RETAIL BRAND EQUITY A CONCEPTUAL AND DIFFERENTIATED APPROACH

Keywords: France, brand equity, private label, retail brand, service brand, store brand, feedback effects

This research focuses on retail branding in France. A qualitative study aims at identifying which are the specific dimensions of brand equity to be adapted to retail brands and which feedback effects of brand extension can occur on the image of retailer when a retail brand (which is the extended brand) dissatisfies consumers. Results show that there are two policies of retail brands: service retail brands (store brands and "composite" private labels) and private labels. This separation between the various categories of retail brands leads to consider two different models of brand equity. Whereas private labels seem to be only related to product dimensions, service retail brand equity is composed of three dimensions related to: 1) the product, 2) the services delivered in the store, and 3) the retail company, which displays this product under its own store brand. Finally, results of an exploratory research seem to underscore the superiority of the service brand strategies on private label policy.

Introduction

A fierce competition characterizes the French retail market. This is due to a relatively small number of big retailers and the saturation and even the decline of several retail concepts such as variety stores, supermarkets and hypermarkets [START_REF] Cliquet | Plural forms in store networks: A proposition of a model for store network evolution[END_REF]. This situation raises questions, which affect both marketing and management of the French retailers. One of these questions deals with branding. It seems that qualitative innovation 1 , sophisticated packaging and a wide range of retail brands (from generic products to high value retail brands) can create consumer value. These retail brands appear to be henceforth among the most effective tools for retailers regarding sales development 2 and adjustment to the legal context. There is a tendency towards an increasing perceived quality level of retail brands in many European countries such as Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom or Canada [START_REF] Quelch | Brands Versus Private Labels: Fighting to Win[END_REF][START_REF] Johansson | The buying of private label brands and manufacturer brands in grocery retailing : a comparative study of buying processes in the UK, Sweden and Italy[END_REF][START_REF] Oubina | Relationships of retail brand manufacturers with retailers[END_REF]. The perceived quality 3 is one of the sources of retail brand success leading to store differentiation, and to store loyalty [START_REF] Halstead | Assessing the vulnerability of private label brands[END_REF][START_REF] Richardson | Are store brands perceived to be just another brand?[END_REF][START_REF] Corstjens | Building store loyalty trough store brands[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | Corporate branding, internationalisation and the retailer as a brand[END_REF][START_REF] Rondan Cataluna | The influence of price and brand loyalty on store brands versus national brands[END_REF]. However, the definition of retail brands and the policies developed by European retailers seem to be different from one country to another and from one retailer to another within the same country. This is the reason why a research on retail brand equity can be valuable to understand better, where this retail brand value stems from and how to measure it. The retailing literature does not answer this question so far.

In the first section, the Keller's conceptual framework of brand equity is adapted to a variety of retail brand policies. Hence, several research questions emerge from that: What is the best conceptual framework to measure retail brand equity? Do different retail brand policies lead to different retail brand equity models? Why do some retail brands 4 get higher brand equity than others? What are feedback effects of brand extension on the retailer's image specifically in the case of consumers' dissatisfaction?

In the second section, an exploratory research strives to underscore the main dimensions of brand equity for each category of retail brands and to solve some of the research questions exposed in the first section. [START_REF] Keller | Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity[END_REF] built a brand equity conceptual framework composed of dimensions, which a precise examination should lead to an eventual adaptation to retail brands. After a quick description of the Keller's model, an adapted framework to retail brands differentiates various marketing policies. [START_REF] Keller | Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity[END_REF] defines brand equity as « The differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand ». He suggests comparing the assessments by a consumer of a product with a brand name on the one hand and an unnamed product (without brand) on the other hand. The result of this comparison can explain the preference, or intention to buy, or even the final consumer choice. Keller considers two general components: brand awareness and brand image.

Brand equity and retail brands

Keller's brand equity model

Brand awareness

"Brand awareness relates to the likelihood that a brand name will come to mind and the ease with it does so". Brand awareness is composed by brand recognition (which requires that the brand is well known by consumers to come spontaneously in his mind) and by brand recall (which tests consumers' ability to retrieve the brand when given the product category for example).

Brand image

"Brand image is defined here as perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory". Brand associations form the meaning of the brand for consumers. Associations are not homogeneous. Actually, three categories of brand associations emerge (according to the level of abstraction of the association):

-Attributes: correspond to "descriptive features that characterize the product". Their differentiation stems from the way they relate directly to product performance. For example, price information, packaging appearance and brand personality 5 are non product-related attributes contrary to ingredients.

-Benefits: correspond to "the personal value consumers attach to the product attributes that is, what consumers think the product can do for them". Three categories can be distinguished: functional benefits (correspond to the product-related attributes); experiential benefits (correspond to the product-related attributes that are for example sensory pleasure, variety and cognitive stimulation) and symbolic benefits (correspond to the non product-related that are for example personal expression and social approval).

-Brand attitudes: correspond to "consumers' overall evaluations of a brand". Brand attitudes are important because they can explain consumer behavior (e.g., brand choice). They are also in relationship with both product (attributes, functional and experiential benefits) and symbolic benefits. Because it is difficult to specify correctly which components, attributes or benefits, capture the attitude concept, researchers suggest to separating attitude from other components. They built then multi-attribute models of consumer preference including a general component of attitude toward the brand.

Finally, three dimensions can summarize the Keller's approach: 1) brand awareness; 2) dimensions related to the product (product effect); 3) non product-related dimensions (brand effect).

Insert Figure 1 [START_REF] Keller | Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity[END_REF] views brand equity as a process whereby brand equity (or the differential response that makes up brand equity) occurs "when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable 6 , strong 7 and unique brand associations in memory".

Critical views

Keller's model is known as a basic conceptualization of brand equity even though its primary components of brand equity are subject to critics in recent works [START_REF] Yoo | An examination of selected marketing mix elements and brand equity[END_REF][START_REF] Netemeyer | Developing and validating measures of facets of customer-based brand equity[END_REF]). These last researches are questionable. For instance, brand loyalty seems to be more a consequence or a goal to be reached than an antecedent of the brand equity construct [START_REF] Taylor | The importance of brand equity to customer loyalty[END_REF]. Another example concerns brand awareness considered as a secondary facet of brand equity whereas it is a core facet in [START_REF] Pappu | Consumer-based brand equity: improving the measurement -empirical evidence[END_REF]. Moreover, [START_REF] Yoo | An examination of selected marketing mix elements and brand equity[END_REF] and [START_REF] Netemeyer | Developing and validating measures of facets of customer-based brand equity[END_REF] treat perceived quality as a sub-dimension of the image construct, which is questionable as well. One cannot split these two constructs off because perceived quality is a core facet of brand positioning which should be studied through the brand image. Many research works measure perceived quality as a component of positioning [START_REF] Bellizzi | Consumer perceptions of national brands, private, and generic brands[END_REF][START_REF] Gordon | Retailer brands -the value equation for success in the 90s[END_REF][START_REF] Granzin | An investigation of the market for generic products[END_REF][START_REF] Collins-Dodd | Store brands and retail differentiation: the influence of store image and store brand attitude on store own brand perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Kapferer | Ce qui va changer les marques[END_REF][START_REF] Kapferer | Les marques capital de l'entreprise[END_REF]. Hence, perceived quality is part of the image construct. The dimensions considered as primary facets of brand equity by [START_REF] Yoo | An examination of selected marketing mix elements and brand equity[END_REF] and [START_REF] Netemeyer | Developing and validating measures of facets of customer-based brand equity[END_REF] are actually revealed after collecting data. Thus, brand equity dimensions seem to depend more on data and objects (especially for brands of manufactured products).

Finally, the Keller's model (1993) defines each brand equity component as an antecedent or a consequence, and so appears to be a more relevant approach than this of [START_REF] Aaker | Managing brand equity[END_REF]. And because the Keller' model is synthetic with clearly defined antecedents and consequences, brand equity components can be easily adapted to any object of study. That is the reason why this model is used here to study retail brand equity.

Various retail brand equity for various retail-marketing policies

Retailing appears as an idiosyncratic activity and comparing retail markets is often a difficult task. In France, the article #62 of Act called "Nouvelles régulations économiques" ( May 15, 2001) defines a retail brand as follows:

"A product is considered sold under a retail brand when its characteristics are defined by the retail company which owns the brand." 8 .

In the French retail market, three categories of retail branding policies can be seen: 1) private label (or "brands owned by the retailer" 9 i.e., a brand name for each category of products as Intermarché is used to do); 2) "composite" private label (a brand name is specified for each category of products but the retailer adds a generic brand name for every category of products). E.Leclerc offers for example a "composite" private label for shower gel named Manava Marque Repère where Marque Repère is the brand name for every category of products; 3) store brand (or "retailer brand" with the trade name of the retailer: Carrefour, Cora or Auchan). Thus, in an external point of view, these three retail-branding policies differ only on the kind of brand name labeled on products (and what it means to customers). This question is not specific to the French context (Dhar and Hoch 10 , 1997 on the American market; Burt, 2000 on the British market).

In an internal point of view, organizational considerations can explain partially some of these strategic choices. In France, three different organizational structures do exist:

-Company-owned systems: Auchan, Cora, Casino, Carrefour hypermarkets (for most of them) -Plural form systems: Champion supermarkets from the Carrefour group -Association of retailers: E. Leclerc, Intermarché and Système U In a company-owned system, power is top-down whereas a retailers' association is a bottomup system. In a franchised arrangement power is theoretically and contractually horizontal even though the franchisor's position is advantageous compared to the franchisees' one. In a plural form system, the presence of company-owned units within the network reinforces the power. Therefore, the franchisor's power is a more or less oblique top-down line.

Insert Figure 2

Unlike Système U 11 store brand strategies tend to be more closely related to company-owned systems whereas private labels or "composite" private labels strategies are implemented by retailers' associations, hence the following assumption: a centralized retail company has a store brand oriented policy. In other words, a company-owned retail system with a top-down power line has more chance to select a store brand policy. On the contrary, a retailers' association is more inclined to use private labels. There is a link between store brand and the franchising system in any case because of the definition of a franchise network. A franchise system is founded on a concept composed of a know how (variable elements) and a format (fixed elements among which brand is the most important), which should be developed through a network of units (stores, hotels, restaurants …). Maintaining the uniformity of this concept is often difficult in a strictly franchised system [START_REF] Bradach | Franchise Organizations[END_REF]. This is one of the main strengths of plural form organizations. That means the introduction of company-owned units in a franchise system is useful most of the time to maintain the quality of the brand often deteriorated by franchisees' free riding actions [START_REF] Manolis | A Preliminary Investigation of Ownership Conversions in Franchised Distribution Systems[END_REF].

Given this typology of power within retail companies, testing the above assumption is clearly impossible in the French context because of a too weak number of retailers. The concentration degree in the French retail industry is much too high to do it.

Strategic and organizational reasons can explain differences between retail brands. But the point of view of consumers is determinant to identify what sources can build retail brand equity because they actively participate at the process of value creation and in the long-term success of brands [START_REF] Blackston | Observations: building brand equity by managing the brand's relationship[END_REF][START_REF] Cobb-Walgren | Brand equity, brand preference, and purchase intent[END_REF][START_REF] Dyson | Understanding, measuring, and using brand equity[END_REF].

Store brands and private labels

Before developing the explanatory research two propositions emerge from the literature. First of all, through a semantic generalization effect, associations between retailers and their brand are reinforced when there is a unique brand name for the retail company, the stores and the products: the retailer's name is both a private label and a store brand. Hence, a transfer from the retailer's name to the store fascia and to the branded product becomes possible and can lead to a generalization of consumer preferences. In other words, if a consumer is used to buying a product of a given brand, he may buy a product of another category under the same brand just because he likes the brand [START_REF] Fry | Family branding and consumer choice[END_REF]. In the case of a store brand, there is a larger share of associations between the retailer's image, the stores and the branded product than in the case of private labels (which are not signed by a single name) (Tinard and Tinard, 2003: 61;Filser et al. 2001: 172). Therefore, the first proposition concerns the existence of a halo effect between the store and the store brand, which is not assumed for private labels.

Moreover, cognitive psychology views brand as a semantic network composed of many categories in consumer's mind. According to [START_REF] Mervis | Categorization of natural objects[END_REF] "a category exists whenever two or more distinguishable objects or events are treated equivalently". Within each cognitive category, hierarchical levels do exist. Three levels identify store brands (Burt and Sparks, 2002 12 ):

1) An abstract level related to the corporate dimension: managerial values (sense of ethical or social responsibility),

2) An intermediate level related to stores: competent and polite employees 13 , 3) A concrete level related to product associations: extrinsic cues of packaging.

There is then a continuum from a basic and concrete image to an abstract image as far as a store brand is concerned. Le Hegarat's results (2000) show that beliefs linked to a store brand stem from beliefs on the retail company (corporate level) and from beliefs on stores. This result is not confirmed in the case of private labels. The store brand needs three levels of abstraction to form its image and its positioning unlike private labels, which the concrete level related to product associations, is the principal component of their image. Therefore, a second proposition deals with a more differentiated and stronger positioning of the store brand than the positioning of private labels because of a larger and more dense "space of associations" for store brands than for private labels.

Toward a retail brand equity model

Once the distinction between store brands and private labels is clearly stated, the problem is Retail brands differ from manufacturer brands because retailing is a service business [START_REF] Berry | Retail Businesses are Service Businesses[END_REF]. So retail brands are service brands related to a real store and hence associations with the store image should be included in the brand image of these retail brands [START_REF] Burt | The Strategic Role of Retail Brands in British Grocery Retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | Corporate branding, internationalisation and the retailer as a brand[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | The international transfer of store brand image[END_REF]. As a service brand, nothing links a retail brand with a product like in manufacturer brand cases (packaged goods) but with a retail company and its stores. According to [START_REF] Berry | Cultivating service brand equity[END_REF], a service brand is composed of tangible attributes (product-related) on the one hand and associations related to the experience with the company on the other hand (intangible attributes). In retailing, the company is viewed through its stores and the store is considered as the product of the retail company [START_REF] Dicke | Franchising in America: The Development of a Business Method 1840-1980[END_REF]. As many research articles tend to show it, store image impacts retail brand image [START_REF] Richardson | The influence of store aesthetics on evaluation of private label brands[END_REF][START_REF] Grewal | The effect of store name, brand name and price discounts on consumers' evaluations and purchase intentions[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | The Strategic Role of Retail Brands in British Grocery Retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | Corporate branding, internationalisation and the retailer as a brand[END_REF][START_REF] Collins-Dodd | Store brands and retail differentiation: the influence of store image and store brand attitude on store own brand perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Semeijn | Consumer evaluations of store brands: effects of store image and product attributes[END_REF][START_REF] San Martin Gutierrez | A model of consumer relationships with store brands, personnel and stores in Spain[END_REF]. Unlike retail brands, the image of stores or the experience within the stores do not influence manufacturer brands [START_REF] Richardson | The influence of store aesthetics on evaluation of private label brands[END_REF]. Four dimensions of store services (both physical and psychological dimensions) can influence the image of service brands [START_REF] Eiglier | Servuction, le marketing des services[END_REF]): 1) The physical elements; 2) The employees in touch with customers; 3) The other clients (they take a part in the atmosphere of store); 4) The service itself stemming from interactions between the three previous dimensions.

Based on this definition of store services, retail brand equity are composed of similar elements like any other brand (manufacturer brand) with an associated service component. One can then propose an adapted model for retail brands.

Insert Figure 3 This model enables the measure of the equity of each retail brand used in three different kinds of retail brand policies. However, this assumption is questionable: Does brand equity exist for each retail brand policy? This question leads to the third proposition of the research.

Before answering this important question, one can wonder what the consequences on core brand image are when the extended brand is unsuccessful. Studying retail brand equity means also identifying an eventual feedback effect of the retail brand on the retailer's image when this brand dissatisfies consumers. A retail brand can be considered as an extension to the products sold by the retailer of his name and of his fascia [START_REF] Lambrey | La polarité des enseignes de distribution :une analyse dynamique[END_REF]. For instance, Carrefour is the name of a retailer, the hypermarket fascia and a store brand. In other words, in this case, the name of the retailer is extended to stores through the fascia which is in turn extended to product through a store brand based on the retailer's name. These extensions are more attractive to retailers in the case of store brands because they provide a way to take advantage of retailer's brand name recognition. Generally impacts of the image of retailer on consumer's evaluation of retail brand are studied [START_REF] Richardson | The influence of store aesthetics on evaluation of private label brands[END_REF][START_REF] Grewal | The effect of store name, brand name and price discounts on consumers' evaluations and purchase intentions[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | The Strategic Role of Retail Brands in British Grocery Retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | Corporate branding, internationalisation and the retailer as a brand[END_REF][START_REF] Collins-Dodd | Store brands and retail differentiation: the influence of store image and store brand attitude on store own brand perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Semeijn | Consumer evaluations of store brands: effects of store image and product attributes[END_REF][START_REF] San Martin Gutierrez | A model of consumer relationships with store brands, personnel and stores in Spain[END_REF]. More precisely, [START_REF] San Martin Gutierrez | A model of consumer relationships with store brands, personnel and stores in Spain[END_REF] shows that consumers' satisfaction of retail brands lead to their trust in them and in the store.

However, there is no research in the retailing literature on the feedback effect of retail brand on the retailer's image 14 . The question is then to identify the four main feedback effects of brand extension in the case of the retailer's image (here from fascia to products):

-Dilution [START_REF] Tauber | Brand franchise extensions: new product benefits from existing brand names[END_REF][START_REF] Ries | Le positionnement. La conquête de l'esprit[END_REF][START_REF] Farquhar | Managing brand equity[END_REF][START_REF] Aaker | Consumer evaluations of brand extensions[END_REF]Cegarra andMerunka, 1992, 1993;Loken and Rodder-John, 1993;[START_REF] Jap | An examination of the effects of multiple brand extensions on the brand concept[END_REF][START_REF] Milberg | Reciprocity effects of brand extensions Dilution, fortification, expansion[END_REF][START_REF] Broniarczyk | The Reciprocal Effect of Brand Equity and Trivial Attributes[END_REF][START_REF] Meyvis | When are broader brands stronger brands? An accessibility perspective on the success of brand extension[END_REF] -Fortification (Cegarra andMerunka, 1992, 1993;[START_REF] Milberg | Reciprocity effects of brand extensions Dilution, fortification, expansion[END_REF] -Confusion / creation of a diffuse image (Cegarra andMerunka, 1992, 1993;[START_REF] Meyvis | When are broader brands stronger brands? An accessibility perspective on the success of brand extension[END_REF] -Expansion [START_REF] Cegarra | Les modèles d'évaluation des extensions de marque par les consommateurs[END_REF]1993;[START_REF] Milberg | Reciprocity effects of brand extensions Dilution, fortification, expansion[END_REF].

From this literature, two feedback effects concern the case of consumer dissatisfaction due to a retail brand: confusion/creation of a diffuse image of retailer and dilution of retailer's image, hence a fourth proposition: a dissatisfaction of a consumer by a retail brand leads to a negative impact on the retailer image. Here is a summary of the four propositions:

-Proposition 1 (P1): There is a halo effect between stores and store brands but not between stores and private labels -Proposition 2 (P2): Store brands can build a more differentiated and stronger positioning than private labels -Proposition 3 (P3): There a difference in brand equity between private labels and store brands -Proposition 4 (P4): There is a negative feedback effect of the retail brand on the retailer's image especially when consumers are dissatisfied by this retail brand A specific exploratory research deals now with these propositions.

Retail brand equity: An exploratory research

Most of researches on branding deal with manufacturers' brands. The former theoretical part of this paper tried to underscore several features specific to retail brands. An exploratory research strives to compensate for the lack of theoretical work link to retail brands and proposes a specific methodology before displaying results.

The methodology

This exploratory research aimed at identifying specific dimensions of brand equity for each category of retail brands, at choosing adapted measurement instruments for the concept of brand equity in retailing, and at defining a set of products, a questioning procedure, a sample, and a data analysis method, which are now detailed.

The selection of three products (grated cheese, shower gel, foie gras) corresponds to three levels of consumers' implication to take into account the level of the perceived risk when making a wrong decision. Four categories of brands illustrate each marketing policy:

-a national brand leader: a different one for each category of products -a store brand: Carrefour is selected for it is the most well known -a private label: the French retail group Intermarché is chosen with Pâturages de France as a private label of grated cheese, Via as a private label of shower gel, Comte de Queriac as a private label of foie gras) -a "composite" private label: Marque Repère from E.Leclerc group.

A careful literature review leads to identify store image items (Martineau, 1958; Kunkel and Berry, 1968; Lindquist, 1974; Oxenfeldt, 1974; Schiffman, Dash and Dillon, 1977; Nickel and Wertheimer, 1979; Pessemier, 1980; Mazursky and Jacoby, 1986; Eiglier and Langeard, 1987; Zimmer and Golden, 1988; Pontier, 1988; Parasuraman et al. 1991; Jallais et al. 1994; Semeijn et al. 2004). A marketing expert 15 interview helped to generate managerial values and symbols (reflecting the abstraction level of the brand). Indeed managerial values are important and are determinant in the long-term success of the brand because they construct and preserve the identity of the brand [START_REF] Kapferer | Ce qui va changer les marques[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | Corporate branding, internationalisation and the retailer as a brand[END_REF]. A survey enables to capture items related to the product and other items through interviews with a specific procedure.

Fifty-four in-depth interviews are conducted in Rennes, Britanny (West part of France) in places close to each store considered for this research. 0pen-ended questions helps to collect data. Each interview begins with free association tasks where consumers have to tell everything which comes immediately to his/her mind when s/he is thinking about (brand name). This method is usual for researchers who seek to collect general associations about brands [START_REF] Keller | Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity[END_REF]Changeur andDano, 1996, 1998;[START_REF] Roedder | Brand concept maps: a methodology for identifying brand association networks[END_REF]. Each interview is processed through the repertory grid method [START_REF] Kelly | The Psychology of Personal Constructs[END_REF]. Then consumers have to talk about differences they perceive between manufacturer brands and retail brands. This technique provides differentiating associations. The Laddering technique [START_REF] Reynolds | Laddering theory, method, analysis, and interpretation[END_REF] enables to obtain different level of associations through a question "Why?" asked to any interviewee systematically. The following step consists in interviewing consumers about their motivations to buy or not a retail brand instead of a manufacturer brand. Then consumers talk about their experience in store. In other words, they indicate the most important service attributes, which make them appreciate or depreciate the retail company, its brands and its store. The analogical method is used to gather data about the personality of brands and the personality of retailers. This method consists in asking consumers to imagine the brand, the store and the retail company as a person. Hence, the collected metaphorical vocabulary defines an abstract level of image completed by managerial values of the retailer.

Consumers must be familiar with retail brands, sensitive, and attentive to signals send by retailers [START_REF] Chebat | The interplay of cognitions and emotions in building services customers retention[END_REF][START_REF] Broniarczyk | The Reciprocal Effect of Brand Equity and Trivial Attributes[END_REF], hence a selection of specific consumer profiles. Consumers can then provide stronger associations [START_REF] Aaker | Managing brand equity[END_REF][START_REF] Yoo | An examination of selected marketing mix elements and brand equity[END_REF] and reveal more differences between brands (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987: 415).

A traditional content analysis method helps to benchmark main topics, to classify consumers' responses through a pre-coding process, and to generate items until no other dimension of retail brand equity can be found. Finally, data reveal ten topics:

-General associations about each retail brand 16 -Internal and external attributes (e.g., items related to the attractiveness of the -Store services dimensions perceived important by consumers all the more as attitude and purchase of retail brands depend on them.

Towards a differentiated retail brand equity

Content analysis findings indicate that retail brands have common image attributes.

Consumers perceive retail brands as:

-a mid-range brand or mid-scale brand -good and quality products -attractive price -good quality/price ratio According to these results, retailers must provide branded products with an attractive price, an acceptable quality level and a good quality/price ratio to be coherent with consumers' perception. However, a differentiated positioning is based on specific attributes 18 in order to build high brand equity. The following findings show globally that retail brands can build their own brand equity. In other words, results do confirm the three propositions exposed above about 1) the halo effect, 2) the strength and the differentiation of positioning and 3) the difference in brand equity between store brands and private labels.

The exploratory research brings two main results. First, it confirms the existence of a halo effect between store and retail brand as already stated in previous research [START_REF] Richardson | The influence of store aesthetics on evaluation of private label brands[END_REF][START_REF] Grewal | The effect of store name, brand name and price discounts on consumers' evaluations and purchase intentions[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | The Strategic Role of Retail Brands in British Grocery Retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | Corporate branding, internationalisation and the retailer as a brand[END_REF][START_REF] Collins-Dodd | Store brands and retail differentiation: the influence of store image and store brand attitude on store own brand perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Semeijn | Consumer evaluations of store brands: effects of store image and product attributes[END_REF][START_REF] San Martin Gutierrez | A model of consumer relationships with store brands, personnel and stores in Spain[END_REF]. Indeed consumers' interviews reveal that personalities of the store brand Carrefour and the "composite" private label Marque Repère are cordial, sociable, accessible, hard working, structured, modern. According to customers' explanations, these adjectives refer to store services with physical elements and employees in touch with customers (for example, "hard working" and "sociable" are linked to employees). However, this is not confirmed for private labels because associations of branded products refer only to the product (for example shower gel May evoke the softness because of the name May and because of the nature of product). Even if these results are included in a preliminary research, it seems that P1, which is "there is a halo effect between stores and store brands but not between stores and private labels" is supported and is extended to the "composite" private labels. Store brand and "composite" private label are finally real service brands because of the important role of the store in the image building process unlike private label. Hence, the service component is a primary source of building a differentiated positioning for only service brands. The next section justifies this consideration and solves the second proposition.

The exploratory research reveals that in the case of store brands three levels of abstraction do exist for brand image building even though it is not confirmed for private labels. Store brands have three sources of image: the product, the store and the retailer as stated above. For example Carrefour as a store brand is perceived sociable (related to the store employees), serious (related to the grated cheese), accessible (related to the store location) and trustable (related to the retail company). Thus, three sources of image construct the store brand image.

In other words, product associations (concrete level), store associations (intermediate level)

and retailer associations (abstract level) build the image of store brand unlike private labels. Indeed in the case of private labels, associations dealing with branded products work exclusively at the concrete level. There is no association between a private label and the retail company or the stores. Brand name and stores/retailer name have no relationship. Results show also that for "composite" private labels, branded product, stores and retail company belong to the same category in consumer's mind (defined by Mervis and Rosch 19 in 1981). In other words whereas branded products, stores and retail company are three distinguishable objects they are related to the same brand concept in the only cases of store brand and "composite" private label. For example Marque Repère is perceived as open-minded (related to store and more precisely to competent employees), independent (related to retail company) and intelligent (related to product and in a stronger way to the shower gel). At this stage of the research P2 is not totally supported: store brands and "composite" private labels can build a more differentiated positioning than private labels. To support totally P2, the strength of positioning needs to be measured as well.

According to [START_REF] Keller | Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity[END_REF], the number of associations defines the strength of a brand. [START_REF] Krishnan | Characteristics of memory associations: a consumer-based brand equity perspective[END_REF] states: "as the number of brand associations increases, the memory structure for that brand becomes richer…. Typically, increasing the number of associations makes it easier to access the particular brand node from memory". From the calculation of the number of associations for each retail brand, results show that the number of associations for service brands (e.g. store brand and "composite" private label) is stronger than for private labels. For example the store brand Carrefour present 22 specific associations 20 to build its positioning contrary to private labels with 15 specific associations. Because service brands can build their image on three dimensions (product, stores and retail company), it can be said that service brands can help in building a more differentiated and stronger positioning because of better image synergies. Finally, P2 ("store brands can build a more differentiated and stronger positioning than private labels") is supported.

Results show mostly that service brands and private labels are different in their image building process. Store image and retailer image play an important role in service brand image. Conceptualizing retail brand equity leads then to build two different models: one for service brand equity and one for private label equity. Directions for defining these two models are given further. Therefore, P3, which is "there a difference in brand equity between private labels and store brands" is supported and it can be summarized like this: "there is a difference in brand equity between service brands and private labels".

Before concluding this research on the retail brand equity a last proposition concerns the feedback effect of retail brand on the retailer's image in the case of consumer's dissatisfaction.

No negative feedback effect on the retailer's image

During interviews consumers talk about what can happen with a dissatisfying retail brand and the consequences on the brand, the stores and the retail company itself. The store image and the retail company image are unanimously preserved. So it seems that there is no negative feedback effect on the brand (neither on the product with the same brand name), on the stores (frequentation is the same) and on the retail company (still perceived trustable as far as

Carrefour and E. Leclerc are concerned) when a critical incident occurs dealing with a retail brand. This result is valid for every retail brands (private labels, store brands and "composite" private labels). Therefore, results confirm those of [START_REF] Keller | The Effects of Sequential Introduction of Brand Extensions[END_REF] on manufacturer brands. Indeed authors explain that an unsuccessful extension do not decrease the core brand evaluation. Consumers seem thus to make a difference between the performance of the extended brand which is here the retail brand and the image of retailer. So P4 which is "there is a negative feedback effect of the retail brand on the retailer's image especially when consumers are dissatisfied by this retail brand" is not supported. There is no negative feedback effect of the retail brand on the retailer's image when consumers are dissatisfied by the retail brand.

Through this exploratory research, the following questions about the retail brand equity are solved: What is the best framework to be built in order to measure retail brand equity? Do different retail brand policies lead to different retail brand equity models? Why do some retail brands get higher brand equity than others? What are feedback effects of brand extension on the retailer's image specifically in the case of consumers' dissatisfaction?

Limitations, contributions and research perspectives

This work is an exploratory research based on a limited sample of fifty-four consumers and entails some limitations. A quantitative study should test the previous assumptions. The sample is very localized (in Rennes, France) and that constitutes another limitation and prevents from any generalization. However, some contributions stem from this work. This is the first attempt in conceptualizing retail brand equity (in grocery retailing) when these retail brands are gaining larger and larger market shares and are essential in many product categories (for example in the United Kingdom, Germany, Belgium and Switzerland market share of retail brands has exceeded 40% according to Private Label Manufacturer Association in 2007). This research shows that French retail brands cannot be considered homogeneous anymore because of the various role played by the store and the retail company in their image building process and consequently in their equity building process. Finally, it seems that there is no feedback effect of retail brands on the retailer's image when this brand dissatisfies consumers.

This study can stimulate future research. From these previous results, two models may arise: on the one hand, the model of retail brand equity (figure 4) including both a store brand policy like Carrefour and a "composite" private label policy like Marque Repère of E. Leclerc.

Insert Figure 4

On the other hand, figure 5 presents a model of private label equity.

Insert Figure 5

The next objective is to test each model and to compare the equity of each retail brand, where it stems from in consumers' mind, and why one policy can succeed better than others can.

Conclusion

Adapting brand equity to retail marketing is a real managerial and strategic challenge.

Because retail brands can be considered as service brands, a model of retail brand equity founded on Keller's work (1993) is proposed with some dimensions related to stores added to the original Keller's model. The exploratory research described in this paper aims at identifying dimensions and associations of retail brand image. A survey on fifty-four customers helps to collect data in order to better understand three different policies of retail branding: a store brand policy, a "composite" private label policy, and a private label policy.

Results show primarily two policies could result from the three original ones: a service retail branding policy (store brands and "composite" private label branding policies) and a private label branding policy. This distinction leads to consider two different models of brand equity.

Whereas private label equity depends only on product dimensions, retail brand equity (as a service brand) is composed of three dimensions related to: 1) the product, 2) the services delivered in the store, and 3) the retail company, which displays this product under its own store brand.

These results confirm previous works about retail branding showing that a halo effect exists between stores and retail brands [START_REF] Richardson | The influence of store aesthetics on evaluation of private label brands[END_REF][START_REF] Grewal | The effect of store name, brand name and price discounts on consumers' evaluations and purchase intentions[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | The Strategic Role of Retail Brands in British Grocery Retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Burt | Corporate branding, internationalisation and the retailer as a brand[END_REF][START_REF] Collins-Dodd | Store brands and retail differentiation: the influence of store image and store brand attitude on store own brand perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Semeijn | Consumer evaluations of store brands: effects of store image and product attributes[END_REF][START_REF] San Martin Gutierrez | A model of consumer relationships with store brands, personnel and stores in Spain[END_REF].

Moreover, results show the superiority of service branding policies on private label policies because of the possible extension of associations in consumer's mind and of the number of associations, which is higher than for private labels. Marketers can found retail brands as service brands on a larger set of associations to build their positioning. That enables them to better differentiate and define a unique position in consumers' mind. That also entails a stronger level of memorization because of the higher number of associations compared to private labels). Finally, results show that no negative feedback effect exists on the retailer's image when consumers are dissatisfied by a retail brand. Store brands and "composite" private labels seem to be superior to private labels because of the synergies of image and the absence of impact on the organization in the case of incident.

So retail brands can be split in two categories: store brands and "composite" private labels in the one hand and strictly private labels on the other hand. The first category corresponds to a strategic branding policy whereas the second is more a tactical branding strategy. The next step of the research is to test the models of either strategic or tactical branding policies.

  on the one hand to know how to adapt the Keller's model to retail brand equity. In other words, one can wonder what the differences are between retail brand and manufacturer brand characteristics. On the other hand, studying brand equity leads to raise another question: what are the feedback effects of the retail brand on the retailer's image? In other words, this research aims at identifying what are the impacts on retailer's image when a retail brand dissatisfies consumers.

  packaging, recognition of the brand name…) -Motivations to buy or not retail brands -Benefits retired by the consumption of retail brands -Consumer's behavior and beliefs about the retail brand, the retailer and the store when dissatisfied by the retail brand -Consumer's behavior in the case of suppression of retail brand -Managerial values and symbols of retailer (see Appendix) -Personality of the retailer 17 (see Appendix) -Personality of the brand (see Appendix)

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1:

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2:

APPENDIX

Where: -P relates to products; -R: relates to retailer; -S: relates to store.

Service retail brand equity's model

Image of product-branded


domain: shs sde

text:
Julianna Colonna

Dynamics of nonknowledge-knowledge production in extractive activities

Introduction

The capacity of extracting and thus possessing a material is directly related to power if one considers that the extractive activity needs access to the material in question, the resources to exploit it, the accord of those related to the material, or the ability/possibility of coercing or persuading them.

When studying modalities of power in extractive activities, [START_REF] Frederiksen | Tactics of dispossession: Access, power, and subjectivity at the extractive frontier[END_REF]

use

Allen's work to present five different ways power can be exerted from a top-down perspective, meaning that these modalities are usually used by the extractive companies or the State to expand exploitation.

They argue that authority, coercion, and domination, despite attracting more attention from media and scientific research, are less used nowadays than "quitter" instruments such as manipulation, seduction, and persuasion. They also highlight how these quitter modalities of power are relevant to subject formation.

As [START_REF] Frederiksen | Tactics of dispossession: Access, power, and subjectivity at the extractive frontier[END_REF] specify, the taxonomy proposed by Allen and used by them is not definitive. Drawing on their work and hoping to contribute to the understanding of other quiet instruments of power, this paper sheds new light on what I argue can be understood as another quiet and subtle tactic of power: nonknowledge.

Nonknowledge is something one does not know, regardless of reasons, implications, or the theoretical possibility of "overcoming" this gap [START_REF] Böschen | Scientific Cultures of Non-Knowledge in the Controversy over Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): The Cases of Molecular Biology and Ecology[END_REF]). Nonknowledge production is always directly connected to knowledge production (Ravetz 1987, Böschen and[START_REF] Böschen | Advisory and Regulatory Science between Uncertainty, Normative Disagreement and Policy-Making[END_REF], creating what I call a dynamic of nonknowledge-knowledge production.

Within both references, this paper aims to identify power modalities in a case study of unusual underground exploitation in the Southwest of France, called Crétacé 4000. Situated in the industrial site of Lacq, Crétacé exploitation consists of the injection of liquid by-products from the extractive and chemical industries present in the industrial site. In the next sections, I will describe that the legal term used to designate these by-products is also a matter of power.

The extractive industry is not recent in the Lacq region, being present since 1949, nevertheless, it is the capacity to adapt and expand extractive activities through the last decades that interests me. It is relevant because, differently from the focus of [START_REF] Frederiksen | Tactics of dispossession: Access, power, and subjectivity at the extractive frontier[END_REF] on new projects, the expansion, in this case, means diversifying the type of extractive activity developed and making exploitation last.

Crétacé 4000

C4000, as Crétacé may be called, is part of an industrial site of Lacq, a city in the Atlantic Pyrenees department, as we can see in Figure 1. Lacq and adjacent municipalities are part of the traditional province of France, known as the Béarn.

Map with the location of Crétacé 4000case study Source: Julianna Colonna and Alice Nikolli, 2022 C4000 explores since 1957 a partially depleted gas reservoir localized in a geological stratum from the Cretaceous period, around 4000 meters under the surfacefrom where it gets its name "Crétacé 4000". A schema is presented in Figure 2.

The geological repository is deeply linked to gas and oil exploitation, the oil being discovered at the end of the 40s, and the gas at beginning of the 50s. C400 first consisted only in the reinjection of sulfured water, which is associated with the gas in the underground. Worldwide, in other gas exploitation projects, the re-injection of these effluents is an ordinary activity. Since 1974, the innovation, in the C4000 case, is the injection of other by-products from industries situated on the Lacq industrial site as definitive storage, sometimes called 'underground treatment'. These by-products, according to the companies which had been using

or used C4000, are liquids that could not receive a surface treatment without compromising the economic viability of their activities.

The interesting point about the extraction related to C4000 is that, although not extracting anything from the underground to be used The study of Crétacé exploitation led me to look at the industrial basin of Lacq and its context in the region, which is developed in the first part of this study and has much resonance with the types of power tactics described by Frederiksen and Himley. The second part explores more features of C4000 itself and to do so, complementary literature of nonknowledge is proposed.

I went through all the 30 minutes of meetings held by the LMC between 2002 and 2022 and associated documents such as the industry's reports, law texts related to Crétacésuch as the French Mining Code, and decrees from the Pyrenees Atlantic Department.

From May 2022, 9 semi-directive interviews were made with actors with some kind of linkage to the exploitation. The questions and subjects were adapted to each interviewee, including professional history and current professional occupation, the local history and the effects of industrialization, personal connection with Crétacé 4000, and the LMC operation. I conducted interviews with seismologists, a public servant for the public environmental organ, industry employees (site manager and Security-Environmental chief), an environmental NGO delegate, a former LMC president, and an industry association delegate. Interviews lasted an average of 87 minutes, ranging from 50 minutes to 130. A total of 790 interview minutes are being transcribed in French. In addition to that, I also held informal conversations about the C4000 thematic with 4 people, law specialists, a seismologist, and an informal meeting with the same public servant for the public environmental organ. These interactions totalized 222 minutes. All interviews and conversations were in French, which was the first language of all the research participants, besides me, my first language is Portuguese.

I am aware that not being French nor a native French speaker affects the relationship I can establish with participants and our communication. To allow fact-check and revaluate my understandings, Interview questions were focused on past events, and not on interviewees'

analyses, and all interview audios were registered.

Although being part of research that is still in progress, the results found so far enable the identification of nonknowledge as a relevant aspect to analyze power relations in addition to those in the Frederiksen and Himley (2020) paper.

Extractive Industry and subjectivities in the Lacq Region

When looking at the extractive industry context and specifically at Crétacé 4000 distinct tactics of power may be identified to understand how the industries installed themselves, how feelings and understandings about the exploitation evolved within the local community, and so on. In this paper, I highlight three of them and their impacts.

Seduction and Persuasion

Of the three quiet modalities of power described by Frederiksen and Himley, my analyses show that so far, the most striking ones for the Lacq case are surely seduction and persuasion, which are inextricably intertwined.

Lacq region can be characterized as a peripherical region, a conglomerate of 61 municipalities that had 53.184 inhabitants in 2018 (Insee 2018). The two biggest cities, Toulouse and Bordeaux, are more than 200 kilometers distant from Lacqthe main municipality where the industrial site is located.

Before the arrival of extractive industries, the region was essentially rural as can be seen in Figure 3, an aerial photograph from April 1938 of where is today the industrial site. The evolution that can be seen in Figure 4 is completely linked to the beginning of gas and oil exploitation in the 50s. One could argue that anything that could increase job opportunities, community incomes, and municipal tax collection should be enough to understand how extractive industries can establish in a territory. However, it must be said that the origin and development of the Lacq industrial site were not free of complications.

The beginning of the gas exploitation was disturbed by an accident between 1951 to 1952. After the oil discovery, specialists knew that deeply more oil or gas could be present, so the drilling was carried on. On December 19, 1951, the gas was found but leaked without control and broke the derrick, releasing into the atmosphere hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), toxic and colorless gas with a strong odor of rotten eggs. The immediate solution, to avoid intoxication, is to lead the gas to a torch and burn it.

Between 150,000 to 300,000 m3 of gas leaked and were burned every day. On January 30, 1952, the work to stop the leakage begins to progresswithout stopping it thoughafter Myron Kinley, a North American pioneer in fighting oil well fires, came to France to help the attempt.

It is only on February 24, 1952, that the drill is dynamited and closed with cement.

The accident allowed them not only to observe the dangerousness pressure of this gas but also how corrosive it was. At the time, the metals used to produce pipes could not resist the corrosion caused by the chemical characteristics of the Lacq gas. Kinley left France advising to "forget this gas field, it's a bomb, reseal your boreholes, sow grass in and graze them with cows" (Laurent 2013: 19).

The Lacq field is nevertheless not abandoned, industrial research was developed to find a resistant material to the sulfur. During the years after the gas leak accident, researchers were also trying to establish the abundance of gas in the field to foresee and plan the factory to remove the hydrogen sulfide, valorizing it in another chainthe chemical industry, where the sulfur is one of the principal raw materials. Between 1956 to 1961 wells were drilled and exploited by the treatment factories built at the same time.

The decision to keep underground exploitation, even under risky and uncertain circumstances, draws attention to the relevance of verticality in extractive territories, highlighted by authors such as Braun and Elden. The underground of Lacq was at some point dangerous and should have been kept untouchable. Despite that, varied reasons from the international and internal

French context to drilling technical advances, the once dangerous reserve of gas became sufficiently safe and interesting to be exploited, creating and reinforcing the extractive subjectivity.

The national need for energy was undoubtedly one of the major reasons for this evolution. It is certainly possible to study what power tactics the French State used to keep these researchers and to succeed in this exploitation, but even so, I chose to focus on power modalities observed on a local scale.

To drill and construct, lands were needed, and the compensations offered for the land acquisition are described as a common way to persuade local communities. In addition to that, perspectives of employment creation were not trivial either and consisted also in persuasion used in the area.

Even if my research does not concentrate on the process of land acquisition [START_REF] Lerat | LA MISE EN VALEUR DU GISEMENT DE GAZ DE LACQ[END_REF] indicates how this tactic was employed "The peasants, deprived of land, risk being suffocated by the big industries. It is therefore a question of resettling this rural population. Two solutions are to be considered: or, after sufficient compensation, the population resettles on the land of the neighboring hillsides (currently regions of rural depopulation, but soils of much lower quality than those of the valley, which are among the richest in Béarn, and where breeding seems to be the only profitable activity); or the peasants become worker-peasants or even workers providing part of the labor employed by local industry" (Lerat 1957: 266).

Persuasion is also likely to be associated with well-paid salaries, benefits, and some kind of stability related to industrial jobs. In the same geographic annal from 1957, Lerat describes the attractiveness of the industrial site for "young Béarnais, [who are] attracted by high salaries, come to work from neighboring villages, from the Pau urban area and even from further afield" (Lerat 1957: 263).

To highlight the relevance of these employments during the time, data from the book about the history of Lacq gas shows that at the beginning of the 80s, worked at the site more than 2,500 persons, more than the population of Lacq, Mont, and Maslacq (Laurent 2013: 30), the biggest municipalities at the time.

The enchantment or seduction, another modality of power described by Frederiksen and Himley can be perceived in the narratives of two local interviewees which accentuates the benefits of the industrial site of Lacq, an industrial reality that seems much more appealing than other activities due to their associations with progress and modernity. "The Lacq basin is the richness" (Interview n° 7), and "the revolution of Bean" (Interview n° 6).

The discourse created by this dynamic contributes once again to the strengthening of extractive subjectivity. Transformed from a rural to industrial vocation, the territory had since the beginning of gas exploitation a plan to prevent deindustrialization. This objective is materialized, among other examples, by the constitution of the Southwest franc, a fund1 created with part of the gas incomes to contribute to the economic development of the region. This development is tied-up with the extraction of gas, sulfur, and hydrogen, and with the low-cost deposit of chemical waste.

Since the extractive industry's arrival, the territorial vocation has changed and kept within this paradigm. The Lacq basin industries that ensued based their activities on extra as well.

Chemical industries were attracted due to the sulfur associated with the gas; the methane is burned and used to produce steam used by other industries; the underground is also used as theoretical eternal disposal of chemical waste.

Carbon storage projects, and so the perpetuation of an underground exploitation vocation, seem to be the future of the Lacq region. The pilot of this activity was situated in the same municipality and a bigger project between France and Spain is in preparation, named Pycaso for PYrenean Carbon Abolition through Sustainable Sequestration Operations.

Nonknowledge

When looking closely at Crétacé exploitation, a different quiet instrument seemed important to be described and used. It allows us to understand not only how power is "exercised by extractive industry to gain and maintain access to land and resources" (Frederiksen and Himley 2020: 58) but also how some activities can pass almost unnoticed or at least not gain much media/opponents attention. The instrument is nonknowledge and precisely the dynamics of nonknowledge-knowledge that will produce this unnoticed exploitation.

I argue that numerous pieces evidence of this dynamic may be enumerated, in this paper I The consequences of this legal framework contribute to reinforcing nonknowledge production.

It is reinforced because these unwanted waters cannot be part of a societal effort to manage, treat or deal with waste. Actually, for example, they are not part of the Waste Management Plan of Nouvelle-Aquitaine, meaning that they are out of public policies. One could even say that in the ontological plan, the pollutant activity stops existing when the law does not recognize it.

In addition to these legal circumstances, the second point is related to the Committee created to monitor C4000. The LMC is not a space of discussion or "controversy formulation" (Interviewee 4). In all the meetings, those who expose information are the industrial representatives. The others participants ask questions, that are not always answered or taken into account. For example, during the 2022's meeting, the NGO representative asked about a possible future conflict of interest between the injection of the river water into C4000 and the context of climate change and the scarcity of water. This question is related to the fact that in 2020, more than 30.000m3 of water coming from the nearest river, "le gave de Pau" were injected in C4000 due to the need to keep pressure and decrease the effluent's injection.

Between 2014 and 2020 more than 215,000 m3 of river water was injected. No answer was given to the NGO representative or debate was made about the question.

The third and last piece of evidence that I would like to point out is about data protection and the refusal to share data without a confidentiality clause. Seismologists' interviews affirmed that they have trayed to access injection and seismology data to study and publish scientific papers about induced seismicity. These requests were submitted to a confidentiality clause signature or were rejected. A part of this data is available in the five-year report which the public administration publishes on its website every five years.

Conclusion

The taxonomy on which Frederiksen and Himley based their review showed to be useful, but as they recognized, not complete. The dynamics of nonknowledge-knowledge production seem to be another relevant aspect to be considered when analyzing extractive power.

Drawing on the exposed, two main points deserve to be highlighted.

The first one is the ability that actors engaged in the underground exploitation in Lacq have to make the industrial site evolve without changing the extractive underground vocation. The industrial development from gas/oil exploitation to a chemical industry dependent on underground storage, to a possible carbon storage in the future. This evolution is a result of power modalities exposed here, that can be usefully analyzed with the theoretical framework proposed by nonknowledge studies and [START_REF] Frederiksen | Tactics of dispossession: Access, power, and subjectivity at the extractive frontier[END_REF].

Through these modalities, the Lacq Industrial Site has spread its extractive activities twice: over time because the extractive industry was able to keep the site working even if with adaptations.

however, keeping it an extractive activity.

The second one is the mentioned effects of the nonknowledge condition created by the already exposed characteristics of C4000 exploitation: the legal framework that does not consider the effluents as pollution, the LMC configuration that creates a unidirectional knowledge sharing, and the appeal to confidentiality that restraint scientists to produce knowledge about local seismicity.

The aspects that allowed this configuration were not exhaustively pointed out or analyzed, although, the importance of nonknowledge-knowledge analysis resides in the fact that it shows how unequal power relations [START_REF] Henry | Ignorance scientifique et inaction publique. Les politiques de santé au travail[END_REF] are "systematically inscribed" [START_REF] Jas | Agnotologie', Dictionnaire critique de l'expertise[END_REF] in law, participatory mechanisms and legal rights to industrial confidentiality.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Schematic cross-section of the Lacq anticline structure; (dark [green] zone), the shallow oil reservoir;(deep dark [red] zone), the gas reservoir. Source:[START_REF] Grasso | Did Wastewater Disposal Drive the Longest Seismic Swarm Triggered by Fluid Manipulations? Lacq, France, 1969-2016[END_REF]

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: 1938's aerial view of the area before the construction of the Industrial Site of Lacq Source: Géoportail, 1938.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: 2021's aerial view of the area of the Industrial Site of Lacq Source: Google Earth, 2022

  will go through three of them. The first point is the legal definition of what is injected into the geological cavity of Crétacé. In legal terms, this kind of activityinjection of liquid industrial effluents in deep geological cavitiesis contemplated in French law since 1973, under the 64-1245 Law from 16 December 1964 relating to the regime and distribution of waters and the fight against their pollution. Despite the legal framework, the approval of the European directive for the protection of underground waters in 1979 and evolutions in the French directives and common law, made the C4000 injection less stable in law terms (Schellenberger 2014). What led to an amendment in the 30 July 2003 Law, about the prevention of natural and technological risks, which authorizes definitively the exploitation of Crétacé 4000. Despite the legal framework which authorizes the activity itself, in 2010, a judicial decision settled to apply the General Tax on Polluting Activities 2 (GTPA) on C4000. The matter was discussed in the French National Assembly during the 2012 Budget Law session in December 2011. Another amendment permitted the Crétacé to keep its exploitation without the payment of the GTPA. As pointed out by Schellenberger (2014), French law has never considered these effluents, from Crétacé or others, as an activity of pollutants elimination.

For each m3 of extracted gas, 1 franc (approximately 0,16 USD) was deposited in this fund. This financial resource is connected to the origin of an association in 1973, today named Economic Development and Attractiveness Office of Adour Region (EDAOA). According to the EDAOA website, they dispose of 15 million euros (approximately 15,80 USD) to contribute to the economic development of the region (xx).

The Taxe Générale des Activités Polluantes (TGAP) in French.


Paul Bedaride
email: paul.bedaride@loria.frclaire.gardent@loria.fr

Claire Gardent

Semantic Normalisation : a Framework and an Experiment

We present a normalisation framework for linguistic representations and illustrate its use by normalising the Stanford Dependency graphs (SDs) produced by the Stanford parser into Labelled Stanford Dependency graphs (LSDs). The normalised representations are evaluated both on a testsuite of constructed examples and on free text. The resulting representations improve on standard Predicate/Argument structures produced by SRL by combining role labelling with the semantically oriented features of SDs. Furthermore, the proposed normalisation framework opens the way to stronger normalisation processes which should be useful in reducing the burden on inference.

Introduction

In automated text understanding, there is a tradeoff between the degree of abstraction provided by the semantic representations used and the complexity of the logical or probabilistic reasoning involved. Thus, a system that normalises syntactic passives as actives avoids having to reason about equivalences between grammatical dependencies. Similarly, normalising phrasal synonyms into their one word equivalent (e.g., take a turn for the worse/worsen) or converting the semantic representation of deverbal nominals into their equivalent verbal representations (Caesar's destruction of the city/Caesar destroyed the city) avoids having to reason with the corresponding lexical axioms. In short, the better, semantic representations abstract away from semantically irrelevant distinctions, the less reasoning needs to be performed.

In this paper, we investigate a normalisation approach and present a framework for normalising linguistic representations which we apply to converting the dependency structures output by the Stanford parser (henceforth, Stanford Dependencies or SDs) into labelled SD graphs (LSD) that is, dependency graphs where grammatical relations have been converted to roles.

The LSD graphs we produce and the normalisation framework we present, provide an interesting alternative both for the shallow Predicate/Argument structures produced by semantic role labelling (SRL) systems and for the complex logical formulae produced by deep parsers.

Thus as we shall see in Section 2, labelled SDs are richer than the standard Predicate/Argument structures produced by SRL in that (i) they indicate dependencies between all parts of a sentence, 1 not just the verb and its arguments1 and (ii) they inherit the semantically oriented features of SDs namely, a detailed set of dependencies, a precise account of noun phrases and a semantically oriented treatment of role marking prepositions, of heads and of conjunctions.

Furthermore, the normalisation framework (formal system and methodology) we present, can be extended to model and implement more advanced normalisation steps (e.g., deverbal/verbal and phrasal/lexical synonym normalisation) thereby potentially supporting a stronger normalisation process than the semantic role labelling already supported by SRL systems and by deep parsers.

In sum, although the normalised SDs presented in this paper, do not exhibit a stronger normalisation than that available in the Predicate/Argument structures already produced by deep parsers and by SRL systems, we believe that they are interesting in their own right in that they combine semantic role labelling with the semantic features of SDs. Moreover, the proposed normalisation framework opens the way for a stronger normalisation process.

The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the representations handled by the system namely, the SD graphs and their labelled versions, the LSDs. Section 3 presents the rewriting system used and explains how SDs are converted to LSDs. Section 4 reports on evaluation. Section 5 discusses related work and concludes with pointers for further research.

(Normalised) Stanford Dependency graphs

Stanford Dependency graphs. SD graphs are syntactic dependency graphs where nodes are words and edges are labelled with syntactic relations. As detailed in [START_REF] De Marneffe | Generating typed dependency parses from phrase structure parses[END_REF][START_REF] De Marneffe | The stanford typed dependencies representations[END_REF], SD graphs differ from other dependency graphs in several ways. First, they involve an extensive set of 56 dependency relations. These relations are organised in a hierarchy thereby permitting underspecifying the relation between a head and its dependent (by using a very generic relation such as dependent). Second, in contrast to other relational schemes such as the GR [START_REF] Carroll | Corpus annotation for parser evaluation[END_REF] and PARC [KCR + 03], NP-internal dependency relations are relatively fine-grained 2 thereby permitting a detailed description of NPs internal structure and providing better support for an accurate definition of their semantics. Third, heads are constrained to be content words i.e., noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs but also conjunctions. In particular, contrary to the GR scheme, SD graphs take copula be to be a dependent rather than a head. Fourth, SD graphs are further simplified in that some nodes may be collapsed. for instance, role marking prepositions are omitted and a trace kept of that preposition in the dependency name (e.g., prep-on).

The practical adequacy of SD graphs and their ability to support shallow semantic reasoning is attested by a relatively high number of experiments. Thus, in 2007, 5 out of the 21 systems submitted to the RTE (Recognising Textual Entailment) challenge used the SD representations. SDs have been used in bioinformatics for extracting relations between genes and proteins [START_REF] Erkan | Semi-supervised classification for extracting protein interaction sentences using dependency parsing[END_REF][START_REF] Clegg | Benchmarking natural-language parsers for biological applications using dependency graphs[END_REF]. It has furthermore been used for opinion extraction [START_REF] Zhuang | Movie review mining and summarization[END_REF], sentence-level sentiment analysis [START_REF] Meena | Sentence level sentiment analysis in the presence of conjuncts using linguistic analysis[END_REF] Normalised Stanford Dependency graphs. From the SDs produced by the Stanford parser, we produce labelled SDs where the syntactic relations between a verb and its arguments are replaced by the roles. For instance, the SDs and LSDs for the sentences "john loves mary" and "mary is loved by john" are as given in Figure 1. The roles used in LSDs are those used in the PropBank for core-and adjunct-like arguments namely, A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, AM where AM covers all PropBank adjunct tags such as AM-TMP, AL-LOC, etc.. As mentioned in the introduction, LSD graphs combine the advantages of SD graphs with semantic role labelling. From semantic role labelling, they take the more semantic predicate/argument relations. From SD graphs, they inherit the semantic oriented features such as the deletion of content poor function words, the rich hierarchy of NP internal relations and the detailed description of the relations holding between words other than the verb and its arguments.

In short, LSD graphs are both more semantic than SD graphs and richer than SRL Predicate/Argument structures.

Normalising dependency trees

To normalise the SD graphs, we extend the Stanford parser with a normalisation module designed to translate the grammatical relations between a verb and its arguments into roles. This normalisation module consists of an ordered set of rewrite rules and is defined semi-automatically in a two-step procedure as follows.

First, the rewrite rules for transitive verbs are defined. This first step is done manually and is based on the XTAG [Gro01] inventory of possible syntactic contexts for verbs of this type.

Second, further rewrite rules for verbs of other classes (ditransitive, verbs with sentential argument, verbs with one prepositional argument, etc.) are automatically derived from the set of rewrite rules for transitive verbs and from a small set of "base-form rewrite rules" manually defined for each class. The rules are then lexicalised using the information contained in the PropBank Frames3 .

Defining basic rewrite rules

In the first phase, we manually define a set of rewrite rules for each possible syntactic variation of a transitive verb.

Using the XTAG Tree Adjoining Grammar [START_REF]A lexicalized tree adjoining grammar for english[END_REF], we start by listing these variations. Indeed a Tree Adjoining Grammar (TAG) lists the set of all possible syntactic configurations for basic clauses and groups them into so-called (tree) families. Thus the Tnx0Vnx1 family is a set of trees describing the possible syntactic contexts in which a transitive verb can occur. Further, W1nx0Vnx1 names a tree in that family which describes a syntactic context in which a transitive verb (nx0Vnx1) occurs together with a canonical nominal subject (nx0) and a questioned object (W1). We use the XTAG families to produce a list of basic clauses illustrating the possible syntactic variations of each verb type. For instance, using the Tnx0Vnx1 XTAG family, we create a "list of Tnx0Vnx1 sentences" i.e.,

(1) "John loves Mary","Mary is loved by John", "Mary, John loves", "It is Mary who is loved by John", "It is John who loves Mary", "Mary who is loved by John", "John who loves Mary",etc.

We then parse these sentences using the Stanford parser and retrieve the correct dependency structure from the output thus gathering the set of dependency structures associated by the Stanford parser with the various syntactic realisations of a given verb type. Finally, for each distinct dependency structure found, we define a rewrite rule which maps this dependency structure onto a unique (canonical) semantic representation. For instance, the rewrite rules for the active and passive form of a sentence featuring a transitive verb are as sketched in Figure 2 (see below for the exact content of these rules).

To define our rewrite rules, we resort to a standard rewriting system namely GrGen [START_REF] Kroll | Developing graph transformations with grgen.net[END_REF]. Used in multiple domains (e.g., formal calculus, combinatoric algebra, operational semantics), rewriting is a technique for modelling reduction and simplification. For instance, the rewriting rule r 1 : x * y + x * z → x * (y + z) permits factorising 5 * 6 + 5 * 7 + 5 * 8 to 5 * ((6 + 7) + 8). More generally, a rewriting system consists of a set of rewriting rules of the form l → r where l and r are filtering and rewriting patterns respectively. Given In GrGen, the objects handled by rewriting are attributed typed directed multigraphs. These are directed graphs with typed nodes and edges, where between two nodes more than one edge of the same type and direction is permitted. According to its type, each node or edge has a defined set of attributes associated with it. Moreover, the type system suppports multiple inheritance on node and edge types.

Expressive and efficient, GrGen5 is well suited to specify our normalisation rules. For instance, the rewrite rule sketched in figure 2 can be specified as given in Figure 3. The left handside (lhs) of the rule specifies a pattern in terms of nodes, node attributes, edge labels and conditions on nodes. The right handside specifies how to rewrite the subgraphs matched by the lhs.

More generally, the SD graphs can be seen as attributed typed directed multigraphs where node attributes are words and edge labels are grammatical relations. Rewrite rules can then be used to modify, add or duplicate information present in the dependency graphs to create predicateargument structures.

Typically, rewriting is not confluent (different rule application orders yield different results)and GrGen supports various sophisticated control strategies. So far however, we simply used rule sequencing : rules are tested and fired in the order in which they are listed. They are ordered by specificity with the most specific rules listed first. For instance, the rule rewriting a long passive will precede that for a short passive thereby preventing the short passive rule from applying to a long passive sentence.

We also use GrGen "global rewriting mode". This ensures that whenever the rule filtering pattern matches several subgraphs in the input structures, the rewriting operates on each of the filtered subgraph. As we shall see in section 3, our rewrite rules are applied on not one but 5 dependency graphs at a time. Moreover the same rewrite rules may be applicable to several subgraphs in a sentence analysis (typically when the sentence contains 2 or more verbs occurring in the same syntactic configuration). Global rewriting thereby avoids having to iterate over the rule set.

Deriving new rewrite rules

Manually specifying the normalisation rules is time consuming and error prone. To extend the approach to all types of verbs and syntactic configurations, we semi-automatically derive new rewrite rules from existing ones.

Let us call source class, the syntactic class from which we derive new rules, target class, the syntactic class for which rewrite rules are being derived and base-form rewrite rule, a rewrite rule operating on a "base-form" that is, either on an active, a passive or a short passive form subcategorising for canonical (i.e., non extracted) arguments. Now, let us define the set of primitive rewrite rules used to bootstrap the process as the set of all rewrite rules defined for the source class together with the set of base-form rewrite rules defined for the target class.

To derive new rules from the set of primitive rewrite rules, we start by computing the differences (in terms of edges, node and labels) between a source base-form rewrite rule (RR) and either a target, base-form RR (DIFF +arg ) or a source non base-form RR (DIFF +movt ). We then use the resulting DIFFs to compute new rewrite rules which differ either from a source RR by a DIFF +arg patch or from a target base-form RR by a DIFF +movt . Figure 4 illustrates the idea on a specific example. The RR for a ditransitive verb with questioned object ("What does John put on the table?", W1nx0Vnx1pnx2) is derived both by applying a DIFF +W 1 patch to the nx0Vnx1pnx2 active base-form RR ("John put a book on the table.") and by applying a DIFF +pnx2 patch to the source RR operating on W1nx0Vnx1 verbs with questioned object ("Who does Mary love?"). Note that in this way, the same rewrite rule (W1nx0Vnx2nx1) is derived in two different ways namely, from the W1nx0Vnx1 RR by applying a DIFF +pnx2 patch and from the nx0Vnx1pnx2 RR by applying a DIFF +W 1 one. We use this double derivation process to check the approach consistency and found that in all cases, the same rule is derived by both possible paths.

Using the method just sketched, we derived 377 rules from a set of 352 primitive rewrite rules. Although the ratio might seem weak, automating the derivation of rewrite rules facilitates system maintenance and extension. This is because whenever a correction in the set of primitive rewrite rules is carried out, the change automatically propagates to the related derived rules. In practice, we found that a real feature when adapting the system to the Propbank data. We believe that it will also be useful when extending the system to deal with nominalisations.

Evaluation and discussion

We evaluated our normalisation method both on a testsuite of constructed examples and on real world data namely, the Propbank corpus.

Evaluation on a testsuite of constructed examples

This first evaluation aims to provide a systematic, fine grained assessment of how well the system normalises each of the several syntactic configurations assigned by XTAG to distinct verb types.

The emphasis is here in covering the most exhaustive set of possible syntactic configurations possible. Because constructing the examples was intricate and time consuming, we did not cover all the possibilities described by XTAG however. Instead we concentrated on listing all the configurations specified by XTAG for 4 very distinct families namely, Tnx0Vnx1, Tnx0Vnx2nx1,Tnx0Vplnx1 and Tnx0Vnx1pnx2. The first class is the class for transitive verbs. Because of passive, this class permits many distinct variations. The second class is the class of verbs with 3 nominal arguments. This class is difficult for role labelling as the distinction between the complements often relies on semantic rather than syntactic grounds. The third class is the class of verbs with a particle and 2 nominal arguments (ring up) and the fourth, the class of ditransitive. For these constructed sentences, we had no gold standard i.e., no role annotation. Hence we used logical inference to check normalisation. We proceeded by grouping the test items in (non) entailment pairs and then checked whether the associated LSDs supported the detection of the correct entailment relation (i.e., true or false).

The testsuite. Using a restricted lexicon, a set of clauses covering the possible syntactic patterns of the four verb classes and regular expressions describing sentence-semantics pairs, we develop a script generating (sentence,semantics) pairs where sentences contain one or more clauses. After having manually verified the correctness of the generated pairs, we used them to construct textual entailment testsuite items that is, pairs of sentences annotated with TRUE or FALSE dependending on whether the two sentences are related by entailment (TRUE) or not (FALSE). The resulting testsuite6 contains 4 976 items of which 2 335 are entailments between a sentence and a clause (1V+TE, example 2), 1 019 between two complex sentences (2V+TE, example 3) and 1 622 are non-entailments (V-TE, example 4).

(2) T 1 : John likes the book that Mary put on the Checking for entailment. For each testsuite item, we then checked for entailment by translating LSDs into FOL formulae and checking entailment between the first five LSDs derived from the parser output for the sentences contained in the testsuite item.

The translation of a LSD into a FOL formula is done as follows. Each node is associated with an existentially quantified variable and a predication over that variable where the predicate used is the word labelling the node. Each edge translates to a binary relation between the source and the target node variables. The overall formula associated with an LSD is then the conjunction of the predications introduced by each node. For instance, for the LSD given in Figure 1, the resulting formula is ∃x, y, z : love(x) ∧ john(y) ∧ mary(z) ∧ arg0(x, y) ∧ arg1(x, z).

This translation procedure is of course very basic. Nonetheless, because the testsuite builds on a restricted syntax and vocabulary7 , it suffices to check how well the normalisation process succeeds in assigning syntactic variants the same semantic representation.

Results. The test procedure just described is applied to the LSD graphs produced by the normalisation module on the testsuite items. Table 5 gives the results. For each class of testsuite items (1V+TE, 2V+TE, V-TE), we list the percentage of cases recognised by the system as entailment (+TE) and non entailment (-TE). Because FOL is only semi-decidable, the reasoners do not always return an answer. The Failure line gives the number of cases for which the reasoners fail.

The results on positive entailments (1V+TE,2V+TE) show that the proposed normalisation method is generally successful in recognising syntax based entailments with an overall average precision of 86.3% (and a breakdown of 94.9% for 1V+TE and 66.6% for 2V+TE cases). Importantly, the results on negative entailments (99.2% overall precision) show that the method is not overly permissive and does not conflate semantically distinct structures. Finally, it can be seen that the results degrade for the Tnx0Vnx2nx1 class (John gave Mary a book). This is due mainly to genuine syntactic ambiguities which cannot be resolved without further semantic (usually ontological) knowledge. For instance, both The book which John gave the woman and The woman whom John gave the book are assigned the same dependency structures by the Stanford parser. Hence the same rewrite rule applies to both structures and necessarily assigns one of them the wrong labelling. Other sources of errors are cases where the DIFF patch used to derive a new rule fail to adequately generalise to the target structure. In such cases, the erroneous rewrite rule can be modified manually. Figure 5: Precision on constructed examples. Each cell gives the proportion of cases recognised as entailment by the system. Bold face figures give the precision i.e., the proportion of answers given by the system that are correct.

Evaluation on the PropBank

The PropBank (Proposition Bank) was created by semantic annotation of the Wall Street Journal section of Treebank-2. Each verb occurring in the Treebank has been treated as a semantic predicate and the surrounding text has been annotated for arguments and adjuncts of the predicate as illustrated in (5).

( The labels used for the core and adjunct-like arguments are the following8 . The labels A0 .. A5 designate arguments associated with a verb predicate as defined in the PropBank Frames scheme. A0 is the agent, A1 the patient or the theme. For A2 to A5 no consistent generalisation can be made and the annotation reflects the decisions made when defining the PropBank Frames scheme. Further, the AM-T label describes adjunct like arguments of various sorts, where T is the type of the adjunct. Types include locative, temporal, manner, etc. We used the PropBank to evaluate our normalisation procedure on free text. As in the CoNLL (Conference on Natural Language Learning) shared task for SRL, the evaluation metrics used are precision, recall and F measure. An argument is said to be correctly recognised if the words spanning the argument as well as its semantic role match the PropBank annotation. Precision is the proportion of arguments predicted by a system which are correct. Recall is the proportion of correct arguments which are predicted by a system. F-measure is the harmonic mean of precision and recall. The results are given below.

Conclusion

Our approach is akin to so-called semantic role labelling (SRL) approaches [START_REF] Carreras | Introduction to the conll-2005 shared task: Semantic role labeling[END_REF] and to several rewriting approaches developed to modify parsing output in RTE systems [Ass07]. It differs from the SRL approaches in that unlike most SRLs systems, it is based on a hybrid, statistic and symbolic, framework. As a result, improving or extending the system can be done independently of the availability of an appropriately annotated corpus. However, the quality, performance and coverage of the system remains dependent on those of the Stanford parser9 , Our approach also differs from approaches that use the lambda calculus to normalise syntactic variation. In such approaches, a compositional semantics module associates words and grammar rules or derivation structures with lambda terms which in effect normalise variations such as for instance, the active/passive variation. One important advantage of lambda based approaches is that the rewriting system is confluent. The drawback however is that the specification of the appropriate lambda terms requires expert linguistic skills. In contrast, the rewrite rule approach is comparatively easier to handle (the rules presented here were developed by a computer scientist) and its use is supported by sophisticated developing environments such as GrGen which provides strong notational expressivity (the rewrite rules can include conditions, can operate on graphs of arbitrary depth, etc. ), a good debugging environment and good processing times. In short although, the lambda calculus approach is undoubtly more principled, the rewrite rule approach is arguably easier to handle and easier to understand.

Normalisation of linguistic representations is not new. It is used in particular, in [BCC + 07, DBBT07, RTF07] for dealing with entailment detection in the RTE (Recognising Textual Entailment) challenge. The approach we present here differs from these approaches both by its systematic treatment of syntactic variation and by its use of GrGen as a framework for specifying transformations. More generally, our approach emphasises the following three points namely (i) the systematic testing of all possible syntactic variations (based on the information contained in XTAG); (ii) the use of an expressive, efficient and well-understood graph rewriting system for defining transformations; and (iii) the development of a methodology for automatically deriving new rewrite rules from existing ones.

By providing a well-defined framework for specifying, deriving and evaluating rewrite rules, we strive to develop a system that normalises NLP representations in a way that best supports semantic processing. The emphasis is on aligning Predicate/Argument structures that diverge in the surface text but that are semantically similar (e.g., John buy a car from Peter/Peter sells a car to John). In particular, we plan to extend the system to normalise nominal dependencies (using NomBank) and converse constructions.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Rewriting rules for active and passive

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Two rewrite rules in the GrGen format

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Deriving new rules from existing ones

  ) [A0 He ] [AM-MOD would ] [AM-NEG n't ] [V accept ] [A1 anything of value ] from [A2 those he was writing about ] .

  and information extraction [BCS + 07].

	love
	nsubj	dobj
	John	Mary	love
			arg0	arg1
	love	John	Mary
	nsubjpass	auxpass	agent
	Mary	be	John
	Figure 1: SDs and LSDs for "John loves Mary" and "Mary is loved by John"

  an object o, such a rule will apply to o if o

		rule nx1Vbynx0 {
	rule nx0Vnx1 {	pattern{
	pattern{	verb:element;
	verb:element;	if{verb.verb != "None";}
	if{verb.verb != "None";}	np1:element;
	np0:element;	be:element;
	np1:element;	np0:element;
	verb -:nsubj-> np0;	verb -:nsubjpass-> np1;
	verb -:dobj-> np1;	verb -:auxpass-> be;
	}	verb -:agent-> np0;
	replace {	}
	verb -:arg0-> np0;	replace {
	verb -:arg1-> np1;	verb -:arg0-> np0;
	}}	verb -:arg1-> np1;
		}}

table . T

 . TRUE(3) T 1 : John likes the book that Mary put on the table. T 2 : The book which is put on the table by Mary, is liked by John Annotations: 2V+TE, TRUE (4) T 1 : John likes the book that Mary put on the table. T 2 : John likes a table Annotations: V-TE, FALSE

2 : John likes a book Annotations: 1V+TE,

  6%) is comparable to the results obtained in the ConLL 2005 SRL shared task where the top 8 systems have an average precision ranging from 76.55% to 82.28%. Recall is generally a little low (the ConLL05 recall ranged from 64.99% to 76.78%) for mainly two reasons: either the Stanford parser, did not deliver the correct analysis or the required rewrite rule was not present.

	args	0	1	2	3	4	5	a	m	total
	recall	68.4% 68.2% 62.4% 47.2% 57.6% 5.3% 0.0% 64.4% 66.1%
	precision 88.0% 80.2% 76.4% 83.1% 83.3% 50.0%	-	75.0% 80.6%
	f-mesure 77.0% 73.7% 68.7% 60.2% 68.1% 9.5%	-	69.3% 72.6%
	Precision (80.

In the CoNLL

shared task on joint parsing of syntactic and semantic dependencies [SJM + 08], the aim is to produce dependency structures labelled with predicate/argument relations. Although such structures are similar to the LSD graphs we produce, there are differences both in the precise type of structures built and in how these are built. We discuss this point in more detail in section 5.2 e.g., appos for apposition, nn for noun-noun compounds, num for a numeric modifier and number for an element in a compound number.

The PropBank Frames specify for each verb sense in PropBank, the arguments it accepts and the corresponding semantic roles.

For a more precise definition of satisfaction, matching and replacement, we refer the reader to [EHK + 99].

There are other rewriting systems available such as in particular, the Tsurgen system used in the Stanford Parser to map parse trees into dependency graphs. We opted for GrGen instead because it fitted our requirements best. GrGen is efficient, notationally expressive (for specifying graphs but also rules and rule application strategies) and comes with a sophisticated debugging environment. Importantly, GrGen developers are also quick to react to questions and to integrate proposed modifications.

Available at http://www.loria.fr/ ˜bedaride/publications/taln08-bedgar/index.html.

In particular, the testsuite contains no quantifiers.

This is in fact simplified. The PropBank corpus additionally provide information about R-* arguments (a reference such as a trace to some other argument of A* type) and C-* arguments (a continuation phrase in a split argument).

[START_REF] Klein | Accurate unlexicalized parsing[END_REF] report a label F-mesure of 86.3% on section 23 of the Penn Treebank.