Mr Chaabo

Alaa Clerma

SEMANTIC MULTIPLICITY : HOW LEXICAL AMBIGUITY ELICIT IMPERFECT ORGANIZATIONAL DISCOURSE SUSTAINING CATEGORY AMBIGUITY IN CASE OF NPD

Keywords: (Discursive) categorization, Sensemaking, Category ambiguity, Enunciation, Language, Lexical ambiguity, Discourse analysis, New product development (NPD)

. These provisions govern actually not only what is said, but, more significantly, the manners in which it is uttered.

In fact, by examining formations inducing certain effects of meaning, discourse analysis, as mobilized in this research, is intended to tackle the truth dispositions which direct the circulation of utterances within institutionally constructed spaces, at particular turning points, like when a new product (and/or breakthrough technology) is put on the market. Since such observations are particularly significant to the scope of the present paper, the research work will be centered on an effort to identify traces in the textual materiality of the narratives (constituting a corpus) which can lead the interpretation of the positioning of each of various enunciating instances. The presumption 2 that the positioning of an identity is only possible in view of an alterity becomes latent, not only in subject-to-subject interactions, but also in discursive processes.

For a given enunciating instance, constructing such a subjective position involves mobilizing certain regularities, which, when negotiated with the constitutive heterogeneity characterizing the discourse (whether by sticking to it or protecting itself against it), also makes it possible to achieve an effect of transparency (as if what is to say / have been said could not be materialized in any other way). Negotiation with alterity can involve, implicitly and/or explicitly, deploying strategies that advocate an illusionary referential while exploiting particular lexical choices (leading maybe to ambiguous new product and/or category identity). A such presumption adopted in this research resonates with Saussure's (1916) conception of General Linguistics. Thus, transparency and literality would be the output of stabilization effects, while being both considered as means by which the subject develops a positioning in its negotiation with the constitutive outside (presence of other subjects, time, place and event).

Consequently, this research is notably oriented by theoretical references that look at language in view of its own functioning consisting of inscribing the individual within a symbolic order and leading his positioning as a subject. In light of a such symbolic order, language would fundamentally bring the world into existence, rather than representing it. The paper addresses, in the introduction, the initial questions that motivated the study and gave rise to the research. In the context of these questions, several conceptions related to categorization emerge as one of the thematic motivations of this work, while alluding to the discursive reading of corresponding strategies. Still tangent to these formulations, questions regarding the order of language as constitutive of the human are structured. In a second moment, we thus introduce, in this perspective, a presentation of the theoretical choices mobilized in this research and inherent to: language sciences, theories of enunciation and discourse analysis with a French orientation.

INTRODUCTION

Ambiguities have traditionally intrigued NPD (New Product Development) scholars and executives [START_REF] Brun | Classification of ambiguity in new product development projects[END_REF]. In such case, ambiguity arises from several «sources» where it may manifest in the novelty, multiplicity, or validity and reliability of interpretations (Burn et al., 2009).

Ambiguity is also supposed to correspond to diverse parts of the practice of NPD, where «subjects» of ambiguity may concern product, market, process, or organizational resource ambiguity. On the other hand, the study of how new markets come into being have particularly remained a lively field of academic debate. These nascent markets are conventionally characterized by the lack of shared meanings [START_REF] Rosa | Sociocognitive dynamics in a product market[END_REF][START_REF] Santos | Constructing markets and shaping boundaries: Entrepreneurial power in nascent fields[END_REF][START_REF] Zietsma | Institutional work in the transformation of an organizational field: The interplay of boundary work and practice work[END_REF][START_REF] Ozcan | Origin of alliance portfolios: Entrepreneurs, network strategies, and firm performance[END_REF][START_REF] Mair | Building inclusive markets in rural Bangladesh: How intermediaries work institutional voids[END_REF].

In order to enhance their comprehension (or make sense) of the market and increase their competitiveness, organizations express an obligation to rely on groups, or an obligation of categorization [START_REF] Porac | Competitive groups as cognitive communities : The case of Scottish knitwear manufacturers[END_REF]. In addition, audiences use market categories in an attempt to alleviate ambiguity regarding a product / producer [START_REF] Durand | Advancing research on categories for institutional approaches of organizations[END_REF]. In this case, the determinant of categorization remains similarity associating the product to be categorized and the category prototype [START_REF] Zuckerman | The Categorical Imperative : Securities analysts and the illegitimacy discount[END_REF][START_REF] Vergne | Categorizing categorization research : Review, integration, and future directions[END_REF]. The latter refers to the set of average characteristics possessed by most members of a category. In such similarity-based categorization, the degree of similarity to this comparison reference point determines category membership.

Authors such as [START_REF] Rosa | Micro-level product-market dynamics: Shared knowledge and its relationship to market development[END_REF], [START_REF] Rao | Border crossing: Bricolage and the erosion of categorical boundaries in French gastronomy[END_REF], [START_REF] Weber | Forage for thought: Mobilizing codes in the movement for grass-fed meat and dairy products[END_REF], [START_REF] Khaire | Changing landscapes: The construction of meaning and value in a new market category-Modern Indian art[END_REF] and [START_REF] Navis | How new market categories emerge: Temporal dynamics of legitimacy, identity, and entrepreneurship in satellite radio, 1990-2005[END_REF] indicate that meanings and boundaries of market categories are consequently negotiated and defined collectively. An ambiguous category does not demonstrate yet a preciselydetermined boundary, broadly approved social meaning, nor does it imply demanding expectations of what members should do or not [START_REF] Pontikes | Two Sides of the same Coin: How ambiguous classification affects multiple audiences' evaluations[END_REF]. Members of ambiguous categories run the risk of decrease of their offerings' appeal to audience [START_REF] Ruef | Credit and classification: Defining industry boundaries in 19th century America[END_REF][START_REF] Kovács | The Consequences of category spanning depend on contrast[END_REF]. If categorization can be generally considered to be a social process of communication according to [START_REF] Cornelissen | Putting communication front and center in institutional theory and analysis[END_REF] where categories are constructed through communicative exchanges [START_REF] Grodal | The discursive perspective of market categorization: Interaction, power, and context[END_REF], little research has namely addressed the impact of lexical ambiguities challenging the perfection of categorization narratives and inducing, therefore, category ambiguity to persist.

In this perspective, some of the foundational formulations of what are now known as the Language Sciences are recommended as a starting point, in view of [START_REF] Saussure | Cours de linguistique générale[END_REF]'s General Linguistics.

By granting language a systemic characterization, he asserts autonomy for the linguistic sign's synchronous approach, related to its internal (structural) rules of operation. The sign, which is the most fundamental building block of language, can be inferred from its own internal relations with the whole. This unit encapsulates an evaluative concept which functions along dual dimensions.

Firstly, it can be traded for other components, and secondly, its power of exchange is governed by stable relationships that apply not only to it, but also, to other objects of identical sort. Therefore, if it were not for its connection to the larger picture, the sign's very existence would be in jeopardy.

Practically, lexical (or word-sense) ambiguity vehemently disturbs scholars in linguistics, especially in case of presence of an external interference (legislative, scientific, industrial…) in a domain's lexicon defining its terminology (e.g. accounting terminology). Linguistic phenomena such as homonymy and polysemy particularly cause lexical ambiguity [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF]. If polysemy occurs in case where «[...] two or more related meanings are associated with the same linguistic form» (Taylor, 2003, p. 103), homonymy characterizes different words with distinct meanings and origins presenting the same form of spelling or pronunciation [START_REF] Lyons | Introduction to theoretical linguistics[END_REF].

As individuals' degree of understanding is affected by the occurrence of similar phenomena, it seems legitimate to portray how lexical ambiguity emerges while analyzing its impact over category ambiguity in early moments of market formation. Thus, we ask : How do audiences

handle lexical ambiguity in narratives inherent to the categorization of new products in nascent markets?

To legitimize such a move, we build on insights detected in prior studies of categorization [START_REF] Zuckerman | The Categorical Imperative : Securities analysts and the illegitimacy discount[END_REF][START_REF] Santos | Constructing markets and shaping boundaries: Entrepreneurial power in nascent fields[END_REF][START_REF] Pontikes | Two Sides of the same Coin: How ambiguous classification affects multiple audiences' evaluations[END_REF][START_REF] Vergne | Categorizing categorization research : Review, integration, and future directions[END_REF], sensemaking and discursive approach of categorization [START_REF] Weick | Sensemaking in Organizations (Foundations for organizational science series)[END_REF][START_REF] Cornelissen | Putting communication front and center in institutional theory and analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Grodal | The discursive perspective of market categorization: Interaction, power, and context[END_REF] and lexical ambiguity [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF][START_REF] Taylor | Linguistic categorization[END_REF]. A literature review reveals that although several voices adopting a strategic categorization angle have grounded categorization into an institutional context where meaning is co-created [START_REF] Vergne | Categorizing categorization research : Review, integration, and future directions[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Protecting market identity: When and how do organizations respond to consumers' devaluations?[END_REF], scholars have only started to get interested in studying linguistic aspects conditioning a such process [START_REF] Mervis | Categorization of natural objects[END_REF][START_REF] Loewenstein | Vocabularies and vocabulary structure: A new approach linking categories, practices, and institutions[END_REF]. Nevertheless, a linguistic approach has not been mobilized yet in an attempt to analyze situations of category ambiguity in general, and those taking place in case of NPD and nascent markets in particular.

Consequently, we suggest to compound two distinct streams of literaturediscursive categorization and linguisticsto (1) detect the occurrence of the phenomenon of lexical ambiguity (mainly because of polysemy and homonymy) in the constitution of organizational discourses in case of new product launching, (2) investigate the linguistic effects that this phenomenon can cause among audiences in terms of category ambiguity through sensemaking process and/or contest over meaning of official narratives, and (3) define the appropriate meaning(s) to attribute to lexical applications (words, expressions, etc.) in alignment with the context in which lexical items occur, in order to alleviate category ambiguity.

From a theoretical standpoint, a study addressing similar research objectives will contribute to the categorization literature by presenting an original in-depth understanding of the linkages associating discursive approach of categorization and linguistics, assuming that the core essence of categorization concerns the emergence (and fading away) of lexical ambiguity. From an organizational narrative perspective, related insights will open up categorization by creating a space for action for concerned actors to counteract the reality of ambiguity making categorization an imperfect organizational process.

By taking over product categorization, managers will be capable of influencing the inferences made about the new product and, ultimately, impacting consumer evaluations regarding it. In a such discursive perspective, we finally offer, in conclusion, a brief reflection aspiring to induce how/what complementary discursive practices to implement in this space aiming concretely at organizational narratives disambiguation in the early moments of markets, in order to dilute the pernicious impacts of these lexical phenomena on categorization.

ASSUMPTIONS & THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Categorization & category ambiguity in nascent markets

NPD has been acknowledged as riddled with ambiguity. While [START_REF] Brun | Classification of ambiguity in new product development projects[END_REF] have classified «sources» and «subjects» of ambiguity, [START_REF] Weick | Sensemaking in Organizations (Foundations for organizational science series)[END_REF] discussed it as occasioning sensemaking.

On the other hand, nascent markets can be defined, according to Santos et al. (2009, p. 644), as «business environments in an early stage of formation». Similarly, several authors have pointed to lack of clarity of various elements as a characteristic inherent to these markets: product definitions [START_REF] Rosa | Sociocognitive dynamics in a product market[END_REF], field boundaries [START_REF] Santos | Constructing markets and shaping boundaries: Entrepreneurial power in nascent fields[END_REF][START_REF] Zietsma | Institutional work in the transformation of an organizational field: The interplay of boundary work and practice work[END_REF], social structures [START_REF] Ozcan | Origin of alliance portfolios: Entrepreneurs, network strategies, and firm performance[END_REF] and recently institutional environments [START_REF] Mair | Building inclusive markets in rural Bangladesh: How intermediaries work institutional voids[END_REF]. Besides, ambiguity persisting in the early moments of market formation has been admitted by a number of scholars (e.g. [START_REF] Beckert | What is sociological about economic sociology? Uncertainty and the embeddedness of economic action[END_REF][START_REF] Hajek | Regime-building for REDD+: Evidence from a cluster of local initiatives in south-eastern Peru[END_REF][START_REF] Sgourev | How Paris gave rise to cubism (and Picasso): Ambiguity and fragmentation in radical innovation[END_REF].

Consisting a rather recent stream of research in management studies, categorization refers to the obligation of organizations (or consumers) to rely on groups to enhance their comprehension of the market and increase their competitiveness [START_REF] Porac | Competitive groups as cognitive communities : The case of Scottish knitwear manufacturers[END_REF]. The literature presenting categorization studies underlines the persistence of two dominant streams of categorization strategies: those relating to a psychological perspective, the others being designed from a sociological perspective [START_REF] Vergne | Categorizing categorization research : Review, integration, and future directions[END_REF]. A dual logic of emergence of new market categories arises from such a distinction.

In strategies of psychological aspect, categorization comes from internal users : the organization self-categorizes itself (self-categorization theory). In alternative words, organizations determine which categories to enter by comparing themselves to existing members and measuring degrees of similarity. A new category emerges from organizations engaging in self-categorization. Consumer agreement and support for the self-categorization of organizations remain critical to the achievement of similar categorization. Otherwise, a stigma could appear.

From a sociological perspective, categorization is dictated by external audiences (consumers, media, competitors, etc.) to which organizations are constrained to conform, where these audiences reserve preferential treatment towards organizations that exemplify the category. The success of an organization in a category is function of its compliance with the standards characterizing the category (categorical imperative theory, [START_REF] Zuckerman | The Categorical Imperative : Securities analysts and the illegitimacy discount[END_REF]. In such a prototypical view, categories are used by audiences as a means to alleviate ambiguity regarding a product / producer [START_REF] Durand | Advancing research on categories for institutional approaches of organizations[END_REF] 1 . Thus, actions adopted by organizations in reaction to opinions formed by external audiences have a role in the emergence of new categories.

Categorization process can also be a combination of both perspectives, i.e. a strategic categorization. This recent stream of research stipulates that, when applying categories, all actors (organizations / external audiences) get involved in an interaction where their respective comprehensions concerning the category system are shared with others, leading then to shaping it.

Authors such as [START_REF] Rosa | Micro-level product-market dynamics: Shared knowledge and its relationship to market development[END_REF], [START_REF] Rao | Border crossing: Bricolage and the erosion of categorical boundaries in French gastronomy[END_REF], [START_REF] Weber | Forage for thought: Mobilizing codes in the movement for grass-fed meat and dairy products[END_REF], [START_REF] Khaire | Changing landscapes: The construction of meaning and value in a new market category-Modern Indian art[END_REF] and [START_REF] Navis | How new market categories emerge: Temporal dynamics of legitimacy, identity, and entrepreneurship in satellite radio, 1990-2005[END_REF] indicate that meanings and boundaries of market categories are consequently negotiated and defined collectively where various perceptions, knowledge backgrounds or interests intersect [START_REF] Durand | Category stretching : Reorienting research on categories in strategy, entrepreneurship, and organization theory[END_REF][START_REF] Granqvist | Beyond prototypes: Drivers of market categorization in functional foods and nanotechnology[END_REF].

Categorization process arises then as a social dynamism requiring the interpretations and actions of concerned actors. Organizations may signal their membership in a market category whereas audiences shape category driven by their goals and/or causal mental models. Alternatively, organizations may opt to create a new market category. Some recent researches, instead of studying the process of categorization into existing categories, have tackled the emergence of a new category. According to [START_REF] Durand | Where do market categories come from and how? Distinguishing category creation from category emergence[END_REF] category emergence2 refers to «the formation of categories that emerge from elements extraneous to an existing market» while pointing that «categories emerge when the existing classification system and categorical structure of markets do not sufficiently account for material novelties sponsored by innovators».

Whether an organization claims a particular category membership or is labeled by audiences, market categories are conventionally assigned via labels (e.g. «biotechnology», «3D printing», etc.) [START_REF] Hannan | Logics of organization theory: Audiences, codes and ecologies[END_REF]. Once a category structure is founded, it impacts member identity evaluation by audiences [START_REF] Osherson | Gradedness and conceptual combination[END_REF]. Authors such as [START_REF] Hsu | Identities, genres and organizational forms[END_REF], [START_REF] Hannan | Logics of organization theory: Audiences, codes and ecologies[END_REF] consider expectations deriving from categorization as a repertoire of codes organizations are expected to adopt. In a strategic perspective, categorization operations are anchored in the incumbent institutional context, where practices, experiences, shared meanings, assumptions and identities, norms and regulations possess a prominent impact in evaluations and where actors' cognitive mechanisms are conditioned to be in action [START_REF] Vergne | Categorizing categorization research : Review, integration, and future directions[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Protecting market identity: When and how do organizations respond to consumers' devaluations?[END_REF].

Nonetheless, an ambiguous category does not manifest a well-defined boundary, broadly approved social meaning, nor does it induce considerable expectations of what members should do or not [START_REF] Pontikes | Two Sides of the same Coin: How ambiguous classification affects multiple audiences' evaluations[END_REF]. According to the author, an ambiguous category may be yet recognized and adopted to a large extent. While an unambiguous category is excessively constraining, reveals clearer boundaries, and implies solid expectations about what a member will be, an ambiguous category is not particularly constraining, while allowing organizational members a margin of flexibility. Evaluations-wise, as part of an organization's identity is derived from its category affiliation, member organizations are not able to establish a clear and focused categorical identity in case of raising ambiguous category labels. The appeal of their offerings to audience is doomed, in this case, to regress [START_REF] Ruef | Credit and classification: Defining industry boundaries in 19th century America[END_REF][START_REF] Kovács | The Consequences of category spanning depend on contrast[END_REF].

Discursive approach of categorization strategies, narration & sensemaking

The narrative model constitutes a facet of implementing the discursive approach of strategic practice [START_REF] Seidl | Stratégie comme pratique : Recentrage de la recherche en management stratégique[END_REF]. Viewing strategy as narration implies adopting a narrative frame of reference, applying a narrative perspective and studying the history of organizations [START_REF] Giroux | L'analyse narrative de la stratégie[END_REF]. Having presented a definition that brings narration closer to strategy, this author specifies that: «[…] Narration suggests a meaning (an orientation and a direction). It promotes the emergence, transformation and maintenance of the identity of the actors involved in history. It can be a means of dissemination, of mobilization. It is also a linguistic process of interpretation, of reappropriation of the official narrative program by those who will have to make it effective [...]».

Having addressed unknown or unpredictable crisis and disaster phenomena, [START_REF] Weick | Sensemaking in Organizations (Foundations for organizational science series)[END_REF] identified various concepts while explaining the creation of meaning by individuals referring to these particular contexts. Without being conclusive in his definitions of ambiguity, equivocality, and uncertainty, his focus concentrated on the implications of the differences in meaning for sensemaking : «Ambiguity understood as confusion created by multiple meanings calls for social construction and invention. Ambiguity understood as ignorance created by insufficient information calls for more careful scanning and discovery» (Weick, 1995, p. 95). In other words, it is not what engenders sensemaking that is focal, but rather the genre of sensemaking such situations evoke.

In a strategic categorization perspective, observers resort to categories in an attempt to make sense of the organizational world [START_REF] Pontikes | Two Sides of the same Coin: How ambiguous classification affects multiple audiences' evaluations[END_REF]. Having addressed phases in market development, [START_REF] Navis | How new market categories emerge: Temporal dynamics of legitimacy, identity, and entrepreneurship in satellite radio, 1990-2005[END_REF] revealed that a considerable part of dynamism afferent to meaning and/or boundary shared set-up happens at a time when market categories are emerging. While extant literature does not address situations where distinct audiences would have contradicting reactions (meanings) to the same categorical claims, theories of categorization [START_REF] Zuckerman | The Categorical Imperative : Securities analysts and the illegitimacy discount[END_REF][START_REF] Hannan | Logics of organization theory: Audiences, codes and ecologies[END_REF] underline the significance of establishing an adequate correspondence assembling audience and a certain set of categories. Implementation of category codes may be explicitly reinforced anyway through the intervention of Critics keen to rate and classify organizational members, or gatekeepers executing a constant actualization of consideration obligations [START_REF] Pontikes | Two Sides of the same Coin: How ambiguous classification affects multiple audiences' evaluations[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Cornelissen | Putting communication front and center in institutional theory and analysis[END_REF], categorization can be generally considered to be a social process of communication through which institutional foundations and value systems distinguishing a specific market category are sustained, reshaped or even crumbled. Selected labels are assigned to organizations and/or products by resorting to particular supportive vocabulary terms in actions of communication [START_REF] Loewenstein | Vocabularies and vocabulary structure: A new approach linking categories, practices, and institutions[END_REF][START_REF] Granqvist | Hedging your bets : Explaining executives' market labeling strategies in nanotechnology[END_REF]. In an attempt to signal their category membership, claimants may besides exploit linguistic frames that can express claimant's gradient of membership via qualifying terms. For [START_REF] Mervis | Categorization of natural objects[END_REF], adjectives such as «true», or adverbs such as «technically» are able to establish a differentiation among members of a particular category.

While discourse and communication are extremely linked, strategic discourse is currently gaining exponential importance in management sciences, but as [START_REF] Chauzal | L'analyse du discours des dirigeants : le cas de l'alliance stratégique[END_REF] indicates, the upcoming phase which consists in attempting to provide managers with means to enhance both the content and the form of their discourse has not yet been a research object. [START_REF] Vaara | La stratégie comme discours : Esquisse d'un cadre conceptuel[END_REF] also points out that there are few empirical analyzes that apply a narrative perspective on strategy. Such emerging research dimension turns out to be of utmost significance given that strategic discourse remains a part of ideology [START_REF] Jacquot | Les stratégies de coopération : aspects idéo-logiques et conséquences sur la valeur actionnariale[END_REF], which is a fundamental logic of strategic thinking emphasizing mental, cognitive and language processes.

Sciences of language & theories of enunciation

Classically overwhelmed by an historicist standpoint, the paradigm of «General Linguistics» witnessed a profound upheaval in the late 1800s when it transformed into an independent discipline and granted the credentials of object of study to language [START_REF] Saussure | Cours de linguistique générale[END_REF]. Echoing with the concept of structure, language is effectively recognized like an object of particular knowledge and study that is addressed namely through its formation as kind of a system, that detains its specific conditions which dictate the operation of language. This understanding is in keeping with the notion that structure is an organizing principle.

As per a such Saussurean approach, by identifying the linguistic sign as just a core elementary unit, the conception of language as a system equally envisages its characterization as a value: its potential of exchange (evocation of one element for another) would enable to denote a linguistic reality that is, contrarily, unfamiliar to it. According to [START_REF] Ducrot | Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences du langage (coll. Points/Essais)[END_REF], such reality effectively isn't meaning, yet it is practically attained via the meaning. «The meaning, we will claim tautologically, does not emerge beyond its relationship with the signifierneither before, nor after, nor elsewhere; the same sign generates the signifier and the signified, notions which cannot be envisioned in separation» says Saussure (Ducrot and Todorov, 1979, p. 102). That it is to say that the sign also conveys its constituting instances.

Despite the possible dissociation of language from its realization in speech/discourse, a similar epistemological standpoint relies on the presumption of a prominence regarding the object of study. Nevertheless, in spite the fact that this perspective is predicated on the definition of the objects of study with regard to one another (and of them relatively to the systemic whole), the phenomenon of language in all of its contextual variations related to the sequence of the event (i.e., launching a new product for instance) is (still) not taken into account. On the other hand, language and social dimension continue to be interrelated in a such discursive optic. In fact, words (or linguistic signs) remain indispensable to the process of enunciation characterizing intersubjective relationships, while embodying the particular function which [START_REF] Saussure | Cours de linguistique générale[END_REF] attributes to language, i.e. communicating.

In an attempt to examine the role and value of language in the (discursive) formation of identities, the current research abides by Émile Benveniste's conception of enunciation. [START_REF] Benveniste | Problèmes de linguistique générale[END_REF] initiates an ideology about the formation of subjectivity in language by operationalizing language via an individual act of use. Such standpoint was relatively supported by [START_REF] Anscombre | L'argumentation dans la langue[END_REF], considering enunciation as «the language activity performed by the one who speaks, at the moment and in the place where he speaks» (op. cit., p. 18). As the speaking subject is henceforth inscribed in the language system, establishing a relation of actorality anchored in spatial-temporal dimensions is then possible by adopting [START_REF] Benveniste | Problèmes de linguistique générale[END_REF] conceptions of enunciation.

Given his concern with characterizing and interpreting the means through which the subject can incorporate the formal apparatus of the language to affirm his standpoint, [START_REF] Benveniste | Problèmes de linguistique générale[END_REF] confers an advantaged function to the speaking subject in the dynamics of enunciation. In comparison, time/space referentialization processes can be ascertained when the process investigation considers the particular situation of utterance as a starting landmark. Besides, the Benvenistian approach paves the way for a paradigm by positioning the subject-other relationship in the origin of the enunciative process.

In his elucidation of what he refers to as «some contradictions in linguistics», within a critical interpretation of structuralist studies, [START_REF] Culioli | Sur quelques contradictions en linguistique[END_REF] deliberates that given the particular conditions of enunciation, it must be acknowledged as being an intersubjective arrangement. Given the substantial interaction of the speaker-addressee pair, in the light of a specific context and a common knowledge, it is then relevant to speak in a co-enunciation, in terms of construction of meaning in the texts. In this paradigm, the author insists that «language is a system» and yet «it is an open system» (op. cit., p. 87).

Enunciation's contents can be comprehended throughout the materiality generated by the utterance (the latter being implanted in the enunciation itself), while taking into view these critical elements of the enunciative process (actant, time, and location). [START_REF] Benveniste | Problèmes de linguistique générale[END_REF] suggests that accessory procedures, most significantly lexical choices, can be mobilized as techniques to tackle speaker's (and addressee) inscription in the discursive materiality. The speaker's lexical choices can also be seen to enable an evaluative meaning in what they are saying. Even more concretely, they are indicators of truths that have been ideologically produced as they designate one specific discursive formation, rather than another. In this regard, it is possible to assert that the power of what is said becomes explicitly manifest, first and foremost, in light of what is not. Being essential for the research into the impacts of meaning from the point of view of discourse analysis, this ascertainment will be expanded further in the following subtitle, while highlighting ambiguity which may affect such lexical choices.

However, an optic of enunciation relying exclusively on the materialities of the process (by a thorough examination of the references used, notably lexical choices) may indicate a risk of deploying a perspective whose procedure, in a formalist measure, separates the analysis from the event's bias. Besides, a similar approach would overlook one of the core characteristics of discursive enunciation: that, relying on the self-other relationship (not just in terms of personality, but either in the conflict between identity and alterity within discourse processes), the apparent transparency of linguistic materiality, executed in the interest of a stabilizing impact, is actually of the order of opacity (according to Jacqueline Authier-Revuz, 1995, addressing meta-enunciation3 ).

Therefore, in order to tackle issues inherent to alterity of the materiality, the impact of transparency in regard to a constituent opacification, and the pivotal notion of heterogeneity (discourse that is basically formed in heterogeneity), it proves consistent to refer to the contributions of French-oriented Discourse Analysis as a theoretical angle highlighting approaches concerning the studies of language activities. These proposals would allow for the analysis of coherent processes of meanings construction in the language, not only from the standpoint of its functioning, but either from the angle of how the above-alluded issues/principles impact and form the subjects and utterances in new product / category identity communication.

Lexical ambiguity and its distinct types of linguistic manifestation

The lexicon of a language is mainly constituted of words which entirely form the vocabulary proprer to that particular language. Its elaboration is often characterized by the occurrence of several complex linguistic phenomena which can be even part of day-to-day use of the language.

In fact, the use of the same word to refer to diverse matters arise to be more frequent in languages than imaginable. A similar situation stimulates some phenomena able to impact individuals' degree of understanding.

In fact, particular linguistic phenomena of homonymy and polysemy have been identified as causes for lexical ambiguity [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF]. Ambiguity can be in words, expressions, phrases or even entire sentences. We assume that ambiguity is identified in case of disposing of a series of linguistic applications with diverse meanings. Occurences of homonymy and polysemy, in particular, are then suggested to be selected as focus of study of category ambiguity in a semantic multiplicity perspective, refferring to the existence of more than one sense (meaning) and/or use combined with a same phonological entity.

Lexical ambiguity constitutes one among a trilogy of ambiguity identified by [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF] in a linguistic perspective : phonetic, grammatical and lexical. While the first type is due to the phonetic structure of the sentence induced by homonym words, grammatical ambiguity can be a consequence to either the ambiguity of sentence structure or that of exploited grammatical forms (e.g. prefixes/suffixes). Lexical ambiguity remains yet a substantial source of ambiguity witnessed in a given language. Actually, this «polyvalence of words» [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF], takes shape though a duality of forms : polysemy and homonymy.

As definition, Taylor (2003, p. 103) advances that cases of polysemy arise when «[...] two or more related meanings are associated with the same linguistic form», and suggests as tangible example the lexical item «head» in English language, bearing the dual meanings «upper body» / «leader», which, inspite being oubviously divergent meanings, are connected through a metonymic association. On the other hand, [START_REF] Lyons | Introduction to theoretical linguistics[END_REF] states that the phenomenon of homonymy embodies the existence of different words with distinct meanings and origins presenting the same form of spelling or pronunciation.

Considering polysemy as a fundamental feature of human speech which can appear in multiple ways [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF], the author identified five explanatory sources of the occurrence of this phenomenon characterizing a given language : Application (or usage) changes (a given lexical item acquiring an increased number of meanings), specialization in a social environment (a word acquiring diverse / specific meanings in function of their field of action), figurative language (a word accumulating at least one figurative meaning in addition to its original meaning), reinterpreted homonyms (tendency to consider two words which sound identical with no significative difference in meaning as a single word possessing two meanings) and foreign influence (changing for a word its already existing meaning in a given linguistic system by «borrowing» that of a foreign word).

Furthermore, polysemy can nurture ambiguity in three distinct occasions [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF] : in contact associating languages, in scientific / technical exploitation, as well as in vulgar speech. In first situation, ambiguity is produced by the semantic borrowing from a foreign language leading to the polysemy of a certain word. In second case, the re-exploitation of initially strictly-identified terms activates new definitions of a same term leading it to develop multiple meanings. Besides, an ambiguous word in common usage, in case introduced in a scientific / technical environment, will also produce confusion and/or misunderstandings marking its usage. Also, in this latter situation, ambiguity occurs when a given word generates several meanings in a same contextual environment.

On the other hand, in spite of considering that homonymy is much less common and complex than polysemy, [START_REF] Ullmann | Semantics : An introduction to the science of meaning[END_REF] advances that its effects can be as serious as or even more striking in comparison to those of the phenomenon of polysemy. Three processes can give occurrence to homonymy : phonetic convergence (at least two lexical items coinciding in spoken and written language), semantic divergence (separation of two or more meanings of a same word to an extent that there is no obvious connection associating them) and foreign influence (adaptation of foreign words introduced into a language, to its proper phonetic system, while coinciding with its existing lexical items).

While taking place in individual's daily life as well as in business era, the phenomenon of lexical ambiguity can be tackled through various aspects of language. In an attempt to analyze, within the scope of an interdisciplinary research, the occurrence of homonymy and polysemy involving lexical ambiguity as characteristic of a natural language, traditional linguistic studies of some of the most renowned authors, namely [START_REF] Pottier | Les langues vivantes et le monde moderne[END_REF], Baldinger (1970), [START_REF] Lyons | Structural semantics : an analysis of part of the vocabulary of Plato[END_REF][START_REF] Lyons | Semantics[END_REF], [START_REF] Piattelli-Palmarini | Language and learning: The debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky[END_REF], [START_REF] Chomsky | Language and problems of knowledge : The Managua lectures (Current studies in linguistics series)[END_REF], [START_REF] Tuggy | Ambiguity, polysemy, and vagueness[END_REF], De [START_REF] Saussure | Cours de linguistique générale[END_REF] and [START_REF] Huang | Spoken language processing: A guide to theory, algorithm and system development[END_REF] are to be adressed for an in-depth overview.

Discourse analysis

A reluctance to analyze the role of language and even the materialization of a subject (via the lens of uniqueness, of homogeneity) has led the theoretical underpinning of discourse analysis since the very beginning (Pêcheux, in [START_REF] Helsloot | La contribution de Michel Pêcheux à l'analyse de discours[END_REF]. Nonetheless, Michel Pêcheux's works, which reflect a concern to abstracting the discourse from the fabric of language, but either from the fabric of social relations, begin to highlight the discourse relationship to the context, as well as to the production situation [START_REF] Helsloot | La contribution de Michel Pêcheux à l'analyse de discours[END_REF].

By redefining the [START_REF] Foucault | L'archéologie du savoir (coll[END_REF] concept of «discursive formation», Pêcheux advances the reflection that every social grouping is dominated by constructs which reinforce ideological stances. Therefore, discursive formations would justify ideological formations by constraining «what can and should be said [...], from a given position in a certain conjuncture» (Haroche, Henry and Pêcheux, 1971, p. 102), as previously stated. Consequently, the discursive formation would be the setting where the utterances would be recaptured and rearticulated in an ongoing quest for the closing of their limits in order to maintain an identity.

Within this framework, language emerges as the vehicle of ideology4 that functions in the aim of providing proof, as if the communicational process that ensures the interaction among subjects was of the order of transparency (and not the result of social tensions). On the other hand, and as was mentioned earlier, general linguistics [START_REF] Saussure | Cours de linguistique générale[END_REF], by mobilizing the concept of system, supplies the foundation from which it is feasible to conceive language as an order of its own. This responsiveness is one of the factors that discourse studies consider when analyzing the (linguistic) sign according to the characteristic of non-transparency. For [START_REF] Orlandi | Análise de discurso: princípios e procedimentos[END_REF], this latter notion receives more backing given the presumption that structural linguistics treats its object abstractly, i.e. beyond the space of realization.

Such flexibility in conceiving discursive formation (Pêcheux, in Helsloot and Hak, 2000) to embrace the inevitable existence of the other as a constituent element of the discursive identity itself gives the theory credence, in view of approaches that consider the inclusion of the discursive exteriority. Positions upholding the primary significance of inter-discourse derive from this principle. Considering the other as a key requirement for the formation and validity of discursive practice, a similar epistemological evolution renders the discipline of linguistic studies particularly rich, by enabling the opportunity to integrate Mikhail Bakhtin's conceptions regarding dialogism and polyphony 5 . Henceforth, the structuring of discourses would not be subjugated to a monovocalizer's filter. The creation of this formation would rather require the integration of intertwining voices as basis.

The conceptualization of discursive formation is inextricably associated with the questions that have just been presented. A conclusive exclusion of the notion of language transparency may imply that words would have altered their respective meanings in alignment to the positions of subjects using them (while these positions derive from ideological formations). As a result, the discursive formation emerges as a principle of stabilizations (thus «what can and should be said in a particular conjuncture»). The words themselves would be meaningless : according to [START_REF] Foucault | L'ordre du discours[END_REF], meaning would derive from the discursive formations in which the subjects and discourses that constitute (them) are inscribed.

Being basically heterogeneous, the analyst can discern the regularities that grant the discourse a principle of identity by examining the discursive formations. Consequently, [START_REF] Archad | Formation discursive, dialogisme et sociologie[END_REF] considers that discursive formations would be instrumental in leveraging social space structuring 5 Polyphony is produced as a result of the several distinct vocalizations which cut across the discursive manifestation (as it is considered to be the materialization of conflictual forces in society, as per Bakhtine's viewpoint). Consequently, polyphony is connected to the level of the utterance. Dialogism, to the contrary, according to [START_REF] Brandao | Introdução à análise do discurso[END_REF] consists of a two-step process: the first step focuses on the relationship associating a discourse to its constitutive exterior, besides the relationship of that discourse to other discourses (which, in a broader sense, is synonymous with the concept of interdiscursivity). The second step relies on the anticipated relationship with the addressee's speech/discourse. through discursive differentiations. Despite the attempts of homogenization, the limits are not fixed yet : the discursive formations are (re-)configured within the reciprocal relations occurring throughout the process of language functioning, as per the principle of interdiscursivity.

Furthermore, from a historical materialism perspective, language for discourse analysis can only be shaped in accordance with conformations generated by a symbolic, institutional process, and this requires it to be embedded in history. In fact, the existence of a prior, pre-established knowledge enables to conceptualize what Brandao (2010) calls a «discursive memory». Although this articulation is not structured at a tangible or conscious levels on occasion of expression, it forms a series of affiliations, of «already said» that are recalled.

Thus, the meanings are not evidently apparent but must be recalled in each formation.

Determinations of discursive memory induce a historicization of language. In fact, each speech act practically implies an interpretive activity regarding the establishment of materialities while considering linguistic forms unique to each utterance besides (non-) linguistic contextual / cotextual associations. Despite this, the meaning emerges as an already existing evidence (and unity).

As previously stated, such meaning effects are heavily formed in the absence of a subject's consciousness, as being influenced, in a perspective of discourse analysis, by the real of language and history. In view of the formulations that have already been circulating and which are incorporated in the saying, the articulations of memory turn every discourse to be effectively an inter-discourse. As a result, only a part of the saying is accessible to the subjects: even what wasn't said takes on meaning in its words [START_REF] Orlandi | Análise de discurso: princípios e procedimentos[END_REF]. The determinations of discursive memory intervene in a duality of complementary scopes : the institutionalized, relating to discourses having an archive role and constantly emphasizing the positions of social institutions, and the constitutive, which refers to inter-discourse.

When specifically viewed through the lens of the notion of the constitutive effect of memory, the extent to which transparency presents a challenge for discourse analysis becomes conceivable.

This illusion becomes viable only in the order of the remittances of a word, a discourse, to certain discursive formations. This is the process that enables the designation of a thing in a word, treating the two as though they were two separate orders that adhere to one another. To the contrary, ideology, in alignment with the principle of stabilizing discourses, leads words and things to «stick» to one another.

Such process is yet placed into perspective in view of a twofold forgetting-operation, as stated by Pêcheux (1975). On the one hand, this elimination heavily concerns the ideological schemes, in accordance with discourse analysis in its linkage to activities of the unconscious [START_REF] Orlandi | Análise de discurso: princípios e procedimentos[END_REF].

This gives rise to illusions about the origin of the subject in connection to the discursive materials that s/he provides, as if these discursive elements were not dictated by the manner in which the subjects themselves, under effect of linguistic and historical features, express specific positions.

On the other hand, that literature points to a «localized forgetting» characterized by an enunciative aspect. Semi-conscious, it operates at the level of the illusion of referentiality rooted in discourses,

as if what is being said could, in fact, only be stated in a specific manner. Nonetheless, languages, when viewed through the lens of meaning construction, are absolutely metaphorical (understood, here, the sense of the metaphor as a transfer). In other words, it is impossible to speak of literality, even in light of inter-discourse, but rather of a game of deviations, refractions, and considering one word for another. According to [START_REF] Orlandi | Análise de discurso: princípios e procedimentos[END_REF], the use of a particular syntactic form tells about what it means, through the way of expressing it.

In turn, discourse analysis devices seek to identify these relationships, while illuminating, in light of the impacts of referentiality and transparency, the strategic options that were mobilized. In this view, it is a question of recognizing within the text (considered an object of symbolic aspect) leading strands that have been interlocked by the discourse for the sake of a «will to truth», as advanced by [START_REF] Foucault | L'ordre du discours[END_REF]. Perceived as a constructed unit, a text's assembled whole reflects coherence and even some degree of consistency. By putting its structure under analysis, it expresses hidden evidence of the existence of non-coincidence, of dispersiveness (in the sense of non-permanence) and of constant submission to its exterior.

For the purpose of this research, the questions that address the advent of an alterity in the discourse, embodied by the diverse occurrences of heterogeneity, remain fundamental clues in an attempt to analyze how the «wills to truth», the demarcations of «suitable» and «unsuitable» relatively to the prevalent ideological stances characterizing local society, and the evaluative articulations (in terms of meaning effects), are practically operationalized to establish new product / category's discursive identity in producers and consumers narratives.

METHODOLOGY

At the initial phase of establishing the theoretical framework, was pondered the risk that the articulation of lines of thought could eventually lead, as epistemological constructs, to disparate (or even irreconcilable) approaches with each other. Consequently, we aimed at identifying, at the very moment where reference was made to these studies, the points of convergence / divergence, of intersection and surpassing, of the diverse theoretical positions that were highlighted above, while keeping in mind the overall scope of the present introduction to methodology. Besides, the objective was to demonstrate the corresponding postulations that ended up being pertinent to the study.

Given the nature of the questions which were advanced since the start of the paper, the recurrence of these theories enabled the elaboration of a fluid space, where basically dialogic problematizations6 could be addressed in view of non-transparency, of the undeniable pluriform nature. In terms of a «corpus» approach, it remains yet of common knowledge, that the endeavor would not be feasible unless one constantly kept in mind the perspective of a cut-out, or even of a partial analysis. While realizing that exhaustivity is not reachable, what remained was the assumption of not going beyond the limits associated with the main research questions.

To launch our investigation into how the discourses in question construct new product / category identities on the basis of particular truthful positions, we will consider linguistic surfaces as a starting point. These surfaces are condensed in accordance with constructions that pursue the 21 project of transparency and totality of the saying. After decomposing these structures, we reach the discursive objects, which are held up by the discursive formations which point to them. These objects are either reinforced in the imaginary places that are held by the subjects and by the discourses themselves. The subsequent phase will consist of tackling not only the object, but also the discursive process. In fact, will be highlighted the effects of language on ideology and the ways in which it is reflected in language in an endorsement of tense power rapports that drive relations in a social (market) setting. This will be executed in a continuous self-remittance among all these stages.

Therefore, the remittance associating (linguistic) structure and event (i.e., launching a new product in case of this research) presents a perspective to enunciative phenomena (which convey the constitution of subjectivity in language), whose parameter is effectively its realization as a discursive practice (Pêcheux, 2006). In other words, it is an occasion to address heterogeneity as a basic principle of the process, by remitting the discourse to the reverse-side. Consequently, it will be possible to comprehend the roles that the examined materialities (including «ambiguous» lexical choices) play in the configuration of meaning.

Drawing inspiration from an aphorism advanced by [START_REF] Maingueneau | Genèses du discours (coll. philosophie et langage)[END_REF], stating that «one does not engage in polemics except with oneself», while considering polemics to be «only one way among many to detach oneself, in an imaginary way, from the alterity that determines the discursive subject», this research is to be launched from a landmark of heterogeneity. If assuming a subjective position prior to begin communicating remains a condition that is absolutely necessary for conversation with others to take place, it is in the entwining of voices, knowledge, and memories that this «place» can be identified.

By selecting a material (corpus) of narratives concerning a (single / multiple) case(s) of new product(s) launching on market, the operationalization of the theoretical concepts that have been previously provided to the observation of objects, will allow an opportunity to identify similarities and differences among the involved parties (producers, consumers, etc.) and the different discourses that they convey for identity construction. In point of fact, it is going to be necessary to give an overall interpretation in order to engage in thoughts regarding the provisions of truth that are generated through these discursive formations.

CONCLUSION

This paper presented a research proposal aiming at expanding current comprehension regarding the occurrence (and persistence) of ambiguity at market category level. By concisely reporting about key findings in literature concerning categorization, sensemaking and lexical ambiguity, the interest and originality of mobilizing a linguistic approach in an attempt to explain situations of category ambiguity were justified. In fact, if categorization remains anchored in an environing institutional context where meaning is collectively conceived and shared [START_REF] Vergne | Categorizing categorization research : Review, integration, and future directions[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Protecting market identity: When and how do organizations respond to consumers' devaluations?[END_REF], numerous aspects of linguistic order able to affect this process imply answerless questions. Such urgence of additional research is just amplified in case where category ambiguity is compounded to NPD and new market emergence.

In the light of discursive constructions arisen from a wide range of narrative manifestations, this article addresses a number of problematizations inherent to the theoretical-methodological approach mobilized at consecutive stages of research trajectory. In fact, the research aims to analyze how a new product's discourses are constructed as they appear in narratives released by instances including (but not limited to) producers and consumers. More specifically, the focus will be particularly placed on how these narratives are structured as linguistic constructions, while determining the extent to which the force of what wasn't expressed denounces an absolute signification. In other words, it is under the effect of linguistic phenomena / choices causing lexical ambiguity that discursive materialization of concepts and facts inherent to a new product may turn to become paradoxical, affecting then their categorization.

While admitting discourse heterogeneous specificity and realizing the impossibility of univocal meanings (and answers), analyzing such enunciative instances' strategies mobilized in establishing a new product's identity gains significance and takes shape. Therefore, while intending to deduce how these narratives carry certain meaning effects relying on a will to truth (as pointed to by Michel Foucault, 2001), the mobilization of a theoretical perspective connected to the sciences of language, enunciation and French discourse analysis remains crucial to uncover the opposition which may dissociate that will to truth and such articulations of the new product's identity which organizes the market (in terms of categorization).

Relying on the reported methodological trajectory, the questions as well as some relationships that were raised, are to be addressed in light of the mobilized theoretical foundation while considering particular case(s) of NPD. Consequently, a major outcome of the research consists of generating a description established on enunciative formulations of the procedures that grant producers and consumers' discourses the aspect of emerging immediately from reality. In a second phase, we would attempt to concretely deduce how these discourses (and maybe others) produce certain meaning effects relatively to a will to truth, as identified by [START_REF] Foucault | Dits et écrits : 1954-1975[END_REF]. In this view, it's also worth addressing particular linguistic manifestations generating lexical ambiguity, yet exploited by the enunciating instances to embody a presence in the texts / narratives (despite eventual erasure strategies). The enunciative instances' strategies applied in constructing new product / category's identity are then to be analyzed in light of an heterogeneous characteristic of discourse.

Research limits

The study began with the introduction of formulations related to [START_REF] Saussure | Cours de linguistique générale[END_REF] General Linguistics. By granting language a systemic characterization, he asserts autonomy for the linguistic sign's synchronous approach, related to its internal rules of operation. Besides, have been made explicit studies by Oswald [START_REF] Anscombre | L'argumentation dans la langue[END_REF], who considers a polyphonic perspective to enunciation, and Jacqueline Authier-Revuz (1995), who, in assuming a comprehensive approach on heterogeneities, dialogues with the classical perspective of enunciative theories. Moreover, have been addressed some of discourse analysis' most significant achievements, in a continuous self-referentialization associating (linguistic) structure and event (Pêcheux, 2006).

In this continuity, several of the preliminary formulations inherent to the so-called language sciences are yet recommended as viable beginning points. Thus, it would be of significant value to shed a light over the accomplishments made by structural anthropology (via the concept of symbolic order, which is derived from the studies of [START_REF] Mauss | Sociologie et anthropologie (coll. Quadrige)[END_REF], as well as [START_REF] Lacan | Écrits[END_REF]) -Freudian (1930)'s psychoanalysis (by tackling respectively the concept of unconscious, besides that of a subject which is structured in accordance with a complicated topology).

Future research suggestions

In extension to [START_REF] Weick | Sensemaking in Organizations (Foundations for organizational science series)[END_REF]'s approach on meaning construction, [START_REF] Kennedy | Behind the one-way mirror: Refraction in the construction of product market categories[END_REF][START_REF] Kennedy | Getting counted: Market, media and reality[END_REF] points to the role assumed by media, through news stories and media coverage, in defining a new market, i.e. in enabling market sensemaking. On one hand, [START_REF] Kennedy | Behind the one-way mirror: Refraction in the construction of product market categories[END_REF] considers that organizations adopt media's vision in order to identify their incumbent competitive environment and anticipate actions of their rivals. On the other hand, [START_REF] Rosa | Sociocognitive dynamics in a product market[END_REF] confirm that audiences rely on media coverage to screen available information in order to evaluate product similarity and realize the meaning of an emerging market category. In other words, as specified by [START_REF] Kennedy | Getting counted: Market, media and reality[END_REF], media's adoption of new category label in a nascent market will lead audience to earn a common interpretation of its meaning. Future research has consequently all interest in shedding the light over the effect of lexical ambiguity in media communication on the persistence of category ambiguity.

In other words, in addition to interpreting how producers / consumers narratives about such identities would be articulated from the angle of their fit within a comprehensive linguistic / symbolic framework, it is still crucial to examine these narratives into an additional complementary order related to a particular social institution, represented unexclusively by the media, for instance. It could thus be possible to estimate the extent of (in)-consistency / (dis)continuity arising amongst discourses which may not necessarily be homogenous (or even harmonic) when it is an occasion of identifying a same new product and/or category. At this stage, skepticism regarding the possibility of attaining an absolute truth (as according to [START_REF] Foucault | Dits et écrits : 1954-1975[END_REF], or even a univocal meaning, may cause a significant shift to be imposed in the genesis of our questionings. At a similar juncture, this advanced emphasis would direct our attention to the question of «How do you wish to tell?» instead of «What does that mean?».

Furthermore, after analyzing each of the subjects' narratives constituting a corpus, the research is expected to be elucidating how (and in which direction) the ideological configurations are operationalized to grant an aspect of truth to discourse. Nonetheless, the analyzed materials may include distinct narratives, not only in terms of enunciation sources but either in enunciation time.

In light of the theoretical instrumental of enunciation and discourse analysis, it would be pertinent to evaluate, whether the inherent specificities to each of the narratives and/or the chronological displacement may induce a sort of reconfiguration to the referred new product / category's identity.

In fact, significant changes concerning the lexical choices in which observed instances themselves anchor their beliefs and judgments about such identity, may be detected. On the other hand, considering that communication vehicles represent instituted spaces for symbolic exchanges, it would be appropriate to shed the light over the evolution of their interaction towards such «truth wills».

Goal-based and causal-based theories were advanced by[START_REF] Durand | Category stretching : Reorienting research on categories in strategy, entrepreneurship, and organization theory[END_REF] and[START_REF] Durand | Advancing research on categories for institutional approaches of organizations[END_REF] as other varieties of externally driven categorization process. However, being divergent from an ambiguity-alleviation perspective, these theories will not be adopted in this paper.

The authors advanced also «category creation», a concept they define as a situation where a new category consists in «redesigning cognitive boundaries around a subset of elements within a preexisting category system», giving the example of functional food, a category created from within food industry.

For her, meta-enunciation is a process where, simultaneously to its occurring, the utterance analyzes itself, makes auto-corrections, and anticipates flaws in its interpretation, in order to reconfirm the accord with the instance of coenunciation.

In a similar way, discourse analysis consists of tackling articulations associating language, discourse and ideology.

As they regarded symbolic, and thus, human productions.


Jean-Michaël Celerier

Rage Against The Glue: Beyond Run-Time Media Frameworks with Modern C++

We identify a set of issues with the current abstraction systems for media objects and introduce a methodology to solve these issues, associated with a sample implementation in the Avendish library. This methodology is based on the limited reflection features available in recent C++ versions, unlike the existing systems which are overwhelmingly based on class-based inheritance or other run-time affordances of the language. We propose using a simple subset of the C++ object model to define media processor's metadata and interface declaratively: this subset can be reflected in order to generate the binding code to various plug-in interfaces such as VST, the Max or Python API, and automatically generate UI code or OSC APIs at compile-time.

Unlike existing systems and frameworks, our proposed method has the advantage of being non-intrusive. The media processors do not need to inherit from existing base classes or be part of a framework: they can be written without even having to include any specific header.

INTRODUCTION

We aim to devise the most adequate abstraction for defining and implementing media processors (MP) in C++: realtime or offline audio effects and instruments, message-based objects for use in patching systems such as Max/MSP and PureData or in object-oriented programming languages such as Python, visual processing objects for machine-learning pipelines. Depending on the host environment (HE) or API used, those are called nodes, unit generators / ugens, objects, boxes, plug-ins... Using reflection to extract information from the implementation of a MP has multiple advantages over existing systems. First, the object implementation does not need to depend on an existing library. It is possible with this method to write an audio processor with controls, metadata such as ranges and names, which does not include any header or inherit from any class. The code only needs to implement the right types, in a structural sub-typing sense. This is future-proof: today, if an existing API is abandoned by its developers, algorithms written against this API have to migrate to another, as seen for the complicated VST2 to VST3 transition. In our case, the code does not depend on such an API ; the processor code never interacts directly with the binding code. It will be possible a posteriori to write a binding to newer APIs without requiring any code change. Second, there is no run-time cost: the binding process can be done entirely at compile-time unlike existing solutions such as Juce [START_REF] Robinson | Getting started with JUCE[END_REF]. Third, multiple implementation strategies can easily be tried. One could compare atomic variables for controls and message-passing through lock-free queues for the usual problem of communication between an audio processor and a user interface. This paper will cover the issues with existing binding systems for MPs, introduce the C++ features which enables defining and reflecting MPs in a declarative fashion, give an overview of the proposed way of writing MPs and introduce a few additional possibilities of this system.

Open issues in media processor APIs

We cover succinctly in this section various undesirable properties of the current APIs and systems for implementing MPs in C++.

The quadratic glue problem

This is also known as the M × N problem [START_REF] Loukides | Thinking About Glue[END_REF]. In the field of intermedia creation, it manifests itself as M MPs (distortion, chorus, OSC message sender, pitch detection, MIDI arpeggiator…) and N HEs (Max/MSP, PureData, ossia score [START_REF] Celerier | OSSIA: Towards a Unified Interface for Scoring Time and Interaction[END_REF], vvvv, OpenFrameworks, Python, Unity3D, Unreal Engine, Essentia, VAMP, PiPo, digital audio workstations (DAWs)…). It is meaningful for almost every such algorithm to be present in almost every such environment. This requires writing M × N glue code between the MP algorithms and the HE data structures.

Abstractions exist to allow MPs to support multiple environments. Writing against the VST API enables an audio algorithm to work in many DAWs. Writing against the wellknown Juce API allows code to be abstracted over multiple DAW APIs (VST, AAX, LV2, etc.), but there are two costs to this: the runtime performance cost due to going through run-time abstractions and parameter systems, and the limited expressive power: parameters must conform to the API defined by Juce, which is biased towards audio processors. Juce does not allow the creation of a Max object that processes messages or a Python class with multiple methods for instance. Other meta-plugin-APIs, such as iPlug2 [START_REF] Larkin | iPlug 2: Desktop Plug-in Framework Meets Web Audio Modules[END_REF] and DPF 1 , behave similarly.

Example of the problem

Consider the task of declaring a user-facing control for a MP: the cut-off frequency of a low-pass filter. Examples taken from various extensible software environments are shown in Table 1: most of them additionally require to inherit from some base class.

In all these examples, the low-pass code can be implemented with a similar expression once the parameters' values have been retrieved from the parameter system. Yet, it is necessary to write as many low-pass implementations as there are environments. In addition, APIs which abstract over HEs, such as iPlug2, Jamoma, and Juce, may store some meta-data at run-time even for APIs which would be unable to leverage them, which wastes memory. This causes frameworkization: a MP author must ask "Am I writing against JUCE, iPlug2, DPF, VST3 directly ?". Likewise, a MP implemented in Bespoke, cannot be trivially ported to VCVRack even when a large amount of algorithms is theoretically portable to both.

Other approaches rely on custom pre-processors using C++ comments as in RATL [START_REF] Macmillan | A System to Port Unit Generators Between Audio DSP Systems[END_REF] or generation of MPs defined in another language, such as in UGG [START_REF] Roger B Dannenberg | UGG: a Unit Generator Generator[END_REF]. In the first case, the approach lacks the static checking opportunities offered by the C++ type system, and require the meta-processor to be able to parse enough C++ to understand the comments2 . In the second case, the interoperability with separate libraries is harder, as the generator only supports a predefined set of operations ; mainly arithmetic on numbers. In contrast, the proposed approach only depends on native C++ constructs: everything is done through language features, no separate system is involved.

Parameter addressing and safety

The existing abstractions generally do not offer convincing safety mechanisms, or coerce everything into the lowest common denominator, such as single or double-precision floating-point value. This is caused by run-time parameter abstractions, evidenced in Table 1: when retrieving the value of a parameter, it is not possible to simply access a value of the correct type, which is hidden by the abstraction. Instead, the developer of the MP has to query the parameter system for this value. This querying mechanism can be done in various ways:

• Index-based queries: PureData, Max/MSP, VST2.

Error-prone: the developer has to remember to which numeric index a parameter is assigned and either switch on it or go fetch it in an array. Adding a new parameter at the beginning may require the developer to recompute all the indices in the MP codebase.

• String-based queries: getParameter("freq"). Used in Essentia. Error-prone: since string content is not part of the type-system, the compiler cannot warn that "Freq" has been used instead of "freq" which leads to hard-to-debug issues.

• Enum-based queries: a layer of safety above indices, which are replaced by enumerations which can be named: enum Param { kCutoff, kGain }. Used in VCVRack, iPlug2 for instance.

A better technique, found in Bespoke, is to separate the parameter abstraction and its value, by passing a pointer to the value to the parameter abstraction, which will be tasked of querying and updating it. This way, the processing code can directly use the parameter variable without going through the abstraction layer required by the metadata system.

Cache optimality, abstraction cost

Another issue directly related to this parameter metadata system, is the locality of the storage of parameters. In systems such as Juce, the parameter values are stored within objects, which can be dynamically allocated: in terms of memory layout, the controls may be far apart in memory. This means that instead of needing to fetch one cache line if eight parameters were laid out contiguously, the CPU may have to perform eight different memory fetches, assuming a 64-byte cache line and a MP with eight double-precision parameters. This can have a performance impact especially at smaller buffer sizes where the parameters may have to be fetched again at a high frequency.

Additionally, all the present abstractions' overhead is per instance, even when the metadata of each parameter is known to be constant across all instances of a given MP. That is, when loading a bank of 64 filters, the description of the filter's parameters will be duplicated at least 64 times in memory. A better system ought to store a single copy of the metadata for the whole program, and not per MP instance, to facilitate large-scale systems with thousands of objects.

Finally, these systems are less amenable to compiler optimizations, due to the indirection barrier between parameters.

In the cases where one would perform a compile-time combination of multiple MPs, such as building a synthesizer out of an oscillator, a filter, and an amplification stage, the compiler is less likely to be able to optimize computations across modules.

A note on other languages

We do not cover non-C++ systems and DSLs such as Faust [START_REF] Orlarey | Faust: an efficient functional approach to DSP programming[END_REF], SOUL 5 , Vult6 …. They are mainly concerned about defining DSPs. In contrast, using a general-purpose language allows a wider range of MPs to be designed: event-driven message processors, image processors, network communication systems, etc. The system should allow the user to implement a 2D image filter that would be useable in drawing software as well as in Max/MSP, without having to write glue code.

Staying in C++ enables the algorithm authors to benefit from the ecosystem of libraries and APIs. Most of the systems mentioned in Table 1 are implemented in C++, and most of the libraries for performing media-related processing or data communication offer a C or C++ API: interacting with hardware such as LeapMotion, Kinect, Wiimote, etc. Systems based on separate languages generally need a small layer of C or C++ glue to implement e.g. OSC communication: one cannot easily write OSC network code directly in a Faust, SOUL or Vult object as these language do not expose7 socket primitives. This implies the existence of bindings akin to Faust architecture files [START_REF] Fober | FAUST Architectures Design and OSC Support[END_REF]: in our case, as C++ code which reflects MPs.

System Code example: declaring a new parameter

Bespoke [START_REF] Gaster | Bespoke Anywhere[END_REF] new FloatSlider(this, "freq", 5, 4, 120, 15, &mFreq, 20, 2000) Essentia [START_REF] Bogdanov | Essentia: An audio analysis library for music information retrieval[END_REF] declareParameter("cutoff", "frequency [Hz]", "(0,inf)", 1500.) iPlug2 [START_REF] Larkin | iPlug 2: Desktop Plug-in Framework Meets Web Audio Modules[END_REF] GetParam(kFreq)->InitDouble("Freq", 0., 0., 100.0, 0.01, "Hz") PiPo [START_REF] Schnell | PiPo, A Plugin Interface for Afferent Data Stream Processing Modules[END_REF] PiPoScalarAttr<double> factor{this, "freq", "Frequency", false, 1.0} Jamoma [START_REF] Place | The Jamoma Audio Graph Layer[END_REF] addAttributeWithSetter(freq, kTypeFloat64) addAttributeProperty(freq, range, TTValue(2.0, sr*0.475)) addAttributeProperty(freq, description, TT("Cutoff")) Jamoma2

Parameter<double, Limit::None<double>, NativeUnit::Hz> frequency = { this, "frequency", 1000.0, ... }; Juce [START_REF] Robinson | Getting started with JUCE[END_REF] addParameter(freq = new juce::AudioParameterFloat("freq", "Freq", 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.5f)) LV2 [START_REF] Robillard | LV2 atoms: A data model for realtime audio plugins[END_REF] Declared in a Turtle file defining the processor metadata Max / PureData No parameter type, run-time mechanism generally based on switch/case VCVRack 3 configParam(FREQ_PARAM, -54.f, 54.f, 0.f, "Frequency", " Hz", ...) VST2 4 No parameter type, run-time mechanism based on queries from the host VST3 parameters.addParameter(new ScaledParameter ("Freq", "Hz", 0, 1000, ...))

Table 1: Declaring a frequency parameter with metadata such as minimum and maximum value, unit, textual description, etc. in various environments.

Our goals

We aim to provide a C++ methodology and system to alleviate the aforementioned issues:

• End the frameworkization: it should be possible to implement a MP solely through language primitives, without requiring specific types coming from a thirdparty library. This improves composability, optimizability, and compatibility: a MP which does not use any library but is implemented simply as a C++ struct with appropriately-named members is trivial to compile and run on even very small embedded targets (such as microcontrollers), uncommon targets (We-bAssembly, eBPF) or to port to a new host, unlike a MP written with Juce.

• Zero-cost design with a strict "do not pay for what you do not use" policy: unused metadata should be able to be entirely optimized-out by the compiler. The system should allow inter-procedural optimizations among MPs to the limit of what C++ compilers are able to perform. Binding to an existing plug-in API should have no run-time over-head over implementing a plug-in directly against this API in the most efficient way.

• Safe design where parameters are defined in a nonredundant, integrated way, without per-instance cost for the metadata: what we want is the processing code to be able to refer to simple C++ variables directly for accessing parameters, so that the C++ language can type-check them to reduce the opportunity for run-time errors especially when adding and removing parameters in MPs. These variables should at the same time carry the metadata (description, range, unit...), without having to duplicate them for each instance of the MP. We do not want in particular a system where one would have to repeat the declaration of a parameter or split it in multiple places (by defining for instance enumerations). We do not want to require the use macros either due to their notorious error-proneness.

• Extensible design: an HE with specific port types, such as geometry data for 3D software, should be able to add support for them.

AVENDISH: LIBRARY DESIGN PROCESS

The goals exposed in section 1.2 are mostly achievable thanks to various features added to the C++ programming language over its last evolutions. Even if the language does not support an explicit "reflection" feature as in Java, Python and others, we can combine enough existing features of the language to approximate reflection to a point which is enough for implementing MPs succeeding in these goals. An example implementation, which is able to target VST, VST3, Max/MSP, PureData, Python, create an OSC API and create a Qt GUI has been developed by the author and is available on GitHub8 under a free license. An important point of this implementation is that MPs can be written without having any explicit dependency on the library: technically, even existing code can be reinterpreted as being an Avendish-compatible MP, without requiring manual intervention. Since some tasks are verbose, a helper library nonetheless provides valid implementation of common use-cases. However, the author encourages organizations to develop their own helper libraries with the coding style and conventions they are most used to.

The C++ subset we are using

Note that by subset, we do not mean that users of the API are restricted from using parts of the C++ language for their implementation ; only that this work does not imply that every C++ construct is used. For instance, dynamic polymorphism through inheritance is not processed in any way as it does not add any meaningful information for what we wish to do. Most run-time environments do not even have a way to make use of it: a polymorphic VST control does not make sense.

The main restrictions are that reflected types must be aggregates in C++ parlance. Simply put, types which do not have explicit constructors, private or protected members, or virtual functions. Every struct example throughout this document is an aggregate. Templates cannot easily be mapped either as they exist at a level of abstraction above the object model we are working with ; one cannot reflect a template, only a particular instantiation of it.

Reflection features in modern C++

We present to the reader the features introduced in recent C++ standards which we are able to use to implement the MP bindings.

Reflection on struct members with Boost.PFR

The core technique making this project possible is implemented within the Boost.PFR9 library. It enables compiletime iteration of the members of an aggregate. The structure Controls below is an example of aggregate: Boost.PFR permits iteration and subsequent reflection of the members a , b, c in order. The implementation leverages destructuring, a C++17 feature.

struct Controls { std::string a; float b; int c; };

Querying existence of members

Thanks to C++20 concepts [15], it becomes possible to query the following information at compile-time: "Does the type T have a member variable named foo?". The has_a_foo () function will return a compile-time computed boolean value, true if it is passed as template argument a type with a member variable foo, false if not. requires yields a boolean: whether T satisfies the specified requirements: template<typename T> consteval bool has_a_foo() { return requires (T t) { t.foo; }; }

Querying metadata on members

It is possible to perform queries on the type of such variables, such as: "Does the type T have a member variable bar of type float?". This is done with concepts and requires-expressions:

template<typename T> consteval bool has_a_float_bar() { return requires (T t) { { t.bar } -> std::same_as<float>; }; }

Reacting to existence of members

It is possible to implement different behaviours depending on those cases, thanks to the if constexpr C++17 feature. Unlike if, the condition is guaranteed to be resolved at compile-time and thus bears no cost and does not exist at runtime ; for each template instantiation, either the condition will be true or not true ; each instantiation will only have one of the branches compiled in (or none at all).

template<typename T> void print_foo_or_bar() { if constexpr(has_a_foo<T>()) print("{}", t.foo); else if constexpr(has_a_float_bar<T>())

print("{}", t.bar); } This code compiles if T is an integer, a character array, or even the following type:

struct empty_type { };
The implication for our needs is that it becomes possible to reflect object properties at compile-time, without any run-time cost.

A wide API contract

It is possible to support various variants and coding styles for a given concept. This way both possibilities will be treated in an equally optimal way. Not all cases can be accounted for ; as evidenced in Table 1, it is impossible to get a community of our scale to agree on a single interface. Instead, we should consider making binding libraries which try to accept as many systems and ways of implementing MPs as possible, especially when extending those independent binding libraries is a task as simple as adding a branch to a compile-time if.

This approach accommodates both for future MP APIs when they will inevitably come up, and for various ways of designing the actual MPs, and do both these things without having to pay a run-time abstraction cost either in CPU usage or memory, simply through writing or extending independent binding code.

Application to our work

The outlined reflection mechanism allows the author of a binding to check at compile-time whether an object is, for instance:

• Something that will only process messages.

• Something that is a monophonic, per-sample audio processor (and thus can be duplicated to multiple channels), for instance because the structure has a member function of the form: float operator()(float input).

• Something that is a polyphonic audio processor, for instance because the structure has a member function of the form: void operator()(float** in, float** out, int frames), or adequate input / output ports.

• Something that is a video filter, because it has a texture input port and a texture output port.

Defining an ontology for ports is a work-in-progress for which the author believes a collaboration across the computer music community would be fruitful. During the library development process, many different shapes of ports were tried. Here, my_port is categorized as a polyphonic audio port, and another_port as a sample-based audio port.

struct {

struct { doubles** frames; float sample; int channels; } another_port; } my_port; Binding code will adapt these recognized forms to what HEs expect. One can write a per-sample audio processor: it is converted to a per-block VST plug-in automatically. The binding code will run for every frame and every channel of the input buffers. Conversely, a per-block definition can be mapped to a per-sample system such as VCVRack, simply by passing a sample count of 1 and allocating 1sized arrays as automatic storage (i.e. on the stack). This way, an algorithm can be expressed in the way that is the most natural for it, while retaining portability to all existing environments. A self-contained example of a simple distortion processor is available: https://github.com/celtera/avendish/ blob/main/examples/Raw/Minimal.hpp. Various other examples showcase the supported features.

The Avendish library is currently able to reflect on the following features of a class: • A preset system to declare built-in presets of input controls is available.

Defining controls

The idea is to make the control meta-data part of the type system. As shown earlier, most systems store the metadata relative to a parameter in the same object than the parameter itself which is bad for cache behaviour and memory use. That is, if our parameter is a float, we want:

sizeof(TypeOfParameter) == sizeof(float)
without a single wasted or repeated byte. Thus metadatas such as range, unit or descriptions, cannot just be stored as member variable. We are able to leverage our system to put this information as static methods instead: this means that the storage will be allocated not once per instance, but once for the whole program. Static data members are technically possible, but incur additional limitations: there cannot be a static variable in an unnamed class. Functions and methods however are "free" in a storage sense ; besides, it is possible to define structures inside methods which allows to simplify the code. A control, which combines static metadata and per-instance value, can be implemented with: struct { struct range { float min = -1, max = 1, init = 0.; }; float value; };

Simplifying controls

If we have many similar controls (some synthesizers can have thousands), we may want to simplify the way they are defined.

Before C++20 this could be done with macros which would expand to code such as in section 2.4, but those come with well-known issues. In C++20, we can instead make them part of the type system: In all the above cases, we can easily create new control types, with the range metadata embedded in the type itself. This enables performing static, compile-time checks on the control ranges.

APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Thread-safety

MP communication between e.g. processing and GUI threads can be made automatically thread-safe, for instance through atomic variables 10 and lock-free queues. Given a struct, one can synthesize a tuple of equivalent atomic variables at compile-time. This is implemented for the VST2 binding: struct inputs { struct { float value; } control1; struct { int value; } control2; }; using controls = to_atomics<inputs>; // controls will be this type: // tuple<atomic<float>, atomic<int>>;

Large-scale replication of processes with structure-of-arrays transformation

A programming technique originating in video game development consists in laying out each individual data member of a large set of entities (filters, synthesizer voices, etc.) contiguously. This has the benefit of adapting to modern SIMD CPUs, which are able to process up to 16 floating point values with a single instruction. The reflection abilities described here allow to generate such arrays from the structures defined. This enables synthesizers with a high level of parallelism across voices, large filter banks, etc.

Amenability of such processes to automatic compiler optimizations

MPs defined as such can combined simply by wiring the calls manually. Everything is just plain members and member functions: there is no indirection. Given basic nodes implementing fundamental operations (+, ×), we define a simple dataflow. Testing with recent compilers showed that they can vectorize calls across objects 11 : the entire computation, defined as a set of interacting C++ structures, is recognized as being equivalent to a single vector instruction: the proposed system enables inter-procedural compiler optimization.

CONCLUSIONS

An empirical observation which underpins this work is that class-based inheritance works for code reuse and interoperability at the organisation level, not at the ecosystem level. Every HE implements custom APIs for defining MPs. VCVRack uses sample-based audio processors, Max/MSP can use either event-based message-passing, and block-based monophonic or polyphonic signal processing, etc. These different needs means that polymorphic interfaces are incompatible ; yet we show that it is now possible to write a system where the canonical, dependency-free version of a MP can be authored, and then bound automatically to various environments with the same run-time cost than if this was done optimally by hand.

The techniques presented here have a wide reach: the author has successfully applied them to the declarative definition of GPU pipelines and user interfaces.

  The techniques presented here can be used to make the first part of Jon Postel's statement: "Be liberal in what you accept, and conservative in what you send" applicable to C++ API design. Consider an user-facing description metadata for an object, various organizations may use distinct coding styles:

	struct object_of_org_A {
	auto desc() { return "Equalizer"; }
	};
	struct object_of_org_B {
	static void getDesc(std::string& storage)
	{ storage = "Equalizer"; }
	};
	Both implementations transmit the same information. We
	can on the library side write the following function:
	template<typename T>
	string get_description(const T& t) {
	if constexpr(requires { t.desc(); }) {
	return t.desc();
	}
	else if constexpr(requires (string s)
	{ t.getDesc(s); })
	{
	string ret; t.getDesc(ret); return ret;
	} // etc..
	}

  Methods, free functions and lambda functions can be used for messages in Max/MSP and PureData. Their arguments are automatically reflected: void foo( int f, std::string v) will display an error in Max and Pd consoles if the messages sent to the object are incompatible with the types. A similar feature is available for initialization of Max/MSP or PureData objects. No explicit type conversion is ever required.

	• Inputs, outputs: either as ports or in simple cases
	as arguments to an operator() function. Recog-
	nized ports value types can be int, bool, float,
	string and enumerations, sample-based, channel-
	based or array-of-channel-based audio ports, MIDI
	ports ; RGBA texture ports.

•

Consider for instance printf("this \"co // de\""); as an example which requires non-trivial work to parse correctly

https://soul.dev

https://www.vult-dsp.com

As far as the author could find.

Available at https://github.com/celtera/avendish. A complete documentation is provided, and explains how to author a MP from scratch: https://celtera.github.io/avendish.

github.com/boostorg/pfr. A prototype which leverages the variadic destructuring feature: auto [... members] = a_structure; proposed in standard paper P1061[START_REF] Rezvin | Structured Bindings can introduce a Pack[END_REF] allows discarding the Boost dependency entirely. This feature however only works in development versions of C++ compilers so far.

Atomic variables are safe for concurrent access by different threads.

https://gcc.godbolt.org/z/dKT5cbvcr