Elen Le Foll

teachers to bridge the corpus linguistics research-practice gap

How to use this book

A quick guide to this Open Educational Resource

ELEN LE FOLL

This Open Educational Resource (OER) aims to empower English teachers from across the globe to design their own, authentic, corpus-based lessons by showcasing a range of ideas for creating corpus-informed teaching materials using online resources.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://pressbooks.pub/elenlefoll/?p=17#oembed-1

Pre-service trainee teachers from Osnabrück University (Germany) contributed the chapters as part of three English Education Masters of Education seminars taught by Elen Le Foll. The introductory chapter "About the project" outlines the rationale and development of the project and discusses how various challenges were overcome.

The remaining Lesson Ideas chapters were contributed by students as part of their seminar coursework.

These are organised according to the school type for which they were developed.

Book structure

• How to use this book

• Corpus tools

• About the project

The Lesson Ideas are grouped in four parts:

• Part I is dedicated to corpus-informed lesson ideas for primary and lower secondary schools.

• Part II showcases corpus-informed lesson ideas for upper secondary schools.

• Part III explores the use of corpora in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and bilingual secondary education.

• Part IV presents corpus-informed lesson ideas for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and vocational education.

A curated list of links to additional resources may be found in the Appendix.

How to use this book | 1

For teachers and teacher trainees entirely new to corpora, we recommend selecting one or two chapters of interest and following the step-by-step instructions in order to recreate the corpus-informed materials proposed by the chapter authors. As you work your way through these, you will find that the various ideas and methods outlined in all the chapters can easily be transferred to an infinite range of different language foci, topics, and educational contexts.

What is a corpus?

A corpus (plural: corpora) is a principled, digital collection of texts. Texts can refer to written language (e.g., newspaper articles, blog posts, novels), spoken language (e.g., transcripts of conversations, debates, live TV shows) and pseudo-spoken language (e.g., film and TV series transcripts). It is important to note that the texts of a corpus were originally spoken or written for a genuine, real-world communicative purpose. In other words, unlike most texts found in textbooks, they were not created specifically for language teaching or learning purposes and can hence be considered to represent authentic sources of language.

In addition, most of the chapters include worksheets that can be downloaded as individual PDFs in just one click. Thus, this book also provides a low-threshold introduction to working with corpus-informed materials for teachers with no previous knowledge of corpora. It is hoped that the experience of using these "ovenready" corpus-informed materials, which require little to no preparation time, will encourage teachers to subsequently invest time in working through a selection of the book's chapters in order to, in due course, be able to pick their own ingredients and create entirely new and delicious corpus-informed dishes!

If you already have some experience using corpora for either research or teaching, you may immediately start using this book as a bank of ideas and resources to inspire your own recipes -tailoring your DIY materials to the specific needs and interests of your students.

Each chapter, or recipe, has a different focus which may be lexical, grammatical, or phraseological, and focuses on a different set of language and/or interdisciplinary skills. The chapters are all similarly structured.

The chapter contributors begin by describing their lesson's learning objectives and outlining the rationale for their choice of topic, corpus, and corpus tool. They then guide the reader through all the necessary steps to create their proposed corpus-informed materials with clear, tutorial-like and illustrated step-bystep instructions. In many instances, the authors also provide instructions for their lesson tasks, as well as (possible) solutions. At the end of each chapter, you will also find additional options and ideas to expand or adapt the proposed lesson to the taste buds of your students.

By publishing this e-book as a free, Open Educational Resource (OER), we hope to make the use of corpus linguistics in foreign language education accessible to as many teachers as possible across the world. All the chapters make use of corpora and corpus tools that are either freely available to all, or accessible with a free trial account or access to the European ELEXIS programme. Details of how to connect to and/or register to the various online corpus platforms are laid out in the respective chapters.

English-corpora.org (formally BYU)

• Free basic access to all users and corpora (with a limited, but usually sufficient, number of queries).

• Registration required.

• Option to upgrade to premium individual or academic licenses.

With the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA):

• How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing by Katharina Busmann

• Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science by Lena Janzen and Lisa Hörnschemeyer

• Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability by

Rieke Stahnke, Marlena Wegesin, and Lara Brede

With the British National Corpus (BNC1994):

• Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' by Geeske Dünnhaupt and Lena

Haase

With the Corpus of American Soap Operas:

• "How's the weather?": Talking about the weather in the primary EFL classroom by Jana Küpers and Nele Lange

• "Let's have a party!": Teaching students how to express, accept and refuse invitations by

Selke Tombrägel

With the News on the Web (NOW) corpus:

• Teaching neologisms using corpus tools by Sarah Winkelmann and Nicol Sperling

• Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution by Marie Gröninger and Ha Mi Nguyen

• "Black Lives Matter": Collecting vocabulary to improve intercultural communicative competence by Tilza Maria Meise-Reckefuß

With the Wikipedia Corpus:

• Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus by

Cara Symanzik

Sketch Engine

• Limited free trial account (30 days).

• Registration required.

• A growing number of freely accessible corpora are available for free without registration • Many EU higher education institutions have access via the EU-funded ELEXIS project (until March 2022).

Corpus tools | 5

With the family of EnTenTen corpora:

• Teaching geography in English: How to describe a graph by Hanna Bavendiek and Fabian

Giesholt

• "How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport by Annika Liebelt and Magdalena Fuchs (also uses SKELL)

• Using corpora in the EFL classroom for creative writing by Jonas Dammann

With the British National Corpus (BNC1994):

• Commas in argumentative writing by Marie Nottmeier, Alina Sophie Peters and Lara

Warnecke

With instructions to create a custom corpus from web documents:

• Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy by Simone Campos Silva SKELL (Sketch Engine for language learning)

• Free and no registration required.

• Relies on a large corpus of web English.

• Also available for a number of other languages, e.g. German, French, Polish… SKELL only gives access to one corpus:

• "How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport by Annika Liebelt and

Magdalena Fuchs

Of course, there are many more tools and corpora also worth exploring, many of which are listed in the appendix!

Corpus linguistics and language teaching

From the outset, applications of corpus linguistics to language teaching have been shown to be highly congruent with contemporary, evidence-based insights into second language acquisition (SLA). Rather than being made up of individual words strung together according to strict, grammatical rules, corpus linguistics has shown that language consists of vast networks of more or less fixed, frequently occurring patterns. In line with communicative approaches to language teaching, corpus linguistic methods help reveal the actual usage patterns and frequencies of real language as spoken or written in natural, real-world contexts.

Language learners can be explicitly taught these lexico-grammatical patterns or, as in Data-Driven Learning approaches (DDL; e.g., [START_REF] Boulton | Corpus linguistics and data-driven learning: a critical overview[END_REF]Leńko-Szymańska & Boulton 2015), be encouraged to discover them for themselves. In a recent meta-analysis, Boulton & Cobb (2017) summarised the results of 64 experimental and quasi-experimental studies on the effectiveness of using corpus linguistics for second language (L2) learning or use, concluding that such approaches, on average, yield promisingly large positive effects (d = 0.95 for control/experimental group comparisons and d = 1.50 for pre/post-test designs).

Furthermore, allowing students to interact hands-on with corpora fosters interdisciplinary skills, such as digital skills and data literacy, and boosts learner autonomy. Not to be neglected either are the positive effects of successful teacher-corpus interactions. Even basic corpus literacy enables teachers to check their language intuition in an empirical manner, on the basis of authentic data. Thus, this project's foremost aim was to empower (trainee) teachers to create their own corpus-informed teaching materials, many of which also encourage data-driven learning and student-corpus interactions.

All four components of corpus literacy summarised by Callies (2019: 247, see also Mukherjee 2006: 14) are targeted:

1. Understanding basic concepts in corpus linguistics: What is a corpus and what types of corpora are available and how? What can you do -and cannot do -with a corpus?

2. Searching corpora and analysing corpus data by means of corpus software tools, e.g. concordancers: What is corpus software and how can it be used to search a corpus? How can corpus output be analysed?

3. Interpreting corpus data: How may general trends in language use/change be extrapolated from corpus data?

4. Using corpus output to generate teaching material and activities: How can you make use of corpus material for teaching purposes?

In the spirit of this OER, and of "open pedagogy" more generally (Willey & Hilton 2018), particular emphasis is placed on the use of freely accessible resources.

The research-practice gap

Whilst the value of corpora in foreign language teaching has long been understood, researched and documented (e.g., O'Keeffe, McCarthy & Carter 2007;Boulton & Cobb 2017; Pérez-Paredes 2019a), the "large gap between the wealth of applied corpus-linguistic research and the teaching practice" [START_REF] Mukherjee | Bridging the Gap between Applied Corpus Linguistics and the Reality of English Language Teaching in Germany[END_REF] 247; see also Chambers 2019; Pérez-Paredes 2019b) is still a reality. In school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, in particular, the "need to convince practising teachers to use corpora and concordances in the classroom" (Römer 2006: 129) has yet to have been met. To close this gap, a number of researchers have pointed to the centrality of teacher training (e.g., [START_REF] Mukherjee | Bridging the Gap between Applied Corpus Linguistics and the Reality of English Language Teaching in Germany[END_REF][START_REF] Hüttner | ESP teacher education at the interface of theory and practice: Introducing a model of mediated corpus-based genre analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Breyer | Learning and teaching with corpora: reflections by student teachers[END_REF]. However, as Leńko-Szymańska (2014: 261) notes "[u]nfortunately, there are only a few books which serve as manuals for teachers in this area". Things, however, do seem to be changing in this direction with some notable recent publications tackling the issue head-on: Eric Friginal's "Corpus linguistics for English teachers: new tools, online resources, and classroom activities" (Routledge, 2019), Robert Poole's "A guide to using corpora for English language learners" (Edinburgh University Press, 2018), and Dana Gablasova's "Corpus for Schools" project (launched in 2017). A more comprehensive list of books and resources with full references can be found as an appendix to this e-book.

Aside from the resources from Gablasova's Corpus for Schools project, which focus on spoken British English, the majority of these few existing resources are commercial book publications. This format bears two manifest disadvantages for teacher training purposes. First, if such books include practical information on how to use specific corpus tools, they very quickly become outdated (for instance, my students noticed that the host of changes made to english-corpora.org in 2020 made the step-by-step instructions of even very recent publications difficult, if not impossible, for corpus novices to follow). Secondly, but crucially, commercial book publications are only accessible to a small minority of priviliged student teachers, teachers and teacher trainers.

With these aspects in mind, I decided to co-create, together with my students, an Open Education Resource to guide (trainee) teachers through the practical aspects of using corpora for language teaching using accessible, online resources.

About the project | 9

3. The development of a project-based seminar [T]here is, at present, a large gap between the wealth of applied corpus-linguistic research and the teaching practice in Germany which so far has only been affected to a very limited extent by this research. Closing this gap is a challenge to applied corpus linguists and, perhaps more importantly, to those who are involved in teacher training (both for trainee and qualified teachers). (Mukherjee 2004: 247) Fig. 1: The three core areas of the project-based seminar Following Römer's (2010) call to focus more on language teachers' needs and inspired by previous such endeavours [START_REF] Breyer | Learning and teaching with corpora: reflections by student teachers[END_REF][START_REF] Hüttner | ESP teacher education at the interface of theory and practice: Introducing a model of mediated corpus-based genre analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Leńko-Szymańska | Is this enough? A qualitative evaluation of the effectiveness of a teacher-training course on the use of corpora in language education[END_REF], I developed and subsequently evaluated a project-based seminar for M.Ed. students training to become English teachers (at primary, secondary and vocational school level) in Lower Saxony Germany (Le Foll 2020). The institutional constraints were: 13 weekly sessions of 90 minutes with ca. 30 students. The seminar was designed to convince pre-service student teachers of the value of corpus linguistics approaches to language teaching and learning and of its potential to boost learner autonomy. At the same time, the seminar aims to empower the aspiring teachers to be able to create corpus-informed materials autonomously using a range of tools and methods. The final project task consisted in co-writing and peer-reviewing a chapter for the present OER.

Seminar Learning Objectives

By the end of the semester, students should:

▪ Understand how Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research can inform materials design;

▪ Be able to evaluate existing English Language Teaching (ELT) materials;

▪ Be able to design corpus-informed ELT materials, incl. effective differentiated tasks, activities, instructions;

▪ Be confident users of basic corpus linguistic tools and methods;

▪ Be able to teach others how to design corpus-informed ELT materials;

▪ Be skilled at giving and learning from critical (peer) feedback.

The first few seminar sessions consisted of a hands-on introduction to the basic principles of corpus linguistics, including debunking some normative linguistic myths (cf. "surprise-the-teacher" modules suggested by Mukherjee 2004: 245) using online corpus tools (english-corpora.org, SketchEngine, BNClab, CQPweb, etc.) and a range of freely available corpora (COCA, BNC1994, Spoken BNC2014, Cambridge Learner Corpus, GloWbE, etc.). Following a Flipped Classroom (e.g., [START_REF] Reidsema | The Flipped Classroom: Practice and Practices in Higher Education[END_REF]) and Just-in-Time Teaching (e.g., Simkins & Maier 2010) approach, students "consumed" theoretical input (in the form of journal articles, book chapters and videos) in their own time and answered questions testing their understanding and asking them to reflect on what they had learnt. These answers informed the content of the synchronous class sessions.

German school EFL teachers are highly reliant on commercial textbooks and often reluctant to move away from them as they are perceived to embody the "one and only way to teach the curriculum" and certainly represent a "safe option". To tackle this issue, the first phase in the seminar was to explore what makes good ELT materials and which SLA principles can be applied when evaluating textbook materials. Students overwhelmingly agreed that authentic (spoken) language usage and learner autonomy are two crucial aspects of language learning and that both are largely neglected in existing school EFL textbooks.

Based on this conclusion, I introduced the notion of corpus-based DDL in a hands-on approach: students tested their own (overwhelmingly non-native) language intuitions using corpora and, for greater ecological validity, completed DDL tasks designed to help them improve their own for academic writing (along others, with tasks adapted from [START_REF] Poole | A guide to using corpora for English language learners[END_REF]. The advantages and limitations of data-driven learning (DDL) were discussed and students explored the alignment of the DDL approach with current SLA principles.

About the project | 11 Following a problem-solving approach, students were encouraged to think about the difficulties that ELF teachers typically face and, using a problem-solving approach, gathered ideas to develop appropriate corpus-based materials and tasks to help solve some of these issues. In lieu of an end-of-term examination or seminar paper, course assessment consisted in the contribution of a co-authored chapter to a "Practical Guide to Using Corpora for English as a Foreign Language Teachers", to be published online (the attentive reader will note that the title of the OER has since changed!). The chapters submitted as coursework ranged from talking about breakfast (primary EFL), giving, accepting and refusing invitations in conversation (secondary EFL), teaching fractions (content and language integrated learning; CLIC), to talking to patients and next-of-kin about organ donation in hospital interactions (vocational education and training; VET).

Although the creation of the present OER was always at the heart of the seminar project, submitting coauthored coursework for publication was entirely optional and required the consent of all group members.

In addition, I made clear that I would make a selection of the most suitable chapters. No additional credits could be obtained for taking part in the publication process. The contributing authors worked on improving their chapters on the basis of my and their peers' feedback, sometimes over several revision rounds, in their own time, often long after the seminar had ended. Given these conditions, it was very heartening to see that many of the authors of the selected chapters were very keen to contribute to the present publication.

Challenges and lessons learnt

Whilst very rewarding for all involved, designing and implementing such a project-based seminar is certainly not without its challenges. The present OER is the result of three iterations of the seminar, with three different groups of Master of Education students. Considerable adjustments to the seminar content and its implementation were made over the three semesters. In the following, I'd like to share some of aspects that initially did not go to plan, as well as the reasoning behind the adjustments made as the project unfolded and lessons were learnt.

The first iteration in the winter semester 2019/2020 was entitled "Corpus Linguistics and Language

Teaching". As the title suggests, the primary focus of the taught input was on corpus linguistics. Though student feedback was largely positive and the quality of the coursework overall very satisfactory, it was clear that some aspects required substantial changes. First, the primary focus of seminar needed to be shifted away from the theory and practice of using corpora, towards more theoretical and practical grounding in ELT materials design. Indeed, a number of students misinterpreted the seminar's learning objectives as "learning all about the intricacies of as many corpora and corpus tools as possible", thus largely relegating the pedagogical content of the seminar to the background. This resulted in student coursework that was more akin to (often well-designed) step-by-step guides to conducting corpus queries than about how to actually make pedagogically meaningful use of corpora in the classroom. As a result, I chose to entitle the second iteration of the seminar: "Designing and Evaluating Materials for Language Teaching". Whilst student feedback from this second iteration was overall more positive than from the first, two students expressed the wish to have known before signing up the course that it involved designing ELT materials on the basis of corpus data. In order to avoid this misunderstanding and to make clear that corpus linguistics is a core part of the seminar, the third iteration was entitled: "Designing and evaluating corpus-informed language teaching materials". Interestingly, a number of students later reported choosing this third seminar specifically because they wanted to learn more about how to use corpora.

A number of students from the first iteration of the "Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching" seminar also reported that the wealth of available corpus tools and functions was overwhelming. Consequently, the second major change, which came hand in hand with the first, was to drastically reduce the course's teacher-led input on corpus software, platforms and query functions. The first seminar covered englishcorpora.org, SketchEngine, LancsBox, AntConc and CQPweb. The latter was only used to access the Spoken BNC2014, which was subsequently also uploaded onto SketchEngine so that future iterations did not need to include it. LancsBox was introduced together with a collaborative session in which the class created a higher education EFL/ESL learner corpus to which students contributed their own anonymised coursework from previous semesters. In practice, however, few students were willing to contribute any coursework to this toy learner corpus, which made it difficult to draw any meaningful conclusion from its analysis.

A second activity required students to use AntCorGen to create their own discipline-specific academic corpus. These two activities proved difficult for many students. First, there were a number of technical difficulties. Although both software are freely accessible and work well cross-platform, a handful of students had seemingly never installed any piece of software before and/or only had access to computers for which they did not have installation rights. All in all, the number of hours I invested in one-to-one technical support proved to be unsustainable. In order to make the best use of the limited time available and ensure equal participation for all, I therefore decided that future iterations of the course would only include browserbased online tools. Another strong motivator for this decision was my wish for the seminar objectives to be as long-term and sustainable as possible. As many practicing teachers will know, installing software on school computers/tablets is, at best, a frustratingly laborious task and, often, quite simply mission impossible! Using (freely accessible) browser-based tools removes this first, practical barrier to using corpora in school contexts. Moreover, a number of students later reported querying online corpus tools on their mobile phones to find quick solutions to their own language questions, which, again, highlights the longterm sustainability of such an approach. In any case, I strongly believe that having acquired a sound knowledge of corpus skills in any of the commonly used online or offline corpus tools, motivated teachers will have no trouble finding their way around other corpus tools. Indeed, this was shown to be case with some of my students successfully choosing to use CQPweb, SKELL and the TED Corpus Search Engine for their final projects, in spite of these not having been introduced in any of the compulsory or optional course tasks. Equally, I always referred interested students to AntConc, LancsBox, and other free, offline software, whenever these were likely to be better suited for their project ideas.

In addition, the first iteration of the seminar included a few technology-adverse students who reportedly did not enjoy the hands-on computer-based work and did not respond to DDL as positively as the rest of the participants. In future iterations, I made sure to stress that corpus-informed materials can just as About the project | 13 well be paper-based and need not necessarily rely on hands-on learner-corpus interactions (cf. Boulton 2010 on paper-based DDL activities). It is difficult to judge whether any future technology-adverse students were warned by their peers not to join this course, or whether the subsequent versions of the seminar better addressed their concerns because, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the second and third iterations of the seminar were taught online so that all students were, at any rate, forced to study online and work with their own devices. The online iterations of the seminar involved a combination of an elaborate asynchronous learning portfolio with individual and collaborative tasks and bi-weekly synchronous webinar sessions. Whilst this new seminar format required a lot of adaptations on my part, a number of students highlighted the advantages of the online course format for this project-based seminar:

Gerade hinsichtlich des behandelten Themas war es sehr praktisch, dass jeder an seinem eigen Computer saß. Die Möglichkeit, Arbeitsprozesse mit einem Corpus erst über einen Sceencast vermittelt zu bekommen und es quasi simultan ausprobieren zu können, empfand ich als vorteilhaft (gegenüber herrkömmlichen Seminarstrukturen) [Given the nature of the topics covered in the seminar, it was actually very handy that everyone was sitting in front of their own computers.

Compared to the usual seminar structures, I found it advantageous to be taught how to use a corpus via screencast and be able to try it out for myself almost instantaneously.]" (anonymous feedback from student evaluation, summer 2020)

In spite of all the challenges, the majority of students reported a high degree of satisfaction with the course and especially with the outcome of the final project task:

Over the course of the last weeks, I started to really appreciate the power of corpora and I am now

Learner autonomy

The seminars aimed to persuade student teachers of the value of corpus linguistics approaches to language teaching and their potential to boost learner autonomy. It empowered teachers to create corpus-informed materials autonomously and, via the creation and publication of the present OER, enabled them to become future corpus-informed materials design and data-driven learning (DDL) multipliers.

In the seminars, learner autonomy was tackled at two levels. First, all the participants were future English teachers and, although they are M.Ed. students, the majority of their university courses consist of frontal teaching and feature relatively few elements of self-regulated learning. Thus, this seminar also aimed to develop future teachers' own learning autonomy by allowing them to explore, apply, reflect and exchange on various ELT and SLA principles. They learnt about creating and evaluating ELT materials that support learner autonomy through DDL. DDL was new to all participating student teachers and was, initially, met with some resistance. Given their own relative lack of experience with such approaches, this was to be expected. In the pre-intervention questionnaire, two-thirds of the students agreed or strongly agreed with the statement: "I have no idea what corpus linguistics is about". Only a handful of participants reported already using corpora. All students responded negatively to the statement: "I know how to use corpora to prepare classroom materials". In light of these results, the following chapters, which were developed by the contributing student authors in just one semester, are even more impressive!

Conclusion and outlook

I am delighted that a small but highly motivated team of thirty students from the three iterations of this project-seminar has remained on board to see the project through to the publication stage. Although most students co-wrote their chapters in groups of two or three, five chapters were developed by students who had decided to work individually. I would like to thank all contributing authors, as well as all the students who participated in the seminars and who therefore also directly (e.g., through their peer review of the present chapters) and indirectly (e.g., through their course feedback which helped me improve future seminars) contributed to the successful completion of this project. Heartfelt thanks are also due to Tatjana

Winter who, in her capacity as a student research assistant at the Institute of English and American Studies (IfAA) at Osnabrück University, formatted the chapters for publication on pressbooks.com, and to my PhD supervisor Dirk Siepmann without whose support this (very time consuming!) side project would not have been possible.

All that remains for me to write is that I hope that this OER will prove to be a useful, practical resource for EFL/ESL teachers from across the world to learn to design their own corpus-informed materials and draw inspiration from. It is also highly suitable for use as a textbook or complementary resource in both pre-and in-service teacher training programmes on corpus linguistics in language education.

All the chapters are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, which means that they can be freely adapted, copied and distributed for non-commercial purposes as long as the original source and authors are cited. Editable XML and HTML versions of this e-book can be downloaded from this project's Zenodo repository. A PDF version with hyperlinks is also available from the same repository for readers with unreliable internet connections -though we recommend using the webbook version available on pressbooks.com.

The full OER may be cited as follows:

Le Foll, Elen (Ed. We welcome your feedback!

If you spot any errors, dead links, or have any other kind of feedback, do please get in touch via email (elefoll@uos.de) or on Twitter (@ElenLeFoll). The contributing authors and myself very much look forward to hearing how you are using this e-book. Do drop us a note to tell us how you are using and/or adapting the resource for your teaching and learning context! We also very much welcome your suggestions to improve this evolving and hopefully dynamic resource.

PART I

LESSON IDEAS: PRIMARY AND LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL

Corpus-informed EFL lessons for primary and lower secondary school

• "How's the weather?": Talking about the weather in the primary EFL classroom by Jana Küpers and

Nele Lange

• "Let's have a party!": Teaching students how to express, accept and refuse invitations by Selke Tombrägel

• "How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport by Annika Liebelt and Magdalena Fuchs 1. "How's the weather?": Talking about the weather in the primary EFL classroom

JANA KÜPERS AND NELE LANGE 1 Introduction and rationale

The weather plays a central role in everyone's daily life and is therefore also an essential part of everyday English: it is a common topic for small talk, when talking about our holidays, and is also a crucial factor in our choice of clothing. Thus, weather is a topic everyone can refer to and that everyone can say something about. This is also why it is one of the first topics to be taught in English as a Foreign Language (ELF) classes at primary school. In this way, the topic "Weather" contributes to achieving the main objective of all EFL teaching: "to equip learners with competences that allow them to communicate with other speakers of the English language in a respectful manner" (Surkamp & Viebrock 2018: 21) and is thus also in line with the primary school curriculum of Lower Saxony, Germany (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2016: 7).

However, the majority of EFL tasks about the weather in primary school textbooks often only require pupils to repeat, assign or classify pictures and/or single words, which does not help them develop communicative and intercultural competences. According to Thaler (2012: 84), one of the main disadvantages of tasks in EFL textbooks is that they can be repetitive and do not really activate pupils. In line with the core objectives of teaching English as a foreign language, the EFL materials and tasks created in this chapter therefore aim for a more effective and interactive way of learning English at primary school. This chapter provides teachers with a step-by-step guide on how to effectively make use of an appropriate corpus to compile idiomatic spoken language materials that enable primary school pupils to engage in (brief) authentic conversations about the weather in-and outside the classroom.

Outline and objectives

Target learners: Primary school pupils at the end of year 3 or (the beginning of) year 4

Teacher preparation time: 90 to 120 min (for three tasks)

Lesson time: 3x 45 min.

Learning objectives:

By the end of the lesson, pupils should be able to…

• answer questions about today's weather,

• ask others about today's weather, "How's the weather?": Talking about the weather in the primary EFL classroom | 19

• understand and use a range of adjectives typically used to describe the current weather situation in natural conversations,

• understand a simplified weather report.

Corpus, tools and methods

As even third grade primary school pupils are still in the process of acquiring and learning grammatical and orthographical features of the literacy system of their native language, the focus when teaching English as a foreign language in primary school should clearly be on oral skills (speaking and listening) (cf. Suhrkamp & Viebrock 2018: 26). The unit described in this chapter therefore mainly aims to improve pupils' speaking and listening skills. Accordingly, it is advisable to create teaching materials based on language data derived from a corpus of spoken English. The Corpus of American Soap Operas is particularly suitable for this purpose.

Several scholars have highlighted the potential of soap operas for the acquisition of a foreign language as they introduce learners to very natural and authentic spoken-like language (Jones & Horak 2014: 12-13;Quaglio 2009: 148-149). The Corpus of American Soap Operas contains 100 million words from more than 22,000 transcripts of ten American soap operas aired between 2001 and 2012. Moreover, this corpus does not include any swear words and is therefore particularly suitable as a basis for the generation of teaching materials for younger learners. The corpus can be accessed freely on www.english-corpora.org. Although it is necessary to register to use this online platform, the creation of a free account (which limits the number of searches per day) is more than sufficient for our purposes and does not restrict the website's functions in any other way.

The data used for designing teaching materials can be derived with the help of the website's "Collocates"- Therefore, it is argued that "learning the collocations of that language is not a luxury if anything above a survival level mastery of the language is desired, since collocation permeates even the most basis, frequent words" (O'Keeffe, McCarthy & Carter 2007: 60). Consequently, it can be seen as a crucial factor for the acquisition of authentic language skills that primary school pupils are given the opportunity to work with EFL materials which include collocations and that they are made aware of these collocations by both the materials and the teacher.

3

Step-by-step guide

Teacher preparation

Data collection -Conducting corpus queries

Step 1: Registration on www.english-corpora.org 20 | "How's the weather?": Talking about the weather in the primary EFL classroom First, go to www.english-corpora.org. Create a free account. Click on "My account" and then on "Register". Step 2: Selecting a corpus Next, on the home page, select a corpus from which you would like to draw data. For the unit described in this chapter, the Corpus of American Soap Operas is particularly suitable (see section 2).

"How's the weather?": Talking about the weather in the primary EFL classroom | 21 the lower box, and select "adv.WH" (Fig. 4). This way, you will obtain a list including all the adverbs that occur together with the noun weather and simultaneously function as question words. If you click on "Find collocates", a list with question words should appear on your screen (Fig. 6). The most frequent question word used before the word weather is how. Step 4: Searching for particular parts of speech -Finding adjectives that describe the weather As a next step, you need to find adjectives that can be used in order to describe a specific weather situation.

For this, you again need to use the "Collocates"-function (see step 3). In the lower box, click on "POS" again and this time select "adj.all" (meaning all kinds of adjectives). As the adjectives you are searching for can either occur directly in front of the noun weather (as in xxx weather) or up to three positions after it (as in the weather is very xxx), you need to click on number 1 on the left side and on number 3 on the right side.

Your search box should then look like the one shown in Fig. 8: is regardless of its particular grammatical forms, you need to click on "Options", which can be found in light grey letters in the right-hand corner, and select "Group by lemmas" (Fig. 9). A lemma is "a form of a word that appears as an entry in a dictionary and is used to represent all the other possible forms" (Cambridge Online Dictionary 2020). Given that one of the core objectives of teaching English as a foreign language is the teaching of authentic English, it is advisable to only include adjectives in your lessons that are frequently used in combination with the noun weather.

Step 5: Categorizing your research results

As a last step, you need to categorize your results in order to use them for your lesson preparation.

Warm-up activity

Step 6: Creating a warm-up activity in the form of a dialogue

As an introduction and warm-up activity, you can create a fictional dialogue between yourself as the teacher and a fictional person or the class mascot, talking about your plans for the holidays. At this point, it has to be noted that the pupils should already be familiar with typical vocabulary, phrases and sentence structures that can be used to greet somebody. Ideally, information regarding these phrases, sentence structures and vocabulary has also been derived from a corpus in previous lesson preparations. The warmup activity thus serves both as a revision of old knowledge and as an introduction to new skills and vocabulary. The introductory dialogue could look like this: Teacher: Brrrr, I don't like cold weather.

Mascot: What are you going to do in your holidays then?

Teacher: I'm going to (country/city).

Mascot: How's the weather in (country/city) then?

Teacher: It's nice and warm so I can go to the beach! Mascot: That sounds like a great plan! Alternatively, you can also show an appropriate video in which people are talking about the weather and afterwards ask your pupils what the video was about. However, it can be quite difficult and time-consuming to find a video that is suitable for this particular warm-up activity. Therefore, it is advisable to create such a fictional dialogue.

First task

Step 7: Creating word and picture cards

The warm-up activity provides the transition to the first task, which introduces new vocabulary. To create the material for this task, create picture cards that correspond to the adjectives listed in Table 1. All the cliparts used in this chapter are from https://publicdomainvectors.org and have the Common Creative license CC0.

Third task

Step 9: Selecting a weather report video and designing play cards

The third task can be introduced by a weather report. Try to find a short weather report that can be easily understood by beginners of the English language and that, at the same time, can also be fun and motivating for primary school pupils. A great example is the following video by Maple Leaf Learning: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpBuaU5OPi8.

Based on this video, you can create play cards that illustrate the weather in different cities/countries and include a question to ask. You can use the same clip arts used in the picture cards pinned to the board during the first session. After the first lessons, the pupils can start collecting daily information about the weather and record their observations in the form of a diary.

Lesson sequence

Individual work

Weather diary with pages for each day of the remaining unit and a page with supporting sentence structures/chunks

Options and further ideas

Having completed the first steps of the unit presented in this chapter, pupils could also be encouraged to further develop or deepen their acquired skills by creating their own weather report or weather diary.

The report could be produced in groups. The word and picture cards introduced beforehand, as well as cards with supporting sentence structures, may serve as additional support for weaker pupils. The sentence structures on the support cards may be based on the weather report video, which will already be familiar to the pupils from task 3.

The weather diary could also be part of the pupils' homework. The pages for the first few days may contain sentences with gaps that simply need to be filled in. As pupils progress, the design of the pages could them become more independent in writing their weather diary entries. By the end of the diary, pupils should be able to fill a page entirely on their own. Entries could include general information about the current weather situation, as well as information regarding the temperature or the next day's weather forecast. When using english-copora.org to derive data for the purpose of designing teaching materials, some difficulties might be encountered. Firstly, a free account on this platform only allows the user to conduct a limited number of searches per day. In addition, after having used the searching tools for a while, a notification informing you about the possibility to upgrade your account will be displayed (Fig. 16).

If this notification appears on your screen, you simply need to wait for a few seconds. Then, a new button appears, which enables you to continue your search without creating a premium account.

Secondly, there are three ways of obtaining the clip arts that you will need for the tasks described in this Lastly, it should be noted that there are different ways of how to ask somebody about the weather. It is also possible, for example, to ask What is the weather like today? Depending on which corpus you use and which kind of language data this corpus is based on (British or American English, spoken or written English, etc.) your data collection results may well differ from the ones presented in this chapter (see section 3.1.1). We deliberately decided to only introduce one way of asking about the weather in our proposed tasks because there is a high probability that pupils will otherwise mix several variants, thereby creating unidiomatic questions, e.g.,*How's the weather like today? Nevertheless, it is, of course, possible to set the same tasks using the question What is the weather like today? or any other idiomatic expression.

Conclusion

This chapter has shown that working with corpora enables teachers to design innovative and authentic teaching materials and thus allows pupils to acquire useful, idiomatic phrases for conversations in English.

Though the data compilation process may initially seem quite time-consuming and more complex than working with a conventional textbook, working with corpora can compensate for some of the weaknesses of the materials traditionally used in the primary school classroom (see section 1). However, in order to take advantage of these benefits, it is important to consider the appropriateness of the corpus chosen.

Once collected, the corpus data can be easily stored and reused numerous times. Finally, the processes of collecting corpus data and developing motivating teaching materials on the basis of this data can be applied to any other topic of the EFL classroom that aims to enable (primary school) pupils to acquire communicative competences based on authentic English. This example instruction, taken from a secondary school English coursebook widely used in Germany, illustrates that textbooks often focus on the learning of individual words, while the teaching of idiomatic phrases frequently comes short. The proposed lesson follows a different approach to language learning, in which the learner learns to think in linguistic chunks. It provides language learners with the necessary scaffolding to successfully go from learning new words to using them in context.

This chapter provides teachers with tasks that are close to students' reality and are connected to the newly learned expressions. In accordance with the overall aim of communicative language teaching, the students discuss travel plans in the form of text messages, explore strong collocations in written and spoken language and analyse the structures of a selection of phrases. As intended by the curriculum of Lower Saxony (Germany), students learn how to give information and make plans in English in an interactive context (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 17-18) with the help of chunks and common expressions that they gather from authentic, yet simple language. The focus lies on verb-noun and prepositional collocates.

The proposed lesson aims to support students in becoming autonomous language learners by means of scaffolding. When working with younger students and corpora, there is a fine line between student-corpus interaction and information overload, so the research tasks are kept simple (cf. Friginal 2018: 168). According to the local curriculum, students are to learn how to use various writing resources and tools in order to become increasingly independent (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 20).

For teachers, this chapter provides a step-by-step guide on how to find authentic chunks, questions, and example sentences for communicative travel situations, how to visualise and use them in class. The following corpus tasks encourage students to think beyond the labels of "correct" and "incorrect" language use, and to explore the special features of spoken English.

Outline and objectives

Learning objectives:

• Learners are able to identify commonly used verb collocations for means of transportation by using the Word Sketch function on SkeLL.

• Learners are able to reply to people asking for directions (e.g., "How do I get from the airport to your house?").

• Learners are able to explain to an exchange student how to travel to their destination in Germany in the form of a written dialogue. This enables students to use various expressions encountered in the corpus.

Corpus, tools and methods

Content-wise, the lesson follows the idea of learning to use collocates in context. On a methodological level, its aim is to help learners become proficient users of the corpus tool SkeLL. SkeLL is a free corpus tool specifically designed for language learners created by Sketch Engine. It offers a very intuitive user-friendly interface, which makes it highly suitable for learner-corpus interaction. Another positive aspect is that the tool functions well on smartphones so that it is not even necessary to set up laptops in class.

From intermediate proficiency level onwards, secondary school students should be encouraged to reflect on their language use more autonomously in order to become independent language learners. In the proposed lesson, students get the opportunity to work with a corpus tool and to do research themselves, which encourages language awareness and promises to be highly motivating.

The first function used for the analysis is the "Word sketch" function. It provides users with lists of words surrounding the search word, arranged in categories (collocating verbs, nouns, adjectives etc.). This means that it is possible to instantly see the most typically used verbs which have the search word as object. The corpus tool also offers example sentences including the search word, which provides learners with information on how the word appears in context.

The corpora used for the lesson are the ones preloaded on SkeLL: they "contain a varied collection of texts such as news, academic papers, Wikipedia articles, open-source books, web pages, discussion forums, blogs, etc. to provide a good example of how language is used in everyday, standard, formal and professional context" (www.sketchengine.eu/SkeLL/).

In addition, this chapter provides step-by-step instructions to creating a worksheet with Sketch Engine, which is a commercial platform and therefore only accessible with an account beyond the 30-day trial period, but which offers a wider choice of corpora and corpus functions that may prove very useful for teachers.

"How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport | 37

3

Step-by-step guide

Teacher preparation

It is advisable to give students an introduction on corpora, the SkeLL tool and its functions in advance. The teacher and each student (or student pair) need a device connected to the internet. A laptop would be ideal, but SkeLL also works on mobile devices. This corpus platform is not used for the warm-up or the pre-task.

Collecting expressions for worksheet 1

Open SkeLL in your internet browser (https://skell.sketchengine.eu/#home). Make sure to select "English" next to the search bar (Fig. 1). Type in a keyword, for example bus. Click on "bus in Word Sketch" in the appearing drop-down menu or select "Word sketch" after having started the search (Fig. 2). The word sketch then provides you with a well-structured overview of the strongest collocations of this keyword.

Select "noun" in the task bar to search only for phrases with bus as the noun (Fig. 3). This is particularly important for words like train that are also verbs.

Fig. 3: Settings

For task 1, you want to find verbs that are strongly associated with bus as an object, so focus on that column first (Fig. 4). It displays a variety of verbs you can choose from. Caution: not all verb listed will be relevant to your task. It is the teacher's responsibility to explain to the class why some collocates might not fit the task: e.g., if we are looking for verb-noun collocations related to the topic of travelling, articulate, park and drive, all of which are also among the strongest collocates of bus, are not relevant. To see example phrases that feature one of these collocations, click on the collocate (e.g., catch) (Fig. 5).

"How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport | 39 You can collect phrases suitable for your students for worksheet 2 on SkeLL (cf. section 4.1.1). The example phrases in example worksheet 2 were, however, taken from the Web English 2018 corpus using the Sketch Engine platform. Because of its considerably larger range of corpora and options, teachers will find many more examples there, so they can more easily vary the level of tasks. However, its interface is not as userfriendly as SkeLL, so this tool may be more suitable for research purposes and teacher preparation than for student-corpus interaction. Below, you will find a step-by-step guide for teachers for finding good examples on Sketch Engine.

3.1.2 Finding phrases for Worksheet 2 with Sketch Engine

Registration and login on Sketch Engine

Create an account on Sketch Engine or log in with your institutional account (Fig. 6). Participating EU institutions can access the tool for free until 2022 through the ELEXIS project. Note that, unless your school is taking part in this project, Sketch Engine is not free to use. There is, however, a 30-day free trial option. The Sketch Engine dashboard provides you with an overview of all the platform's key functions.

Selecting a suitable corpus and using the "Word sketch" function

In the search bar at the top of the dashboard view, select the English Web 2018 corpus (enTenTen18) (Fig. 7).

With over 21 billion words, it is considerably bigger than other corpora. Note that the texts contained in the corpus are not only produced by native English speakers. Considering the size of the corpus, though, this is unlikely to have an impact on the search results. The symbols in the top-right corner help you organise your results. Click on the eye symbol to sort the collocations according to their collocational strength if you want the results to look like they do on SkeLL, which always displays the strongest, most typical collocates of a certain keyword. If you sort by frequency, many of the collocates listed in the word sketch will probably be words which occur with a high frequency in the language in general (e.g., take or get). Choose the option that meets your requirements best or, for a good mixture, you can even use both (Fig. 9).

Exploring concordances

Again, focus on the column "verbs with 'bus' as object". To see how the verb-noun collocations are used in context, click on "…" next to a collocate and open the concordance lines for "bus + catch" in a new tab for a better overview (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10: Column "verbs with 'bus' as object" and further options

It is advisable to select a random sample of 100 or 200. Click on the question mark symbol in the toolbar above, then click "GO" (Fig. 11). Select "KWIC" to see the collocation "bus + catch" used in a larger context, with the keyword bus displayed in the centre (Fig. 12). If you prefer to see the collocation used in complete sentences, select the option "Sentence" (Fig. 13). Click on "bus" to see the extended context of the concordance line. You can see an even larger excerpt by clicking on "…" at the top or at the bottom of the of the paragraph (Fig. 14). Pick single sentences or short dialogue excerpts you want to include in your worksheet. This function helps you to filter the concordances to find shorter, simpler example sentences. Click on the "Good dictionary examples" symbol in the toolbar, then click "GO" (Fig. 15). You can always undo certain steps of your search or go back and forth between your steps. Click on the "x" displayed in the search history above to undo a step (Fig. 16). Ask students to present their dialogues in class.

Plenum

Instructions

Begin the lesson with a short warm-up activity. Students tell their neighbours how they travelled to a place they have visited before. Ask students to name means of transport and show them verbs that might appear in combination with the nouns. In the following work phase, the class conducts their own research using SkeLL to find out which verbs and nouns are commonly used as collocations in English for giving directions.

Before the class starts to work independently in pairs, present an exemplary search on SkeLL by sharing your screen and projecting it onto the wall or the whiteboard. It is important to highlight that the students should focus on the context of the collocations, i.e., the example sentences in which the search words appear. Worksheet 1 provides the students with a step-by-step guide on how to conduct the research and tells them which words to search for.

On the basis of the corpus tasks, the students transfer their findings to a written dialogue in which they give directions to an exchange student (see worksheet 3 sketches related to the topic. If there is a bit more time, it might also be interesting to search online for authentic public transport connections and practise giving corresponding directions. This would encourage students to focus on relevant information and to filter them according to their needs.

The proposed corpus activities might also serve as an introduction to the topic of travelling: following the ideas presented in this chapter, students could use the corpus tool to collect information on various destinations (cities, countries, sights, etc.), learn new adjectives to describe a trip or an event and use their knowledge to write a travel report, blog post or a diary entry.

Options and further ideas

The corpus tasks designed for this lesson allow for differentiation: teachers can decide how much scaffolding is needed, depending on the group of learners. For instance, the list of verb collocations might be prepared by the teacher or else be collected and developed by the learners themselves. Moreover, it is possible to let students find their own example sentences in SkeLL for further analysis of concordance lines. For the production task, some students can be challenged to create the whole dialogue themselves.

For a more realistic setting, it is possible to use exchange platforms like Erasmus eTwinning so that students can communicate with other English learners across Europe, or let students chat with their classmates in an online format.

Additional tools and functions to create more advanced tasks

Analysing concordances

The "Concordance" function is useful for finding language patterns for task design or for demonstrating certain language structures. More advanced language learners or corpus-experienced students could use this function to explore sentence structures on their own. Select the "Word sketch" option and search for a word as explained in section 3.1.2.2. Open the concordance lines (cf. section 3.1.2.3). Within the concordance section, click on the "Collocations" symbol, i.e., the three dots at the top of the page (Fig. 20). If you want to find the most frequent word forms right next to the keywords catch + bus, for instance, select the first position on the right side. Click "GO" (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21: Specifying the position of the collocates

You will then be presented with a list of the most frequent words directly following the collocation catch + bus. In Fig. 22, you can see that these are almost exclusively prepositions. section 3.1.2.3). Within the concordance section, click on the "Change criteria" symbol (Fig. 24).

52 | "How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport In the "Advanced search" settings, click on "Filter context" and tick "Part-of-speech context" (Fig. 25). This function allows you to search for an additional wordform that occurs in the same sentence as, e.g., bus and take. A drop-down menu for choosing the part(s) of speech you want to search for will appear. As an example, search for all prepositional phrases associated with the collocation take + bus. These are good exemplary phrases for further analysis. To do this, click "all" and tick "preposition" in the drop-down menu. To specify the position of the prepositional phrase relative to the keywords, select "1" Tokens "right" and click "GO" (Fig. 26). Sketch Engine will then only display concordances with prepositional phrases occurring immediately to the right of the collocation (Fig. 27).

Visualisation

Another nice feature is the "Visualisation" function on Sketch Engine. Visualising the word sketch (e.g., for demonstration purposes) can be easily done by way of the studentfriendly, interactive visualisation tool on Sketch Engine. Open the word sketch interface and search for a word (cf. section 3.1.2.2). Click on the "Show visualization" symbol in the toolbar (Fig. 28). For a better overview, select only the categories you want to show and adjust the number of collocations you want to display until you are satisfied with the visualisation (cf. Fig. 29).

Fig. 29: Visualising the word sketch

The image is downloadable. Hover over one area with your cursor to highlight just one on the categories.

This could help students formulate their own sentences, for example in task 3 of the lesson outlined in section 4.

Conclusion

Corpus-based task design is still primarily found in academic contexts. In this chapter, we intended to show how corpus tools can also be used by language learners of lower proficiency. The approach introduced in this chapter is applicable to many more topics and levels. The idea is to encourage learners to explore new word fields by creating word sketches and analysing words in context by themselves. Students actively engage with new vocabulary in context instead of simply memorising lists of isolated words from the textbook.

Word sketches like the ones created in this lesson are a good way of discovering authentic chunks of speech that a textbook could not provide. In this chapter, we have shown that SkeLL is a simple, yet practical tool that can give learners the means to becoming autonomous language learners, whilst Sketch Engine with its variety of useful functions has an enormous potential for teachers, especially when creating further exercises and visualisations.

Introduction and rationale

Communicative approaches to teaching English as a foreign or second language aim to enable learners to master key communicative situations such as going to a restaurant, shopping, asking for directions, etc. As such, it is necessary to give students the opportunity to come into contact with authentic spoken language as opposed to the largely written-language-based and often unidiomatic materials presented in school textbooks. With this in mind, this chapter applies a communicative teaching approach by teaching students how to give, accept and refuse invitations in a socially accepted manner. This teaching objective is in line with our local secondary school curriculum, which states that students should be able to invite somebody and to respond to invitations (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 17). This chapter provides teachers with a detailed step-by-step guide on how to access and compile idiomatic spoken language material by conducting their own corpus linguistics research and how to process this material for teaching purposes.

It thus shows how idiomatic spoken language use can form the basis of diverse communicative and meaningful learner activities, which prepare students for communicative encounters outside the classroom.

Outline and objectives

• Target learners: Lower secondary school (e.g. 8 th grade)

• Teacher preparation time: ca. 60 min.

• Lesson time: ca. 90 min.

By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Invite friends to a party 2 Corpus, tools and methods Quaglio (2009: 148-149) advocates the use of television dialogue as a surrogate for natural conversation, adding that "it offers a vast potential for pedagogical purposes". Accordingly, the Corpus of American Soap

Operas was selected for this lesson. It contains 100 million words of spoken American English from ten US soap operas from the early 2000s and is freely accessible via english-corpora.org. Note that, unlike many spoken corpora, which feature adult, uncensored spoken language, the Corpus of American Soap Operas is especially adequate for selecting language material for younger learners, as it does not include any swear words. To use the english-corpora.org, users will need to register. The free account only offers a limited number of searches per day but this is sufficient for teaching purposes.

The corpus research conducted by the teacher as part of the preparation for this lesson focuses on the KWIC functions of english-corpora.org. This function is particularly useful because it can help to counter the "overemphasis in language teaching on single words" (O' Keeffe et al. 2007: 63); and to make students aware that "the meaning of a word is as much a matter of how it combines with other words in actual use" (Firth 1935in O'Keeffe et al. 2007: 59).

3

Step-by-step guide

Teacher preparation -data collection

Step 1: Registering on english-corpora.org

To access the Corpus of American Soap Operas, connect to www.english-corpora.org and select the corpus by clicking on it (Fig. 1). If you are curious to find out more about the different soaps included in the corpus, click on the "sheet-ofpaper symbol" (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Further information on the corpus.

Step 2: Compiling corpus data with the "KWIC" function

The "Keyword in Context" (KWIC) function enables you to see in which context a keyword, occurs. First, type in the keyword, in this case invite. Second, select the words by which you want to sort your search. Select L for 1, 2, or 3 words to the left. Select R for 1, 2, or 3 words to the right. It is also possible, for example, to sort by one word to the left, then one and two words to the right. Note that you can click on the grey box with the asterisk to clear the entries and start over (Fig. 3). As a result of this sample search, you will obtain a list of 200 examples of the verb invite and the three words to its right (Fig. 4). Elements which belong to the same structural category are highlighted in the same colour, which will help you and your students to identify common patterns of usage. You may have observed that the search options, as displayed in Fig. 3, only returned the non-inflected verb form invite. In order to find representative examples including the different conjugated forms of the verb invite (e.g. he/she/it invites, he was invited) (Fig. 6), you need to search for the lemma invite. The lemma includes all conjugated verb forms such as inviting, invited, invites etc. To search for the lemma invite, type:

[invite] or INVITE and click on "Keyword in Context (KWIC)" (Fig. 5).

"Let's have a party!": Teaching students how to express, accept and refuse invitations | 59 Step 3: Searching for particular parts-of-speech

When looking for similar patterns, it is important to search for invite as either a noun or a verb in order to obtain comparable examples. This selection can be made by clicking on the light grey button "POS" (= Part-of-Speech) next to where the search term is entered (Fig. 7). A drop-down menu opens and "verb.all" or "noun.all" can be selected. In the following you will find some results for exemplary searches of invite as a verb. Now also search for the nouns invite and invitation. One option is to save lists of useful frequent structures, e.g. invite + me/him/her/them + over/to, so that your students may inductively infer the underlying patterns based on the similarity of the examples. You can access your lists anytime. Choose the list you would like to access and click on "SAVE LIST" (Fig. 16). Step

Teacher preparation -designing corpus-based teaching materials

Warm-up

Step 6: Selecting a video scene of an invitational act

For the warm-up activity, select an appropriate invitation scene, ideally from one of the soaps in the corpus.

The expanded context information of a specific concordance line as illustrated below (Fig. 18), includes information about the date on which this specific scene was first broadcasted. Therefore, you may try to search the internet to find this specific episode, though this can be a time-consuming task! Alternatively, search for an alternative invitation scene on YouTube, e.g. from the soap "All my children" (on YouTube, search for: "All my children invitation"): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3awzuCGbqqo. Please note that Fig. 19

Second task

Step 9: Designing role-play cards While the first task focused the students' attention on patterns of usage, the second task aims to motivate students to actively use these patterns in communication. In order to achieve this aim, it is recommended to create role-play cards. The corpus data you collected (in the form of concordance lines and their expanded contexts) offer numerous example situations which you can use for creating the cards. You can either directly copy the "expanded context" onto the cards if the situation is clear enough that way, or rephrase and summarize the depicted scene in a couple of sentences if necessary. While the situation is presented on the back of the card, the front side states the topic of the situation e.g. "Refusing an invitation" (Table 3). -front -

Inviting somebody

-back -Situation:

You have decided to celebrate your birthday, which is coming up the following week. On your way to soccer practice you meet a good friend and immediately want to invite him/her.

-front -

Refusing an invitation

-back -Situation:

Your best friend invites you to his/her birthday. Unfortunately, you will be on vacation with your parents.

Third task

Step 10: Formulating the final task of the session

The final task of the session requires the students to practise using the structural patterns and phrases they have learned over the course of the session in writing by designing an invitation card (Fig. 20).

"Let's have a party!": Teaching students how to express, accept and refuse invitations | 67

Instructions

Pre-Task: Language chunk cards

The idea is to pin a number of sentence "chunks" onto the board. In a class of 24 students, form four groups of six students. Within their groups, the students discuss and guess which of the chunks presented on the board belong together. Each group then sends one group member to the board to reorganize the chunks in the correct order. The group results are then discussed in class and secured on the board.

First task: Discovery learning of key patterns

In this task, students work through the worksheet designed in 3.2.3 individually or in pairs. Depending on the class, time resources and classroom facilities, this task could also be redesigned as a hands-on Data-Driven-Learning (DDL) task. In this case, the students themselves work online with the corpus. This, of course, means that they need access to computers and should have received a general introduction to corpus research similar to the one provided for teachers in this chapter. If these requirements can be met, the students work "hands-on" with the corpus in order to discover structural patterns. Instead of being given the pre-selected corpus data, they can investigate and select examples sentences themselves.

Second task: Role-plays

The class is split into pairs of two students: each pair receives approximately ten role-play cards; the students then have to act out the described situation by choosing appropriate phrases/patterns to talk about invitations. They can use the worksheet; especially task 1b (see worksheet Fig. 20) may help them to decide which structure to use in which situation.

"Let's have a party!": Teaching students how to express, accept and refuse invitations | 69

Third task: Invitation cards This task can conclude the lesson or, alternatively, be set as homework. Weaker students may be provided with an example invitation text to support them in this task.

Options and further ideas

As an extension to the invitation card writing task, students can "invite" each other to their parties and then accept or refuse invitations on the basis of a roll of the dice. The number on the dice can be suggested by the students and then summarized on the board.

Possible key to the die game 1 = Accept the invitation.

2 = Accept the invitation and ask if your friend/sibling can also come. Further follow-up lessons could focus students' attention on the degree of politeness in various invitation scenes, particularly with regard to the modal verbs used to express politeness. The following combinations are particularly frequent in the corpus:

• Would + invitation

• Would love to + invite • Couldn't + invite • May + invite • Should + invite
• Should have a party

• Ought to + invite
The following search (Fig. 21) can help to find the most frequent modal verb + invite patterns. This notification may be disregarded, but requires a little patience. Having waited for a few seconds, users then have the option to continue their search without upgrading (Fig. 23).

Conclusion

Even though the initial preparation of this lesson based on self-compiled corpus data is more timeconsuming than ordinary lesson preparation, this chapter has shown that the time investment is worth the effort. The preparation time will continuously decrease as teachers become more experienced in working with corpora. Once collected, the corpus data can be reused numerous times and the procedure can easily be applied to any other topic which aims at teaching students how to master communicative situations; it is even applicable to other foreign languages. Teachers of Spanish, for example, may want to consult www.corpusdelespanol.org, whose interface will look very familiar to experienced users of englishcorpora.org since it is based on the same software.

Resources and references

AMCthroughtheyears. 2014. All My Children -1999 -An Invitation to the Crystal Ball. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3awzuCGbqqo (3 December, 2020

Introduction

The verbs say and tell have a similar meaning and, in German, both can be translated as sagen. As a result, German-speaking learners of English tend to use the grammar of these words synonymously and frequently produce unidiomatic phrases like she told to me or my teacher said me that. In fact, this problem is not confined to German-speaking learners of English: it is common to many Learner Englishes -as attested, for example, in the Longman Dictionary of Errors (Turton & Heaton 1997). To counter this difficulty, the following lesson focusses on the different grammatical structures of the two verbs, which the students will ascertain from authentic language samples. Students benefit from a corpusbased approach to learning about these two reporting verbs because corpora provide them with authentic language material. Knowing how to work with corpus analysis tools and being able to interpret the extracted data can positively contribute to students' learning strategies and learner autonomy.

Justification for applying such an approach can be found in the curriculum of Lower Saxony as it encourages teachers to include a variety of learning strategies in their teaching:

Lernstrategien

Outline and objectives

This 90-minute lesson is designed to be a stand-alone grammar lesson that can be embedded into any topic in which the two verbs tell and say occur, or after difficulties in the correct usage of the verbs' grammatical features arose. It has been designed with sixth-grade students in mind who have already been introduced to both verbs independently and are now learning about their structural differences. Since it is assumed that this is the students' first time working with a corpus, the worksheet features step-by-step instructions on how to extract the relevant information from the corpus. Besides providing the students with the tasks and instructions, the worksheet additionally secures all results in one document that the students can look at in case of uncertainties.

Learning objectives:

• Students understand that tell and say have different grammatical structures whose features cannot be applied synonymously.

• Students can use both verbs productively in idiomatic contexts.

This will be achieved by analysing and comparing the grammatical structures based on corpus data. In addition:

• Students develop 'corpus skills' as a learning strategy for autonomous language learning.

• Students train their communicative and social competences, e.g., by comparing and discussing their results with a partner.

• Students reflect on the experience of working with a corpus.

Corpus/corpora, tools and methods

As "educational systems in European countries generally […] follow the British English model" (Naser Eddine 2011: 8), the British National Corpus (BNC) will be used to provide the necessary information for this lesson.

The corpus can be freely accessed via https://www.english-corpora.org/bnc/. The different uses of this corpus analysis tool include "finding the frequency of words, phrases, and collocates" and "designing authentic language teaching materials and resources" (English Corpora: Most Widely Used Online Corpora. Billions of Words of Data: free Online Access, n.d.). To find out about the grammatical differences of tell and say, the students will work with the List and Collocates functions (cf. 3.3,.

This lesson focusses on the verbs tell and say, which are introduced to German learners of English in 5 th , or at the latest in 6 th grade -which is the reason why this lesson was created for sixth-grade students. Once the students know both words, they should be made aware that tell and say have different grammatical structures that cannot be used synonymously. By working with a corpus, the students will learn to extract rules from authentic language data. This data-driven learning approach teaches the students how to work with the basic analysis features of a corpus tool. In the following years, more detailed and complex corpus queries can be introduced, which will build on the abilities the students have already developed. In the context of this project, a worksheet was developed that enables the students to work autonomously, with five tasks and corresponding step-by-step instructions. It can be found at the end of this chapter.

3

Step-by-step guide

Teacher preparation

1. Become familiar with https://www.english-corpora.org/. Work through the worksheet yourself to be able to help your students.

2. In case you think there are too many or too few tasks, you can adjust the number according to the group of learners.

3. Does the task level match your students' skills, or might they need assistance? This is the time to think about scaffolding. Here are some ideas:

• You could hang up a poster with the word classes on it. This could help your students in case they are not familiar with the word classes (cf. worksheet, task 3). • You could prepare cards containing helpful phrases (see worksheet, task 5) or beginnings of sentences (see worksheet, additional task) that the students can get from you in case they need support.

4. For a successful introduction into the lesson, draw a connection to the previous one(s), so that the students know what will happen and why. You could think about questions like:

• Did the students have problems distinguishing tell and say?

• Did the students ask you to explain the differences between the two verbs?

5. The conclusion period should be used to compare the students' results to see if there are any questions left and to draw a conclusion from the lesson.

• What do I want my students to learn? What is most important to remember?

• You could reflect on the lesson together with your students. Did they like working with a corpus autonomously? What kind of problems did they encounter? • Explaining how using a corpus could improve their future learning processes.

Lesson Plan

Students work autonomously with the worksheet

This does not mean walking them through the step-by-step instructions but rather clarifying comprehension questions.

Teacher should act as learning assistant.

If students need help, point to the scaffolding options they can use. You should try to avoid walking them through the task; let them help each other and support them in working on their own.

Have an additional task in store for the quickest students: They could either be experts and help their classmates or get an additional task to work on.

Conclusion 20 -25 min

Comparing results

Answering remaining questions

Reflecting on the working process

Compare the results and internalize the correct usage of the two verbs.

What are the most important things you want your students to remember? e.g., rule box on the worksheet Short reflection to find out if there were difficulties using the corpus.

Explain why using corpora is beneficial for the students' learning process both in and outside school.

Step-by-Step Instructions

In case you are working with a corpus for the first time yourself, the following step-by-step instructions will walk you through everything you need to know for this lesson. The instructions are in chronological order based on the attached worksheet. Furthermore, there are a few additional instructions (marked with an *) to extent your basic knowledge of this web interface. This might be helpful if you want to expand the work with corpora, or if you search for different words and find out that another function might be more beneficial to reach the learning goal.

Selecting a Corpus

Open the website https://www.english-corpora.org and select the British National Corpus (BNC) (Fig. 1).

*You will find a listing of different corpora on the opening page. Should you be working with this analysis tool again, pick the one that is most suitable for your lesson.

Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' | 79

Looking for Frequency

Now, you will find yourself on the SEARCH interface. On this screen, insert the word/words you are looking for. When you click on the grey words below the search box, another box with further information will pop up on the right-hand side (Fig. 3 and4).

80 | Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' To find out how often a word is used, simply enter the word into the white box and click on "Find matching strings". The website will forward you to the FREQUENCY screen (Fig. 5). This interface displays the results of the search in the column "FREQ" and the column "PER MIL". When you click on the word "TELL" (Fig. 5), the website jumps to the CONTEXT interface and provides a full list of the sentences that your search results can be found in (the concordance lines).

Lemmas

The frequency search only shows results that match the exact word form that has been written. In order to get results that contain all variants of the words (e.g., different tense and grammatical forms) the lemma search will be the best option. To do so, you simply enter the specific words in capital letters on the SEARCH interface (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6: The lemma search function

By confirming your entry by clicking on "Find matching strings", you will be forwarded to the FREQUENCY interface, which displays the different variants in descending order (Fig. 7). Task(s)

You will find the tasks on the worksheets attached (cf. appendix). There is a template for the students as well as a teacher's version with solutions. As mentioned before, the teacher knows their group of learners best and should adjust the scaffolding accordingly.

Follow-up activities

As this lesson focusses on grammatical difficulties in a stand-alone manner, it can be embedded into several units. The decision when to implement it must be made by the teacher. If the students have major problems with the use of this corpus analysis tool, it might be wise to divide the lesson up. The additional task is meant for students who have finished early, or could alternatively be used as homework. To enable the students to work with corpora in a more comprehensive way, the teacher should introduce them to further analysis functions from the website when the time is right, e.g., finding the correct preposition for certain words. Especially grammar and vocabulary work -which are so closely interlinked that they can hardly be addressed in isolation -can benefit from working with corpora and should therefore be regularly implemented in English classes.

Options and further ideas

Many words in the English language have similar meanings but are used in different contexts and/or have different grammatical structures. Native speakers intuitively learn in which contexts to use these words idiomatically. This unit was designed to teach the verbs tell and say but can also serve as a model for other words that have similar meaning, e.g., cause and bring about, beautiful and attractive, safety and security.

Another idea would be using more than one corpus to compare the use of words in different language varieties, e.g., British English (e.g., using the BNC) and American English (e.g., using the COCA). Comparisons between an inner-circle variety (e.g., British English) and an outer-or expanding circle variety (e.g., Indian

or Nigerian English) are also possible. There just needs to be an appropriate corpus to use (e.g., the Global Web-Based English Corpus).

The corpus analysis tool that has been introduced in this chapter offers other search functions alongside

List and Collocates, e.g., Chart and Compare. Just to give an example, the Compare function can be used to directly compare the search results of two words (Fig. 11). The results are then presented in two juxtaposed tables that allow for a relatively easy comparison of their collocational patterns. The numerical scale underneath the text fields can be used to narrow the results down to the number of words that precede or follow the words. However, this function is not included in this worksheet because the simple comparison of the verbs tell and say generates the following results (Fig. Abstracting results from this chart did not seem age-appropriate to us and would probably leave students confused. Should the structure of this worksheet be copied and adapted for older students (presumably grade 8 and higher), including the Compare function could be considered as a way of exposing the students to additional input that they may benefit from.

12):

Conclusion

This lesson introduces students to the work with corpora at an early stage. Acquiring digital skills is of importance in these times of rapid technical developments. Consequently, it may be beneficial to introduce students to a variety of digital tools. The more they have the opportunity to interact with corpus platforms, the easier the handling gets. This lesson could therefore be useful to introduce students to basic corpus analyses. It provides a lot of instructions and scaffolding which supports those in need, especially when using this type of tool for the very first time.

Language is not a fixed concept; therefore, it is relevant to use tools that allow the student to dive into real language situations aside from the textbook used in school. Our lesson focusses on a typical learner error, namely the collocational patterns of the verbs tell and say. German-speaking students cannot be expected to understand why they cannot use the words synonymously without further explanations. Implementing this lesson to clarify the distinction at an early stage can avoid long-term fossilisation of unidiomatic structures.

By following the step-by-step instructions included in this chapter, teachers should be able to create corpusbased lessons on any other typical error that their students regularly make. (EFL) need to be confronted with language (input) in order to be able to produce language (output). Writing tasks target students' productive skills. However, it is simply impossible to expect students to use vocabulary which they have never been exposed to before. Therefore, they need to be given opportunities to encounter such suitable vocabulary beforehand. This chapter thus aims to show how English corpora can be used to provide such input.

Resources and references

The English curriculum for secondary schools in Lower Saxony explicitly lists "creative writing" as a competence (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 20). By the end of 8 th grade (end of middle school), students are expected to be able to produce simple essays. By the end of 10 th grade, this competence is to be improved: students are expected to write more complex and extensive texts. Based on these curricular guidelines, the exercises in this chapter focus on students' creative writing skills.

Outline and objectives

• The activities presented in this chapter are mainly designed for capacity building. This chapter will show how students can be taught to improve their creative writing skills autonomously by consulting corpora. The exercises provide valuable input in the form of suitable vocabulary, and also teach how to find synonyms to expand and diversify students' vocabulary. The example in this chapter concentrates on writing a travel blog post. However, the tasks can easily be adapted to different writing tasks, too.

• This chapter targets 8 th grade students at secondary school. The lesson plan is designed for a 90-minute double lesson. Introducing the use of corpora as a writing resource as early as possible is recommended as students will benefit from that point on. At this age, students are expected to only have quite a limited vocabulary range, hence, such a strategy to expand their vocabulary can be helpful. Furthermore, 8 th grade students can reasonably be expected to be technically able to operate corpus analysis tools without any great difficulties.

Corpora for Creative Writing | 95

Tools and methods

This chapter relies on Sketch Engine as an online corpus analysis tool. This tool already contains more than 500 ready-to-use corpora in different languages and also makes it easy for users to optionally compile their own corpora. It is accessed via its website, therefore no additional program or application must be downloaded; a working internet connection suffices. Although Sketch Engine is not free to use, a number of reasons justify the choice of this tool for the present chapter. First of all, it provides powerful inbuilt corpus analysis functions which can be used to analyze collocations, word lists, concordances, and much more.

Sketch Engine comes with a free 30-days-trial and is also free until March 2022 for researchers, lecturers and students of EU academic institutions taking part in the ELEXIS project.

The corpus used in this chapter is the English Web 2015 (abbreviated to enTenTen15), which consists of ca.

15.7 billion words of written language from the internet. The English Web 2015 corpus was chosen because it is one of the largest corpora available and, since it is a compilation of online texts, is well suited for the exercise of writing a travel blog post.

The lesson plan in 4.2. presents the important functions of the Sketch Engine interface to students. During the second half of the lesson, students can then make use of their new knowledge and consult a corpus in order to find suitable vocabulary for a short essay. The lesson plan may be embedded in an introductory lesson on corpus methods or immediately afterwards. However, it is not advised to start using Sketch Engine without any introduction, as this will likely overwhelm students.

Step-by-step guide

Note that, for the lesson presented, each student or pair of students must have a laptop or computer with a working internet connection, as well as a Sketch Engine account.

1. Introduction: The teacher's laptop is connected to the video projector to project a short text on the board:

Last weekend I went to the beach. The beach was beautiful and the sea was also beautiful. The beach was very bright and reflected the sunlight. Along the beach there were many beautiful cafes and restaurant. I walked on the beach for many hours, just up and down. The beach was not too far from my hotel, so I stayed until it got dark. What a beautiful day.

2. The teacher asks the students what they think of the text and how it can be made more fun to read and more varied in terms of vocabulary. At this point, the discussion should lead towards the importance of adequate adjectives for more vivid descriptions and the use of synonyms to avoid repetition.

3. Students turn on their devices, connect to www.sketchengine.eu and log in. The teacher also follows these steps. As the teacher's laptop is still connected to the video projector, the students can compare their screens in order to check whether they have followed the steps correctly.

4. In the search bar at the top of the page, the students are instructed to load the "English Web 2015" corpus (Fig. 1). 5. Students are instructed to click on "Word Sketch", a function that lists a word's most typical collocates, organised according to their grammatical relation to the search word (Fig. 2). 6. Students are asked to type in beach and click on "GO" (Fig. 3). 7. The teacher gives a brief presentation of the different kinds of grammatical relations and their value for creative writing. In this case, the category "modifiers of 'beach'" is the most important, as it lists all the words which are frequently used to modify "beach" in the corpus, and these are mostly adjectives. In this example, the collocation beautiful beach is very frequent, but alternatives could be stunning beach or pristine beach (Fig. 4).

Corpora for Creative Writing | 97 8. Students are then encouraged to use this method to find suitable adjectives to avoid the overuse of beautiful in the introductory text. Weaker students may need to be told that the words they will need to look up using the "Word Sketch" function to achieve this, e.g. sea, cafés, restaurants, and day. Thus, for example, for sea, students may choose to replace beautiful in the original text with calm, deep, blue, crystal clear, etc. 9. In the next step, students are introduced to the "Thesaurus" function, which generates a list of the search word's synonyms and related words. To use this function, they must click on "Thesaurus" in the menu (Fig. 5). 10. As an example, students are asked to search for beautiful (Fig. 6). 11. The teacher explains that the resulting list of synonyms was automatically compiled and may therefore contain anomalies. However, this list can nevertheless be very useful in helping students diversify their vocabulary in their own creative writing. By clicking on the three dots to the right of any word, students can see the word used in context and hence check that it is appropriate for their own text (Fig. 7). 12. The teacher then provides and explains the following tasks:

A) What modifiers are frequently used in the corpus to describe a village? Use Sketch Engine's "Word Sketch" function to find these modifiers and write a short fictional paragraph about your visit to a village (ca. 5-7 sentences). Try to make your text as varied as possible.

B) Try using Sketch Engine's "Thesaurus" function to find suitable synonyms for some of these modifiers.

13. In the end, students can present their results and also the difficulties they encountered. Other students try to find alternative solutions.

Corpora for Creative Writing | 99

As mentioned above, the guides and exercises presented in this chapter serve solely as examples and can easily be adapted to other learning objectives and topics. For example, students could use corpora as an aid for writing manuals, e-mails, short stories, and so on. With Sketch Engine, it is also possible to focus more specifically on certain word classes, e.g. prepositions or adverbs.

Conclusion

This chapter aimed to illustrate how students can improve their creative writing skills by consulting a corpus analysis tool. Students can use Sketch Engine to extend and diversify their own vocabulary. Furthermore, Sketch Engine has the potential to be used for other exercises designed to improve the students' writing skills.

However, it has to be taken into consideration that Sketch Engine is not free to use beyond the 30-day trial period. Alternatively, teachers may want to consult SKELL (skell.sketchengine.co.uk), which is a free, highly simplified, version of Sketch Engine designed specifically for language learning. Whilst it is based on a smaller corpus, incidentally also of web-based language, it nevertheless also includes the functions "Word Sketch" and "Similar words" (which is similar to the "Thesaurus" function), which can be used for exactly the same types of activities described in this chapter. As with all new tools, it is recommended that teachers test the interface beforehand to check that the results provided by SKELL are likely to meet the needs of the students. 6. How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing

Resources and references

KATHARINA BUSMANN 1 Introduction and rationale

According to Anne Wichmann et al. (1997), the main rationale for using corpora in teaching is their immediate availability for students' use. To do so, students need to acquire the essential know-how to be able to explore corpora as part of their self-regulated learning (cf. Wichmann et al. 1997: 7). Likewise, the curriculum for secondary schools in Lower Saxony requires students to acquire essential learning strategies and study techniques that enable them to solve problems effectively on their own using a range of resources (cf. Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 27). Accordingly, this chapter focuses on how teachers can introduce data-driven learning (DDL) to their students so that they can autonomously use corpora to improve their writing after having a writing assignment marked by the teacher and returned to them. Additionally, it gives further ideas on how to use the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) for writing in general, since it allows learners to quickly and easily see how native speakers use language in a wide variety of texts.

Outline and objectives

The proposed lesson…

• is suitable for secondary school pupils at the age of 12 or older.

• includes a pre-task which introduces the COCA and explains the basic functions of the web interface.

• Preparation time: ca. 15-20 min.

• Class time: ca. 10-15 min.

• features a main task guided by a worksheet, so that students learn to correct some of their own mistakes independently thanks to the information gleaned from the COCA.

• Preparation time: none

• Class time: ca. 20-25 min.

• ends with three review questions that encourage students to reflect on the use of the concordance function.

• Preparation time: none

• Class time: ca. 10 min.

How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing | 101

In light of the above, the following learning objectives emerge:

After the lesson, students …

• can search for concordance lines in the COCA.

• can communicate how specific words or phrases are used in writing by consulting the COCA.

• can correct their mistakes independently by inferring information given by the COCA and thus improve their writing skills.

• can reflect on the utility of the concordance function.

If you are familiar with using the COCA, there is hardly any teacher preparation needed for this lesson.

Otherwise, please make sure that you work through the introductory steps below beforehand, in order to be able to explain the tools to your students and answer students' questions in class.

Corpus, tools and methods

The resource used for this lesson is the COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English), which contains more than one billion words and is equally divided up into spoken English, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers and academic texts. With the latest update in March 2020, TV and movie subtitles, blogs, and other webpages have been added to the corpus as well (cf. Davies 2020b: 1). According to englishcorpora.org, the COCA is the most widely used corpus of general English. Since the latest texts are dated from 2019, it is also the most up to date (cf. ibid). Once you have learnt about its basic functions, the web interface is very easy to handle. It is free for all to use. It follows from all these considerations that the COCA is a good choice of resource for such a lesson.

Step-by-step guide

Lesson plan

The lesson plan (Table 1) gives an overview of how the lesson may be structured.

Instructions

The following instructions cover explanations about general functions of the web interface while working through an example that focuses on the different usages of two commonly confused words, namely fewer and less. They both have the same meaning. However, when do you use less and when should you use fewer? Perhaps, this confusion is a mistake which quite a few students made in the writing assignment that you recently corrected and aim to hand back in the designed lesson.

Steps:

1. Go to www.english-corpora.org.

2. Click on "Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)" to open the corpus (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Selecting a corpus.

How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing | 103

3. You should now be able to see the following display (Fig. 2): 4. Click on "Sections" (Fig. 3). 5. Choose the register(s) you want to focus on. If you want to find out how less and fewer are used in typical written text types, select "Fiction", "Magazine", "Newspaper" and "Academic", for instance (Fig. 4).

104 | How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing 6. Make sure you have selected the "List"-option. Then, type in fewer and press "Find matching strings".

7. Click on the word to see in which contexts it has been used (Fig. 5). 8. In the concordance lines you can now look for regularities in the usage of the word fewer (Fig. 6).

How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing | 105 9. Now repeat the steps but search for the word less. Compare its usage to that of fewer and try to formulate "rules" for the use of these words on the basis of their respective concordance lines.

Solution: 'Less' is used with uncountable nouns and with adjectives or adverbs, while 'fewer' is used with countable nouns.

10. Additionally, you can ask students to pay special attention to register differences. For this, you might want to go back to step 5 and include more registers to allow a better comparison. Especially the inclusion of spoken and spoken-like text types (e.g. TV scripts or web language) could be interesting as this allows students to explore potential differences between conversational spoken and formal written English: are there any instances of less/fewer that deviate from the usage "rules" above? If yes, which nouns are most often affected by this? In which contexts and text types is this most common? See "Options and further ideas" below for a detailed explanation of how to compare the distribution of a particular construction in different registers using the "Chart"-function of the web interface.

Tasks Pre-task

If your students are not yet familiar with using the concordance function of english-corpora.org, it is advisable to explain the procedure while working through the fewer/less example in plenum. Alternatively, you can choose any warm-up activity suitable for a lesson that asks students to remedy errors in their writing assignments.

Main task

In the main task of the lesson, ask your students to fill in the worksheet (see appendix) by querying the COCA. The worksheet consists of the following instructions:

1. Write down three language issues that came up in your writing assignment.

2. For each issue, find a sentence in the corpus which uses the word/phrase/construction in a suitable way and write it down.

3. Describe how each word/phrase is used.

4. Use the information that you gathered from the corpus to rewrite your sentences.

Review questions

After having completed the main task, ask your students to answer the following review questions (cf.

Friginal 2018: 229):

• Was using the concordance function helpful for learning more about word/phrase/grammar usage in English?

• In your opinion, is it worth spending the time learning how to use the concordance function?

• Are you likely to use the concordance function on your own in the future? Why/why not?

Options and further ideas

Variations

• Your students can also use their mobile phones instead of computers.

• As all of the research interfaces on english-corpora.org are similar, your students can apply their knowledge to explore other corpora, such as the British National Corpus (BNC), for instance.

Additional ideas

This section suggests further ideas on how your students can use corpus data to further improve their writing skills. If your students enjoy working with the COCA, it is highly recommendable for you to work through the following functions and present them one by one to your class. Should some of your students finish the tasks of the designed lesson earlier than expected, you may also use these ideas as gap fillers.

Exploring collocations

The term 'collocation' is used to describe words that tend to appear together. This is the case with to make mistakes, for instance. Thus, mistake is most frequently associated with, or collocates with, the verb make.

By contrast, to do mistakes is considered unidiomatic because mistake does not collocate with the verb do.

Exploring typical collocations involving different word classes, such as adjective + noun, or verb + noun, is another way of using the COCA in writing classes. Using the collocation function, you can see which words frequently co-occur with other words, which provides great insights into collocation usage and meaning.

Here is an overview of how to use this function:

1. Open the COCA on www.english-corpora.org/coca, click on the '+'-icon and choose "Collocates" (Fig. 7).

How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing | 107 2. You should now be able to view the following display (Fig. 8): Imagine the following scenario: you want to write a text about finances and are unsure about verbs that are commonly used with the noun money. Figure 9 shows an exemplary search for typical verbs one or two positions before the noun money in newspaper writing. Make sure to set the search options to "Group by lemmas" (not words) so that inflected forms such as making, made or makes will be classified as belonging to the same verb, in this case make.

108 | How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing Thus, you can conclude that in newspaper writing, the five most frequently used verbs in front of money are make, raise, spend, save and get.

Searching for synonyms

Searching for synonyms is another possible way of using the COCA to increase the variety of word choice when writing texts. Open the COCA on www.english-corpora.org and choose "List". Type in an equal symbol (=), followed by any search string of interest. Figure 10 shows an exemplary search for synonyms of the adjective beautiful:

How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing | 109

Exploring different registers

Searching in the COCA provides students with information about the frequency of words or phrases in different styles of English such as spoken, fiction or academic, for instance. Imagine the following situation:

you need to write an assignment and you would like to know if it is appropriate to use the expression freak out in formal contexts. To answer this question, you have to follow three easy steps:

1. Open the COCA on english-corpora.org and choose the "Chart"-option, which shows the frequency of a search string in each section (Fig. 11): 3. Finally, you need to interpret the chart: Fig. 12 shows that the expression freak out in academic texts is only used 0.08 times per million words, which is the lowest value of all displayed sections. Thus, it is advisable to use a different expression in the assignment, such as the synonymously used term to lose control, for instance (see above: "Searching for Synonyms").

The latest option of the COCA

In March 2020, the COCA was expanded in scope, size and features to make it even more useful for researchers, teachers, and learners, who can now browse through a list of the most frequent 60,000 words in the corpus, and see a wide range of useful information on each of these words (cf. Davies 2020b: 1). To make use of this, you can either click on "Word" and search for a specific word or click on "Browse" (see Fig. 13) to search by word form (e.g. *ism), rank order (e.g. words among the 6,000 th , 26,000 th or 46,000 th most frequent words), pronunciation (e.g. words rhyming with light, or three-syllable words accented on the last syllable), or any combination of these (cf. Davies 2020b: 11). To explore this new feature, click on "Browse" and "Find random words" (Fig. 14).

How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing | 111 For each word on the list, you can hear the word pronounced, watch videos with the word in the text, see related images from Google Images, and get a translation for your preferred target language (Fig. 15). When you see a word of interest, click on it. You will be redirected to its homepage, which contains frequency information, definitions, translations, links to audio, images, and videos, as well as synonyms, topics (words that co-occur anywhere in the ca. 500,000 texts), collocates, clusters, and concordance lines (Fig. 18) (cf.

Davies 2020b: 6). On the top right corner of each word's homepage, you will find direct links to the respective pages of some of these features (cf. Davies 2020b: 8). For a more detailed account of the word's collocates, clusters, concordance lines (KWIC) etc., simply click on the feature in question (Fig. 16). Figure 17 shows the collocation page of the word trail. It is hoped that this short introduction into the new "Browse"-option of the COCA gives valuable insights into its great potential for classroom use. Looking at the summary statistics page for each word, you can see a great wealth of information at once (collocates, clusters, synonyms, concordance lines and the distribution across genres), which saves a lot of time and effort and thus makes this new function very convenient.

However, note that words that are not among the 60,000 most frequent words in the corpus do not have such a summary statistics page. Thus, you may well need to know about the original, basic functions of the interface to carry out your search. Starting with the basic functions gives students a better understanding of how corpora work and also gives them the necessary tools to search in all the other corpora featured on English-corpora.org because the COCA is currently the only corpus on the web interface that supports this new function.

Caveats and limitations

After approximately 10-15 queries the website will ask you to register. Registration, however, is free to everyone and takes one or two minutes only. Afterwards you can carry on using the website as normal. You will be asked to select your user status. Note that you must provide a web address that verifies your status in order to set up a Researcher or Semi-Researcher account. However, bear in mind that even if you are not approved as Researcher or Semi-Researcher, you can still use the corpora -just at a lower level of access (cf. Davies 2020a), which, however, is entirely sufficient for the purpose of this chapter. Within one or two minutes after having submitted your information, you will receive an email. Click on the link in that email and you will be able to continue using the web interface.

Occasionally, the following message (Fig. 22) will pop up, asking you to consider upgrading to a premium account. However, there is no need to upgrade your account. Please be patient and wait for a few seconds, after which you will be able to continue with your search.

Conclusion

The main advantage of this lesson is that students are given the means to correct their mistakes independently with the aid of the COCA. Thus, students acquire learning strategies that enable them to solve problems in writing effectively by themselves, which meets one of the requirements of the curriculum.

In addition, a recent meta-analysis of data-driven language learning interventions revealed that students are more likely to remember the language patterns they infer from their own corpus queries (cf. too. This lesson plan can serve as an introduction to teaching stylistic devices while at the same time helping students to develop "intelligent guessing" strategies, creative writing and reading comprehension skills.

In addition to raising your students' awareness of neologisms and how language constantly evolves, this chapter encourages them to familiarize themselves and work autonomously with a corpus. It provides you with a lesson plan and a step-by-step guide to better understand and make use of the functions of a corpus in relation to the topic. It also includes suggestions on how to use additional resources, such as Wordspy.com, a website that provides you with novel words and phrases which have recently come into use in English.

Outline and objectives

This chapter prepares you for giving the proposed lesson by …

• showing you how to use the corpus tool english-corpora.org and Wordspy.com (~ 30 min).

• familiarizing you with the lesson plan (~ 10 min).

• providing you with suggestions on how to create corpus-based material for the proposed lesson (total of 1-2 hours; duration partly depends on how much the worksheet template needs adjustments to suit your learner group).

The proposed lesson is suitable for secondary school students aged 15 or older (10 th grade according to the German school system)

• Lesson unit: Teaching stylistic devices

• Topic: Neologisms (90 minutes)

• Main competence: reading comprehension (contextualization and intelligent guessing)

Teaching neologisms using corpus tools | 119

Learning Objectives

After this lesson, students …

• can search for words and collocates using english-corpora.org.

• can systematically navigate through text sample results from a corpus.

• can work independently with a corpus and use it as a glossary and source of information.

• can deduce the meaning of unknown vocabulary (neologisms) used in different contexts, through intelligent guessing.

• can write their own definitions of previously unknown words on the basis of their corpus findings.

Corpus, corpus tools and methods

The proposed lesson makes use of the corpus website english-corpora.org as an analysis tool for students and teachers. It is freely accessible, which makes it particularly attractive for classroom use. Additionally, the handling of a corpus is easy to learn, as various tutorials can be found on the internet. Some of the main features of this corpus tool are the possibility to generate word lists, to display frequencies as charts and to find frequent collocations.

This chapter uses the NOW (News on the Web) corpus, which can only be found on english-corpora.org.

Since neologisms are constantly changing and developing, especially in a digitalized age, a corpus which is regularly expanded by the addition of new content from articles and blog posts can be a useful classroom resource. Monthly content updates (about 180-200 billion words) put the NOW corpus, as of March 2021, at about 12.2 billion words. It is the largest and most up-to-date corpus found on english-corpora.org and also very comprehensive and differentiated, as it allows users to set particular search criteria such as year of publication and country. The NOW corpus also provides a regularly updated list of words and phrases provided by WordSpy.com, a constantly updated website of the most recent neologisms.

The proposed lesson enables students to contextualize neologisms by employing intelligent guessing strategies and using their existing knowledge with the help of the collocate function on english-corpora.org.

Teacher preparation

Step-by-step guide on using the corpus tool

The NOW corpus can be accessed by registering on english-corpora.org. You can create a free account under "Register", which can be found if you go to "My account". This is also where you log in afterwards (Fig. 1).

If you click on "Corpora" after logging in, you will be provided with a shortcut to an overview of all the corpora listed on english-corpora.org. You can now choose the NOW corpus (Fig. 1). Once you have clicked on the NOW corpus, the interface provides you with different features, as shown in Fig. 2. The left-hand side will be discussed later, when describing the tasks designed for the students.

The right-hand side provides you with information on whether you are logged in on english-corpora.org.

Further down, you will see a shortcut to "New words and phrases". It will take you to a table of words and phrases which have recently been added to the English language and can therefore be used as a guide when choosing neologisms for your individual worksheet.

Teaching neologisms using corpus tools | 121 The table is divided into two different categories: "Culture/sociology/the World" and "Computers/ technology/science" (Fig. 3). It contains the word and a brief definition. By clicking on the word, you obtain information on its frequency of use by year and country.

Since this list is provided by WordSpy.com, you will also find a link to this website. Here is a brief overview of what it looks like and instructions on how to find words and phrases. Another way to find new words is the option "Random Word", which will show you a new neologism or phrase each time you click on it. It is also possible to conduct a more detailed search by selecting "Full

Search" or to search in different categories ("By Tag"). examples of how it is used (Fig. 6).

When selecting a word, it is crucial to check whether it occurs with sufficient frequency in the corpus for students to work with.

Teaching neologisms using corpus tools | 123 word being used as a noun, choose the corresponding category from the dropdown menu (Fig. 7). To search for all word classes, type in a star (*). Second, select the "span", i.e., the distance between the search word and its collocates; if you want to know which words typically occur immediately before or after the word, for instance, select position "1" on both sides (Fig. 7). Third, change the search settings to "Group by Lemmas" and "Display Per Mil". You can now click on "Find collocates" to get results. As a result, the corpus displays a list of collocates sorted by frequency (Fig. 8). Note that there is no distinction between the preceding and the following word. To find out whether a collocate typically occurs to the left or right of the search term, click on the word in question. This will provide you with more context. Here, we chose the collocate experience. The website provides you with a list of example sentences from news websites, along with additional information on the source, country, and date (Fig. 9). To see more context, click on the corresponding number on the left-hand side, which redirects you to a larger excerpt of that article, including the full source and title (Fig. 10).

Teaching neologisms using corpus tools | 125 You can always choose to switch between "Search", "Frequency", "Context", and "More context" on the navigation bar above.

Customizing the worksheet template

Below you will find a worksheet template and an answer sheet, created specifically for the proposed English lesson. This material was created in February 2021 and is targeted at German 10th grade students of the Gymnasium (a type of secondary school in Germany). The worksheet provides the students with three main tasks outlined in the lesson plan. At this point, it is important to consider the language proficiency of your learner group. The meanings of the neologisms on the worksheet might be too obvious or they might be outdated. Considering ongoing language change, especially the introduction and spread of new words, it is crucial to scrutinize the neologisms on the worksheet. Finding more suitable words should not be too difficult thanks to the very many neologisms listed on Wordspy.com and our guide on how to use the website.

Lesson plan

Teaching neologisms using corpus tools | 127

Outline

The plan is designed as a 90-minute lesson for 10th grade students in secondary school. It can be implemented within or at the beginning of a teaching unit on analyzing literary works/stylistic devices. The preceding lesson may be used to introduce corpus tools and methods in order to save time during the planned lesson. You may also want to give an introductory lesson on the use and function of the most common stylistic devices prior to the proposed lesson.

We advise you to begin the lesson without telling the students what the topic will be. The teacher starts by

showing them a chat from 2021 filled with neologisms, all linked to the Covid-19 pandemic (Fig. 11). The pandemic can be used as a concrete example of how language evolves and changes over time. As a result of new situations and events, novel words and phrases are created and become part of language use.

However, these newly created words do not always remain neologisms. Over time, they either vanish or are added to the dictionary, as you can see by our example of glamping.

The main part of the lesson focuses on working with the NOW corpus on english-corpora.org. Students are provided with a worksheet which features a list of neologisms (see 4.2). The first task is to get together with a partner and to speculate about possible meanings of the listed words. Some of these suggestions can be collected on the blackboard in order to review them at the end of the lesson. One aim is to enable students to figure out the meaning of a word through contextualization and intelligent guessing or by analyzing its context. To further explain why such strategies are useful, you can point out that most neologisms will not be found in a dictionary. Up-to-date corpora, however, might include words which have not yet been taken up by dictionaries. Subsequently, the NOW corpus and the corpus website are introduced to the students.

Here, it is important to consider whether your students have already worked with english-corpora.org or not. If not, make sure to give them a brief explanation and guide them through the different functions.

With the help of a step-by-step guide for using the corpus tool (see Appendix), students work in pairs and complete the tasks on the worksheet. They search for the given neologisms in the NOW corpus, find texts which include these neologisms as well as their most frequent collocates, and discover their meaning by analyzing the context. In addition, they note down an example sentence for each neologism and formulate their own definitions of the previously unknown words.

The findings are discussed and recorded by, firstly, comparing the results in groups of four; secondly, by presenting them in class; and thirdly, by contrasting them with the assumptions made by the students at the beginning of the lesson. After the lesson ends, the final results should be made available to all of the students, which is why you should note them down during the class discussion.

Additional tasks and ways to adjust the lesson according to individual needs and preferences are presented in section 6.

Teaching neologisms using corpus tools | 129

Lesson plan

Introduction ~ 10 min

WhatsApp Chat from 2021

• The chat is displayed for everyone to see and read out loud by two students • T starts a class discussion about the chat, asking questions about its content and the neologisms used, e.g.:

-"What age group could be represented in the chat?" -"Can you spot unfamiliar words?" -"What could they mean?" -"Can you identify the stylistic device that is used here?" • Class discussion about the most significant neologisms found in the chat • An answer sheet with explanations of all the neologisms used in the chat will be projected onto the wall and handed out to the students (see Appendix) As it was already mentioned, it should be taken into consideration that an introduction to englishcorpora.org and corpora in general prior to the lesson could make it easier for some students to follow the corpus activities, while also saving time during the main part of the lesson. However, we assumed that there is usually not enough time to integrate an introductory lesson into your teaching unit. Therefore, we included an introduction to the NOW corpus and an explanation of the corpus tools in the lesson plan.

•
Nonetheless, we still advise you to reserve an earlier lesson to familiarize students with the basics.

Moreover, specific parts of the lesson plan could be replaced with alternatives. For instance, another option for the warm-up activity could be to provide the students with a list of neologisms and make them guess their meanings right away. This could also be done in the form of a challenge or game, e.g., by creating teams and collecting guesses on the blackboard. The students would then be required to use the corpus tools to investigate which guesses were right and which ones were wrong. Another option would be to Lastly, we believe that the corpus tools are not only beneficial to examine neologisms. Other stylistic devices such as juxtapositions and metaphors could also be analyzed by using english-corpora.org. Hence, students could search for phrases like heaven and hell (juxtaposition), eyes like and cold as (both metaphors)

and compare different types of texts (e.g., newspaper articles and fictional texts) to analyze the functions and effects of stylistic devices. Apart from letting your students work with english-corpora.org, you could also make use of the website's corpus tools to create more of your own corpus-based material. Englishcorpora.org contains several different corpora with various functions, such as the possibility to search in specific text genres, e.g., only fictional texts, in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). Thus, applying corpus methods to teach, learn and engage further with stylistic devices has great potential. Our ideas and proposed lesson plan are specifically designed to allow adjustments in order to fit your teaching unit and your individual learner group.

Caveats & limitations

Implementing ideas and creating new materials for EFL teaching may come with certain difficulties or obstacles. Our intention is to consider possible difficulties the designed lesson may cause as well as to mention the limitations of this chapter.

• Avoid swear words and inappropriate expressions that might come up in the search results.

• Make sure that all neologisms on the worksheet can actually be found in the corpus and that there are enough occurrences to find out the meaning of the specific neologism. Keep different proficiency levels of your students in mind (some students might need more support when working with the corpus-tool, especially if it is their first time working with it).

• It may be necessary to provide explanations of possibly unfamiliar functional terms such as "collocates"

Teaching neologisms using corpus tools | 133

or "lemmas".

Lastly, the corpus tool itself holds one small limitation regarding the number of searches you want to perform. After a few searches, english-corpora.org will ask you to upgrade to a premium account (Fig. 13).

You do not need to update: you can simply wait and then click on "Click here to continue with your search" when it appears (Fig. 13).

Conclusion

The method of using corpus tools in the EFL classroom might be quite new to teachers but it can provide promising opportunities that promote progressive and innovative teaching while at the same time being compatible with the curriculum. After this lesson, students and teachers should be familiar with basic features and functions of the NOW corpus and english-corpora.org in general, which is a great foundation for employing corpus-informed language teaching materials in further lessons. Corpus work can constitute a valuable benefit because it improves explicit learning and encourages students to work autonomously.

The choice of topic and methods has great potential to activate and motivate students, as unfamiliar, possibly funny-sounding words may spark students' interest in learning more about them, thus keeping them focused on the lesson. Furthermore, students become familiar with more techniques to facilitate intelligent guessing and figuring out what a word means and in which contexts it can be used without using a dictionary. Finally, all the ideas and thought-provoking impulses may encourage more teachers to employ new and more diversified teaching materials in their classes, as it can lead to enriching and motivating lessons in the EFL classroom.

Commas in argumentative writing

MARIE NOTTMEIER; ALINA SOPHIE PETERS; AND LARA WARNECKE 1 Introduction and rationale

Following a corpus-based lesson structure, the proposed lesson enables students to deduce frequent comma placement in a specified context (here: academic writing). Thereby, students and teachers both interact with the English language via the dedicated corpus and corpus tool (here: BNC1994 on Sketch Engine), drawing their own insights and gaining sustainable strategic competences (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 8), which we believe enhances motivation and successful learning in the long run. The overarching aim is to develop independent, autonomous learning strategies and agency. This is supported with various scaffolding options.

Outline and Objectives

Target learners: Secondary school (10 th grade or higher); B1/B2 level students

Teacher preparation time (multiple options):

1. Use the worksheets included in this chapter (see Appendix)

• Getting familiar with the proposed lesson structure: 15 min 2. Collect your own data and design worksheet(s)

• Getting familiar with Sketch Engine: 10 min

•

Competence-oriented learning objectives:

Students can…

• spot grammatical patterns in concordance lines taken from a corpus (e.g., commas after introductory phrases, after conjunctive adverbs, and in enumerations; cf. 3.2.1).

• infer grammatical rules for the placement of commas based on the deduced patterns.

• apply some of these patterns in their own argumentative essays.

Commas in argumentative writing | 141

Corpus, tool and methods

This chapter draws on the British National Corpus 1994 (hereafter BNC1994), which consists of approximately 100 million words of native British English. The BNC1994 is a balanced corpus, which, among other registers, features written academic language.

The planned lesson makes use of the online corpus tool Sketch Engine. Sketch Engine grants a free 30-day trial and is free of charge until March 2022 for researchers, lecturers, and students from academic institutions in the EU participating in the ELEXIS project.

The lesson at hand takes a direct corpus approach: through teacher-corpus interaction, appropriate concordance lines are selected and presented in two worksheets. The focus on simple and easy-to-use functions of the corpus tool facilitates preparation for teachers, as they do not necessarily need to have any experience in using corpora and do not have to spend a lot of time familiarising themselves with the various corpus tool functions.

In this form of data-driven learning, learners do not search in corpora themselves, but engage in paperbased corpus interaction. In contrast to an indirect use, in which the corpus only has an impact on the material, students work and interact directly with the concordance lines. This can help students to get accustomed to concordance lines and should facilitate future lessons in which students consult the corpora themselves.

3

Step-by-step guide 3.1 Teacher preparation

Corpus queries -data collection

This approach features teacher-corpus as well as student-corpus interaction. As the students' interaction will be paper-based and consist of simplified corpus results, the lesson requires some teacher preparation.

As part of this preparation, teachers will engage with the corpus, conduct corpus queries and collect data that will form the basis for the students' paper-based corpus interaction and their worksheet. To compile the data, follow the steps described in this chapter.

Steps:

1. Visit www.sketchengine.eu. This is our corpus tool.

2. In order to use Sketch Engine, you will need to create an account. By clicking on "FREE Trial" at the top of the page (Fig. 1, a), you can sign up for a free 30-day trial, which enables you to use all the searchrelated functions needed for our purpose. 4. You should now be able to see the following dashboard (Fig. 3). Next to the interface for selecting a corpus, there is an embedded video on the right-hand side. By clicking on it, you will see a short and very informative introduction to Sketch Engine. It is not necessary to watch it when following this stepby-step guide. However, as this quick start tutorial gives you background information on the corpus tool, it might be helpful for you when modifying or creating your own lesson.

Commas in argumentative writing | 143 Fig. 3: Interface for selecting a corpus 5. By clicking onto the search box at the top (Fig. 3), a specific corpus can be selected. As explained above, we will use the BNC, so please type "BNC" into the search box.

6. In the appearing drop-down menu, select "British National Corpus (BNC)" by clicking on it (Fig. 4). 8. As we want to deduce patterns for the placement of commas from entire sentences, we need to use the "Concordance" function (Fig. 5,b), so please click on it. 11. Then, choose a subcorpus. To do so, click on the arrow next to "none (the whole corpus)" (Fig. 7,b). In the appearing drop-down menu, pick "Written Academic" (Fig. 8). This will limit our search to the selected register. 12. Type a comma (",") into the search field which says "abc" (Fig. 9,a). 14. You should now see your search results (Fig. 10). To get a random sample, click on the dice (Fig. 10,a).

This mixes up the order of the concordance lines and prevents us from seeing only sentences from the same source. By doing that, the authenticity of the output is increased. In the pop-up box (Fig. 11), we can select the sample size. A sample of 200 concordance lines is preselected, but for our purposes, we will change it to 100 in order to reduce the number of concordance lines to a more manageable number.

Commas in argumentative writing | 147 15. Now, you can see a randomly sampled list of concordance lines that have a comma in it (Fig. 12). By clicking on the arrow next to "KWIC" (Fig. 12), you can change the display mode. There are two display options: the first one, "KWIC", shows the comma in the centre and some context to the left and right;

the second one, "sentence", shows the complete sentence. We chose to select "sentence", as this makes it easier to filter out concordance lines that are not appropriate to the language level of the students. As this lesson's focus is on punctuation rather than content, it would be counterproductive to include this line, so we did not tick the box next to it. Confirm your selection by clicking on "SELECTED" beneath "show only" (Fig. 13,b). (Fig. 15). We recommend this format, as the layout is very clear and easy to work with.

How to create frequency lists

Frequency lists provide an overview of the words that occur most frequently directly before and after a comma. Such lists can help to empirically validate the patterns deduced by the students. Once you have reached step 13 (see above), you may execute the following steps in order to generate your own frequency lists.

Considering step 13 above as a starting point, you may now click on the "Frequency" symbol, which is displayed in the header right above the concordance lines (Fig. 16).

Fig. 16: Generating frequency lists

In the interface below, choose the option "word" as an attribute and click on "1" on the left-hand side of "KWIC" (Fig. 17). This will generate a list of words which are often followed by a comma, sorted by frequency.

Click "GO" to start your search. Now, to obtain a list of words that frequently appear after a comma, select "1" on the right hand-side of "KWIC", as displayed in Fig. 19. Then, execute your search via the "GO" button. to focus on the pattern itself rather than spending time searching for concordance lines that go together. In Fig. 22, you can see a sample version of such a worksheet that provides this kind of scaffolding. In addition to the prearranged blocks, this worksheet also has a reduced number of concordance lines to work through.

You can find the full version of this worksheet in the appendix, too.

Commas in argumentative writing | 155

Fig. 22: Sample worksheet with scaffolding

To create your own worksheet with scaffolding, we recommend copying the individual concordance lines into a Word document. You can do so by clicking on the document icon at the end of the concordance line to copy it (Fig. 23) and then paste it into your document (e.g., by using the keyboard shortcut ctrl + V). In the worksheet for task 1 (cf. Fig. 21/22, Appendix), students are asked to examine concordance lines and identify patterns in order to derive rules for the use of commas in English. From these concordances, the following rules for comma placement may be deduced:

Lesson plan

When to use commas -rules:

1. A comma is used after the introductory conjunctive adverbs (e.g., however, moreover, furthermore)

2. When these conjunctive adverbs are used in the middle of a sentence (i.e., as parenthetical elements), two commas need to be placed: one before and one after the adverb.

3. A comma is used after introductory elements or phrases (e.g., of course, in that case, on the other hand).

4. Commas are used in enumerations. They separate items in a list consisting of more than two items.

5. A comma is used in relative clauses before the relative pronouns which or who when the pronoun introduces a non-essential element.

6. A comma is used before coordinating conjunctions joining two independent clauses (e.g., but,

as, yet).

7. Two commas are used to separate insertions or parenthetical remarks, which add extra information and can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence.

8. In conditional sentences starting with an if-clause, a comma is used to separate the if-clause from the main clause. Here, students are asked to check their own argumentative essays for comma placement. This helps them to internalise the patterns discovered in the previous tasks and shows them how they can make practical use of these rules to improve their own writing.

Task 4:

Note: This task is optional and not included in the lesson plan. However, it might be useful for students who tend to use more commas than necessary.

Methodological thoughts

In the introductory phase of the lesson, the silent impulse aims to encourage students to think of commas as a semantic, phrasal, and structural necessity, as they discover how commas can entail a change of sentential meaning (as in "I like cooking my grandma and my English teacher").

It is the 'form-focused approach' which inspired the tasks (Ellis 2006: 94, Spada & Lightbown 2008: 185). Via the 'Think-Pair-Share' method, students continuously receive feedback, not only from the teacher but also from their classmates (Eisenmann 2019: 92-96), which represents a vital aspect of form-focused instruction (Ellis 2006: 94). Besides, they practise giving feedback to others, which -alongside the collaborative work -trains the learners' reflective, evaluative, and communicative competences (Eisenmann 2019: 92). In addition, the 'Bus stop' method considers students' individual pace of learning, matching those students with a similar pace and similar needs for the consequent partner work (Eisenmann 2019: 96-97).

In the framework of a planned focus on form (Ellis 2006: 100), students purposefully elicit frequent comma placements from the concordance lines they are presented with (Ellis 2006: 100). This bottom-up learnercorpus interaction gives rise to a natural, inductive, and experience-based second language acquisition (Spada & Lightbown 2008: 182-183, Tomlinson 2013: 14). Hence, students' initiative and commitment is promoted in the tasks (register: written academic).

Additionally, Task 3 enables students to improve their own argumentative essay as a final product, which represents the action-oriented lesson approach. Learners are more likely to acquire sustainable knowledge based upon their own insights rather than on prefabricated input.

Lastly, by choosing an argumentative essay on "The Movement of Homosexual Marriage into the Public

Sphere" (MICUSP 2009), this lesson plan deliberately positions itself against the 'PARSNIP' approach (frequently applied by English textbooks), which promotes the avoidance of 'controversial' topics, such as politics, alcohol, religion, sex and sexual orientation, narcotics, -isms (e.g., communism, racism, etc.), and pork (hence the acronym 'PARSNIP; Harwood 2010 : 11, 434). This is because English language teaching should address all topics relevant to students' lives and society in general, enabling them to discuss these competently and express their own opinion. Hence, this lesson contributes to students becoming proficient English language speakers and autonomous language learners who are able to reflect on and talk about controversial topics.

Follow-up activities

As the proposed lesson plan ends with students writing their own essays, a constructive and beneficial follow-up activity would be a peer review of these essays. The students should be asked to bring their written essay to the following lesson, in which the teacher collects them and then distributes them among the students. During the peer reviewing process, the students read through the essays of their peers, checking for grammatical errors and especially paying attention to comma placement. Not only does this improve the individual essays, but it also helps students internalise and apply the rules for comma placement.

Additionally, this strengthens students' proofreading competence and, thus, their ability to check written texts, identify errors, and correct them. However, it has to be taken into account that students will probably find some errors, but not all; they may even add more errors. This means that the essays may need to be reviewed by the teacher as well.

Another useful follow-up activity that deals with the problem of overusing commas is task 4 (cf. 3.2.1). This task consists of an authentic text written by a German student learning English that has too many commas.

The superfluous commas should be identified and highlighted by the students.

In addition, follow-up lessons could also address the content of the argumentative essay, i.e., homosexual marriage. This could be done by having the students collect the arguments of the essay and adding their own as well as researching the legal situation in their home country.

Options and further ideas

The presented lesson plan can be supplemented with activities focusing on how to use corpora. This would constitute a holistic approach, which not only uses corpora as a means to an end, but also makes corpus tools and methods a central topic. Including activities that explain and show students how the data featured on the worksheet was compiled and letting them interact with the corpus directly provides them with

Commas in argumentative writing | 161

valuable study skills and techniques. In this way, they will be able to use corpora independently to check their own language use whenever they need to.

Furthermore, the presented lesson idea may be applied to other punctuation issues, such as the use of semicolons, for instance. Instead of looking at patterns on the word level, here, the focus would be on the sentence structure and the clause level of the concordance lines.

Moreover, this approach may be extended and used to contrast different registers. This could be done by comparing the use of commas in the "Written Academic" subcorpus (cf. 3.1.1) with comma use in a different register. Hence, differences in comma placement between academic texts and periodicals, for instance, may be analysed.

Apart from registers, this approach can also be used to contrast corpora in general. For students or teachers interested in differences in comma placement in different the varieties of English, it might be interesting to carry out a comparison of comma placement in the COCA, which represents American English, and the BNC. Another idea would be to contrast the patterns with those of a learner corpus. This can raise teachers' awareness of frequent learner errors in this area and enable them to act accordingly.

Lastly, the approach taken in this chapter may be applied to any foreign language classroom. Provided that there is an available corpus for the language in question, this lesson is equally applicable to other languages that make use of commas, such as French or German.

Caveats and limitations

The lesson involves certain restrictions for both teachers and students. Teachers should be aware that, unless they are provided access via their school, Sketch Engine is limited to a 30-day trial period.

Therefore, it is necessary to plan well in advance in order to design further corpus-informed language teaching materials, e.g., by making use of the suggested ideas in this book.

A further potential problem concerns the selection of the concordance lines. Although selecting a random sample provides you with authentic language material, it is possible that some frequent uses of commas do not occur in the sample. Consequently, teachers must be particularly attentive when picking out the concordance lines. The selection should correspond to the frequency lists (Fig. 18, 20) but also suit the group of learners and their needs.

Finally, it should be mentioned that there are many other frequent uses of commas besides those discussed in this chapter.

Conclusion

We hope that the proposed chapter will be of help to teachers who want to design their lessons in a corpusinformed way in order to help students acquire 'correct' comma placement in academic texts. The lesson can be planned by teachers who have not had any experience with corpus interaction yet. Students need not have any experience either: the concordance lines will introduce students to corpora, familiarising them with corpus interaction. Following a bottom-up approach, the students derive frequent patterns of comma placement independently. This ensures that students engage intensively with the topic. Furthermore, students can apply their newly gained knowledge in tasks 2 and 3. Another advantage is the possibility of scaffolding in task 1 and the option to choose a different topic which corresponds more to the students' interests in task 2. The proposed lesson is therefore both student-oriented and tremendously versatile.

HANNA BAVENDIEK AND FABIAN GIESHOLT 1 Introduction and rationale

In a fast and globalised world, English serves as the lingua franca of the 21 st century, especially on the internet. Bilingual teaching of other subjects besides English itself is finding increasing popularity among German secondary schools, as it offers great potential for successful second language acquisition.

Geography presents a perfect opportunity to combine regular class topics with students' increasing language proficiency. Due to the internationality of its content, intercultural learning can be particularly encouraged when geography is taught in English. Moreover, the vivid nature of geography teaching, which frequently involves lots of maps, illustrations and caricatures, provides suitable support for second language learners because geography is often not perceived to be as abstract as many other school subjects (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 28). The contemporary relevance of geographic topics presents promising opportunities for bilingual teaching. The English curriculum of Lower Saxony (Germany)

further specifies that appropriate subject-specific terminology ought to be acquired in both the first and second language of learners (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 28).

A central aspect of geography teaching in the classroom is the analysis of graphics and illustrations.

Especially graphs and diagrams are found in almost all geography topics. Thus, the ability to describe such figures is a crucial competence in order to succeed in geography. However, in a foreign language context, this ability can be quite difficult to achieve. Students may be able to produce precise descriptions in their mother tongue but struggle to transfer this ability to English because specific vocabulary is missing. In light of this difficulty, a corpus analysis can help retrieve the language necessary to describe graphs and diagrams in an idiomatic manner.

A corpus analysis of geography-specific language offers a wide variety of options for students to improve their own language skills. Following a data-driven learning approach, students are enabled to research collocations and frequent patterns of native and expert language usage themselves. Furthermore, these methods of corpus analysis are easily deployable within other language learning processes to increase language proficiency in other areas of English communication. Corpus analysis enables students to gain insights into native/expert language usage through independent, self-regulated learning.

Outline and objectives

This lesson is designed to be taught within a bilingual geography classroom of 10 th -graders at a German secondary school (Gymnasium). Bilingual teaching combines foreign language acquisition 168 | Teaching geography in English: How to describe a graph with specific subjects to acquire a more profound language proficiency within a subfield of academic study. In this lesson, students learn about the demographic transition model by reading texts and drawing a graph. Furthermore, they learn how to describe a graph by querying a corpus to advance their language skills.

By the end of the lesson, students will be able to …

• … understand and use appropriate words and collocations to describe a graph.

• … use the Concordance, Thesaurus, and Word Sketch function in Sketch Engine.

• … differentiate between these functions and know when to use them.

The student activity in relation to diagrams is split into two 90-minute lessons. First, the diagrams are created from the necessary information in worksheet 1 (see page 10). Second, the actual connection to a corpus-based analysis is drawn: students analyse concordances in the English Web 2015 (enTenTen15) corpus on Sketch Engine. This lesson takes a learner-corpus interaction approach towards gaining deeper insight into language usage by utilizing corpora for specific contexts.

Corpus, tools and methods

The planned lesson is based on the online corpus tool Sketch Engine. Sketch Engine provides a variety of different corpora and functions for corpus analysis, making it a suitable option for language learners to engage with. The students in this particular class are already familiar with the online tool. Teaching geography in English: How to describe a graph | 169

3

Step-by-step guide for Teachers

Lesson Plan

Preparatory lesson

Main lesson

Instructions

In the preparatory lesson, students learn about the characteristics of the different stages of the demographic transition model, following the information provided on Worksheet 1 to draw a graph. This provides the basis for the following lesson with regard to content. As a preparation for the main corpusbased lesson, students get homework in which they have to underline all the words in the texts on Worksheet 1 that describe the demographic transition model. The idea of the corpus-based lesson is essentially to help students identify different words and collocations to describe a graph by using a corpus.

Main Lesson

Warm-up

The lesson begins with an oral description of the demographic transition model from the previous lesson in a plenary discussion. We expect students to use the word show most frequently, e.g., the graph shows... The teacher will point this out and then students are encouraged to think of verbs other than show that can be used in this context. Meanwhile, the teacher notes down the students' ideas on the board.

Main Lesson Task 1

The following tasks require access to web-enabled computers or tablets in the classroom. Students work in pairs and share a device. They follow the instructions on Worksheet 2 and work independently with Sketch Engine. Students will have previously received a general introduction to Sketch Engine and created a personal account. However, the worksheet still provides detailed instructions and extra tips.

In the first task, students use the Concordance function in Sketch Engine to search for concordance lines that include the phrase: graph shows. By looking at the type of diagram that is described and identifying its source of origin, students familiarize themselves with working with a corpus. Seeing the structure of the concordance lines will help them to understand that a corpus is composed of various texts from different sources.

Next, students search for synonyms of the verb show in the English Web 2015 (enTenTen15) corpus by using the Thesaurus function. They note down their findings and draw assumptions about which verbs may be used in the context of graph descriptions.

To verify or disprove students' assumptions, the next step includes the use of another function of Sketch Engine. This time students do not use the Thesaurus function but rather the Word Sketch function to look for collocations by searching for verbs that are used with graph as a subject. Then students write down their results and compare them to their findings from the Thesaurus search. Additionally, they may reflect on the differences between a Thesaurus and a Word Sketch search and decide which method is more effective for their purpose of finding alternative verbs to show to describe a graph.

Main Lesson Task 2

The final task of this corpus-based lesson attempts to encourage students to apply their knowledge of working with a corpus to write in-depth descriptions of graphs and their trends and peculiarities. For homework, students were asked to underline all the words that describe the graph on worksheet 1. Apart from show, the verbs increase and fall are also used to describe the developments of the stages of the demographic transition model on the worksheet. Students are asked to use Sketch Engine to search for synonyms of these verbs and to find additional words and collocations that describe the graph. Finally, students write a complete description of the demographic transition model.

Teaching geography in English: How to describe a graph | 171

3.4 Tasks

Options and further ideas

In order to achieve a suitable level of difficulty for all students, a certain degree of internal differentiation is necessary. While some students might find it comparatively easy to work with Sketch Engine individually, others might struggle and need more guidance. Thus, it is possible to make tasks easier or more challenging by leaving out or adding intermediate steps in the task description. The latter could be achieved through the addition of screenshots of the actual web pages.

Another possibility is the introduction to further materials for quicker students. These students could analyse an additional graph on population growth and change. Students could describe a graph showing the development of a population in a country of their choice after researching it in their textbook, atlas, or online. Figure 1 depicts an example of the German demographic transition model. Once the initial tasks are completed, students who have finished could do a similar corpus analysis to acquire further language knowledge to describe maps or caricatures. To enable them to elaborate on this, an exemplary map or caricature is needed. The teacher could provide these in advance and students could describe either one of them with the help of corpus searches.

Caveats and Limitations

Difficulties might occur when working with the commercial platform Sketch Engine if the teacher and the students do not have personal accounts. Even though Sketch Engine has an open version (app.sketchengine.eu/#open) as well, it is not sufficient for the requirements described in this chapter since it only allows access to a very limited selection of corpora. One option would be to make use of a free 30-day trial during which all of Sketch Engine's functions are accessible. However, this is only a short-term solution and might serve the purpose of this lesson but will restrict further corpus-learner interaction in the classroom. Alternatively, teachers may want to consider using the SKELL interface (skell.sketchengine.eu), which is much more limited in terms of functions, but is entirely free and was specifically designed with language learners in mind.

Teaching geography in English: How to describe a graph | 177

Conclusion

Bilingual teaching aims to encourage the most authentic use of a foreign language in a specific subject.

We hope that this chapter has shown that working with corpora can be a great opportunity for students to expand their vocabulary and increase their language proficiency. Even though the corpus-based lesson itself requires more time than if the teacher simply handed out a list of vocabulary, we believe that corpusbased, data-driven learning is a great addition to the bilingual geography classroom. Searching words and collocations within a corpus challenges students. The lesson presented in this chapter thus requires students' cognitive engagement throughout the tasks. Besides, the use of digital media is encouraging for students and is likely to be a welcome change to the usual style of teaching that students experience on a daily basis. Students not only learn new words but also how phrases and collocations are used in a context that is based on real, authentic texts. Furthermore, learner-corpus interaction in the classroom equips students with a tool that provides opportunities for use in the future that they can benefit from to improve their language skills in the long term.

Resources and references

Introduction and rationale

The death of George Floyd in the USA. has rekindled debates about racism and trigged protests around the world. George Floyd's last words, "I can't breathe", became a slogan to highlight the reality that non-white people have been facing in their everyday life, oppressed by racism and prejudice. Another slogan used around the world in the protests was "Black Lives Matter". The hashtag and movement Black Lives Matter was created in 2013 as a reaction to the acquittal of George Zimmerman, a neighborhood watch volunteer, who killed Trayvon Martin, an unarmed black teenager.

The local secondary school curriculum states that students should be able to recognize, question, and when necessary, relativize and revise their perceptions, judgments, and prejudices (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2017:20).

To cover this aspect stated by the school curriculum, this chapter provides teachers/students with the necessary instructions to use corpus linguistic research for collecting vocabulary and collocations related to the "Black Lives Matter" movement. Students will therefore have the opportunity to learn vocabulary and collocations through contact with authentic written language on a topical issue.

The chapter gives the students some tools to talk about racism using respectful language. In this sense, the collected vocabulary is also an effective way of developing intercultural communicative competence and promoting anti-racism education. Sommier and Roiha (2017: 8) suggest that anti-racism education is best "conveyed through small steps and practices". They argue that the examination of language issues and of "what is said" can contribute to developing intercultural communication competence. how to create your own material on "Black Lives Matter" or any other topic of your choice. In the lesson, students engage with the material to learn relevant language patterns and to develop a greater understanding of the topic.

Outline and objectives

Option 2:

In this alternative version, the teacher shows students how to work with the corpus themselves. Students look for patterns and collocations in the corpus and discuss the results. They may also work with additional teaching materials prepared beforehand using the corpus. This approach is more hands-on and may provide students with a better insight into the topic and language patterns, but it is also more time consuming and requires students to have access to internet-enabled devices.

Learning Objectives:

• Students learn vocabulary and collocations related to the "Black Lives Matter" movement and to racism in our modern society more broadly.

• Students improve their ability to speak and write about the "Black Lives Matter" movement and to understand texts related to this topic.

• Students develop greater intercultural competence and increase their awareness of racism in our society.

• If you choose option 2: Students know how to query a corpus in order to find collocations on specialized, topical topic.

Corpus, tools and methods

According to Friginal (2018: 5), besides providing a contextualized use of language, the application of corpus linguistics in English language teaching allows students to perceive the variety of vocabulary and grammar found in authentic samples of written and spoken language: "Students will have to incrementally learn what linguistic variation in everyday language means, together with its sociocultural values". Considering the topicality of the "Black Lives Matter" movement, it can be assumed that it will be almost impossible to find pedagogical materials on this topic. For that reason, the NOW Corpus was selected for this lesson. The NOW Corpus (News on the Web) contains 10.7 billion words from online news publications and new data is added on a daily basis.

This chapter will demonstrate how to create a virtual corpus from the data of the NOW corpus that consist of texts related to the "Black Lives Matter" movement and how teachers can exploit it to create their own materials on the basis of authentic texts and language patterns, and/or to conduct lessons in which students interact with the corpus themselves to find relevant language patterns.

3

Step-by-step guide: Teacher Preparation

Creating a virtual corpus

To collect vocabulary related to the "Black Lives Matter" movement, create a specialized virtual corpus for the "Black Lives Matter" movement using one of the two options explained below, or create two virtual corpora using both methods and then combining them (see end of section 3.1). Note that if you wish to let your students engage with the specialized corpus to search for patterns, they will have to follow the same steps to create a virtual corpus on their own, as you cannot share corpora on english-corpora.org.

Note that the english-corpora.org interface regularly displays a notice encouraging you to upgrade your account if you are a non-paying user. But do not worry, the message will disappear after a few seconds and you can continue your search. A premium account is not necessary for this lesson.

Option 1:

1. Open your browser and go to https://www.english-corpora.org/.

2. Log in to your account or register by clicking on my account.

3. Click on News on the Web (NOW). 13. Refresh your browser to view your corpus in Texts/Virtual.

Option 2:

1. Go back to the search page.

2. Click on Texts/Virtual.

3. Type in "black lives matter".

4. Click on Find texts.

5. Submit your search by clicking on Find matching strings. 2. Now click on the name of the corpus that you want to take the texts from, in this case the "Black Lives

Matter" corpus.

3. Tick the box before 100 in the light blue bar to select all of the 100 texts in the "Black Lives Matter" corpus. You can also select or deselect individual texts that you wish or do not wish to add to the other corpus.

4. Click on the white box that says -SELECT-and select the corpus to which you want to add the selected texts, in this case the "Black Lives Matter Floyd" corpus.

Collecting vocabulary

This section will demonstrate two ways of searching for collocations and patterns using your virtual corpus/ corpora. The searches and collocations mentioned here serve as examples and are by no means exhaustive.

The instructions should encourage you to look for more potentially relevant language patterns for your lesson, and/or to guide your students through the search for more patterns in their virtual corpus/corpora themselves.

3.2.1 Searching for collocations using the "List"-function 1. In the NOW corpus, click on List and type in "white NOUN".

2. Click on Options and group by LEMMAS. This way, different forms of the same word will not be counted twice, e.g., supremacist and supremacists.

3. Click on Texts/Virtual and select your virtual corpus.

4. Click on Find matching strings to submit your search. Note that some of these words are different types of racism, e.g.:

• systemic racism

• institutional racism

• structural racism

• covert racism

You can use these types and also terms like white supremacy as topics for further lessons on racism and the "Black Lives Matter" movement and use the corpus to find more language patterns relevant to these topics. To get a better understanding of these forms of racism, you may consult these and other sources:

• https://www.racialequitytools.org/glossary Here, students could be asked to classify these collocations according to their meaning. Depending on the students' proficiency level and previous experience with the topic, they may create their own semantic categories or you can provide them with ready-made categories. For weaker students, an example can be included for each category. In the hands-on alternative to this lesson plan, students can be encouraged to click on these individual collocations to look for example sentences and to take note of the most frequent syntactic patterns in which these collocations occur, e.g., protest against racism, to dismantle the systems that perpetuate racism, we do not condone racism.

Searching for patterns in the concordance lines

This method allows you (and your students) to look at both lexical and grammatical patterns in context.

1. In the "List"-function, type "police" into the white box.

Creating Materials

You can create crossword puzzles based on your findings from the corpus. An easy way to do this is by using the website linked below. Its use is very easy and self-explanatory. https://printablecreative.com/crosswordgenerator Word clouds are a very good method to visualize the results drawn from corpora. You can create them very easily using PowerPoint. Click on the link below and follow the instructions: https://www.bettercloud.com/monitor/the-academy/create-word-cloud-PowerPoint-presentation/ Additional Advice: It is better to convert your whole text to lowercase letters because sometimes the program differentiates between words that begin with a capital and ones beginning with a lowercase letter.

So that it may create two entries for the same word in your word cloud.

Lesson plan

Note that this lesson deals with very sensitive issues (e.g., murder, violence, racism and other forms of discrimination) and may therefore require a trigger warning.

Warm-up: (10 min)

1. Write the name "George Floyd" on the blackboard and/or show a picture.

2. Ask the students if they have heard of this person.

3. Ask about the way he died and why they think he died.

4. Write out the name of the "Black Lives Matter" movement.

Ask the students if/what they know about it.

Pre-task: (20 min)

1. In pairs or groups of three, tell the students to open their web browser and connect to https://www.dictionary.com/.

2. Ask students to type "Black Lives Matter" into the search box (you could also provide the definition on a worksheet).

A political and social movement originating among African Americans, emphasizing basic human rights and racial equality for Black people and campaigning against various forms of racism. BLM, B.L.M.

3.

Tell students to read the definition and discuss it in their groups. Ensure that the students understand the main meaning of the definition. You can also ask them to explain it in their mother tongue.

4. Introduce the lesson's aim, which is to learn language patterns related to the "Black Liver Matter" movement and racism in order to be able to speak and write about the topic.

After this point, the progression of the lesson depends on whether you choose to let the students work with the corpus themselves or not.

"Black Lives Matter": Collecting vocabulary to improve intercultural communicative competence | 195

Option 1 (teacher-corpus interaction only):

Task 2 (30 min.)

1. Tell the students that you will show them lists of words, patterns and sentences collected from different texts on the internet on the topic of "Black Lives Matter".

2. Share the worksheet(s) you created on the basis of your corpus or the screenshots that you made from your collected data.

3. Let your students work with and discuss the materials in pairs or groups.

Task 3 (30 min.)

In this lesson version, you will probably have more time to discuss the results and take a closer look at the various aspects that occur in the material, e.g., the types of racism, the meaning of expressions like white supremacy and white privilege, etc. You might want to bring in more information on (one of) these aspects and work on them in more detail, using the language patterns introduced in the previous task.

Option 2 (with hands-on student-corpus interaction):

Task 2: (45 min)

1. Guide your students through the creation of a virtual corpus, following the steps described in section 3.1.

2. Show your students how to search for collocations and language patterns in their virtual corpus.

3. Encourage students to search for a number of collocations themselves and discuss the results first in pairs and then in plenum. Collect language patterns that you and your class deem most relevant to talk about the "Black Lives Matter" movement and racism more generally in English.

Task 3: (15 min)

For the last part of your lesson, you can select some exercises of the worksheet below to focus on individual aspects in more detail. Alternatively, you can also use the worksheet activities as homework.

Worksheet

The language patterns and sentences used in this worksheet are taken from the virtual corpus. The activities aim to ensure the understanding of the different terms and their uses. It is up to you to decide if your students need an additional glossary to understand the topics on the worksheet (see links above for suitable resources).

A) Complete the crossword below with the help of the two screenshots and the definitions below. You can find the answers to the crossword either in the list of white + NOUN or in the list of ADJECTIVE + racism collocations. 1. The idea that white people and the ideas, thoughts, beliefs, and actions of white people are superior to People of Color and their ideas, thoughts, beliefs, and actions. While it is often associated with extremist groups like the Ku Klux Klan and neo-Nazis, it is in fact ever present in our institutional and cultural assumptions.

2.

A system in which public policies, institutional practices, cultural representations, and other norms work in different ways to perpetuate racial group inequity. Different aspects of our history and culture have allowed privileges associated with "whiteness" and disadvantages associated with "color" to continue and adapt over time. It is not something that a few people or institutions choose to practice. Instead, it is a feature of the social, economic, and political systems in which we all exist.

3. It refers to the unquestioned and unjustified advantages, benefits and choices that some people enjoy only because they are white. Generally, white people who experience this are unaware of it. are often justified with explanations that society is more willing to believe.

B)

Complete the sentences below with the help of the list of verbs that collocate with racism below: 1.

2.

3.

D)

Now look at the word clouds below.

Which topic belongs to which word cloud?

1. George Floyd's death Race and racism are relevant topics that ought to be discussed in school. Teachers should be aware that students have their own beliefs and stereotypes, as we all have. At the same time, it is important to show that we live in a biased world and are all susceptible to false beliefs. Maybe some parents or even staff members will find that the topic should not be brought into the classroom. Even if a class mostly consists of white students, this topic is very much justified as part of a public discussion and concerns every citizen in the global, multicultural community that is our world.

The main advantage of planning a lesson using a corpus is that it allows teachers and students to examine language in authentic contexts. Although collecting data can be time consuming, the material collected can serve different purposes in your students' learning process. By following the instructions in the stepby-step guide in section 3, you can create a virtual corpus on a topic of your choice with only a few clicks.

Since the NOW corpus is updated on a daily basis, it allows teachers and students to explore issues of topical interest and current affairs from across the world that cannot be found in textbooks. Kultusministerium 2015: 27). There is a huge variety of resources to look up new words and expressions, but especially non-native speakers may end up using vocabulary in inappropriate contexts. Such problems can be avoided by using authentic language data, which can be found in representative language corpora.

Practicing using different resources is often neglected at school or considered "boring" and students frequently only learn vocabulary from their textbook or rely on bilingual dictionaries. By providing learners with rich input and allowing them to discover specific terms and phrases about topics that directly affect and influence them, a teacher can improve individual learning outcomes.

Recently, young people have become more interested and politically active, particularly with regard to the issue of climate change. After Swedish activist Greta Thunberg started protesting in August 2018, millions of students around the world joined her to raise awareness of the climate crisis and set off an avalanche of grassroot organisations demanding political action [START_REF] Gill | Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium[END_REF]. Students should be supported and given the abilities to communicate their opinions and ideas on this topic and the ability to consult corpora can support them in this endeavour by providing them with real-life, relevant language input. The corpus-based lesson presented in this chapter aims at connecting methodological skills and vocabulary training with an affectively and cognitively engaging topic. Teachers can easily adjust the lesson plan to any topic of choice that they consider to be suitable and appealing to their students.

The proposed lesson targets learners at higher secondary school aged 14-15 or older (9th grade). As the students will work online with a corpus, it is assumed that they can use a computer and that they have access to the COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English) via english-corpora.org. It is best for you to acquire an academic premium license to be able to work with texts longer than 400 words. However, this is not obligatory for this lesson, either. Each student will need to create a free account before the lesson. A handout will guide them through the tasks including step-by-step instructions for the website (cf.

Appendix). However, students still have the freedom to search for vocabulary and collocations they consider relevant. Finally, each student will create their own collection of new words and collocations for future use.

Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science | 207

Outline and objectives

Teacher preparation time: 30 minutes

Lesson time: 90 minute

Learning objectives: By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• access new vocabulary on their own.

• use the COCA to find out about new words and phrases related to a specific topic.

• use phrases in appropriate co-and contexts.

• use methods (e.g., mind-mapping) to structure and store linguistic resources.

• use known and new words and phrases on the topic of climate change.

Corpus, tools and methods

In this lesson, students will work with the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), which currently contains texts from 1990 to 2019 and is regularly updated. The COCA can be accessed via englishcorpora.org.

Step-by-step guide

In this chapter, step-by-step instructions are provided for both the teacher and the students. The teacher will have to provide the students with an appropriate source, e.g., an online article, and adjust the worksheet and handout for the students to match the chosen topic. With the help of a handout with step-by-step instructions, students will work with the corpus themselves.

Teacher preparation

First of all, as a teacher, skim the lesson plan (Table 7) to have an overview of the planned lesson. Be aware that this lesson should be preceded by an introductory lesson on climate change. For this chapter's lesson, choose an appropriate text or article for the learners that serves as a starting point. This text then needs to be shared with the students either digitally or as a print version. To prepare the text, follow the instructions below:

Text preparation

1. Choose a text on the topic you want your students to focus on and derive new vocabulary from. We recommend using Ecosia (https://www.ecosia.org/) for this, the search engine that plants trees. We chose 208 | Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science the article "What is climate change? A really simple guide" (https://www.bbc.com/news/scienceenvironment-24021772 (BBC News 2020).

2. Instead of -or in addition to -providing your students with a digital/print version of the article, you could also make use of the text analysis function of the COCA, which lets you find out more about the words and phrases in your text (e.g., frequencies, collocational behaviour, etc.). If you wish to do so, you need to upload your text onto the website. First, remove any possibly distracting content. To do so, go to "jusText demo" (Pomikalek 2021, URL: https://nlp.fi.muni.cz/projects/justext/), copy and paste the link that belongs to the article (Fig. 1). 3. Press ENTER on your keyboard and select "Hide boilerplate" on your screen (Fig. 2). You can also hand out a printed version.

6. In order to prepare the beginning of the lesson, go to www.english-corpora.org/ and select the COCA from the list of available corpora (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4: List of corpora

If you want to work with a text longer than 400 words, make sure your account icon is not red but green (Fig. 5). Red would mean you are not logged in with your institution's academic or premium account.

210 | Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science The following interface will appear (Fig. 7). Copy the text you chose for this exercise. Check the beginning and end of the text and make sure that all unnecessary information like advertisements have been deleted. Then paste it into the blank field on the left and press "SEARCH" (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8: Using the "Analyze text" function

You should now see the following page (Fig. 9). Save the text to be able to access it immediately in class without having to copy and paste it again. To do so, press "SAVE TEXT" (Fig. 10). In class, you can reuse it by simply clicking on "MY TEXTS" and the green tick (Fig. 11).

Worksheet creation

Besides choosing and sharing an appropriate text, the teacher has to prepare a worksheet and an accompanying handout for the learners. Therefore, decide which specific vocabulary you want to focus on in advance.

Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science | 213

In the Appendix, you will find a template for a worksheet and handout that guides the students through the exercises. They are tailored to the specific text mentioned above. However, feel free to use any other text you prefer. These worksheets may be used as a template to design your own. Both can be adapted to your own text and topic of choice. You will find the suggested solutions to the worksheet in the Appendix as well.

Lesson plan

Overview

Tasks

Task 1

Go to the "Analyse text" function of the COCA and access your saved text by as explained in section 3.1.2 above (steps 9 and 10).

From this point onwards, share your screen with the class and explain the following to your students:

The words in the text are highlighted in different colours. Each colour stands for a specific frequency range.

Blue words are very frequent in English, green words occur less frequently. Yellow words are relatively rare.

The latter are often very topic-specific and are therefore likely to be unfamiliar to students. Now, let the students begin their tasks. Ask them to read the text individually and to highlight unfamiliar words (task 1a). Let the students decide on three words they want to learn more about. On your shared screen, take the Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science | 215 students through the following steps for each word and explain what can be seen so that they can solve task 1b on their worksheets afterwards:

1. Make sure you are on the "WORD" interface (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12: The "WORD" interface

2. One by one, click on the three unfamiliar words in the text. A page with more information on the specific word will appear (see example in Fig. 13).

Fig. 13: Information page of the word climate

The main form of the word is highlighted and presented at the top of the page. It is followed by its word class in brackets. Below, the bar chart indicates the frequency distribution of the word across the eight text registers included in the COCA: blogs, websites, TV and movies, spoken language, fiction, magazines, news and academic publications. For example, the noun climate is least common in TV/movie language and fiction, and most common in blogs and academic language. The section "Topics" in the top-right corner shows words associated with climate and can help you find related words and concepts.

3. In order to fill in Table 1 on your worksheet, find the word's definitions below the bar chart. Also, look at the section below that shows synonyms and marks the most appropriate ones, as well as the section "Collocates", listed on the right.

4. To find out more about the word's collocates, click on "more" right next to it (Fig. 13). You will then be taken to the following page (Fig. 14).

Fig. 14: "Collocates" page of the word climate

There, you will see four tables grouped by part of speech and frequency, one each for noun, adjective, verb and adverb collocates. Open the "Advanced Options" menu, enter the number 1 into the blank field and press GO (Fig. 15). Now, only collocates appearing to the immediate left or right of the noun climate will be displayed in the tables. In some cases, the blocks to the left and right of the collocate are white, which means that these collocates can appear both before and after the noun climate.

6. To go back to the search word's information page, either click on the little arrow in the top-left corner or

on "ANALYZE TEXT" (Fig. 16). After guiding the students through the first task, ask them to start their computers and to solve tasks 2 and 3 independently with the help of the handout (cf. Appendix).

Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science | 217

Follow-up activities and further ideas

As shown in the worksheet and the lesson plan above, this lesson can be adapted to different levels of language proficiency and the amount of experience students have had with using digital media in the classroom. Task 3 could be given as homework or as an additional task for more advanced students, for example.

Further, this lesson can serve as a basis for different follow-up activities. Apart from finishing and expanding the word map on the worksheet, further activities may include:

• gathering new words relating to the "Fridays for Future" movement,

• preparing presentations about climate-related topics,

• working in groups and designing posters to inform others about climate-related issues or movements.

Conclusion

This lesson allows EFL learners to expand their vocabulary while working independently. With the help of a corpus, students develop a deeper understanding of topic-specific vocabulary. The worksheet aims to show students how to learn new vocabulary in chunks, which then enables them to use new words in appropriate contexts. Organising new vocabulary in a word map makes learning more sustainable, as visualisations can help learners memorise new words and collocations more easily.

Students are provided with a detailed handout that guides them through the individual steps of the lesson so that an introductory lesson on how to use a corpus is not needed.

Crucially, the methods used in this lesson can easily be applied to other topics. To do so, you would only need to change the basic text and adapt the worksheet and handout.

Resources and references

Resources:

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/.

Pomikalek, Jan. ( 2021). JusText demo. https://nlp.fi.muni.cz/projects/justext/.

Introduction and rationale

Project-based teaching has become increasingly popular. The method is deemed to be potentially highly beneficial in terms of student engagement, independent and social learning, as well as offering many options for differentiation within mixed ability groups. However, conducting projects is often labourintensive for teachers. Especially in English Language Teaching (ELT), project work often requires students to acquire subject-specific linguistic skills.

This chapter aims to present a flexible approach for providing students with the necessary linguistic support to conduct project work while also keeping the time needed for teacher preparation at a minimum. By teaching students how to use basic strategies of corpus linguistic research, this method will enable students to find the lexical information they need for the specific topic of their choice. This allows for more freedom and differentiation, and also guides the students to think of language as lexical patterns rather than as strings of individual words.

As an exemplary context in which the presented approach can be taken, this chapter outlines a project about sustainability, which is a highly topical issue in today's world and, thus, very relevant to students' lives. The main objective is to enable students to talk and write about topics of their own interests related to sustainability and to express personal opinions and emotions about them, which is in line with the secondary school curriculum of Lower Saxony, Germany (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 19, 23).

Outline and learning objectives

Learning objectives

By the end of the second lesson, students should…

• understand the benefits of using corpora to express themselves in idiomatic and natural English,

• understand the meaning and use of collocations,

• be able to use basic functions of the corpus tool to independently search for idiomatic language (word pairs, collocations and example sentences) relevant to their project topic, and

• have contextualised and expanded their existing vocabulary about sustainability in preparation for working on their projects.

Corpus, tools and methods

The corpus used in this chapter is the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), freely accessible on www.english.corpora.org/COCA. It provides the option to look exclusively at the language of blogs (assuming that the language of blogs is comparable to the language of podcasts and videos), and includes a large number of recent texts, which is vital for a topic like sustainability that has rapidly gained public attention in the past few years. Moreover, the COCA works best for finding collocations on www.englishcorpora.org, as it automatically groups words by part-of-speech, making its output more learner-friendly.

In the lessons, students will first use the "Texts/Virtual"-function to create a virtual corpus (their own subcorpus of the COCA) that only includes blogs about sustainability. They will then continue to explore this subcorpus by means of the "List"-, and "Collocates"-functions to find idiomatic language.

3 Step-by-step guide

Teacher Preparation

Creating a virtual corpus

Go to www.english-corpora.org. You should see a list of the corpora available on the website. Click on "Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)" (Fig. 1):

Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 223 Make sure that you are logged in, as you will create a virtual corpus on your account, i.e., it will only be visible to you (Fig. 2) (If you have not used the website before, you will need to register first by clicking on "My account" in the menu and then "Register" and filling out the required form. This is free and takes no longer than a minute).

Select "Texts/Virtual" in the blue box on the right, and click on "Create corpus "(Fig. 2). You should now see a search form (Fig. 3) that allows you to select certain texts from the COCA to include in your virtual corpus. For our purposes, we only want to include texts of the genre "Blog". However, to exclude highly specialized texts with academic language, we will not select the subgenres "ACAD" and "LEGAL". To do so, press "Ctrl" on your keyboard and click the individual subgenres of "BLOG" in the list, leaving out "ACAD" and "LEGAL" (Fig. 3).

To only include texts that are relevant to the topic of our project, type sustainability in the field next to "Words in text". Then press "Submit" (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Searching for texts in the corpus

On the next page, you will find a list of all the texts your query has returned. Give your virtual corpus a name (e.g., sustainability) by typing it in the field next to "SAVE AS" and finally click "SUBMIT" (Fig. 4) to finish building your virtual corpus (Fig. 5).

Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 225 Preparing the warm-up activity

The warm-up activity aims to show students the benefits of using corpora to obtain information about how words are naturally used together by asking what verb (maintain, preserve, retain, etc.) is most frequently associated with biodiversity. As preparation, search for the results in the full corpus:

Choose the COCA, click on the "+" next to "Browse" and then on "Collocates".

Then type biodiversity into the "Word/phrase" search field, click on "POS" (part of speech) next to "Collocates", choose "verb.ALL", and select one position to the left (= verb that precedes biodiversity by one position within the sentence).

226 | Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability Next, click on "Options", and let your search results be grouped by "LEMMAS" to make sure that conjugated verb forms do not result in duplicated findings (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6: Searching for verb collocates of biodiversity

In this case, do not choose the newly-created virtual corpus, as the whole content of the COCA will provide more results.

Submit your search ("Find collocates") to obtain a list of the most frequent verbs co-occurring with biodiversity (Fig. 7).

Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 227 For the first warm-up activity, select the first five findings, and click on "CONTEXT" just above the first verb of the list (Fig. 7).

Randomise your results afterwards (by clicking on a number next to "Find sample" in the top left corner of the result list) and take a screenshot to present in class.

Getting to know the "List"-function

Next, you should become familiar with the tasks that are used in the lesson and try out the "List"-function so that you can walk your students through the steps in class.

Go to the COCA again and type the word sustainability in the search box. This word serves as an example to show how the "List"-function works.

Limit your search to your virtual corpus by clicking on "Text/Virtual", select your corpus (here: sustainability) and click on "Find matching strings" (Fig. 8). You will find a very short table that tells you how often sustainability appears in the corpus. Click on the word itself (Fig. 9) to obtain a list of examples of texts that feature the noun sustainability (Fig. 10).

Tasks and instructions

Warm-up

Wir müssen die Artenvielfalt erhalten.

The warm-up activity serves not only to activate students' cognitive skills, but also to make them aware of the relevance of corpus work for being able to express themselves accurately and idiomatically in English.

For this purpose, select a topic-related sentence in the students' first language which includes at least one word that is problematic with regard to its translation into English. In this chapter, the German sentence Wir müssen die Artenvielfalt erhalten ('We need to conserve biodiversity') has been chosen to highlight the ambiguous meaning of the verb erhalten, which, in other contexts, could just as well be translated as keep, retain or get.

Present the sentence on the board and ask your learners to translate the sentence into English. It is assumed that students will be divided over the translation of the verb erhalten and you can show them the respective entry in a learner dictionary (Fig. 11) to make them aware of the different options for communicating the meanings of erhalten. Seeing that there are obviously several possible English translations (maintain, retain, keep, preserve), students will understand that they need another tool to find out which of the translations is appropriate in the example sentence. This point gives you the perfect opportunity to introduce the world of corpora and corpus work generally by subsequently presenting the concordance lines for "verb + biodiversity" using the "Collocates"-function on www.english-corpora.org (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12: Concordance lines for verb + biodiversity (five most frequent verbs)

The warm-up demonstrates that one-to-one translations using dictionaries do not necessarily yield the right results but that research on actual language use in context is needed. By introducing and discussing the concordance lines, you not only provide a first example of data-driven learning, but also give students a taste of what they will be working with during the upcoming lessons. However, you should point out that this list of examples is not representative and does not allow for an immediate conclusion as to which verb is most suitable for translating Wir müssen die Artenvielfalt erhalten. The final answer will be given in the warm-up activity of the next lesson.

Preparation

Before students can start working with the corpus, they need to register on the website and create a virtual corpus. For this purpose, hand out Worksheet A and guide the learners through the instructions ("Preparation of our corpus work").

Ask a student to come to the front to create their account and the virtual corpus on the interactive whiteboard while giving them the necessary instructions. In the meantime, the other students follow those steps on their own computers.

Practice

As preparation for their task, show your students how to use the "List"-function by going through the steps on the whiteboard while they follow them on their computers. Just as in the preparation phase, use the word sustainability as an example to show how the "List"-function works.

Explain that the resulting concordance lines are the most fundamental function of corpus work, since each of these concordance lines displays a different, authentic, contextual use of the word sustainability.

After this introduction, students can continue with the practice tasks on the worksheet either individually or in pairs. Note that the worksheet includes step-by-step instructions as additional support.

The task requires students to implement what they have learnt about corpus work by searching for nouns that occur with sustainable and aims to expand their vocabulary to improve their language for this project.

To this end, students will be asked to write their own sentences using the word combinations they found.

Tell your students that they can use these or similar sentences for their project later on.

Use the remaining five to ten minutes of the lesson for the students to share their results (both the words and example sentences from the corpus, and their own sentences) and to talk about and answer issues and questions.

Lesson 2

Teacher preparation

Collecting vocabulary for the mind map

As an introduction to the lesson students create a mind map of their existing vocabulary knowledge which could be relevant for their chosen topics. The mind map should display the topics that the groups have chosen (Fig. 13).

Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 233 Use the teaching material from previous lessons to note down vocabulary that you can expect students to come up with for each of their topics. Additionally, use the corpus to collect more key vocabulary and further ideas to help you guide the discussion in class and to make sure that the key terms for each topic are included in the mind map.

To browse for keywords in the virtual corpus, go to www.english-corpora.org and ensure that you are logged into your account. Then, go to the COCA again and select "Texts/Virtual." Click on "Edit corpora" to access your virtual corpus (Fig. 14).

Fig. 14: Edit corpora

You now see the page that contains information about your corpus. In the column "FIND KEYWORDS", click on "NOUNS" (Fig. 15) to obtain a list of nouns that are particularly frequent in your corpus as compared to a large reference corpus of general English (Fig. 16). When you find words in the keywords list, you can also click on the word to see the concordance lines for this word. This might be helpful to find out in what contexts a word is used, and to make sure that the word is relevant to your students' topics.

Tasks and instructions

Plan for the second lesson

Duration: 90 minutes Ask the students to fill in the "Draft structure" column with a brief version of the draft structure they have developed in earlier lessons. Afterwards, they should use the mind map to decide on six keywords that are most central to their ideas and topics, and write them in the "Keywords" column (Fig. 18). Ask them to include nouns as well as verbs and adjectives.

Fig. 18: Example table for the introductory task (worksheet C) Preparation

After the groups have completed the second column, students should turn to their computers or laptops.

Hand out Worksheet B and go through it together. Make sure that all students have a basic understanding of what collocations are, then guide them through the step-by-step instructions while demonstrating the steps on www.english-corpora.org on screen, using sustainability as an example (Fig. 19).

Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 239 Help your students to understand how the results page (Fig. 20) works as it will look confusing at first: The words are grouped according to their part of speech (POS) and the colours refer to their frequency. The boxes to the left above the table display the word they searched for and its part of speech (e.g., noun). If they have searched for a word that could be more than one POS, they would find an option to switch the POS right next to it (e.g., make can be both a verb and a noun). Note that students should not click on the words but on the text icon next to the words to see the concordance lines (Fig. 21). Clicking on the word itself redirects to the collocations of that particular word.

If you then go back to the previous page and request the concordance lines again, the interface will show you the concordance lines for the word you clicked on before rather than the concordance lines for sustainability (your search word). To fix this error, you need to launch your search again.

Tip: It might help to ask your students to ensure that two different words are highlighted in the concordance lines, one of which should be their search term. If that is not the case, the aforementioned error has been made and the students need to go back to the search form.

When going to the concordance lines, do not forget to randomise your search by clicking on a number after "Find sample".

After going through the instructions, students form pairs and search for collocations of sustainable with the help of the step-by-step-guide to practise using the "Collocates"-function.

Tell your students to use the checklist on Worksheet B as a guideline to help them choose suitable collocations: Point out that students should look for new words rather than words that they have used already in the lesson before, i.e., focusing on verbs, adjectives and adverbs rather than nouns. They should also check that they understand how to use the word by checking the example sentences from the concordance lines. By writing a sentence for each collocation themselves, students can test whether they have really understood how to use the collocation in context.

Practice: Working on the project

Ask your students to get back together in their project groups and use the step-by-step guide, as well as the checklist on their worksheet (Worksheet B), to search for collocations for the keywords they have chosen (Worksheet C, Fig. 21). They can refer to the tasks on sustainable for support. Students then work on completing the table in their groups. Ask your students to underline the construction in the example sentences in which the collocation occurs. Finish the lesson with a class discussion on the results of the group work.

Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 241 their own (or another group's) text and extract a certain number of phrases which they would like to improve. Then ask them to find collocations for these words to express their idea in a more idiomatic way.

Caveats and limitations

The lessons depend heavily on the availability of end devices for all students; it is assumed that each student has a computer, laptop or tablet they can use in class. If that is not the case, you can adjust the exercises by forming groups for the tasks.

Moreover, a secure and stable internet connection is necessary for these tasks, which the teacher should test in advance. Nonetheless, it is possible that the website gets overloaded if all students simultaneously search for the same things. This can be solved by forming pairs or groups that work on one computer at a time.

Conclusion

Although the outline of this project may appear labour-intensive at first, it sets the basis for further corpusbased learning and is therefore quite sustainable and time-saving in the long run. Once the teacher and students have acquired the necessary technical skills, they can be used again and expanded in future projects on any topic. Most importantly, students not only learn how to obtain linguistic support for their writing, but also develop a deeper understanding of how language works, i.e., in patterns rather than by the combination of individual words. Learning new words and phrases in context by actively and autonomously searching for collocations that suit their needs, students are likely to remember the new words better and to use them idiomatically. In this way, the designed lessons are in line with current evidence from second language acquisition research, which highlights the importance of rich exposure, noticing, learner relevance, and emotional as well as cognitive engagement.

Resources and references

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/.

Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium. 2015

Outline and objectives

In this lesson, students will be introduced to general vocabulary around the topic of pollution. They will describe pictures, play a vocabulary game, and prepare and hold a debate on the topic of pollution. For the debate, the students will be divided into five groups. Four groups will be assigned a role and the members of the fifth group will moderate the debate. The four groups will read different articles which are related to their role, and work out arguments regarding pollution in order to debate with the opposing group.

Lesson time: ca. 90 min.

Teacher preparation time: ca. 60 min.

Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution | 251

School Type: Gymnasium (upper secondary school)

Level: 10 th Grade

Learning Objectives:

• Students can discuss ideas, opinions and knowledge about pollution as part of a roleplay.

• Students can formulate their own opinions on the topic.

• Students can make use of debating strategies and useful phrases for debating.

• Students can connect, describe and explain the causes and effects of pollution as a subtopic of climate change.

• Students can use key vocabulary pertaining to the semantic field of pollution.

Corpus, tools and methods

The News on the Web (NOW) corpus on english-corpora.org includes a range of broadsheet newspapers such as The Guardian, as well as tabloid press such as the Daily Mail. The corpus thus reflects the language input of the general public because there is a variety of written articles on the topic composed for different audiences. It is a rich source of frequent vocabulary useful for talking about scientific and political issues, as well as idiomatic phrases demonstrating how to use the new vocabulary in context. This kind of authentic language is very important for designing materials for the English as a Foreign Language classroom.

Step-by-step guide

Teacher preparation

Corpus compilation

Step 1: Registering on english-corpora.org

To be able to access the NOW corpus, register on english-corpora.org and select the corpus by clicking on "News on the Web (NOW)" in the table. Step 2: Creating a virtual corpus

The "FIND TEXTS" function allows you to create a virtual corpus based on keywords. To use this function, type in your keyword in the query box; in this case it is pollution. Second, select Texts/Virtual tab and then click on "FIND TEXTS" (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Creating a virtual corpus with the keyword pollution

Third, select Options and type in your desired number of results in the "#HITS" box. To ensure a greater variety of texts, 1,000 texts could be retrieved. To see the results, select "Find matching strings" once you have adjusted the settings as described above (see Fig. 3).

Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution | 253 Next, you will see a list of texts that form your personal virtual corpus. You can click on the "SAVE LIST" option at the top left corner of the list to save your virtual corpus and to access it at any time in the future.

Designing corpus-based teaching materials

Task 1

To find certain keywords in your corpus, you can select e.g."NOUN" to find specific nouns in your corpus. This option appears in your "virtual corpora" list next to the name of your saved corpus (see Fig. 4). If you click on "NOUN", a list of nouns and their frequencies in your corpus will appear. If you then click on a word from this list, e.g. emission (see Fig. 5), a list is displayed showing in which context the word emission is used in the newspaper articles of your virtual corpus, alongside the date of the article, the website it was published on, and further information. You can also click on the number in the left column to see the expanded context in which the word is being used (see Fig. 6). For the warm-up activity, which in this lesson will be the vocabulary game Last Man Standing, the teacher needs to prepare a list of vocabulary for the students to learn before this lesson.

This vocabulary list contains important vocabulary on the topic of pollution. The list will include the English word with three typical collocations and an example sentence in which the word is used.

To create this list, use the "FIND KEYWORDS" function and select as many nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. as needed for the vocabulary list (see Fig. 4).

There is going to be a huge collection of words to select from. It is therefore important to choose them carefully with your students in mind. First of all, you can find the most frequent nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. in your virtual corpus on pollution (see Fig. 4). Of course, not every word is going to be relevant for your students. It is helpful to view the text(s) that the students will read in the second task as a comparison in order to see which of the listed words may be necessary to understand them. Furthermore, Francine

Johnston's article How to Select Words for Vocabulary Instruction provides handy criteria for the selection.

Some of the criteria Johnston mentioned are "importance" and "transferability" of words (Johnston, n.d).

Teachers should ask themselves what important words their students need to learn in order to understand the selection of texts and to successfully hold a debate on their own. The next step after having chosen the appropriate vocabulary is to find two to three collocations per word. To start off, e.g. type in emission in your virtual pollution corpus (from 4.1.1) and choose the function "Collocates" (see Fig. 7).

Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution | 255 Under Options, is also helpful to select "GROUP BY: LEMMAS" instead of the default "WORDS" (see Fig. 8)

because the different inflections of verbs and nouns are then grouped together. You can change the collocational range you are searching for by adjusting the numbers between +4 and 4+.

The range queried is highlighted in green (see Fig. 7).

In this case, the verb meet was the most frequent verb collocate of emission within our virtual pollution corpus (see Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: Selecting collocations

However, a brief look at the concordance lines of meet reveals that meet + emission(s) never occurs on its own (see Fig. 10). Instead, the verb meet collocates with emission norms/standards/targets and other semantically related nouns. When creating your own collocation list, please keep in mind that a certain inflection of a word may be more idiomatic than others. For example, while looking for verb + emission collocations, it becomes clear that the plural of emission, i.e. emissions, is used much more frequently. The same is true for adjective or noun + emission. The singular form of emission, on the other hand, is mostly found in emission + noun constructions, i. e. emission standards. As a tip, an easy way to check this is to search for different inflections in a corpus while using the setting "GROUP BY: WORDS". The frequency will help you to decide which inflections should be included in the collocations you decide to include in your teaching materials.

In addition, learners are known to find example sentences most useful. Make sure that they are from your corpus to ensure authenticity. An example of what a finished vocabulary list could look like can be found in the appendix.

Task 2: Instructions for one example text

The second task prepares the students for their roles in the debate. To do this, the teacher needs to prepare a variety of texts for each group in advance. The texts should inform the students about pollution and ideally contain useful information and arguments which can then be used in the debate. In the following, two ways of finding appropriate texts are outlined.

Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution | 257

Option 1: Searching for a text in your own virtual corpus

For this lesson, this option was chosen to find the ideal articles for the reading task. The virtual corpus includes many great articles that suit the purpose of this lesson. To find a text in your individual corpus, select your virtual corpus. In this case, it is the pollution corpus that was created in 4.1.1. (see Fig. 11). Within this corpus, you have a variety of texts that you can choose from. Next, you can click through the websites to find the perfect text(s) for the lesson (see Fig. 12).

Option 2: Searching for a text in the NOW corpus

This second option enables you to search through the entire NOW corpus by simply typing in a keyword. In this example, the term air pollution is used. In addition, it is possible to specify the dates of publication for the texts in your search (see Fig. 13). The more recent the texts are, the more likely it is that the full text will still available on the publisher's website. which is an article from The Guardian (see Fig. 14). You can now click on the number in the left column to see the expanded context in which the word is being used (see Fig. 15).

You will also find a link to the article (see Fig. 16). Four example texts we suggest could be used for this task are linked in the appendix, though your own selection of texts will, of course, depend on your students' proficiency levels, needs and interests.

Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution | 259 Task 3

The final task of the session is the debate. For this task, it is necessary to prepare a list of useful phrases for engaging in a debate. Teachers should provide their students with the list so that they can study it in advance. It will guide the learners through the debate and support them if needed. You may adjust your list to your students' needs by, for example, removing the translation into students' first language and leaving an empty column instead. This leaves space for your students to fill in their own translation, or other notes that they may find useful.

At this point, the students are already prepared and have acquired information and arguments for their specific roles.

Lesson plan

Instructions for tasks

Task 1: Vocabulary Game -Last Man Standing (warm-up activity)

The teacher names the topic, pollution, for which the students have already learnt the vocabulary for homework ahead of the lesson. At the beginning, all of the students have to stand up and the teacher throws a ball to a student who has to come up with a word that fits that topic. That student throws the ball to the next student who again has to come up with another word. Students who catch the ball and cannot come up with a word have to sit down. This game continues until there is only one student left standing.

The last standing student is the winner of the game.

Task 2.1: Reading

The teacher presents the motion of the debate "Preventing Pollution Is Not a Matter of Money". In the first stage of the Jigsaw method, the students are divided into five expert groups. Each group will be assigned one of the roles.

First of all, informative texts are handed out to the first four groups with potential arguments supporting the position they will have to defend. These texts include reading tasks to help them filter and develop arguments for the debate. Moreover, they will have to think about strategies to communicate these arguments in the debate. The fifth group is the group of moderators. It is best suited for high ability students. These students have access to all four texts in order to prepare for their role. They will be in charge of opening the debate, facilitating transitions between arguments, encouraging everyone to participate actively and asking questions whenever needed. For the debate, new discussion groups are formed; those discussion groups include at least one representative of each expert group. This means that each discussion group has a representative of each role plus a moderator who is going to be in charge of structuring as well as keeping the debate going. The purpose of this format is to encourage every student to participate actively.

Options and further ideas

Option:

The teacher could create a pro and con group for low ability learners who may obtain texts that are easier to understand and/or include additional information such as graphs, images or an additional vocabulary list.

Further idea:

Fish Bowl debate for the follow-up lesson:

Fishbowl is a strategy for organizing medium-to large-group discussions. Students are separated into an inner and outer circle. In the inner circle, or fishbowl, students have a discussion; students in the outer circle listen to the discussion and take notes (tolerance.org, n.d.).

A Fish Bowl debate gives students the opportunity to present their findings in front of the whole class while the observers note down the structure of the debate, as well as the vocabulary employed. That way, the teacher is able to retrace how well the Jigsaw classroom worked out and the students can use their results in a bigger context while revising the acquired vocabulary and debating strategiesonce more.

Caveats and limitations

In order to create such a lesson, it is important to become familiar with english-corpora.org and not lose your patience at the first mishap! Error messages, resulting e.g. from forgetting to put a space or ticking the wrong box, are certainly frustrating. Nonetheless, the results obtained from working with a corpus are very reliable and enable you to find vocabulary that goes over and beyond what textbooks include, thus expanding the vocabulary taught in a more authentic way. Textbooks and other lists might include vocabulary around specific topics such as pollution, but the corpus allows you to look for frequent idiomatic phrases and collocations and to explore the wider context in which they are used.

Another difficulty might occur for non-paying users of english-corpora.org, who regularly receive a notification to upgrade their account. This can be ignored. After a few seconds of waiting, the search can be continued. Additionally, when creating the virtual corpus, it is important to choose a keyword that is often used in the desired context. It is worth comparing results from different keywords because the use of a good keyword is crucial to create a reliable virtual corpus. Depending on the learning group, the complexity of the tasks and the debate can vary. At first, students may be overwhelmed by the debating task, or else they might find it highly motivating and will be very spontaneous in their contributions. It is important to consider the specific learning group, that the necessary vocabulary has been introduced beforehand, and that the students are familiar with the concept of such a debate.

Conclusion

Even though preparing the vocabulary list may take some time, in our opinion, the result is very rewarding because you end up with a list of frequent, authentic examples that can always be reused or extended in future lessons. Moreover, this method can be applied to a whole range of other topics. Once the teacher has worked with this method once, they will always be able to go back and repeat the steps, applyingthe methodto a different topic. Teacher preparation time will considerably decrease once they have gotten used to the method.

Cartoon for homework • to be susceptible to pollution • to make sb. more susceptible to environmental pollutants

Children are more susceptible to pollution because they breathe more often, taking in more pollutants.

This is an example of the reading task that could be assigned to each group.

Reading task

Create a table with arguments for and against the motion. Write down the main arguments that the author mentions in the article in the table in 3-5 bullet points on each side. Find out the causes and effects of pollution on people's health and add them to your table. Evaluate how your arguments could support your role and discuss possible strategies to justify your position with your group. Take notes of your results to use for the debate.

Here are links to some example texts you may use. These should be adjusted to your students' needs.

your registration by clicking the link in the email. Go back to the website https://www.englishcorpora.org/ and log in.

3. Click on the tab "home" and then click on the "Wikipedia Corpus".

4. Click on the tab "Texts/Virtual" and then on the tab "Create corpus" (see Fig. 1). 5. Enter the word cosmetic in the field "Title word(s) *". Choose 100 in the field "# pages" to limit your search to 100 articles. Click "Submit" (see Fig. 2). 6. Now you have to look through the results in order to check whether the texts are appropriate to use.

You can click on a title to see the full text. You can then select all texts by ticking the empty white box to the left of the "100" and manually untick any texts you wish to exclude. Give your virtual corpus a name, e.g. "SKIN", by typing it into the "SAVE AS" field and then click on "SUBMIT" to save your virtual corpus (see Fig. 3).

Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus | 271 7. You have now built a virtual corpus on the topic of skin. In this example, there are 76 articles with a total of 42,749 words (see Fig. 4). Utilizing the virtual corpus for compiling a vocabulary list 1. Click on the tab "SEARCH" to use the virtual corpus. You might need to refresh the website and then click on the tab "Texts/Virtual" in order to see your newly built virtual corpus (see Fig. 5). 2. Click on the tab "Collocates". Enter the word skin into the box "Word/phrase". Click on the field "[POS]" right to the word "Collocates". The box "Insert PoS" will appear. Click on this box and choose "adj.ALL".

"_ j*" appears in the field "Collocates". Choose the left "1" to find collocates which appear immediately before the target word. Choose the virtual corpus "SKIN" by clicking on it. It is very important that you choose your custom-built virtual corpus, otherwise the whole Wikipedia Corpus will be queried. Finally, click on "Find collocates" (see Fig. 6). 3. In this example, I obtained a list of 39 collocates sorted by how often they appear in your virtual corpus (see Fig. 7).

Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus | 273 dead, daily, common, surrounding, organic, right, richer, related, rejuvenate, natural, individual, improving, general, exotic, and basic. In order to get the most meaningful words, you might also delete the words old, and great from your list because these are very general and thus do not need to be taught specifically. You may also want to exclude the word laggy from the list, because it is a colloquial word, which is not used to describe skin professionally.

Next, make a list of the adjectives you have selected. You may also add translations (see Table 2).

Preparing teaching materials for language learning activities

Students need to know how to use newly-learnt words in written and spoken language correctly in order to utilize them holistically. They further should be able to use the new words in all four areas of competence.

Teachers should make sure that students get the opportunity to learn the new words and that they get the chance to practise the pronunciation as well as the spelling. The compiled vocabulary list allows teachers to develop a range of language learning activities. In this chapter, I demonstrate how to use the list in Table 2 to create a controlled language learning activity, in the form of a cloze text, as well as a communicative language learning activity, in the form of a taboo card game.

Gap-filling activities can be used to familiarize students with both the meaning and spelling of new words.

The teacher needs to prepare a cloze text. Depending on the level of the individual students, the words which should be filled in the gaps can be displayed below the text as an assistance or the first letter of each The vocabulary list compiled from the virtual corpus can also be used to create taboo playing cards. This is a game, which encourages the students to communicate and use new vocabulary in spoken language. This method can be used after the new words have been introduced and then in different stages of the lesson sequence in order to revise the vocabulary. Exemplary taboo playing cards can be found in Appendix II.

Options and further ideas

Students in vocational education need to know subject-specific adjectives in order to describe different words in greater detail. Students must know meaningful adjectives for varying situations and a virtual corpus is an appropriate instrument for creating highly specific vocabulary lists in the field of vocational education. The outlined procedure and the exemplary language learning activities of this chapter can be immediately used for the dual apprenticeship as a hairdresser. The exemplary topic can also straightforwardly be utilized for the dual apprenticeship as a beautician/cosmetician. This chapter demonstrates that general adjectives are not sufficient for describing specific words. This also applies for other professional disciplines in the field of vocational education, for example metal work, wood work, electrical engineering, glass engineering, home economics, social education, healthcare professions, and many others. The procedure for building and utilizing a virtual corpus can easily be adapted and used for different types of schools within the field of vocational education. The vocabulary lists can be further expanded based on the proficiency level of the learners. Also, the virtual corpus can be used in order to compile vocabulary lists of different word classes, for example subject-specific nouns, verbs, and other collocations (e.g. verb-noun collocations).

Caveats and limitations

Since the Wikipedia Corpus is a compilation of written articles, it may not always be adequate for teaching spoken language. Nevertheless, the Wikipedia Corpus can provide a useful, general overview of the kind of words and collocations which are relevant for, and frequently used in specific areas.

Note that whilst using the website https://www.english-corpora.org/, from time to time a message will appear telling you to upgrade your account. You can just wait for a few seconds and then click on "Click here to continue with your search". The message will disappear and you do not need to upgrade your account (see Fig. 9).

Conclusion

In this chapter, I explained how to build a virtual corpus and utilize it for developing language learning activities for specific areas of vocational education. The three didactical principles as well as the four areas of competence relevant to vocational education -especially in the dual apprenticeship modelwere taken into account. After building the virtual corpus, I explained how to use it to compile a subjectspecific vocabulary list. This vocabulary list served as a basis for developing two language learning activities.

These activities can be immediately embedded into teaching English in classes for hairdressers as well as beauticians / cosmeticians. I further explained how the aforementioned procedure can be adapted for different types of schools and various professional disciplines within vocational education. In addition, I mentioned options for adapting the activities to heterogeneous levels of proficiency. In conclusion, the procedure of building a virtual corpus for a specific area of vocational education in order to compile a vocabulary list to develop teaching materials has proven itself to be user-friendly and broadly applicable for language teachers in the field of vocational education.

Appendices

Appendix I: Cloze text

Describing the skin of customers with adjectives

Hairdressers and cosmeticians need to know about their customers' skin in order to choose cosmetic treatments. Some customers have great skin. This skin has no anomalies at all and is called ______________ skin. This skin is ______________ and ______________ .

Some customers have ______________ skin -especially in winter when the sun is not shining that much. The color of the skin is nearly ______________ . In summer, some customers have ______________ and ______________ skin.

Some customers also like to decorate their skin with permanent colors. They have ______________ skin. Older customers have special needs. These customers have ______________ skin which needs a special treatment. The skin of older customers can also look dehydrated and discolored and is then called ______________ skin.

Some customers do not have good skin; they have very ______________ skin. This skin tends to be tender and is called ______________ skin. The skin can be ______________ , and when it does not produce enough oil and lacks moisture. When the skin starts producing too much oil, the skin can become ______________ . Too much oil can lead to pimples which can result in customers having ______________ skin. This skin is often ______________ and can even become ______________ when specific bacteria is on the skin. This skin is often irritated and is called ______________ skin.

It is very important for hairdressers and cosmeticians to know that! Fill in the following words:

dry, normal, sensitive, pale, oily, uneven, white, acne-prone, dark, problematic, reddened, smooth, rough, tanned, tattooed, ashy, blemish-prone, mature, flaky, moisturized

Sample solution

Hairdressers and cosmeticians need to know about their customers' skin in order to choose cosmetic treatments. Some customers have great skin. This skin has no anomalies at all and is called normal skin. This skin is smooth and moisturized.

Some customers have pale skin -especially in winter when the sun is not shining that much. The color of the skin is nearly white. In summer, some customers have dark and tanned skin.

Some customers also like to decorate their skin with permanent colors. They have tattooed skin.

Older customers have special needs. These customers have matured skin which needs a special treatment. The skin of older customers can also look dehydrated and discolored and is then called ashy skin.

session.

Corpus, tools and methods

The corpus building tool Sketch Engine is used for this chapter. Sketch Engine offers the possibility to build and analyse custom-made corpora compiled from texts from the web. Unfortunately, Sketch Engine is not free to use, but there is a free 30-day trial, which is more than sufficient for this lesson. Simply create a free trial account and you will be able to start working with corpora.

Grey's Anatomy was created by Shonda Rhimes and is a "prime-time American television medical drama that debuted on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) network in 2005.

[…] The program focuses on the personal and professional lives of surgical interns and their medical mentors." (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2018). Momentarily, Grey's Anatomy comprises 16 seasons. Due to its award-winning success, the series is famous worldwide. Therefore, students might enjoy learning English with the help of a TV drama they know.

In this chapter, Sketch Engine's corpus building functions and the Grey's Anatomy scripts will be combined to create an English learning environment for nursing students.

Step-by-step guide for teachers

Below you will find instructions on how to build your own Grey's Anatomy corpus and how you use tools on Sketch Engine to work with this corpus in order to create work sheets for students.

Teacher preparation

Corpus compilation

1. Open the website Sketch Engine (https://www.sketchengine.eu). Create an account and then log in.

2. As soon as you are logged into your account, you will find an option to create your own corpus in the upper right corner of your dashboard. Click on "NEW CORPUS" (Fig. 1).

Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy | 281 3. In the next step, you will be asked to name your corpus (e.g. Grey's Anatomy), to choose a corpus type (single language corpus), to select a language (English), and to shortly describe your corpus if needed (Grey's Anatomy scripts). After that, click on the red button "NEXT".

4. Now, you can start adding texts to your newly created corpus. There are two options to do so: you can either find texts on the web or upload your own texts from your computer. In this case, choose "Find texts on the web" (Fig. 2). Unfortunately, it is not possible to just copy the link to the whole website as it -like many other websites -does not only contain Grey's Anatomy scripts but also other TV seasons scripts. In order to make sure that you only upload Grey's Anatomy scripts to your corpus, you need to open each episode's webpage separately and copy the URLs. If you decide to choose a different website, just make sure to find one without too many fan comments etc. as all those comments will also be added to your corpus.

6. Grey's Anatomy comprises 16 seasons with often more than 20 episodes each. Sketch Engine's default maximum amount of 1,000,000 words for a custom-made corpus will not be enough for the scripts from all 16 seasons. Consequently, you can only upload parts of the Grey's Anatomy seasons. 1,000,000 words should enable you to upload about twelve seasons to your corpus.

7. Sketch Engine gives you three different options for finding texts on the web: "Web search", "URLs" or "Website". This time choose the second option: "URLs". Sketch Engine requires you to paste every single URL from every episode you would like to add to your corpus. After pasting one URL, always press "Enter" on your keyboard in order to add the next URL (Fig. 3).

8. It will be easier to manage your corpus later if you create separate folders for each season. To do so, choose folder names: For season 1 = season1, season 2 = season2, season 3 = season3, etc. (Fig. 3).

9. Click on the red button "GO" and Sketch Engine will start to upload data from the webpages and build your Grey's Anatomy corpus (Fig. 3). 10. Once the uploading process is finished, you can repeat the exact same procedure with the next season. Therefore, come back to your dashboard (Fig. 1) and click on "Manage corpus" on the upper left side. Then choose the option "Make bigger" (Fig. 4), which will bring you back to the screen in Fig. 2.

Now, follow steps 7 to 9 again for as many seasons as you would like to include or until you reach Sketch Engine's maximum free word count of 1,000,000 words.

Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy | 283

Corpus queries and work sheet creation

I will present two functions of Sketch Engine that allow you to exploit your corpus for English language teaching: Word Sketch and Concordance. These functions can be used to create work sheets for your students.

Using 'Word Sketch' to create a vocabulary list on a certain topic With the help of your newly built Grey's Anatomy corpus, it is very easy to build a vocabulary list on a specific topic. You are completely free to decide on a topic. As an example, this chapter will focus on the topic of organ donation. Here we shall create a word sketch for the noun organ:

1. On your Sketch Engine dashboard, click on the option "Word Sketch" (Fig. 5).

284 | Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy 2. Use the basic search function. You will be asked to type in a lemma. In this case, type in organ and click on "GO" (Fig. 6). 3. Finally, you will obtain lists of words that are frequently associated with the word organ in Grey's Anatomy (Fig. 7).

Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy | 285 6. In the menu, click on "KWIC" and select the option "sentence" (Fig. 9). You will see how the words from your vocabulary list are used in context of the Grey's Anatomy scripts. Students may benefit from these dialogues by focusing on discourse markers, fillers, distance and empathy, or other communicative strategies in dialogues.

Again, the Grey's Anatomy corpus proves to be a useful tool in finding the interactions mentioned above:

1. Go to the dashboard. Click on "Concordance" (Fig. 10). Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy | 287

2. Use the basic search function and type in organ don* in order to find text passages in your corpus that include the words organ donor/donors/donation. Further possible results might be organ donating/ organ don't etc. Click on the red button "SEARCH" (Fig. 11). 3. Sketch Engine will show you all the text passages in your corpus that include the words organ donor/ donors/donation (Fig. 12). 4. Choose one of the given text passages. clicking on the red writing (KWIC), you can read more from the scene about organ donation which might be helpful to decide on a suitable text passage (Fig. 13). 5. After having found a suitable text passage, click on the information icon or the URL next to the concordance line to obtain more information about the episode in which this scene can be found. Click on the URL and you will be forwarded to the full Grey's Anatomy script (Fig. 14). Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy | 289

Caveats and limitations

Sketch Engine offers the possibility to create a 30-day free trial account. This limits teachers' use of the interface to just 30 days. However, within a month, Sketch Engine can be used to create many corpus-based tasks and activities.

Another limitation is that Sketch Engine sets a default word limit to 1,000,000 words for a custom-built corpus. This may seem like a lot at first glance but depending on the focus of the lesson(s), more words might be desirable.

Conclusion

This chapter is designed to as a teachers' guide to preparing lessons on staff-patient-communication when teaching English to nursing students. Interactions in hospital settings are explored with a linguistic corpus from the series Grey's Anatomy in order to develop teaching material for vocational schools. The episodes consist of dialogues only, thus they are an excellent source of language for students to improve their communications skills. Moreover, the suggested lesson serves as a general example: the range of TV series available offers a wealth of language data that can serve as the basis for creating language teaching materials on a wide array of topics and communicative situations. There are no limits to the teacher's creativity. Although the process of building your own corpus is somewhat time-consuming, task design is in fact easier and faster with the help of a corpus. What's more, corpus-based tasks are based on authentic, native-like language. This is likely to be particularly helpful to non-native teachers and English teachers at vocational schools, who are teaching students learning a profession they are not familiar with themselves.

To conclude, both students and teachers can profit from working with a linguistic corpus. materials in this chapter are exclusively developed to satisfy the needs one and three. Fig. 2 gives an overview of the two selected need statements and intends to provide a better understanding of each need. tasks (Epp/Lewis 2009: 308). The majority of communication takes place with patients, also referred to as clients (see Fig. 3). Individual language tasks performed by nurses range from 'giving instructions' over 'asking for information' to 'making small talk'. All identified language tasks with the associated percentages of the time spent on the tasks are shown in Fig. 4. Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 301

Resources and references

Characteristics of potential learning groups

The requirement for a nursing apprenticeship in Germany is the middle school qualification known as the 'Realschulabschluss' (NKM 2009b: n.p.). The guidelines of the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.) define the B1 level as the language proficiency level of students who have completed secondary education.

According to the ministry's guidelines (ibid.), the students have acquired a general language vocabulary and grammar rules in their previous ten years of general schooling. Experience shows that each nursing class regularly contains a small number of high school graduates who acquired a higher level of language proficiency during their thirteen years of schooling (B2/C1) (Niedersächsischer Bildungsserver -NibiS 2020: n.p.). For an educator, it is crucial to keep this heterogeneity in mind in terms of internal differentiation.

Generally, this term refers to the idea that teaching content and materials are carefully tailored to the different student groups with regard to their level of proficiency. There are different teaching methods that can be used in combination with each other in order to support the different learning needs of a group.

Donath/Klemm (2013: 145), for example, name the method peer correction and suggest letting students work in small groups to create a safe learning environment.

With the new care reform, it is possible for students who have finished a two-year apprenticeship as nursing assistants to skip the first year of the generalized nursing apprenticeship and to enter the second year of schooling (Ministerkonferenz -MK 2020: 3). This reduction of the number of training years is based on the idea that these students have attained a solid foundation of nursing and work experience in advance (Jürgensen 2019: 14). The school curriculum for nursing assistants also includes a moderate level of English language teaching (Jürgensen 2019: 62). Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that these students also have a satisfactory general language vocabulary and already acquired a moderate knowledge of technical vocabulary.

Generally, nursing students show strong motivation for the apprenticeship because it is a first step in their professional career. However, in recent years German nursing students' motivation and independent learning skills seem to have decreased (Baumgarten/Ayerle 2016: 56). The authors (Baumgarten/Ayerle 2016: 53) point out that nursing students face increasing demands that arise from demographic change and growing complexity of work processes. The students seem distracted by new media more than ever (Baumgarten/Ayerle 2016: 56). Trübswetter/Figueiredo (2019: 345) agree and go on to predict that new media will become a component of nursing education for years to come. Incorporating media competence into the curriculum is a crucial measure to promote a reasonable use of technology in the future. They go on to underline that these actions represent a necessary reaction to rapidly changing work processes in healthcare (ibid.).

To sum up, the creation of corpus-based teaching materials for nursing schools in Lower Saxony is shaped by the binding guidelines of the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.) for the subject 'English / Communication', nurses' language needs as identified by Cameron (1998: 215), frequent language tasks as identified by Epp/Lewis (2009: 308), as well as by the individual characteristics of learners in the nursing context.

Methodology and procedure

The previous section has shown that social interaction and communicative skills are the focus of English teaching in the context of nursing education. The corpus-based teaching materials designed for teaching English to future nurses in the course of the present study are therefore centered on 'Social English'. Existing medical corpora have failed to sufficiently cover this particular language type. Consequently, a corpus specifically representing 'Social English' had to be compiled.

In general, corpora that have been derived from medical contexts are of particular interest for the material development for future nurses. Sketch Engine, a web-based tool to create and investigate preloaded and individually compiled language corpora, offers a large corpus in this field, the Medical Web Corpus (MWC).

The MWC contains over 33 million words predominantly from medical websites. A wordlist analysis of nouns has shown that this corpus contains a large number of broader technical terms in health care and medicine, such as infection, therapy, and diagnosis. It also contains more specific words from the medical field with lower frequencies, such as hemorrhage, anemia, and dilatation. The MWC is well suited to generate vocabulary lists for the nursing students. Nation (2013: 305) stresses that wordlists are a possible tool for teachers to help the students with vocabulary acquisition. However, a closer look at the MWC makes clear that this particular corpus, with its large variety of technical vocabulary, is not suitable for promoting the nursing students' communicative skills during their apprenticeship. Therefore, a smaller specialized corpus was compiled as suggested by Aston (2001: 37), who points out that from a pedagogical perspective, it can be beneficial to turn to a small specialized corpus instead of a large general one.

To allow for the promotion of the learners' communicative skills, a corpus for social English entitled 'Social English for Medical Context (SEMC)' was compiled using the online corpus tool Sketch Engine. The SEMC contains more than 920.000 words taken from 225 television transcripts and can be considered an addition to the MWC.

The methodological approach to generate a spoken corpus from television shows is based on the findings of Levshina (2015: 23), who points out the similarities between online subtitles and daily spontaneous conversations in American and British settings. Apart from the authenticity of the linguistic interaction, the technical correctness of the selected medical television shows is of importance here. A review conducted by Hoffman et al. (2018: 202) emphasizes the fact that physicians participate in the writing process of the scripts and that this ensures the correctness of the medical conditions and techniques in the shows. The authors go on to suggest that teachers may use television scripts for educational purposes in class (Hoffman et al. 2018: 215).

The next step was to determine suitable medical television shows for the creation of the subcorpus. The final selection of fictional medical shows is based on available studies on this particular topic. Hoffman et al. (2018: 202) examined Emergency Room (ER), Grey's Anatomy and Dr. House. The realistic medical representation in ER is particularly highlighted in various studies (Oswald 2009: 112). [START_REF] Krüger-Brand | Lernen von 'Emergency Room'-Medizinische, ethische und rechtliche Aspekte ausgewählter Fälle der Fernsehserie in der Diskussion[END_REF]: 2350) goes on to report that ER contains many scenes with typical everyday hospital life issues, such as tensions between patients and their family members or communication with patients in general. Wong et al. (2009: 2) draw attention to the effective communication skills presented in scripts from Dr. House and Grey's Anatomy. Leucht (2013: 81) confirms the medical accuracy in Dr. House and ER. Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the selected medical television shows predominantly focus on the medical staff rather than on the nursing staff. Therefore, the television scripts used for the SEMC may cause a shift of emphasis in the communication presented.

The television scripts can be obtained from specific websites. The transcripts of Grey's Anatomy were taken from Forever Dreaming Transcripts (2020), the transcripts of Dr. House from LIVEJOURNAL (2020) and those of ER from the website Simply Scripts (2006). The transcripts were selected randomly by choosing every other transcript of the corresponding website with exception of ER. For this show, a total of six transcripts was available and therefore all six were included. In total, 175 transcripts of Grey's Anatomy and 44 of Dr.

House were selected.

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 303

3. Corpus-based teaching materials for the subject 'English / Communication'

The following section describes five sets of teaching materials for nursing schools in Lower Saxony for the general subject 'English / Communication'. The time required for each set is a 90-minute classroom session.

The description of each set is prefaced by a brief identification of the learners' needs and the linguistic relevance of the corpus-based worksheet. Furthermore, each set is embedded in the nursing curriculum with close connection to the underlying framework in the curriculum of the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.). Each subsection closes with ideas for the further use of the teaching materials in following classroom sessions. The materials cannot be seen in isolation but rather in a succession of consecutive classroom sessions. One session can serve to introduce a topic and a subsequent session either to explore the topic in more detail or to provide additional time for practice (Hutchinson/Waters 2010: 108-109). Secondly, the students are asked to practice the use of the phrases by completing sentences on the exercise sheet. This exercise allows the students to recall the items when the context is presented (ibid.).

The sentences chosen for exercise 3 of the worksheet were compiled from various concordance lines of the same collocation search in the SEMC corpus. The concordance lines present the target phrases in authentic and diverse contexts. As the corpus is compiled from TV transcripts and predominantly represents communicative interaction, some concordance lines contain informal expressions such as 'gonna have to'. These underline the language authenticity but need to be addressed in class to increase students' awareness of the formal vs. informal tone of certain words and phrases (see exercise 2 on the worksheet).

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 307 The teaching set can be continued in following class sessions by using the acquired phrases in the form of a practical application in the nursing school's skills. The students get together in pairs and improvise a patient-nurse-interaction by using the acquired phrases for 'giving instructions' and 'informing a patient'.

This sequence allows the students to practice and strengthen the acquired verbal phrases in connection with operational nursing tasks. The previous class session functions as a language learning task and the following session as an activity-oriented communicative task (Legutke 2013: 94). The combination of subject teaching and language teaching facilitates the development of the learners' vocational competence (Legutke 2013: 116;NKM 2009a: n.p.).

Offering and asking for help

This teaching set is based on the language tasks of 'offering help' and 'asking for help' as identified by Epp/ Lewis (2009: 308). The targeted competence areas from the guidelines (NKM 2009a: n.p.) are 'Production' and 'Interaction'. Typically, nurses perform these tasks in contact with patients but also with family members and other professionals in the work setting (Epp/Lewis 2009: 307). The aim of the exercises of this set is to improve the 'Speech production accuracy/appropriateness' of the nursing students with regard to their grammar structure of asking questions (Cameron 1998: 209). The focus is not on a specific type ). Students are asked to identify different ways of using help. In order to expose the students to authentic interactions, the chosen concordance lines display different contexts for the use of help. The concordance lines include instances of 'asking for help', 'offering help', and also occurrences of 'calling for help'. The learners should be able to notice the differences. In addition, the students are asked to think of reasons why someone would ask for help in different ways. Students are expected to understand that a call for help is usually linked to an emergency situation and requires a rapid response on their part (Menche 2007: 15). The chosen 'Think!-Pair!-Share!' teaching method is a form of cooperative learning, which initiates the exchange of ideas and facilitates the students' communicative competence by maximizing the speaking time of each student (Grieser-Kindel/Henseler/Möller 2017: 186). This approach meets the recommendations by Donath/Klemm (2013: 145) to react to the possible heterogeneity of the learners.

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 309

Belly vs. stomach -appropriateness of word choice

This exercise is intended for the second year of schooling and targets the appropriateness of word choice. Cameron (1998: 209) places this particular language need in the field of 'Speech production accuracy'. With regard to the guidelines of the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.) this worksheet can be used in class to address the competence areas 'Reception' and 'Production'.

As mentioned above, communication with patients is a core task of nurses. The communication of nursing professionals is characterized by a nursing care jargon and an interdisciplinary nature of the language in use (Marchwacka 2018: 173). Since the patient has little or no medical knowledge, the communication of nurses has to function as a bridge between the two opposites. Therefore, it contains a mixture of technical terminology, technical jargon, and everyday language (Marchwacka 2018: 179). Nonetheless, the nurses still have to maintain a professional distance to patients in their language. It is mandatory to differentiate between a factual and a relationship level, which makes the avoidance of colloquial expressions -especially with regard to excretions and particular body parts -absolutely essential (Menche 2007: 178). For this reason, the teaching material targets the appropriateness of word choice. A keyword analysis of the SEMC corpus was performed in order to identify frequently used colloquial expressions in conversations with patients and health professionals. This was followed by a keyword analysis in the MWC to determine the equivalent of the informal words.

A total of four colloquial expressions were chosen for the exercise, which are: belly, poop (v/n), pee (v/n), and puke (v/n). As a next step, a simple concordance analysis was performed to extract suitable sentences which display the relevant word in context. For each word, five sentences were chosen for the exercise sheet.

With the exception of sentences containing the word stomach, all sentences were extracted from the SEMC corpus. The concordance search for the word stomach was not satisfactory due to decontextualization of the search results. Therefore, the sentences for stomach were selected from the MWC instead.

The assignments make the students use the corpus material and take a similar form to the exercises suggested by Gabrielatos (2005: n.p.). First, they have to find a German translation and decide whether the word is a noun or a verb. Then they have to determine whether the word is used formally or informally.

Finally, they have to match the words, so that each informal expression has a matching formal equivalent.

The exercise sheet can viewed as Fig. VI-VII.

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 313 The assignments are marked by a three-way approach. Firstly, the students are asked to familiarize themselves with the patient history form and to look up unknown words in a dictionary. Since the main competence focus of the third year of schooling is on interaction and the communication skills of the learners (see table 1), the worksheet is designed to equip the students with sufficient language support so that they can fully engage in the communication task and benefit as much as possible from the time in class (Legutke 2013: 95). points out the importance of students practising acquired competences. It enables the learners to prove their language skills and to experience the language in a real-case scenario (Legutke 2013: 98). Therefore, the worksheet, which is designed for a 90-minute classroom session, should also be used in the following lessons. According to the learners' proficiency levels, the following class sessions should offer additional practising time and eventually the actual presentation of the role play (Legutke 2013: 94). Getting the students to videotape their medical interview scenes could modify the act of presenting. Ideally, this would be done in the nursing school's skills lab. Rattani/Kaakour (2019: n.p.) encourage the use of self-produced screenplays in the classroom. Additionally, this innovative teaching method can be used to facilitate the students' production skills by focusing on the act of screenwriting instead of a more improvised acting approach, as evident in my worksheet. It also facilitates the students' media competence, as required by

Trübswetter/Figueiredo (2019: 345).

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 321

Additional contexts of help (v/n)

The last unit of the teaching sets developed in the course of the present chapter is designed for the third year of nursing schooling (see table 2). Unlike the other teaching materials, this exercise is characterized by the learners' direct use of the concordancing tool Sketch Engine and makes the students actively engage with the SEMC corpus. According to Cameron (1998: 214), the targeted language need is 'Speech production accuracy' in the context of 'Vocabulary learning' and the 'Clinical performance'. More precisely, it facilitates the ability of 'recognizing and deflecting cranky behavior and insults' in order to respond in a de-escalating way (ibid.). The relevant competence areas of the Ministry's guidelines are 'Interaction' and 'Production' (NKM 2009a: n.p.).

As mentioned above, Epp/Lewis (2009: 308) have pointed out that the speech acts of offering and asking for help are two of the main language skills of nurses. The teaching set presented in section 3.2 addresses this particular need. However, since the lemma help is highly frequent in the SEMC corpus (count 723), it is necessary to look at additional meanings of the word besides the ones identified by Epp/Lewis (ibid.). This should enable the students to accurately respond to statements by patients and family members involving the word help in a context other than asking for it.

Knowing a word involves various aspects, such as the written and spoken word form, knowledge of grammar, and knowledge of its meaning and associations (Nation 2013: 145). Nation (2013: 132) lists a range of activities that are suitable for vocabulary learning in order to address the meaning, concept, and reference of a word. My worksheet is based on Nation's suggestions to strengthen the concept and reference of a word. This particular aspect of vocabulary knowledge 'involves having a clear idea of the underlying meaning of a word that runs through its related uses, and also involves being aware of the range of particular uses it has, that is, what it can refer to' (Nation 2013: 134-135). This activity enables the learner to understand the word help when it is used in a new context. Moreover, it helps the students to use the word in new ways (ibid.). Useful techniques to facilitate the named skills are 'finding common meanings'

and 'playing at word detectives' (Nation 2013: 132). The former is a technique which helps the learners to understand the core meaning of a particular word (Nation 2013: 135). The latter refers to an activity where the learners look for information about a word they are already familiar with (Nation 2013: 136). The worksheet combines both activity types for the word help (v/n).

As mentioned above, in their previous year the students have been introduced to the word help. Naturally, the students are left with a positive connotation of the word, since they have intensely experienced it within that particular context. In this exercise, the students will be introduced to new uses of the word help.

1) Alex: Martin, we're trying to help.</s><s>Robert: I don't want your help.</s><s>(Alex 2) Derek: Look, I appreciate you're trying to help, but -</s><s> Other doctor in elevator:

3) This is not helping! </s><s>Meredith: She fell.</s><s>When she twisted her ankle, she 4) Alex: Martin, we're trying to help.</s><s>Robert: I don't want your help .</s><s>(Alex 5) that… that is not helping!</s><s>Why don't you tell me what is, then?</s><s>Talk to Notice the differences of usage in example 3) and 5) in comparison to the usage in 4). Both have a negative connotation, but in 4), the person uttering the sentence rejects the help that is being offered, whereas in 3) and 5), the focus is on the fact that the help which has been offered and accepted is not helpful. Patients' statements like these require a different type of response from the nurses. This particular corpus-based teaching set is supposed to raise awareness of the versatile use of help in the medical work field in order to induce an appropriate reaction in response to the explicit meaning of the sentence.

It is important to note that in order for the students to work with a corpus compiled by their teacher, such as the SEMC, it is necessary for them to create an account beforehand. This way, the teacher can share the specialized corpus with the class. It is recommended to do this prior to the actual class session. Ideally, this can be combined with an introductory class session on Sketch Engine and corpus linguistics in general.

An introductory session might contain basic information on the tool itself. Sketch Engine's website (Sketch Engine 2020: n.p.) provides a short YouTube video well-suited for this purpose and presents an additional listening comprehension for the students.

In this hard version of using corpora, the students have direct access to the teacher's SEMC corpus. Stevens Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 323 This is followed by the outlined search strategy of asking the students to perform an advanced concordance search in the SEMC corpus with the lemma of interest. The added lemma context is not with five tokens for both sides left and right. The advanced concordance search of help in connection with not makes the overall number of concordance lines more manageable (count 160) for the students. In comparison, a simple concordance search gives an overall count of 887 lines. Asking the students to search all 887 instances might be overwhelming and it will be particularly difficult to identify additional patterns of the word of interest.

After the concordance search is completed, the students are asked to analyze the concordance lines for uses of help in connection with not. This marks the third step identified by Kennedy/Miceli (2001: 82) and is referred to as 'observing the examples found and selecting relevant ones'. During their search, students will come across familiar concordance lines used in the worksheet from the second year of schooling (see section 3.2). As mentioned above, it is very important that the teacher ensures close guidance of the students, for example by demonstrating how to see the word in fuller context by clicking on the key word (Gabrielatos 2005: n.p.). Also, Sketch Engine has a selection function, so that after the students have examined all concordance lines and ticked suitable ones for the particular context, they can look at their selected lines.

Once the students turn to their downsized choices, they are asked to examine the use of help in this new context. For further investigation, they can either print out their selection or work with a copy. They can also open a word document and paste the concordance lines into the document. After the students have classified the new forms, the next step, according to Thomas (2017: 20), is to form generalizations. According to Kennedy/Miceli (2001: 82), this marks the last step in the learners' investigation and is referred to as 'drawing conclusions'. One possibility to continue the teaching set in the following classroom sessions is to practise how to appropriately react to the diverse uses of help in the clinical setting.

Conclusion

The English language teaching materials developed in the course of the present study are a first step towards successfully implementing the subject 'English / Communication' in the new curriculum of nursing education in Germany. So far, the worksheets are merely theoretical and still need to be practically tested in the classroom setting.

Corpus-based teaching materials should be seen as an addition to existing teaching methods and materials (Gabrielatos 2005: n.p.). They are not at any time intended to replace conventional language-teaching methods, such as the work with textbooks.

Although a variety of aspects relevant for the design of corpus-based teaching materials was considered in the present study, a closer examination of other characteristics of nursing remains necessary to ensure the teaching materials' maximum usability. These include cultural differences and varying ways of understanding, communicating and coping with health-related issues (Bosher 2013: 265).

Another factor still in need of examination are the language needs of German nursing students. Since the care reform is fairly recent, we still lack a particular needs assessment in Germany with regard to English language skills in class and clinic. Therefore, the language needs for the teaching materials developed in the course of the present study were derived from Anglo-American and Canadian studies conducted by [START_REF] Cameron | A language-focused needs analysis for ESL-speaking nursing students in class and clinic[END_REF] and [START_REF] Epp | Innovation in language proficiency assessment: The Canadian English Language Benchmark Assessment for Nurses (ELBAN)[END_REF]. Yet, these countries have different training systems. For this particular reason, it is quite likely that a German assessment will yield differing needs to varying degrees.

Compared to other countries, the nursing profession in Germany is organized in two different ways: as an apprenticeship and as a course of studies. Regardless of the chosen course of education, the nurses perform similar tasks at work that do not differentiate with regard to the level of responsibility or level of payment

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 327 (Baumgarten/Ayerle 2016: 53). However, some fundamental differences could be identified. For example, unlike in Germany, academic skills such as writing texts and reading studies are part of the American nursing tasks [START_REF] Cameron | A language-focused needs analysis for ESL-speaking nursing students in class and clinic[END_REF]. Furthermore, German nurses are predominantly responsible for therapeutic and nursing procedures, which do not include medical prescriptions or examinations, as is the case for their American colleagues. These differences can be attributed to the diverging education systems: in most countries, nursing training is almost exclusively located in the academic field and is not offered as dual training as it is in Germany (Menche 2007: 56-57). This stresses the necessity for a German needs assessment on the one hand, but also underlines restrictions that apply to transferring the foreign needs analysis to the development of teaching materials for German vocational schools on the other. Nevertheless, the foreign needs analysis offers a suitable starting point for determining the needs of German nurses with regard to English language learning in class and clinic. Bosher (2013: 265) underlines the importance of cultural differences in nursing education because they can affect the communication with patients and their family members in various ways. It is essential to take these aspects into account when selecting specific topics in English lessons in order for nursing students to develop a competent and sensitive handling of it in class and clinic.

With regard to the corpus used for the development of teaching materials for the nursing school context, it may be worth considering compiling a spoken corpus based on authentic English interaction in the German clinical setting rather than on communication of fictional American medical television shows. Römer (2009: 92) advises to create a database which contains useful corpus-based exercises for nursing education. Additionally, the database should list suitable corpora that teachers and students can turn to for this particular setting.

Generally, teaching education should also be targeted in the course of the reform. One option could be to refine university training programs by offering elective courses. These could train future teachers in various fields of vocational education and target relevant aspects, such as topic selection, task development, and the use of corpus linguistics in connection to vocational language teaching. Ideally, the elective courses could help to raise teachers' awareness of students' needs and train them to determine learners' needs in general. Corpus linguistics could be incorporated into the courses as a potential teaching method in vocational language teaching.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Students' process for developing their co-authored OER chapters

  excited to do a corpus-based teaching unit with a class. (student self-reflection, winter 2019/2020) Since I would like to become a teacher for secondary education, I can imagine using exactly the chapter my fellow students and I have written in school once. (student self-reflection, winter 2020/ 2021) Generally, I missed the connection to my future teaching job in a lot of my other courses, so I really liked that this course's final task was designing something that could actually be used in school one day. (student self-reflection, winter 2020/2021)

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Registration on www.english-corpora.org

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Registration form on www.english-corpora.org

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Selecting a corpus

Fig. 4 :Fig. 5 :

 45 Fig. 4: How to fill in your search box

Fig. 6 :Fig. 7 :

 67 Fig. 6: List of question words that function as an adverb and occur in combination with the noun weather

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Collocate search box before clicking on "Find collocates"

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: How to group words by lemmas

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: List of example sentences featuring the adjective bad in combination with the noun weather

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: Example word and picture cards (clip arts: https://publicdomainvectors.org)

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Example dice template (clip arts: https://publicdomainvectors.org)

Fig. 14 :

 14 Fig. 14: Example play cards (clip arts: https://publicdomainvectors.org)

Fig. 15 :

 15 Fig. 15: Example pages for the beginning of the weather diary task (clip arts: https://publicdomainvectors.org)

Fig. 16 :

 16 Fig. 16: How to continue your research without creating a paid premium account

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: SkeLL search

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Column "verbs with 'bus' as object"

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Concordance lines with catch and bus

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Sketch Engine log in screen

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Corpus selection

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Word sketch and advanced search

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: View options for the word sketch

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: Random sample

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: The "KWIC" function

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: The "Sentence" function

Fig. 14 :

 14 Fig. 14: Extended context of concordances

Fig. 15 :

 15 Fig. 15: Settings for "good dictionary examples"

Fig. 17 :

 17 Fig. 17: Worksheet 1 -Doing your own corpus research

Fig. 19 :

 19 Fig. 19: Worksheet 3 -"How do I get to your house?"

Fig. 20 :

 20 Fig. 20: The "Collocations" function

Fig. 22 :

 22 Fig. 22: List of the most frequent words to the right

Fig. 24 :

 24 Fig. 24: Changing the search criteria

Fig. 25 :

 25 Fig. 25: Multi-word search

Fig. 26 :

 26 Fig. 26: Multiword search settings

Fig. 28 :

 28 Fig. 28: Visualisation symbol

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Accessing the Corpus of American Soap Operas.

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Conducting a KWIC search.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Results for the KWIC search of invite.

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Lemma search for the verb invite.

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Results for lemma search invite.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Searching for a specific part of speech.

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Pattern invite sb to sth.

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Pattern invite sb in.

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: Pattern invite + sb + over.

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: Search settings for searching for invite as a noun.

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: Pattern invite + list.

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Search settings for searching for invitation as a noun.

Fig. 14 :

 14 Fig. 14: Search results for searching for the noun invitation.

Step 4 :

 4 Documenting research results Having familiarized yourself with the KWIC feature of the corpus and skimmed through the examples, you now need to select data suitable for your lesson which exemplify the speech act of "inviting somebody". English-corpora.org offers you the useful option of creating your own lists containing only the examples which are most interesting or relevant for your teaching purposes. To save individual examples, simply click on all the examples that you would like to use in class (they will be highlighted in blue), give your list a name in the textbox (Number 4 in Fig. 15) and click on "SAVE LIST". You can also add to lists that you have previously created by selecting the list name in the dropdown menu (Number 3 in Fig. 15).

Fig. 15 :

 15 Fig. 15: Saving lists of concordance lines.

Fig. 16 :

 16 Fig. 16: Accessing a saved list.

Fig. 17 :

 17 Fig. 17: The "saved list" for invite + along.

FigStep 7 :

 7 Fig. 18: Broadcasting information.

Fig. 19 :

 19 Fig. 19: Example worksheet for the first task.

Fig. 20 : 3

 203 Fig. 20: Example Invitation Card Task (http://pixabay.com).

3 = 4 = 5 = 6 =

 3456 Accept the invitation and offer to bring something. Accept the invitation but warn that you can only come an hour later. Refuse the invitation. You have something else planned. Refuse the invitation. You are already invited to another party.

Fig. 21 :

 21 Fig. 21: Finding modal verbs in the context of invitations.

Fig. 22 :

 22 Fig. 22: Notification to upgrade.

Fig. 23 :

 23 Fig. 23: How to continue a search without agreeing to upgrade.

  beziehen sich auf den Erwerb der sprachlichen Mittel und bezeichnen die Strategien, die ein Lerner zunehmend selbstständig und individuell unterschiedlich verwendet, um sich Sprache anzueignen [Learning strategies refer to the acquisition of linguistic resources and describe the strategies that a learner uses to acquire a language with increasing autonomy and individual variation] (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 27). Furthermore, the proposed lesson unit supports learning awareness ("Lernbewusstsein") as the students learn autonomously and discover rules by themselves: "Die Schülerinnen und Schüler […] finden Regeln, erkennen Fehler in Selbstkorrektur sowie peer correction und nutzen diese Erkenntnisse für den eigenen Lernprozess" [Students […] identify rules, recognize errors by correcting themselves or through peer correction and make use of this knowledge for their own learning process] (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 28). 76 | Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say'

6 .

 6 Add your thoughts and ideas to the provided lesson plan (cf. 3.2, lesson plan) to adjust this lesson introduction and conclusion to individual learner needs. 7. Especially if this is the first time that your students are going to work with a corpus, you should briefly introduce them to what a corpus is and what can be done with it beforehand, e.g., in the preceding lesson. That way, you can avoid overwhelming them with too much information at the beginning of this practical corpus-based lesson.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Where to find the BNC on the homepage

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Logging in to english-corpora.org

Fig. 3 :Fig. 4 :

 34 Fig. 3: The SEARCH screen and functions

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: The FREQUENCY screen

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Results of the lemma search

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: The Collocates function

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Using the Collocates function

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: How to get to the concordance lines

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: The Compare function

Fig 12 :

 12 Fig 12: Compare function results for 'say' and 'tell'

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Lesson plan: Step 4.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Lesson plan: Step 5.

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Lesson plan: Step 6.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Lesson plan: Step 7.

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Lesson plan: Step 9.

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Lesson plan: Step 10.

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Lesson plan: Step 11.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Conducting a search in the COCA.

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Conducting a search in the COCA.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Limiting the search to specific registers.

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Result page from the corpus query.

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Concordances of fewer.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Using the "Collocates" function.

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Using the "Collocates" function.

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Searching for typical verb collocates of the word money.

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: Synonyms of beautiful.

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: Using the "Chart" function.

2 .

 2 Type freak out in the search field and press "See frequency by section". You should get the following results (Fig. 12): 110 | How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: The frequency of freak out in different registers.

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Using the "Browse" function.

Fig. 14 :

 14 Fig. 14: Using the "Browse" function.

Fig. 16 :

 16 Fig. 16: Navigation tabs at the top of the word's homepage.

Fig. 17 :

 17 Fig. 17: Collocates of trail.

Fig. 19 :

 19 Fig. 19: Registering on the website.

Fig. 20 :

 20 Fig. 20: Registering on the website.

Fig. 22 :

 22 Fig. 22: Upgrade notification.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Corpus overview (english-corpora.org)

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: NOW corpus overview (english-corpora.org/now/)

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Examples of new words and phrases (english-corpora.org/now/)

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Main page of Wordspy.com

Fig. 5 :Fig. 6 :

 56 Fig. 5: Details of the neologism glamping

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Search settings in the collocates function

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Frequency list of the collocates of glamping

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Context results for the collocate experience

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: Extended context for glamping experience

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: WhatsApp chat 2021 (picture by the authors)

  Revision of the definition and function of neologisms as a stylistic device • T asks if students can think of any other neologisms recently added to asked to think of possible meanings of several neologisms • A few proposals are collected • Impulse question: "How could we find out what a word means if we cannot find it in the dictionary?" Introducing the corpus tool • Brief explanation of the NOW corpus and why it is beneficial to use corpus tools in this lesson • T simulates a word search on english-corpora.org Working with the corpus tool • T explains the tasks on the worksheet • Students work with the corpus tool and search the NOW corpus to find texts which include the neologisms on the worksheet • Students analyze the results and work out the meaning of the neologisms by having a closer look at the contexts and collocations of the words • Students copy a sentence as an example and write a possible definition of each neologism based on their search results (total of 4 students) come together to compare their results • Presentation and discussion of results • Comparison with the guesses made at the beginning of the lesson • T fills out the worksheet with the collected results for the whole Different proficiency levels require different activities and methods. You might want or need to adapt specific parts or activities of the lesson according to your individual learner group. This section proposes possible alternatives and additions as well as impulses for modifying the lesson to get the most out of it for your students and to suit your teaching style.

  initiate a class discussion about what neologisms are and to collect examples of recent English neologisms which the students might have heard of. This approach activates the students' existing knowledge on stylistic devices.Additional tasks can be prepared for very advanced students. The corpus tool provides far more features which can be examined by the students. The chart function, for instance, allows you to see in which years a neologism appeared most frequently and also lets you search for the frequency of a word in different countries. This could be useful for finding out when a neologism came into being and how it is used in different varieties of English. The meaning or frequency of use of an English neologism may well differ between news texts from India and the United States. For instance, in India the neologism butterfingers occurs 0.08 times per million words, whereas in the United States it is found 0.03 times per million words (NOW Corpus). Students could investigate why this might be the case. When analyzing the Indian text samples, it becomes evident that the word is often used in reference to the comic book character "Butterfingers", created by Khyrunnisa A., who is a famous Indian author of children's fiction. By contrast, a closer look at the texts published in the United States reveals that "Butterfingers" is also the name of a famous candy bar. However, both countries also use the word to describe a "person who drops things they are carrying or trying to catch" (dictionary.cambridge.org). The chart function, which displays a word's frequency sorted by years, can be used to analyze in what year a neologism first appeared and when it was most frequently used. For instance, the chart of the NOW corpus shows that the use of the word Brexit started to increase in 2016, when the results of the Brexit referendum were published and discussed all over the media (see Fig.12).

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: Chart with frequency results for Brexit

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Premium account notification

  Creating concordance lines and worksheet(s): 30 min • Optional: worksheet with scaffolding: approx. 15 min Lesson time: 90 min Global learning objective: Students can use corpus extracts to deduce rules for the placement of commas and can apply them in their own argumentative essays.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Home page Sketch Engine

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Copus selection

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Function overview

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Search interface

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Advanced search interface

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Subcorpus selection

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Starting the search

Fig. 10 :Fig. 11 :

 1011 Fig. 10: Randomising the sample

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: Change display mode

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Selecting concordance lines

Fig. 15 :

 15 Fig. 15: Download interface

Fig. 17 :

 17 Fig. 17: Interface for generating frequency lists

Fig. 18 :

 18 Fig. 18: Return to the interface

Fig. 19 :

 19 Fig. 19: Interface for generating frequency lists

Fig. 21 :

 21 Fig. 21: Sample worksheet for the first task

Fig. 23 :

 23 Fig. 23: Copying individual concordance lines

Fig. 24 :

 24 Fig. 24: Silent impulse without commas

Task 2 :

 2 In worksheet 2, students apply the comma rules they formulated in task 1 to an argumentative essay by adding the missing commas in the right places. The essay has been adapted from the Michigan Corpus of Upper-Level Students Papers (MICUSP 2009).

Fig. 26 :

 26 Fig. 26: Sample worksheet for the second task

Fig. 27 :

 27 Fig. 27: Sample worksheet for the fourth task

  The following stepby-step-instructions may provide further support. For the first part of the corpus-based lesson, students work with the English Web 2015 (enTenTen15) corpus and use the Concordance and Thesaurus functions to search for synonyms. In the second part of the lesson, students use the Word Sketch function to find topicrelated collocations, which they can use to describe the demographic transition model. Therefore, students will work with three different functions of Sketch Engine, which will help them to increase their language proficiency in the bilingual geography classroom. Utilizing the different functions and corpora will show students that one needs to select the right function to obtain meaningful results.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Demographic transition model of Germany (own illustration based on data from Statistisches Bundesamt 2020)

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Accessing the NOW corpus

Fig. 2 : 8 .

 28 Fig. 2: Creating a virtual corpus

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Creating a corpus of articles about George Floyd

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Submitting a search

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Finding texts

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Saving the results as a list

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Your newly created corpora

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Edit corpora

5 .

 5 Finally, click on ADD TO. "Black Lives Matter": Collecting vocabulary to improve intercultural communicative competence | 185 6. You can check if your query has been successful by clicking on (SEE ALL VIRTUAL CORPORA) in the blue bar at the top to get back to the overview of your virtual corpora. The number of texts listed in the column #TEXTS should have changed now, relative to the number of texts you have added to the corpus.

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Adding texts to a corpus

Fig. 10 :Fig. 11 :

 1011 Fig. 10: Searching for noun collocates of the adjective "white"

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: Search results for "white NOUN"

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Concordance lines for "white NOUN"

Fig. 14 :

 14 Fig. 14: Searching for adjective collocates of "racism"

Fig. 16 :

 16 Fig. 16: Concordance lines for "systemic racism"

Fig. 17 :

 17 Fig. 17: Results for "VERB racism"

Fig. 18 :

 18 Fig. 18: Search for the word "police"

Fig. 19 :

 19 Fig. 19: Concordance lines for "police"

Fig. 20 :

 20 Fig. 20: Concordance lines for "police"

Fig. 21 :

 21 Fig. 21: Most common noun collocates of "white"

4 .

 4 A form of racial discrimination that is subtler and often difficult to observe. It is often hidden in the fabric of society, where racist actions are either passive or ambiguous. These subtle actions "Black Lives Matter": Collecting vocabulary to improve intercultural communicative competence | 199

Fig. 24 :

 24 Fig. 24: Most frequent verb collocates of "racism"

Fig. 25 :

 25 Fig. 25: Word cloud of words associated with "racism" in the BLM corpus (created with PowerPoint)

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Paste URL of source text

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Boilerplate removal with jusText

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Cleaned text

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Log-in icon on english-corpora.org

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Icon for the function "Analyze text"

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: "Analyze text" -interface

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: "Analyze text" -output

Fig. 10 :Fig. 11 :

 1011 Fig. 10: Saving the analysed text

  Previous lesson: Introduction to new topic: climate change Today's lesson: Learning words and collocations independently: Rising temperatures and climate science Subsequent lessons: Presentations on climate change or writing a newspaper report

Fig. 15 :

 15 Fig. 15: "Advanced options" menu on the "Collocates" page

Fig. 16 :

 16 Fig. 16: Going back to the information page

•

  Target learners: Intermediate to upper-level students at secondary school • Intended product of the project: A blog entry, podcast or video • Prior knowledge: Students have acquired some knowledge and key vocabulary on sustainability • Previous lessons: In groups, students have decided on their final topics for their projects and created a draft outline for their writing including key topics and arguments Preparatory lesson 1 introduces data-driven learning using the "List"-function • Preparation time: 20 min (or less if you are already familiar with www.english-corpora.org) 222 | Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability • Lesson time: 45 min Practice lesson 2 uses data-driven learning to find collocations for key vocabulary for the students'

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: List of corpora available on the web interface

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Creating a virtual corpus

Fig. 4 :Fig. 5 :

 45 Fig. 4: List of texts selected

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: List of verb collocates of the search item biodiversity

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Using the "List"-function

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Frequency results of sustainability

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: Search result using the "List"-function

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig.11: Dictionary entry for erhalten(www.pons.de)

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Example mind map

Fig. 15 :

 15 Fig. 15: Finding keywords

Fig. 16 :

 16 Fig. 16: Keyword List

Fig. 19 :

 19 Fig. 19: Search form for the collocation task

Fig. 20 :

 20 Fig. 20: Results page

Fig. 21 :

 21 Fig. 21: Worksheet C

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Accessing the News on the Web corpus through english-corpora.org

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Adjusting the settings of the virtual corpus

Fig. 4 :Fig. 5 :Fig. 6 :

 456 Fig. 4: "Find keywords" option

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Finding collocations

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Group by lemmas

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: Concordance lines for meet

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: List of virtual corpora

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Search settings in the NOW corpus

Fig. 14 :

 14 Fig. 14: Selection of articles within the NOW corpus

Fig. 16 :

 16 Fig. 16: Source information and expanded context

  Roles in the debate: "Preventing Pollution Is Not a Matter of Money"Students who have been assigned the same role form groups and review their arguments. This step encourages the students to think about possible ways to support each other's arguments, thus strengthening their side of the motion. The students should also think about possible arguments from the opposing side and come up with potential rebuttals.Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution | 261Task 3: Debate

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Building a virtual corpus I.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Building a virtual corpus II.

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Screening the results for building a virtual corpus.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Virtual corpus for the topic of skin.

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Selecting your virtual corpus.

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Finding collocates within your virtual corpus.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Collocates for the word skin filtered by frequency.

4 .

 4 You now need to filter the words in order to just get relevant words that describe skin. You can see the context of the word by clicking on it. Here, the first word which seems inappropriate is dead. By clicking on it, you can see that it is not used for describing skin, but rather skin cells. Filter out such words not describing skin itself (see Fig.8).

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Words in context.

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Message to upgrade the account

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Create a new corpus on Sketch Engine.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Options for adding texts to the corpus on Sketch Engine.

5 .

 5 Before being able to upload texts from the web into your corpus, you need to find a website from which you would like to upload data. In this case, just google "Grey's Anatomy scripts" and you will find different pages that offer scripts of all the Grey's Anatomy seasons. Choose one of them, e.g.: https://transcripts.foreverdreaming.org/viewforum.php?f=11 (last accessed 16 June 2020).

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Paste the URLs of each episode into the corresponding fields.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Options for managing your corpus on Sketch Engine.

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Dashboard on Sketch Engine to work with the corpus.

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Word Sketch search on Sketch Engine.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Word Sketch for organ.

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Finding the context to the words in the Word Sketch.

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Sentences from the Word Sketch in a Concordance list.

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: Select the 'Concordance' function on the dashboard screen.

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: Basic search option function to extract concordances.

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: Concordance list of the words organ don*.

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: Longer extract of the script in the Concordance list.

Fig. 14 :

 14 Fig. 14: Details about the text passages in the Concordance list.

6 .

 6 Use the search function in your browser to find the text passage in the full Grey's Anatomy script displayed on that web page and copy the relevant text passage from the script. An example of a dialogue on organ donation based on the series Grey's Anatomy and found with this method can be found in Appendix 3.7.With the help of the Concordance list on Sketch Engine it is possible to find suitable text passages in the Grey's Anatomy scripts where medical staff talk about organ donation to the next of kin. If possible, you could also show the video of that scene as an introduction to the topic.

Fig. 1 :Fig. 2 :

 12 Fig.1: Overview of the needs statements for nursing students in class and clinic(Vorbrink 2020, based on Cameron 1998: 215)

Fig. 3 :Fig. 4 :

 34 Fig. 3: Situational use of language in the clinical setting by nurses (chart based onEpp/Lewis 2009: 308)

Table 2 :

 2 Overview of corpus-based teaching materials for the general subject 'English / Communication' with different individuals in the clinical setting

Fig

  Fig. II Teaching set number 1 "Phrases for giving information and instructions" -Part II (Vorbrink 2020: 68; concordance lines: SEMC)

  of question. Instead, it aims at making the students familiar with different ways of asking for and offering help because actual interaction with patients and colleagues does not exactly correspond to the arranged dialogues presented in many conventional schoolbooks (O'Keefe/McCarthy/Carter 2007: 22; Gabrielatos 2005: n.p.). The lack of authenticity in textbook conversations has been linked to poor communication skills at all proficiency levels (Savova 2018: 85). To address this problem, concordance lines have been selected from the SEMC corpus and used as a foundation for the exercise. The broad context with rich exposure to the use of help (n/v) targets the communicative competence of the students(Belcher 2006: 148).In order to extract suitable examples, a concordance search with the lemma help (n/v) was performed in Sketch Engine and revealed a total of 887 concordances. By skimming the concordances for suitable contexts, e.g., significantly asking for and offering help, the number of concordances was minimized to a manageable number of 40 for the students to analyze in class (Fig.IV + V). The aim of the worksheet is based onGabrielatos (2005: n.p.

Fig. III :

 III Fig. III: Exercise sheet for teaching set number 2 "Offering and asking for help" (Vorbrink 2020: 69, based on Grieser-Kindel/Henseler/Möller 2017: 186-187)

Fig. V :

 V Fig. V: Concordance lines for teaching set number 2 "Offering and asking for help" -Part II (SEMC)

Fig. VI :

 VI Fig. VI: Teaching set number 3 "Belly vs. stomach-appropriateness of word choice" -Part I (Vorbrink 2020: 72, concordance lines: SEMC; MWC)

Fig. IX :

 IX Fig. IX: Language support sheet as part of the teaching set number 4 -Part II (Vorbrink 2020: 75, based on Grieser-Kindel/Henseler/Möller 2012: 106-107; corpus: SEMC)

Fig

  Fig. X: Exercise sheet for teaching set number 4 (Vorbrink 2020: 76)

Fig. XI :

 XI Fig. XI: Patient history form -Teaching set number 4 (Vorbrink 2020: 77, based on Oelke 2007: 638)

(

  Fig. XII-XIV). Both students and teacher will be provided with laptops from the school and a free version of Sketch Engine. Since each classroom is equipped with a projector, the teacher can demonstrate each step to ensure additional guidance.

Fig. XII :

 XII Fig. XII: Instruction sheet for teaching set number5 -Part I (Vorbrink 2020: 78, screenshots: Sketch Engine 2020: n.p.)

Fig. XIV :

 XIV Fig. XIV: Instruction sheet for teaching set number 5 -Part III (Vorbrink 2020: 80, screenshots: Sketch Engine 2020: n.p.)

Table 1 : How to describe the weather in different ways (neutral, positive, negative)

 1

	Describing the weather in a neutral	Describing the weather in a	Describing the weather in a
	way	subjective way (positive)	subjective way (negative)
	The weather is …	The weather is …	The weather is …
	warm	nice	bad
	cold	perfect	terrible
	hot	good	horrible
	stormy	great	awful
	windy	beautiful
	sunny	lovely
	chilly	fine
	3.1.2 Task creation -Designing corpus-based teaching materials

Table 2 : Lesson sequence "How's the weather?"

 2

				Interaction	Medium/Material
	Lesson Task	Implementation	form
		Warm-up activity	Revision of previously acquired vocabulary, introduction of new vocabulary	Plenum	Fictional dialogue (or video), class mascot
	1
		First task: Asking about the weather	The pupils work out the sentence structure of How's the weather (in…)? and the corresponding answer. They question and its possible answers. familiarize themselves with this	Plenum circle) (possibly sitting in a	Word cards, picture cards
	2	Second task: Consolidating and pupils' knowledge deepening the	In pairs, pupils make use of the weather dice. One pupil asks the corresponding answer. other throws the dice and gives the question How's the weather? The	Pairs	Weather dice/dice templates
			All class members work together and
		Third task: Creating	ask each other how the weather is in a
	3	a classroom conversation about	certain city/country they want to travel to. The different play cards appoint	Plenum	Weather report video, play cards
		the weather	one city/country and the
			corresponding information to a pupil.
	*	Additional task: Creating a weather report	With the help of some pre-fabricated sentence structures, the pupils create their own fictional weather reports.	Pairs or small groups	Worksheet with sentence structures/chunks, camera/ tablet
		Additional task:
	*	Working on a
		weather diary

  chapter. You can either create them yourself, buy them from an illustrator or make use of open educational resources. In the latter two cases, it is mandatory that you are aware of and follow the respective copyright guidelines of the clip arts that you use. If you buy your clip arts from an illustrator, you are often only allowed to use them for your own personal crafting and classroom use. Thus, you are generally neither allowed to share these clip arts nor use them commercially. Consequently, if you intend to publish and resell your teaching materials, it is advisable to make use of open, publicly accessible educational resources. They are openly licensed, which means that users are allowed to reuse and even publish these materials and resources in their own works. The clip arts included in this chapter are open educational resources, too, and are covered by the Common Creative license CC0.

  Teaching aim: show how authentic speakers' expressions can be used to create context-bound activities with relevance for real life. Help learners familiarise themselves with the corpus tool SkeLL (Sketch Engine for Language Learners) and encourage them to make use of the advantages that corpus tools offer.

Duration: 60-minute class. Single activities can be integrated into an individual lesson plan, optional tasks are included for an extended class. Targeted age group: 7 th or 8 th grade Preparation time: approx. 30 mins, less if already familiar with the corpus tool.

Table 1 : Lesson plan "How do I get there?"

 1

	Phase	Learning activity	Instructions	Interaction
				form/
				materials
	Warm-up	Students tell their neighbour how they	Ask students to tell their neighbour	In pairs
		travelled to a place they visited.	about a trip they went on. Where did
	10mins		they go and how did they get there?
	Pre-task	Learners name means of transport.	Note down students' ideas in a prepared	Projector/
			mind map and then display possible	PowerPoint
	5 mins		verb collocates.
				Plenum
	Corpus	Students create word sketches for different	Explain instructions on worksheet 1 and	Worksheet
	research	means of transport to find out which verbs	present an exemplary search on SkeLL	1
		work with which nouns (as object).	on the whiteboard.
	20 mins
		Students write down example sentences
		from the concordance lines.
			Support students if there are any
			questions.
				In pairs
	Collecting	A few students present in class how they	Complete the mind map with the verbs	Plenum
	results	created the word sketch.	the students found in the word
			sketches.
	10
	Further	Students analyse corpus examples of	Hand out worksheet 2 and explains	Worksheet
	analysis	prepositional phrases featuring the noun.	instructions.	2
	10			Single + in
				pairs
	Writing a	Students give directions by completing a	Hand out worksheet 3.	Worksheet
	dialogue	chat dialogue.		3
	15 mins			In pairs
	Presentation	Students volunteer to read out their
		dialogues in class.
	10 min

  ). By writing out the dialogue rather than giving directions verbally, learners cannot include gestures and point at directions or things, but are forced to use their (newly acquired) vocabulary to communicate. Nevertheless, if there is time left, let single pairs of students read out -or even act out -their chat messages.

"How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport | 47 4.1.1 Tasks

  Another idea is to plan a real class trip together with the group. The students could create a flyer or a travel guide in which they give directions and conduct more research on the topic of travelling on SkeLL. Let students research what other aspects might be relevant when planning a trip and create more word

	4.1.2 Follow-up activities

7 Resources and references

	Lancaster University. Corpus for schools: ELT Materials. https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/corpusforschools/esl-teaching-materials/ (31 March, 2021). 3. "Let's have a party!": Teaching
	Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium. 2015. Kerncurriculum für das Gymnasium, Schuljahrgänge 5-10: Englisch. https://cuvo.nibis.de/cuvo.php?p=download&upload=139 (03 June, 2021) students how to express, accept and
	SKELL -Sketch Engine for Language Learners. https://SkeLL.sketchengine.eu/#home. refuse invitations
	Sketch Engine -Create and search a text corpus. www.sketchengine.eu. SELKE TOMBRÄGEL
	Baer-Engel, Jennifer et al. 2017. Green Line 4 G9. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag.
	Friginal, Eric. 2018. Corpus linguistics for English teachers: New tools, online resources, and classroom
	activities. New York, NY: Routledge.
	"How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport | 55 56 | "How do I get there?": Travelling by various means of transport

Table 1 : Corpus-derived patterns of usage for invite and invitation sorted by learning goals. Give/express an invitation Accept an invitation Refuse an invitation

 1

	5: Categorizing research results
	Based on your research results, you can now categorize the examples you selected according to your
	teaching objectives. The table below presents such an example categorization.

"Let's have a party!": Teaching students how to express, accept and refuse invitations | 63

Table 2 : Example playing cards to be pinned onto the board.

 2

	I would very much like	to invite you	to come
	Thanks	for the invite	but I can't stay
	First task
	Step 8: Designing a worksheet based on the KWIC material
	For the first task, you need to design a worksheet based on the corpus data which you compiled through
	your KWIC research (Step 2). Basically, you provide the students with blocks of examples which illustrate
	recurrent patterns.

"Let's have a party!": Teaching students how to express, accept and refuse invitations | 65

Table 3 : Example role-play cards.

 3

Table 4 : Lesson plan 'Let's have a party!'

 4

	Phase	Task	Implementation	Interaction form	Material/Medium
	Warm-up 10 min	Video impulse "invitation"	Quick impulse Video Discussion on the video	plenum	YouTube video
	Pre-task 20 min	Guess what comes before and after!	Reorganizing cards on the board Discussion of results	group work/ plenum	Cards for the board (and/ or groupwork)
			Working with concordance lines,
	Task 1 20 min	Hands-on KWIC	discovering structural patterns and useful phrases	Individually/ partner work/ plenum	worksheet
			Comparing results
	Task 2	Role-Play	Practicing new structures and phrases in communication	partner work	Role-play cards
	25 min		Presentation of mini role plays	plenum
	Task 3 15 min	Designing an invitation card	Writing an invitation card! Homework: finish it!	individually	Sample card via document camera

Table 1 : Lesson plan

 1 For a smooth transition, think about questions like: Why is this lesson implemented? Have the students confused the grammatical structures of tell and say in the past? Briefly explain this to your students.

		Time Content	Notes
			Introduction of the
			topic and its relevance
			to the students
		5 -
	Introduction	10 min	Recap of the brief introduction to corpora	Recap: What is a corpus? What can be found out using a corpus?
			Introduction of the lesson's outline	Let the students know what is going to happen during this lesson. What will they have to do? How much time do they have to work on it?
			Teacher hands out the
			worksheet and
			answers upcoming
	Main part	min 60	questions.

Table 1 :

 1 Lesson Plan.

		Time	Activity	Materials
			a) Practice searching in the COCA by working
			through the fewer/less example in plenum
	Pre-Task	10-15′	or b) Choose any other suitable warm-up activity (e.g. Spot the mistake: Write lexically or	Computers, copies of the instructions
			grammatically unidiomatic sentences on the
			blackboard and ask your students to find and
			correct the mistakes (cf. Boerger 2020: 2)).
	Main Task	20-25′	Students complete the worksheet by consulting the COCA	Computers, worksheet (see appendix)
	Review	10′	Students answer the review questions.	Review questions

AND SARAH WINKELMANN 1 Introduction and rationale

  This chapter combines teaching stylistic devices, specifically neologisms, with corpus linguistics in the EFL classroom. It proposes a lesson plan in which methods and topic choice are strongly oriented towards Lower Saxony's Core Curriculum for Secondary Education, which emphasizes the importance of acquiring meaning through "intelligent guessing" and contextualization (NiedersächsischesKultusministerium 2015: 16). It also states that students should be able to analyze and interpret literary and non-literary texts, e.g., by making use of their knowledge of stylistic devices (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2017: 21). Stylistic devices are more frequently covered in the upper classes but can occasionally be discussed in lower grades,

Boulton & Cobb 2017)

. Furthermore, the use of digital media in the classroom can contribute to higher motivation How to do data-driven learning (DDL) with secondary school pupils to improve their writing | 115 7. Teaching neologisms using corpus tools NICOL SPERLING

Table 1 : Lesson plan

 1

	Phase	Task	Interaction form	Materials/ Medium
			Silent impulse (Plenum)	Picture "Punctuation",
	Introduction:	Talking about the significance of commas;		smartboard
	5 min	introduction to how a corpus can help with
		comma placement, e.g., in academic texts
		Identifying patterns in comma placement	Bus stop (1st individual	Worksheet Task 1
		in academic writing by analysing	work, 2nd partner work)
		concordance lines
	Task 1: 25 min	Presentation and discussion of results	Plenum	Smartboard
		Recourse/recap: explaining the need for		Picture "Punctuation"
		commas and the deduced comma rules
		with reference to the picture from the
		beginning
				Worksheet Task 2, notes
	30 min Task 2:	academic text which lacks commas Applying the deduced rules to an	partner work, 3rd Plenum) individual work, 2nd Think-Pair-Share (1st	from task 1
		(Optional end of lesson)
		Students correct their own argumentative		Notes from task 1
	Task 3:	essays, focusing on comma placement	Individual work
	15 min		(Upcoming lesson: partner
			feedback)
	3.2.1 Tasks
	Introduction/Silent impulse:

Commas in argumentative writing | 157

Table 1 : Lesson Plan 'The demographic transition model' 1

 1

	Content

Table 2 : Lesson Plan: "How to describe a graph"

 2

	Content

  Not only do English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners need to develop communicative competence, they should also learn how to expand their knowledge independently. The English curriculum for higher level secondary schools in Lower-Saxony, Germany, states that students should add topic-specific vocabulary to their basic knowledge (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2017: 18). Further, students should develop language learning awareness, hence the ability to learn and access new vocabulary using different methods and materials (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2017: 23). Even younger students at lower secondary schools are expected to learn to work with dictionaries and similar resources and then organise new words to expand existing language structures and patterns (Niedersächsisches

	11. Learning words and collocations
	independently: Rising temperatures
	and climate science
	LISA HÖRNSCHEMEYER AND LENA JANZEN
	1 Introduction and rationale

Table 1 : Lesson plan

 1

	Phase	Task	Implementation	Interaction form	Medium
	Warm-up	Recapitulation of the last	Class recapitulates the topic and its	Plenum	News article,
		lesson on climate change.	relevance.		images
	(5 min)
		"Getting started" with	Teacher accesses english-corpora.org
		english-corpora.org.	and goes to the "Analyze text" function.
	Task 1	"Discovering new words".	Students learn how to look up	Plenum	News article,
			unfamiliar words using the "Analyze		worksheet,
	(10 min)		Text" funtion; screenshare of teacher's		computers,
			COCA interface.		projector
	Students'	"Getting started": starting	Preparation for following tasks	Individually Worksheet,
	preparation	computers, logging in on			computer
		english-corpora.org
	(5 min)
	Task 2	"Let's talk about	Learning vocabulary in chunks; students	Individually,	Worksheet,
		temperature": finding out	learn to use words in appropriate	partner	handout,
	(20 min)	about collocations.	contexts.	work	computers
	Task 3	"Either… or" and "What	Advanced students conduct more	Individually Worksheet,
	(optional)	can I say instead?"	specific queries to acquire more		handout,
			detailed vocabulary knowledge.		computers
	( 20 min)
	Discussion	Comparison and	Students present their solutions in class	Plenum	Projector/ Smart
		correction of the students'	and reflect on the learned content and		Board
	(15 min)	results.	method.
	Post-task/	"Word map": Organising	Students integrate new vocabulary into	Individually Worksheet,
	homework	new words and chunks.	already known structures.		handout,
					computer
	(15 min)

Table 1 : Lesson plan for lesson 1 Phase Task Implementation Interaction form Materials

 1

	(1) Warm-Up 5 min	Translating:Wir Artenvielfalt erhalten. müssen die	Problematisation of translating the context etwas erhalten without considering	Plenum	Electronic devices*
			Creating an account and a virtual
	(2) Preparation 15 min	Preparation of corpus work	corpus on www.english-corpora.org Following the instructions on the	Individual work	Electronic devices, Worksheet A
			worksheet
	(3) Practice 15-20 min	How can we use sustainable in a sentence?	Using the "List"-function and working with concordance lines Practising data-driven learning	Individual/ partner work	Electronic devices, Worksheet A
	(4) Conclusion 5-10 min	How did it go?	Sharing results and discussing Outlook on next lesson problems	Plenum	---
	* = interactive whiteboard, students' computers/laptops

  . Kerncurriculum für die integrierte Gesamtschule, Schulgänge 5-10: Englisch. https://cuvo.nibis.de/cuvo.php?p=download&upload=66.Enabling learners of English to debate current issues that dominate public discourse is a key communicative aim of teaching English. As a major vector of climate change, pollution makes for an ideal debating topic for the English language classroom. However, given that it is a specialised topic, it can be difficult for teachers and learners to access the appropriate vocabulary and idiomatic phrases to do so successfully. The corpus built in this step-by-step guide to conducting corpus linguistics research helps teachers to compile lists of authentic articles and useful idiomatic phrases on the topic of pollution.The chapter will also introduce examples of how to implement the corpus findings in teaching materials.According to the English curriculum of Lower Saxony (Germany), dealing with topics from different school subjects in bilingual teaching is a highly motivating and effective way of acquiring a second language (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 31). Climate change is one of the core topics featured in the geography and chemistry curriculum (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2015: 14) for grades 9 and 10 at Gymnasium (advanced secondary school in Germany), whilst also touching on contents from biology and politics.Interdisciplinary climate change education "helps people understand and address the impact of global warming, increases 'climate literacy' 1 among young people, encourages changes in their attitudes and behaviour, and helps them adapt to climate change related trends" (Unesco, n.d.). Pollution is a serious global issue that is addressed in political discussions. Therefore, the topic is very prevalent in students' daily private lives. Many young people attend the Fridays for Future demonstrations, thus potentially increasing the students' interest in the topic. Enabling students to communicate central issues of pollution in English is thus a meaningful preparation for encounters outside the classroom.

	13. Building a corpus to create materials
	for a debate on pollution
	MARIE GRÖNINGER AND HA MI NGUYEN
	1 Introduction and rationale
	Figures	used	on	Worksheet	A:	https://www.digitale-nachhaltigkeit.ch/icons-voraussetzungen/
	Figure used on Worksheet B: https://pixnio.com/objects/toys/puzzle-pieces-symbol-connect-hand-jigsaw
				Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 243

Table 1 : Lesson Plan

 1

	Phase	Task	Implementation	Interaction Form	Material/Medium
	Introduction 10 min	Picture impulse on the topic pollution	Description of and comments on the picture	Plenum	Smart board, Picture (see appendix)
	Task 1 5 min	Vocabulary game: Last Man Standing	Teacher names the theme pollution, students name vocabulary	Plenum (standing)	Ball
	Task 2.1 30 min	Preparing roles for debate	All groups read through their texts and develop arguments with theinformation provided	Group work	Worksheets, extra sheet for notes
	Task 2.2 10 min	Exchanging arguments regarding the motion	Collaboration with the other pro/con role	Group work	Notes, arguments from 2.1
		Debate in small groups
	Task 3 20 min	Motion: Preventing Pollution is not a Matter	Students discuss in debate groups (one student per role) under the guidance of a moderator	Jigsaw group work	Notes, arguments from 2.1
		of Money
	Conclusion		Students comment on the strategies of
		Reflection on debates	the debaters and state their own	Plenum
	10 min		opinions on the topic.
	Application/
	Homework	Analysing a cartoon	Finish analysis as written homework.	Plenum	Cartoon (see appendix)
	5 min

  "091207usatoday global warming.91" by RedMonk Red is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0

	English	German	Collocations	Example sentence
	carbon dioxide [ˌkɑːbndaɪˈɒksaɪd] n, SYNONYM: CO 2 [siː.əʊ.tuː]	Kohlenstoffdioxid, CO 2	• to reduce carbon (dioxide) • CO 2 pollution • global carbon emissions	By 2030 the U.S. will reduce its carbon dioxide emissions by nearly 30% below 2005 levels.
			• to reduce
			emissions
	emissions [ɪˈmɪʃəns] n	Ausstöße	• to cut global CO 2 emissions • to control	The factory promised to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases.
			emissions
			• to meet emission
	emission targets/norms/ standards etc. [ɪˈmɪʃənˈtɑ:gɪts/nɔrms/ ˈstaendəds] n	Emissionsziele, Abgasnormen	standards limits • to comply with emission norms • to set emission	New technologies would help them meet the emission standards.
	Worksheets
	Vocabulary list susceptible to sth [səˈseptəbl̩] adj	anfällig für etw.
	Here is an example of what a vocabulary list with collocations could look like:
		Building a corpus to create materials for a debate on pollution | 265

Table 2 : Exemplary vocabulary list compiled using the virtual corpus.

 2

	Number	Word (English)	Word (German)
	1	oily	fettig
	2	pale	blass
	3	dry	trocken
	4	normal	normal
	5	sensitive	empfindlich
	6	uneven	uneben
	7	acne-prone	zu Akne neigend
	8	white	weiß
	9	dark	dunkel
	10	tattooed	tätowiert
	11	tanned	gebräunt
	12	smooth	weich
	13	rough	rau
	14	reddened	gerötet
	15	problematic	problematisch
	16	moisturised	hydratisiert
	17	mature	reif
	18	flaky	schuppig
	19	blemish-prone	zu Unreinheiten neigend
	20	ashy	aschfahl
	21	flawless	makellos

  can be given in the gaps. Differentiation in mixed-ability classes is thus made possible. An example of a cloze text -with an attached sample solution -can be found in Appendix I. Whilst developing a cloze text, sentences taken directly from the corpus can be used in order to ensure that authentic examples are demonstrated.

Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus | 275 word

7 Resources and references

  NiedersächsischesKultusministerium. 2009. Rahmenrichtlinien für das Unterrichtsfach Englisch/ Kommunikation in der Berufsschule. https://www.nibis.de/nli1/bbs/archiv/rahmenrichtlinien/eng_bs_an.pdf(14 October, 2020).Wikipedia Corpus on english-corpora.org. https://www.english-corpora.org/wiki/ (14 January, 2021).

Kultusministerkonferenz. 2008

. Rahmenlehrplan für den Ausbildungsberuf Friseur/Friseurin: Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 10.04.2008. https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/pdf/Bildung/BeruflicheBildung/ rlp/Friseur.pdf (14 October, 2020). Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus | 277

"How's the weather?": Talking about the weather in the primary EFL classroom | 33

Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' | 77

Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' | 87

Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' | 89

Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' | 91

Differences in the grammatical structures of 'tell' and 'say' | 93

"Black Lives Matter": Collecting vocabulary to improve intercultural communicative competence | 201

PRO GROUP

• Representative of an environmental organization http://redgreenandblue.org/2020/05/10/pollution-kills-9-million-people-year-okay/ • Young student who supports Fridays for Future https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/2016/12/02/what-you-need-to-know-about-air-pollution-itsimportance-and-effective-solutions/#gref

CON GROUP

• CEO of a successful car manufacturer https://www.dw.com/en/german-car-lovers-want-to-challenge-fridays-for-future/a-51465631

• Parent of four who cannot afford an environmentally-friendly lifestyle https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/jul/29/eco-friendly-going-green-poor-cost-diary

Answer sheet: Corona neologisms and their meanings

Neologism Meaning

Zoomer Someone from Generation Z (the expression alludes to the term 'boomer', i.e., a member of the baby boomer generation).

Coronahobbies A hobby discovered or more regularly practised due to Covid.

Doomscrolling

Reading through all the bad Corona related news on a technical device.

Zoombie

Feeling like a zombie becoming after giving/attending classes on Zoom all week.

Coronacleaning Cleaning as a hobby during the corona pandemic.

Procrastibaking Baking as a hobby during the corona pandemic.

Hairpocalypse

A terrible haircut after a long time of not having been to the hairdresser.

Quarancut

A haircut given at home (during quarantine).

Covidiots

People who ignore the shutdown and hygiene measures of Covid.

Mask-shaming Denouncing someone for not wearing or wearing a mask.

Quaranteen

A teenager who spends parts of their youth in shutdown/quarantine.

Blursday

A day on which one does not notice time passing by.

Student step-by-step guide 7 Resources and references

The British National Corpus (BNC Worksheet Task 4: Solution 1 Note: Sketch Engine randomises concordance lines with an algorithm that will always produce the same results if you enter the same number of concordance lines to be sampled. This ensures that the results are reproducible. Also, it ensures that students can follow along and obtain exactly the same results.

2 This corpus is freely accessible; use the following URL to get to the search interface: https://elicorpora.info/.

3 Examples of French reference corpora available on Sketch Engine: the French Web (frTenTen) or the French Timestamped JSI web corpus.

4 Examples of German reference corpora available on Sketch Engine: the German Web (deTenTen) or the German Timestamped JSI web corpus.

Your turn!

Choose one of the topics in the word clouds above and write a couple of sentences about it. Make sure that you use some words from the word clouds.

Solutions to the crossword puzzle: https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-death-of-george-floyd-in-context. The article describes Floyd's death and its context in a very detailed way. The site also provides an audio file of this article, which you can use as a listening activity.

If you wish to add some videos to your lesson to highlight individual aspects and concepts like white silence or use them for a follow-up lesson on this topic, here are some links to suggested videos:

White silence on social media: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/white-silence-on-social-media-why-not-saying-anything-is-actuallysaying-a-lot/ How white silence fuels racism: https://www.colorlines.com/articles/icymi-animated-short-your-black-friend-breaks-down-how-white-

Warm-up

Begin again by presenting your sentence (Wir müssen die Artenvielfalt erhalten.) on the whiteboard and asking the learners: What can you say about the translation of this sentence into English? The following class-discussion partly recaps the content of the last lesson (problem of one-to-one translations, importance of corpus work and collocations). You can now tell them how you used the "Collocates"-function to come up with a list of verbs which are most frequently used in front of biodiversity. Show them the screenshot (Fig. 17) and discuss the results with your students.

Act responsible, think sustainable -Expanding vocabulary to write about sustainability | 237

Fig. 17: List of verb collocates of biodiversity

At least in American English, preserve is used much more often than maintain. As a matter of fact, it is the verb conserve that is most likely to occur in front of biodiversity, which is surprising given the fact that it was not mentioned at all in the dictionary entry on www.pons.de.

Use this example to briefly explain what collocations are: though conserve, preserve and maintain all translate as erhalten in German, they cannot be used interchangeably. The verb that is most frequently used with biodiversity appears to be conserve. That means that biodiversity collocates most strongly with conserve. This is what we call a collocation: words that are commonly used together.

Introduction (mind mapping)

Present the prepared mind map to the students, and ask them to think about vocabulary for each of the topics. Stress that all students should think about vocabulary for all topics. This way, every group can receive support and inspiration from their peers. Use the vocabulary collected in preparation for the lesson to guide the discussion so that your students collect a variety of words for different contexts, and also use it to add important words that your students do not mention. To provide more context, ask the groups to briefly state the arguments and ideas they want to address in their project to ensure that the collected vocabulary is relevant to the groups' project idea.

Introduction (vocabulary guide)

After the class discussion, ask your students to get together in their project groups, and hand out Worksheet C (the worksheet should either be printed in an A3 format or made available as a document on their computers). Explain that this worksheet is a vocabulary guide that the students will devise themselves to prepare for elaborating their products.

Topics

The topic chosen in this chapter is exemplary and could be narrowed down for more support, or replaced by another subject that is deemed relevant and suitable for the students, e.g.:

• Bullying: cyber bullying, peer pressure, …

• Social networks: anonymity, abusive language, benefits, risks, …

• Corona crisis: threats, vulnerabilities, measures, public health policies, economic impact, face masks, …

Project outcomes

The proposed lessons can be used to prepare for various project tasks, e.g.:

• Creating a video or podcast

• Writing a blog entry

• Staging an interview

• Doing a role play / creating a sketch

Differentiation

The worksheets and the step-by-step guide will provide enough scaffolding for most students to be able to work on the tasks independently in their groups. However, for more support you could reduce the number of collocations and/or the number of keywords for individual groups or the whole class, or fill in parts of the vocabulary guide (Worksheet C), e.g., the "Collocations" column, and leave the rest of the table for the students to complete it, e.g., the "Example sentences" column.

Additional tasks

During the writing process, the "Collocates"-function can be continuously used to help students write their texts, e.g., by looking up collocations during the writing phase when they are unsure how to use words correctly, using the "Collocates"-function to improve their first drafts: Ask your students to read through

Introduction and rationale

Within the German dual training system, students spend 70% of their study time learning on-the-job at a company and the remaining 30% in publicly funded vocational schools. In vocational schools, teachers of English as a foreign language usually hold English classes in various departments and must thus design relevant learning activities for a diverse student body that could potentially range from future car mechanics to hairdressers-to-be. The three didactical principles "competence development", "activity orientation", and "cooperation of learning places" serve as basis for the classes held in vocational schools (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2009: 1-2) and, in English lessons, the four areas of competence -namely receptive skills, productive skills, interaction, and mediation -must be addressed (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium 2009: 4).

For all four aforementioned areas of competence, students will need to be familiar with vocabulary that is relevant to their future working lives. Consequently, the teacher needs to have specialized knowledge of the kind of idiomatic vocabulary that is used in a particular professional domain. I have observed that existing coursebooks often do not provide genuinely meaningful or relevant vocabulary for specific fields of vocational education in sufficient quantity. This chapter therefore focuses on building a virtual corpus and utilizing it for compiling a list of subject-specific, relevant vocabulary in order to develop language learning activities for specific areas of vocational education.

Outline and objectives

The focus will be on building a virtual corpus and using it for compiling a highly specialized vocabulary list. This vocabulary list is further utilized to develop various language learning activities.

In this chapter, the dual apprenticeship as a hairdresser is used illustratively. The following example is localized within the learning area 11 in the third year of training for hairdressers (Kultusministerkonferenz 2008: 19). An exemplary lesson sequence is laid out in Table 1.

Teacher preparation time:

• building the virtual corpus: approx. 15 minutes

Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus | 269

• compiling a vocabulary list: approx. 15 minutes

• designing additional language learning activities: 30 -60 minutes per activity → Exemplary language learning activities can be found in Appendices I and II.

Classroom time:

• cloze text: 10 to 15 minutes in class

• guessing card game taboo: 15 to 30 minutes in class

Corpus, tools and methods

For building a specialized virtual corpus, the Wikipedia Corpus on the web-based corpus interface www.english-corpora.org/wiki is used. The strength of the Wikipedia Corpus is that it allows to build customized virtual corpora for diverse topics and then conduct searches within these highly specific virtual corpora. This can be used for creating lists of relevant specialized vocabulary. For English teachers in vocational schools, it is highly important to know which vocabulary is genuinely meaningful and relevant for each profession. Crucially, simply looking up a list of words in a dictionary would probably lead to a biased selection of words which the teacher assumes are important, often without direct experience in the students' future field of work. Furthermore, there may not be one-to-one equivalences between the teacher and students' L1 and English. After the virtual corpus has been created, the virtual corpus will be utilized to gather a list of relevant, meaningful and practice-oriented vocabulary. This list will serve as a basis for developing language learning activities which can easily be embedded into a practical use in the classroom.

Step-by-step guide Teacher preparation

Building a virtual corpus 1. Use the browser of your choice to access https://www.english-corpora.org/.

2. Go to the tab "my account" and click on "Register". Fill out the registration form and click "SUBMIT".

Registration is mandatory and free of charge. You will get an email with a registration link. Confirm Some customers do not have good skin; they have very problematic skin. This skin tends to be tender and is called sensitive skin. The skin can be dry, flaky and rough when the skin does not produce enough oil and lacks moisture. When the skin starts producing too much oil, the skin can become oily. Too much oil can lead to pimples which can result in customers having uneven skin.

This skin is often blemish-prone and can even become acne-prone when specific bacteria is on the skin. This skin is often irritated and is called reddened skin.

It is very important for hairdressers and cosmeticians to know that!

Appendix II: Taboo

1 moisturised BE /moisturized AE . Note that the corpus featured the British English spelling, but I would recommend familiarizing students with both spelling variants.

Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus | 279

Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy

Building and exploiting a TV series corpus for nursing vocational schools

SIMONE CAMPOS SILVA 1 Introduction and rationale

"Words -so innocent and powerless as they are, as standing in a dictionary, how potent for good and evil they become in the hands of one who knows how to combine them." (Hawthorne)

The International Council of Nurses states:

Nursing encompasses autonomous and collaborative care of individuals of all ages, families, groups and communities, sick or well and in all settings. Nursing includes the promotion of health, prevention of illness, and the care of ill, disabled and dying people. Advocacy, promotion of a safe environment, research, participation in shaping health policy and in patient and health systems management, and education are also key nursing roles. (ICN, 2002) Communication and interaction are particularly important competences to be able to fulfil the tasks described above. This year's newly designed and revised German nursing apprenticeship introduces a new curriculum, which describes communication as a key nursing activity (Ammende et al. 2019: 51). Moreover, subjects of general education should be taught with connection to nursing topics (Niedersächsische Landesschulbehörde 2019). As English is one of those general education subjects, communication in hospital settings can be efficiently combined with learning English. Talking to and supporting patients and their next of kin in difficult and life-threatening situations can be a challenging task during a nursing apprenticeship. Therefore, practicing those kinds of situations in a protected and sheltered environment is of crucial importance. The series Grey's Anatomy offers the possibility to examine many different challenging interactions and communications in hospital settings. Consequently, students have the opportunity to learn from those interactions and develop communication strategies in the most widely used lingua franca, English.

Outline and objectives

• This lesson is designed for B1 to C1 vocational school learners of English (intermediate to advanced) who are training to become nurses.

• The aim is to focus on communication and interaction in hospital settings in order to support and help nursing students.

• Teachers should plan around 2-2.5 hours to follow all steps described to prepare the class 1. Don't make a move until we get our hands on every ______________ around the tree trunk.

Lesson plan and tasks

2. Chief, I know the hypothermia is protective to her ______________ but how much longer do you think we can go on like this?

3. This guy could have pretty good life with a ______________ that my boy here and I could make tomorrow.

4. We were on a plane, and we just picked up a ______________ from a kid who died.

5. He was born with his ______________ outside of his body.

6. Grow it in the lab, remove the ______________. Replace it with a newer model.

7.

That is that the surgery was too intense for his ______________ to support. in this e-book, in the hope that the materials created as part of Katina's thesis may be used and adapted by English teachers at nursing schools in Germany and beyond.

Abstract

In response to the growing shortage of skilled workers in the nursing sector, nursing education in Germany has recently undergone major changes. As part of a large-scale education reform that came into force at the beginning of 2020, the former tripartite system of nursing apprenticeships (adult nursing, children nursing, and geriatric nursing) were merged into one apprenticeship profile. Restructuring the nursing curriculum involved the implementation of general subjects such as English, thus leading to the need for new adequate English language teaching materials. This chapter explores how corpus linguistics can serve as a helpful tool for the development of teaching materials in the specialized field of nursing education.

The promotion of students' communicative skills is the main focus of EFL teaching in the nursing education context. Hence, a spoken corpus for the medical context (Social English for Medical Context -SEMC) was created based on transcripts from the three medical television shows Emergency Room, Dr. House, and

Grey's Anatomy. The selected shows proved to be suitable with regard to medical accuracy and their potential to promote communicative skills. Five corpus-informed sets of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching materials for nursing schools were developed as a first step towards establishing English as a general subject of nursing education in Germany.

Background

In the course of the recent major reform of nursing education in Germany and the subsequent implementation of English as a general subject in the nursing curriculum, the need for new, adequate English language teaching materials for this particular vocational school context arose. Since vocational education aims to meet the requirements of the learners' future professional practice (Belcher 2006: 134), teaching materials are preferably based on naturally occurring language produced in authentic situations of the respective work environment. The present chapter explores how corpus linguistics can serve as a helpful tool for the development of authentic teaching materials in the specialized field of nursing education 296 | Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series (for a detailed account of the benefits of corpus linguistics in language teaching in general and in the vocational school context in particular, see chapters "About the project", "Developing ESP learning activities for vocational education with a custom virtual corpus" and "Exploring hospital interactions with Grey's Anatomy").

In order to identify the specific requirements for English teaching materials in the nursing education context, the education reform and its implications for the educational practice, as well as formal prerequisites, learners' language needs, characteristics of potential learning groups and learning targets will be analyzed in the following.

Nursing care reform and educational practice

The nursing profession in Germany is a relatively young profession in comparison to other countries such as the United States (Menche 2007: 24). Education in nursing is constantly changing and evolving. The most recent development is the nursing care reform of 2017, which came into effect on the first of January 2020 The reform implies reformulating the nursing curriculum with regard to the technical subject contents on the basis of the framework curriculum of the state school authority. Each nursing school is required to transfer these guidelines into its own curriculum. In addition to the restructuring of the technical subject contents, the implementation of four general subjects, English, German, Politics, and Religious education was also an essential aspect of the reform.

The guidelines of the local Ministry of Education (Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium -NKM 2009a) serve as a common ground for English teaching in nursing education. The guidelines for English refer to the subject as 'English / Communication', which already indicates a particular focus on promoting the students' communicative competence.

Formal prerequisites for teaching materials and learners' language needs

As briefly mentioned above, the Ministry of Education's guidelines for English in the context of nursing education refer to the subject as 'English / Communication', which stresses the focus of the communicative competence in vocational schooling. This specific feature of English in nursing education, as well as the characteristics of potential learning groups and specific learning targets have to be taken into careful consideration when approaching the creation of suitable EFL teaching materials.

English is of great importance for nursing trainees for several reasons. Miyake/Tremarco (2005: 32) draw attention to the fact that, due to its status as an international lingua franca, English in particular can serve as a linguistic bridge in communication with patients and their family members. This is essential

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 297

because the number of patients hospitalized in countries with official languages other than their native languages is rising worldwide. It is important for nurses to be able to successfully communicate in order to ensure comprehensive care. Listening and speaking skills have to be carefully addressed to enable nurses to engage in professional communication (Akbari 2016: 24). Klitzing et al. (2007: 42) add that the majority of medical studies are published in English. Receptive skills in general should therefore also be focused on in English language teaching for nurses. However, this aspect of language learning is not addressed in this chapter.

The English curriculum for nursing schools is based on two important sources: the framework directive of the Ministry of Education in Lower Saxony (NKM 2009a) as well as existing research evidence regarding learners' language needs [START_REF] Guhde | English-as-a-second language (ESL) nursing students: Strategies for building verbal and written language skills[END_REF][START_REF] Miyake | Needs analysis for nursing students utilizing questionnaires and interviews[END_REF]. It is important to note that the ministry's guidelines are formulated in a fairly general manner and that it is up to every school to create a schoolspecific curriculum for the subject. describes the students' ability to write texts and statements in the target language depending on the situation and purpose. These can include answers to questions of text comprehension or filling out forms.

Spoken communication is central to this competence and refers to giving a presentation or to reporting something. The third competence is 'Interaction'. The individual learner should be able to ask for relevant information in connection with typical professional tasks. The students should be able to apply simple communication techniques. Taking a patient's medical history is a good example of this competence. The final competence described in the framework is 'Mediation'. It does not only refer to the translation of language material into the target language but also to the ability to orally summarize texts and utterances in English (ibid.).

The emphasis on particular skills varies according to the year of schooling. Following the recommendations of Miyake/Tremarco (2005: 33), in the beginning the focus lies on 'Reception' and 'Production', skills closely related to the teaching of technical terms and vocabulary acquisition. In the course of the apprenticeship, the focus shifts towards the competence of 'Interaction', emphasizing the students' communication skills more strongly.

In addition to the language needs of the nursing students it is also important to pay attention to the rising need for media skills. Trübswetter/Figueiredo (2019: 345) looked at the potential of computer-based learning methods in nursing schools. They underline the need for schools to foster students' technical competence in the new nursing curriculum in order to remove barriers and to build up confidence in using electronics.

This demand results from changes in the work environment and increasing technology use that has to be mastered by nurses in the clinical setting, e.g., the electronic patient file (Trübswetter/Figueiredo 2019: 348).

In summary, it can be said that the competences required for nursing students are centered on social interaction and communication in the clinical setting. According to Miyake/Tremarco (2005: 23), the language type needed to facilitate communication is the so-called 'Social English' as opposed to 'Technical English', which is considered less important in nursing education. The term 'Social English' refers to language likely to be used in interactions with different individuals, whereas 'Technical English' is is characterized by vocabulary likely to be encountered in the clinical setting (Miyake/Tremarco 2005: 24).

The authors (Miyake/Tremarco 2005: 33) suggest limiting 'Technical English' in the classroom of nursing education to basic technical vocabulary, such as anatomical terms and clinical symptoms. 'Technical English' can build on learning in previous years of schooling (Miyake/Tremarco 2005: 26). They conclude by stating that 'Social English' becomes increasingly important in the course of the apprenticeship as it enables communication with patients and other individuals in the clinical setting. [START_REF] Miyake | Needs analysis for nursing students utilizing questionnaires and interviews[END_REF] strongly suggest focusing on 'Social English' in the last year of the nursing education program. A closer look at the nursing curriculum for the subject 'English / Communication' of a nursing school in Lower Saxony (see table 1) shows that these recommendations have been followed. Towards the last year of the program, the emphasis shifts from the receptive competence and 'Technical English' to the competence of 'Interaction' centered on 'Social English'. Although the guidelines of the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.) describe important competences of the nursing students, they are very vague and lack detail. Therefore, additional sources had to be consulted in order to determine precise language needs for nurses.

Cameron (1998) looked at language needs for nursing students in class and clinic. His study is recurrently used to serve as a basis for nursing curricula (Bosher 2013: 264;Cameron 1998: 215). Cameron (1998: 205) based his needs assessment on a needs-definition that is understood in four ways: analytic, democratic, diagnostic, and discrepancy. A reference group, for example nursing educators and students, forms the basis of the analytic and democratic needs perspectives. By consulting a reference group, one is more likely to identify useful needs for the learners' group and to minimize the risk of overlooking essential needs.

For example, educators and students articulated the need for extra practice in class (Cameron 1998: 206).

The discrepancy approach of Cameron's needs definition refers to observed differences between the actual performance of a student and the required action (ibid.). The diagnostic needs definition aims to rank the identified needs with regard to frequency and relevance of the respective need (Cameron 1998: 207). Clearly, Cameron's underlying needs definition is comprehensive and takes several aspects of language learning into consideration.

Cameron (1998: 215) identifies five major needs of nursing students, which are displayed in Fig. 1. As mentioned above, the determined needs 'serve as suggestions for course content' (Cameron 1998: 203) and are recurrently cited by other authors (Bosher 2013: 264;[START_REF] Nation | Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. 2nd Edition[END_REF]. The first need that Cameron (1998: 208) defines is 'Speech Production Accuracy'. It is subdivided into the four categories pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse. 'Academic Performance', as the second need, consists of five individual skills, such as writing and listening. The third need, 'Clinical Performance', is split into several smaller parts, of which three are of special interest to this chapter: getting information, transmitting information to a patient or a family member, and social interaction with different individuals at work. 'Dialect (Cultural) Variation', is the fourth need that Cameron (1998: 214) describes. It relates to cross-cultural awareness of nurses with regard to a multicultural patient group and colleagues. And finally, the need 'Inferencing Skills' is based on Cameron's definition of inference, which refers to observations that may be drawn with respect to a speaker's communicative intention (ibid.).

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 299

Giving instructions vs. informing someone

The first worksheet targets vocabulary acquisition in the nursing students' first year of schooling. With reference to the guidelines of the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.), this worksheet can be used to facilitate the competence areas 'Reception' and 'Production'. As pointed out above, two of the core language tasks of nurses are 'giving instructions' and 'informing a patient' (Epp/Lewis 2009: 308). In order to form correct sentences in this regard, nursing students have to adequately use typical phrases for these tasks (Cameron 1998: 209). The worksheet therefore aims to teach relevant patterns that are associated with 'informing someone' and 'giving instructions' in the clinical setting. These patterns, e.g. 'I need you to' or 'I have to', first have to be learned as idiomatic chunks (Aston 2001: 15) before they can be fluently applied in varying communicative situations. This exercise may not only help the nursing students to acquire relevant phrases, but also helps to raise learners' awareness of the particular context these phrases are used in (Aston 2001: 16).

The worksheet (Fig. I + II) is divided into two parts. Firstly, common phrases for 'giving instructions' and 'informing someone' are introduced with the help of concordance lines from the SEMC. Sketch Engine was used to generate a 2-to 6-gram list on the basis of which phrases commonly used to perform recurrent language tasks were identified. The n-grams which ranked highest (count 281), e.g. 'I have to', were mixed with n-grams of mid-frequency (count 92), e.g. 'I want you to'. An additional collocation search provided the concordance lines for the first exercise of the worksheet. The relevant phrases appear in bold to emphasize the targeted patterns in the concordance lines. Nation (2013: 147) suggests the classification of items into groups as a possible activity for students to engage with concordance lines. Following Nation's suggestion, the students are asked to read the concordances and to categorize the phrases in bold into two groups, the phrases that can be used to give information and the ones to give instructions.

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 305 The teaching set can be further developed by watching short extracts of the episodes of the fictional medical TV series on the basis of which the SEMC corpus was complied. As an observational task, the students could be asked to identify colloquial expressions in conversations they have watched and to rephrase the transcripts in appropriate medical language. This would ensure the repetition of the linguistic items, as required by Hutchinson/Waters (2010: 108). The teaching set would also improve the students' listening competence, as required by the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.).

Getting information -conducting a patient interview

According to Epp/Lewis (2009: 308), about 30 percent of the speech acts of nurses involve asking for information and giving instructions to patients or family members. In this teaching set, the focus is on the 'Clinical performance' of the nursing students. Cameron (1998: 211) distinguishes two different needs for the particular competence of 'Getting information', namely a medical interview (assessment) and a physical examination. The former is a task that is performed at the early stage of a patients' admission to the hospital on the ward. The assessment of patients' independence and their need of care are of special interest. In order to determine the individual needs, the nurses have to get the patients' medical history (Menche 2007: 302). The latter refers to the fact that an assessment usually involves a brief physical examination with nursing procedures such as measuring temperature, dressing a wound or giving medication (Oelke 2007: 639). This teaching set will exclusively focus on the patient interview and not on the physical examination.

To my knowledge, there are no teaching materials that address the specific language task of getting information from a patient. In her textbook of basic vocabulary for nurses, Jibidar (2017: 151) presents a dialogue for a patient assessment but merely limits it to asking for a patient's phone number and address.

Compared with the sample patient records which are used in Germany (cf. Oelke 2007: 638;Menche 2007: 308), it becomes clear that Jibidar's short extract is insufficient to meet the particular needs of German nursing students. The worksheet covers the competence areas of 'Interaction' and 'Production' (NKM 2009a: n.p.) and is intended for the third year of schooling (see table 2).

For the worksheet, keywords from a sample patient record based on Oelke (2007: 638) were extracted. The words were entered into Sketch Engine in order to perform a concordance search in the SEMC corpus. The extracted keywords are listed in the table below (table 3). With the help of the concordance lines, a language support sheet was developed for the nursing students. The support sheet is based on teaching materials designed by Grieser-Kindel/Henseler/Möller (2012: 106-107). It supports the students with a variety of ways to ask for a certain kind of information in the patient record. The language support sheet is designed to equip the students with enough necessary language knowledge, so that they can practise the act of conducting a patient interview in the subsequent class sessions (Hutchinson/Waters 2010: 109).

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 317 The phrases and sentences used in the language support sheet are exclusively derived from concordance lines from the SEMC corpus to ensure the use of authentic language. The support sheet is in Oelke (2007: 638). The history sheet asks for basic patient information usually contained in every German assessment sheet. It is important to highlight that there is a clear separation between the medical assessment and the nursing assessment in Germany. The former is conducted by the medical staff and contains information regarding the clinical picture of the patient in conjunction with their medical history, such as their history of heart diseases (ibid.). Therefore, these types of questions are not included in the language support sheet for the worksheet, but are included in the medical history form for the sake of authenticity. It is important to note that the patient form is not given to the patients but instead exclusively filled out by the nurses (ibid.). Therefore, the students need to be trained how to ask the right questions in order to fill out the form correctly.

Rattani, Abbas/Kaakour, Abdul-Hadi ( 2019) "Screenplays and screenwriting as an innovative teaching tool in medical ethics education", In: 4 The specialized lessons are now thematically divided into 11 curricular units and deliberately distance themselves from the previous subject canon, i.e., teaching topics isolated from one another and not with underlying occupational situations (MK 2020: 4).

5

The first author has been working at the nursing school since 2017 and has been the head of curriculum development since December 2019.

6 The German term is 'Binnendifferenzierung'.

7 The German term is 'Pflegehelfer'.

8 The context in the concordance lines was not sufficient to grasp the meaning of the word. 9 This meets the general requirements defined in the guidelines from the Ministry of Education (NKM 2009a: n.p.), which focus on the ability of the students to use a dictionary correctly. However, this aspect of language learning is not addressed in the present chapter.

10 Source: SEMC corpus -concordances from an advanced concordance search with help and not.

11 While watching, the students can be asked to note down important information, so that they can give a short summary of the video.

12 Each school laptop has a direct connection to the general printer.

13 Further fields of vocational training in Germany include engineering, health sciences, and cosmetology.

Creating teaching materials for nursing schools using medical TV series | 331

Appendix: Additional resources

ELEN LE FOLL

This section is simply a list of additional, useful resources for you to continue your corpus linguistics journey.

This list aims to be dynamic: should you find a dead link, or that a resource is missing, do please send me an e-mail. In the spirit of this Open Educational Resource, freely available resources will be prioritised.

Online corpus tools and corpora

• English-corpora.org

• Free basic access to all users and corpora (with a limited number of queries and the need to be patient every once in a while). • Registration required.

• Option to upgrade to premium individual or academic licenses.

• Gives access to a range of English corpora covering general British and American English, web English registers, online news, Wikipedia articles, World Englishes, etc.

• Sketch Engine

• Limited free trial account (30 days).

• Registration required.

• Many EU higher education institutions have access via the EU-funded ELEXIS project (until March 2022).

• Gives access to a range of English corpora including the Spoken BNC2014, the EnTenTen15, the Cambridge Open Learner Corpus, many non-English corpora, and the possibility to build DIY corpora.

• A large number of open corpora are now available for free without an account.

• SKELL (Sketch Engine for language learning)

• Free and no registration required.

• Available in English and a few additional languages.

• CQPweb

• Free

• Registration required.

• Gives access to several useful English corpora including the Spoken BNC2014, the American and British English 2006 corpora, and many corpora in languages other than English (e.g., Arabic, Norwegian, Punjabi, Thai).

• BNClab

• Free and no registration required.

• A learner-friendly interface to explore the spoken sections of the British National Corpora (BNC) 1994 and 2014.

• The Corpus for School project website features many very well-designed worksheets and lessons ideas to work with the BNClab.

• TCSE Ted Corpus SearchEngine

• Free and no registration required.

• A user-friendly search engine designed to explore TED talks with the transcripts and original videos.

• Includes useful concordancing, n-grams and construction functions. • Includes a range of useful tools for data-driven learning.

• Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE)

• Free and no registration required.

• Michigan Corpus of Upper-Level Student Papers (MICUSP)

• Free and no registration required.

• KonText

• Free with optional free registration for additional options.

• Includes a range of corpora in different languages with an emphasis on Czech since it is developed and maintained by the Institute of the Czech National Corpus.

• Provides easy access to parallel corpora with aligned texts in Czech, English and many other languages.

• Comprehensive user manual available in Czech and English.

• VersaText

• Free and no registration required.

• Allows teachers or learners to analyse individual texts.

• Leeds collection of Internet corpora

• Free and no registration required.

• Includes a range of Internet language corpora, including in languages other than English.

• Parallel English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Corpora:

• A free concordancer (no registration required) to examine learner and professional EAP in the fields of (applied) linguistics and language teaching 2 Free downloadable corpus tools for offline corpus work

• AntConc

• Free to download and use for non-commercial purposes.

• Works cross-platform (Windows, Mac OS X, Linux).

• Can be combined with a whole suite of more specialised free software also developed by Laurence Anthony (e.g. AntCorGen to create discipline-specific corpora on the basis of open-access academic articles).

• LancsBox

• Free to download and use for non-commercial purposes.

• Works cross-platform (Windows, Mac OS X, Linux).

• Comes with a number of pre-built corpora.

• User guide available in English, French and Japanese.

A far more comprehensive list of corpus tools can be found here.

Additional free online resources for teachers and learners

• The Corpus for School website features many worksheets and lessons ideas based on the BNClab (see above) for A-level English and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (project leader: Dana Gablasova).

• The Corpus-Aided Platform for Language Teachers (CAP) features tutorial videos on using corpora, Appendix: Additional resources | 333 training videos on designing corpus-informed teaching materials and a bank of corpus-informed lesson plans for primary, secondary and tertiary levels (including worksheets) on vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, comprehension skills and much more.

• Improving writing through corpora: Data-driven learning? A free online course in five modules from the University of Queenland (also available in Mandarin Chinese)

• Corpora in language teaching: A free online Moodle course presenting multiple applications of corpora in language teaching and learning created by Agnieszka Leńko-Szymańska.

• Datengesteuertes Lernen: Lexiko-grammatische Kenntnisse erweitern und sprachliche Zweifelsfälle lösen. An accessible article on data-driven learning with examples and worksheets for the EFL classroom by Dirk Siepmann (in German).

• Recordings of Peter Crosthwaite's online workshops on corpora and data-driven learning for English Language Teaching (ELT) lesson planning.

• Video recordings of talks and/or slides on the use of corpora to inform the teaching of English for Academic Purposes from a one-day event organised by the BAAL Corpus Linguistics SIG and held online on 14 Jan 2021.

• Short tutorials on using corpus tools for (trainee) English teachers mostly using english-corpora.org and Sketch Engine by Elen Le Foll (recorded in 2020 and 2021).

• Corpus Linguistics for Beginners: a series of short lectures and tutorials mostly using AntConc by Yassine Labdounane (recorded in 2020 and 2021).

Recommended books

• Bennet, Gena R. ( 2010). Using Corpora in the Language Learning Classroom. Corpus Linguistics for Teachers. University of Michigan Press: Michigan ELT.

• Crawford, William J., & Csomay, Eniko (2016). Doing corpus linguistics. New York: Routledge.

• Crosthwaite, Peter (Ed.). (2020). Data-driven learning for the next generation: Corpora and DDL for pre-tertiary learners. London; New York: Routledge.

• Friginal, Eric (2018). Corpus linguistics for English teachers: New tools, online resources, and classroom activities. New York: Routledge.

• Karpenko-Seccombe, Tatyana (2020). Academic writing with corpora: A resource book for data-driven learning. London: Routledge.

• O'Keeffe, Anne, McCarthy, Mike, & Carter, Ronald (2007). From corpus to classroom: Language use and language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Pérez-Paredes, Pascual (2020). Corpus Linguistics for Education: A Guide for Research (1st ed.). Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge.

• [START_REF] Poole | A guide to using corpora for English language learners[END_REF]. A guide to using corpora for English language learners. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

• Reppen, Randi (2010). Using Corpora in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Timmis, Immis (2015). Corpus linguistics for ELT: Research and practice. London; New York: Routledge.

• Viana, Vander & Aisling O'Boyle (2021). Corpus linguistics for English for academic purposes . London ; New York: Routledge.