00 -4:45 ++++… ecstasy that can be called miraculous. Afterwards .024 P. Of that, unfortunately .006 was M. Sublime euphoria. Afterwards home to Olga's place. We ate raw Westphalia ham, Romadour cheese, green peppers, grapes and pears. Than we drank malt beer and Marsala wine. Both of us got drunk and more sympathetic than ever before. She showed the spirit of a girl-child -I was truly awash with joy and

  Paris-Sorbonne and the University of Warsaw. His dissertation is entitled: Figures of Modernity: Text Theory and Practice in

  Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10

  Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 keserű életismeretet és kiábrándulást. Az írás pedig gyönyört ad és kenyeret. Mégse! Nehezen megy, aggályokkal. A születő gondolatot mintegy csírájában megöli a kritika. A legbelső elintézetlen ügyeimet pedig nem tudom papírra tenni. Az az érzés gátol, hogy mások éppolyan tisztán olvasnak benne, mint én az írók írásaiban, én, a psychoanalitikus. -Mégis vaserővel kényszerítem magam, hogy írjak. Írnom kell. Ha nem is lesz számomra többé az írás életműködés soha, legalább legyen játék.

	Játszanom kell, ha nem is mulatok, mert ez ad csak esélyt rá, hogy valaha sok pénzt
	keressek.]
	(Csáth 1989: 5).

  Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 Így történt azután, hogy hamarosan "feau de mieux", a szállodai szobalányt, valami Teréz nevűt csábítottam el. Condommal néhányszor erősen meglőttem, mert igen szűk vaginája volt. Szüzességét Mahler szanat. orvos vette el 2 év előtt. Ez a 21 éves lány a maga sovány, sápadt testével nem volt csábító falat, de amint kitüzesedtek a buta, kék szemei a kéj hatása alatt, amint kipirult az arca, és hevesen ellenmozgásokba kezdett, ebben volt valami érdekes. Dezső is megpróbálta, hogy áldozzon vele, a fiúnak azonban a penise lekonyult, és bosszankodva hagyta abba az ostromot.] (10-11)[W tym czasie marnie sypiałem. Zwłaszcza w dni bez P dręczyły mnie straszliwe żądze seksualne. W mojej wyobraźni pojawiały się wówczas z bolesną niemal doskonałością niedawne idylliczne chwile spędzone z Olgą. Widziałem ją, jak w samej koszulce przechadza się po pokoju. Jak wygina się jej kibić, a przez cienkie czarne pończochy prześwituje skóra jej szczupłych nóg.Wkrótce potem faute de mieux uwiodłem pokojówkę imieniem Teréz. Uzbrojony w kondom kilka razy przebijałem się szturmem, bo miała bardzo wąską waginę. Dziewictwa pozbawił ją dwa lata temu sanatoryjny lekarzdoktor Mahler. Ta dwudziestojednoletnia dziewczyna, chuda i blada, nie była zbyt kuszącym kąskiem, ale kiedy w chwilach rozkoszy jej głupie niebieskie oczy zapalały się, a na twarzy pojawiał się rumieniec i zaczynała wykonywać gwałtowne ruchy miednicą -miała w sobie coś interesującego. Dezső również próbował z nią poharcować, ale niestety penis szybko mu zwiotczał, więc wściekły musiał zaniechać szarży.] (41)[À cette époque-là, nous avions des difficultés à dormir. En particulier les jours où moi je ne prenais pas de P, j'étais torturé par le désir sexuel. Mes derniers rendezvous galants repassaient alors dans mon imagination avec une précision presque douloureuse. Je voyais Olga se déplaçant ça et là dans ma chambre, vêtue d'un simple chemisier, courbant les reins et montrant la chair luisante de ses petites jambes à travers ses fins bas noirs.C'est ainsi que j'en vins rapidement, feaut de mieux, à séduire la femme de chambre de l'hôtel, qui s'appelait Teréz ou quelque chose de ce genre. Je me la suis prise avec vigueur plusieurs fois après avoir enfilé un préservatif, car elle avait un vagin plutôt étroit. C'était docteur Malher, le médecin du sanatorium, qui l'avait déflorée, il y a deux ans. Cette fille, âgée de 21 ans, avec son corps frêle et pâle, n'était pas un morceau de premier choix, mais dès que ses yeux bleus stupides s'enflammaient sous l'effet du plaisir et qu'elle commençait à s'agiter violemment pour répondre à mes assauts, il y avait quelque chose d'intéressant. Dezső essaya lui aussi de communier avec elle, mais le pénis du pauvre garçon retomba mollement et, contrarié, il rendit les armes.] (44)

 Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 symbol is replaced by a simple plus. Thus, the diary's halting rhythm was better preserved, even if, still, dates were corrected and adapted; Górecka corrects also time notation and develops the shortened form of Olga's name. One can observe how, in the final part of this entry, short, yet eloquent phrases, constitute together the description of the couple's meal, a mark of Csáth's style that reveals itself both in his diary and in his short stories. In earlier entries, Csáth often uses similar lists of the day's menus (e.g. Csáth 2005: 12, 17, 38 etc.), along with lists of guests, school grades, weather conditions; later on, he adds lists of texts that he was working on, texts that he had already published, theater plays or concerts he attended to, trips that he made, books he had read or intended to read, as well as the amount of money he spent, lists of his patients, sexual positions, his own faults and his wife's mistakes-a flow of discourse that seems to culminate in the tables that end his whole diary. The narrowing down of this torrent of information to the halting phrases in the above passage seems to correspond with his life's fastening rhythm.

All in all, Górecka and Loisel offer two distinct translation strategies that could be summed up as exposing-the-incomplete and completing-the-incomplete Csáth's diary. And curiously, it seems that both of them are valid on their own terms; as we have seen, the diary begins as if it were a proper, provocative literary text, yet it ends in distinctive shortening of diary notations, focusing almost exclusively on sex and morphine addictions, that seem to have taken control of the author. At the same time, each translation reveals different traditions in approaching foreign literature, which could be called, "domesticating" and "foreignizing" strategies, i.e. the first understood "not as a representation of another work of literature, but as a representation of the content of another work of literature," implying an "implicit denial of the possibility of differing versions of 'content'" and the latter as "insistence on the role of translation as a means of enriching the target language through the introduction of new expressions, forms and ideas" (Cooper 6,11).

Both domesticating and foreignizing translation methodologies have their own merits. In conformity with a supposed "French tradition", Loisel translation could be called domesticating, i.e. one that seems to give a more "literary" version of Csáth's diary. Domestication is an endeavor which does relate with his aspirations and with the initial idea of Notes on the Summer of 1912, a text the author probably wanted to be a text based on his life, yet modified in order to become a provocative literary fiction. Foreignizing translation model could be the one Górecka proposes, following Central-European traductological practices, for she insists on the author's stumbling diction, exposing the text's incongruity. The foreignizing model has the advantage of doing justice to Csáth's diaristic "entropy" and justly presents the 1912-1913 Diary as a fragmented, unfinished attempt. These two dimensions are actually complementary, crucial to the diary's understanding and the tension which Csáth continuously nourished since he started writing at the age of ten and continued writing, up to shortly before his death in 1919, with the last conserved entry dated July 15, 1919.

Because the two translators' strategies can be understood not as strictly opposing but complementary readings of the diaries, they can be used to highlight the richness of Csáth's diary, still open today to speculation in regard to its aims, truthfulness and literary value. Zoltán Z. Varga (2011: 12) stated that, opposing the morphine-addict diary and the memoir that Csáth began writing at the same time, he tried to find a new genre based on an "form of associative narration" [egyfajta asszociatív történetmondás]. In both forms, the diary and the memoir, Csáth searched to find a new model of writing that could encompass his life split in two, both through the more coherent narrative of the memoir and through the parallel diaristic enumeration of events that could be understood as a kind of existential graph. Yet, the attempt Chmurski, Mateusz. "The Text-as-Body and Its Incarnations, or How to Translate Géza Csáth's Diary." AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013): http://ahea.net/ejournal/volume-6-2013/10 to formulate an innovative narration on himselfand for himselfcould already be observed in much earlier in Csáth's works, not only in the form of a diary, but also e.g. in short stories. In fact, they might be understood as a play with elements of autobiographical narration spread in the fictional text. The medical profession of many heroes, places related to his life, family relations similar to the ones Csáth had, all these elements might be seen to be setting up an "autobiographic space" as defined by Lejeune. Furthermore, similar aspects might be seen in the "semi-literary and semi-psychiatric" [félig irodalmi, félig pszichiátriai] psychoanalytical study by Csáth,as Pál Harmat puts it (140), where the story of Miss Gisela, doctor Brenner's patient, has many similarities with his own one and it seems he did not chose this precise case for his analysis by accident. Writing a diary herself, she has a deep fear of tuberculosis, just as Csáth did; it happened that it was a false diagnosis of this very illness that made him inject himself with his first morphine dose. These fragments of text, scientific or literary, autobiographic or fictional, belong in some sense to one single chaotic world which he tried to build while wandering in search for of his (textual) identity. If we invert the three parts' order in the 1912-1913 Diary, we observe the juxtaposition of "proper" diary entries (1913), semifictional and semi-autobiographic notes (1912) and an attempt in autobiographic fiction (Notes on the Summer 1912). Yet, it is only at the end of this particular structure that Csáth uses the third-person omniscient voice, as if to say he finally found the form he seeked for all of his life. Yet, this form serves him only to deplore the past: 3. Degenerated birth should also be stressed. Illusions about the deceased mother. The boy is devoted to his father; however, certain matters lead to perpetual misunderstandings. 4. Ambition that is too great, then suddenly broken, should also be stressed (149)


Michel Morange
email: morange@biologie.ens.fr

What history tells us XXXIX. CRISPR-Cas: From a prokaryotic immune system to a universal genome editing tool

Keywords: CRISPR-Cas system, genome editing, prokaryotic immune response, RNA interference

Introduction

In a previous contribution, I showed how the evidence for the existence of a CRISPR-based adaptive immunity in prokaryotes has been the result of a long and tortuous historical process [START_REF] Morange | CRISPR-Cas: the discovery of an immune system in prokaryotes[END_REF]. After 2007, it was admitted that Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat (CRISPR) loci harbour spacer sequences derived from phages and plasmids. These loci are transcribed, and the mRNA is matured into short crRNAs that guide the inactivation of phages and plasmids bearing sequences identical to those present in the spacers. The CRISPR loci are flanked by an ensemble of Cas genes involved in the immune response. I will extend this story by describing how, in a few years, a universal genome editing tool emerged from the study of this system. This second part of the story was no less complex and tortuous than the first. It also involved numerous participants, only some of whom have been projected into the limelight. I will successively describe why, in 2009-2010, DNA was definitively considered as a possible target of the CRISPR-Cas response, and how the years 2011-2012 were crucial for a precise understanding of the mechanisms of CRISPR-Cas9 interference, but also for the conception of a new genome editing tool. In a third part, I will emphasize the importance of the previous essays on zinc-finger nucleases and Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) in generating, at the beginning of 2013, the "CRISPR craze" [START_REF] Pennisi | The CRISPR craze[END_REF].

DNA is the target!

Transcription of the CRISPR repeated sequences and maturation of the RNA into short crRNAs guiding the inactivation of the invaders were rapidly demonstrated. The role of the Cas proteins in the process was also obvious, although the diversity of these proteins in the different organisms obscured the precise role of each of them. But how did these guide crRNAs interfere with the development of phages? Did they interact with the phage DNA, or with its RNA transcripts? The initially preferred target was RNA. The first reason was the parallel between the immunity provided by the CRISPR-Cas system and the RNA interference response recently evidenced in eukaryotes. This parallel, publicized by Koonin [START_REF] Makarova | A putative RNA-interference-based immune system in prokaryotes: computational analysis of the predicted enzymatic machinery, functional analogies with eukaryotic RNAi, and hypothetical mechanisms of action[END_REF], was present in the minds of all experimenters. But there probably was a second reason to favour RNA over DNA. The possibility for a small RNA to interact with DNA had been often anticipated, but each time the hope had vanished: bacterial repressors were not RNAs, but proteins; antisense RNAs were efficient at the level of translation, not at the level of transcription. The choice of RNA as the target resulted also from the direct demonstration in an in vitro system of an "RNA-guided RNA cleavage by a CRISPR RNA-Cas protein complex" (Hale et al. 2009, 945). But three repeated observations directly supported the hypothesis that the target was, at least in certain systems, DNA: the fact that antisense sequences were as active as sense sequences in interference [START_REF] Barrangou | CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes[END_REF]Brouns et al. 2006); the observation that sequences of the invaders can be the target of the interference response even if they are not present in RNAsa result shown very elegantly by the use of a self-splicing intron (Marraffani and Sontheimer 2008); and the evidence that fragments of phage genomes, corresponding to genes expressed late during infection, were as efficient in protecting as sequences expressed early during infection. Taking into account these hard facts, a series of reviews written in 2009-2010 supported the hypothesis that the target of the crRNAs could be DNA [START_REF] Waters | Regulatory RNAs in bacteria[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Oost | CRISPR-based adaptive and heritable immunity in prokaryotes[END_REF][START_REF] Marraffini | CRISPR interference: RNA-directed adaptive immunity in bacteria and archaea[END_REF]. Even though Deveau et al. and Philippe Horvath and Rodolphe Barrangou preferred to remain cautious in their two reviews (2010), given the diversity of CRISPR-Cas systems in bacteria and archaea, at the end of the same year both supported the hypothesis that plasmid and bacteriophage double-stranded DNA were specifically cleaved during interference [START_REF] Garneau | The CRISPR/Cas bacterial immune system cleaves bacteriophage and plasmid DNA[END_REF][START_REF] Bhaya | CRISP-Cas systems in bacteria and archaea: versatile small RNAs for adaptive defense and regulation[END_REF], a result confirmed in vitro two years later [START_REF] Gasiunas | Cas9-crRNA ribonucleoprotein complex mediates specific DNA cleavage for adaptive immunity in bacteria[END_REF].

The crucial years 2011-2012

In March 2011, Emmanuelle Charpentier and her collaborators demonstrated in Streptococcus pyogenes the existence of a hitherto unobserved step in the maturation of the crRNAs: the participation of a trans-encoded small RNA, tracrRNA with a 24-nucleotide sequence complementary to the repeat regions of crRNA precursor transcripts [START_REF] Deltcheva | CRISPR RNA maturation by trans-encoded small RNA and host factor RNase III[END_REF]. The endogenous bacterial RNAse III was required for immunity, presumably because of its participation in the maturation of the crRNA -tracrRNA -Csn1 (Cas) complex. A little more than one year later, a new publication by the same group demonstrated the DNAse activity of an in vitro system containing these two RNAS, the Csn1 protein rebaptized Cas 9, and a target DNA [START_REF] Jinek | A programmable Dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity[END_REF]. The precise point of DNA cleavage was determined and it was shown that two different domains of Cas 9 are involved in the cleavage of the two strands of DNA. It was demonstrated that the tracrRNA -crRNA -Cas9 complex is required for DNA targeting, and the precise interactions between this complex and the DNA target were determined. In addition, the paper described how the two RNAs could be positioned on one unique chimeric RNA guide molecule, making the system very easy to use. The demonstration that the system could be used to target any DNA sequence was provided by the construction of a chimeric RNA molecule guide able to target the GFP gene. Despite the apparent continuity, there are two huge differences between the two papers. The first is centred around the process of RNA maturation, and the participation of Cas proteins in it. There are no discussions of what might be the target of the maturation complex, the mechanisms being "yet to be fully understood" (Deltcheva et al. 2011, 602). But the description that was provided drew a strong parallel between the eukaryotic interfering system acting on RNA and the CRISPR-Cas system, between the role of Dicer and of RNAse III, a point that did not escape the attention of commentators [START_REF] Gottesman | Dicing defence in bacteria[END_REF]. One year later, all the attention was focused on the activity of the Cas9 nuclease, and its control by the two small RNAs that were now considered as partners in a "dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease" (Jinek et al. 2012, 816). The role of Csn1 (Cas9) had dramatically changed between the two studies. There is a second major difference between the two articles. The system is now seen as a new potential tool for genome editing, superior to the pre-existing zinc fingers and TALE nucleases painfully constructed in previous years. In contrast to these systems, the same protein (nuclease) can be used in all experiments, the single (and easy) necessary change being in the sequence of the guide RNA. In addition, the specificity provided by the interaction between two oligonucleotide sequences was expected to outcompete that reached by an interaction between a protein and a nucleic acid. What may have occurred between these two articles to explain this dramatic reinterpretation of the data, and reorientation of the work? The reader is not helped by the 2012 article, written within the new framework, and totally silent on what justified this reorientation. A review article published in Nature at the beginning of 2012 is often cited as a turning point (Wiendenheft et al. 2012). Its content does not justify such a privileged treatment. It is a bad habit on the part of scientists to cite the most recent reviews on a topic, without reading them! So I can only hypothesize. One paper, briefly mentioned in the 2012 publication, appears to have been essential: published in August 2011 [START_REF] Sapranauskas | The Streptococcus thermophilus CRISPR/Cas system provides immunity in Escherichia coli[END_REF], it demonstrated, by the transfer of the CRISPr-Cas type II system of Streptococcus thermophilus into E. coli, that the Cas9 gene is the only Cas gene necessary in this system for interference, and initiated an analysis of the functions of the different domains of the protein encoded by this gene. This article is fundamental since it gave Csn1 (Cas 9) a radically new function in comparison with the 2011 article of Emmanuelle Charpentier's group, and strongly suggested that it directly exerted its nuclease activity on DNA. The second important contribution was a review written by most of the experts in the field, consisting in classifying the different CRISPR-Cas systems [START_REF] Makarova | Evolution and classification of the CRISPR-Cas systems[END_REF]. In this review, the description of crRNA and tracrRNA was presented in parallel with observations on the essential role of Cas9 and the evidence for a DNA cleavage. Preparation of this review paper was probably facilitated the rapid circulation of information between those involved.

From gene targeting to genome editing

The "CRISPR craze" would not have been possible without the progressive transformation of another, fully independent field of research: the search for tools to inactivate targeted genes, to add new genes, and to replace genes by altered copies of them. These different objectives do not theoretically require the same tools. Cutting the DNA at a precise position is not required for the production of genetically modified organisms in which the foreign fragments of DNA are inserted at any position in the genome. In the production of knockout or knockin transgenic mice, in which an altered copy replaces the normal copy of a gene, cutting DNA is also not necessary: what is done is simply to select the rare embryonic stem cell clones where homologous recombination has occurred. But both strategies raise huge issues when applied to humans. For instance, the insertion of a transgene can occur close to an oncogene, and provoke a malignant disease in the recipient organism. The idea progressively emerged that the only safe strategy to orient the insertion of a transgene or to increase the efficiency of substitution was to cut DNA at the position where the insertion or the substitution had to occur, in order to increase the efficiency of the repair process by homologous and non-homologous recombination. The first enzymes selected as candidates were restriction enzymes (homing meganucleases), which cut at very specific positions in the genome [START_REF] Jacquier | An intron-encoded protein is active in a gene conversion process that spreads an intron into a mitochondrial gene[END_REF]. This approach became fully efficient with the coupling of a nuclease with zinc-finger recognition motifs in which the rules of recognition of the targeted nucleotides are simple. Zincfinger coupled nucleases were the first demonstrated to be efficient for human therapeutic applications, through the inactivation of the gene encoding the HIV receptor [START_REF] Perez | Establishment of HIV-1 resistance in CD4 + T cells by genome editing using zinc-finger nucleases[END_REF][START_REF] Carroll | Progress and prospects: zinc-finger nucleases as gene therapy agents[END_REF]. This success was hugely important in raising the visibility of this new experimental approach. It was immediately followed by the announcement of even better results obtained with TALENs [START_REF] Christian | Targeting DNA double-strand breaks with TAL effector nucleases[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | A TALE nuclease architecture for efficient genome editing[END_REF]. It led the authors of these studies to promote the replacement of the expression "gene targeting" by "genome editing" to emphasize the precision of these new tools [START_REF] Urnov | Genome editing with engineered zinc finger nucleases[END_REF]. The rapid development of these tools at the end of the 2000s had prepared the ground for the CRISPR revolution. The term of editing was immediately adopted, and the superiority of the CRISPR-Cas9 system was easily demonstrated [START_REF] Jinek | A programmable Dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity[END_REF].

Conclusion

A series of papers was published at the beginning of 2013 demonstrating the potential of the CRISPR-Cas9 editing system in bacteria, mouse and human cells, as well as in zebrafish. The most remarkable was the efficiency of the process, and the possibility of "multiplex" targeting [START_REF] Cong | Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/cas systems[END_REF][START_REF] Mali | RNA-guided human genome engineering via Cas9[END_REF][START_REF] Hwang | Efficient genome editing in zebrafish using a CRISPR-Cas system[END_REF][START_REF] Cho | Targeted genome engineering in human cells with the Cas9 RNA-guided endonuclease[END_REF][START_REF] Jiang | RNA-guided editing of bacterial genomes using CRISPR-Cas systems[END_REF]. Homologous recombination can be favoured by inactivating one of the two active sites of Cas9, now nicking DNA instead of cutting it [START_REF] Cong | Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/cas systems[END_REF]. In May of the same year, Rudolf Jaenisch's group demonstrated that the new tools not only efficiently inactivated target genes, but also induced the precise replacement of nucleotides in targeted genes [START_REF] Wang | One-step generation of mice carrying mutations in multiple genes by CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome engineering[END_REF]. The way was open to germline modification. Various reviews transformed this complex history into a path to "rewriting a genome" [START_REF] Charpentier | Rewriting a genome[END_REF][START_REF] Doudna | The new frontier of genome engineering with CRISPR-Cas9[END_REF]. What emerges from this brief historical sketch is that the CRISPR craze was the result of the rapid convergence of two projects and lines of research that had been fully distinct: the search for a mechanistic understanding of a new immune system discovered in prokaryotes and efforts to design efficient genome editing tools by the construction of specific endonucleases. The encounter was explosive because both fields had reached a similar degree of maturation and expectation at the same time. An additional remark is that these extraordinary results were the fruit of a "traditional" way of doing biological research. Databases were important for the comparison of sequences and "deep sequencing" for the characterization of small RNAs, but the breakthrough came from the progressive analysis of the components, and the in vitro reconstitution of the systems, a strategy used since the early days of biochemistry! A result as important as the demonstration that interference occurred at the level of DNA was provided by the "old" Southern method [START_REF] Garneau | The CRISPR/Cas bacterial immune system cleaves bacteriophage and plasmid DNA[END_REF], not by new post-genomic ones! But certainly the most significant result of this study is that many researchers participated in this adventure and contributed to one step or another, and several among them contributed both to the first steps and to the most recent developments. The 2011 review on the CRISPR-Cas systems, which was probably, as we suggested, an important trigger for the reorientation of the research, was signed by twelve authors. The Nobel Prize Committee is greatly to be pitied if it has to select only three names from the long list of contributors. The worst thing would be to choose not those who contributed the most, but those most gifted at rewriting history to their own advantage.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to David Marsh for critical reading of the manuscript.


Michel Morange
email: morange@biologie.ens.fr

Keywords: editing, gene correcting, gene targeting, genome engineering, RNA editing

Introduction

The expression -genome editing‖ is now routinely and unproblematically used to designate the fundamental and applied uses of the newly custom-designed -scissors‖ of DNA, led by CRISPR Cas9 -see for instance the last 2015 issue of Science (McNutt 2015;Travis 2005). It is fascinating to observe -in real time‖ this rapid change in scientific vocabulary. I was too young to see with my own eyes the introduction of the informational terms in molecular biology, but I have the premonition that we are living a similar event, with identically dramatic consequences. Such phenomena are particularly appealing to the historian: the word is already there, with different meanings. Its rapid adoption for something new is a collective and tacit decision of the scientific community, but also a global cultural phenomenon since the word and its meanings do not belong to science alone. As a French-speaking observer, there was an additional reason to describe this event. In the French language, -éditer‖ means -to publish‖. But in recent years, with the increasingly important place of computers in publishing houses, and the increasing import of English words, the expression -éditer un texte‖ i.e. -to edit a text‖ has progressively been introduced to describe the complex work done on a manuscript to improve it. Since for a text to be published, it has to be -edited‖, the transition was smooth. A parallel but different shift in the meaning of -editing‖ occurred in the French language and in biology. In both cases, computers played an important role. I will successively consider the early and diverse uses of -editing‖ in molecular biology. Then I will examine the recent use of -genome editing‖, the rational justification of this new use in 2010, as well as its previous unjustified and progressive uses since the beginning of the 2000s, and the favourable context in which this introduction occurred. I will draw some final conclusions from this historical episode. The background of this -linguistic turn‖ is the discovery of the CRISPR Cas9 system and its possible applications, which are described in two previous publications (Morange 2015a and 2015b).

The early uses of "editing"

All molecular biologists are familiar with the phenomenon of RNA editing discovered in the mid-1980s (see later). When the word -editing‖ is entered in PubMed, a large part of the articles that are selected is devoted to RNA editing. But the first uses of the word -editing‖ in molecular biology were different. They referred to the transfer of information between DNA and proteins, and to the capacity of the enzymes and proteins that are involved to correct the errors that might occur in this process. Alan Fersht devoted many studies in the 1970s to the capacity of aminoacyl tRNA synthetases to control the nature of the amino acid that has been loaded on the transfer RNAs, and to remove it when it is not the right one [START_REF] Fersht | Enzymic editing mechanisms in protein synthesis and DNA replication[END_REF]. The editing or proofreading capacity of DNA polymerase, and in particular of the famous Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase I extensively used in genetic engineering, was scrutinized. The reliability of the information stored in DNA was not the consequence of the chemical stability of this macromolecule, but of these editing processes as well as of the repair mechanisms (Loeb and Kunkel 1982). Editing was first used for RNA to describe the complex processes that led from DNA transcription to the formation of a translatable RNA: maturation of the RNA at the 3' end after termination of transcription, with addition of a polyA tail. The splicing process by which long RNA transcripts are cut and the fragments pasted to generate messenger RNAs was sometimes also included in the editing process [START_REF] Lewin | Editing mRNA precursors[END_REF]. A new meaning of RNA editing resulted from the study of the transcription of mitochondrial DNA in trypanosomes [START_REF] Benne | Major transcript of the frameshifted coxII gene from Trypanosome mitochondria contains four nucleotides that are not encoded in the DNA[END_REF]): the sequences of RNAs were corrected, sometimes extensively, by the insertion/deletion of nucleotides and/or the modification of some others, such as the conversion of adenosine to inosine. RNA editing was shown not to be limited to kinetoplastid protozoa, and was also observed in plant mitochondria [START_REF] Gualberto | RNA editing in wheat mitochondria results in the conservation of protein sequences[END_REF][START_REF] Covello | RNA editing in plant mitochondria[END_REF] and animals. In the latter, editing of the RNAs encoding the apolipoprotein B and neuroreceptors of the central nervous system has been extensively studied (see, for instance, Reenan 2001). In 1990, it was demonstrated that RNA editing in kinetoplastid protozoa required guide RNAs [START_REF] Blum | A model for RNA editing in kinetoplastid mitochondria: -guide‖ RNA molecules transcribed from maxicircle DNA provide the edited information[END_REF], exactly as 22 years later the CRISPR Cas9 enzyme, on the eve of becoming the most popular genome editing tool, was shown to depend on guide RNA for its action. The word -editing‖ was also used in the 1990s for the receptors of the immune system: their precise structure results from a complex process of reassortment of genetic material and selection among the different cellular clones produced [START_REF] Gay | Receptor editing: an approach by autoreactive B cells to escape tolerance[END_REF]Tiegs et al. 1993). In all the cases that we have so far described, editing was a natural process, probably the result of the optimizing action of natural selection, leading to proteins with the right structure (although the complexity and diversity of the RNA editing process early suggested that it might have other functions). Another use of the word -editing‖ entered molecular biology through the increasing role of computers in this discipline. The development of libraries required editing of the information put in them (Linhart et al. 1980). Genome sequencing programmes dramatically increased the amount of information that was stored in these libraries. The word -editing‖ was used for the complex process of annotation of genomes [START_REF] Lewis | Apollo: a sequence annotation editor[END_REF], in the same way as chemists edit their NMR spectra. But the increased use of this word in biology was mainly the result of the complex process of sequence assembly generated by shotgun experiments, and the more and more timeconsuming elimination of errors that might have occurred during the sequencing step itself [START_REF] Arner | DNP Trapper: an assembly editing tool for finishing and analysis of complex repeat regions[END_REF]. Editing a genome is an expression that became familiar to bioinformaticians. It was no longer nature (organisms) that edited, but researchers. However, computer scientists when editing were aiming at describing DNA sequences as they exist in nature.

Editing the genome

From correcting the sequences produced by machines and programmes to correcting the sequences that have been altered by mutations, there was a short distance that was progressively stepped over in the 2000s. In 2010, Fyodor Urnov and his colleagues made explicit the reasons for adopting the expression -genome editing‖ to designate the use of the newly designed DNA scissors: the fact that they cut at precise positions in the genome with a limited number of off-targets, that their action does not lead to the insertion in the genome of additional sequences, and that they permit the efficient replacement of a mutated copy of a gene by a normal version of it were all good reasons to speak of -genome editing‖ (Urnov et al. 2010). 2010 was three years before -the CRISPR craze‖ (Pennisi 2013) and two years before the publication by Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier that ignited the field [START_REF] Jinek | A programmable Dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity[END_REF]. This demonstrates that the introduction of the expression -genome editing‖ and its slowly increasing use preceded the discovery of the potential of the CRISPR Cas9 system. Its roots were in the progressive development of tools to modify DNA sequences, by using first modified singlestranded oligonucleotides and then specific nucleases (meganucleases, recombinases, zinc finger proteins coupled to a nuclease). Evidence progressively accumulated that these nucleases were not only tools well adapted to gene inactivation or gene insertion, but also dramatically increased the efficiency of homologous recombination and therefore permitted highly efficient gene replacementthe first evidence being provided by Puchta et al. 1993and Rouet et al. 1994. 2003 was a crucial year: zinc-finger nucleases proved efficient in inactivating genes and in substituting normal copies for mutated ones, which opened the perspective of using them for therapeutic applications [START_REF] Bibikova | Enhancing gene targeting with designed zinc finger nucleases[END_REF]Porteus and Baltimore 2003). There were plenty of expressions--gene targeting‖, -genome engineering‖, -gene correcting‖-likely to be used to designate these new practices. -Genome editing‖ with this new meaning was first used at the beginning of the 2000s [START_REF] Balbas | Chromosomal editing in Escherichia coli. Vectors for DNA integration and excision[END_REF]Stark andAkoplan 2003, Gruenert et al. 2003), and the expression progressively became more widespread in subsequent years. The main researchers involved in the development of these new tools, such as Dana Carroll and Srinivasan Chandrasegaran [START_REF] Durai | Zinc finger nucleases: customdesigned molecular scissors for genome engineering of plant and mammalian cells[END_REF][START_REF] Carroll | Progress and prospects: zinc-finger nucleases as gene therapy agents[END_REF]), were far from being the strongest supporters of the new vocabulary. Interestingly, in the same years, there were new observations demonstrating the extent of RNA editing that paradoxically brought into question its physiological significance (Nishikura 2004). RNA editing was no longer a sufficiently attractive field of research to prevent the word -editing‖ from being borrowed for the description of other phenomena.

Conclusions

The expression -genome editing‖ is the new use of the word -editing‖ whose mundane meaning allowed it to be recurrently employed by biologists. Nobody controlled this new introduction, and those who were the most eager to seize the potential of this word were not always the most active in producing data supporting its new use. Despite lacking a clearly identified father, this new use is highly significant. It represents a shift from a natural to an artificial meaning of the word. Before, nature edited; now, biologists edit, and by doing so they correct and improve nature. The word is well chosen to make the new practice acceptable. It emphasizes the fact that the results of biologists' practice will be precise, and -clean‖. But this expression is also the extension of the hope invested in genome sequencing programmes: whereas the latter seek to read the book of life, the new projects aim to edit it. The main risk for the expression -genome editing‖ stems from its success. It is already used for -gene drive‖ and for crop and animal -enhancement‖ projects, where the work of biologists is not directly aimed at correcting the book of life. The price to pay for this undue extension may be a weakening of its power of attraction.

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Acknowledgements

I am indebted to David Marsh for critical reading of the manuscript.