Assessment of the Impact of COVID-19 on Sustainable Forest Management in West Africa: cases of Benin, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana

Executive summary

COVID-19 pandemic has had severe impacts on societies, economies, and environments and will continue to do so. The impacts of the pandemic have been felt in West Africa, where most national economies depend on commodities, and demand for these commodities has generally declined during the pandemic. Smallholders from developing countries have certainly been more impacted than others, as they are heavily reliant on forests and agriculture for their livelihoods. Movement restrictions caused by COVID-19 may have a direct impact on businesses in the forest sector in West Africa. This could have worrying implications for employment, international trade, and investment flows into the sector, particularly since a large part of the world's timber imports come from the region. Moreover, the pandemic could contribute to an increase in the incidence of illicit activities, such as illegal logging and poaching. The pandemic has probably also disturbed several initiatives of sustainable forest management in West Africa, especially afforestation, silviculture operations, and conservation initiatives. Understanding the impacts of the pandemic on the forest sector in West Africa is important and will allow recommendations on effective interventions for the post-COVID period for sustainable forest management. Evidence on how COVID-19 has impacted the forestry sector in West Africa and at the country level is lacking. In this regard, this study was conducted to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on (i) sustainable forest management in West Africa, (ii) forest-dependent people, indigenous peoples, and local communities in West Africa, and (iii) the forest industry and international cooperation in West Africa. A mixedmethods approach, involving a literature review based on a desk review of existing published studies, reports, policy briefs, and key informant interviews, was used. The quantitative data gathered through the interviews was coded and analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical analysis. In total, nine (9) documents were included in the literature review, while 58, 75, and 48 people were surveyed in Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Benin, respectively. The literature review showed that: (i) the protective measures against COVID-19 have resulted in the postponement, and in some cases, outright cancellation, of forest management activities; (ii) forest-based ecotourism was highly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in almost all of the West Africa subregion; (iii) there is an increase in sexual and gender-based violence in the communities due to the fact that perpetrators feel frustrated as a result of the restrictions and use this as a way to overcome their anger; (iv) supply chains were adversely affected impacting on exports of timber and imports of forest products, spares and machinery due to COVID-19 measures/restrictions. From the survey, the results revealed that: [START_REF] Ndri | Benin responds to covid-19: sanitary cordon without generalized containment or lockdown?[END_REF] sustainable forest management activities such as backfire, harvesting, regeneration, and other silvicultural inputs (50-83%) continued even when restrictions were imposed in all the three countries, except in Côte d'Ivoire where tourism (67%) and research (50%) were negatively impacted by the pandemic; (2) for all the informants, the pandemic had a negative impact on the production and trade of certified or legal timber in Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire and Benin; (3) illegal activities such as wildlife poaching, gold panning, and logging in forests has increased during the pandemic in Ghana (100%), Côte d'Ivoire (50%) and Benin (100%); (4) the loss of money in 2020 by forestry operators is estimated at USD 288,840.91 and USD 6,000,400 in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, respectively; [START_REF]Social impact of COVID-19 in Côte d'Ivoire[END_REF] among local communities, women and young people were the most affected by the pandemic in Ghana (100%), Côte d'Ivoire (59%), and Benin (44%); ( 6) COVID-19 pandemic has increased the dependence on forest goods and services (bushmeat, food resources, fuelwood, etc.) in Ghana (71%), while in Côte d'Ivoire (100%), and Benin (56%), it has not affected local communities' dependence on forest goods and services. I recommend that: ➢ An evaluation of the long-term impacts of the pandemic on the environment should be undertaken, especially in relation to land use change, habitat loss, and overexploitation of natural resources in West Africa at the country level. ➢ Monitoring of the resource is a problem during the pandemic; there is therefore a need to explore or incentivize community monitoring, in particular using IT and mobile technologies, to reduce dependency on physical monitoring by governmental agents. ➢ Improvements in the forest law enforcement and governance systems should be considered by the forest authorities to combat illegal activities in the forests. ➢ West African governments and private-sector businesses should recognize the need for international market diversification to reduce dependence on one specific market. This could be done by developing, promoting, and expanding local and regional market destinations.

Résumé

La pandémie de COVID-19 a eu de graves répercussions sur les sociétés, les économies et l'environnement et continuera à en avoir. Les effets de la pandémie ont été ressentis en Afrique de l'Ouest, où la plupart des économies nationales dépendent des produits de base et où la demande de ces produits a généralement diminué pendant la pandémie. Les petits exploitants des pays en développement ont certainement été plus touchés que les autres, car ils dépendent fortement des forêts et de l'agriculture pour leur subsistance. Les restrictions de circulation causées par la maladie pourraient avoir un impact direct sur les entreprises du secteur forestier en Afrique de l'Ouest. Cela pourrait avoir des conséquences inquiétantes sur l'emploi, le commerce international et les flux d'investissement dans le secteur, d'autant plus qu'une grande partie des importations mondiales de bois proviennent de la région. En outre, la pandémie pourrait contribuer à une augmentation de l'incidence des activités illicites, telles que l'exploitation forestière illégale et le braconnage. La pandémie a probablement aussi perturbé plusieurs initiatives de gestion durable des forêts en Afrique de l'Ouest, en particulier le boisement, les opérations de sylviculture et les initiatives de conservation. Il est important de comprendre l'impact de la pandémie sur le secteur forestier en Afrique de l'Ouest, ce qui permettra de formuler des recommandations sur des interventions efficaces pour la période post-COVID en matière de gestion durable des forêts. Il y a un manque de données sur l'impact du COVID-19 sur le secteur forestier en Afrique de l'Ouest et au niveau des pays. C'est pourquoi cette étude a été menée pour évaluer l'impact de la pandémie de COVID-19 sur (i) la gestion durable des forêts en Afrique de l'Ouest, (ii) les populations tributaires des forêts, les peuples autochtones et les communautés locales en Afrique de l 'Ouest, et (iii) Je recommande que :

-Une évaluation des impacts à long terme de la pandémie sur l'environnement devrait être entreprise, en particulier en ce qui concerne le changement d'utilisation des terres, la perte d'habitat et la surexploitation des ressources naturelles en Afrique de l'Ouest au niveau national.

-La surveillance des ressources est un problème pendant la pandémie ; il est donc nécessaire d'explorer ou d'encourager la surveillance communautaire, en particulier en utilisant les technologies de l'information et les technologies mobiles, afin de réduire la dépendance à l'égard de la surveillance physique par les agents gouvernementaux.

-Les autorités forestières devraient envisager d'améliorer les systèmes d'application de la loi et de gouvernance pour lutter contre les activités illégales dans les forêts.

-Les gouvernements d'Afrique de l'Ouest et les entreprises du secteur privé devraient reconnaître la nécessité de diversifier les marchés internationaux afin de réduire la dépendance à l'égard d'un marché spécifique. Cela pourrait se faire en développant, en promouvant et en élargissant les destinations des marchés locaux et régionaux.

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Introduction

On December 30, 2019, the world was notified about a pneumonia of unknown cause in Wuhan, China (WHO, 2020). Since then, scientists have made remarkable progress in understanding the causative agent, a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Declared a pandemic on March 11, 2020, the disease continues to spread worldwide [START_REF] Maiti | Exploring spatiotemporal effects of the driving factors on COVID-19 incidences in the contiguous United States[END_REF]Mbow et al., 2021;[START_REF] Ai | Evaluation of the effects of meteorological factors on covid-19 prevalence by the distributed lag nonlinear model[END_REF] The on-going COVID-19 health crisis has severely disrupted global supply chains and increased loss of income, food insecurity, and poverty rates in Africa [START_REF] Chirwa | The impacts of COVID-19 on the sustainable management of the forestry sector in Southern Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Covey | Forest communities in the face of COVID-19 crisis -The role of social organisation in response, recovery and building back better[END_REF]. The crisis has affected all economic sectors, including those linked to natural resources (ANRMIC, 2022). However, there is limited information and evidence of COVID-19 impacts on the forestry sector in West Africa, especially at the country level. Three years after the beginning of the pandemic, with forests forming a major life-supporting ecosystem in West Africa, it is of great importance to understand how forest use and management changed as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the measures taken to halt its spread. Therefore, this study aims to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on (i) sustainable forest management in West Africa, (ii) the forest sector, forest-dependent people, indigenous peoples, and local communities in West Africa, and (iii) the forest industry and international cooperation in West Africa. This document is structured in nine sections, as follows: An executive summary is presented at the beginning to summarize the key points of the document. It highlights the major points of the study and describes the results, conclusions, or recommendations from the work. The first section of the document is an introduction, which presents the background and objectives of the study. The second section presents the methodology of the study through a conceptual framework, a research approach, methods for data collection, and data analysis. The third section provides a literature review on the assessment of the impact of COVID-19 on the forestry sector in West Africa. The fourth section presents the first case study (the results obtained from the survey in Ghana).

Methods

Conceptual framework

This research was conducted through a conceptual framework to understand whether and how the disruptions linked to COVID-19 have impacted the forestry sector in West Africa in three areas: sustainable forest management, livelihood, and forest industry and trade. The conceptual framework situates the forestry sector as a system with unique characteristics and functions that strive to meet environmental, economic, and social demands [START_REF] Ndri | Benin responds to covid-19: sanitary cordon without generalized containment or lockdown?[END_REF]. COVID-19 has emerged as a new challenge, causing disruptions in the existing functioning of this system (2). Some changes are taking place in terms of (i) the ecological condition of forests and management practices that can affect sustainable forest management;

(ii) local communities' reliance on forests and forest products as a safety net to meet food and space needs that, in turn, support their livelihoods; and (iii) the contraction of economies and markets with changes in supply chains of forest-based industries. The effects can be both positive and negative (3). These positive and negative effects subsequently become the basis for accounting for the overall impacts of the pandemic and proposing the role and contribution of the forestry sector in the measures of recovery (4).

Research approach: Case study

This study used a case study approach to understand and analyze the impacts of COVID-19 on the forestry sector in West Africa. The case study approach is an established research approach for drawing an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its natural context. Given the continued spread of COVID-19, the case study approach will offer a useful perspective to understand the broader impacts of COVID-19 on the forestry sector, explain causal links, and identify opportunities and gaps for prospective recovery measures [START_REF] Giri | Initial Assessment of the Impact of COVID-19 on Sustainable Forest Management, Asia-Pacific States, A case study on Thailand and Nepal[END_REF]. Three countries from West Africa, Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, and Ghana, were chosen and investigated since they have different experiences in terms of COVID-19 spread and containment.

Methods for data collection and analysis

A mixed-methods approach, involving a literature review based on a desk review of existing published studies and reports and key informant interviews, was used.

In the first phase, literature reviews of existing published studies and reports were performed.

The review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The literature search consisted of identifying all original published articles or reports from Google Scholar using a combination of search terms that capture the impact of COVID-19 on the forestry sector in West Africa. Data from the literature review was assessed to understand emerging issues, trends, and recovery responses within the forestry sector in the post-COVID situation. In the second phase, key informant interviews were carried out in each selected country with individuals and institutions identified through the literature review. Table 1 presents the number of respondents per country.

Literature review

Table 2 summarizes the keywords considered for the review. All studies on COVID-19's impact that are not focused on forestry sector were excluded. In addition, articles that were not related to at least one West African country were removed. Table 3 presents the variables searched in the articles. In total, nine (9) papers were retained for the review. The Figure 1 shows the PRISMA flowchart summarizing all stages of the papers' selection process. The table 5 summarizes the information gathered from the selected articles. -The COVID-19 lockdown and bushmeat ban had a long-term impact on the bushmeat trade dynamics, as three months after the end of governmental measures all the bushmeat sites in Côte d'Ivoire exhibited lower numbers of sellers than before (Gossé et al 2023).

Effect of Covid-19 pandemic (positive and negative) on forest-dependent people -Communities dependent on forest-based tourism for jobs and livelihoods experienced decline in their incomes and risk their engagement in illegal activities such as poaching and illegal timber production (Attah, 2020; Attah, 2022) -Increase in sexual and gender-based violence in the communities due to the fact that perpetrators feel frustrated as a result of the restrictions and use this as a way to overcome their anger (Attah, 2020).

-Impact on youth was mainly in the area of job losses due to the COVID-19 measures (Attah, 2020). Influence of Covid-19 pandemic (positive and negative) on forest financing and international cooperation in West Africa -Forest sector in West Africa is facing financial challenges including budget reductions, fall in revenue, difficulties mobilizing finance, (Attah, 2022) -Supply chains were adversely affected impacting on exports of timber and imports of forest products, spares and machinery due to COVID-19 measures/restrictions (Attah, 2020).

-Negative impacts of the COVID-19 crises on the production and trade of forest products is putting industries that depend mainly on importation of raw materials at very great risk (Ogunwusi and Ibrahim 2020) -Households responded to the socioeconomic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic by diversifying into forest-based activities such as fuelwood harvesting, extraction of medicinal plants, fruit-gathering, and beekeeping while others intensified these activities [START_REF] Kuuwill | Pandemic-induced shocks and shifts in forest-based livelihood strategies: learning from COVID-19 in the Bia West District of Ghana[END_REF].

Coping strategies -West Africa is drawing on lessons learned from the 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak to continue building resilience and responsiveness in their health systems. There were benefits in using the sub-regional approach in addressing the challenges to COVID-19 (Attah, 2022).

-Digital monitoring of the natural resource sector's activities and interactions with ecosystem and the introduction of an effective policy with immediate ban on the wildlife trade (Merem et al 2022) -In Ghana, forestry companies have put in place workplace measures, including limiting face-to-face meetings and including limiting face-to-face meetings and the number of people in vehicles used for commuting, providing commuting to and from work, providing workers with personal protective equipment, and encourage teleworking (OIT, 2020).

-Holding of virtual meetings has enabled international and regional cooperation on forests and forestry issues to continue to good effect Attah, 2020).

-Reinforcing efforts for more sustainable production of forest product, most especially industrial roundwood, will provide avenue for sustaining the development of Nigeria's wood and wood products sectors (Ogunwusi and Ibrahim 2020).

-This is also very important and vital towards building on progress made towards the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development (Ogunwusi and Ibrahim 2020).

Presentation of the first case study: COVID-19 impact on forestry sector in Ghana

Study area

Ghana is located at latitude 4.5° N-11.5° N and longitude 3.5° W-1.5° E. The country shares borders with Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. According to the census of 2022 (https://www.worldometers.info/), Ghana's population is estimated to be 32,103,042, with a population density of 101.5 people/km2. Ghana's climate is characterized by dry and wet seasons, as is typical of tropical monsoonal climates [START_REF] Amekudzi | Variabilities in Rainfall Onset, Cessation and Length of Rainy Season for the Various Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana[END_REF]. Rainfall in this region is primarily associated with mesoscale convective systems and is controlled by low-level advection of moisture from the Gulf of Guinea [START_REF] Sultan | The West African Monsoon Dynamics. Part II: The "Preonset" and "Onset" of the Summer Monsoon[END_REF]. This system is known as the West African Monsoon (WAM), and it is driven by the energy and temperature gradient between the Gulf of Guinea and the Sahara. The moist maritime tropical air mass from the Atlantic Ocean converges with the dry northeast continental tropical air mass, usually along the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD) [START_REF] Mounier | The West African Monsoon Dynamics. Part III: The Quasi-Biweekly Zonal Dipole[END_REF]. This results in two rainfall regimes: bi-modal in the south, consisting primarily of coastal and forest zones, and uni-modal in the north, consisting primarily of transition and savannah zones [START_REF] Ati | A comparison of methods to determine the onset of the growing season in northern Nigeria[END_REF]. Because of the highly variable nature of rainfall distribution and the resulting climatic conditions in different parts of the region, the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) recognizes four major climatic zones: savannah, transition, forest, and coastal zones [START_REF] Dogbey | Modelling Cloud Cover Climatology over Tropical Climates in Ghana[END_REF]. According to the U.N. FAO, 21.7% of Ghana, or about 4,940,000 ha, is forested (https://rainforests.mongabay.com). Of this, 8.0% (395,000) is classified as primary forest, the most biodiverse and carbon-dense form of forest. Ghana had 260,000 ha of planted forest. Between 1990 and 2010, Ghana lost an average of 125,400 ha, or 1.68% per year. In total, between 1990 and 2010, Ghana lost 33.7% of its forest cover, or around 2,508,000 ha. Ghana's forests contain 381 million metric tons of carbon in living forest biomass. Ghana has some 1185 known species of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles, according to figures from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Of these, 0.8% are endemic, meaning they exist in no other country, and 3.0% are threatened. Ghana is home to at least 3725 species of vascular plants, of which 1.2% are endemic. 4.6% of Ghana is protected under IUCN categories I-V. Figure 2 presents Ghana's forest reserves.

COVID 19 information from Ghana

The two first cases of COVID-19 were reported in Ghana on March 12, 2020 [START_REF] Gyasi | Fighting COVID-19: Fear and Internal Conflict among Older Adults in Ghana[END_REF][START_REF] Amponsah | One year after first case of COVID-19 in Ghana: epidemiology, challenges and accomplishments. 39[END_REF]. These individuals have returned to Ghana from Norway and Turkey [START_REF] Gyasi | Fighting COVID-19: Fear and Internal Conflict among Older Adults in Ghana[END_REF]. The current number is around 1171,152 cases (https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/, accessed on 13 February 2023).). The pic of cases (2,521) was reported on 27 December 2021 and the actual rate is around 28 cases daily. The highly important person infected was reported on January 7, 2022, but the number has drastically decreased to 12 now. The number of most death imputed to Coronavirus was reported on 13 February 2021. From this date, Ghana confirmed a total of 1,462 deaths reported on February 12, 2023, and the number of bodies recovered was 169,678. In addition, the average number of deaths due to COVID-19 is 1 per day. In Ghana, 38% (12.85 million) of the population was vaccinated, with 9.1% (3.05 million) being only partially vaccinated and 29% (9.81 million) being completely vaccinated (https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations, accessed on 13 February 2023). Figure 3 presents the recorded COVID-19 cases across regions.

COVID-19 management in Ghana

To fight against coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, many measures were observed [START_REF] Atinga | Understanding the policy dynamics of COVID-19 vaccination in Ghana through the lens of a policy analytical framework[END_REF]. For this purpose, Ghana's President announced the first partial lockdown of the country in March 2020 to reduce transmission (WHO, 2021). After this measure, awareness continued until June 2021 and was about responsible behaviors, mostly strict adherence to protocols before the arrival of vaccines. Then six (06) response plans and measures have been taken by Ghana's government: stop issuing visas to people visiting the country from the epicenter of the coronavirus; have health officials screen people arriving in the country at Kotoka Airport, Ridge, and Tema General hospitals as coronavirus case management centers; have Noguchi investigate; suspend all international travel by public officials; urge citizens to desist from all foreign travel; and have the Information Ministry provide weekly updates on the coronavirus in Ghana [START_REF] Entsie | The impacts of COVID-19 on the forest sector: How to respond? Rome[END_REF]; The first batch of vaccines arrived on February 24, 2021. In Africa, Ghana received the first wave of the AstraZeneca/Oxford vaccine shipped via the COVAX facility [START_REF] Atinga | Understanding the policy dynamics of COVID-19 vaccination in Ghana through the lens of a policy analytical framework[END_REF]. Since the acquisition, vaccines have been distributed for the vaccination of vulnerable people [START_REF] Sibiri | Containing the impact of COVID-19: Review of Ghana's response approach[END_REF]. On June 10, 2022, the World Bank approved $300 million to help Ghana improve public resource mobilization and accountability for better service delivery and the quality and equity of primary health care (WBG, 2022). Through these programs, the Ministry of Health and National Health Insurance Authority (NHIA) implemented many projects, especially the Primary Health Care Investment Program (P P173168), aimed at the construction, expansion, rehabilitation, and/or operation of healthcare facilities and the deployment of a safe and effective vaccine in response to COVID-19 (MHGHS, 2022). In addition, the country implemented other projects such as P176485 and P178054 (MHGHS, 2022). All borders are open to visitors, and no tests are required prior to entry. Masks, on the other hand, are required in public places (https://partir.ouest-france.fr/cote-d-ivoire/covid-19).

Impact of COVID-19 on protected area (classified forests, parks, wildlife reserves) in Ghana at the operational and human level

The survey results from Ghana show that COVID-19 had diverse impacts on the forestry sector at the operational and human levels. The pandemic has resulted in the implementation of various measures, considering forest manager's interventions. The most implemented measures at the operational and human level were the installation of protective devices (100% of the respondents), temporary cessation of activities (100%), reduction or modification of working hours (86%), limiting mobility in procurement and delivery (86%), implementation of a flexible working system (86%), and cancellation of business trips (57%; Figure 4).

Environmental impacts of COVID-19 in Ghana

The environmental impacts of COVID-19 were assessed through the impact on forests health, sustainable forest management, change in deforestation or biodiversity loss, illegal activities in forests, ecosystem services (ES) provided by forests, and the production and trade of certified or legal timber.

. Forests health

The forests health activities assessed in Ghana included fire suppression, pest control, wildlife and fisheries management, conservation activities, production, forest protection. The results revealed that forest protection (100%) and conservation activities (80%) were negatively and highly affected by the pandemic (Table 6; Photo 1). However, 20% of respondents indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic had a positive effect on production (regeneration, and other silvicultural inputs). or biodiversity loss, resulting in an increase in this activity (Photo 2). In total, 20% of the respondents indicated that the increase in deforestation due to the COVID 19 pandemic was small and big, respectively, while 40% of them estimated that there was a moderate increase in deforestation due to the COVID 19 (Figure 6). The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted the provisioning of the ES (Figure 7). Indeed, 80% of the respondents indicated that the pandemic has decreased the provisioning of the ES while for 20% of them, the pandemic has increased the provisioning of the ES. The pandemic has negatively impacted the production and trade of certified or legal timber (Figure 8). All informants (100%) recognized that the COVID-19 crisis has decreased the production and trade of certified or legal timber.

Opportunities and threats

According to the interviewees, the pandemic has increased the ecosystem services provided by forests. Moreover, the pandemic gave them opportunities for the development of new working strategies and to learn Zoom and other communication tools. It is also mentioned by the respondents that the pandemic gave them the chance to get more funding for their projects. However, the main threats due to the pandemic are lower forest productivity, a reduction in some donors funding, and deaths.

Mitigation strategies

The mitigation strategies adopted included the implementation of nonpharmaceutical control measures, compulsory vaccination, and emergency COVID-19 funds to support collapsing forest industries.

Impact of COVID-19 on forestry Industry in Ghana

According to the forestry operators (Photo 4), the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the demand for forest products (100% of the respondents) (Figure 9). It has also affected the product supply chains (33%), the wood supply (33%), the export/import (33%) (Figure 9). For the forestry operators (Photo 5), the pandemic has significantly affected some activities in the wood production chain, such as wood processing (67%), wood marketing (100%) (Figure 10). Some other activities, such as nurseries, seedling production (0%), maintenance, thinning (0%), and tree cutting (0%), have not been affected by the pandemic (Figure 10). They explained that during containment, they were not able to sell wood products. The respondents affirm that they do not receive financial support from the government. During the pandemic, workers were asked to stay at home, and the employers gave them some money. But currently, the employees are back after the pandemic, and demand is picking up.

Social impact of COVID-19 in Ghana

Local people living around forests have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. According to the investigations, the pandemic has negatively and significantly affected the livelihoods of women and young people (100% of the respondents), the health and safety of workers (100%), and the labor market and employment (100%) (Figure 12, Photo 7). The results from the survey indicated that the women (86%) were most affected by the pandemic ( According to 71% of the local people interviewed (Table 8), COVID-19 pandemic has increased the dependence on forest goods and services (bushmeat, food resources, fuelwood, etc.). Consumption increased due to the closure of borders and ports. The demand for food shifted to local foods, which led to exploitation of such resources from the forests. For some people (29%), however, the pandemic has decreased dependence on forest goods and services (Table 8) due to the total movement restriction during the containment. The common measures applied by local people are non-pharmaceutical interventions and vaccinations. In addition, to cope with the pandemic, some local residents received free food, water, and electricity from the government. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) also received loans from the government. However, some people did not receive anything from the authorities. Faced with the pressure, the Côte d'Ivoire government implemented a series of health, social, and economic policies to halt the spread of COVID-19 and mitigate its effects (UNICEF, 2020). As a result, the government immediately established a crisis committee, followed by the launch of public awareness campaigns and the dissemination of preventive measures. On March 16, a response plan based on thirty measures to be observed over the entire territory is put in place, including the establishment of a coverfeu from 21h00 to 5h00 in the morning. In Côte d'Ivoire, the results show that the pandemic had diversely impacted the forestry sector at the operational and human levels. From the interviews with managers, it is noted that various measures were implemented. These included mainly the installation of protective devices (100% of the respondents), temporary cessation of activities (78%), reduction or modification of working hours (86%), limiting mobility in procurement and delivery (78%), reduction or modification of working hours (67%), and implementation of a flexible working system (67%). (Figure 16; Photo 9).

Presentation of the

1. Forests health

The forests health activities assessed in Côte d'Ivoire included fire suppression, pest control, wildlife and fisheries, conservation activities, production, forest protection. The results revealed that forest protection (67%) and conservation activities (50%) were negatively and highly affected by the pandemic (Table 9). However, some respondents indicated that the pandemic had a positive effect on fire suppression (17%), pest control (17%), wildlife and fisheries (17%) and forest protection (17%). Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased illegal activities (50% of the respondents). The pandemic has negatively impacted the deforestation or biodiversity loss. In total, 50% and 33% of the respondents indicated that there were middle and big increase in deforestation due to the COVID 19 pandemic, respectively, while 17% of them estimated that there was no change in deforestation due to the COVID 19 (Figure 18; Photos 11 and 12). The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted the provisioning of the ES (Figure 19). Indeed, 75% of the respondents indicated that the pandemic has decreased the provisioning of the ES while for 25% of them, the pandemic has increased the provisioning of the ES. International and regional cooperations have been impacted by the pandemic. This has resulted in the postponement of workshops and travel trips. The pandemic has led to slow exchanges with international partners.

To adapt to the change created by the pandemic, new information and communication technologies have been widely adopted and include Zoom meetings, webinars, and other communication tools. However, the communication was not fluid due to poor internet.

Cooperation

International and regional cooperations have been impacted by the pandemic. This has resulted in postponement of workshops and travels trips. The pandemic has led to slow exchanges with international partners.

To adapt to the change created by the pandemic, new information and communication technologies have been widely and included zoom meetings, webinars and other communication tools. However, the communication was not fluid due to poor internet.

Opportunities and threats

For the forest managers I met during the survey, the pandemic has increased the ecosystem services provided by forests. Moreover, the pandemic gave them opportunities for the development of new working strategies and to learn Zoom and other communication tools. The pandemic has revealed the need for IT tools for teleworking. There is a lack of training regarding the new communication tools. It is also mentioned by the respondents that the pandemic gave them the chance to get more funding for their projects.

Overall, the pandemic gave opportunity to the informants for behaviour change. Furthermore, there is awareness of bushmeat consumption.

Poaching has decreased because people are afraid to eat bushmeat. The sale of bushmeat has stopped during the pandemic. However, the main threats due to the pandemic concerned an increase in food prices, increased aggression in the parks, gold panning, lower forest productivity, a reduction in some donors funding, and deaths. Moreover, due to the reduction in surveillance, there has been an increase in forest clearing, charcoal making, and hunting.

Mitigation strategies

The mitigation strategies adopted were mainly the implementation of nonpharmaceutical control measures and vaccination. Some informants affirmed to receive 500 dollars from the government as support funds.

Impact of COVID-19 on forestry Industry in Côte d'Ivoire

According to the forestry operators, there is a significant impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the demand for forest products (100% of the respondents) (Figure 21). It has also affected the product supply chains (50%), the wood supply (50%), and the export/import (50%) (Figure 21). For the forestry operators, the pandemic has significantly affected some activities in the wood production chain, such as wood processing (50%), emptying (50%) and marketing wood (100%) (Figure 22). Some other activities, such as nurseries, seedling production (0%), maintenance, thinning (0%), tree cutting (0%) have not been affected by the pandemic (Figure 22). According to the informants, all produced woods are sold and the m3 is sold at about USD 400. The loss of money in 2020 compared to 2019 due to the pandemic is estimated at USD 6,000,400.

Response to the changes made by COVID-19

The respondents affirm that they do not receive financial support from the government. During the pandemic, workers were asked to stay at home, and the employers gave them some money. Sodefor, the Ivorian forestry development company, sells the wood, which the client processes and exports. During the pandemic, the greater Abidjan region was confined to a radius of 12 km from the other parts of the country. The trucks cannot move with wood during this time. Contracts with the EU, India, and China have been terminated and are not being paid. Sodefor has put aside its payment procedure and adopted the procedure of contractors who pay on time. Several people went on leave during the pandemic. Clients take a small amount of wood from Sodefor and harvest it for the local market.

Years

In 2020, Sodefor suffered from the pandemic, but they rearranged their programs. Timber has been stored until the ports open. Customers had to work on credit. International and regional customers stopped ordering because everything was closed.

5.11. Social impact of COVID-19 in Côte d'Ivoire

Local people living around forests have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the investigations in Côte d'Ivoire, the pandemic has had a significant negative impact on the livelihoods of women and young people (59% of the respondents), the health and safety of workers (88%), and the labor market and employment (94%) (Figure 24; Photo 14).

Proportion of respondents (%)

According to the local people interviewed (Table 11; Photo 17), COVID-19 pandemic has not affected their dependence on forests goods and services (100%). The common measures applied by local people are non-pharmaceutical interventions and vaccinations. In addition, to cope with the pandemic, some locals have developed alternative activities.

Presentation of the third case study: COVID-19 impact on forestry sector in Benin

Study area

Benin is located between 6° and 12° 50 'N and 1° and 3° 40'E (Adomou, 2005). It is divided into three major climatic zones (Sudanian, Sudano-Guinean, and Guineo-Congolian zones). Benin currently has a population of 13,754,688 people, with a population density of 94. et al. 2006). The major families are Leguminosae (14.8%), Poaceae (9.3%), Rubiaceae and Cyperaceae (5% each), Asteraceae (4.6%), and Euphorbiaceae (4.3%). The mean monthly temperatures in the country oscillate between 26 and 28 °C in the south, while they are generally above 35 °C in the north, and in some places, they average out at 40 °C (Adomou, 2005). The annual rainfall ranges from 900 to 1,400 mm, depending on the west-east and south-north gradients. The distribution of rainfall reveals two types of climate. The climate in the south is tropically humid (subequatorial or Guinean), with two rainfall maxima occurring in April-July and September-October. From 8°N northward, the climate is tropical sub-humid dry to arid, with one maximum in June (Adomou, 2005). Agriculture contributed 33.2% of Benin's Gross National Product (GNP) in 2009. Cereals (maize, rice, sorghum, etc.), legumes (cowpea, peanuts, etc.), tubers (manioc, yam, etc.), market garden products (lettuce, cabbage, solanum, etc.), and industrial crops (cotton, cashew nuts, pineapple, etc.) are the main crops (MAEP, 2010). In Benin, the rate of forest loss has also increased in the last few decades, and worse is expected [START_REF] Guidigan | Assessing land use/land cover dynamic and its impact in Benin Republic using land change model and CCI-LC products[END_REF]. Figure 26 presents Benin's forests. Since the first confirmed case of COVID-19, the country has worked hard to reduce the pandemic's social impact. The COVID-19 Budget Support Program (PARCOVID-19) for Benin, with a budget of US $6.98 million, was approved on July 24, 2020. The United Nations Country Team in Benin delivered government equipment worth 373 million CFA francs on June 18, 2020. Many activity sectors received direct state subsidies totaling $4.18 million as a result of this funding. Masks, hydro-alcoholic gels, and chloroquine tablets have been distributed by the state for free or at a reduced cost. The government has provided a specific subsidy of approximately 10 billion FCFA in the form of cash transfers or food aid to at least 544,609 poor and extremely poor households affected by COVID-19, 54% of whom are women heads of household, in May 2021. Conscious of its fragile economy, Benin's government settled on creating a sanitary cordon around the affected areas with free movement of the population within it while appealing for the public's responsibility, promoting handwashing and hygiene along with social distancing and other control measures (Osseni, 2020).

6.4. Impact of COVID-19 on protected area (classified forests, parks, wildlife reserves) in Benin at the operational and human level

The survey results from Benin indicated that COVID-19 had diversely impacted the forestry sector at the operational and human levels. The pandemic has resulted in the implementation of various measures based on the information from the forest managers (Photo 18). The most implemented measures at the operational and human level were the installation of protective devices (100% of the respondents), the implementation of flexible working systems (100%), limiting mobility in procurement and delivery (86%), and the cancellation of business trips (75%) (Figure 28). The environmental impacts of COVID-19 in Benin were assessed through the impact on forest health, sustainable forest management, change in deforestation or biodiversity loss, illegal activities in forests, ecosystem services (ES) provided by forests, and the production and trade of certified or legal timber.

1. Forests health

The forest health activities assessed in Benin included fire suppression, pest control, wildlife and fisheries management, conservation activities, production, and forest protection. The results revealed that the pandemic did not significantly affect the forest's health. Some activities, such as production (regeneration and other silvicultural inputs), forest protection, and conservation (25%) were weakly affected by the pandemic (Table 12). However, most of the respondents indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic had a positive effect on fire suppression (75%), wildlife and fisheries (75%), conservation activities (50%), production (50%) and forest protection (50%). Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased illegal activities (100% of the respondents). The pandemic has negatively impacted deforestation or biodiversity loss, resulting in an increase in this activity. However, 75% of the respondents indicated that the increase in deforestation due to the COVID-19 pandemic was low, while 25% of them estimated that there was a moderate increase in deforestation due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Figure 30; Photo 20). The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted the provisioning of the ES (Figure 31). Indeed, 75% of the respondents indicated that the pandemic has decreased the provisioning of the ES, while for 25% of them, the pandemic has increased the provisioning of the ES. The pandemic has negatively impacted the production and trade of certified or legal timber (Figure 32). All informants (100%) recognized that the COVID-19 crisis has decreased the production and trade of certified or legal timber.

Figure 32. The impact of COVID-19 on production and trade of certified or legal timber in Benin (proportion of respondents). However, intermittent link failures occurred in some localities due to poor internet. This results in low participation and inefficient exchanges.

Opportunities and threats

According to the interviewees, the pandemic has increased the funding for their projects. However, the main threats due to the pandemic concerned the deaths.

Mitigation strategies

The mitigation strategies adopted included implementation of nonpharmaceutical control measures and vaccination.

Impact of COVID-19 on forestry Industry in Benin

Most of the wood in Benin is produced by ONAB, now called SONAB (National Timber Company). SONAB produces about 50,000-75,000 m3 of teak wood per year and sells it for 121,000 FCFA/m3 (200 USD/m3). Revenues can therefore be estimated at between USD 10,000,000 and USD 15,000,000 [START_REF] Afoudah | Circuit de commercialisation et rentabilité des plantations de teck de l'Office National du Bois (ONAB)[END_REF]. The actors in the SONAB teak wood market are all involved in processing to varying degrees and scales. About 27 companies are counted, of which the largest and most representative are STE YULIN, which is a Chinese industrialist, and a Lebanese industrialist.

Chinese industrialist, and a Lebanese industrialist, ATC-Sa. For Daouda Takpara, the director of SONAB, in 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic had a considerable impact on the office's activities, particularly in terms of turnover, as the timber market, like all sectors of activity, was hard hit, particularly in the first half of the year. However, they were quickly able to put in place a policy to support the customers, based on the mitigation measures taken by the Beninese government. This has enabled us to recover since the third quarter of 2020.

6.11. Social impact of COVID-19 in Benin.

Local people living around forests have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the investigations in Benin, the pandemic has negatively affected the livelihoods for women and young people (44% of the respondents), the health and safety of workers (44%) and the labour market and employment (33%) (Figure 33, Photo 23). Forest-dependent people have seen their activities affected by the pandemic. They indicated that the pandemic has resulted in a reduction of working time (78%) and a reduction of salary (33%) (Figure 34). The results from the survey indicated that the women (44%) were most affected by the pandemic (Table 13). Older people (33%) and indigenous people (11%) are also affected. According to 56% of the local people interviewed (Table 14), the COVID-19 pandemic has not impacted the dependence on forest goods and services (bushmeat, food resources, fuelwood, etc.). For some people (44%), however, the pandemic has decreased dependence on forest goods and services (Table 14) due to the movement restriction during the containment.

Proportion of respondents (%)

management by the forest administration was not efficient, while in Benin, for 100% of the respondents, the pandemic management was efficient.

The positive impact of COVID-19 on forest conservation activities and forest protection in Benin may be explained by the fact that governmental authorities did not set up strict lockdown. They managed the pandemic by installing a sanitary cordon around Cotonou (economical capital of Benin) and its surrounding area, meaning that those inside the cordon cannot go outside, but movements within the cordon were allowed (Osseni, 2020).

Even if logging operations and the export of timber products were negatively impacted, reforestation and forest protection operations were not stopped. On the contrary, the staff involved in logging and timber export has come to reinforce the reforestation and forest protection teams.

For the forest managers in Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Benin, the pandemic gave them opportunities for the development of new working strategies and to learn Zoom and other communication tools. The pandemic has revealed the need for IT tools for teleworking. There is a lack of training regarding the new communication tools. It is also mentioned by the respondents that the pandemic gave them the chance to get more funding for their projects.

Overall, the pandemic gave opportunity to the informants for behaviour change. However, the main threats due to the pandemic concerned the reduction in some donors funding and recorded deaths among colleagues, as well as the increase in forest clearing, charcoal making, and hunting.

There is a likelihood that the pandemic has exacerbated illegal logging, forest fires, and to a lesser extent, land fragmentation and agricultural expansion [START_REF] Chirwa | The impacts of COVID-19 on the sustainable management of the forestry sector in Southern Africa[END_REF]. In addition, there has been an increase in the migration of urban settlers to rural areas, as mentioned in Ghana, in order to seek alternative livelihood options or seek refuge from the crisis hotspots of the city. Similarly, the migration from urban to rural areas could potentially increase the spread of COVID-19 to less prepared areas (FAO 2020).

Impact of COVID-19 on forestry industry

All the respondents in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire indicated that the impact of COVID-19 on the demand for timber was high. Similar trends were also observed for the wood production chains, where the majority of respondents in Ghana (67%) and Côte d'Ivoire (50%) indicated that the pandemic impact was high. In Ghana, there was a 46.25% drop in the quantity of timber produced in 2020 compared to 2019 and also a 55.91% drop in the quantity produced in 2020 compared to 2021. The loss of money in 2020 and 2021 compared to 2019 due to the pandemic is estimated at USD 288840.91 and USD 349170.96, respectively. In Côte d'Ivoire, there was a 42.86% drop in the quantity of timber produced in 2020 compared to 2019. This results in a loss of money in 2020 compared to 2019 due to the pandemic, estimated at USD 6,000,400. In Benin, the COVID-19 pandemic had a considerable impact on the forestry industry, particularly in terms of turnover, as the timber market, like all sectors of activity, was hard hit, particularly in the first half of 2020. However, a policy was put in place to support the customers based on the mitigation measures taken by the Beninese government. This has enabled us to recover since the third quarter of 2020.

Economically, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused huge disruptions to supply chains of forest products in many African countries that produce timber and timber products [START_REF] Chirwa | The impacts of COVID-19 on the sustainable management of the forestry sector in Southern Africa[END_REF]. These disruptions have jeopardized the domestic and international markets, resulting in limited demand and trading opportunities, reduced production, shrinking trade of forest products, and lower export incomes (ANRMIC, 2022). The restrictions on movement and physical activities have an adverse effect on trade, industrial, and manufacturing activities of forest-based industries and have negatively impacted worker development in the timber production sector. It has been reported that owing to the pandemic and the measures to contain it, the forestry and logging market is expected to globally decline from $509.8 billion in 2019 to $494 billion in 2020 (BRC, 2020;[START_REF] Chirwa | The impacts of COVID-19 on the sustainable management of the forestry sector in Southern Africa[END_REF].

In Africa, the pandemic has led to changes for timber-exporting companies.

In Ghana, while comparing 2019 and 2020 in terms of the number of exporters, the number of products shipped, the number of species shipped, and the number of countries shipped to, the general trend showed a decrease in February 2020 compared to February 2019 for the first three variables and no change for the last (ANRMIC, 2022). For instance, in the first two months of 2020, Ghana exported a total of 35,508 m3 of wood products, earning Euro 17.64 million, compared to the respective 2019 figures of 53,171 m3 valued at Euro 28.04 million, showing a decline of over 30% in volume and value (ITTO, 2020a). The steep drop clearly illustrates the impact of the pandemic, especially on demand from China, where businesses were seriously affected (ITTO, 2020b). Nonetheless, exports to other markets, such as Europe, America, and regional African markets, were sustained in January and February 2020, relative to previous years (ITTO, 2020b). Moreover, the overall impacts of the pandemic in West Africa on unit prices for both logs and sawn wood by tree species are on the decline (ANRMIC, 2022).

Impact of COVID-19 on forest-dependent people

Local communities indicated that women and young people were the most affected by the pandemic in Ghana (100%), Côte d'Ivoire (59%), and Benin (44%). With respect to social aspects, the pandemic has impacted the livelihood of forest-dependent communities in the three countries through loss of work and salary. Moreover, in Ghana, most of the local people interviewed (71%) indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the country's dependence on forest goods and services (bushmeat, food resources, fuelwood, etc.) due to the closure of borders and ports. The demand for food shifted to local foods, which led to the exploitation of such resources from the forests. However, the pandemic has not affected local communities' dependence on forest goods and services in Côte d'Ivoire (100%) and Benin (56%).

The current COVID-19 pandemic has shown the vulnerability of forest communities in West Africa. Even if the number of deaths is lower than predicted for Africa [START_REF] Berhan | Will Africa be Devastated by Covid-19 as Many Predicted? Perspective and Prospective[END_REF], the pandemic has disrupted the livelihoods of local people. Indeed, the difficulties brought by the pandemic were amplified by pre-existing social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities [START_REF] Covey | Forest communities in the face of COVID-19 crisis -The role of social organisation in response, recovery and building back better[END_REF]. Moreover, the pandemic has exacerbated food security challenges in forest communities, as indicated by [START_REF] Covey | Forest communities in the face of COVID-19 crisis -The role of social organisation in response, recovery and building back better[END_REF]. According to these authors, any income smallholders were able to derive from production during the pandemic was reduced by COVID-19-driven difficulties in accessing local, national, and international markets, which also experienced increased price volatility. This indicates that many households in and around forested communities will continue to rely on forest resource extraction as a safety net both presently and in the future given the lack of alternative non-forest based livelihood strategies in such communities [START_REF] Kuuwill | Pandemic-induced shocks and shifts in forest-based livelihood strategies: learning from COVID-19 in the Bia West District of Ghana[END_REF]. Moreover, longer-term social impacts of the COVID-19 crisis are likely to result from the disruption in education of youth who, due to their often-remote locations, were unable to access online alternatives to in-person schooling [START_REF] Covey | Forest communities in the face of COVID-19 crisis -The role of social organisation in response, recovery and building back better[END_REF].

Conclusions and recommendations

The COVID-19 pandemic has had different impacts on West African countries. With respect to sustainable management of natural resources, the restrictions have impacted forest protection and conservation activities in two of the three sampled countries. The illegal activities have increased during the pandemic as a consequence of mobility restrictions and a reduction in the number of patrols. Impacts on the forest industry and people's access to forest resources have affected incomes and livelihoods. This study indicates that COVID-19 has had a significant impact on the forest industry in varying degrees. There was generally a reduced demand and supply of the forest products both locally and internationally, exacerbated by land borders and seaport restrictions or closures. Livelihoods of forest-dependent people in West Africa have been hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic. Indeed, the movement restrictions and closure of local markets significantly affected their ability to generate income from the trade of forest products.

➢ Governments and public health authorities have responded to the COVID-19 pandemic by supporting the most vulnerable enterprises and those in the informal economy. Where interventions have not been implemented, there is a need to explore the needs of the local communities and introduce measures to help them, with special emphasis on supporting the most vulnerable. ➢ An evaluation of the long-term impacts of the pandemic on the environment should be undertaken, especially in relation to land use change, habitat loss, and overexploitation of natural resources in West Africa at the country level. ➢ Monitoring of the resource is a problem during the pandemic; there is therefore a need to explore or incentivize community monitoring, in particular using IT and mobile technologies, to reduce dependency on physical monitoring by governmental agents. ➢ Improvements in the forest law enforcement and governance systems should be considered by the forest authorities to combat illegal activities in the forests.

➢ Future interventions should recognize the link to other programs, such as climate change, which have similar impacts on forest resources and therefore warrant similar adaptation and mitigation measures. ➢ West African governments should undertake deep surveys on the social and economic impact of COVID-19 on the forest and wood sector companies in each country and identify the difficulties of implementing health and relief measures related to the pandemic. This will help generate ideas for dialogue on how best to promote jobs, production, and exports. ➢ Governments should collaborate with the forestry sector to develop safe working guidelines for forestry and ensure resilience plans. ➢ West African governments and private-sector businesses should recognize the need for international market diversification to reduce dependence on one specific market. This could be done by developing, promoting, and expanding local and regional market destinations.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram of the selection process of studies included in the review.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Map showing Ghana forests

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Map of Ghana showing the concentration of reported cases of COVID-19 (Sarfo and Karuppannan, 2020).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. The implemented measures in Ghana and their importance in terms of proportion of informants.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. The impact of COVID-19 on deforestation or biodiversity loss (proportion of respondents) in Ghana.

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. The impact of COVID-19 on ecosystem services (ES) (proportion of respondents). 4.5.5. Production and trade of certified or legal timber in COVID-19 crisis

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. The impact of COVID-19 on production and trade of certified or legal timber in Ghana (proportion of respondents).

6 .

 6 Photo 3a. Forest authorities, Dr Richard Gyimah (left) and Dr Ebenezer Djagbletey (right)

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. The impact of COVID-19 on forestry industry in Ghana (proportion of respondents).

6 .

 6 Photo 6. Site for wood processing (Oda Forest Reserve) 4.10.2. Response to the changes made by COVID-19

Figure 12 . 7 .

 127 Figure 12. The impact of COVID-19 on local people lifestyle (proportion of respondents).

Figure 13 .

 13 Figure 13. The impact of COVID-19 on local people activities (proportion of respondents).

Figure 15 .

 15 Figure 15. Map of Côte d'Ivoire showing COVID-19 cases per district (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/) 5.3. COVID-19 management in Côte d'Ivoire

Figure 16 .

 16 Figure 16. The implemented measures in Côte d'Ivoire and their importance in terms of proportion of informants.

Figure 17 .

 17 Figure 17. The impact of COVID-19 on sustainable forest management in Côte d'Ivoire (proportion of respondents).

Figure 18 .

 18 Figure 18. The impact of COVID-19 on deforestation or biodiversity loss (proportion of respondents) in Côte d'Ivoire.

Figure 19 .

 19 Figure 19. The impact of COVID-19 on ecosystem services (ES) (proportion of respondents). 5.5.5. Production and trade of certified or legal timber in COVID-19 crisis The pandemic has negatively impacted the production and trade of certified or legal timber (Figure 20; Photo 13). All informants (100%) recognized

Figure 20 . 6 .

 206 Figure 20. The impact of COVID-19 on production and trade of certified or legal timber in Côte d'Ivoire (proportion of respondents).

Figure 21 .

 21 Figure 21. The impact of COVID-19 on forestry industry in Côte d'Ivoire (proportion of respondents).

Figure 22 .Figure 23 .

 2223 Figure 22. The impact of COVID-19 on plant production and wood processing in Côte d'Ivoire (proportion of respondents).5.10.1. Impact of COVID-19 on the quantity of wood producedFigure23presents the mean quantity of wood produced by a forest operator per year among the respondents from 2019 to 2022. The quantity of wood produced decreased from 2019 to 2020, as there is a 42. 86% drop in the quantity produced in 2020 compared to 2019. The quantity produced has increased in 2021 and 2022 compared to 2020. This indicates that the impact of the pandemic is perceptible in 2020 when the containment and other restriction measures were in place.

Figure 24 .

 24 Figure 24. The impact of COVID-19 on local people lifestyle (proportion of respondents).

Figure 25 .

 25 Figure 25. The impact of COVID-19 on local people activities (proportion of respondents).

Figure 26 .

 26 Figure 26. Map presenting Benin's forests 6.2. COVID 19 information from Benin On March 15, 2020, the Benin Republic confirmed the first case of COVID-19 (Orji, 2020). He was a Burkinabe man of 49years old who returned to Beninese territory on March 12, 2020. The country recorded a high number of infected (5,944 cases) on September 11, 2021, while a high rate of daily deaths (9) was recorded on March 19, 2021. (https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/benin/, Accession date: February 21, 2023). The number of contaminants increased exponentially after this date. From January 3, 2020, to February 17, 2023, there were 27,990 confirmed cases of COVID-19 in Benin, with 163 deaths reported to WHO. A total of 4,232,541 vaccine doses had been administered as of December 18, 2022. Twenty-eight percent (28%; 3.7 million) of inhabitants received a dose of vaccine. However, (21%; 2.74 million) are completely vaccinated, and (7.1%; 954,353) are partially

Figure 27 .

 27 Figure 27. Map of Benin showing COVID-19 cases per district (https://www.gouv.bj/) 6.3. COVID-19 management in Benin

Figure 28 .

 28 Figure 28. The implemented measures in Benin and their importance in terms of proportion of informants.

Figure 30 .

 30 Figure 30. The impact of COVID-19 on deforestation or biodiversity loss (proportion of respondents) in Benin.

Figure 31 .

 31 Figure 31. The impact of COVID-19 on ecosystem services (ES) (proportion of respondents).

Figure 33 .

 33 Figure 33. The impact of COVID-19 on local people lifestyle (proportion of respondents).

Figure 34 .

 34 Figure 34. The impact of COVID-19 on local people activities (proportion of respondents).

  l'industrie forestière et la coopération internationale en Afrique de l'Ouest. Une approche mixte, comprenant une revue de la littérature basée sur une analyse documentaire des études publiées, des rapports, des notes de synthèse et des entretiens avec des informateurs clés, a été utilisée. Les données quantitatives recueillies lors des entretiens ont été codées et analysées à l'aide d'une analyse statistique descriptive et inférentielle. Au total, neuf (9) documents ont été inclus dans l'analyse documentaire, tandis que 58, 75 et 48 personnes ont été interrogées au Ghana, en Côte d'Ivoire et au Bénin, respectivement. L'analyse de la littérature a montré que (i) les mesures de protection contre le COVID-19 ont entraîné le report, et dans certains cas, l'annulation pure et simple des activités de gestion forestière ; (ii) l'écotourisme forestier a été fortement affecté par la pandémie de COVID-19 dans presque toute la sous-région de l'Afrique de l'Ouest ; (iii) il y a une augmentation de la violence sexuelle et sexiste dans les communautés en raison du fait que les auteurs se sentent frustrés par les restrictions et utilisent cela comme un moyen de surmonter leur colère ; (iv) les chaînes d'approvisionnement ont été affectées négativement, ce qui a eu un impact sur les exportations de bois et les importations de produits forestiers, et de machines en raison des mesures/restrictions du COVID-19. Les résultats de

l'enquête ont révélé que : (1) les activités de gestion durable des forêts telles que les feux de recul, la récolte, la régénération et d'autres intrants sylvicoles (50-83%) se sont poursuivies malgré les restrictions imposées dans les trois pays, sauf en Côte d'Ivoire où le tourisme (67%) et la recherche (50%) ont été négativement impactés par la pandémie ; (2) pour tous les informateurs, la pandémie a eu un impact négatif sur la production et le commerce de bois certifié ou légal au Ghana, en Côte d'Ivoire et au Bénin ;

(3) les activités illégales telles que le braconnage de la faune, l'orpaillage et l'exploitation forestière ont augmenté pendant la pandémie au Ghana (100%), en Côte d'Ivoire (50%) et au Bénin (100%) ; (4) la perte d'argent en 2020 par les opérateurs forestiers est estimée à 288840,91 USD et à 6 000 400 USD au Ghana et en Côte d'Ivoire en moyenne par opérateur, respectivement; (5) parmi les communautés locales, les femmes et les jeunes ont été les plus touchés par la pandémie au Ghana (100%), en Côte d'Ivoire (59%) et au Bénin (44%) ; (

6

) la pandémie de COVID-19 a accru la dépendance à l'égard des biens et services forestiers (viande de brousse, ressources alimentaires, bois de feu, etc. ) au Ghana (71%), tandis qu'en Côte d'Ivoire (100%) et au Bénin (56%), elle n'a pas affecté la dépendance des communautés locales à l'égard des biens et services forestiers.

Table 1 .

 1 Number of people interviewed per country.

		Ghana	Côte d'Ivoire Benin
	Forest managers	14	18	12
	Forestry operators	9	6	0
	Local communities	35	51	36
	Total	58	75	48
	In Ghana, the survey was carried out in the Ashanti and Greater Accra
	regions. In Côte d'Ivoire, the localities of Abidjan, Nganda Nganda,
	Azagny, and Ehotilé Island have been investigated. In Benin, the survey
	was conducted in the Atlantic and Zou regions. These localities were
	chosen due to the high impact of COVID-19 in terms of reported cases
	(Figures 3, 15, and 27). To assess the effects of COVID-19 on sustainable
	forest management, the study looked at in each country: (i) incidents of
	infractions such as illegal harvesting and poaching before and after
	COVID-19 and the perceived severity (scale and impacts) of these
	infractions; (ii) disruptions in continuing silvicultural practices and
	afforestation activities usually conducted to maintain the forest condition;
	and (iii) management and organizational level changes (capacity,
	programs, budgets) taking place within key forestry institutions as a result
	of COVID-19. COVID-19's impact on livelihood was assessed through (i)
	changes in the use of forest-based products and services to meet the local
	communities' daily consumption and (ii) sales and usage of forest-based
	products and services to support other livelihood options. The quantitative
	data gathered through the interviews was coded and analyzed using both
	descriptive and inferential statistical analysis.

Table 2

 2

	. Summary of keywords and combinations strategy to search for
	articles
	COVID-19		Forest
	Coronavirus	Impact	Forestry
	OR SARS-Cov-2 AND OR	and Wood
	2019-nCoV	Effect	Vegetation
	SARS viruses	OR	Natural formation
	Corona	Influence

Table 3 .

 3 Information retrieval from the selected articles

	Aims	Variables of interest
	Determine impact of Covid-19	• Regeneration	(Visas	for
	pandemic (positive and negative)	planting crews)
	on sustainable forest management	• Thinning, competition control
	in West Africa	• Prescribed burning
		• Harvesting
		• Recreation
		• Research
		• Forest management
		• Conservation activities,
		• Production,
		• Forest protection
		• Fire suppression
		• Smoke management
		• Pest management
		• Wildlife and fisheries

Table 4 .

 4 The selected articles

	Authors	Title	Journals or conferences
	Attah, 2020	Initial Assessment of the Impact of COVID-19 on Sustainable Forest Management in African States	16th session of the United Nations Forum on Forests
	Attah, 2022	Second Assessment of the Impact of COVID-
		19 on Forests and Forest Sector in the African	17th session of the
		Region	United Nations Forum on Forests
		Examining the Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic
	Merem et al 2022	on Africa's Natural Resources Sector	Public Health Research
	OIT, 2020	Effects of COVID-19 the forestry sector
			Note sectorielle de l'OIT
		Impact of COVID-19 on wild meat trade in	Conservation Science and
	Funk et al 2021	Nigerian markets	Practice
		Liberian pangolins during the COVID-19
	Deemie et al 2021	pandemic: market surveys for live animals,	Conservation News
		bushmeat and scales
	Gossé et al 2023	Long-term effect of the COVID-19 lockdown	Authorea
		on the dynamics of the bushmeat trade in West
		Africa (Côte d'Ivoire)
	Ogunwusi and Ibrahim	Prospects for Post COVID-19 Era	Journal of Economics and
	2020	Optimisation of the Forest	Sustainable Development

Table 5 .

 5 Information gathered from the selected articles

Investigated pillars

Findings extracted from the selected papers Impact of Covid-19 pandemic (positive and negative) on sustainable forest management in West Africa -The protective measures against COVID-19 have resulted in the postponement, and in some cases outright cancellation, of forest management activities (Attah, 2020) -Illegal harvesting of timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been on the increase due to reduced monitoring by the public sector forest agencies (Attah, 2020) -Forest-based ecotourism was highly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in almost all the subregions in Africa (Attah, 2022) -Fear of disease transmission from wild animal meat likely contributed to reduced wild meat eating after COVID-19 (Funk et al 2021). -COVID-19 pandemic has reduced occurrence of pangolins in markets (Deemie et al 2021).

Table 6 .

 6 The impact of COVID-19 on forests health in Ghana (proportion of respondents).

	Fire suppression	0	0	100	100
	Pest control	0	0	100	100
	Wildlife and fisheries	0	20	80	100
	Conservation activities	0	80	20	100
	Production	20	40	40	100
	Forest protection	0	100	0	100
	Photo 1. Discussion with M. Rexford Twum-Damoah, district forest
	manager (Oda River Forest Reserve)

Variables

Positive (%) Negative (%) None (%) Total (%)

Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased illegal activities (100% of the respondents). The pandemic has negatively impacted the deforestation

  Impact of COVID-19 on the quantity of wood producedFigure11presents the mean quantity of wood produced by a forest operator per year among the respondents from 2018 to 2022. Overall, the quantity of wood produced decreased from 2018 to 2021, as there were 2040 m3, 1761 m3, 946.5 m3, and 776.5 m3 in 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021, respectively. There is a 13.68% decrease in the quantity produced in 2019 compared to 2018; a 46.25% drop in the quantity produced in 2020 compared to 2019; and also a 55.91% drop in the quantity produced in 2020 compared to 2021. The quantity produced has increased in 2022 compared to 2021, and this value is close to that produced in 2019 before the pandemic.

	33% Product supply chains 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Proportion of respondents 4.10.1. Figure 11. Mean quantity of wood produced per year by a forest operator 33% 100% 33% Wood supply Demand for forest products Exports / imports Proportion of 0% 0% 33% 67% 100%
	in Ghana.
	According to the informants, all produced woods (Photo 6) are sold and the
	m3 is sold at about 4,320.5 GHS (350.5 USD). The loss of money in 2020
	and 2021 compared to 2019 due to the pandemic is estimated at GHS
	3,522,550.03 (USD 288,840.91) and GHS 4,258,280.73 (USD 349170.96),
	respectively.

respondents Figure 10. The impact of COVID-19 on plant production and wood processing in Ghana (proportion of respondents). Photo 5. Discussion with M. Isaac Frimpong (at right), timber operator (Tano Offin Forest Reserve)

Table 7

 7

	Loss of work	43%
	Dismissal	29%
	Salary reduction		100%
	Reduction of working time		100%
	0%	50%	100%
		Proportion of respondents (%)

; Photo 8). Older people (43%) and indigenous people (29%) are also affected.

Table 7 .

 7 Groups of local people affected by the pandemic and proportion of respondents

	Variable	Proportion of respondents (%)
	Women	86
	Indigenous	29
	Young people	0
	Older people	43

Photo 8. Discussion with local people around Tano Offin Forest Reserve, Ghana

Table 8 .

 8 Local people dependence on forest goods and services

	Variable

second case study: COVID-19 impact on forestry sector in Côte d'Ivoire

	5.1. Study area
	The territory of Cote d'Ivoire is located between 7° 32' 23.96" N and 5° 32'
	49.488" W, approximately 400 kilometers from the equator on its southern
	borders and approximately 14,00 kilometers from the Tropic of Cancer on
	The southern forest zone and the southern savannah area have tropical
	humid savannah climates. Temperatures in the center of the country range
	from 14°C to 33°C, with humidity ranging from 60% to 70% and an annual
	rainfall of 1200 mm. Côte d'Ivoire is a low-lying country. Plateaus and
	plains make up the vast majority of the terrain. The western part of the
	country, which is hilly, has a few thousand-meter elevations (Mount Nimba
	reaches 1752 m). Aside from this region, elevations typically range from
	100 and 350 m. The main characteristic of these plateaus is ferruginous
	armor stone, which is visible on the surface in the form of rust-colored slabs

its northern borders. Côte d'Ivoire is a West African country and a member of the African Union. It is bordered by Mali and Burkina Faso to the north, Liberia and Guinea to the west, Ghana to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. The population census in 2021 indicated 29,389,150 people (https://www.ins.ci/).. The climate is typically hot and humid, putting it somewhere between equatorial and tropical. The climate is equatorial near the coasts and semi-arid further north. Temperatures average around 28 degrees Celsius. There are two distinct climatic zones: the tropical savannah climate and the equatorial climate, both of which are mostly dry. The brief dry season lasts from August to September. The wet season lasts from May to July, while the short season lasts from October to November. but is occasionally obscured by sand, gravel, or more delicate materials. Having lost 90% of its forest cover over the past 60 years, Côte d'Ivoire has undertaken several reforms with a view to stop deforestation, preserve remaining forests, and restore forest cover to 20% of the territory (https://flegtvpafacility.org/category/news/cote-ivoire-news/). The figure

14

presents Côte d'Ivoire's forests. Figure 14. Map presenting Côte d'Ivoire forests 5.2. COVID 19 information from Côte d'Ivoire

In Ivory coast, the 45-year-old Ivorian who stayed in Italy, was the first case of COVID-19 reported on 11 March 2020

[START_REF] Bone | Forestry and Logging Global Market Report 2020-30: COVID-19 Impact and Recovery[END_REF]

. The country counts 88,098 cases (https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/, accessed on 20 February 2023). On December 31, 2021, the highest number of cases (2,858) were reported. However, 87,222 recovered were registered at the same time. As for deaths relevant to the Coronavirus, 834 persons passed away (https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/, accessed on 20 February 2023). The most recent death (

14

) was reported on September 14, 2021. From this date, the number of the active cases and death were highly decreased. Moreover, a total of 24,416,782 vaccine doses have been administered (https://covid19.who.int/region/afro/country/ci, accessed on 21 February 2023). In detail, around (48 %, 13.44 million) of inhabitants were vaccinated with a complete vaccinated of (43%, 12.04 million) and (5%, 1.40 million) partial vaccinated (https://ourworldindata.org/covidvaccinations, accessed on 20 February 2023). The Figure

15

presents the recorded COVID-19 cases per district.

  On March 23, 2020, more measures were enacted. Forty-five (45) training and assessment centers were built on March 29th. At the same time, Abidjan was cut off from the rest of the country on April 29 (UNICEF, 2020).

		On May 5, 2020, the World Bank
	and the Government of Côte d'Ivoire signed a $35 million credit agreement
	with the International Development Association (IDA) to scale up efforts
	to combat COVID-19 in the country (Ndri, 2020). Notwithstanding the
	evolution of contamination cases, a limitation was imposed on the
	reopening of educational institutions and dining establishments in the
	interior cities on May 8th. On February 26, 2021, 500 000 doses of the
	Oxford-AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine landed in the Ivory Coast (Burki,
	2021). The borders are currently open to travelers, but some require a
	negative PCR test result. Quarantine is also in effect. In addition, the
	country is implementing partial lockdown measures, and masks are
	required in public spaces and on public transportation (https://partir.ouest-
	france.fr/cote-d-ivoire/covid-19)	(https://partir.ouest-france.fr/cote-d-
	ivoire/covid-19).
	5.4. Impact of COVID-19 on protected area (classified forests, parks,
	wildlife reserves) in Côte d'Ivoire at the operational and human level

Table 9 .

 9 The impact of COVID-19 on forests health in Côte d'Ivoire (proportion of respondents).

	Variables	Positive (%) Negative (%) None (%) Total (%)
	Fire suppression	17	17	67	100
	Pest control	17	0	83	100
	Wildlife and fisheries	17	17	67	100
	Conservation activities	0	50	50	100
	Production	0	17	83	100
	Forest protection	17	67	17	100
	5.5.2. Sustainable forest management
	Sustainable forest management in Côte d'Ivoire was assessed through the
	impact of COVID-19 on research, tourism, harvesting, backfire ignition,
	thinning out, controlling competition and regeneration. The result indicated
	that the COVID-19 pandemic had significant negative effects on tourism
	(67%) and research (50%) (Figure 17; Photo 10). The other activities were
	not or less Impacted.

Table 11 .

 11 Local people dependence on forest goods and services

	Variable

Photo 17. Women doing maintenance work within Dahliafleur Reserve, Côte d'Ivoire

  8 people per square kilometer. These three climatic zones are further subdivided into ten phytogeographic zones: Atacora chain, Bassila, coastal, Mekrou-Pendjari, North-Borgou, Plateau, Pobè, South-Borgou, Valley of Oueme, and Zou (Adomou, 2005). Semi-deciduous rain forest, swamp forest, gallery forest, dense dry forest, open forest, woodland savanna, and tree and shrub savanna are the main vegetation types in Benin (Adomou et al., 2010). The global flora of Benin is estimated to be 2,807 plant species divided into 1,129 genera and 185 families (Akoègninou

Table 12 .

 12 The impact of COVID-19 on forests health (proportion of respondents). Discussion with Captain Ahouandjinou from Abomey-Calavi forestry postThe number of tourist visits in Pendjari Park in 2019, 2020, and 2021 is 9374, 4962, and 5915, respectively. There is a 46.06% drop in visits in 2020 compared to 2019 during the pandemic.

		Positive	Negative
	Variables	(%)	(%)	None (%) Total (%)
	Fire suppression	75	0	25	100
	Pest control	0	0	100	100
	Wildlife and fisheries	75	0	25	100
	Conservation activities	50	25	25	100
	Production	50	25	25	100
	Forest protection	25	25	50	100
	6.5.2. Sustainable forest management
	Sustainable forest management was assessed through the impact of
	COVID-19 on research, tourism, harvesting, backfire ignition, thinning out,
	controlling competition, and regeneration. The respondents (Photo 19)
	indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic did not have a significant effect on
	sustainable forest management since most activities (50-100%) continued
	even when restrictions were imposed (Figure 29).

  Forest sector governance during the COVID-19 pandemic in Benin All the informants (100%) indicated that the COVID-19 crisis management by the forest administration in Benin was efficient. Moreover, all of them (100%) indicated that field staffs were able to ensure that logging standards are maintained and illegal activities are minimized. The photos 21 and 22 below show forestry sector staff from the Atlantic and Coastal departments during a refresher course. .7. Cooperation International and regional cooperations have been impacted by the pandemic. To adapt to the change created by the pandemic, new information and communication technologies have been widely used, including Zoom meetings, webinars, and other communication tools.

	6.6.
	Decreased provisioning of ES		75%
	Increased provisioning of ES		25%
			0%	20% 40% 60% 80%
	Decreased			100%
	Increased	0%
		0%	50%	100%
		Proportion of respondents (%)

Photos 21 and 22 showing training session with forestry staffs from Atlantic and littoral regions on data analysis in Excel, directed by Dr Lokonon E. Bruno.

6

Table 13

 13

	. Groups of local people affected by the pandemic and
	proportion of respondents
	Variable	Proportion of respondents (%)
	Women	44
	Indigenous	0
	Young people	11
	Older people	33

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………..v Executive summary……………………………………………………………..vi Résumé………………………………………………………………………...viii

Acknowledgements

The author is greatly indebted to the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) for funding this work. I am grateful to the respondents who participated in the surveys, and to forest authorities from Benin, Ghana, and Côte d'Ivoire for supporting me during the data collection process.

The results from the survey indicated that the women (41%) were most affected by the pandemic (Table 10; Photo 16). Older people (06%) and indigenous people (06%) are weakly affected. The common measures applied by local people are non-pharmaceutical interventions, local medicine (including the consumption of the national alcohol Sodabi, etc.), and vaccinations. In addition, to cope with the pandemic, some local people practiced food exchanges. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) also received subventions from the government. However, some people did not receive anything from the authorities.

Summary of Findings and Discussion

Impact of COVID-19 on forestry development

The survey results from the three countries show that COVID-19 had a negative impact on forest protection in Ghana (100%) and Côte d'Ivoire (67%), but did not negatively impact forest protection in Benin (50%).

Similarly, the pandemic had a negative impact on conservation activities in Ghana (100%) and Côte d'Ivoire (67%), but had a positive impact on these activities in Benin (50%). The results show that sustainable forest management activities such as backfiring, harvesting, regeneration, and other silvicultural inputs (50-83%) continued even when restrictions were imposed in all three countries, except in Côte d'Ivoire where tourism (67%) and research (50%) were negatively impacted by the pandemic. Illegal activities such as wildlife poaching, gold panning, and logging in forests have increased during the pandemic in Ghana (100%), Côte d'Ivoire (50%), and Benin (100%). The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted the provisioning of ecosystem services in Ghana (80%), Côte d'Ivoire (75%), and Benin (75%). For all the informants, the pandemic had a negative impact on the production and trade of certified or legal timber in Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Benin. The majority of the forest managers in Ghana (67%) and Côte d'Ivoire (67%) assumed that the COVID-19 crisis