Seyed Hossein Hodjat

Jalal Afshar

STRESS EFFECTS ON DESTRUCTIVE AND USEFUL INSECTS Running title: General stress effects in insects

Keywords: Stress, Variation, Insect, Immunity, Trait, Adaptation

Effects of stress on living organism can produce variation and it is important to know its effects on destructive and beneficial insect species. Recent publications on effects of stress in insects are either about oxidative or environmental stressors. Oxidative stress (OD) is caused by insect respiration and cell metabolism and can interrupt cell homeostasis by production of free radicals of oxygen and cause cell damage. Environmental stress effects on crops and insect pests affect their biology and may cause insect pest outbreak. Various traits in insect populations create adaptive genotypes and can alter the insect pest biology to increase their survival chance. The type of reaction to stress is determined by insect nervous system and the effects of neurohormones. Therefore stress produces plasticity in insects to enable them to adapt and survive their unfavorable environmental conditions. In the first section of this review different sections give reference to cellular and environment stress effects on the biology and morphology of economically important insect species. For the second part various sections describes the stress effects on each species of destructive or useful insects that are reported in various publications.

INTRODUCTION

For answering the simple question of why insect pests are so successful many other questions are raised. The general answer may be that insect can quickly adapt to their environment. Increased reproduction of insects can quickly produce new adapted populations or genotypes. Insects are helped by efficient immune system and endosymbionts to survive stressful conditions [START_REF] Zhang | Reactive oxygen species extend insect life span using Components of the insulin-signaling pathway[END_REF]. The primary immune cells in insects are the hemocytes which are present in the hemocoel and drive cellular immune processes such as phagocytosis, and produce can kill pathoges killing via lysis or melanization. Insect cells are also assisted by forkhead box class O proteins (FoxO) to survive insulin resistance (InRes) complications (Kodrik et al, 2010I). FoxO transcription factor also promote resistance to oxidative stress (OS). The adipokinetic hormone (AKH), an antioxidant hormone secreted from central nervous system (CNS), is reacting to OS. Secondary metabolite of insects help them to overcome plant defense and and make them safe for nourishment. Several neurodegenerative diseases in man such as Parkinson and Alzhymer are associated with cell oxidative stress and is discovered by studying insect physiology [START_REF] Manolopoulos | Linking Alzheimer's disease to insulin resistance: the FoxO response to oxidative stress[END_REF]. Insect brain function as receptor and a programmable center to perceive environmental stress signals. In Helicoverpa armigera the onset of cold winter temperature is felt by sense organs and neural signals produce hormones to start diapause [START_REF] Zhang | Reactive oxygen species extend insect life span using Components of the insulin-signaling pathway[END_REF].

Various environmental stressors can produce physiological change by hormonal secretions (Kodrik et al, 2015). Some of the insect pests such as locusts and armyworms have periodical outbreaks. Usually they do not damage crops in great numbers but various stressful conditions changes their physiology and when their population increases they form groups of migrants to find new habitats.This process of population increase and migration in Scistocercs gregaria was called phase [START_REF] Uvarov | A revision of the genus Locusta with a new theory as to the periodicity and migration of locusts[END_REF]. One of the main features of phase was gregarious marching of hoppers. Many publications of research efforts indicated that the behavior, morphology and color change in phase transition is related to the change in their physiology and rearing density [START_REF] Ellis | Changes in the social aggregation of locust hoppers with changes in rearing conditions[END_REF][START_REF] Cullen | From molecules to management: Mechanism and consequences of Locust phase polymorphism[END_REF]. Locust phase was also discovered in many other grasshoppers such as Locusta migratoria, Docistaurus marrocanus and about ten other species of grasshoppers that were called locust. Spodoptera exepmta [START_REF] Brown | New evidence on the migration of moths of the African Armyworm Spodoptera exempta Walk. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)[END_REF] and S. littoralis [START_REF] Hodjat | Effects of crowding on color, size and larval activity of Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)[END_REF](Hodjat, , 2006) ) had gregarious phase similar to locust. These Noctuid moths also are changing some characters and becoming darker and more active when reared with high density. More detail of migratory changes of other insects in relation to stressful environmental conditions was discovered in Dysdercus fasciatus that can change their flying activity by facing stressful field conditions while in the laboratory they hardly fly [START_REF] Hodjat | Effects of crowding and stress on locusts, aphids, armyworms specifically the hemipteran Dysdercus fasciatus Sign. (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae)[END_REF].

Environmental stress effects can change to regulate insect life cycles in coordination to their prevailing living conditions. Three major groups of hormones regulating life cycles are ecdysteroids, Juvenile hormones and corpora cardiac (CC) regulating metamorphosis by neurohrmones. AKHs of hormones family provide energy for flight and movement muscles. They increase power for insect to escape from stressful conditions (Kodrik et al, 2015). Among stressors heat shock stress is shown to modulate survival of many insects especially Tribolium. That their Juvenile hormone (JH) delays thheir pupation so that their larvae can feed in late autumn at suitable weather conditions. The JHE activity and ecdysteroid levels were higher in crowded insect larvae [START_REF] Hirashima | Metamorphosis, Activity of Juvenile Hormone esterase and alternation of ecdysteroid Titres and the effect of larval density and various stressors on red flour Beetle,Triolium freemani Hinton (Coleopterai; Tenebrioidae[END_REF].

Oxidative stress (OS) or Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are molecules that generally are created through respiration or certain metabolic energetic oxidative processes. Examples of these molecules include peroxides, superoxides, hydroxyl radicals, and other radical oxygen species. Aerobic respiration is a series of metabolic reactions that occur in a cell in the presence of oxygen to convert chemical energy into ATP (Adenosine tri phosphate). Mitochondrial electron transport for respiration and cell metabolism obtain energy by ATP dependent synthesis. Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphoryl (PO 3 ) group to a molecule. In biological systems, this reaction is vital for the cellular storage and transfer of free energy using energy carrier molecules. Free radicals are neutralized by ROS. Neurohormone of insects have regulatory role in controlling oxidative stress. The ROS radical generating molecules are with major role in production of suproxide production of anion radical in mitochondtia is response to aerobic respiration for generating adenosine tri phosphate (ATP). Oxidative stress is produced during transfer of electrons toward electropositive components of proton gradient from across the cell membrane and is used to supply energy for cells. The process is used by plants to supply energy for plants in iron oxidation or phosphorylation, and chlorophyll Calvin cycle (Stickberger,P. 359).In this cycle the NAP (Nicotine amid adenine) is radically reduced from NADP. In this way ATP is formed in solar illuminated light reaction (Strickberger, 1996).

Environmental Stressors such as excessive heat or cold, natural enemies, pathogens, crowding and constant winds or other distressful conditions disturb insects in their habitat and may change their physiology by neurohormone secretions. These hormones are: Glucogon, Corazonin, Octopamine, Dopamine, Prothoracicotropic, Ecdysteroids, and Juvenile hormones. Pest outbreak (Barbosa and Schltz, 1987) and locust phase change affected by environmental stress is described in the following sections (Kodrik, 2015;[START_REF] Adamo | Why should an immune response activate the stress response? Insight from the insects (the cricket, Gryllus texensis)[END_REF]Hodjat, 2006).

SECTION I: GENERAL EFFECTS OF STRESS ON INSECTS

Stress is inflicted on insect herbivores by plant metabolites, pesticides, insect natural enemies, crowding, food deficiency or unsuitable climate. Long time persistence of stress after a few generations leaves genetic mark on some insect populations and resistant genotype with new traits appear in their population. Insects and plants had a long history of coexisting and evolution. Plants need insects for pollination or pruning and insect herbivore starve to death if they wipe out their host plants. Insect efficient immunity, hormonal secretions, adaptation and fluctuating asymmetry are factors helping them to survival. Examples of insect stress effects in their relationships with plants are described as follows:

1-1: stress affecting insects and crops Stressful conditions affect both crops and insect pests. At the end of spring when wheats are ripening and feeding on them becomes difficult for Eurygaster integriceps they enter to aestivation with a very low metabolism. They have increased their fat body by spring nourishment on wheat and enter diapause by refuging to the roots in cool mounttai areas. In Ahwaz region of south west Iran aphids increase their number rapidly from November to April. Sudden temperature increase at the end of March change most aphids to wing form and they fly to be carried by wind currents to cooler climatic conditions (Hodjat, 1933;Hodjat, 2022). Life cycle adjustment to stressful environment is an evolutionary reaction for adaptation which happens to help insect to overcome oxidative stress effects. Quick reaction to sever climate change by life cycle adaptation is called rapid evolution [START_REF] Pelissie | Rapid evolution in insect Pests: the importance of space and time in population genomic studies[END_REF].

Rising temperature and atmospheric level of CO 2 increase the rapid conversion of minerals to sugar and starch by increasing photosynthesis in plants.

In contrast reduction of CO 2 , precipitation and soil humidity will reduce plant development and nutrition deficiency that affects reproduction of insect pests [START_REF] Jiang | Molecular elements unvolved in locust olfaction: Gene families Involved in the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria[END_REF]. Chewing insects are more affected by starvation stress by 10% reduction of CO 2 . Fungal and blight diseases are also increased in the cultivated plants (Rumbidzal et al, 2017). Malnourishment and environmental stress can changes the morphology and physiology of insects. It may also cause fluctuating asymmetry in some genotypes within the population of insect species [START_REF] Moller | Asymmetry, developmental instability and Evolution Oxfort Series in Ecology and Evolution[END_REF]. In some cases insect pest feed more on weak stressed plants and need to increase their feeding ot damage to crops. Sometimes high populations of hungry insects will produce outbreaks. Larvae of armyworm species and locust hoppers in reaction to crowding, heat and hunger stress walk together in search of food. Laboratory rearing of cotton stainer, armyworms or egg parasite (Telenomus) of Eurygaster integriceps are lazy to move or lose their flight ability when constantly provided with food but become active after stress [START_REF] Safavi | Progress in Biological control of Sun pest[END_REF][START_REF] Hodjat | The effects of crowding on the survival, rate of development, size, colour and fecundity of D. fasciatus Sign (Hem. Pyrrhocoridae) in the laboratory[END_REF].

1-2: Stress and Pest outbreak

The history of insects feeding on plants started about 10000 years ago when crop selection was started by man. The first step for insets to feed on crops is to neutralize plant secondary defense. There are several suggestions about reasons for some insect pest reaching an outbreak. It was first suggested that in relation to local climate and ecosystem certain crops that are dominantly grown in an area one pest that is adapted to feeding on that crop is reaching an outbreak by rapidly increasing their numbers. Genetic adaptation and trophic interactions in food webs were responsible for an insect outbreak. Insect and plant relation is based on nourishment of insects from crops therefore if crops are not in healthy conditions insects need to use more crops to have sufficient food. Healthy plants have efficient power to regenerate and defend themselves from insect injuring them. Insect periodical outbreaks can reduce their food and their malnourishment can affect their body defense and reproduction. Experiment on impact of starvation immune defense of Epirrita automnata (Geometridae) have shown their starvation has prolonged the larval development. It also reduced pupae weight and significant reduction of female fecundity was also recorded. At the same time it reduced the ability of the moth to resist parsitoids and pathogens [START_REF] Yang | Impact of starvation on immune Defense and other life history traitd of an outbreaing Geometrid, Epirrita automnata; a possible cause trigger for the crsh phse of the population[END_REF]. To escape stressful life of outbreaks most insect pests either choose quiescence life of pupation or migrate as it happens for Schistocerca gregaria Forskal in Iran [START_REF] Popov | Investigations of suspected outbreak area of the Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria Forskal)nin Iran[END_REF]. Traits in insect population can produce adapted genotypes to feed on plants and is known to keep the evolutionary relationship between them. In theory the following model can predict a continuous challenge between them:

r=dN/Ndt = ∑ (N,G,F) The population growth rate (r) in time is related to sum of increased numbers (N), genetic (G) and favorability of local crop environment (F). For insect pest management monitoring a continuous inspection of the field before spraying pesticides and its effects on natural enemies is require. Changes in climate, habitat, or community structure may provide an insect population with a reproductive opportunity that enables them a rapid increase in population. Monoculture cultivation of crops and housing of livestock in modern rearing facilities are common practices in the US that lead to periodic insect outbreaks [START_REF] Taylor | Insect outbreaks and their management[END_REF].

There is a continuous war between plant as provider of food for insect and insect herbivores. Plants adapt to their environment and herbivores by changing their structures or physiology to prevent herbivores to feed on them. The morphological changes of plants are by increasing the leaves thickness, producing trichomes, hairs or spines. Insects neutralize plant secondary metsbolite by various hormones that enable them to feed on plants. This evolutionary process that sometimes rapidly change characters in both plants or insects are called the arm race between plant and herbivores. Among the common secondary metabolites produced by plants are phenols and other chemical elicitors. Phenols constitute one of the most common and widespread group of plant defensive compounds. Phenols act as a defensive mechanism not only against herbivores, but also against microorganisms and competing plants. Plant elicitors are used to escape them from insect damage or feeding on them.

Environmental stressors such as chemicals and metal ions are also responding by gene expression and enzymes. Beside reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as H 2 , H 2 O 2 , O 2 enzymes used to induce resistance in plants are: peroxidase (POD); Polyphenol oxidase (PPO): phenylalanine ammonia lyases (PAL): Tyrosine alanine ammonia liase (TAL): Ltpoxygenase (LOX): Suproxide dismutase (SOD): Ascorbate peroxide (APX): and Herbivore induced plant volatile (HIPVs) [START_REF] War | Mechanism of plant defense against insect herbivores[END_REF]. Abbreviations used for describing the secret weapons of insects to defend themselves are: Prophennol oxide (PO); Pattern recognition receptors (PRR): Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs): Pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPS): Dorsal related immunity factor (DIF): Down syndrome cell adhesion molecules (Dscam): Lipopolysacchrid (LPS): Transgenerational immune priming (TglP): Tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a): Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Plants and insects have been living together for about 350 million years and in coevolution plants responded to herbivores by various mechanisms such as production of new genotypes in response to insect attacks. The armrace between plant and insect herbivores produced complex plant metabolites against insects and various plant and insect enzymes to act as weapons against each other [START_REF] War | Mechanism of plant defense against insect herbivores[END_REF][START_REF] Sheehan | Immune priming: the secret weapon of the insect world[END_REF].

1-3: Insect starvation and stress

Stress of starvation simultaneously initiates a series of neural signals and hormone regulation processes in insects. These processes involve neurons or neuropeptides, immunity-related genes, levels of autophagy, heat shock proteins and juvenile hormone levels which maintain lower levels of physiological metabolic activity [START_REF] Zhang | Insect behavioral and Physiological adaptation mechanism under starvation stress[END_REF]. Insects have amazing adaptations that make each species unique in response to starvation stress. They can adapt to live in every environment imaginable with food shortage. Worker ants can search for food in deserts for more than a month without food. Morphological adaptations to starvation include evolutionary change in their mouth parts, they obtained ability to fly, changes in leg types, and body shapes. By changes their mouth parts they can eat at any available food at their disposal. Insect herbivores facing lack of sufficient host plant will activate their walking or flying organs to search for new feeding habitats or they produce new genotypes to feed on available hosts. Long term starvation of insect pests can involve neurons and their immunity related genes. Adaptive strategy for migratory locust to reduce the effects of hunger stress includes long distance migration by changing to gregarious phase. Insect diapause and variation in their life cycles have enabled them to become active for feeding exactly at times when their host plant and environmental conditions are suitable for feeding actively. A list of some insect adaptations to survive hunger stress is published by [START_REF] Zhang | Insect behavioral and Physiological adaptation mechanism under starvation stress[END_REF]. Staevation also affect the red color morph of Acyrthosiphon pisum to pale red [START_REF] Wang | Starvation stress causes body color change and pigment degredation in Acyrthosiphon pisum[END_REF].

1-4: Stress and locust outbreak

Important factors involved in locust phase changes are ecological and related to the abundance periodical winter rains in North Africa. Some of the permanent residential areas of locust solitary phase are known to be in these areas [START_REF] Uvarov | A revision of the genus Locusta with a new theory as to the periodicity and migration of locusts[END_REF]. Further research at previously known "Anti locust research center" [n London have created maps of locust outbreak in the world. Locust damage crops in the middle-east, North Africa and India. At periods of suitable seasons solitary locust can increase in numbers and after a few years they reach to transient phase. Therefore periodical increase or its outbreak was recorded on the world map for about forty years. Winter periodical locust outbreaks forecast was useful for many countries to prevent its damage. Further research on phase morphological, physiology and behavior change stimulate researchers to find reasons for insect pest outbreaks. The extending of research to pests in now "Centre or overseas pest research" resulted in discoveries of important findings as published by a group of scientists in 1917 [START_REF] Cullen | From molecules to management: Mechanism and consequences of Locust phase polymorphism[END_REF]. Crowding hoppers causes stimulation and marching in bands for gregarious phase [START_REF] Ellis | Changes in the social aggregation of locust hoppers with changes in rearing conditions[END_REF]. The same is happening for Spodoptera littoralis when crowded but isolated ones are sluggish and hardly move [START_REF] Hodjat | Effects of crowding on color, size and larval activity of Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)[END_REF]. Some other insects such as laboratory rearing of cotton stainer, armyworms or egg parasite of Eurygaster integriceps are lazy to move or lose their flight ability [START_REF] Brown | New evidence on the migration of moths of the African Armyworm Spodoptera exempta Walk. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)[END_REF][START_REF] Hodjat | The Effects of Crowding and Sublethal Doses of Insecticides on Dysdercus fasciatus Sign[END_REF]. Therefore stress produces plasticity in insects to enable them to adapt and survive their environmental conditions [START_REF] War | Using non model system to explore plant pollinator and plant herbivore interactions[END_REF]. Recent research show the importance of relating locust and other pest outbreak to body reaction in locust and other pest outbreaks [START_REF] Du | Locust density shapes energy metabolism and oxidative stress resulting in divergence of flight traits[END_REF]Barbosa and Shultz, 1987;Hodjat and Soleymannejad, 2022;Wang et al, 2014).

oxidative-stress by phosphoeilation and respiration induced free radicals that damage cell functions. Adipokinetic hormone (AKH) level in hemolymph is changing after stress. Flow of energy to flight muscles can activate locust to fly away from stressful conditions. It has been shown that locust sensory organs react to climate variation such as host plants. Locust activity increases in reaction crowding and other stressors (Hodjat, 2006). Crowded hoppers stimulated by the adipokinetic neurohormones (AKH) in the glandular lobes of the corpus cardiacum, a that is connected to the insect brain, crate energy to march together in the fields. Carbohydrate (therehalose) is mobilized from glycogen reserves. The hormone activation cause mobilization of carbohydrate and lipids changing triacylglycerol to diacylglycerol the high density lipophorin (HDLP) by corpora cardiacum signals to low density lipophrin (LDLP). By this process adult locusts can acquire flight energy from fat body for their muscles to migrate (Van Der Horst et al., 1999). Therefore Locust phase is a density dependent process in reaction to field environmental conditions. Flight muscles of solitary locusts with a higher catabolic capacity that is associated with greater ROS. By contrast a relatively lower catabolic capacity in gregarious locust is associated with lower ROS during long distance flight. The finding helps us to understand why solitary locusts are no migrating [START_REF] Du | Locust density shapes energy metabolism and oxidative stress resulting in divergence of flight traits[END_REF].

1-5: Stress and pest plasticity

Most insects in response to stressful surrounding conditions move away in search of more suitable places. Herbivorous winged insect species fly away in search of rich hosts that are selected by plant breeders. They are most attractive for providing them with abundant host nutrients. The most important factor in their field is to keep them away from insect pests and diseases. Checking plants during development and using traps around the fields are for informing the farmers about possible pest or disease infesting their crops. Aphids as a result of crowding or unsuitable food change to winged form and are easily trapped in yellow vessels filled with water. They are also caught in sticky traps. Finding the first adult noctuid pest is also an indication of their emergence from pupae. The first emergence of many moths in light trap also can revile the contamination of crop with the pest. Remote assessing of the crop by camera and machine learning can also help farmers for crop surveying. ML can predict weather an insect pest appeared at known temperature and relative humidity in the field. The output of the model for detection (value 1) and not derected (value 0) prediction are used for Helicoiveopra armigera infestation in the field (Markov et al, 2021). By field monitoring and forecasting system the pest and its damage can also determine the infestation of cotton bollworm based on image algorithms [START_REF] Liu | Field pest monitoring and forecasting system for pest control[END_REF]. ML can also predict the appearance of various insect pests in the field during crop deveopment.

Insects can only feed on their desired host plant after activation of genes by transcription. Insect traits are sharing the available resources between their populations. This yields to a prediction that whatever gene contributes positively to trait selected by an insect population increase their tolerance in their environment. In rapid climate change insect might take several ways to escape or adopt. Aphids rapidly change to wing by onset of warm weather in the spring. They fly away from their hosts and are blown away to above ground eights by air currents. They settle down in windless and cooler regions (Hodjat, 2022). Root aphids refuge to wet cooler underground regions around the roots (Leybourne et al, 2020). Desertification of lands and climatic changes forced insects to adapt and feed on available plants or crops or they become extinct [START_REF] Hodjat | A view on the historic and contemporary acridid fauna (Orthoptera: Caelifera: Acrididae) of Iran-A call for conservation efforts[END_REF]. Rarity or extinction of their natural host plants and insecticides killing their natural enemies are also another reason for insects to feed on local crops. For some pests their life cycle or changing host plants are established by genetic markers.

Various aspects of research activities are for understanding the genetic variation of local pest population distributions and the development of adaptive trait for feeding on available local plants. Insect responses to food deficiencies by hunger stress activate them to choose entering diapause or regulate their metabolism to improve their ability to endure hunger. They may produce genotypes that increase their tolerance to starvation. Physiological or neurohormone adaptations can increase their population to increase their population for becoming a pest [START_REF] Zhang | Insect behavioral and Physiological adaptation mechanism under starvation stress[END_REF]Barbosa and Schultz, 1987).

1-6: Stress and aphid migration

Many investigations indicate that drought stress affect the physiology of plant and reduces aphid fitnss (Leybourne et al, 2020;[START_REF] Dampe | Changes in aphid-plant interaction under increases temperature[END_REF]. Environmental stress such as heat or drought stress reduces both aphid and plant fitness. Plants also show reduced vigor and increased tissue concentration after infestation by aphids. Secondary metabolites concentration increases and reduces the aphid ability to feed on them. Malnourishment can affect aphid physiology and can change them to winged form for migration. Macrosiphum rosae actively feed on Rosa rugosa in the spring. After rise of temperature in the spring their development and reproduction is decreased. High temperatures affect oxidative phosphorylation and cellular respiration in plants and aphids. The damaged plant by aphids is not able to function normally and fetoxify radical oxy gen by phenols, peroxidase or polyphenol enzymes. Oxidative stress damage their leaves and shoots and plant lignification cause mal-nourishment and starvation of aphids. Aphid stress causes the appearance of many winged forms in their colony. Stresses aphids cannot produce antioxidant enzymes such as suproxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) or glutathione-S-transferase (GST) [START_REF] Dampe | Changes in aphid-plant interaction under increases temperature[END_REF].

Adaptation to environmental stress in aphids depends to the severity and duration of stress. Parental genetic inheritance and epigenetic transgenerational traits can produce plasticity in genetic makeup of aphid population adapting to new surrounding conditions. It also indicates changes in the degree of aphid survival. Traits and aphid plasticity is causing variations in life history, morphology and biology of aphids.

After environmental effects of stress resistance returns to normal, it may take a hundred aphid generations to return to their previous traits. Trait effects and life cycle change within the life period are regarded as reversible plasticity. When environmental stress produce epigenetic effects for short periods of less than 5-10 generations the situation may change to normal after this period. In case of longer lasting stress after up to hundred generations the trait can produce genetic adaptation and evolution produce permanent change (kristensen et al, 2018).

The foliar soluble constituents of cotton and the life history of the cotton aphid Aphis gossypii and its mean relative growth rate (MRGR) and feeding behavior were measured, as well as the relative transcript levels of target genes related appetite, salivary proteins, molting hormone (MH), and juvenile hormone, to investigate the fitness of A. gossypii in response to elevated CO2 (800 ppm vs. 400 ppm). The results indicated that elevated CO2 significantly stimulated the increase in concentrations of soluble proteins in the leaf and sucrose [START_REF] Jiang | Molecular elements unvolved in locust olfaction: Gene families Involved in the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria[END_REF].

2-Stress and insect immunity

Insects are equipped with two types of immunity systems. The immune system identifies pathogens in insects by Hemocytes such as plsmatocytes, granulocytes, coagulocytes, spherocytes or oenocytes. Humeral immune system in insects responds to pathogens by production of anti-microbial peptids such as lysozymes or melanin. Oxidative stress help insect to increase their defense power by different metabolies and help them to escape from spreading their disease. Adipokinetic hormone is also involved in the control of oxidative stress defense reactions by regulating neurodegenerative diseases in man such as Parkinson's and Alzhimer (Kodrich, 2015;[START_REF] Manolopoulos | Linking Alzheimer's disease to insulin resistance: the FoxO response to oxidative stress[END_REF]. In insects sublethal dose of pathogen leads to elevation of immune response. Physical stress such as high temperatures can induce increase in the expression of adonesine monophosphate (AMPs} and the density of circulating hemocytes in Galeria melonella [START_REF] Sheehan | Immune priming: the secret weapon of the insect world[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Reactive oxygen species extend insect life span using Components of the insulin-signaling pathway[END_REF].

In the first figure of [START_REF] Sheehan | Immune priming: the secret weapon of the insect world[END_REF] publication the detail pathways show a comparison between invertebrate and mammalian immunity signals by Toll-llke receptors. These receptors are from a family of recptors that provide crucial link between stimulation produced by microorganisms and interactions to the host defenses. Activation of toll receptors release antimicrobial peptids. The pathway of information to the inside of cell from its membrane and between cells is mediated by FoxO transcription factor for regulating man bone cell functions (Zhang et al, 207;[START_REF] Ma | The roles of FoxO transcription factors in regulation of bone Cells function[END_REF]2020;Kodrick et al, 2015;[START_REF] Sheehan | Immune priming: the secret weapon of the insect world[END_REF].

2-1: Insect Immunity and resistance to stress

Any unsuitable plant metabolite acts similar to pesticides and insect pest should neutralize their effects. Insects are also subject to diseases and infections by microbes and their immune system reacts to the foreign organisms. Bacterial symbionts in insect help them to recover from disease or stress. The innate immune system consists of interconnected cellular and humeral receptors. The germ line is encountered to associated Pattern recognition receptors (PRR) between closely related microbes. Immune system in vertebrates responding to pathogens encountered through the process of somatic recombination. The insect innate immune response develops specifically against only a small fraction of pathogenic challenges. When larvae were infected by Escherichia coli they prepare the insect immune system for defense against other pathogens. When queen of honeybee was injected by Paenilabacillus larvae pathogen their progeny were survived because of haemocyte's defense activation. Parasitic recognition of Bombuds trrestris is highly developed for defense against three species of Pseudomonas (Cooper and Eleftherianos, 2017;Sheehan et al, 2019). Innate immune responses of insect to pathogens at sublethal dose exposure possess qualities of protection due to genetically innate memory. It consists of fat body that secretes effective molecules into the haemolymph. New genotypes appearing in infected area have better chance to survive (Cooper and Eleftherianos, 2017).

Desertification of lands and climatic changes forced insects to adapt and feed on available plants or crops or they become extinct [START_REF] Hodjat | Variation, plasticity and possible epigenetic Infkuences in species belonging to the tribe Gomphocerini (Orthoptera; Gomphocerinae): A review[END_REF]. Rarity or extinction of their natural host plants and insecticides killing their natural enemies are also another reason for grasshoppers feeding on rare local plants (Hojat and Husemann, 2019). For some pests their life cycle are changing in reaction to climate and localities. Molecular changes in insects are established by fixing genetic markers. Genetic markers are piece of DNA with easily identified phenotype. Various aspects of research activities are for understanding the genetic variation of local insect pest populations. They have evolved outbreak characters by adaptation and fixing adaptive trait genes in their population. The genetic marker can produce destructive insect character trait in suitable ecological conditions. Genetic markers are affecting population characters and change their phylogenetic. Genetic and epigenetic or other molecular function for insect adaptation to crops by genetic marker, hormones and mechanism of AKH action in stress response and the role ofFoxO (Kozek et al, 2020). The neurohormones are the master regulators of all life processes in insects and they create a strategy of stress protecting events. Neurohormones are synthesized mainly in insect brain neurosecretory neurons.

The function of adaptive immune responses is to destroy invading pathogens and any toxic molecules they produce. Because these responses are destructive, it is crucial that they be made only in response to molecules that are foreign to the host and not to the molecules of the host itself. The effect of Brazilian forest anthropogeneic disturbances on Drosophila mediopunctata populations by analyzing their adaptive and neutral marker can measure genetic diversity of its different populations by calculating their mean allele numbers per locus. The effects of forest fragmentation on their chromosomal polymorphism by cluster analysis revealed the distance of in chromosomal inversions between populations [START_REF] Batista | Comparative analysis of adaptive and neutral markers of Drosophila mediopunctata populations dispersed among forest fragments[END_REF]).

2-2; Stress and Immune Priming:

Immune priming (refer to glossary) is an ability to withstand stress in future generations. In some insects it is mediated by an increase in elements of the cellular and humeral immune responses. Interconnected cellular and humeral defenses can quickly identify and destroy their pathogens. The cellular hemocytes can phagocytose, immobilize or entrap pathogens. A wide range of hemocytes such as plasmatocytes, granulocytes and other immune cells exist in insect pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS). Humeral immune responses are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as lysozymes that kill bacteria. Similarities between immune system of invertebrates and mammalians show that insects do not have antibody adaptive immune response but by immune priming of the humeral system and target of rapidomycine they recognize stress and pathogen attack in the next generation. The innate and adaptive immune system is distinguished by blood cells during the subsequent infections [START_REF] Sheehan | Immune priming: the secret weapon of the insect world[END_REF].

Insects have a rapid and highly effective response to environmental stress and toxic chemicals in their food. Their Immune system is responding to heat or cold to regulate their respiration and metabolism. ATP independent Hsp 70, Hsp 90, and Hsp 60 activate protein folding in endoplasmic reticulum and maintain cell homeostasis with substitute proteins. Plant defenses against insects evolved to increase their ability to feed on suitable host plants. Genotype variation can create suitable traits after selection and adaptation in their population [START_REF] War | Using non model system to explore plant pollinator and plant herbivore interactions[END_REF]. Figure one of Kodrik et al, 2015 explains the author hypothesis of insect brain transmission of oxidative stress through corpora cariaca (CC) to G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) to cell sitoplasm by (Gs) and (Gq) to phospholipase C (PLC) that affect Adipokinetic (AKt) and phosphorous (P3) or the target of ropamycin (TOR). Akt and TOR relation to cell nucleus affects transcription of anti-oxidant genes (Cyp40) for DNA protection or repair. Therefore FoxO act as activation of phospholipase C(PLC) and lead elevation of IP3 and protein kinase B (Akt). Protein kinase B causes phosphorelation of FoxO and masks the nuclear localization signal. Activation of N-terminal kinase (JNK) under OS conditions affects FoxO and leads to its phosphorylation. Manganese peroxide dismutase (Mnp4e2) is the mechanism for FoxO to face oxidative stress resistance. Gene encoding cytochrome P450 enzyme responsive protein is with responsive proteins such as sestrin. Bold arrows in the figure are known pathways but dashed arrows are hypothetical athways (Kodrik et al, 2015).

2-3: Stress and adipokinetic hormone (AKHs):

The damage of agricultural insect pests to crops can vary with the insect species, crop types, climate, and cultural practice. Locust and army worm reaction to environmental stress many cause their outbreak by crowding stress (Barbosa and Schultzm Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is an example of opportunistic pest that is rare and live on dispersed local plants in their distribution area as solitary form. They are with more cryptic green color. In rainy winter of the middle east and North Africa grasses grow and provide sufficient foo to increase their populations. Crowded hoppers become darker and they increase their activity. These are the first signals for producing gregarious phase. They have the ability to learn and react to their environmental conditions (Culln et al;2017: Simones et al;2921).

The expression of heat shock protein (HSP) genes is caused by sudden changes of temperature, crowding or anoxia stress. By diapause, migration or choosing cooler regions insects escape from harmful stressIn response to stress ATP-independent heat shock proteins, HSP 70, HSP 90, and HSP 60 change folding in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and maintain ATP concentration that can change tolerance of insect to stressors (King and MacRac, 2015). Immune priming response also leads insects to become resistance to stress [START_REF] Sheehan | Immune priming: the secret weapon of the insect world[END_REF].

2-4: Traits and escaping from stress:

Life history variation is an important trait for survival in insect pests. Variation in temperature at the end of summer may change the time for insect pests to enter diapause that can increase or decrease their number of generation per year. Adaptation to environmental cues has consequences of oxidative stress. Cellular respiration increase metabolism and reactive oxygen species (ROS) which is regulated by activation of MAP (Mitogen-Activated-Protein-Kinase). The whole scenario of kinase, cell functions, and cell metabolism is explained in detail by Isakson et al., 2011. Antimicrobial pathways in gut are activated by immunity defense (Imd) cells. Gut anti-microbial sensors (AMP) are triggered when the bacterial cell components i.e. diaminopimelic acid (DAP) type peptidoglycan (PG)recognition proteins (PGRPs) in the host membrane is recognized by the PG. Hypothesized effects of Wolbachia intercellular bacteria of insects on their immune system is described by Zug and Hammerstein (2015). Stress lipid transport proteins are involved. It can alter immune system strategies by changing the function in different physiological processes (Kodrik et al, 2015).

Genetic and epigenetic markers are responsible in creation of new characters such as the life cycle trait in insect population. Common genetic marker influencing genome of aphids to change their traits and are taxonomic markers that with broad spectrum of mtDNA tool can substitute enzyme to diverge physiological characters. With parthenogenetic reproduction and selection it may change the attraction of some populations to a new host plant. Different regions in CO1 gene family evolved at various rates. The pattern of CO1 sequence variability is associated with the environmental functional constraints on transcription of mtDNA proteins [START_REF] Kirk | Molecular genomics and genomics generate new insights into invertebrate pest invasions[END_REF].

2-5; FoxO and cell defense:

Forkedhead box class O family proteins (FoxO) translate environmental signaling into gene expression. FoxO critically control fundamental cellular processes including metabolism, cell differentiation, cell cycle arrest, DNA repair, and other reactions of environmental stress to cells. In other words FoxO factors sense the balance between stimuli promoting growth and differentiation versus stress stimuli signaling damage. FoxO system decides on cell fate for proliferation, differentiation, or apoptosis. Activation of adenylate cyclase (AC) by AKH through G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) leads to an elevation of adenosine 3 ' ,5 ' monophosphate (cAMP), which can directly affect FoxO. The exact mechanism of FoxO and AKH interaction to maintain cell homeostasis needs detailed studies. In pancreatic beta cells, most recent evidence highlights complex FoxO-dependent responses to glucose, insulin, or other growth factors, which include regulatory feedback [START_REF] Zhang | Reactive oxygen species extend insect life span using Components of the insulin-signaling pathway[END_REF]. FoxO-dependent mechanisms help beta cells to accomplish their endocrine function and may increase their resistance to oxidative stress due to transient hyperglycemia. FoxO-dependent responses lead to the adaptation of beta cell mass, conditioning the future ability of the organism to produce insulin and cope with changes in fuel abundance (Kodrik et al, 2015).

Oxidative stress is involving FoxO extracellular antioxidant enzyme such as manganese-suproxide regulate ROS production. It activate c-jun N-terminal kinase in cells and signal for wingless (Wnt) protein phosphorylation. The process of FoxO in cytoplasm andwing protein that causes Alzheimer disease plaques in brain are expressed by cellular genes [START_REF] Manolopoulos | Linking Alzheimer's disease to insulin resistance: the FoxO response to oxidative stress[END_REF].

3: Stress and fluctuating asymmetry (FA)

A general text book on Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) describes symmetry is the normal shape of insects. Stress inflicted to insects by environmental conditions produce morphological asymmetry. They may have evolutionary origin and produce differences in morphology of two sides of the body (Moller and Swaddle). Morphometric tool used to measure developmental instability insect symmetry can have an origin in exposure to stress. Detail studies on grasshopper morphology and Periodical Cicada life cycle and morphology also can vary between species and location of emergence or habitats. Environmental instability can induce developmental asymmetry on these insects [START_REF] Beasley | Insects as indicators of environmental stress[END_REF]. Chagas disease is caused by a protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The parasite is transmitted by Triatoma infestans (Klug, 1834) by sucking blood from human or domestic animals. It is found only in South Americas rural areas of where poverty is widespread. Chagas disease is also referred to as American trypanosomiasis. The FA differences of this insect from two geographic areas in Andean valleys and Huacaya were studied in the laboratory by measuring FA and comparing results of morphological differences with other areas. It was found that the population from Yamparaez had higher FA. The asymmetry produced was the effects of combination differences in environmental effects between the population of Huacaya and other Bolivian districts [START_REF] Vilaseca | Insect Fluctuating Asymmetry: An example in Bolivian peridomestic Populations of Triatoma infestans (Klug, 1834) (Hemiptera: Reduviidae)[END_REF]. Many insect species are very sitive to environmental stress and quickly react to stress through changes in metabolism and morphology. In a current update of research related to bed bug stress tolerance and their ability to resist stressful conditions. The current update of research related to bed bug stress tolerance and how their ability to resist stressful conditions has lead researchers to search for the relation of stress effects on FA. Bed bugs after a few generations of living in stressful conditions have deviated some of their characters to adapt. The deviations a shown from symmetry or fluctuating asymmetry (FA) can be regarded as tolerance to environmental stress [START_REF] Benoit | Stress tolerance of bed bugs: A review of factors that cause Trauma to Cimex lectularius and C. Hemipterus[END_REF].

3-1; Adaptation to stress

Most insects living in stressful environment of food shortage, extreme temperature and drought die and are not found in their habitats. Grasshoppers, butterflies ants, beetles and many other insects are keeping equilibrium in our habitats and indicate the healthy ecosystem that need protection. Locust and grasshopper species of Iran grasshoppers are not found in recent orthopteran surveys in Iran. Acridinae, Tetriginae, Gomphocerinae and Pamphaginae species of Iran was surveyed by Uvarov, 1933, Bey-Bienko, 1948, Sumakov and recentlyGarai 2010and Hodjat et al, 2018. Comparison of historical and recent list show they have seriously declined especially specirs in Acridinae, Gomphocerinae and Pyrgomorphidinae [START_REF] Hodjat | A view on the historic and contemporary acridid fauna (Orthoptera: Caelifera: Acrididae) of Iran-A call for conservation efforts[END_REF].

The classical resistance and adaptation to stressful environment is selection by heritability to stress i.e. R=h 2 S. In this expression R is response to stress. Genom study tools have enable insights in finding the trace of stress effects in producing plasticity in next generation and tracing its effects in future population heredity. R max =2N e h 2 G p . This equation show that the phenotypic standard deviation (G p ) of an insect local population (N e ) adaptation inheritance. Therefore plasticity and appearance of new resistant genotypes to stress can increase their adaptation chance [START_REF] Kristensen | Adaptation to environmental stress at different time scale[END_REF].

Oxidative stress and aging process is studied on the effects of stress in cell metabolism. Oxidative stress increases the concentration of 8OHdG or 8hydroxydeoxyguanosine that was taken as indicator of oxidative phosphorylation and stress. The level of 8OHdG was raised after flies were subject to X-rays and hypoxia, which increased the total damaged DNA in older flies. Mitochondrial damage by reaction to oxidative stress is mainly susceptible to age related phosphorylation in older flies that have decreased their activity less remaining life span. Flies life span was decreased by increasing the concentration of 8OHdG [START_REF] Agarwal | DNA oxidative damage and life Expectancy in houseflies[END_REF]. There is a link between respiration, obtaining energy (ATP) and the production of reactive oxygen specie (ROS). Metabolism uses oxygen as electron acceptor during ATP production. Reactive oxygen leakage of ROS can damage biomolecules and after a life period it causes death (free radical theory of aging). The detoxification antioxidants such as glutathione (GSH) and antioxidant enzymes are repair mechanism. Insect defense mechanism can combat ROS by dietary antioxidants and cellular signaling. Signals are markers that may detect patterns of local adaptation due to environmental stress. By selection or appearance of new genotypes it may lead to divergence of characters and selection for resistant populations. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow are the mechanisms that cause changes in allele frequencies over time. Adaptive variants influence the phenotype and fitness of the organisms that carry them; neutral variants, on the other hand, are selectively neutral [START_REF] Isaksson | The challenge of integrating oxidative stress into life-histoty biology[END_REF]Kodrik, 2015).

Stressors such as heat, crowding and anoxia affect the cell homeostasis by interaction with substrate proteins disrupt protein synthesis. Insect after heat shock stress may sequester rather than fold proteins. The proteins contribute to their survival throughout normal growth of insect and when under stress. In other words they regulate and facilitate their survival from stress during the diapause. Stress induced expression of heat shock protein genes interfere within stress response to dormancy and insect life cycle in response to surrounding temperature (King and MacRac, 2015).

4-2; Stress effects on genome:

Methylation of DNA is an epigenetic mechanism to regulate activity of large proteins of genome and can suppress stress effects on organism. Pathways of DNA methylation is histone with genomic influence. Four different producing stress responses are by tissue culture, pathogen attack, transposon and abiotic stress. The bulk of insect genome consists of repetitive DNA sequence coordinating genome expression with cell size. For defending plant against abiotic or stress of insect feeding on them they produce a hardened thick layer of skin or callus. Long terminal repeat (LTR) retransposon is inserted a head to head configuration that results in producing double strand (dsRNA) elements [START_REF] Madlung | The effect of stress on genome regulation and Structure[END_REF].

Insect genome studies also have revealed that starvation resistance for invasive small hive beetle (Aethina tumida: Nitidulidae) is common in some of their African endemic populations. Starvation resistance is by diet change, plasticity and selection of some genotypes in their population [START_REF] Papach | Evolution of starvation resistance in an invasive insect species, Aethina tumida (Coleoptera:Nitidulidae)[END_REF]. Genome studies of cowpea pest Maruca vitrata (Lepidoptera; Crambidae) in West Africa has indicated that its various genotypes need different strategies for their control Hodjat, 2022;Agubiade et al, 2012). Plant phenolics are a group of important secondary metabolites that are toxic to many animals and insects if ingested at high concentrations. Because most insects consume plant phenolics daily, they have likely evolved the capacity to detoxify these compounds.

DISCUSSION

Oxidative stress influence CNS and causes cell to increase genome defense in insect's next generations. The reactions of environmental stressors to insects are to produce new genotypes in their populations that can fix new adapted pest insect. Stress activates the endocrine system and neurosecretary cells to increase their resistance. Juvenile hormones of corpora cardiac (CC), and movement activity signals to corpora allata (CA) secrets family of metabolic neuruhormones that their peptids activate AKH and provide energy for flight or escaping away stress. Elevation of AKH in hemolymph varies in different insect species and the reaction to escape from stress effects. Variation is caused by changing climate, increasing emperature, precipitation and extreme weather. Response of insect pests and diseases is their local outbreaks and damages to crops. Dry periods increase insect and crop viral diseases while wet periods encourage fungal and bacterial diseases in crops. Soil fungal pathogens such as fusarium and Microchium are increased in cooler climates [START_REF] Katsaruware-Chapoto | Responses of Insect pests and plant diseases to changing and variable climate: A review[END_REF].

Locust phase and reasons for their change to gregarious migrant destructive forms is discussed by many authors [START_REF] Loof | Molecular markers of phase transmission in locusts[END_REF]Cuulen, 2017). Recent investigations indicate that crowding Schistocerca gregaria hoppers reveal marching behavior and adults with lower ROS can causing gregarization and phase change [START_REF] Du | Locust density shapes energy metabolism and oxidative stress resulting in divergence of flight traits[END_REF]. Relation between stressors of unsuitable habitat and ecological stress is known to be reasons for pest outbreaks (Barbosa and Schults).

Biommarkers remained in cell by OS such as catalase (CAT), suproxide dismutase (SOD), and free radical scavengers are all helping defense system of insect to genetically acquire a heritable defense against stress in their environment. The DNA oxidative damage of OS is indicated by hydroxydioxy guanosine (80HDG). Mitochondrial DNA of insect are three times more susceptible to age related OS than other Arthropods [START_REF] Agarwal | DNA oxidative damage and life Expectancy in houseflies[END_REF]: Kadrik et al, 2015). Both types of stressors can affect insect respiratory organs an in general it is not easy to separate their effects on insects.

Theory of aging and its relation to oxidative stress seems to work with many living organism and may be related to their longevity. In flies and some insects stress related radicals prolong their diapause, reduced their activity or forced them to fly away from stressful conditions. Perhaps this is why insects are more successful in reaction to stress and diversified to live in vast different ecosystems.

SECTION II: STRESS EFFECTS ON DESTRUCTIVE AND USEFUL INSECT SPECIES

The second section will be presented to HAL after completion.

GLOSSARY:

(Mainly from internet) Adaptive immune system: The common use of immune responses for destroying invading pathogens and any toxic molecules they produce. Because these responses are destructive, it is crucial that they be made only in response to molecules that are foreign to the host and not to the molecules of the host itself.

Antigen : Molecule or molecular structure or any foreign particulate matter or a pollen grain that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response Anti Parasite Defenses: Traditionally, most studies on anti-parasite defenses have focused on physiological and genetic mechanisms that prevent or reduce infection. In insects, these mechanisms include phagocytosis, melanization, encapsulation, coagulation and production of antimicrobial peptides Baculoviridae is a family of viruses. Arthropods, among the most studied being Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, serve as natural hosts. Currently, 85 species are placed in this family, assigned to four genera. Baculoviruses are known to infect insects, with over 600 host species having been described.

Difensins:

A group of cysteine-rich cationic peptids that contain several disulfide bridge and cercopins. They are amphipathic alpha-helical AMPs of 11 amino-acids in length that have the ability to target and kill bacteria and filamentous fungi.

Lysis:

The breaking down of the membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a lysate.

Melanization: Regulation of insect defense system due to production of toxic and reactive compounds in haemolymph. They are carefully regulated in various steps that finally produce melanin. Prophenoloxide (Pro Po) system is similar to melanization of vertebrates. They both produce cytotoxic and opsonic compounds.

Insect Immunity Deficiency: (IMD) is recognizing component of bacterial cell cell wall such as activation of peptids necrosis factor.

Insect immune mechanism:

The humoral immune response of insects involves the production of antimicrobial peptides by hemocytes and cells of the fat body and the production of melanin. Insects produce a wide range of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and these can display potent antibacterial and/or antifungal activity.

Forkhead box O (FOX0): functions as the terminal transcription factor of the insulin signaling pathway and regulates multiple physiological processes in many organisms, including lifespan in insects. However, howFoxO interacts with hormone signaling to modulate insect growth and development is largely unknown. TheFoxO transcription factor control insect growth.

FOXO proteins are a subgroup of the Forkhead family of transcription factors. This family is characterized by a conserved DNA-binding domain. They are suppresses endoplasmic reticulum under nutrient restriction members of class O (FOXOproteins) regulate metabolism, cellular proliferation, stress tolerance and possibly lifespan.

Gram positive: Kinds of bacteria with a thick peptidoglycan layer and no outer lipid membrane. Gram negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer.

Genetics relation to stress:

The major findings regarding the response and stress-related disorders are: (1) variations in genes involved in the sympathetic system or in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis are associated with altered stress responses, (2) genes relation to immune response and, (3) genes involved neurotransmitter systems.

Homology: similarity of the structure, physiology, or development of different species or organisms based upon their descent from a common ancestor. Heterologous is dissimilarity in; Structure; Gene expression H0st Plant Resistance: Plant defense against herbivory or host-plant resistance (HPR) describes a range of adaptations evolved by plants which improve their survival and reproduction by reducing the impact of herbivores. Plants can sense being touched, and they can use several strategies to defend against damage caused by herbivores.

Hyperglycemia: High blood glucose level. Hyperglycemia is postulated to induce free radicals and impairs endogenous anti-oxidant defense system.

Humoral immunity: It produces antigen-specific antibodies and is primarily driven by B cells. Cell-mediated immunity in insects does not depend on antibodies for its adaptive immune functions and is primarily driven by mature T cells, macrophages and the release of cytokines in response to an antigen.

Imd pathway:

Imd is Immune deficiency pathway gene. It means a broadlyconserved NF-κB immune signaling pathway of insects and some arthropods that regulate a potent antibacterial defense response. The pathway is named after the discovery of a mutation causing severe immune deficiency (the gene was named "Imd" for "immune deficiency") Immune priming: It gives some insects the ability to withstand potentially lethal infections if previously exposed to a sub-lethal inoculum or a stress event. It is mediated by an increase in elements of the cellular and humoral immune responses but it is not found in all insect species. Innate, or nonspecific, immunity: the defense system with which you were born. It protects you against all antigens. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers form the first line of defense in the immune response.

Insect antibody: Antibodies expressed in all insect cell lines displayed highly specific antigen binding. In general, the insect-produced antibodies carried, as the CHO-produced form, fucosylated N-glycans, including, in the case of "High Five" cells, high levels of core α1,3-fucose.

Kinases: Kinases are used extensively to transmit signals and regulate complex processes in cells. Phosphorylation of molecules can enhance or inhibit their activity and modulate their ability to interact with other molecules NF-kB=Nuclear Factor-kappa B: The transcription factor NF-κB regulates multiple aspects of innate and adaptive immune functions and serves as a pivotal mediator of inflammatory responses.

Oxidative stress in plants: occurs when crop plants are exposed to extreme abiotic conditions that lead to the excessive production and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are a class of receptors that can directly recognize the specific molecular structures on the surface of pathogens, apoptotic host cells, and damaged senescent cells. PRRs bridge nonspecific immunity and specific immunity.

Plant Elicitors are compounds that can activate plant chemical defense. Various biosynthetic pathways are activated in treated plants depending on the compound used.

Phosphorylation:

The addition of a phosphoryl (PO 3 ) group to a molecule. In biological systems, this reaction is vital for the cellular storage and transfer of free energy using energy carrier molecules.

Toll like receptors: (TLRs), are a group of type 1 transe-membrane receptors that play a role in innate humeral immunity in both insects and mammals.


The physical Church thesis and the sensitivity to initial conditions

Gilles Dowek

The physical Church thesis is a thesis about nature that expresses that all that can be computed by a physical system -a machine -is computable in the sense of computability theory. At a first look, this thesis seems contradictory with the existence, in nature, of chaotic dynamical systems, that is systems whose evolution cannot be "computed" because of their sensitivity to initial conditions.

The goal of this note is to show that there exist dynamical systems that are both computable and chaotic, and thus that the existence in nature of chaotic dynamical system is not, per se, a refutation of the physical Church thesis. Thus, chaos seems to be compatible with computability, in the same way as it is compatible with determinism.

The notion of computable function 1.Computability over the natural numbers

Several equivalent definitions of the notion of computable function may be given. One of the simplest is to define inductively a family (C p ) p where C p is a set of partial functions from N p to N by the six following rules

• the functions x 1 , ..., x p → x i are elements of C p , • the function x 1 , ..., x p → 0 is an element of C p , • the function x → x + 1 is an element of C 1 ,
• if f is an element of C q and g 1 , ..., g q are elements of C p then the composition of f and g 1 , ..., g q , that is the function

x 1 , ..., x p → f (g 1 (x 1 , ..., x p ), ..., g q (x 1 , ..., x p )) is an element of C p ,
• if f is an element of C p and g an element of C p+2 then the function h defined by induction as follows

h(x 1 , ..., x p , 0) = f (x 1 , ..., x p ) h(x 1 , ..., x p , y + 1) = g(x 1 , ..., x p , y, h(x 1 , ..., x n , y)) is an element of C p+1 ,
• if f is an element of C p+1 then the function g defined by g(x 1 , ...x n ) = y if f (x 1 , ..., x n , y) = 0 and for all z < y f (x 1 , ..., x n , z) ̸ = 0 is an element of C p .

In this last case, the function f is not defined in x 1 , ..., x p if the function z → f (x 1 , ..., x n , z) never takes the value 0.

Computability on rational numbers

The notion of computability extends easily to rational numbers. Let α be the injection from N 2 to N defined by α(n, p) = (n+p)(n+p+1)/2+p. We define an injection π from Q to N by π(r) = α(α(sgn(r), num(r)), den(r)) where sgn(r) is the sign of r -0 or 1 -, num(r) is the numerator of its reduced form and den(r) its denominator. A partial function f from Q p to Q is said to be computable if the partial function from N p to N mapping π(x 1 ), ..., π(x n ) to π(f (x 1 , ..., x n )) is computable. At a first look, this definition depends of the chosen injection π from Q to N. In fact, it can easily proved that this is not the case. If π ′ is another injection from Q to N such that the function that map π ′ (x) and π ′ (y) to π ′ (x + y) and that that maps π ′ (x) and π ′ (y) to π ′ (xy) are computable, then the set of computable functions from Q p to Q defined with the injection π ′ is the same as that defined with the injection π.

Computability on real numbers

The extension of the notion of computability to real numbers is less obvious, because the set of real numbers, unlike that of rational numbers, is not countable. A possible definition, that is equivalent to the classical definition of Grzegorczyk and Lacombe [START_REF] Pour-El | Computability in Analysis and Physics[END_REF], is that a function g from an interval I of R to R is computable if there exists a computable function G from Q × Q to Q and a computable function η from the set of strictly positive rational numbers to itself, such that

|x -q| ≤ η(ε) ⇒ |g(x) -G(ε, q)| ≤ ε
In other words, to compute the value of g(x) we must first chose a accuracy ε with which we want to know the value of g(x). We must then apply the function η to ε to get the accuracy with which we are required to supply the argument x. Then, we apply the function G to ε and to a rational approximation q of x with an accuracy η(ε) and we get the desired result. Repeating this process, we can obtain approximations of the value of g(x) as accurate as we want, provided we can supply arbitrarily accurate approximations of x.

We can notice that a computable function from an interval I to R is uniformly continuous on I.

Non deterministic algorithms

Let us finally mention another extension of the notion of computable function that we will need. A non necessarily functional binary relation R is said to be computable if the function that maps x to the set of y's such that x R y is computable. This requires to define a notion of computable function taking values in a set of sets. Several solutions exist, depending on the cardinals of these sets and on the nature of their elements.

The physical Church thesis

Stating the physical Church thesis requires to consider a dynamical physical system, that is a system whose state evolves in time. Time can be discrete or continuous. The state of the system can be described by one or more discrete or continuous variables. It may be directly accessible to measurement or not. It may evolve in a deterministic way or not.

We then consider the evolution of this system during a time interval that starts at a predefined date and finishes either at another predefined date or when the system satisfies, for the first time, a given property, that is itself computable -for instance, when one of its discrete variables describing its state takes for the first time a given value.

We consider the evolution of the system during various time intervals defined as above and for which the initial states are different.

The physical Church thesis states that, whatever the considered physical system is, the function -when the system is deterministic -or the relation -when it is not -that relates the initial state to the final state of the system is computable.

An example of chaotic and computable system

The existence, in nature, of chaotic dynamical systems, that is system whose evolution can not be "computed" because of its sensitivity to initial conditions seems to contradict the physical Church thesis.

In fact, as we shall see, there exist dynamical systems that are both chaotic and computable. To do so, we shall give a very simple example of such a system: the baker's transformation. It is a dynamical system with a discrete time, in which a point of coordinate x in [0, 1] moves in one time step to the coordinate b(x) where b is the function defined by

b(x) = 2x if x ≤ 1/2 b(x) = 2 -2x if x > 1/2
if the initial state of the system is x 0 , its state after n time units is thus b n (x 0 ). It is not difficult to prove that this system is chaotic: for all η, if two initial positions have a difference less than η, after some time, the positions may differ of an arbitrary value. Let η be an arbitrary strictly positive real number and a and a ′ two arbitrary real numbers in [0, 1]. Let n be an natural number such that 1/2 n ≤ η. The initial conditions x 0 = a/2 n and x ′ 0 = a ′ /2 n are such that |x 0 -x ′ 0 | ≤ η. However, after n time units, b n (x 0 ) = a and b n (x ′ 0 ) = a ′ . A very small difference in the initial conditions can thus change completely the state of the system after a certain time and knowing an approximation of the initial position, by a measurement for instance, does not allow to predict the evolution of the system, even approximately.

It is nevertheless elementary to prove that the function that maps an initial position x 0 of the physical point and a date n to the position of the physical point at the date n,

F = x 0 , n → b n (x 0 ), is a computable function from [0, 1]×N to [0, 1].
What makes this system non predictable is not the fact that the function F is not computable, but the fact that to have a reasonable approximation, let us say with an accuracy of 0.001, of the state of the system at a date n, it would be necessary to have an approximation of the initial position with an accuracy 0.001/2 n and that for large enough values of n, it becomes impossible to know this initial value by a measurement. It is therefore not the absence of algorithm that makes this system non predictable, but the absence of argument to supply to this algorithm.

It can be noticed that the construction of such an algorithm to which no argument can be supplied is a common practice. All the consistency proofs of a theory T (for instance, hyperbolic geometry) relatively to that of a theory U (for instance, euclidean geometry) that proceed by constructing an algorithm that would transform a proof of a contradiction in the theory T into a proof of a contradiction in the theory U , use such an algorithm.

The fact that no argument can be supplied to an algorithm does not mean that this algorithm does not exist.

Two alternative descriptions 4.1 Really discrete positions

The classical description of the baker's transformation describes the position of a physical point in motion by a real number. This can be criticized, assuming that, in reality, the position of a physical point can take only a finite number of values in the interval [0, 1] as it is the case in quantum physic, in some situations, for instance when the state space has a finite dimension, and as it is also the case, if we assume, like, for instance, Gandy [START_REF] Gandy | Church's Thesis and the Principles of Mechanisms[END_REF], that information has a finite density in nature, that is that a system of finite size can have only a finite number of possible states.

Under such a description, the baker's transformation is not sensitive to initial conditions, because if we call η the half of the minimal distance that separates two distinct possible states, the condition |x 0 -x ′ 0 | ≤ η is equivalent to x 0 = x ′ 0 . In this case, the function b that maps the state of the dynamical system at a given time, to its state at the next time step is a function of finite domain and thus it is computable. The function that maps the initial position x 0 of the physical point and the date n to the position of the physical point at the date n, F = x 0 , n → b n (x 0 ), is thus also computable.

Discretely perceived positions

Another way to criticize this description of the position of a physical point by a real number is to accept to give a meaning only to effectively measurable values. This leads to reject this notion of ideal position, that is not accessible to measurement, as metaphysical.

In this case, the baker's transformation becomes a non deterministic dynamical system, as the sate of the system at a given time does not determine its state at the next step. For instance, if we use to measure the state of the system a device that provides three digits, the initial state 0.000 can be followed by 0.000 or by 0.001. As above, the system is not sensitive to initial conditions anymore and it is the fact that it is not deterministic -and not the fact that it is sensitive to initial conditions -that makes it non predictable.

In this case, as above, the number of possible measured values is finite and therefore the relation R that relates two measured values x and y if y is one of the measured values that may follow x is computable, because it is finite. The relation that relates a natural number n and two values x and y if y may follow x after n steps is thus also computable.

The limit state

In the case of the baker's transformation, the sequence (F (x 0 , n)) n is not always convergent. Thus, we cannot speak, in general, of the limit state of the system. In contrast, this becomes possible when we consider dissipative dynamical systems. We can, in this case, discuss the computability not only of the function F that maps an initial state x 0 of the system and a date n to the state of the system at this date, but also the function that maps an initial state x 0 of the system to its limit state, that is to the limit of the sequence (F (x 0 , n)) n when n goes to infinity. In this case, it is not difficult to find examples where this function is not computable. Any example where this function is not continuous works. Other examples of non computable properties in chaotic systems are given, for instance, in [START_REF] Hoyrup | Indécidabilité dans les systèmes dynamiques chaotiques, Rapport de stage de DEA[END_REF]. This observation however is not in contradiction with the physical Church thesis that is only concerned with the state of the system at a finite date n and says nothing about its limit state when n goes to infinity.

The fact that a dynamical system may be both computable and non predictable shows, once more, that the notion of computability largely exceeds the

Acknowledgments

To Olivier Bournez, Jean-Baptiste Joinet, Giuseppe Longo and Thierry Paul.

practical notion of accessibility to computation.


Mohammad Ilchinezhad Firouz Abadi

Mohammad Amin Bozorgmanesh
email: mohammadamin.bozorgmanesh@gmail.com

Kowkabi

The Effect of Mobile Electromagnetic Waves on the Human Brain

Keywords: Electromagnetic waves, Human brain, Cell phone. 1-Introduction

Rapid progress in various fields of science and technology in recent years has led to various adverse and anticipated negative effects in the environment. One of the most important biological problems today is electromagnetic pollution in the environment. The intensity of electromagnetic radiation is so pervasive that it is now known as one of the forms of hidden and quiet contamination. One of the means of communication that are an integral part of human daily life is a mobile phone. Research shows that mobile waves have a negative effect on the human body. Putting the human brain near a source of electromagnetic waves can damage the normal activity of the brain and disrupt its normal function. Our goal in this article is to investigate the effects of mobile electromagnetic waves on the human brain.

The increasing use of radio, television, radar and telecommunications, monitoring the attendance [START_REF] Mobasseri | Intelligent Circuit Application for Monitoring the Employees Attendance[END_REF] and high pressure towers has increased the amount of electromagnetic radiation in the environment [START_REF] Kundi | Electromagnetic fields and the precautionary principle[END_REF].

Following the scientific and technology advances and the construction of new devices and the presence of human beings exposed to these waves, much research has been conducted on the impact of these waves on biological systems [START_REF] Winker | Chromosomal damage in human diploid fibroblasts by intermittent exposure to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields[END_REF][START_REF] Moulder | Power-frequency fields and cancer[END_REF]. Some devices that emit electromagnetic waves and humans are exposed to mobile phones, wireless phones, TVs, computers, microwaves, telecommunications and highpressure rigs, detecting the amount of air in Automobile tires that working with signal etc. [START_REF] Palicot | On the use of cognitive radio for decreasing the electromagnetic radiations[END_REF][START_REF] Mobasseri | Intelligent Circuit Application for Detecting the amount of Air in Automobile Tires[END_REF].

Research by scientists shows that prolonged presence of these waves can cause some diseases such as tumors, cancer, infertility, cell destruction and DNA, some of which will be mentioned in the next sections of the article. These radiations are divided by parameters such as signal changes, the intensity of radiation, radiation rate, with the highest amount of radiation waves being for mobile [START_REF] Hutter | Subjective symptoms, sleeping problems, and cognitive performance in subjects living near mobile phone base stations[END_REF]. Germany is one of the countries that are in residential areas under the radiation of high -frequency GSM phone rigs [START_REF] Haumann | HF-Radiation levels of GSM cellular phone towers in residential areas. 2nd International Workshop on Biological effects of EMFS[END_REF]. Mobile phones have a frequency of 900 to 1800 MHz with 218 Hz pulse. This frequency range is used in most European and Asian countries, including Iran [START_REF] Sicard | Introduction to GSM. 5th[END_REF].

Figure 1 shows that the GSM mobile masts have the highest effect on brain activity compared to the CDMA. Figure 1. Charts of PSD value values in four channels [START_REF] Hamblin | Effects of mobile phone emissions on human brain activity and sleep variables[END_REF] Many studies have been reported that radio frequency and electromagnetic radiation (EMR) create biological misleading effects that disrupt the functioning of biological systems of living organisms [START_REF] Blank | Electromagnetic fields stress living cells[END_REF].

Putting the human brain near a source of electromagnetic waves can damage and disrupt the normal activity of the brain.

2-Biological Effects of Energy RF

There are different types of pollution in different industries, and EMF electromagnetic fields, which is called electric smog pollution, is also known as one of the types of hidden pollution. [START_REF] Sivani | Impacts of radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) from cell phone towers and wireless devices on biosystem and ecosystem-a review[END_REF][START_REF] Mobasseri | Impact of driving style on fuel consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Mobasseri | Traffic noise and it's measurement methods[END_REF].

Radio waves sent through transmitter antennas are an electromagnetic energy. These waves are known as RF energy or radio frequency. Often, the word electromagnetic field is used in the presence of electromagnetic or frequency radio energy in one place. Radio waves have a frequency of between 30 kHz and 300 GHz.

The biological effects caused by RF energy heating are often expressed as "thermal" effects.

Contact with high levels of RF radiation can be dangerous because of its ability to quickly heat biological texture.

Under certain conditions, contact with RF energy in power intensity values 𝟏 -𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐖 𝐜𝐦^𝟐 and above can lead to measurable biological tissue heating. The amount of this heating depends on several factors, including radiation frequency, contact time, direction of exposure to radiation, environmental conditions, and heat scattering efficiency. At relatively low levels of exposure to RF radiation, the intensity of the fields will produce significant and measurable heating. Such effects are sometimes referred to as "non -emotional" effects [START_REF] Kumar | Cell tower radiation[END_REF]. In 2002, T. V. Yioutsis conducted their research on the effects of electromagnetic waves and temperature analysis on the body caused by a variety of antennas [START_REF] Yioultsis | A comparative study of the biological effects of various mobile phone and wireless LAN antennas[END_REF].

3-Literature review

Nurulhuda binti Ismail and mohd. Zarar Bin Mohd Jenu in 2007 model the propagation of mobile electromagnetic waves in the human head with FDTD numerical method in two -dimensional environment [START_REF] Binti Ismail | Modeling of electromagnetic wave penetration in a human head due to emissions from cellular phone[END_REF].

Faruque compared some types of antennas, including Helical, Monopole, PIFA, PATCH at different frequencies in 2010, using the FDTD numerical method [START_REF] Faruque | SAR analysis in human head tissues for different types of antennas[END_REF].

In 2011, Boyan Tomovs obtained the effects of electromagnetic fields in two -dimensional form and by numerical FDTD on the human head in four different modes [START_REF] Tomovski | Effects of electromagnetic field over a human body, sar simulation with and without nanotextile in the frequency range 0.9-1.8 ghz[END_REF].

4-The effect of cellular electromagnetic waves on the human brain

The human brain is made up of dyspsery tissues. Brain tissues are 1) skin) 2) skulls 3) fat 4) Dura 5) Cerebral fluid 6) gray matter 7) white matter and 8) blood.

In Fig. 2, the location of each of the above components is shown [START_REF] Ireland | Modeling human head at microwave frequencies using optimized Debye models and FDTD method[END_REF]. The human brain is made up of important parts such as scalp, skull and brain, and each part has different dioxide properties. To examine the effect of cell waves on different parts of the brain, such as the scalp and skull, the size of the electric and magnetic field can be drawn from each part of the head. For example, the effect of these waves on the skin and skull parts is shown in Figures 3 and4. In Fig. 5, the size of the electrical field in the human brain exposed to a bipolar antenna (mobile) is the Finite Element Method [START_REF] Mobasseri | A Comparative Study Between ABS and Disc Brake System Using Finite Element Method[END_REF] border integral components. As can be seen, the numerical method used well simulates the penetration of the electromagnetic field into the brain.

Figure 5. The size of the electric field in the human brain, which is adjacent to a cell, [START_REF] Jafari | Simulation of Mobile Radiations in Vicinity of Adult and Child Head[END_REF].

5-Prevention and Recreation of Electromagnetic Waves

A) Reducing the duration of the conversation: Studies show that if the cell phone is spoken for more than two minutes, the brain will be affected by cellular waves.

B) The cell phone is placed on the ear after the call is made; Because in the early moment of communication, the amount of waves emitted is very high. C) Using Handsfree: One of the best ways to be suggested is that instead of direct use of mobile phones, the use of a "handsfree" or "headset" is used; This reduces the amount of possible damage to these three vital organs due to the increased distance of cellular waves from the ear, brain and skull D) use antioxidants: Using a cell phone is an inevitable thing; One of the suggested options to eliminate and reduce the effects of electromagnetic waves on the human body is to use antioxidants.

6-Conclusion

According to the research, we conclude that when using the mobile phone, we need to take the utmost care and shorten the conversations as much as possible. Things such as headaches, dizziness, seizures, changes in heart rate rhythm, anxiety in sleep, reduced concentration and memory, migraine, distraction, and hypertension are among the non -thermal complications of radio frequencies. In order to safeguard the potential effects of these waves, it is suggested that a number of safety methods including shortening the phone call, keeping the phone away from the body, using anti -wave cover coatings, using free handsets, be considered. Therefore, it is essential to examine the effects of electromagnetic waves on the human body.

Funding information:

The authors received no financial support for this research, authorship, and/or publication.

In 1996 ,

 1996 Sami Gabrie et al. performed numerous tests in the frequency range of 10 to 20 Hz [21, 22]. Stephen B. Bauman et al. in 1997 examined the effect of frequency change and temperature on the electrical conductivity of the human brain [23]. G. Schmind et al. In 2000 conducted experiments on dielectric properties on the human brain [24].

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. The components of the human brain[START_REF] Ireland | Modeling human head at microwave frequencies using optimized Debye models and FDTD method[END_REF]

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. a) Electric field size b) size of the magnetic field caused by mobile waves on the skull of the head [30].

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. a) Electric field size b) size of the magnetic field caused by mobile waves on the scalp [30].

Declaration of interests:

The authors declares that there is no conflict of interest in this work.

Ethical approval: This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by the authors.