Alexandra Mme

Bagasheva

Rattana Mme

Chanthao

Mme Gordana

JURY DE THÈSE

Cette thèse vise à étudier les composés et amalgames lexicaux dans les langues anglaise et thaïlandaise afin d'examiner dans une perspective contrastive et croisée deux ensembles de composés nominaux et deux ensembles d'amalgames lexicaux. Cette thèse est composée de 10 chapitres décrits comme suit.

Chapitre 1 Introduction

Le chapitre 1 décrit la conception et les procédures de l'étude. Il est divisé en trois sections : la justification de l'étude, l'objectif de l'étude, et la méthodologie de recherche, la collecte et l'analyse des données.

L'objectif de cette thèse est de réaliser une analyse comparative des procédés de composition et d'amalgamation lexicale dans les langues thaïlandaise et anglaise. Dans cette étude, les données des deux langues ont été collectées manuellement à partir de dictionnaires de mots nouveaux. Il y a quatre ensembles de données :

(1) 333 noms composés thaïlandais ont été recueillis dans les trois volumes du Royal Thai Dictionary of New Words, un dictionnaire thaï standard publié par le Bureau de la Société royale. Les trois volumes du Royal Thai Dictionary of New Words ont été publiés respectivement en 2007, 2009 et 2011, afin de recueillir les nouveaux mots et les nouveaux sens du thaï actuel.

(2) 245 noms composés anglais ont été collectés à partir de l'Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW) publié en 1998 (Knowles and Elliott, 1997). L'ODNW couvre les mots nouveaux qui ont fait l'actualité au cours de la décennie et demie comprise entre le début des années 1980 et le milieu des années 1990.

(3) 37 amalgames lexicaux thaïlandais (sur 37. 104 mots) ont été collectés manuellement à partir des trois volumes du Royal Institute Dictionary of New words, publiés en 2007, 2009et 2011, et du Royal Institute Dictionary of Coined Words (Neologisms), une version en ligne, publiée en 2016 par l'Office of the Royal Society qui est responsable du Royal Thai Dictionary (c'est-à-dire le dictionnaire officiel de la Thaïlande) disponible en ligne depuis 2019. Nous avions initialement l'intention d'utiliser uniquement les trois volumes du Royal Thai Dictionary of New words pour la collecte des données, comme pour vii les composés nominaux thaïlandais, mais seulement deux amalgames furent trouvés, ce qui n'était pas adéquat pour un aperçu de ce phénomène morphologique en thaï contemporain.

(4) 100 amalgames lexicaux anglais ont été collectés manuellement à partir de trois dictionnaires différents : 1) l'Oxford Dictionary of New Words (Knoweles and Elliott, 1998),

2) 20th-century words : the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years [START_REF] Ayto | 20th-century words the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years[END_REF], et 3) l'Oxford English Dictionary (OED). Nous avions de même initialement l'intention de collecter uniquement les amalgames lexicaux de l'Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW), qui est la source des composés nominaux anglais de notre corpus ; cependant, le nombre d'unités obtenues était insuffisant. Par conséquent, nous avons consulté les ouvrages 20th-century words : the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years (Ayto,1999), et Oxford English Dictionary (OED) pour trouver davantage de amalgames lexicaux apparus entre la fin du 20 ème siècle et le début du 21 ème (1990-2010).

Pour l'analyse des données, nous nous sommes focalisée sur deux aspects des composés et des amalgames lexicaux dans les langues thaï et anglaise : 1) d'abord la classification formelle, 2) puis les caractéristiques sémantiques de ces unités.

Deux ensembles de données sur les noms composés en thaï et en anglais ont été analysés pour examiner le nombre et les structures des éléments attestés dans les noms composés, la typologie sémantique des composés (au premier chef, la division entre composés coordinatifs et composés subordonatifs), leur fonctionnement en termes de tête sémantique et les décalages métaphtonymiques qui peuvent être détectés (c'est-à-dire les différents degrés d'opacification, en distingant composés littéraux et composés figuratifs). Les résultats dans les deux langues ont été examinés afin de déterminer les similitudes et les différences entre les différents composés nominaux. Deux ensembles de données sur les amalgames lexicaux en thaï et en anglais ont de même été analysés afin de déterminer les catégories lexicales entrant en jeu dans le phénomène d'amalgamation, les différents types de combinaisons de catégories lexicales, les différents modèles d'accourcissement lexical, les différents types de chevauchement de segments et de troncation phonologique, ainsi que les différents types de centricité sémantique (c'est-à-dire la localisation de la tête sémantique) et les décalages métaphtonymiques. Tout comme les ensembles de données sur les composés viii nominaux, les résultats de l'analyse des amalgames lexicaux dans les deux langues ont été comparés afin d'examiner les similitudes et les différences.

À la fin de l'étude, les composés et les amalgames lexicaux de chaque langue ont été étudiés d'un point de vue onomasiologique et concurrentiel.

Chapitre 2 Introduction à la langue thaïe

Le chapitre 2 présente la langue thaïe et ses principales caractéristiques linguistiques qui sont nécessaires à la présente étude en tant qu'informations de base notamment pour les lecteurs non thaïs, ainsi que les fondements des procédés morphologiques de la composition nominale et de l'amalgamation lexicale en thaï.

Le Royaume de Thaïlande est le 50ème plus grand pays du monde, et est divisé en 77 provinces politiques, Bangkok faisant office de capitale du pays (Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2017). La Thaïlande est située au centre de l'Asie du Sud-Est, et est bordée par le Myanmar, la mer d'Andaman, la République démocratique populaire lao, le Cambodge, la Malaisie et le golfe de Thaïlande, comme le montre la figure 1.

Figure 1 La Thaïlande et ses voisins

En Thaïlande, le thaï standard est la langue standard au niveau national, et il est accepté à l'échelle nationale comme langue officielle, lingua franca locale, langue d'enseignement, langue des matières scolaires, langue religieuse et langue littéraire (Prasithrathsint, 2005 : 51). Le thaï ne s'écrit pas en lettres romaines comme l'anglais. Les mots et les phrases thaïs ix sont écrits dans leur propre alphabet (par exemple, ก ข ค ฆ ง จ ฉ ช). Il existe 80 symboles dans le système d'écriture thaïlandais. Ils sont répartis en 44 consonnes, 32 voyelles et 4 tons, comme illustré sur le clavier de l'ordinateur dans la figure 2. Dans l'écriture thaïlandaise, les caractères sont placés horizontalement, de gauche à droite, pour former des syllabes, puis des mots et enfin des phrases. Les graphèmes voyelles peuvent être placés au-dessus, au-dessous, avant ou après les consonnes (par exemple, ปี /pɪː/ "année", ปู /puː/ "crabe", ปา /paː/ "jeter" et เท /theː/ "verser"). Les phrases sont écrites sans espace entre les mots (par exemple, ดิ ฉั นเป็ นคนไทย /dì chăn pen kon t h ai/ "Je suis thaïlandaise.").

Les principales caractéristiques de la langue thaïe sont résumées comme suit :

1. Le thaï est une langue isolante. La plupart des unités lexicales thaïes originales sont monosyllabiques, et un pourcentage élevé de mots polysyllabiques provient d'emprunts étrangers, notamment les langues indiennes classiques, le pali et le sanskrit dans un premier temps, puis des emprunts à l'anglais.

2. Le thaï est une langue tonale. Il existe cinq tons dans le thaï standard : le ton moyen (ā), le ton grave (à), le ton descendant (â), le ton aigu (á) et le ton montant (ă), qui sont représentés dans le système de transcription par un accent sur la première voyelle de la syllabe. Le symbole tonal est placé au-dessus de la lettre du mot, comme dans le mot บ้ าน x /bâːn/ "une maison". Chaque syllabe a un ton, et cela affecte le sens des mots, surtout dans les mots d'une syllabe comme le montre l'exemple ci-dessous. ฉั นเลี 7 ยงปลาสามตั ว /tɕʰǎn.lìaŋ.plāː.sǎːm.tua/ /tɕʰǎn/ /lìaŋ/ /plāː/ /sǎːm/ /tua/ Je alimenter des poissons trois CLS J'ai trois poissons. 5. Le thaï est une langue de type Sujet-Verbe-Objet dans laquelle les catégories grammaticales telles que le nombre, le cas, le temps, l'aspect et le mode ne sont pas marquées par une flexion morphologique ; les marquages sont implicites, et leur identification dépend des environnements syntaxiques. xi 6. En termes de processus de formation des mots, comme en anglais, l'affixation, la réduplication, la composition, l'amalgamation lexicale, la troncation et l'acronymie sont tous utilisés pour construire de nouveaux mots. L'emprunt et le renversement structurel sont courants en thaï, comme dans d'autres langues.

Tonalité

Chapitre 3 Les composés nominaux en thaï

Le chapitre 3 décrit la structure des composés nominaux en thaï. L'analyse se base sur 333 noms composés recueillis dans les trois volumes du Royal Thai Dictionary of New Words.

Tous les noms composés ont été sélectionnés manuellement, et ils ont été analysés afin de présenter une image détaillée de leurs principales caractéristiques formelles et sémantiques.

Le processus de composition est très productif en thaï. Dans cette étude, la composition nominale en thaï est définie comme un processus de formation de mots qui se compose généralement d'au moins deux constituants. Dans cette étude, les noms composés qui ont été recueillis sont constitués d'au moins deux lexèmes de catégories lexicales différentes, mais l'unité résultante est un nom. Le nombre d'éléments dans les composés va de deux à cinq

Chapitre 4 Les composés nominaux en anglais

Le chapitre 4 décrit la façon dont les composés nominaux sont structurés en anglais.

L'analyse se base sur 245 noms composés qui ont été recueillis dans l'Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW), publié en 1998. Tous les noms composés anglais ont été sélectionnés manuellement, et ils ont été analysés afin de présenter une image détaillée de leurs principales caractéristiques formelles et sémantiques.

La composition est un moyen très productif de créer de nouveaux mots en anglais. En anglais, ce procédé morphologique permet la création de formes très variées de composés nominaux, en fonction de règles telles que l'orthographe, l'accentuation et les types spécifiques d'adjectifs dont se composent les composés, lesquels fonctionnent comme des éléments modificateurs. Sept modèles comportant deux à trois éléments de noms composés anglais sont présentés pour ce qui est de la structure interne. Les trois premiers sont [Nom-Nom], [Adjectif-Nom]

Chapitre 5 Une comparaison des composés nominaux en thaï et en anglais

Le chapitre 5 présente une analyse contrastive des composés nominaux dans les langues anglaise et thaïlandaise. Dans ce chapitre, les classifications formelles et sémantiques des xvii composés nominaux sont discutées pour les langues thaïe et anglaise afin de mettre en lumière les ressemblances et les distinctions basées sur le corpus de données.

La comparaison de la composition nominale en thaï et en anglais montre un certain nombre de dissemblances marquées entre les deux langues. Les noms composés thaïlandais peuvent être distingués des noms composés anglais dans la mesure où ils présentent généralement des types de motifs plus variés, tant en termes de nombre d'éléments (jusqu'à cinq) que de combinaisons de motifs lexicaux (utilisation d'un plus grand nombre de non-noms). Les composés thaïlandais peuvent également être caractérisés par une influence extérieure plus forte que dans le cas de l'anglais : ils peuvent contenir des éléments étrangers (par exemple le pali et le sanskrit) et adopter des modèles de construction qui ne reflètent pas les normes natives (comme la présence de la tête sémantique à droite, qui n'est normalement pas attendue en thaï). En dépit de leurs différences qualitatives, nous avons constaté que le thaï et l'anglais partagent un certain nombre de constructions de base : N-N, N-ADJ, N-ADV, V-N, V-V.

Sur le plan sémantique, le thaï et l'anglais font tous les deux appels aux deux principaux types de composés nominaux : les composés subordonnés et les composés coordonnés. Il est à noter que les proportions des différents types sémantiques de noms composés dans les deux langues sont remarquablement similaires : 98% pour les constructions subordonnées et 2% pour les coordonnées ; il n'y a aussi dans les deux cas qu'un très petit nombre de structures subordonnées de type attributif. Les deux langues présentent un contraste typologique important en ce qui concerne la position de la tête sémantique : la tête d'un nom composé thaïlandais est canoniquement à gauche alors que la tête d'un nom composé anglais est à droite.

La majorité des composés nominaux en thaï et en anglais sont transparents, mais le nombre de composés sémantiquement figuratifs est plus élevé en anglais qu'en thaï. Il existe des composés en thaï et en anglais dont l'un des membres est utilisé au sens figuré tandis que les autres restent au sens propre. Le thaï présente un pourcentage trois fois plus élevé de composés avec une tête transparente et des éléments non-tête figuratifs, ainsi qu'un nombre presque deux fois plus élevé de composés avec une tête opaque et des éléments non-tête transparents.

xviii

Chapitre 6 L'amalgamation lexicale en thaï

Le chapitre 6 décrit comment les amalgames lexicaux sont créés en thaï. L'analyse de 37 amalgames lexicaux en thaï montre que l'écrasante majorité d'entre eux sont le résultat de la fusion de deux mots sources, et une minorité d'entre eux sont créés à partir de trois éléments.

Les structures des amalgames lexicaux en thaï sont variées, avec 6 modèles différents : 66%

de constructions [N-N], 9% de constructions [ADJ-N], 6% de constructions [N-V], 6% de constructions [V-N], 6% de constructions [ADJ-ADJ], et 3% de constructions [ADJ-V].

Tous les amalgames sont créés dans deux catégories lexicales uniquement : les noms et les adjectifs. Les schémas d'accourcissement lexical des amalgames binaires se répartissent en trois catégories principales : 46% de type ABD, 43% de type AD, et 6% de type ACD. Les amalgames à trois éléments sont composés de types ABDF et ABCDF. La plupart des amalgames lexicaux en thaï ne sont pas caractérisés par un chevauchement de phonèmes.

Seules de rares unités (8,57%) montrent un chevauchement à la graphique et phonique.

Aucune d'entre elles ne présente de chevauchement au niveau uniquement phonique ou graphique, comme cela peut être le cas pour l'anglais ou le français. Lorsqu'ils sont fusionnés, les mots sources ne sont tronqués qu'à deux endroits différents : à la limite de la syllabe (dans 65% des cas) et à la limite entre l'attaque et le noyau (33%). La plupart des amalgames lexicaux en thaï sont des amalgames subordonnés relationnels dont la tête se trouve canoniquement à droite ; seulement quatre d'entre eux ont la tête à gauche (dans la classe des amalgames à tête unique). Tous les amalgames de l'ensemble des données sont littéraux ; il est impossible de trouver des unités figuratives.

Chapitre 7 L'amalgamation lexicale en anglais

Le chapitre 7 décrit la création des amalgames lexicaux en anglais. L'analyse est basée sur un échantillon de 100 amalgames lexicaux qui ont été collectés manuellement à partir de trois dictionnaires : 1) l'Oxford Dictionary of New Words (Knowles and Elliot, 1998), 2)

20th-century words : the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years (Ayto,1999), et 3) l'Oxford English Dictionary (OED). Nous avions initialement l'intention de collecter uniquement les amalgames lexicaux de l'Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW), qui est la source des composés nominaux anglais collectés précédemment ; cependant, le nombre d'unités obtenues était insuffisant. En conséquence, nous nous sommes tournés vers 20th-century words : the story of the new words in English over the last hundred xix years (Ayto,1999) et Oxford English Dictionary (OED) pour trouver plus de amalgames lexicaux apparus au 20 ème siècle et au début du 21 ème . L'ensemble de données est analysé afin de fournir une étude détaillée des principales caractéristiques formelles et sémantiques.

L'examen de 100 amalgames en anglais a démontré la variété des principales caractéristiques formelles et sémantiques. Les amalgames lexicaux en anglais semblent utiliser typiquement deux éléments, et ceux-ci sont limités à cinq catégories lexicales : les noms (91%), les adjectifs (4%), les verbes (3%), les adverbes (1%), et les pronoms (1%). Les structures des amalgames lexicaux anglais sont variées, avec jusqu'à 12 modèles :

[N-N], [ADJ-N], [N- ADJ], [V-N], [ADJ-ADJ], [N-V], [V-N], [ADV-ADV], [V-V], [PRON-N], [PRON-PRON], [INTERJ-N] et [Préfixe-N].
Les schémas d'accourcissement lexical se répartissent en six catégories : le type AD, le type ABD, le type ACD, le type AC, les constructions ABCD haplologiques, et le type ACB (structure sandwich). La moitié des unités lexicales de l'ensemble des données présente un chevauchement à trois niveaux différents : graphicophonique (39%), graphique seulement (13%), ou phonique seulement (2%). Du fait de l'acte d'accourcissement, les mots sources sont divisés à cinq endroits différents : à la limite de la syllabe (75% des cas), à la limite entre l'attaque et du noyau (22% des cas), à la limite entre le noyau et la coda (1%) des cas, et à l'intérieur d'une coda complexe (1%). Du point de vue sémantique, la majorité des amalgames lexicaux anglais n'ont qu'une seule tête, tandis qu'une minorité d'entre eux ont deux têtes. Dans la classe des amalgames à une seule tête, la position de la tête se trouve canoniquement à droite, mais, de manière remarquable, un quart d'entre eux ont la tête à gauche, alors qu'une telle construction est rarissime dans les constructions composées. La majorité des amalgames lexicaux trouvés sont des amalgames subordonnés relationnels. Bien qu'il y ait eu quelques cas où des mots sources avec une interprétation figurative (métaphorique), la grande majorité des amalgames dans cet ensemble de données reste littérale dans son interprétation.

Chapitre 8 Une comparaison des amalgames lexicaux en thaï et en anglais

Le chapitre 8 rapproche dans une perspective contrastive deux ensembles de 37 unités lexicales thaïlandaises et de 100 unités lexicales anglaises identifiées comme des amalgames lexicaux, qui sont définis comme les résultats d'un processus de formation de mots impliquant la fusion de deux ou plusieurs mots, avec la perte d'une forme phonique ou graphique dans différents schémas d'accourcissement, et qui implique également une xx combinaison de formes et une combinaison de significations. Les classifications formelles et sémantiques des amalgames lexicaux en thaï et en anglais sont discutées et illustrées par des exemples afin de mettre en lumière les similitudes et les différences sur la base des données recueillies.

La comparaison de l'amalgamation lexicale en thaï et en anglais montre un certain nombre de dissemblances marquées entre les deux langues. Qualitativement, l'anglais présente une plus grande variété de catégories lexicales de sortie, de types de combinaisons de catégories lexicales de mots-sources, de modèles d'accourcissement lexical, et un plus grand nombre de types de chevauchement de segments et de fractionnement phonologique. Ces résultats confirment l'hypothèse de Renner (2019), selon laquelle l'anglais présente un degré élevé de jeu de mots amalgamés. En outre, les règles de formation des amalgames lexicaux en anglais ne sont pas strictes. En revanche, les règles de l'amalgamation en thaï sont strictes, doivent suivre une contrainte phonologique en raison de l'influence du processus de formation des mots dans les langues pali et sanskrit.

D'un point de vue quantitatif, un certain nombre de différences significatives ont aussi été constatées. Premièrement, les amalgames lexicaux thaïlandais ont tendance à préférer le type ABD d'accourcissement lexical, alors que l'anglais tend à favoriser le type AD.

Deuxièmement, une grande majorité des amalgames thaïlandais ne présentent pas de chevauchement de segments, et très peu d'entre eux présentent un chevauchement graphique et phonique, alors qu'environ la moitié des amalgames anglais présentent un chevauchement de segments (dans ses trois types : chevauchement graphique et phonique, chevauchement graphique uniquement, et chevauchement phonique uniquement). Enfin, tous les amalgames thaïlandais du corpus d'étude sont composés de deux unités transparentes, alors que les amalgames anglais combinent une variété de mots sources sémantiquement transparents et non transparents.

Le thaï et l'anglais ne partagent qu'une seule caractéristique, à savoir la position de la tête des amalgames subordonnés dans les deux langues. Il est surprenant de constater que la majorité des amalgames lexicaux thaïlandais ont une tête sémantique à droite, ce qui est similaire à la situation des amalgames anglais. On aurait pu s'attendre à ce que les amalgames subordonnés en thaï soient canoniquement à gauche, comme les composés, mais cette hypothèse n'est confirmée par l'analyse de l'ensemble des données thaïes, en raison de l'impact des langues pali et sanskrit sur les amalgames lexicaux.

xxi Chapitre 9 Concurrence entre composition et amalgamation lexicale en anglais et en thaïlandais Le chapitre 9 s'intéresse à la concurrence entre les composés et les amalgames lexicaux en thaï et en anglais sur la base de quatre ensembles de données (c'est-à-dire les composés nominaux thaïlandais, les composés nominaux anglais, les amalgames lexicaux thaïlandais et les amalgames lexicaux anglais). D'après les données recueillies, on peut constater que le nombre de composés dans les deux langues est beaucoup plus élevé que celui des amalgames lexicaux si l'on compare le nombre de mots recueillis dans les dictionnaires des ensembles de données. Cependant, certaines opérations de formation des mots peuvent être explorées d'un point de vue concurrentiel, mettant face à face les composés et les amalgames lexicaux dans les deux langues.

Les composés nominaux en thaï et en anglais semblent être assez similaires d'un point de vue formel, mais les aspects formels de l'amalgamation tendent clairement à se différencier de ceux de la composition. L'amalgamation est principalement une technique d'accourcissement en thaï, alors qu'elle peut également, dans de nombreux cas, avoir une valeur ludique et/ou iconique en anglais, la fusion des formes évoquant la fusion des significations.

Du point de vue de la concurrence onomasiologique, dans les deux langues, la composition est généralement le choix par défaut pour combiner au moins deux mots, mais il existe un certain nombre de facteurs linguistiques qui augmentent la probabilité que l'amalgamation lexicale soit choisie plutôt que la composition. Au niveau formel, le nombre de mots sources, le nombre de syllabes et le chevauchement des segments jouent un rôle important dans les deux langues. Au niveau sémantique, l'amalgame tend à être favorisé en thaï et en anglais lorsque les unités sont coordonnées et impliquent une hybridité conceptuelle.

Chapitre 10 Conclusion

Le chapitre 10 clôt la dissertation avec le résumé de l'étude et quelques remarques finales.

La composition dans les deux langues semble avoir la même fonction, mais l'amalgamation ne semble pas avoir la ou les mêmes fonctions dans les deux langues. Il s'agit simplement d'une technique d'abrègement en thaï, alors qu'elle peut également avoir une valeur ludique et/ou iconique en anglais.

First and foremost, my deepest gratitude and greatest appreciation is to my supervisor, Prof.

Vincent Renner, for his invaluable advice, continuous support, understanding and patience during my PhD study, which made this dissertation possible. His immense knowledge and plentiful experience have encouraged me all the time of my academic research and my daily life.

Also, I am grateful to the co-supervisor of the dissertation, Assoc. Prof. Sombat

Khruangthong, who has kindly provided helpful feedback. I am appreciative for his help in making valuable comments and suggestions.

Special recognition is given to Prince of Songkla University, which granted me a scholarship to undertake my doctoral studies at the Research Center in Applied Linguistics (CeRLA) at University Lumière Lyon II, and made my studies possible.

My appreciation also goes out to Napacha Prapawadadee, Rania Papadopoulou, Yoann

Brunet, and all my friends for their encouragement and support all through my studies.

Finally, an enormous debt of gratitude is extended to my beloved parents and family members for concern and support during the study. Nowadays, there are many new words and expressions, known as neologisms, that are usually created as language is a social phenomenon that evolves in parallel with society.

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Every day, neologisms are coined or presented to express new items and ideas in society or to rename an old concept as a result of innovation, advances in science and cultural and technological changes, including social and political trends, and they may become common or disappear due to a lack of use [START_REF] Mohamed | Newspapers as Carriers of New Terms Namely (Neologism) and Their role in Enhancing Students' Vocabulary: Guardian Newspaper as a Model[END_REF].

In the Thai language, in pre-modern periods, vocabulary enrichment was typically brought through traditional loans from Khmer or Mon intermediates, subject to assimilation processes in those languages first, or from Pali Buddhist sources, i.e., terms initially employed in religious contexts came to be utilized more broadly [START_REF] Diller | The Tai-Kadai Languages[END_REF]. In the twentieth century, in the context of modernity, which necessitated lexical enlargement, neologisms have been coined through official institute action in order to avoid using direct borrowing from foreign languages, especially English and other Western languages. [START_REF] Diller | The Tai-Kadai Languages[END_REF] mention that in the context of nationalistic or aesthetic sensibilities that discouraged direct borrowing from English or other Western languages, neologisms were made out of Indic (mostly Sanskrit) morphemes to encode the Western-based notions.

According to the Office of the Royal Society, which is responsible for entering new words into the Royal Institute Dictionary of Coined Words, there are 73,734 neologisms that have been coined into the Thai language, and they have been categorized into fifteen categories.

Law, science, geography, computer and information technology, and physical technology are the top five categories.

In the English language, the vocabulary is predicted to grow by at least 850 new words each year, so neology is an essential aspect of the English language [START_REF] Fang | Glimpse at the Study of English Neologism[END_REF]. As time passes, the English language absorbs, rejects, and adapts new terminology. It is continually renewing itself by borrowing, coining, and combining words to describe new ideas and advancements.

Changes in social and technology, political and economic advancements, new methods of working, leisure and sport, fashion and popular music, medical, psychology, ecology, and even new sorts of crime all contribute to the invention of new words to convey new ideas in the English language. Also, there are dictionaries of new words published by the Oxford University Press. The Oxford Dictionary of New Words was first published in 1991, and a new edition was issued in 1997. In the process of word formation, a neologism is often created by combining existing words and morphemes through compounding, blending, and affixation [START_REF] Mohamed | Newspapers as Carriers of New Terms Namely (Neologism) and Their role in Enhancing Students' Vocabulary: Guardian Newspaper as a Model[END_REF]. This is confirmed by the study by [START_REF] Omirbekova | Ways of neologism creation in the modern English language. Проблемы геологии и освоения недр: труды XXI Международного симпозиума имени академика МА Усова студентов и молодых ученых, посвященного 130летию со дня рождения профессора МИ Кучина[END_REF], who found that compounding, blending and derivation are the most productive processes to coin neologisms in English. Some examples from her study are the words 'silver goal' and 'salad dodger' formed through compounding, the words 'orthorexia' and 'e-vast' created through derivation, and the words 'babyccino' and 'permalancer' coined through blending.

According to [START_REF] Diller | The Tai-Kadai Languages[END_REF], previously, there were the studies of Thai-English comparisons such as on phonology (See Kruatrachue,1960), on syntax (See [START_REF] Chaiyaratana | A Comparative Study of English and Thai Syntax[END_REF], on pronominalization (See Chomaitong, 1976), on definiteness (See Lamchote (1971), on aspect (See [START_REF] Noochoochai | Temporal Aspect in Thai and English: A Contrastive Analysis[END_REF], and on intonation (See Kanchanathat, 1978).

Other studies include [START_REF] Ariyapitipun | An Analysis of Phonological Errors in the Pronunciation of English Consonants and Vowels by Selected Native Speakers of Thai[END_REF], [START_REF] Meemeskul-Martin | Towards a Descriptive Model of Thai-English Translation[END_REF], [START_REF] Palmer | Thai tone variants and the language teachers[END_REF], [START_REF] Richards | Pronunciation Features of Thai Speakers of English[END_REF], [START_REF] Schmidt | The Acquisition of Some American English Duration Parameters by Nonnative Speakers of English[END_REF], [START_REF] Suwattee | A Linguistic Analysis of the Difficulties in the English Verbal System Encountered by Native Speakers of Thai[END_REF][START_REF] Van Syoc | Teaching English /r/ and /l/ with Special Reference to Speakers of Thai[END_REF], who conducted practical studies involving error analysis, translation problems, or difficulties Thai speakers experience with specific elements of English. However, studies of Thai-English comparisons on morphology focused on the word-formation processes have rarely been found.

The present study, thus, focuses on a contrastive study of Thai-English neologisms created through two word-formation processes: compounding and lexical blending. This is because it is challenging to expose the resemblances and differences of compounding and lexical blending in the English and Thai languages despite the fact that the two languages belong to completely different language families.

The objectives of the study

The objectives of this doctoral study are to conduct a comparative analysis of nominal compounding and lexical blending in the Thai and English languages and to explore these two word-formation processes from a competitive standpoint.

Research questions

The three main research questions which will be addressed in this dissertation are:

1) What is the diversity of nominal compounding in Thai and English?

2) What is the diversity of lexical blending in Thai and English?

3) How do compounding and lexical blending compete in the Thai and English languages? Set 2: 247 English compound nouns were collected from the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW) published in 1998 (Knowles and Elliott, 1997). ODNW covers new words which have been in the news in the decade and a half between the beginning of the 1980s and the mid-1990s. published in 2016 by the Office of the Royal Society which is responsible for the Royal Thai Dictionary (i.e. the official dictionary of Thailand) and has been made available online since 2019. I intended to use the three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New words for data collection, in the same way as for Thai nominal compounds, but only two blends were found, which was not adequate to carry out a quantitative analysis.

Set 4: a sample of 100 English lexical blends were collected manually from three different dictionaries: 1) the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (Knowles and Elliott, 1997),

2) 20th-century words: the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years (Ayto,1999), and 3) the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). I initially intended to collect only the lexical blends of the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW), as I did for English nominal compounds in the data set; the number of units obtained was, however, insufficient.

Consequently, I went to 20th-century words: the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years (Ayto,1999), and 3) the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to collect more lexical blends that appeared in the 20 th century and the early 21 st century (1990-2010).

Data analysis

The data were analyzed in order to present two aspects of compound nouns and lexical blends in the Thai and English languages --1) their formal classification, and 2) their semantic characteristics --, and then to examine the two processes in a comparative analysis.

Two data sets of compound nouns in Thai and English were analyzed to examine a variety of semantic features: number and structures of elements attested in the compound nouns, types of compounds (e.g., coordinative compounds and subordinative compounds), headedness, and metaphtonymic shifts of compounds (i.e., different degrees of opacification: literal compounds and figurative compounds). The findings were examined to the find out the similarities and differences of nominal compounding in the two languages.

Two data sets of lexical blends in Thai and English were analyzed to determine a number of their characteristic features: lexical inputs, types of lexical input combinations, patterns of lexical shortening, types of segment overlap and phonological splitting, headedness, and metaphtonymic shifts. As for the data sets of nominal compounds, the findings were compared to examine the similarities and differences of lexical blending in the two languages.

In the last step of the study, compounding and lexical blending in each language were explored to look at a competitive standpoint: the two processes can be said to compete to create new words.

Transcription of Thai words in the present study

The romanization of the Thai language, that is, the representation of the language in Latin character, is done in a variety of ways. These include transliteration and transcription systems. The Royal Thai General System of Transcription, the official scheme established by the Royal Thai Institute, is the most visible system in public space. Since 1999, the Office However, in the present study, Thai words were transcribed using the International Phonetic Association (IPA) standard, which was adapted from the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association (1999).

ป ผ บ พ ภ t t h d ฏ ต ฐ ฎ ด ฑ ฒ ถ ท ธ k k h ก ข ค ฆ ʔ อ Nasal m ม n ณ น ŋ ง Fricative f ฝ ฟ s ซ ศ ษ ส h ห ฮ Affricate tɕ tɕ h จ ฉ ช ฌ
1 The description of Thai alphabets and their pronunciation is described in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.

บ ป ภ พ ฟ /-t/ ด จ ช ช ฎ ฏ ฐ ฑ ฒ ต ฤ ท ธ ศ ษ ส /-k/ ก ข ค ฆ /-ʔ/ อ Nasal /-m/ ม /-n/ น ญ ณ ร ล ฬ /-ŋ/ ง Glide /-w/ ว /-
-ะ /a/ -า /aː/ เ-ี ยะ /ia/ เ-ี ย /iaː/ -ิ /i/ -ี /iː/ เ-ื อะ /ɯa/ เ-ื อ /ɯaː/ -ึ /ɯ -ื /ɯː/ -ั วะ /ua/ -ั ว /uaː/ -ุ /u/ -ู /uː/ เ-ะ /e/ เ- /eː/ เ-อะ /ɤ/ เ-อ /ɤː/ เเ-ะ /ɛ/ เเ- /ɛː/ เ-าะ /ɔ/ -อ /ɔː/ โ-ะ /o/ โ- /oː/
Source : Handbook of the International Phonetic Association (1999) Additionally, in the transcription of Thai words in this study, five tones are transcribed using the classic tonal symbols: mid tone (ā), low tone (à), falling tone (â), high tone (á), and rising tone (ǎ). In the case of the examples of Thai phrases or sentences given in the present study, the dot (.) is used to separate words for a readability reason for non-Thai readers since there is no space between words in Thai phrases or sentences, as in the sentence ฉั นเลี S ยงปลาสามตั ว /tɕʰǎn.lìaŋ.plāː.sǎːm.tua/, which means 'I have three fish'.

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Thai Language

Chapter 2

Introduction to the Thai Language

This chapter describes the Thai language and its characteristics that are essential for the present study as a background knowledge for non-Thai readers, and as a foundation for the understanding of Thai nominal compounding and lexical blending. The chapter consists of:

an introduction of the Thai language a list of characteristics of Thai language a discussion of word-formation processes in Thai

Introduction of the Thai Language

Thai is a national language of Thailand. The country is located in the center of Southeast Asia. It is bordered in the west and the northwest by Myanmar, in the southwest by the Andaman Sea, in the east and the northeast by Laos People's Democratic Republic, in the southeast by Cambodia, and in the south by Malaysia and the Gulf of Thailand. Covering an area of approximately 514,000 square kilometers, Thailand is the 50th largest country in the world, most nearly equal in size to Spain. Thailand is divided into 77 political provinces with Bangkok serving as the capital of the country (Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2017).

Map 1: Thailand on a world map Source : Google maps Thai is a daughter language of Tai, which is the most widespread language family in Southeast Asia. The Tai language family is taken as a major sub-branch of Kam-Tai within the greater grouping Tai-Kadai. Tai speakers were once thought to have originated from China and migrated southward, but today the border area between northern Vietnam and China's Guangxi province is regarded as a more likely origin [START_REF] Goddard | The Language of East and Southeast Asia. An Introduction[END_REF]. From the eighth century AD Tai speakers began to migrate westward and southward to what corresponds to present-day Thailand. The spelling "Thai" is used for the national language of Thailand and for some regional varieties in that country, while "Tai" is used for the wider Tai subfamily of Tai-Kadai, and also in the names of some specific varieties [START_REF] Smyth | Thai: An Essential Grammar[END_REF].

Thai, the official language of Thailand, is the most important language in the Tai-Kadai family, which also includes Laos, Shan, which is spoken in northern Myanmar, and some 15 million speakers of Zhuang, which is spoken in southwestern China. Almost all Tai-Kadai languages share common features as shown in the table below [START_REF] Goddard | The Language of East and Southeast Asia. An Introduction[END_REF]. Despite common structural features, Tai languages are often mutually unintelligible because of phonological and lexical differences. Source : [START_REF] Goddard | The Language of East and Southeast Asia. An Introduction[END_REF] Today, languages belonging to the Tai-Kadai language family are spoken by an estimated 85 million people in Southeast Asia in an area extending from Thailand to Laos, Vietnam, China, Myanmar, and India [START_REF] Goddard | The Language of East and Southeast Asia. An Introduction[END_REF]. See Map 2 below.

Map 2: Area of the Tai-Kadai language family spoken in Southeast Asia Source : [START_REF] Goddard | The Language of East and Southeast Asia. An Introduction[END_REF] In Thailand, the language of the central region, where Bangkok is located, is regarded as standard Thai, which is used and understood widely throughout the country because of its use in schools, in the mass media, in government communication, and for official purposes.

Within Thailand, there are four major dialects, corresponding to the southern, northern, north-eastern, and central regions of the country, as illustrated in Map 3. The dialects spoken in Thailand are different from the standard language in terms of their phonology, morphology, syntax, or lexicon, but they are all mutually intelligible [START_REF] Anakasiri | An analysis of the underlying and surface structure of Thai noun phrase modification: A generative-semantic approach[END_REF]. The list below contains examples of words from different dialects:

Characteristics of the Thai language

The characteristics of Thai language can be summarized as follows:

1. Thai is an isolating language. Most of the original Thai lexical units are monosyllabic, and a high percentage of polysyllabic words come from foreign borrowings, particularly from the classical Indian languages, Pali and Sanskrit [START_REF] Thonglor | The Principles of Thai[END_REF].

2. The written Thai language was initiated by King Ramkhamhaeng, the third King of the Sukhothai period (1275-1317). It is believed that the first historical record of the Thai writing system was inscribed on the stone monument in 1292. The Sukhothai dialect is the ancestor of present-day Thai [START_REF] Iwasaki | A Reference Grammar of Thai[END_REF]. There are 76 symbols in the Thai writing system divided into consonants (44), vowels (28), and tones (4). The alphabetical symbols are illustrated below.

Graphic 1: 44 Thai alphabet

The Thai alphabet consists of 44 basic consonant symbols pronounced as 21 sounds. There are several sounds which can be represented in writing by one of several letters as illustrated below.

Table 2.3: Letters with the same pronunciation

Letters Pronunciation ข ฃ ค ฅ ฆ /k h / ซ ส ศ ษ /s/ ฉ ช ฌ /tɕ h / ฐ ฑ ฒ ถ ท ธ /t h / ผ พ ภ /p h /
The choice of letter for any particular word is not arbitrary, it depends on the tone of the syllable. Putting it the other way around, the choice between alternative ways of spelling the same sound helps indicate the tone.

Thai vowels are categorized into two groups: single and diphthong vowels. The system of single vowels in Thai has both short and long vowels, making a total of 18 vowel sounds.

The symbols of single vowels are presented below:

Graphic 2: Single vowels

The vowel length is significant in Thai since it can distinguish the meaning of words Thai words and sentences are written in their own unique alphabet, and sentences are written without spaces between the words. The writing system has undergone little change since its introduction, so modern Thai scholars can read inscriptions from the Sukhothai era [START_REF] Timyam | A Comparative Study of English and Thai: An Introduction[END_REF]. Examples of Thai sentences are presented below: The symbols of tones are illustrated below.

Graphic 6: Symbols of tones in Thai

The tonal shapes are illustrated in the following graph. 7. The Thai language has been defined as a subject prominent (subject-predicate) language

where the word order is typically Subject-Verb-Object. The Thai language also features, as listed by [START_REF] Sudmuk | The Syntax and Semantics of Serial Verb Construction in Thai[END_REF]:

a lack of conjugated verb forms indicating person or tense (numbers might be added)

a lack of inflected noun forms indicating number, gender, and case a lack of articles and indefinite determiners a lack of case forms of pronouns a lack of copula in the Thai translation of an English predicate adjective construction (e.g., I am beautiful. > tɕhǎn(I) sǔai(beautiful))

However, like many other Southeast Asian languages, there is a complex pronoun system in Thai, which reflects gender, age, social status, the formality of the situation and the degree of familiarity between speakers [START_REF] Smyth | Thai: An Essential Grammar[END_REF].

The Influence of Pali and Sanskrit on the Thai Language

The Pali and Sanskrit languages play an important role on the Thai language although Pali, Sanskrit were deleted from Thai, the vocabulary of Thai may be inadequate on its own (Penpala, 1998).

Pali and Sanskrit have left two legacies in the Thai language. Firstly, the Thai alphabet has a number of duplicate letters that originate from Pali and Sanskrit. Among the 44 Thai letters, 35 are from Pali and Sanskrit, and among the 28 vowels, 14 are also from Pali and Sanskrit.

Graphic 7: Letters in Pali, Sanskrit, and Thai

Secondly, Thai borrowed a large number of words from Pali and Sanskrit. Pali and Sanskrit words are very similar both in written form and pronunciation, but Thai has included more Sanskrit words than Pali words. This is because Sanskrit was introduced in Thailand before Pali was (Penpala, 1998).

Nowadays Pali and Sanskrit languages still have an influence on the Thai language.

Although English becomes very influential, Pali and Sanskrit words are still used more often.

Therefore, Pali and Sanskrit have a vital role to coin new words to replace English words in formal Thai language, such as the word 'โลกาภิ วั ฒน์ ' /lōːkāːphíwáth/ replacing 'globalization', and the word 'อั ตลั กษณ์ ' /ʔàttāːlák/ replacing 'identity' --these two words were created from roots from the Pali and Sanskrit languages.

A discussion of word-formation processes in Thai

Since Thai is an isolating language, most Thai words are monosyllabic, and they are used freely as free morphemes covering all types of parts of speech such as nouns, verbs, There are five major types of complex word formation: affixation, reduplication, compounding, doublet formation, and blending. They are described below.

Affixation

One type of complex word consists of a root and an affix. A root is usually a free morpheme.

Most prefixes and suffixes found in Thai are originally from Sanskrit, Pali, or Khmer [START_REF] Iwasaki | A Reference Grammar of Thai[END_REF].

Prefixation

A prefix appears before the root of a complex word. According to [START_REF] Iwasaki | A Reference Grammar of Thai[END_REF], prefixes in Thai are divided into five functional categories.

First, some prefixes modify the meaning of the root:

/ʔà/ =

Reduplication

Reduplication is a process of repetition of the root, and it is employed to add various meanings to a word, such as softness, intensity, and plurality [START_REF] Yule | The Study of Language[END_REF]. In Thai, reduplication takes the root and its tone, and repeats it exactly. Some reduplications, often of adjectives, add emphasis, softness, approximation, or comparative meaning to the root:

/

Compounding

Compounding is a process of joining two roots to produce a new single form. This combining process is very common in languages such as German and English [START_REF] Yule | The Study of Language[END_REF]. This process is very common also in the Thai language to form new words with one new meaning.

In general, the meaning of a compound is not the same as the simple sum of the meaning of its parts. The meaning can be entirely different from its parts, or the meaning can be partially linked to its parts.

On the basis of the relationship between the meaning of a compound and that of its constituents, two major types of compounds can be found, which are endocentric compounds and exocentric compounds. They are distinguished on the basis of whether or not the core meaning of the compound is similar to the meaning of one part. In other words, endocentric compounds have one word functioning as a semantic head of the compound [START_REF] Singnoi | Nominal Constructions in Thai[END_REF].

One The second is antonymous doublets, which consist of two words with opposite meanings.

Unlike synonymous doublets, the semantics of antonymous doublets may not be compositional:

the meaning of the whole is similar to that of the first word:

/

Blending

Blending is a process of fusing two separate forms to produce a single new word. Typically, blending is accomplished by taking only the beginning of one source word and joining it to the ending of the other source word. In Thai, blending only occurs with source words borrowed from Pali and Sanskrit. In general, two words can be blended only when /ʔ/ is the initial consonant of the second source word. There is a change of either the final syllable of the first word, or the first syllable of the second word in different ways.

In a first case, the final vowel of the first source word and the initial consonant of the second source word are deleted: queen's patronage /tɕ h um.num/, on the first source word, the symbol '( ◌ํ )' is changed to /m/ to begin the second word while the initial consonant of the second source word is deleted:

Nowadays, blended words in Thai cannot be identified easily because they were formed with Pali and Sanskrit elements, which are used harmoniously in the Thai language. In other words, the characteristics of Pali and Sanskrit are not taught much in school, so it is difficult for the new generation of speakers to recognize them.

Clipping

Clipping is extremely productive in Thai. It is a process which shortens a longer word. The first syllable of the original word is usually retained, but sometimes it is the last one.

Sometimes there is a punctuation sign (ฯ) called /pājjāːn nɔ ːj/which is added to some clipped

Abbreviation

Acronymy, which is another way to shorten longer words, creates new words by taking the initial letters of a set of words. English uses such acronyms as CD (< compact disk) or laser (< light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). Acronyms are pronounced either as separate letters, or as new single word [START_REF] Yule | The Study of Language[END_REF]. Thai acronyms are read as a series of consonant letters with the unmarked vowel /ɔː/4 , and the dot '.' is placed behind each letter.

Full words Acronyms Meaning

พุ ทธศั กราช

/phútthásàkkàràːt/ พ.ศ. The Asian region in which China has substantial influence is known as the "Sinophere." Likewise, the "Indosphere" marks a region heavily influenced by India. The unique location of Thailand makes it part of both these influential nations. Thailand's long history of trade with European powers and neighboring countries has provided the Thai language to become rich with words adopted from all parts of the globe [START_REF] Suthiwan | Loanwords in Thai[END_REF].

Throughout its history, Thai has borrowed many words from other languages. At the beginning of the 21st century, English is unquestionably the language with the greatest lexical influence on Thai. English, instead of Pali and Sanskrit languages, has played an important role in the Thai lexicon, covering a wide range of vocabulary in different domains such as science and technology, food and drinks, clothes and fashion, games and gambling, education, art recreation, medical sciences, music and dancing, and persons and positions [START_REF] Loharat | A Study of English Loanwords Used in Thai Historical Novels[END_REF].

The acceptance of English words into the Thai language is done via speaking and writing among a variety of classes and educational levels. The borrowed words are written in Thai script, using Thai letters to transliterate English phonemes and spelling. The characteristics of English borrowed words can be summarized as follows:

1. Some English words are transferred directly with very little or no change.

/

Conclusion

Thai is an isolating language in which grammatical categories, such as number, case, tense, aspect, and mood, are not marked by morphological inflection; they are implicit, and their identification depends on syntactic environments. Most Thai words are composed of a simple single immutable syllable. Thai words are assembled into larger forms by affixation, reduplication, doubling, compounding, blending, clipping and acronym. Borrowing and flipping are also found in the Thai language.

Chapter 3

Nominal Compounding in Thai

This chapter examines how nominal compounds are structured in Thai. The analysis is based on 333 compound nouns which have been collected from the three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New Words, a standard Thai dictionary published by the Office of the Royal Society. The three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New words were published in 2007, 2009 and 2011 respectively, in order to collect new words and new senses in present-day Thai. All compound nouns were selected manually for the present study, and they were analyzed in order to present a detailed picture of their main formal and semantic characteristics.

Definition of Compounding in Thai

The concept of compounding in different languages has been defined differently, and a number of criteria for the concept have also been proposed and applied differently in different languages. It seems that the study of compounding is further complicated due to the fact that compounds in some languages are accepted, but they would not be accepted as compound units in other languages [START_REF] Bauer | Compounds and minor word-formation types[END_REF].

In Thai, a compound is considered as a complex word which consists of at least two free morphemes (Iwasaki and Ingkapirom, 2009[START_REF] Thonglor | The Principles of Thai[END_REF][START_REF] Timyam | A Comparative Study of English and Thai: An Introduction[END_REF]. It is a process of word formation based on the combination of two or more words in open lexical classes, which appears as an independent word in the language. The most common first constituent is a noun. Common second constituents are nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Compounding is considered a clear-cut lexical process: compounds are lexemes that derive from two or more simpler lexeme and tend to have idiosyncratic meaning so that they must be entered in dictionaries [START_REF] Singnoi | Nominal Constructions in Thai[END_REF].

The structure of Thai compounds is varied with many possible combinations as described in Chapter 2 (See Section 2.3). There are favorite patterns of compounding in Thai such as Noun-Noun, Noun-Verb, and Noun-Adjective. Thai compounds structurally belong to noun compounds, verb compounds, and adjective compounds.

However, it is not always easy to predict the type of compound by simply examining the type and order of the constituents. The semantic relationship between the constituents within a compound can also vary widely. The second constituent may modify the first, or the first may modify the second. Sometimes there is no modification relationship, and the compound elements are on an equal footing (coordinate compound). Also, the relationship between the meaning of component parts and the meaning of a compound as a whole may vary; the meaning of a compound may be identical to the sum (literal compounds), or may be completely different (figurative compounds).

Compounds in Thai can be also semantically divided into the endocentric and exocentric types. The meaning of an endocentric compound can be retrieved by combining the meaning of each compounding element; a subtype of their head is denoted. On the contrary, the meaning of an exocentric compound is beyond the meaning of its elements; it has idiomatic meaning which cannot be predicted from its components' meaning. Apart from these two types, there is a group of Thai compounds in which the semantics represents the sum of the meaning of each constituent part; because of its specific coordinative interpretation, each part contributes equally to the compound's meaning, with no head denoting the central sense [START_REF] Timyam | A Comparative Study of English and Thai: An Introduction[END_REF].

Formal Classification of Thai Compound Nouns

In the dictionaries of new words used for data collection, 333 compound nouns were found.

66.67% of the units were composed of two elements, 27.33% of three elements, 5.40 % of four elements and 0.30% of five elements.

Binary compound nouns

From the 333 compound nouns in the data collection, it was found that 67% are composed of two elements, which is thus the major type of compound nouns in Thai. Among them, 36% consist of two nominal constituents, 14% of them are composed of a noun and an adjective, and 10% are from a noun and a verb. Also, there are other minor structures as displayed in Table 3.2 below.

(6) V-V จิ ? มจุ ่ ม /cîm cùm/ to dip-to immerse 'a hot pot'
From the examples of lexical structures above, it can be seen that binary compound nouns in Thai are not be only composed of two nouns, but they are also combined with a noun and another word from different lexical categories such as an adjective, a verb, or a preposition.

For example, there is a number of compound nouns relating to names of food whose non-head elements indicate methods of cooking and ingredients. Most of these sequences are composed of N-V, like in the example (3).

Also, there is a certain number of compound nouns that are composed of a verb and a noun as illustrated in the examples (5). The verb-headed patterns allow their non-head to have a grammatical relation with the head verbs of the VERB-OBJECT type.

Only one Thai nominal compound, the example (6) found in the data set, is composed of two verbal constituents. This compound structure is comparatively less productive. The word cîm cùm is composed of cîm 'dip' and cùm 'immerse', which is the name of a Japanese dish, like sukiyaki (a hot pot), in which vegetables and meat are dipped in boiling water until they are cooked, and then they are immersed in different types of sauce before being eaten.

Compound nouns with three elements

It was found that there are 27 % of compound nouns which are composed of three elements, and are thus known as complex compounds that are very possible and quite common in Thai. The structures of compound nouns with three elements are shown in Table 3.3. The most productive types of compound nouns with three elements are N-N-N, N-V-N and N-N-ADJ. From the lexical structures in Table 3.3, when looking at the constituents carefully, it was found that 27% of three element compound nouns in the data set can be separated into two groups:

1) nominal compounds which consist of the juxtaposition of three independent lexemes, and

2) nominal compounds which come from the juxtaposition of an existing compound with a third lexeme. When considering the latter group, it can be seen that the compound nouns are all subordinative, and they have a hierarchical structure, which can be either right-branching or left-branching. Table 3.3 displays the distribution of the units in the data collection.

Table 3.4: The distribution of nominal compounds with three elements

Nominal compounds formed with the juxtaposition of an existing compound with a third lexeme

In this group of compounds, made up of an existing binary compound and a lexeme, there is a hierarchical structure that can be right-branching or left-branching.

5.40 % of them show a combination of a lexeme and a compound with a right-branching structure with one single element as the head and two elements as modifiers. See the examples below.

(

) N-[N-N] ฝนดาวตก /fǒndāːwtòk/ rain-[star-fall] rain-meteor 'meteor shower' (12) N-[V-N] อาหารสํ าเร็ จรู ป /ʔāːhǎːnsǎmrètrûːp/ food-[to complete-picture] food-instant 'instant food' (13) N-[V-V] ค่ าคุ ้ มครอง /khâːkhúmkrɔ̄ːŋ/ cost-[to guard-to govern] cost-protect 'protection racket' (14) N-[N-ADJ] ชาวสี ม่ วง /chāːwsǐːmûaŋ/ person-[color-purple] 11
person-purple 'a gay person'

1.8 % of them illustrate the following patternː a left-branching structure with a right-handside head, and then this whole complex structure is itself modified by a third element.

(

Compound nouns with four elements

Compound nouns in Thai can be modified to become more complex. They are further combined with all lexical categories or other compounds to produce longer compounds. In the data set, only 5.70% of compound nouns with four elements can be found. There are various structures as illustrated in Table 3.5. The compound nouns with four elements are also analyzed similarly to three-element compounds to see if they are composed of four lexemes, or they are formed by existing compounds. It was found that, among the 5.70% of in the data set, the constituents of fourelement compounds can be categorized into four groups: 1) nominal compounds which consist of four independent lexemes, 2) nominal compounds which come from the juxtaposition of an existing compound with two independent lexemes, 3) nominal compounds which are the combination of two independent lexemes with the juxtaposition of an existing compound, and 4) an existing compound with another existing compound. The details of each group and the examples are presented as follows.

Nominal compounds consisted with four independent lexemes

Nominal compounds consisting of four independent lexemes can be found in the Thai language, but just only 0.30% of the units are composed in this way, as illustrated in the example below. The word /bâːn.pàː.mɯ ̄aŋ.thɯ ̀n/ is only one unit that shows a combination of four lexemes to form a compound noun. This word may be considered as a combination of two compounds as /bâːn.pàː/ 'uncivilized city' + /mɯ ̄aŋ.thɯ ̀n/ 'uncivilized city' used in a spoken language, but in the written language, it is never found that it is used separately. It can be thus claimed that the word /bâːn.pàː.mɯ ̄aŋ.thɯ ̀n/ consists of four lexeme.

Nominal compounds consisting in the juxtaposition of an existing compound with two independent lexemes

It was found that 2% of compound nouns with four elements in the data set are found in the pattern of an existing compound combined with two independent lexemes. This illustrates that the left-branching structure is the head of a whole compound, which is modified by two 'secondary-school students' Also, one constituent 'compound' can be any type of compound, like a compound verb, and the whole output compound is a noun as illustrated in the example (25) given below.

(

) [N-N] N -[V-N] V นํ 7 ายาฟอกขาว /náːmyāː.fɔ̂ːkkhǎːw/ [water-drug]-[to clean-white] 25
chemical solution-whiten 'bleach'

Compound nouns with five elements

It is not common to find compound nouns with five elements. The more complex a compound, the less commonly it is found. It was found in only one word (0.30%) from all of compound nouns collected. Consider the word below.

(

) N-[N-ADJ] N -[N-N] N ค่ านํ 7 าร้ อนนํ 7 าชา /khâː.náːmrɔ ːn.náːmchāː/ khâ-[náːmrɔ ːn]-[náːmchāː] cost-[water-hot = 'hot water']-[water-tealeaf = 'tea'] 26
'a sum of money offered to bribe someone'

The word /khâː.náːmrɔ ːn.náːmchāː/ is a right-branching structure constructed of the N-[N-ADJ]-[N-N] type, which metaphorically means a sum of money offered to bribe someone, especially the government officers. It was believed that the kind of money was intently offered to someone to pay for coffee or tea after negotiation in order to get a special treatment or to do some business faster.

Overview

333 compound nouns in Thai are constructed through the use of various grammatical categories. A majority of compound nouns have a head noun. However, there are also other compound nouns which do not have a noun as their first member. It is interesting to note that some nominal compounds in Thai are composed of verbal constituents and other parts of speech such as an adjective. The summary of their constructions is shown in Table 3.6 From the constructions displayed in Table 3.6, it is concluded that nominal compounds in Thai can be categorized into two main groups; 1) noun-noun compounds, and 2) synthetic nominal compounds, which show a grammatical relation between a noun and a verb, like the patterns N-V, N-V-N and V-N.

Semantic Classification of Thai Compounds

There are several criteria of semantic classification of compounds that have been proposed

in previous studies of compounding. According to Bisetto & Scalise (2005), the classification of compounds is uniquely and consistently based on the possible grammatical relations holding between the two constituents of a compound, which are basically the relations that hold in syntactic constructions, which are:

- Each type may be endocentric with a lexical head or exocentric without a lexical head (Bisetto & Scalise, 2005). The work of [START_REF] Arnaud | [END_REF] singles out only two main types in noun-noun compounding, which are coordination, and subordination, the latter with two main subclasses: attributive and relational compounds. They do not focus on the concepts of endocentricity and exocentricity in their classification.

In the analysis of the semantic classification of Thai compound nouns constructed through the use of various grammatical categories in this study, the classification argued for by [START_REF] Arnaud | [END_REF] was adopted, with a main binary division in nominal compounding between subordinative and coordinative items. The distribution of types of compound nouns in Thai is shown in Table 3.7

Attributive Compounds

In an attributive compound, the non-head acts as a modifier of the head to show some resemblance. In Thai, there are 3.68% of subordinative attributive, which can be found in two different ways depending on the position of the head.

-An N1N2 is an N1 that is like an N2.

( From the data set of subordinative attributive compounds, left-headed units were found to be more numerous than right-headed units (3% vs 0.60%).

3.

Coordinative Compounds

Coordinative compounds are those compounds whose elements can be interpreted as being joined by 'and'. Both elements are heads. There is no hierarchy between the constituents. They also belong to the same lexical category, and they are co-hyponyms.

Coordinative compounds seem to be common in Southeast Asia [START_REF] Bauer | Typology of compounds[END_REF] The word /cǐm.cùm/ can also be analyzed as showing a logical addition of the constituents to indicate that an V1V2 is an object with which V1-ing plus V2-ing are taking place. The compound /ʔà:p.ʔòp.nûat/ is composed of three verbs [V1-V2-V3]N to indicate the actions of the people who work at a massage parlor, so this word metonymically acts to name the workplace. The finding is similar to that in the study by [START_REF] Singnoi | Nominal Constructions in Thai[END_REF], where it was found that certain noun compounds in Thai are composed of verbal constituents. Two or three verbs coordinate in naming something that involves an activity indicated by action verbs or a state indicated by adjective/stative verbs. However, this type of compounds is not typical and productive.

Headedness of Thai Compound Nouns

The issue of the identification of the head in compounding is of particular interest since the position of morphological heads differs from one language to another. Generally, nominal compounds in Thai have the head on the left, having modifying constituents on the right, except those which are coordinate compounds, and those which have no head [START_REF] Singnoi | Nominal Constructions in Thai[END_REF].

In this study, the analysis of headedness of all compound nouns in Thai is focused on (1) the existence of the head, (2) the number of heads and the position of the head. The identification of the head also covers metaphtonymic heads, which are not interpreted literally, as in a compound like "/hǔa:.dām/" (head-black: someone whose head is black = 'Asians'). The compounding element "/hǔa:/" in this case is metaphtonymic ('a blackhead is not a head'), but it is still a (secondary) head element to which the modifier "/dām/" attaches. Table 3.9

shows the distribution of the number and position of the head. The findings show the distribution of the three groups which were found: 94.30% of oneheaded compounds, 2.10 % of two-headed compounds (coordinative units described in Section 3.1.2), and 13.60% of headless compounds. Among one-headed compounds, it was found that 92.79% have the head on the left, while 2.10% are right-headed compounds. The description and the examples of left-headed compounds, right-headed compounds and headless compounds are described as follows.

Left-headed Compounds

It can be seen that the majority of Thai compound nouns have the head on the left.

Subordinate left-headed compounds are divided into two subtypes: 90.39 % of relational subordinate compounds, and 2.40% of attributive compounds. The distribution of the number of occurrences is presented in Table 3.10. In these examples, a categorial test of the type 'an N1N2 is an N1' can be used to identify the first constituent as the head of the compound. For example, in the compound /sà.ná:m/ (pond-water), /sà/ is the head of the compound, to indicate the place with water where people swim.

Right-headed Compounds

Only 1.80 % of subordinative right-headed compound nouns were found in the data set, and they can be either relational or attributive compounds, as shown in Table 3.12 below. -Firstly, the word /phútthá.phāːnít/ is composed of source words borrowed from Pali and Sanskrit, so its head is on the right, as based on the word-formation rules of the borrowed languages.

-Secondly, the word /kràthǐn.thūaː/ is a hybrid compound, which is a mix of Thai (kràthǐn) and English (thūaː [= tour]). A word borrowed from English acts as the head, while a Thai word acts as a modifier. It is the English right-headed pattern which has been borrowed here.

-Thirdly, a compound like /kàlàm.dɔ ː/ is loan translation whereby the semantic components of the original English units have been literally translated into Thai. This is explainable by the fact that nowadays many English words are borrowed, including multiword units, and they are translated while keeping the word structure of the donor language.

-Lastly, a compound such as /kràprōːŋ.kāːŋkēːŋ/ is composed of Thai words, but the head is on the right. Also, this word is attributive, that is an N1N2 is an N2 which is like an N1. This can be explained by the fact that the word /kràprōːŋ.kāːŋkēːŋ/ was coined and entered into a dictionary in 2009 as a new innovation, and it may be predicted that the word was translated from English language by redefining its definition as 'trousers that look like a skirt', and the translation in Thai may be written based on the structure of language donor.

Another prediction is that it may be denoted from the appearance of this lower-garment that really looks like a skirt, so the word 'kràprōːŋ' may be considered that it is an keyword to put on the left as other common compounds.

Graphic 8: Excerpt from the dictionary

Headless Compounds

Headless compounds present semantics that are totally unpredictable. The only way to link the compound to its meaning is by tracking its etymology and historical context. It is occasionally seen that a small number of compounds seem to present one or more of the semantic relations.

In the present study, in addition to one-and two-headed compound nouns, 2.11% of compound nouns in which there is no head are also attested in Thai. Most of them are of the V-N type, where the noun is an object of the verb. Other minor structures are also found:

ADJ-N, N-V and N-N. All headless compounds in the data set are shown below.

( From the compound nouns presented above, it can be seen that although neither the left nor the right hand-side element is the head of the compound, they contain the sum of the meaning of the constituents. For example, the compound in (40), /kɔ .ʔòk/, is a kind of upper garment without shoulder straps, but it clings tightly on the breasts or a person's chest.

Metaphtonymic Shifts

Semantically a compound in Thai is typically highly transparent when it is coined, but once it has been accepted into the vocabulary, it may become arbitrary as any single lexical word [START_REF] Singnoi | Nominal Constructions in Thai[END_REF]. Noun compounds in Thai vary in semantic transparency. In Thai, there are many compounds in which one of the elements is metaphorically or metonymically used while the other remains literal.

In the present study, the collected compounds have differing degrees of opacification.

Certain members of compounds are transparent whereas a number of others are not. 96.99%

of compound nouns in the data set, excluding headless compounds, can thus be classified into four fundamental types. The distribution of four types is presented in Table 3.14. The details and examples of each type are described as follows.

Transparency of all elements of the compound

Transparent compounds convey the meaning directly from each element, and the whole meaning can be figured out by an analysis of their parts or morphemes. From examined compound nouns, 62.47% of them are literal and transparent. Table 3.15 shows the examples of compound nouns in this group. /kàthə̄:j.khwā:j/ is interpreted metonymically to conceptualize the meaning of the unit.

Transparency of the non-head member, opacity of the head member

There are 10.21% of compound nouns in the data set composed of an opaque head and transparent non-head elements.

( From the examples given above, it can be concluded that the non-head elements are interpreted literally, while the head elements go through the process of metaphor.

Metaphtonymic compounds: Opacity of both elements of the compound

Thai has a large number of lexical units which cannot be interpreted literally. There is no straightforwardly predictable semantic relationship between the constituents. There are also a number of Thai metaphorical and metonymic compounds that allow people to communicate their intended meaning as well as conceptualize the world around them. In the data set of Thai nominal compounds, 11.41% of the examined units appear unpredictable in their compositional interpretation that denote an entity which does not result from their From the examples (50), it can be seen that the head element of each compound, which literally refers to a plant, metaphorically refers to a person, and the non-head element conceptualizes the characteristics to modify the head element. Additinally, as shown in the examples ( 51)-( 52), there are compound nouns composed of figurative elements that denote the entity metonymically.

Conclusion

The process of compounding is very productive in Thai. The number of elements in the number of transparent compounds is high, but interestingly many compound nouns exist in Thai where one of the elements is used metaphorically or metonymically while the other remains literal; in addition, the number of opaque compound nouns where both of elements are not interpreted literally is remarkably high.

Chapter 4 Nominal Compounding in English

This chapter examines how nominal compounds are structured in English. The analysis is based on 245 compound nouns which have been collected from the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW) published in 1998. This dictionary covers new words which have been in the news in the decade and a half between the beginning of the eighties and the midnineties. All compound nouns were selected manually for the present study, and they were analyzed in order to present a detailed picture of their main formal and semantic characteristics.

Definition of Compounds in English

Compounding is the most productive means to create new words in English. Compounds are viewed as entities formed by a process of compounding, which is a process of putting two lexemes together to form a larger word with certain predictable qualities. There are numerous patterns of compound formation, which can be distinguished on the basis of formal and semantic criteria. Compounds systematically combine words of certain categories; they display certain predictable stress patterns, and they are interpreted in principled ways.

Compounding is usually defined as the creation of words made up of two lexemes.

Compounds are often different from phrases by having the morphological structure of single words. In English, the stress pattern in compounds is often seen as a compound status indicator. The structures of compounds may be recursive, as illustrated by the compound technology transfer office, which combined the compound technology transfer and the lexeme office; that is, a compound can be an element in another compound, which can be analyzed as a series of binary structures [START_REF] Bauer | Typology of compounds[END_REF]. Similarly, in the definition of Lieber and Stekauer, a compound is defined as a combination of two or more lexemes; however, it is better to say that the term lexeme should be specific enough to exclude affixes, but it should be broad enough to include the roots, stems and free words (Lieber & Stekauer, 2009).

Also, this definition matches with Plag's conceptualization that compounding is defined as the combination of two elements, the first of which is either a root, a word or a phrase, the second of which is either a root or a word [START_REF] Plag | Word-formation in English[END_REF]. As defined by Kavka ( 2009), a compound is a word formed by the combination of two or more simplex words that represent a larger lexeme than is commonly and traditionally believed, and that represents a syntactically and semantically distinct unit that is fully variable in the current context.

However, it is not easy to identify a satisfying and universally applicable definition of compounds. This is because the elements that make up compounding in some languages are not free-standing words, but rather stems or roots. Another reason is that there is no a clear distinction between compound words, derived words or phrases (Lieber & Stekauer, 2009).

In English, there is no certain structure for word formation in both phrases and compounds. This is because their morphosyntax is not different. For instance, both phrases and compounds do not have an inflectional ending on an adjectival first element. In English, both adjectives and nouns can be modifiers in noun phrases. The structure N-N is not always a compound. It is ambiguous to identify the differences between phrases and compounds in English. Stress, however, can be a criterion to classify phrases and compounds. For example, when main stress is on the first element, it is a compound, whereas it is a phrase when the stress is on the second one. The second criterion is semantic. That is, the meaning of all the words in a compound cannot be separately reduced while the meaning of the words in a phrase can be interpreted separately. Because of complex lexemes, the criterion, however, does not work to identify the status of compound. Plenty of opaque compounds are not semantically clear to a greater or lesser degree.

In this study, the compound words that have been collected were chosen based on the list of criteria to be considered the characteristics of English nominal compounding as follows:

(1) The lexicon classifies compounds as units created by compounding, which is the process of joining two or more lexemes to create a larger word with a new connotation and predictable qualities.

(2) An affix cannot be inserted into a compound because compounds are uninterruptable units, according to syntactic atomicity.

(3) The stress falls on the left element for compounds, but in case of an A-N construction, right-most stress is accepted for compounds if they are composed of a relational adjective.

(4) Compounding can be regarded as the formation of words through the combination of lexemes that are written in solid, hyphenated, or spaced form.

(5) There is the possibility of modifying NN constructs into

[N[A+N]] or [[A+N]N],
but the adjective cannot be sub-modified by very, rather, so, etc.

(6) Nominal compounds are formed with words belonging to various lexical categories, but the whole unit is a noun.

Formal Classification of Compound Nouns in English

Generally, a compound noun in English is a grammatical structure in which nouns are linked together, or they are formed with words belonging to various lexical categories such as a noun and a noun (e.g. family business), a verb and a noun (e.g. waitperson), or an adjective and a noun (e.g. greenhouse).

In the dictionary of new words used for data collection, the 245 identified compound nouns consist of combinations of different lexical categories, with two to three elements. Regarding the number of elements of compound nouns in the data set, 97.14% consist of two elements, and only 2.86% compose of three elements as presented in Table 4.1. escape key V-N 'a key to escape from something' or N-N 'a key used for an escape from something'

Given that it seems possible to paraphrase them using two nouns, it would seem more logical to conclude that they combine a noun with another a noun, rather than a verb and a noun.

Because of the ambiguity, these three units can be classified as a special category, V/N-N.

(4) V-V

In the study, only 0.81% of compound nouns found consist of two verbs. Like verbal compounds combining two verbs, they can be interpreted as units in which the first verb denotes the manner in which the action denoted by the second verb is performed. Some compound nouns consisting of two verbal elements can be interpreted in a similar way as the verb-verb coordinate compounds mentioned by [START_REF] Renner | On the semantics of English coordinate compounds[END_REF]: cash-back /ˈkaʃbak/ 'a free facility offered by a retailer whereby a customer may withdraw a limited amount of cash when making a credit or debit purchase, the amount of which is added to the bill' year out /ˈjɪə aʊt/ 'a period of one academic year taken as a break from formal education by a student between leaving school and taking up a place at college or university'

A careful analysis is needed to decide if these two words are compounds. These two words are included in the data set as compound units because these two items consist of two lexemes that are inseparable, and they show the characteristics of left-hand stress pattern of English compounds, and they are clearly not right-headed compounds.

(

6) ADJ-ADJ

There is one compound noun in the data set which is composed of an adjective and an adjective.

new romantic 'a follower of a British youth cult and fashion of the early eighties which combined elements of punk and glam-rock to form a style'

English compound nouns with three elements

In the study, there are only 2.86 % % of compound nouns with three elements found in the examined units. In this study, only 7 compound nouns consist of 3 nominal constituents (N-N-N). They are formed into two different patterns, as described in next sections.

Nominal compounds consisting of three lexemes

Only one compound is combined with three lexemes.

technology transfer office technology-transfer office

Nominal compounds formed with the juxtaposition of an existing compound with a lexeme

There are 6 compound nouns that come from the juxtaposition of an existing compound with a lexeme, and the occurrence of recursiveness with left-branching. There is not any occurrence of recursiveness with right-branching found in the data set. (1) Spaced compounds Spaced compounds are the most productive with 73.06% on the basis of the collected data.

A compound, which is created by putting two words together with an interword spacing, combines elements which exhibit the same lexical category, like (N N), and in case when (ADJ-N). However, after careful observing, it was found that all the compound nouns in the data set which are composed of a verb and a verb are hyphenated, as shown below.

V-V cook-chill kick-start

This may correspond to the interpretation of compound nouns consisting of two verbal elements mentioned by [START_REF] Renner | On the semantics of English coordinate compounds[END_REF]: to X and then to Y as described in Section 4.2.1.( 4) that a hyphen is used to refer to 'and then'.

Compounds were usually hyphenated, but the tendency is now to write them as either one solid word or two separate words. It is hard to make a conclusion about the rules to hyphenate between two or more words to form compounds, and it may be arbitrary to have the hyphen between two lexemes.

Overview

245 compound nouns in English are constructed through the use of various grammatical categories. Seven structures occur in the sample of English compound nouns, whereby two or three lexemes from the same or different classes are joined together. There is a remarkable preference for the structure noun-noun. As shown in Table 4.4, one of the elements of the compound noun can be a noun combined with another lexical category. However, a compound noun may be obtained through the combination of non-noun elements, like V-V and ADJ-ADJ.

Coordinate Compounds

Coordinate compounds are those compounds which encode a semantic relation of coordination between elements which belong to the same lexical category and are cohyponyms [START_REF] Renner | On the semantics of English coordinate compounds[END_REF]. Renner uses three test sentences to distinguish three subclasses among them:

an X.Y is an X who/which is also a Y an X.Y is an X plus a Y an X.Y is about midway between an X and a Y

In this study, only one noun-noun coordinate compound was found, which is 'wolf-dog'.

The compound 'wolf-dog' fits in the third test sentence, that is, an X.Y is about midway between an X and a Y.

wolf-dog 'a dog which is a hybrid between a wolf and a dog'

There are also two coordinate compound nouns that are composed of two verbal elements, 'cook-chill' and 'kick-start'. According to [START_REF] Renner | On the semantics of English coordinate compounds[END_REF], verb-verb compounds can be classified into three semantic subcategories:

asynchronous compounds (to X and then to Y)

synchronous compounds (to X and to Y alternatively or to X and to Y at the same time)

disjunctive compounds (X or Y).

The two compound nouns composed of two verbs in the data set are asynchronous compounds:

cook-chill to X and then to Y 'the process of pre-cooking and refrigerating foods for reheating later'

kick-start to X and then to Y 'a way to start by kicking forcedly'

Headedness in English Compound Nouns

The identification of the semantic head is an important element in the analysis of a compound. The head of the compound is also an element that determines the word-class of the whole compound. In Germanic languages, like English, it is the righthand member that generally determines the grammatical properties and the main meaning of the whole compound. [START_REF] Bauer | Typology of compounds[END_REF] uses the term 'endocentric compound' to refer to the units such as 'blackbird', 'windmill', and 'textbook' for which the righthand element is a hypernym of the compound, while he uses the term 'exocentric compound', when the head is external to the compound itself, as in 'redhead', a person with red hair, 'flatfoot', a policeman, and 'egghead', an intellectual.

In this study, the semantic headedness of English compound nouns is analyzed on the basis of the existence of a literal or figurative interpretation of the unit. The head is metaphtonymic when it is not interpreted literally, as for a compound like "egghead" (someone whose head is like an egg). The compounding element "head" in this case is metonymic, but it is still a (secondary) head element representing someone to which the modifier "egg" attaches. Table 4.7 shows the distribution and position of the head. These two compounds are left-headed because the left-hand element determines the main meaning of the whole compound. The left-hand member of the compound is a noun, and the compound as a whole is a noun although the right-hand member consists of words of differing lexical categories.

Headless Compounds

Headless compounds are compounds which do not have an element that determines the general meaning of the compound. There is no relation of hyponymy between the meaning of the head and that of either element. For example, 'pickpocket' is not a kind of 'pick' or of 'pocket'; a 'redshank' does not refer to a body part from the knee to the ankle, but to a kind of bird that has red legs.

In addition to one-and two-headed compound nouns, compound nouns in which there is no head are also attested in English. In the study, 4.48% of compound nouns are found to be headless. Some examples are presented in Table 4.11 below. From the compound nouns presented above, it can be seen that although neither the left nor the right hand-side element is the head of the compound, they include the sum of the meanings of the constituents. For example, the compound in 'high-top' is a kind of softsoled sports shoe that extends above the height of the ankle.

Metaphtonymic Shifts

In the present study, the collected English compounds have differing degrees of opacification. Certain constituents of compounds are transparent whereas a number of others are not. In English, there are many compounds in which one of the elements is metaphorically or metonymically used while the other remains literal. In the data set, 95.51% of compound nouns, excluding headless compounds, can thus be categorized into four types.

The distribution of the four types is presented in Table 4.12. In Table 4.13, the compound nouns are completely literal. The semantic transparency of compounds was determined individually for each element. Each one appears literally in the paraphrase of the compound: for example, "the home cinema is the cinema in the home."

Transparency of the head element, opacity of the non-head element

Noun compounds vary in semantic transparency. In English, there are compounds in which one of the elements is metaphorically or metonymically used while the other remains literal.

In the study, it was found that 3.67% of compound nouns are composed of a head which is transparent while the non-head element is interpreted in a figurative way. Some examples are presented as follows: Regarding the examples of compound nouns presented in Table 4.14, it can be seen that the head elements are transparent, while the non-head elements are not interpreted literally.

Metaphor is used extensively in the non-head elements of the compound nouns in this data collection. For example, the non-head element of the compound 'snail mail' refers metaphorically to the slowness of this type of mail, as opposed to electronic mail.

Transparency of the non-head element, opacity of the head member

As compounds result from the combination of two lexemes, one of them may go through a figurative use while the other remains literal. In the data set, it was found that 6.93% of compound nouns composed of a non-head element, which remains literal, while a head element is not interpreted literally. See the examples below. Based on the examples provided above, it can be inferred that the non-head elements are literally interpreted, whereas the head elements are subjected to a metaphorical interpretation process. For example, the head element of the compound 'safe haven', which originally denotes a harbour, refers metaphorically (and more generally) to a zone.

Opacity of both elements of the compound: Metaphtonymic compounds

English also has a large number of lexical units which cannot be interpreted literally. The semantic relationship between the elements and the compound as a whole is not predictable.

In the data set of English compound nouns, a relatively high number, or 17.55%, of the examined units appear to be unpredictable in their interpretation. Some examples are shown in Table 4.16. and 'tree hugger'.

Conclusion

Compounding is a very productive means of creating new words. In English, it is intricate to form nominal compounding depending on rules such as orthography, stress, and specific types of adjectives that the compounds consist of, and which work as modifying elements.

Seven patterns with two to three elements of English compound nouns have been detailed in In English, the position of the head can be found canonically on the right; English also does allow the leftmost element to function as the semantic head. The number of transparent compounds is higher than that of opaque ones, which have gone through a process of figurativeness which involves two degrees: metonymy and metaphor. There is also a mixture of literal and figurative interpretation of elements of the compounds when certain compound nouns show the transparency of the head member and the opacity of the non-head member while some other compound nouns display the opacity of the head element and the transparency of the non-head member.

Chapter 5

A Comparison of Nominal Compounding in Thai and English

It is challenging to compare English and Thai languages in order to find out similarities and differences in the process of forming nouns through compounding. Among word formation processes, compounding is the most productive means of creating new words in both English and Thai, even though these two languages are from completely different language families.

Compound noun-formation as a sub-process of word-formation is an intricate field of study in both English and Thai. Compound nouns are defined differently in different languages, focusing on different aspects, and using different terms to emphasize particular distinctions. In English, the position of the head can be found on the right. The number of transparent compounds is higher than that of the opaque ones. Non-literal compounds have gone through a process of figurativeness involving two forms: metonymy and metaphor.

Chapter 5 examines in a contrastive analysis the two sets of 333 Thai and 245 English lexical units identified as compound nouns. In this chapter, the formal and semantic classifications of nominal compounds are discussed and exemplified for Thai and English languages to shed light on the resemblance and the distinction based on the data gathered.

The formal classification of nominal compounds in Thai and

English

To shed light on the similarities and the differences in compound noun-formation in these two languages, the structures are compared and contrasted. The table below illustrates the percentage of orthographical variants, the number of elements, and the structures of Thai and English compound nouns.

Spelling

The orthographic form of compound nouns in both Thai and English was investigated. Table 5.1 below shows the comparison of orthographic patterns of compounds in the two languages. Compounds in Thai are always written in a solid form, and there is never any space or hyphenation between words. Thai language is an isolating language which has a low morpheme-per-word ratio, and it lacks a degree of fusion between morphemes, Thai words are created simply by putting morphemes together, like other southeast Asian languages such as Sino-Tibetan languages, Burmese, and Vietnamese that lack inflection to indicate syntactic relationships, so the lexemes do not need any spaces between them. Like Chinese and Japanese, the Thai writing system does not use interword spacing. Thai uses an alpha syllabary, where consonant letters contain an inherent vowel, and where single consonant and vowel letters are arranged by syllable. Also, Thai does not use spaces between words, but it does use spaces to mark phrase and clause boundaries, which is similar to the way commas and periods are used in English [START_REF] Vitrano-Wilson | Comparing the Readability of Syllable Spacing and Word Spacing in Hmong Daw[END_REF]. On the other hand, to write compounds in English, there are three possible written forms; solid, hyphenated, or spaced form. The distribution appears to be non-random and statistically significant --an overwhelming majority of units are spelled with a space, marking a clear typological contrast with Thai.

Number of elements

The elements of Thai and English compound nouns are counted, and they are compared as shown in Table 5.2 and Figure 2 below.

None

Regarding four-and five-element compounds, the remarkable difference between the two languages is that there are such structures in the Thai data set -5.40% are four-element compounds, 0.33% are five-element compounds -, but not in the English data set, in spite of the fact that English is often characterized as a language prone to (complex) compounding.

This indicates that compounding in general, and multiple compounding in particular, seems to be more productive in Thai than in English.

In case of compound nouns of three or more elements, there is potential ambiguity in interpretation between left and right-bracketing. In Thai, the findings show that there is the occurrence of recursiveness with right-branching and left-branching, i.e., 5.70 % of them show a combination of a lexeme and a compound with a right-branching structure, and 1.8 % of them illustrate a left-branching structure. In contrast, in English, there are 2.44% of occurrence of recursiveness, with only left-branching. There is no occurrence of recursiveness with right-branching found in the data set of English compound nouns. This can be explained by the fact that Thai has a greater variety of elements than English. Thai compound nouns have between two and five constituents, whereas English compound nouns have between two and three elements.

Lexical structures of Thai and English compound nouns

With the existence of 36 lexical types of compound noun for Thai, and just 7 for English, it can be said here that Thai clearly boasts a wider variety of structures. Table 5.4 below shows the comparison of the structures of compound nouns in Thai and English.

N-V-N 9.00 0 N-N-ADJ 3.30 0 N-N-V 1.80 0 N-V-ADJ 0.60 0 N-NO-N 0.60 0 N-N-ADV 0.30 0 Lexical Structures Thai English (%) (%) N-N-PREP 0.30 N-N-NO 0.30 N-ADV-N 0.30 N-ADJ-ADJ 0.30 N-ADJ-N 0.30 N-ADJ-V 0.30 N-PREP-N 0.30 V-V-V 0.30 V-N-V 0.30 N-N-N-N 1.50 V-N-V-N 0.90 N-V-V-V 0.60 N-N-N-ADJ 0.30 N-N-V-N 0.30 N-N-V-ADJ 0.30 N-V-N-ADJ 0.30 N-ADJ-V-N 0.30 N-ADJ-N-N 0.30 N-PREP-V-N 0.30 N-PREP-N-N 0.30 V-N-N-N 0.30 N-N-ADJ-N-N 0.30
Thai and English, as shown in Table 5.4, have only four structures in common: N-N, V-N,

V-V and N-N-N. There are thirty-two compound noun-formation structures in Thai that do not exist in English in the present study, e.g., N-V, N-PREP, and ADJ-N, and also, remarkably, three structures in English are absent in Thai -ADJ-N, N-ADV and ADJ-ADJ.

The generalization of compounds, as presented in Figures 5 and6 illustrates the structures of the compound noun patterns in Thai and English more accurately with percentages. nouns, and this with similar percentages, and there is also a similar small number of compounds in both languages that consists of a non-noun plus a non-noun. It is noticeable that Thai has a higher number of compounds created by combining a noun and a non-noun while English has a lot more of non-noun plus noun combinations. It can be explained by the fact that the main reason is the position of the head, which is canonically on the left in Thai and on the right in English.

Thai also displays a wider number of combinations involving lexical categories which are not used in English, like preposition. Some of these differences can also be accounted for by the typological differences in the two languages -Thai for instance places modifying adjectives after the head noun while English only allows premodification. Examples below illustrate the differences: From a quantitative standpoint, the top pattern is the same in the two languages, i.e., N-N, and the association of a head noun with an adjective comes also second in the two languages.

All the other lexical combinations are marginal in English while Thai has three more patterns of relatively high frequency: N-V, N-N-N and N-V-N.

Additionally, Thai and English also have a similar percentage of compound nouns composed of two verbal constituents (V-V), and they are identified as coordinative compounds in the present study. Both compounds in Thai and English are interpreted as to X and then to Y.

See the compounds below.

/cǐm.cùm/ to dip and then to immerse dip-immerse 'a hot pot' i.e. sukiyaki (a Japanese dish)

kick-start to kick and then to start 'a way to start by kicking forcedly'

The semantic classification of compound nouns in Thai and

English

Differences and similarities between Thai and English appear not only at the formal level, but also at the semantic level. The semantic classification of compound nouns in Thai and English adopted here is based on [START_REF] Arnaud | [END_REF], as described in Chapters 3 and 4, showing the existence of two main types of compound nouns, i.e. coordinate and subordinate compounds, the latter category being subdivided into relational and attributive compounds.

To clarify the similarities and the differences in compound noun-formation in these two languages, the semantic classifications are compared and contrasted.

Types of compound nouns in Thai and English

The occurrences of relational subordinate compounds are, by far, the most common type of compound nouns in both languages. The other semantic types can be said to be relatively marginal. The main quantitative finding in Table 5.5 is that the various proportions between the different semantic types -subordinate and coordinate, relational and attributive -are very similar in the two languages. They have only about 2% of coordinate units while there are about 98% of subordinate compounds.

Headedness of compound nouns in Thai and English

In most of the compound nouns of both languages, there is a head that bears the main properties of the whole noun, and a modifier that constrains the meaning of the head. Table 5.6 shows the distribution of headedness of the compound nouns in Thai and English. In the two languages, there is also a similar percentage of semantically headless units. For example, the Thai compound /yok soŋ/, which literally means 'to lift up a form', is neither a kind of /yok/ (lift), nor a /soŋ/ (form). It simply means 'a bra'. Similarly, in English, the meaning of the compound noun high-top is not directly connected to either constituent.

The position of the head

Among one-head compound nouns, in both Thai and English languages, there is a division into two groups: right-headed compounds and left-headed compounds. The proportion of the two languages is presented in Table 5.7 5.7 shows that Thai has a high preference for left-headedness, but a few right-headed compound nouns do occur due to the influence of foreign language patterns that appear through borrowings from Pali, Sanskrit and English. For example, the compound /kàthǐnthūa:/ referring to a type of tour for people traveling to the temples to offer kàthǐn (a yellow robe) to monks, is a hybrid compound, i.e., a mix of a Thai /kàtĭn/ and an English word /tua/ (tour) that has adopted the right-headed pattern of English. The word /tua/ has been borrowed from English, which was transliterated, acts as the head, while a Thai word acts as a modifier.

On the other hand, subordinate noun compounds in English are predominantly right-headed.

Only one compound in English attested in the data set does also allow the leftmost element to function as the semantic head. The compound cash-back is left-headed because the left element determines the main meaning of the whole compound. The left-hand member of the compound is a noun, and the compound as the whole is a noun, although the right-hand member consists of a non-noun.

Metaphtonymic Shifts of Compounds in Thai and English

Among headed compounds in this study, the collected Thai and English compounds have varying degrees of opacification. Certain constituents of compounds are transparent, whereas others are not. As described in Chapter 3 and 4, in terms of metaphtonymic shifts, compound nouns in the two languages can be classified into four types, and the distribution of the four types of two languages is presented in Table 5.8 The majority of nominal compounds in both Thai and English are semantically transparent, and the proportion of transparent units is slightly higher in English. Also, both Thai and English nominal compounds can go through a process of figurativeness where all elements are not transparent, but the proportion of opaque units is slightly higher in English.

Both Thai and English languages have compounds in which one of the elements is used metaphorically or metonymically while the other is used literally. However, after observing the proportion of the units in this category, it was found that Thai has a higher number of nominal compounds than English does. The percentage of compounds composed of a transparent head and figurative non-head elements is three times as high in Thai, and also the number of compounds composed of an opaque head and a transparent non-head element is almost twice as high in Thai.

From these findings mentioned above, it can be seen that English likely intends to have compounds composed of all transparent elements, like the compound 'juice box'. If the compounds involve figurativeness, English prefers to have opacity of both elements of the compound, like the compound 'glass ceiling' metonymically meaning an unofficial or unacknowledged barrier to personal advancement, especially in the workplace (ODNW).

Conclusions

Thai compound nouns can be distinguished from English compound nouns to the extent that they typically display more varied types of patterns, both in terms of number of elements (up to five) and of combination of lexical patterns (using a wider number of non-nouns). Thai compounds can also be characterized by a stronger external influence than is the case for English: they can contain foreign elements (e.g. Pali and Sanskrit) and adopt patterns that are not displayed natively (like right-head structuring). In spite of their differences, it was found that Thai and English share a number of basic constructions: N-N, N-ADJ, N-ADV, V-N, V-V.

Semantically, Thai and English both make use of the two main types of nominal compounding: subordinate compounds and coordinate compounds. Noticeably, the proportions of the different semantic types of compound noun in both languages are remarkably similar: 98% for subordinates and 2% for coordinates; and a very small number of attributive subordinates. The two languages display a salient typological contrast as far as headedness is concerned: the head in a Thai compound is canonically on the left while the head of English compound noun is on the right.

The majority of nominal compounds in both Thai and English are transparent, but the number of semantically figurative compounds in English is higher than in Thai. Compounds exist in both Thai and English where one member is used figuratively while the others remain literally. Thai has a much higher percentage of compounds with a transparent head and figurative non-head element, as well as with an opaque head and transparent non-head element.

in different patterns of reduction. It does not only involve a combination of forms, but also a combination of meaning.

Formal classification of Thai lexical blends

Lexical typology

In the data set of lexical blends in Thai, it was found that units are made up of two to three source words. The distribution of the number of elements of lexical blends in Thai is displayed in Table 6.1. In case of lexical blending with three elements, one unit is made up with three lexemes, and another one more precisely comes from the juxtaposition of an existing blend with a third lexeme, as shown in Example (2). They also have a hierarchical structure that can be rightbranching or left-branching.

In the study, all 37 blends are limited to three lexical categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Table 6.2 shows the lexical categories of the output. It was found that the overwhelming majority of them are nouns, with a small minority of adjectives and an even smaller number of verbs. The analysis of 37 blended outputs leads to four patterns of lexical shortening, and each of them with their examples is described in more details as follows:

(1) AD blends 43.24% of the lexical blends in the data set are formed by double inner shortening that shows right-shortening of the left source word and left-shortening of the right source word. After observing, Thai AD blends can be classified into two subgroups:

( (2) ABD blends 43.24% of lexical blends are created by clipping the first syllable of the word on the right-hand side. After considering their appearance, Thai ABD blends can be classified into three subgroups:

(2.1) 10.81% of ABD blends are a combination of a full word and a final splinter.

The source word on the left-hand side is left untouched as shown in the given example below:

( After carefully considering the two words in ( 17) and ( 18), it can be explained that there is a diacritic that is called /thānthákhâːt/ written above the consonant in the first source words of ( 17) and ( 18), which causes 'ทร์ ' in จั นทร์ /tɕān/ and 'น์ ' in ทั ศน์ /thát/ to become mute when these two words stand alone. According to the Office of the Royal Society ( 2007), the /thānthákhâːt/ diacritic is usually placed above the last consonant of Thai words that are borrowed from foreign languages such as Pali, Sanskrit and English in order to retain as much of the original spelling as possible, even though the redundant consonant is ignored, and it is not pronounced. In the case of the examples ( 17) and ( 18), when the first source word is joined with the second source word, the /thānthákhâːt/ diacritic is removed resulting in unmuting the final consonants of the first source word of ( 17) and ( 18), as illustrated below. The blend in (20) shows ABDF shortening, i.e., the first source word on the left-hand side is left untouched, while the first syllables of the second and third source word are clipped. This is a combination of an ABD blend and a final splinter of the lexeme.

จั นทร์

The blend in (21) shows ABCDF shortening. In other words, this is a combination of a lexeme and an ABD blend, it is made up with a lexeme and an existing binary lexical blend.

Segment overlap

Segment overlap is a prototypical aspect of lexical blending. Segment overlap is identified when a segment in a blend is shared by the source words, i.e., the segment can be sourced from either input word [START_REF] Renner | French and English lexical blends in contrast[END_REF]. In this study, the typology by Renner ( 2019) is adopted --there are three different subtypes of segment overlap: 1) graphic-cum-phonic overlap, 2) graphic-only overlap, and 3) phonic-only overlap.

In the data set, it was found that 13.51% of Thai lexical blends have overlapping segments, whereas 86.49% of them have no overlap. Table 6.5 shows the distribution of segment overlap in the Thai lexical blends. From the lexical blends above, it can be seen that there is a segment overlap that is shared by the source words, which can be sourced from either input word. There is phonological and orthographic overlap between the elements. The examples ( 22)-( 25) can be analyzed as cases of medial graphic-cum-phonic overlap. For example, the blend in ( 22), /ʔàttànōːmɯ ̄ː/, which is composed of /ʔàttànōːmát/ and /mɯ ̄ː/, has graphic overlap of 'ม' and phonic overlapping of the sound /m/.

The blend in (26) /siːkrîat/ shows graphic-cum-phonic overlap, but it is not a medial overlap.

It is a special kind of overlap that illustrates that there is word-final overlap at the phonic and graphic levels of /rîat/.

The possibility of finding a correlation between patterns of shortening and segment overlap, and determining whether they are related in any manner, may be intriguing to study further. The results in Table 6.6 clearly demonstrate that segment overlap is merely optional (simply because shortening occurs does not imply that there will be segment overlap). AD blends never demonstrate this possibility even when shortening occurs. However, interestingly, all of the ACD blends in the data set have medial overlap.

Patterns of phonological splitting

The split point is defined as the point at which the source words are cut off, which is a defining characteristic of blend formation and observation. When the source words are blended, different sections of the source words are used and not used, and the split point is located wherever the words are divided to form a new word. The source words are separated at various morphological boundaries, depending on the word they are morphing into (Beliaeva, 2019a). In the study by [START_REF] Renner | French and English lexical blends in contrast[END_REF], it is stated that the split point of source words in lexical blends can be found in five different locations. Here are his analysis and his examples:

at a syllable boundary at an onset-nucleus boundary at a nucleus-coda boundary inside a complex onset inside a complex coda

In the data set of 37 Thai lexical blends, there are 76 source words in total, which are 70 source words of lexical blends with two elements, plus 6 source words of lexical blends with three elements, but when looking at the patterns of shortening, there are only 49 source words that can be examined to find out the patterns of phonological splitting: 32 source words from AD blends, 14 source words from ABD blends, 2 source words from an ABDF blend, and 1 source word from an ABCDF blend. Each source word for those blends which did not manifest segment overlapping was analyzed to determine where the split was. The distribution of the patterns of phonological splitting in the Thai lexical blends is illustrated in Table 6.7. No other patterns of phonological split points are found in the source words of Thai lexical blends in the data set. This can be explained by the fact that the majority of Thai blends are fused with the first source word whose final splinter consists of a CV syllable, and its vowel is clipped (at an onset-nucleus boundary), and with the second source word whose first syllable begins with the syllable อะ /ʔà/ or อุ /ʔú/, and it is always cut off (at a syllable boundary).

Semantic classification of Thai lexical blends

The semantic features of blends have primarily been explored in terms of developing a classification of blends based on the relationships between their source words, similar to the way compounds are classified based on the semantic links between their elements (see [START_REF] Bauer | English word formation[END_REF][START_REF] Benczes | Creative Compounding in English. The Semantics of Metaphorical and Metonymical Noun-Noun Combination[END_REF][START_REF] Renner | On the semantics of English coordinate compounds[END_REF]. In the present study, the semantic classification of Thai lexical blends is analysed in the same way as English and Thai compounds in previous chapters in order to examine the semantic types, headedness, and metaphtonymic shifts.

Semantic headedness of Thai lexical blends

The headedness of the 37 Thai lexical blends in the data set is analysed in the same way as that of Thai and English compounds (see Chapter 3: section 3.2.3, Chapter 4: section 4.2.3).

The head of lexical blends is also examined on the basis of the existence of a hyponymic relation between a source word and the blend itself, and also the literal or figurative interpretation of the unit. The position (left-hand side or right-hand side) and the number of heads are also specified.

In the data set, the overwhelming majority of lexical blends in Thai are subordinate, with only one head, while a small number of them are coordinate blends, with two heads. Headless lexical blends cannot be found in the data collection. The number of semantic heads and the semantic relation are distributed in Table 6.8. In this study, the position of the head of single-headed lexical blends in Thai is also examined. The findings show that all lexical blends in the data set are right-headed. None of them has the head on the left-hand side. Table 6.9 show the distribution of the position of the head of subordinate blends.

Table 6.9: Distribution of the position of the head of subordinate blends

Subordinate blends Number Percent

Right-headed 33 100

Left-headed 0 0

Total 33 100%

As presented in Table 6.9, all lexical blends in Thai have their heads on the right-hand side, which is in stark contrast to the position of the head in Thai compounds, as it was described in Chapter 3 that the overwhelming majority of Thai compound nouns are left-headed, but there is a minority of Thai compounds whose head the right-hand side element. In the case of right-headed lexical blends, it can be explained by the same reason as in the case of some right-headed compounds -because blends are composed of source words borrowed from Pali and Sanskrit, so the head is on the right, as is the case in the donor languages. This can be confirmed by exploring new words in the Royal Institute Dictionary of Coined Words. It was found that most of them have been coined by making use of Pali and/or Sanskrit morphemes to encode Western-based notions, in order to avoid using direct borrowing from foreign languages, especially English and other Western languages [START_REF] Diller | The Tai-Kadai Languages[END_REF]. For example, the word 'อธิ ปไตย' /ʔàtíppàtai/ in the blend /maːtaːthíppàtai/ is a borrowed word from Pali language that is used to translate the English word 'sovereignty' into Thai. Thai does not only borrow Pali and Sanskrit lexemes to coin new words, but Thai also imitates the rules of blending formation from Pali and Sanskrit, showing that the head element is on the right, and the modification is on the left [START_REF] Buapanngarm | Influences of Pali-Sanskrit loanwords on Thai[END_REF]. Even when the two source words are Thai, the position of the head is also on the right due to the imitation of blending formation from Pali and Sanskrit as mentioned earlier, as in the blend กระเปรง /kràpreŋ/ (> /kràproŋ/ + /kaːŋkreŋ/ skirt-pants, meaning "pants which look like a skirt").

Coordinate blends

Coordinate blends, like coordinate compounds, have parts that can be read as being at the same hierarchical level and can be combined by the word "and." The semantic heads are both source words, and they provide the meaning equally. In the present study, there are Among the 4 blends that make up the 10.81% of coordinate blends found within the data set, the constituents of each blend belong to the same lexical category and are also all cohyponyms. [START_REF] Renner | Les composés coordinatifs en anglais contemporain[END_REF] categorizes the semantic relationships between the elements of coordinate blends into four main groups:

1) A hybrid blend denotes a hybrid of the things denoted by its elements e.g., tigon (tiger + lion).

2) An additional blend is made up of the instance denoting the addition of the two parts e.g., semantax (semantics + syntax).

3) A polyvalent blend is made up of words denoting the features of both elements e.g., spork (spoon + fork).

4) A tautologous blend is made up of two units which are synonyms of each other e.g., wuss (wimp + pussy).

Based on this categorization, Thai coordinate blends can be grouped as shown in Table 6.10. No unit shows the opacity of source words. This can be explained by the fact that it is not always easy to understand the meaning of a blend, especially when it appears to be impossible to figure out the constituents. Since blends are intentionally created to designate new things, the reader or listener may be confronted with the additional difficulty to figure out the meaning of blends if both source words cannot be interpreted literally.

Conclusions

In the present study, blending is described as a process of word construction that involves the integration of two or more lexemes with the loss of phonic and/or graphic forms through various patterns of shortening. It also involves both a combination of forms and a combination of meanings. The examination of 37 lexical blends has demonstrated that Thai has three fixed etymological patterns to form blends: Thai and Thai, Thai and borrowings, like the Pali and Sanskrit languages. The number of elements in lexical blends seems to be limited to a maximum of three, and the structures of lexical blends are varied up to 8 patterns:

[N-N], [N-V], [ADJ-N], [V-N], [ADJ-V], [N-V], [V-ADJ], [N-N-N]

Chapter 7 Lexical Blending in English

This chapter describes how lexical blends are created in English. The analysis is based on a sample of 100 lexical blends which have been collected manually from three dictionaries specified only from 1990: 1) 34 units selected from the Oxford Dictionary of New Words, from 1990 to 1998 (Knowles and Elliott, 1997), 2) 8 units from 20th-century words: the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years, from 1990 to 1999 [START_REF] Ayto | 20th-century words the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years[END_REF], and 3) 58 units selected from Oxford English Dictionary (OED), online version: the selection is based on the words labelled 'blends' in the etymology in an advanced search and which appeared in the 20 th century or early 21 st century, from 1900 to 2010.

I initially intended to collect lexical blends only in the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW), which is the source used for English nominal compounds in the data set; however, the number of units obtained was insufficient. I then extended the search to 20th-century words: the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years (Ayto,1999), and the OED online to find more lexical blends that appeared in the 20 th century or early 21 st century . The units in the data set were analyzed in order to provide a detailed study of their main formal and semantic characteristics.

Defining and collecting lexical blends in English

Blending in English has been intensively studied in recent years because of its interesting structure arrangement. It is a compelling procedure that involves taking two words and fusing them together as one new word, as in the word brunch, which is a combination of the words breakfast and lunch. It can be hard to predict which word combinations are destined to become blends, and which ones are not [START_REF] Bauer | Blends: Core and periphery[END_REF]. Blending is a very productive wordformation process in present-day English. It often branches off into different subcategories, including compounding, neo-classical compounding, affixation, clipping, and acronyming [START_REF] Lopez Rúa | Beyond all reasonable transgression: Lexical blending in alternative music[END_REF].

The definition of blending varies between authors and studies. Lopez Rúa (2012) describes blending as a word-formation process involving the creation of a new word by fusing two or more words. Through this process, at least one of the source words loses some of its elements as in the word floptical, a combination of the word floppy and the word optical. In some cases, both words involved lost material, as in the word edutainment, which is combines the word education and the word entertainment. When two words are fused, their forms are changed, and their meanings are changed as well. For example, the word tangelo is a hybrid of tangerine and pomelo. What was once two separate fruits, a tangerine and a pomelo, has now been hybridized into one new fruit, as well as one new word. The original words now create a new meaning together.

Arcodia and Montermini (2012) also state that there is a common string that serves as the conjunction point between the two combined words. For example, the word motel fuses the two words <motor + hotel> based on a previously used concept, that of 'roadside hotel', which was convenient for motorists in their travels (OED). This appears as a good example of the common string between the two source words, here <ot>, and shows that there is segment overlap between the two original words.

Similarly, Bauer (2017) has similar views on the process and definition of blending in English. He defines blends as the interpenetration of two or more words to form a new word.

He specifies in his definition, though, the particular format of the source words. He states the importance of noticing that the new word contains the beginning of the first source word and the end of the last source word. In this case, they do not contain all the phonological material from all the source words. For example, the word "abortuary" combines the two source words abort and mortuary.

This is similar to the definition by Beliaeva (2019a), who states that blending involves combining parts of two source words so that the beginning of the first source word is conjoined with the ending of the second one, as in the formula AB + CD = AD. While focusing on blends with only two source words, she studied outcomes where blends could be formed with only the final parts of both source words, as in the formula BD, like frohawk (< afro + Mohawk >). Beliaeva (2019a??) also considers combining more than two source words, typically three, and possibly more. For example, the word Thankshallowistmas combines Thanksgiving, Halloween, and Christmas. Another formal outcome consists in inserting one source word inside the structure of another one, as in prowebstinate (< procrastinate + web).

In the present study, the definition of blending aligns with the concept and characteristic mentioned above; the focus is on a word formation process which involves the combination of two or more words with the loss of phonic or/and graphic forms in different patterns of reduction. It does not only involve a combination of forms, but also a combination of meaning. The analysis of the 100 blends is discussed in the sections to follow.

Formal Classification of English Lexical Blends

Lexical typology

In the study, all 100 blends are only composed of two source words, and they are limited to five lexical categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and pronouns. Table 7.1 shows the lexical categories of the outputs. The overwhelming majority of them are nouns, with a small minority of adjectives, verbs, and an even small number of adverbs and pronouns. Table 7.2 illustrates that the 100 outputs are composed of various lexical categories. The majority of English blends in the data set combine a noun and another noun, followed by an adjective and a noun, a noun and an adjective, and an adjective and another adjective. Other very small numbers of items are composed of a verb and a noun, a noun and a verb, a pronoun and a noun, a preposition and a noun, a verb and an adverb, and a proper noun and a noun. The patterns of lexical shortening in Table 7.3 are categorized into five groups, and each of them, with some examples, is described in more details as follows.

( In the data set, there is one sandwich blend, found as shown below:

Jafaican Jamaican + fake non-Jamaican person who adopts or identifies with aspects of Jamaican culture, esp. in a way regarded as contrived or inauthentic

As can be seen in the blend Jafaican, a part of the second source word is sandwiched between two splinters of the first source word.

(7) Others

In the data set, there are two special words that cannot be categorized in the six groups mentioned above: abzyme antibody + enzyme an antibody that has been altered to give it some of the properties of enzyme cambozola Camembert + Gorgonzola the trademark of a type of German blue cheese with a Camembert-like-rind, produced using Gorgonzola blue mould

The blend abzyme is formed by combining the a and b letters of the first source word (antibody) with the last syllable of the second source word (enzyme). Other elements of both source words are deleted.

The blend 'cambozola' is formed by combining the first syllable of Camembert plus the letter 'b' and some medial and final elements of Gorgonzola.

Ebonics (ebony + phonics), which has graphic overlapping of <o> (and also full overlap of <n> and phonic overlap of /i/).

(3) 3% of overlap blends have phonic-only segment overlap, which involve only overlap of phonemes, as shown in the blend dancercise (/daens/ + /eksərsaɪz/), which has phonic overlap of the sound /s/.

It may be interesting to investigate whether there is a correlation between patterns of shortening and segment overlap, to see if they are related in one way or another. The data in Table 7.5 below show that all haplologic blends involve overlapping, and most of ABD and ACD blends display the possibility of segment overlap. Regarding the Table 7.5, it can be seen clearly that overlap is only optional (just because shortening takes place does not mean that there will necessarily be segment overlap) and remarkably, only a small number of AC blends have this capacity, but sandwich blends never display this possibility.

Patterns of phonological splitting

The split point is considered as the point at which the source words have been cut off, which is a distinguishing feature in the formation and observation of blends. When blended, there are different parts of the source words that are used and not used, and wherever the words are separated to create a new word is where the split point can be found. Source words are split at different morph boundaries, depending on the word that they are becoming [START_REF] Beliaeva | Blending creativity and productivity: on the issue of delimiting the boundaries of blends as a type of word formation[END_REF]. In the present study, the analysis of English lexical blends to find out the patterns of phonological splitting was conducted similarly to Thai lexical blends.

Following the analysis of the data set, there are 64 source words which did not manifest segment overlapping to be analyzed to determine where the split was, and the spitting pattern was then compared with the syllabification information for British English found in the Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (CEPD). The split point is located in three locations: at a syllable boundary, at an onset-nucleus boundary, and at a nucleus-coda boundary, as displayed in Table 7.6

Semantic classification of English blends

The semantic properties of blends have been considered mainly in terms of the relationships with and between the source words, in an approach which is similar to the semantic classifications of compounding (see [START_REF] Bauer | English word formation[END_REF][START_REF] Benczes | Creative Compounding in English. The Semantics of Metaphorical and Metonymical Noun-Noun Combination[END_REF][START_REF] Renner | On the semantics of English coordinate compounds[END_REF].

Headedness of English blends

The headedness of the 100 blends in the study is analyzed in the same way as the Thai lexical blends in Chapter 6, section 6.2.3. The source words of a blend are considered to be in unison with the elements of compounding due to their unarguable similarities in interpretation. The head of a lexical blend is also determined on the basis of the existence of a hyponymic relation between a source word and the blend itself, and also the literal or figurative interpretation of the unit. The lateral position (left-hand side or right-hand side) and the number of heads is also specified.

In the data set, a vast majority of lexical blends in English have one head, while a sizable minority of them have two heads. Headless blends cannot be found. Table 7.7 shows the distribution of the number of semantic heads and the different semantic relations.

Subordinate blends

In the present study, an overwhelming majority of lexical blends in English are subordinate in so far as one of the source words functions as the head of the blend. In the single-headed blends within the data set, 76 of them have the head on the right, and 13 of them are left-headed. Table 7.8 shows the distribution of the position of the head of subordinate blends. (3) verb-verb chillax chill + relax Among the blends that make up the 11% of coordinate blends found within the data set, the constituents of each blend belong to the same lexical category and are also all co-hyponyms. [START_REF] Renner | Les composés coordinatifs en anglais contemporain[END_REF] categorizes the semantic relationships between the elements of coordinate blends, which are coined with noun-noun units, into four groups:

1) a hybrid blend, which indicates a hybrid of the two things that share each other element;

2) an additional blend which is made up of the instance denoting the addition of the two parts;

3) a polyvalent blend, which is made up of two words that express the features of both source words; 4) a tautologous blend, which is made up of two source words that are synonymous.

Thai coordinate blends were analyzed based on this categorization (see Chapter 6, Section 6.4.3), and so will the English lexical blends explored in this chapter, which involve only seven noun-noun units. Table 7.10 displays the distribution of the number of coordinate blends in each category. opacity of both elements of the compound 0 0 Total 100 100

Table 7.11 shows that English blends fall into three types of metaphtonymic shifts. The details of each types are described as follows:

(1) 88% of the lexical blends in the data set are transparent, i.e., they convey the meaning directly from each source word, and the whole meaning can be figured out by combining the basic meaning of their parts. (2) Only 1% of the examined units display a transparency of the head and an opacity of the non-head member. The illustrative example is: feminazi feminist + Nazi a contemptuous term for a radical feminist

The word feminazi is a left-headed blend showing that the head conveys the meaning literally whereas the non-head element has figurative meaning.

( This can be explained by the fact that it is not always simple to decipher the meaning of blends, particularly when it seems hard to identify the member parts. Because blends are purposely made to signify new things, it could be challenging for the reader or listener to understand the meaning of blends if both source words cannot be taken literally.

Conclusions

In the present study, blending is defined as a word-formation process involving the combination of two or more words with the loss of phonic and/or graphic forms in different Over half of the lexical units in the data set show an overlap at three different levels: 47% of graphic-cum-phonic overlap, 12% of graphic only overlap, and 3% of phonic only overlap.

While being blended, source words are split at four different locations: 69% at a syllable boundary, 30% at an onset-nucleus boundary, and 2% at a nucleus-coda boundary.

Semantically, the majority of English lexical blends have only one head, while a minority of them have two heads. In the class of single-headed blends, the position of the head is canonically found on the right, but, remarkably, a quarter of them have the head on the left (something which is not possible in compounding). The majority of blends found are relational subordinate blends. Though there were a few cases where figurative blends were found, the majority of blends of the data set remain literal in their interpretation.

Chapter 8

A Comparison of Lexical Blending in Thai and English

Chapter 8

A Comparison of Lexical Blending in Thai and English

This chapter examines in a contrastive perspective two sets of 37 Thai and 100 English lexical units identified as lexical blends, which are defined as outputs of a word-formation process involving the fusion of two or more words with either the loss of some phonic or graphic form in different patterns of shortening, and which also involves both a combination of forms and a combination of meanings. The formal and semantic classifications of lexical blends in Thai and English are discussed and exemplified to shed light on the similarities and the differences based on the data collected. This shows that Thai tends to display more complexity in blend formation than English does.

Table 8.2 shows the distribution of the lexical units in Thai and English. Lexical blends in Thai are limited to only two lexical categories, whereas English includes five lexical categories. The extent of variation is this time higher in English than in Thai. Table 8.2 also shows that although there is a sizeable minority of verbs, adverbs and pronouns attested in English, their relative ranking and the proportions of nouns and adjectives in the two languages are similar. Interestingly, the data thus show that creativity in blending seems to differ in the two languages -Thai seems to have an inclination for an increase in the number of elements while English would prefer to have a variety of lexical types. Table 8.3 shows the lexical categories of the inputs in the two languages. It shows that nounnoun combinations are the majority inputs in the two languages, followed by adjective-noun combinations. There is a resemblance of sizeable minority cases of adjective-adjective combinations, verb-noun combinations, and noun-verb combinations in the two languages.

Total 100 100

Table 8.3 also shows the distinction of the inputs of lexical blending in Thai and English.

Noun-adjective combinations represent a small number of blends in English (e.g. floptical < floppy + optical) and nutraceutical (< nutrition + pharmaceutical)), but none of them are found in Thai. Unlike Thai, English makes use of a variety of combinations: verb-verb (chill + relax > chillax), adverb-adverb (automatically + magically > automagically), pronounpronoun (him + her > hir), interjection-noun (grrr + girl > grrrl), and prefix-noun (pre-+ rebuttal > prebuttal). However, Thai has a combination of adjective-verb (e.g. /lokìjá/

[global] + /ʔanùwát/ [to follow] = /lo.kì.jaː.nù.wát/ [secularization]), which cannot be found in English.

Patterns of lexical shortening

Lexical blends in Thai and English were analyzed on the basis of the symbolization adopted by Plag (2018: 121), where A and B respectively represent the left-hand and righthand part of the first source element, and C and D the left-hand and right-hand part of the second source element. In case of three-element blends, E and F represent the left-hand and right-hand part of the third source element. The findings show that the same patterns of lexical shortening are found in the two languages, except for the AC type, haplologic blends and sandwich blending, which cannot be found in the Thai data. This indicates that, again, there is more variety in the creative patterns of blending in English than in Thai. Table 7.4

shows the distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening in Thai and English. Although the proportion of the AD items in the two languages is remarkably similar, there is a difference of the distribution among the lexical blends in the two languages. Among the seven different types of lexical shortening, English blends slightly favor the AD type, whereas there are two equally dominant patterns in Thai, which are the ABD and the AD types.

Segment overlap

The two data sets of lexical blends in Thai and English show that an overwhelming majority of Thai blends (86%) does not have overlap of the two source words while only 38% of English blends have no overlapping segments. Among the blends in the two languages that manifest segment overlap, three types of segment overlap can be distinguished: graphic-cum-phonic overlap (e.g. floptical (floppy + optical), graphic only overlap (e.g. emoticon (emotion + icon) and phonic only overlap (e.g. racino (racetrack + casino ) are all found in English, but just only one type -graphic-cum-phonic overlap -is found in Thai (e.g. /khô.sà.naː.kaːn/ (/khôsànaː/ 'to advertise' + /ʔaːkaːn/ 'action'). This indicates again that there seems to be more creativity in the patterning of blending in English.

Table 8.6 shows the contrast of the distribution of the three types of segment overlap. Thai strictly follows the rule dictating that the first element ending in a vowel phoneme /a/ and the second element ending with a consonant phoneme /ʔ/ be fused in order to create lexical blends. The split points of English AC blends also always happen at a syllable boundary of the second source word as in the blend 'vo*xel' < vol.ume + pi.xel), but no such pattern is found in the Thai data set.

0 0 0 0 0 0(0%) English 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 (2%) inside a complex nucleus Thai 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (0%) English 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 (2%)

Semantic classification

Headedness of lexical blends in Thai and English

Two sets of lexical blends in Thai and English were determined to find out the similarities and differences in headedness and semantic relation. In the data sets shown in Table 8.9, it is remarkable that a vast majority of lexical blends in Thai and English are one-headed, while a sizable minority of them has two heads. A very small number of headless blends can also be found in the two languages. Table 8.9 also shows the comparison of subordinate and coordinate blends in the two languages. It was found that the two languages overwhelmingly favor subordinate blends, like compounds. There is a sizeable minority of coordinate blends attested in the two languages, which is significant if compared with the proportion of coordinate compounds. This is explained in part because blends are, iconically, the preferred forms to encode hybrid concepts such as the English blends 'puggle' (pug + beagle) and 'infotainment' (information + entertainment) (see Renner, 2019: 38), or to encode the addition of the two parts as in the Thai blend '/thuːthaːnúthûːt/' composed of /thûːt/ 'ambassador' + /ʔànúthûːt/ 'assistant ambassador' referring to 'diplomatic corps'.

Within the category of subordinate blends in Thai and English presented in Table 8.9, the proportion of subordinate blends in English is similar with Thai. When comparing the distribution of right-and left-headed units in the two languages, right-headed items have been similarly preferred in the two languages, as illustrated in Table 8.10. These results are expected for English, a language for which right-headed compounding is the norm. It is, however, remarkable to see that in the Thai data set, the findings contrast significantly with those found for Thai compounds, for which an overwhelming majority of units are left-headed (e.g., /ʔaːhaːn.thuŋ/ 'packed food' < ʔaːhaːn/ 'food' + thuŋ 'bag'). This can be explained by the fact that Thai has employed the rules of blending formation from the Pali and Sanskrit languages (See Chapter 1 and Chapter 5), in which the modified elements are placed in front of the head element (Penpala, 1998).

In the English data set, the vast majority of blends have the head on the right, like compounds, but the number of left-headed blends (30%) is highly remarkable because the head can be placed in both positions in lexical blending, which starkly contrasts with English compounding, where, normally, a left-hand-side semantic head can never be found. The examples of left-headed blends are shown in Table 8.11. It can be claimed that the rules on the position of the head in English blends are not strict because of phonological reasons. This is for example particularly obvious in the formation of floptical: to optimize the possibility of overlap, because the sequence <op>, which is common to the two source words, is word-initial in the non-head element, the only satisfactory solution consists in placing the head noun first, in a left-hand-side position.

Regarding the category of coordinate blends in Thai and English, Table 8.12 indicates that it accounts for the same proportion -about one in ten items -in the two languages.

Table 8.12: Distribution of semantic relations in Thai and English

Semantic relation

Thai English

(%) (%)

Coordinate 11 11

The semantic relationships within the category of coordinate blends in Thai and English were analyzed based on the four categorizations in [START_REF] Renner | Les composés coordinatifs en anglais contemporain[END_REF]: hybridity, addition, polyvalence and tautology (See Chapters 6 and 7). Table 8.13 shows the distribution of the semantic categorization of coordinate blends in Thai and English. It is remarkable that the English blends in the data set exhibit the two different semantic interpretations while in Thai coordinate blends only fall into one category, that of additional blends. The majority of English coordinate blends encode the concept of hybridity.

Metaphtonymic shifts

As regards the analysis of the semantic transparency of Thai and English lexical blends (see Chapters 6 and 7), a fourfold categorization is possible: fully transparent, head-transparent, non-head transparent, and fully figurative/opaque. It is difficult to find figurative blends that show the opacity of both source words in the two languages. This can be explained using the same reason that the reader or listener may face difficulty figuring out the meaning of blends if both source words cannot be interpreted literally.

Conclusions

The comparison of lexical blending in Thai and English shows a number of marked dissimilarities between the two languages. Qualitatively, English displays a wider variety of lexical outputs, of types of lexical input combinations, of patterns of lexical shortening, and a larger number of types of segment overlap and phonological splitting. These finding confirm the hypothesis by [START_REF] Renner | French and English lexical blends in contrast[END_REF] stating that English has a high degree of wordplayfulness of blending. Also, the regulations in forming lexical blends in English are not strict. Quantitively, a number of significant differences have been found, and they are listed as follows:

1) Thai lexical blends tend to prefer the ABD type of lexical shortening, whereas English tends to favor the AD type.

2) A vast majority of Thai blends do not manifest segment overlap, and a few of them have graphic-cum-phonic overlap, while about half of English blends display segment overlap (in its three types: graphic-cum-phonic overlap, graphic-only overlap, and phoniconly overlap).

3) All Thai blends in the data set are coined with two transparent units, whereas English blends are fused with a variety of semantically transparent and non-transparent source words.

4) Thai and English share only one feature, that is the position of the head in subordinate blends. Surprisingly, the majority of Thai lexical blends are right-headed, which is similar to the situation of English blends. It would have been expected that subordinate blends in Thai should be canonically left-headed, like compounds, but this assumption is not borne out due to the impact of the Pali and Sanskrit languages on lexical blending.

It can thus be concluded that compounding seems to be preferred in case of especially complex combinations, i.e., when three or more input words are combined. Remarkably, compounding is preferred when each element of the units is a one-syllable word, whereas Thai lexical blends never consist in the fusion of monosyllabic input words. See the examples of compounds below, which all exemplify a concatenation of monosyllabic inputs.

This may be linked to a strict preference for complex outputs of a minimal size of two syllables in Thai. 4. Unlike in English, the stress pattern does not play any role in lexical blends and compounds since Thai is classified as a fixed-stress language. The primary stress always falls on the last syllable of Thai polysyllabic words. Many linguists agree that the syllable in word-final position is the most prominent one and has the strongest stress [START_REF] Peyasantiwong | Stress in Thai[END_REF]. This also applies to all loanwords counted as Thai root words, which were rearranged by the Thai phonological rules [START_REF] Peyasantiwong | Stress in Thai[END_REF].

แก้ มลิ ง

5. When the first element ends with the vowel sound /a/ or /aː/, and the second element begins with a /ʔ/ either followed by a short or long vowel sound, blending is greatly favored.

Semantic considerations

When looking at the semantic classification of compounding and lexical blending in Thai, as shown in Table 8.1, the two processes are starkly different in terms of the position of the head. The overwhelming majority of compounds have the head on the left (e.g. /khîː.lép/ 'excrement + nail = nail dirt'; /ŋāːn.cháːŋ/ 'work + elephant = mega-project'), whereas lexical blends are massively right-headed (e.g. /sǎː.thaː.rá.nuː.pà.kaːn/ 'public assistance' < /sǎːthaːráná/ 'public' + /ʔùpàkaːn/ 'to help'). This is highly remarkable as this is not a feature that has been noted in other languages, which either have the same dominant lateral headedness as in compounding, e.g. English, or have no dominant lateral headedness, e.g.

French (see Renner 2019).

The degree of opacification is another point that shows the dissimilarity of these two operations. In terms of metaphtonymic shifts, blending seems to only be allowed when the interpretation of the two source words is transparent -Thai lexical blends are never opaque units. In contrast, half of the compounds in the data set are transparent, and another half of them go through the process of figurative interpretation. At the semantic level, morphosemantic iconicity, which plays a role in English, is not operative in the Thai language: blending does not seem to be favored to encode hybrid concepts, which are genetically or perceptually half-X and half-Y. But it should be noted that blending seems to be favored when the outputs are colloquialisms -it can be postulated that it is the playfulness of such items, the humorous tinge that they convey, which goes hand in hand with the informal status of their context of use.

Other linguistic factors

There are other conditions that enhance the chance of blending over compounding:

1. When one of the input words is of Pali or Sanskrit origin, blending is likely to be a preferred choice. To briefly sum up, the process of blending seems to be less productive than compounding in Thai if one compares the number of words collected in the data set in the present study (333 compounds and 37 blends). Based on the formation process of lexical blending, it can be concluded that the development may not occur if Thai keeps following word-formation rules from Pali-Sanskrit because they are complex and complicated. However, in the data set, there are a number of blends which are not formed by following the word formation rules of Pali-Sanskrit, like the word ซี เครี ยด /sīː.krîat/, which is formed by /sīː.rîat/ and /krîat/, literally meaning 'serious and stressful'.

Compounding and lexical blending in English

Compounding and blending are the top word-formation processes for current neologisms in English according to [START_REF] Shnip | Types of English Neologism of 2016-2017 Representing the Universal Concept of Time[END_REF]. Compounding and blending in English share a similar conceptual operation which combines two or more separate forms to produce a new term that alters the conceptual meaning of each input. The two processes differ in so far as compounding shows the simple juxtaposition of roots or root-containing inputs (e.g., snail mail, wolf-dog, waitperson) while blending consists in the fusion of at least two inputs, i.e.

it involves the reduction of at least one input and/or the presence in the output of overlapped identical segments of the source words (e.g., floppy + optical > floptical; twig + igloo > twigloo; vegetable + chocolate > vegelate). The examples of competition, like radar beacon vs. racon or satellite phone vs. satphone, given by [START_REF] Renner | An ecosystem view of English word-formation[END_REF], demonstrate that in some cases there may have to be an onomasiological choice between the two possible operations.

Generally, compounding is the default choice when at least two source words are combined, but according to the study by [START_REF] Renner | An ecosystem view of English word-formation[END_REF], blending is increasing likely to be favored under the influence of the potential actualization of segment overlap as well as a number of specific formal and semantic conditions.

From a competitive standpoint, compounding and lexical blending in English will be discussed at both the formal and semantic levels.

Formal considerations

When looking at the number of inputs, number of syllables, syllabic structures, shared segments, and stress patterns between the two input words of compounds and blends in English, it seems that all these features play a significant role on the choice of one operation over the other. According to [START_REF] Renner | An ecosystem view of English word-formation[END_REF], formal similarity at all levels enhances the chance of blending, and the analysis of the data in the present study points to the same conclusion. This can be detailed as follows:

1. Regarding the number of syllables of the input words, as in the data set in the Thai language, compounding seems to be preferred when each input element is a one-syllable word, while lexical blends seem to be favored when the inputs contain the same number of syllables. Consider the following examples of blends:

1-1 ze + hir > zir 2-2 greaser + dumbo > grebo urgent + center > urgicenter 3-3 romantic + modernist > romo internet + commercial > intermercial 4-4 education + entertainment > edutainment information + entertainment > infotainment
This tendency can be explained by the fact that English blends tend to adopt the same shape as one of their source elements, to enhance source-word recognition, and this can be enhanced if the two inputs are more similar, here in terms of size.

2. Shared segments and their subsequent overlap in the output are a key feature in favoring lexical blending over compounding. None of the input words of compounding in the data set share medial segments, whereas 54% of lexical blends show the segment overlap of the source words in three patterns: graphic-cum-phonic overlap, graphic only overlap, and phonic only overlap (see Chapter 5, Section 5.3). This can be explained by the fact that the pressure to blend is stronger when the input words share one or more segments, and segment overlap is an active factor which increases with the number of possibly shared segments, especially in the case of haplologic blends, which typically contain two or three contiguous segments. Consider the following examples, where segmental similarity is contiguous (there is identity between final elements in one input and initial elements in the other):

twig + igloo twigloo oat + trim oatrim bro + romance bromance

Semantic considerations

In English, compounding and blending can be seen as broadly similar from a semantic standpoint as they are both likely to encode a subcategorization within a semantic class [START_REF] Renner | An ecosystem view of English word-formation[END_REF]. In terms of semantic classification, as shown in Table 9.3, the majority of compounds and blends found are right-headed subordinate units, which corresponds to the previous findings of the literature. As far as literal versus figurative interpretations are concerned, they differ in terms of frequency of opacification as compounding includes a sizable minority of figurative units whereas lexical blending only very rarely involves such units (the blends in our data set almost all remain literal in their interpretation). 'to calm down and relax; to take it easy, to chill'

Conclusion

Compounding in the two languages seems to be fairly similar from a formal standpoint, but the formal aspects of blending clearly tend to differ. Blending is mostly a shortening technique in Thai, while it may also, in many cases, have a playful and/or iconic value in English. From the competitive standpoint, in the two languages, compounding is generally the default choice to combine at least two words both in Thai and English, but there are a number of linguistic factors that enhance the likelihood for lexical blending to be chosen over compounding. At the formal level, the number of inputs, the number of syllables, and potential segment overlap play a significant role in the two languages. At the semantic level, blending tends to be favored in both Thai and English when the units are coordinate and involve conceptual hybridity.

Chapter 10

Conclusion

Summary of the findings

The dissertation aimed to study compounding and lexical blending in the English and Thai languages in order to examine in a contrastive perspective two sets of nominal compounds and two sets of lexical blends. In the study, the data of both languages were collected manually from dictionaries of new words, leading to four sets of data:

(1) 473 Thai compound nouns were collected from the three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New Words, a standard Thai dictionary published by the Office of the Royal Society. The three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New words were published in 2007, 2009 and 2011 respectively, in order to collect new words and new senses in present-day Thai.

(2) 247 English compound nouns were collected from the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW), published in 1998 (Knoweles and Elliott, 1998). ODNW covers new words which have been in the news in the decade and a half between the beginning of the nineteeneighties and the mid-nineteen-nineties.

( (4) 100 English lexical blends were collected manually from three different dictionaries: 1) the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (Knoweles and Elliott, 1998), 2) 20th-century words: the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years (Ayto,1999), and 3) the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). I initially intended to collect only the lexical blends in the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (ODNW), which is the source of English nominal compounds in the data set; however, the number of obtained units was insufficient. Consequently, the author went to 20th-century words: the story of the new words in English over the last hundred years (Ayto,1999), and the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to find more lexical blends that appeared in the 20 th century and early 21 st century .

The data were analyzed in order to present two aspects of compound nouns and lexical blends in the Thai and English languages: 1) their formal classification, and 2) their semantic characteristics.

Two data sets of compound nouns in Thai and English were analyzed to examine a variety of linguistic features: the number of structures, the semantic types of compounds (e.g., coordinative compounds and subordinative compounds), headedness, and metaphtonymic shifts (i.e., the different degrees of opacification, contrasting literal compounds and figurative compounds). These findings were examined in order to find out the similarities and differences of nominal compounding in the two languages.

Two data sets of lexical blends in Thai and English were also analyzed in order to determine various features: the types of lexical output, the types of lexical input combination, the patterns of lexical shortening, the types of segment overlap and phonological splitting, headedness, and metaphtonymic shifts. As for the data sets of nominal compounds, the findings for lexical blends were compared to examine the similarities and differences of lexical blending in the two languages.

The findings of the study were summarized as follows:

(1) The process of compounding is very productive in Thai. Nominal compounding in Thai in this study is defined as a word formation process that typically consists of at least two lexeme constituents. In this study, the compound nouns that were collected are made up of at least two lexemes with various lexical categories, but the whole unit is always a noun. The remarkably similar: 98% for subordinates and 2% for coordinates; and they also share a very small number of attributive subordinates. The two languages display a salient typological contrast as far as headedness is concerned: the head in a Thai compound is canonically on the left while the head of an English compound noun is on the right.

The majority of nominal compounds in both Thai and English are transparent, but the number of semantically figurative compounds in English is higher than in Thai. In the two languages, compounds exist where one member is used figuratively while the other remains literal. Thai has a much higher percentage of compounds with a transparent head and a figurative non-head element, as well as a much higher number of compounds with an opaque head and a transparent non-head element.

(4) Lexical blending in Thai is described in this study as a process of word construction that involves the integration of two or more lexemes with the loss of some phonic and/or graphic 38% of AD blends, 33% of ABD blends, 16% of ACD blends, 5% of AC blends, 4% of haplologic blends, 1% of sandwich blends, and a few special combinations. Over half of the lexical units in the data set show overlap at three different levels: 47% of the graphic-cumphonic type, 12% of the graphic only type, and 3% of the phonic only type. While being blended, source words are split at four different locations: 67% at a syllable boundary, 30% at an onset-nucleus boundary, and 2% at a nucleus-coda boundary. Semantically, the majority of English lexical blends have only one head, while a small minority of them have two heads. In the class of single-headed blends, the position of the head is canonically found on the right, but, remarkably, a quarter of them have the head on the left (something which is not possible in compounding). The majority of blends are relational subordinate blends.

Though there were a few cases where figurative blends were found, the majority of blends within this data set remain literal in their interpretation.

(6) The comparison of lexical blending in Thai and English shows a number of marked dissimilarities between the two languages. Qualitatively, English displays a wider variety of lexical outputs, of types of lexical input combination, of patterns of lexical shortening, and a larger number of types of segment overlap and phonological splitting. These findings confirm the hypothesis by [START_REF] Renner | French and English lexical blends in contrast[END_REF] stating that English has a high degree of wordplayfulness in blending. Also, the regulations in forming lexical blends in English are not strict. Quantitively, a number of significant differences were found, and they are identified as follows:

Thai lexical blends tend to prefer the ABD type of lexical shortening, whereas English tends to favor the AD type.

A vast majority of Thai blends do not manifest segment overlap, and very few of them have graphic-cum-phonic overlap, while about half of English blends display segment overlap (in its three types: graphic-cum-phonic overlap, graphic-only overlap, and phonic-only overlap).

All Thai blends in the data set are coined with two transparent units, whereas English blends are fused with a variety of semantically transparent and non-transparent source words.

Thai and English share only one feature, that is the position of the head of subordinate blends in the two languages. Surprisingly, the majority of Thai lexical blends are right-headed, which is similar to the situation of English blends. It would have been expected that subordinate blends in Thai should be canonically left-headed, like compounds, but this assumption is not borne out due to the impact of Pali and Sanskrit languages on lexical blending.

(7) At the end of the study, compounding and lexical blending were investigated from a competitive standpoint. Compounding in the two languages seems to be fairly similar from a formal standpoint, but the formal aspects of blending clearly tend to differ. Blending is mostly a shortening technique in Thai, while it may also, in many cases, have a playful and/or iconic value in English. From the competitive standpoint, in the two languages, compounding is generally the default choice to combine at least two words both in Thai and English, but there are a number of linguistic factors that enhance the likelihood for lexical blending to be chosen over compounding. At the formal level, the number of inputs, the number of syllables, and segment overlap may play a significant role in the two languages.

At the semantic level, blending tends to be favored in both Thai and English when the units are coordinate and involve conceptual hybridity.

Limitations of the study

In this dissertation, the data collection was limited to dictionaries in both Thai and English languages. The Thai data set of lexical blends is not fully representative because the dictionaries of new words are quite small (less than 40,000 words). It can be also claimed that words which were collected by lexicographers are those used in the written language. It would be very interesting to include those new words that people are also using colloquially in their daily life.

Future research

Since the data collection of the present study was limited to dictionaries in both Thai and English languages, the units collected may or may not be commonly used in a real life, especially in the Thai data sets, because some of them appear to be quite complex, and they are also used in specific terminologies such as law and jurisdiction. In future work, more data should be collected from authentic sources such as scripts of news reporters, scripts of movies, or social network databases covering the spoken language, in order to see if ordinary people are freely able to create new compounds or lexical blends. Also, it would be interesting to discuss with the lexicographers involved in neological practices in order to find out their initial ideas to create new words through compounding and lexical blending.

APPENDICES

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2 le clavier de l'ordinateur en thaï

  niveau de la syllabe, il y a au moins trois éléments phonologiques : une attaque, un noyau et un ton. Les formes des syllabes thaïes peuvent être résumées comme suit[START_REF] Iwasaki | A Reference Grammar of Thai[END_REF] : p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /j/, /w/ 4. Le thaï est une langue classificatrice, qui utilise différents classificateurs pour compter différents types d'objets. En thaï, les classificateurs sont placés après les chiffres.Ils sont une composante obligatoire des phrases nominales contenant des chiffres. Par exemple, /tua/ est utilisé pour compter les animaux, comme indiqué dans l'exemple.

  éléments lexémiques, et les structures des noms composés sont variées ; nous avons relevé jusqu'à 36 modèles provenant d'une variété de catégories lexicales différentes, dont les cinq principales sont [Nom-Nom], [Nom-Adjectif], [Nom-Verbe], [Nom-Nom-Nom] et [Nom-Verbe-Nom]. Le résumé de la classification formelle des composés nominaux thaïlandais est illustré ci-dessous.

Figure 1 Figure 3

 13 Figure 1 La Thaïlande et ses voisins .................................................................................. viii Figure 2 le clavier de l'ordinateur en thaï .............................................................................. ix Figure 3 Shape of standard Thai tones .................................................................................

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Comparison of Number of Elements of Compounds in Thai and English .........

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Generalization of the structures of compound nouns in Thai .............................

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Generalization of the structures of compound nouns in English ........................

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7:Comparison of lexical category inputs ................................................................

  In the study, the data of both languages were collected manually from dictionaries of new words in the twentieth century. There are four different sets of data: Set 1: 473 Thai compound nouns have been collected from the three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New Words; a standard Thai dictionary published by the Office of the Royal Society. The three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New words were published in 2007, 2009 and 2011 respectively, in order to collect new words and new senses in present-day Thai.

Set 3 :

 3 37 Thai lexical blends were collected from the three volumes of The Royal Institute Dictionary of New words, which were published in 2007, 2009 and 2011, and the Royal Institute Dictionary of Coined Words (Neologisms), an online supplement which was

  of the Royal Society has revised the principle of romanization for native Thai words, allowing non-Thai people to read Thai words as closely as possible to their original pronunciation or spelling without the use of tonal symbols and other symbols indicated in the transcription. Some examples are the words จั นทร์ = chan, พระ = phra, and แก้ ว = kaeo (Office of the Royal Society, 1999).

Map 3 :

 3 Thailand and the four regionsSource : Office of the RoyalSociety, 2007

Graphic 5 :

 5 Examples of sentences written in ThaiSource :[START_REF] Gough | Walking with Giants. Sawasdee, 52-59[END_REF] 3. Thai is a tonal language. The meaning of each syllable is determined by the pitch at which it is pronounced. There are five tones in standard Thai, which are represented in the transcription system by an accent over the first vowel in the syllable. They are:

Figure 3

 3 Figure 3 Shape of standard Thai tones

  Sanskrit and Thai belong to different language families: Thai to the Tai-Kadai family, and Pali and Sanskrit to Indo-European languages. This is because Pali and Sanskrit were utilized in Buddhism, which has had a great impact on Thai people and Thai culture. In other words, Pali is used to write the scriptures of the Hinayana School in Buddhism, while Sanskrit is employed as a tool to write Brahmanism scripture belonging to the Maharana School in Buddhism. Pali and Sanskrit were already used in Thai inscription when King Ramkhamhaeng created the Thai script in 1283. Pali and Sanskrit words are widely used in both spoken and written Thai on different occasions such as daily life, formal occasions, special terminology of certain disciplines, and royal language. It can be said that if Pali and

  compounds consisting of three independent lexemesIn the data set, there are 20.12 % of nominal compounds that are composed of three independent lexeme elements. The most productive types of compound nouns with three lexemes are N-N-N, N-V-N, N-N-ADJ, and N-N-V. The examples are given below.

(

  19) N-N-N-ADJ บ้ านป่ าเมื องเถื ? อน /bâːn.pàː.mɯ ̄aŋ.thɯ ̀n/ house-forest-city-uncivilized 'undeveloped country'

  form compounds with four elements was found in the data set: the combination of two independent lexemes with an existing compound. The findings reveal that 1.20% are found with this pattern that displays the right-branching structure which is a modifier of the second element. See the examples below. of compound nouns with four elements are found in the pattern compoundcompound, which is the most productive pattern of the compound nouns with four elements.The constituent 'compound' can be any type of nominal compound, and the compoundcompound output can express semantic relations between the two main constituents exactly as N-N compounds do. Examples are shown below. /kràprōːŋbāːn.khǎːsân/ [skirt-to open out]-[leg-short] eight-panel skirt]-[shorts]

  1) coordination, with formations whose constituents are connected by 'and' and which have two heads -(2) subordination, with a hierarchical argumental relation between the head and the non-head constituents -(3) attribution, with a hirarchical non-argumental relation between the head and the non-head constituents.

  compounds goes from two to five lexeme elements, and the structures of compound nouns are varied, up to 36 patterns from a variety of different lexical categories, the top five of which are [N-N], [N-ADJ], [N-V], [N-N-N], and [N-V-N]. The position of the head can canonically be found on the left. Very few of them have the head on the right. Semantically,

  cook-chill to X and then to Y to cook and then to chill 'the process of pre-cooking and refrigerating foods for reheating later' kick-start to X and then to Y to kick and then to start 'a way to start by kicking forcedly' (5) N-ADV Compounds which combine a noun and an adverb are also attested in English (e.g. hangeron, passer-by). In the study, only two compound nouns or 0.81% combining a noun and an adverb are found in the data set. It is a bit difficult to explain how this kind of compound nouns has been formed. Maybe they were formed through compounding, or they were created through other morphological processes, like conversion. Consider the three examples below:

  the modifying adjective is used with a noun to create a new word. It was found that half of the spaced compounds correspond to a noun and noun combination (N N) and compounds with three elements (N N N) as in the compounds below: compound nouns combining an adjective and a noun (ADJ-N) are written with a space, as in the compounds below: of English compound nouns are written in a solid form without any interword spacing. Compound nouns composed of NN and ADJN may be written solid. of English compound nouns are hyphenated. From the morphological structures of compound nouns in the Table4.3, it is obvious to see that compound nouns can be hyphenated when either they consist of the same lexical categories such as the compounds wolf-dog (N-N), or they are composed of different lexical categories such as hot-desking

  fast, harsh music, especially techno freeride ADJ-N a type of snowboard designed for all-round use on and offpiste high-top ADJ-N a kind of soft-soled sports shoe with a laced upper which extends above the height of the ankle; worn for sports such as baseball and basketball and also as a fashion item

  terms of structure. The top three are [N-N], [ADJ-N], and [V-N]. At the level of semantics, English has two main types of nominal compounding: subordinate compounds with two subtypes (attributive compounds and relational compounds) and coordinative compounds.

  Thai, a language belonging to the Tai-Kadai family, does not have a very complicated process for creating compound nouns. A Thai nominal compound takes two or more lexemes to form a new word written solidly consisting of various lexical categories in order to describe a new concept, related in meaning to the two source words. As mentioned in Chapter 3 Thai compound nouns are composed of two to five elements, and they are morphologically structured into thirty-six different formal patterns, the top five of which are[NN], [NADJ], [NV], [NNN] and[NVN]. Semantically, Thai has two main types of nominal compounding: subordinate compounds with two subtypes (attributive compounds and relational compounds) and coordinative compounds. The heads of compound nouns are mostly found on the left, but the head on the right can also be found. The number of transparent compounds in the data set is higher that the opaque ones.English, an Indo-European language, has more intricate ways of forming nominal compounds, depending on some variations such as orthography, stress, and types of adjective working as a modifying element. Compounds in English are words formed by combining two or more lexemes to have a larger unit that conveys a new concept. An affix cannot be inserted as they are uninterruptable units. NN compounds can, however, be modified into[N[ADJN] or [[ADJN]N] structures. For English compounds, main stress typically falls on the left element, but right-most stress is accepted for ADJ-N compounds, especially if in the presence of a relational adjective. As mentioned in Chapter 4, there are seven main morphological structures of English compound nouns which are composed of two to three elements, and the top three are[NN], [ADJN], and[VN]. At the level of semantics, English also has two main types of nominal compounding: subordinate compounds with two subtypes (attributive compounds and relational compounds) and coordinative compounds.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Comparison of number of elements of compounds in Thai and English

Figure 5 :Figure 6 :

 56 Figure 5: Generalization of the structures of compound nouns in Thai

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7:Comparison of lexical category inputs

  order to keep only a part of their orthographical and/or phonological elements. Blends are created by reducing the length of at least one of the source forms, either by simple clipping or by haplologic combining the source forms. In the data analysis, the symbolization adopted byPlag (2018: 121) is used to describe the patterns of shortening, where A and B respectively represent the left-hand and right-hand part of the first source element, and C and D the left-hand and right-hand part of the second source element. In case of threeelement blends, E and F represent the left-hand and right-hand part of the third source element. The distribution of various types of lexical shortening is illustrated in Table6.4.

  and [ADJ-ADJ]. All blends are also limited to three lexical categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs. The patterns of lexical shortening fall into three main categories: 43.24% of the AD type, 43.24% of the ABD type and 8.11% of the ACD type. While being blended, source words are split at two different locations: 51% at the syllable boundary and 49% at the onset-coda boundary --it is remarkable to see very similar proportions of patterns of phonological split points. Very rare units show some segment overlap. Semantically, the majority of Thai lexical blends have only one head, while a minority of them have two heads. The position of the head in all Thai lexical blends in the data set is to be found on the right. Most of them are relational subordinative blends. All blends in the data set are literal; figurative units cannot be found.

  ) AD blends 39% of the blends in the data set are created by double inner shortening. The beginning of one word is concatenated with the ending of another word. In other words, both source words are shortened (right-shortening of the of the left source word and left-shortening of the right source word), and they are combined with the initial part of the first source word and the final part of the second source word: subtopia sub[urban] + [u]topia a suburban area that has been developed in an unattractive or unsightly way shoat sh[eep] + [g]oat the offspring of a sheep and a goat nicorette nico[tine] + [ciga]rette the proprietary name of a type of nicotineflavored chewing-gum used to reduce dependency of tobacco (2) AC blends 5% of the collected items are created by double right-shortening. Both source words are shortened on the right-hand side. Examples are shown below: comsat com[munication] + sat[elite] an artificial satellite used to replay radio, television, and telephone signals around the earth's surface cyborg cyb[ernetic] + org[anism] a person whose physical tolerances or capabilities are extended beyond normal human limitations by a machine or other external agency that modifies the body's functioning; an integrated man-machine system Semtex Semt[in] + ex[plosive] a malleable, more or less odorless plastic explosive, manufactured in several grades and known largely through its use by terrorists. (3) ABD blends 33% of the collected inputs are coined by right-hand-side inner shortening. The left source word remains in full, while the right source word is shortened to have only a final string. lexical units are composed of an initial string of a left source word and a full right source word. Only the left source word is shortened by clipping the final string. hoolivan hooli[gan] + van a type of police van carrying photographic and video equipment for observing crowd behavior and identifying trouble-makers at football matches and other events alcopop alco[holic] + pop a carbonated, often fruit-flavored drink containing alcohol televangelist telev[ision] + evangelist an evangelical preacher who uses the mass media, and particularly television, to promote especially fundamental doctrine (5) Haplologic blending There are 4% of the data set which are haplologic ABCD blends. Both source words remain in full, but there is a linear shortening, which is due to the overlapping of some identical and contiguous segments, like two words below: palimony pal + alimony compensation claimed especially by the deserted party after the separation of an unmarried couple

  ) 9% of the blends in the data set are made of a transparent non-head member and a semantically opaque head element. See the examples below: abortuary abort + mortuary a clinic where abortions are carried out internaut internet + astronaut an (expert or habitual) user of the internet twigloo twig + igloo a form of temporary shelter made of branches and used especially by environmental protesters (4) None of the lexical blends in the data set show the opacity of both source words.

  patterns of shortening. It involves both a combination of forms and a combination of meanings. The examination of 100 blends in English has demonstrated the variety of their main formal and semantic characteristics. Lexical blends in English seem to typically use two elements, and belong to five lexical categories in different proportions: 91% of nouns, 4 % of adjectives, 3 % of verbs, 1% of adverbs and 1% of pronouns. The structures of lexical blends are varied, with thirteen patterns identified: 72% of N-Ns, 11 % of ADJ-Ns, 5% of N-ADJs, 3% of ADJ-ADJs, and small number of ADV-ADVs, ADV-Vs, PRON-Ns, N-Vs, INTER-Vs, PRON-PRONs, V-Vs, and PFX-Ns. The patterns of lexical shortening fall into seven categories: 38% of AD blends, 33% of ABD blends,16% of ACD blends, 5% of AC blends, 4% of haplologic blends, 1% of sandwich blends, and a few special combinations.

  Lexical blends in Thai and English are usually made up of two source words, and it was found that a small number of items in Thai are made up of three source words. The distribution of the number of elements of lexical blends in Thai and English is illustrated in Table 8.1. Table 8.1: Distribution of the number of elements in Thai and English blends

  who helps unite people to understand each other very well' คนมี สี /kon.miː.sǐː/ person-have-color 'a police officer or soldier' 2. When looking at the number of syllables in the two operations, it was found that when the units have the same number of syllables of source words, they prefer coordinate compounds. See examples of Thai compounds below: on the typical characteristic of lexical blends to involve the possible overlapping of shared segments, the pressure to blend is deemed to be stronger than that to compound when the different input words share more than one segment. See the following example, with the shared segments in bold:

  ) 35 Thai lexical blends (taken from the overall list of 37,104 neologisms) were collected manually from the three volumes of The Royal Institute Dictionary of New words, which were published in 2007, 2009 and 201, and from the Royal Institute Dictionary of Coined Words (Neologisms), an online version, which was published in 2016 by the Office of the Royal Society, which is responsible for the Royal Thai Dictionary (i.e. the official dictionary of Thailand), and has been available online since 2019. I intended to use only the three volumes of The Royal Thai Dictionary of New words for data collection, as they were used for Thai nominal compounds, but only two blends are found, which was not adequate for a proper analysis.

  number of elements in compounds goes from two to five, and the structures of compound nouns are varied, with up to 36 patterns, the top five being [N-N], [N-ADJ], [N-V], [N-N-N], and [N-V-N]. Semantically, Thai nominal compounds are classified into two main categories, which are subordinate compounds and coordinate compounds. Most Thai proportions of the different semantic types of compound noun in both languages are

  material through various patterns of shortening. It also involves both a combination of forms and a combination of meanings. The examination of 37 lexical blends demonstrated that the number of elements in lexical blends seems to be limited to a maximum of three, and the structures of lexical blends are varied up to 8 patterns:[N-N], [N-V], [ADJ-N], [V-N], [ADJ-V], [N-V], [V-ADJ], [N-N-N] and[ADJ-ADJ]. All blends are also limited to three lexical categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs. The patterns of lexical shortening fall into three main categories: 43.24% of the AD type, 43.24% of the ABD type and 8.11% of the ACD type. While being blended, source words are split at two different locations: 51% at the syllable boundary and 48% at the onset-coda boundary, which is a remarkable proportional balance. Very rare units show overlap. Semantically, the majority of Thai lexical blends have only one head, while a minority of them have two heads. The position of the head of all Thai lexical blends in the data set is to be found on the right. Most of them are relational subordinative blends. All blends in the data set are literal; figurative units cannot be found.(5) Lexical blending in English is defined as a word-formation process involving the combination of two or more words with the loss of phonic and/or graphic material in different patterns of shortening. It involves both a combination of forms and a combination of meanings. The examination of 100 blends in English in the data set demonstrated the variety of their main formal and semantic characteristics. Lexical blends in English seem to typically use two elements and may belong to five lexical categories: 91% of nouns, 4 % of adjectives, 3% of verbs, 1% of adverbs and 1% of pronouns. The structures of lexical blends belong to thirteen patterns: 72% of N-Ns, 11 % of ADJ-Ns, 5% of N-ADJs, 3% of ADJ-ADJs, and a small number of ADV-ADVs, ADV-Vs, PRON-Ns, N-Vs, INTER-Vs, PRON-PRONs, V-Vs, and PFX-Ns. The patterns of lexical shortening fall into seven categories:

  firm. Also, by extension, those people deemed to rank just below the highest echelon of a community millennium bug in informal usage, the coding of dates in software using only two digits for the year which will cause errors to occur when the century changes mission statement a declaration made by a company of its general objectives and principles of operation mouse potato a slang term for a person who spend an excessive amount of time in front of a computer, especially one who uses it online nanny state a derogatory nickname, according to which government institutions are seen authoritarian and paternalistic, interfering in and controlling people's lives in same way as nanny might try to control those of her charges necrotizing fasciitis a form of acute streptococcal infection causing tissue destruction through inflammation of the fascia of a muscle or other organ negative equity the indebtedness that occurs when the market value of a property falls below the outstanding amount of a mortgage secured on it, representing a reversal for the favourable situation in which a property is a value asset cost personal computer without local disk storage designed to be connected to the internet, a local area network, or a similar network, from which it would access application and data new man a man who rejects sexist attitudes, and aims to be caring, sensitive, and non aggressive and to take a substantial role in his household's domestic routine new romantic a follower of a British youth cult and fashion of the early eighties which combined elements of punk and glam-rock to form a style in which both sexes dressed in flamboyant clothes and often wore make-up newsgroup one of a number of online discussion forums which together make up Usenet, an informal communications system now mainly carried on the internet but separate from it One Nation a nation which is not divided by social inequalities open system a system allowing computer software and hardware from different manufacturers to be used together outplacement industry a professional approach to the process of dismissal and redundancy, and active assistance in seeking a new position pathfinder prospectus a prospectus which contains information relating to the proposed flotation of a company but does not state the expected price of shares, and which is issued prior to the official prospectus peace dividend a benefit, especially a financial one, gained from a reduction in spending on defense; a sum of public money which may become available for other purposes in these a policy expert, especially one who takes an obsessive interest in minor details of policy political correctness conformity to a body of literal or radical opinion on social matters, characterized by the advocacy of approved views and the rejection of language and behaviour considered discriminatory of offensive power bimbo a working breakfast at which high-level political or business discussions can be held power breakfast a working breakfast at which high-level political or business discussions can be held power dressing a style of dressing for work and business intended to convey an impression of efficiency and confidence power lunch a working lunch at which high-level political or business discussions can be held power nap a nap, especially one taken in the day time, intended to refresh a person involved in high-level and important work power user a person, not a computer specialist, who shows considerable skills and ability in using a computer system or software private key the encrypted messages can be deciphered only by using a second key that is known only to the recipient Producer Choice a policy which gives programme-makers control over the budget, allowing them to purchase services from other department or from outside the organization propeller-head a mildly derogatory slang term for a person who pursues an obsessive interest in computer or technology; a boring or studious person protection factor the radio of the time it takes skin to burn when wearing a sunscreen compared with the time it takes to burn without one pulse dialing a system of telephone dialing, in which each digit is transmitted as an equivalent number of electrical pulses employees which meets regularly to consider ways of resolving problems and improving production in an organization quality time time spent productively or profitably, especially withreference to time spent by working parents with their children quantum chaos the field of research and the effects queercore a cultural movement amongst young homosexuals which deliberately rebels against and dissociates itself from the establishment gay scene, having as its primary form of expression an aggressive type of punk-style music recovered memory repressed memory, especially of childhood sexual abuse, scheme (marked by red lines along the edge of the road) designed to ease congestion on main s uncontrolled aggressive behaviour, apparently caused by the stresses of modern driving road-kill / roadkill the killing of an animal by a vehicle on a road; an animal killed in this way. Also, a person or thing resembling such an animal; a helpless victim which precautions are taken to ensure that the risk of spreading sexually transmitted diseases is minimized scratch card a card with a section or sections coated in an opaque waxy substance which may be scratch away to reveal a symbol indicating whether a prize has been won in a competition screen saver a program which, after a set time, replaces an unchanging screen display with a moving image to prevent damage to the phosphor. Also, a graphic image displayed by such a program serial killer a person who commits a series of similar murders with no apparent motive serial monogamy a mode of life characterized by a sequence of monogamous affairs with different partners set-top box the process of assembling something by cutting down and reshaping sections of a larger whole shock jock a radio disc-jockey who is deliberately offensive or provocative single currency a unified currency proposed for the use of all member states after the economic and monetary union of Europe slam dancing a form of dancing to rock music in which participants deliberately collide violently with one another slaphead a bald or shaven-headed person sleaze factor the sleazy or sordid aspect of a situation, especially as , a state of a computer system in which only those parts of it needed to respond to some external stimulus and return the remainder to full operational status are supplied with electrical power snail mail a mocking or sarcastic slang term for the ordinary postal system, emphasizing its slowness compared to electronic mail; a communication sent by conventional post social cleansing the removal of an identified social group regarded as undesirable software agent computer programs which are commonly referred to software piracy the systematic illegal copying of computer software for financial gain sound bite a shot, pithy extract from a recorded interview, speech, or discussion, used for maximum punchiness as part of a news or party-political broadcast; also, a one liner deliberately produced to be used in this way speed bump a transverse ridge in the road to control the speed of vehicles speed camera a roadside camera, triggered by speeding vehicles, which takes either video footage or a photograph of the offending vehicle with a record of its speed speed hump a transverse ridge in the road to control the speed of vehicles spell-check the practice, among audience members at a rock concert, of jumping from the stage to be caught and carried aloft by the crowd below spin doctor a senior political spokesperson employed to promote a favorable interpretation of events to journalists sport tourism the organization and operation of holidays for people who wish to dedicate their holidays to becoming or remaining fit sports bar In the US: a bar where non-stop televised sport is shown. kills in a sudden, random, and apparently unpremeditated and motiveless manner, especially one who kills a number of people at a single location in such an attack stakeholder economy an economy in which every member of a society has an interest in its economic progress stealth bra in the US, a protective device to be fitted over the bodywork for the front of a car steampunk a subgenre of science fiction set in an industrialized, nineteenth-century society step aerobics a type of aerobics involving stepping up on to and down from a portable block street style a style inspired by contemporary urban culture swagger portrait a commissioned portrait of a prominent or wealthy person intended to represent the sister's role, power, or status swingbeat a form of dance music combining elements of rhythm and blues, soul, hip-hop, and rap music tape streamer the system was based on a cassette tape technology transfer offices whose purpose is to put researchers in touch with organization which can commercialize their discoveries and which help negotiate licensing agreements technology transfer office a repository offering a wide selection of goods for sale at discounted prices to members of a club three-peat a third success in a particular championship or other event, especially the third of three consecutive wins thrillcraft any of various types of recreational water vehicles, used in exciting or dangerous water sports, and capable of high speeds tone dialing a system of telephone dialing, in which each digit is transmitted as a short burst of a single audio frequency tough love care and concern expressed by encouraging a person to give up certain behaviors, take responsibility for themselves, and seek self: an attractive young man is kept as a lover by an older person traffic calming the deliberate slowing of traffic, especially along residential streets, by the construction of road humps or other obstacles to progress trainspotter in British slang: a derogatory term for an obsessive follower of any minority interest or specialized hobby tree house tree house tree hugger a (chiefly derogatory) term for an environmental campaigner trip hop a form of dance music combining elements for hip-hop which softer, more ambient sounds, special effects, and allusive lyrics trophy wife a derogatory expression for a wife regarded as a status symbol for her husband turf war a dispute over territory between rival groups or departments urban legend an unverifiable and usually apocryphal anecdote of some aspect of modern life, widely recounted as if true, which has acquired the status of folklore vision thing a political view encompassing the longer term as distinct from short-term campaign objectives *compounding-the thing required is vision for the future voice mail a system for electronically storing, processing, and reproducing verbal messages left through the conventional telephone network, or transmitted through a digital computer network voluntary simplicity a person who makes a change of career or lifestyle to a mode that is less pressured and demanding waitperson a person who serve a visitor to a restaurant water sport in which participant ride on a short, wide board or wakeboard, resembling a surfboard, towed by a motorized craft water birth a form of children birth in which the mother is supported in a specially designed pool or tub so that the child is delivered into the water white information financial information indicating that a person is creditworthy wind farm a group of energy-producing windmills or wind turbines wise use Especially in the US: environment policy promoting a controlled use of natural resources wolf-dog a dog which is a hybrid between a wolf and a dog work shadowing the process of accompanying and observing a person at work, for training or research purposes workgroup a group of workers engaged in a series of specialized or collaborative tasks who share and process information by means of linked computers wormhole a concept in cosmology describing a 'tunnel' which might form under certain circumstances to connect two places which are separate either in time or in space year out a period of one academic year taken as a break from formal educational by a student between leaving school and taking up a place at college or university

thaïlandais Classification formelle des composés nominaux en anglais Nombre d'éléments

  Tableau 1 Résumé de la classification formelle des composés nominaux

	quatre Tableau 2 Résumé de la classification sémantique des composés /bâ:npà:mɯ ̄aŋ /bâ:n/ + /pà:/ + une maison-une transparence /khî:lép/ /khî:/ + /lép/ un excrément -un de la saleté sur un pays non-	5,40 10,21
	éléments nominaux thaïlandais de l'élément		thɯ ̀n/	/mɯ ̄aŋ/ + /thɯ ̀n/	forêt -cité-non ongle	développé les ongles
		non tête					civilisée
		cinq éléments opacité des	/ k h â :ná:mrɔ ́ : . /khâ/ + [ná:mrɔ :n] + Classification formelle des composés nominaux en thaï un coût-l'eau-/dɔ :kmá:jlèk/ /dɔ :kmá:j/ + un fleur -une	de l'argent du une femme qui	0,30 11,41
		deux éléments	ná:mchā:/	[ná:mchā :] Mots lèk/	chaude-l'eau -Glose acier	thé / pot-de-Signification est forte et	%
		du composé					du thé	vin patiente pour
					sources			gérer et
		Subordinatif	/khǒnmên/	/ k h ǒ n / +	un poil -un porc-	Total 100% une plume d'oie 97,89 affronter avec la
	Type de	N-N		/thǔŋthálē:/	/thǔŋ/ + /thálē:/ /mên/	épic	un sac -la mer	un duffle bag difficulté	36,63
	composé	N-ADJ		/khɔ:ŋkàw/	/khɔ:ŋ/ + /kàw/		un truc-vieux	une antiquité Total 100% 15,01
		V-N Coordinatif		/kɔ ʔòk/ /kòtbàtkòtmǎ:j/	/kɔ / + /ʔòk/ /kòtbàt/ +	s'accrocher -la une charte -une	une robe sans une charte et	10,81 2,11
	5				/kòtmǎ:j/	loi	poitrine	bretelles une loi
	combinaiso
	ns lexicales	N-N-N		/ŋə̄nkônthǔŋ/	/ŋə̄n/ + /kôn/ +/ thǔŋ/ l'argent-un bas	un dollar de Total 100% 9
	majeures	une tête		/sàná:m/	-un sac /sà/ + /ná:m/ un canal -l'eau	fond une piscine	94,89
	des entrées	N-V-N		/jā:thā:lép/	/jā:/ + /thā:/ + /lép/		un médicament	un vernis à	9
	Nombre de	deux têtes		/kòtbàtkòtmǎ:j/	/ k ò t b à t / +	-peindre -les une charte -	ongles une charte et un	2,11
	têtes du				/kòtmǎ:j/	ongles une loi	loi
	composé
	nominal	sans tête		/kɔ ʔòk/	/kɔ / + /ʔòk/	s'accrocher -	Total 80,45 une robe sans 3
	thaïlandais					la poitrine	bretelles
								Total 100%
		gauche		/ŋā:chá:ŋ/	/ ŋ ā :/ +	un travail -	un méga-projet	92,79
	Position de la				/chá:ŋ/	un éléphant
	tête du	droite		/kàlàmdɔ:k/	/ k à l à m / +/	un chou -	un chou-fleur	1,80
	composé
	nominal				dɔ :k/	une fleur
	thaïlandais
								Total	94,89
					Mots sources		Glossaire	Signification	% %
	Déplacements	deux éléments /lû:kmá:j/ transparence /thǔŋnɔ:n/	/lû:k/ + /má:j/ / t h ǔ ŋ / +	des descendants un sac -dormir un sac de dentelle	66,67 62,47
	métaphto-	des deux			/nɔ̄:n/		-un arbre	couchage
	nymiques des	trois éléments éléments		/rá:nsàdùaksɯ ́:/ /rá:n/+/sàdùak/+/sɯ ́:/ un magasin-	un commerce	27,63
	composés	transparence	/wājdn k/	pratique -/wāj/ + /dn k/ l'age -tard dans la	une personne	12,61
	nominaux	de l'élément				nuit	acheter	âgée
	thaïlandais	tête
								xii xiv

Du point de vue sémantique, les composés nominaux thaïlandais sont classés en deux catégories principales, à savoir les composés subordonnés et les composés coordonnés. La plupart des composés nominaux thaïlandais sont subordonnés, tandis que seuls quelques-uns d'entre eux sont des composés de type coordonné. La position de la tête se trouve canoniquement à gauche, comme en français. Très peu d'entre eux ont la tête à droite. Le nombre de composés sémantiquement transparents est élevé, mais il est intéressant de noter que dans de nombreux noms composés, l'un des éléments est utilisé de manière métaphorique ou métonymique tandis que l'autre reste littéral ; en outre, le nombre de noms composés opaques, dans lesquels les deux éléments ne sont pas interprétés littéralement, est remarquablement élevé. Le résumé de la classification sémantique des noms composés thaïlandais est illustré ci-dessous.

Table of Contents

 of RÉSUMÉ ............................................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. xxii Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1.1.Rationale of the study ................................................................................................... 1.2.The objectives of the study .......................................................................................... 1.3.Research questions ....................................................................................................... 1.4.Research methodology ................................................................................................. 1.4.1. Data collection ...................................................................................................... 1.4.2 Data analysis ......................................................................................................... Headedness of Thai Compound Nouns ............................................................. 3.3.4. Metaphtonymic Shifts ....................................................................................... 3.4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................. Chapter 4 Nominal Compounding in English ...................................................................... 4.1. Definition of Compounds in English ........................................................................ 4.2. Formal Classification of Compound Nouns in English ............................................ 4.2.1 Binary compound nouns ...................................................................................... 4.2.2 English compound nouns with three elements .................................................... 4.2.3 Spelling ................................................................................................................ 4.2.4 Overview ............................................................................................................. 4.3 Semantic Classification of English Compound Nouns .............................................. 4.3.1 Subordinate Compounds ..................................................................................... Morphophonological typology .......................................................................... 148 7.2.3 Semantic classification of English blends ......................................................... 156 7.3 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 163 Chapter 8 A Comparison of Lexical Blending in Thai and English .................................. 165 8.1 Formal Classification ............................................................................................... 165 8.1.1 Lexical typology ................................................................................................ 165 8.1.2 Patterns of lexical shortening ............................................................................ 168 8.1.3 Segment overlap ................................................................................................ 170 8.1.4 Patterns of phonological splitting ...................................................................... 171 8.2 Semantic classification ............................................................................................. 172 8.2.1 Headedness of lexical blends in Thai and English ............................................ 172 8.3 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 177

1.5.Transcription of Thai words in the present study ......................................................... Chapter 2 Introduction to the Thai Language ...................................................................... 2.1. Introduction of the Thai Language ............................................................................ 2.2. Characteristics of the Thai language ......................................................................... 2.2.1. The Influence of Pali and Sanskrit on the Thai Language ................................. 2.3. A discussion of word-formation processes in Thai ................................................... 2.3.1. Affixation ........................................................................................................... 2.3.2. Reduplication ...................................................................................................... 2.3.3. Compounding ..................................................................................................... 2.3.4. Doublet formation .............................................................................................. 2.3.5. Blending ............................................................................................................. 2.3.6. Clipping .............................................................................................................. 2.3.7. Abbreviation ....................................................................................................... 2.3.8. Other types of lexical enrichment in Thai .......................................................... 2.4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................. Chapter 3 Nominal Compounding in Thai ........................................................................... 3.1. Definition of Compounding in Thai .......................................................................... 3.2. Formal Classification of Thai Compound Nouns ..................................................... 3.2.1. Binary compound nouns ..................................................................................... 3.2.2. Compound nouns with three elements ............................................................... 3.2.3. Compound nouns with four elements ................................................................. 3.2.4. Compound nouns with five elements ................................................................. 3.2.5. Overview ............................................................................................................ 3.3. Semantic Classification of Thai Compounds ............................................................ 3.3.1. Subordinate Compounds .................................................................................... 3.3.2. Coordinative Compounds ................................................................................... xxiv 3.3.3. 4.3.2 Coordinate Compounds ....................................................................................... 4.3.3 Headedness in English Compound Nouns .......................................................... 4.3.4 Metaphtonymic Shifts ....................................................................................... 4.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ Chapter 5 A Comparison of Nominal Compounding in Thai and English ........................ 5.1 The formal classification of nominal compounds in Thai and English ................... 5.1.1 Spelling .............................................................................................................. 5.1.2 Number of elements .......................................................................................... 5.1.3 Lexical structures of Thai and English compound nouns ................................. 5.2 The semantic classification of compound nouns in Thai and English ..................... 5.2.1 Types of compound nouns in Thai and English ................................................ 5.2.2 Headedness of compound nouns in Thai and English ....................................... 5.2.3 The position of the head .................................................................................... 5.2.4 Metaphtonymic Shifts of Compounds in Thai and English .............................. 5.3 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. Chapter 6 Lexical blending in Thai .................................................................................... 6.1 Defining and collecting lexical blends ..................................................................... 6.2 Formal classification of Thai lexical blends ............................................................ 6.2.1 Lexical typology ................................................................................................ 6.2.2 Morphophonological typology .......................................................................... 6.2.3 Semantic classification of Thai lexical blends .................................................. 6.3 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. Chapter 7 Lexical Blending in English .............................................................................. 7.1 Defining and collecting lexical blends in English .................................................... 7.2 Formal Classification of English Lexical Blends ..................................................... 7.2.1 Lexical typology ................................................................................................ xxv 7.2.2 Chapter 9 The Competition between Compounding and Lexical Blending ...................... 180 in Thai and English 9.1. Compounding and lexical blending in Thai ............................................................ 180 9.1.1 Formal considerations of compounding versus lexical blending in Thai .......... 181 9.1.2 Semantic considerations .................................................................................... 184 9.1.3 Other linguistic factors ...................................................................................... 186 9.2 Compounding and lexical blending in English ........................................................ 188 9.2.1 Formal considerations ....................................................................................... 189 9.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 191 Chapter 10 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 193 10.1 Summary of the findings ........................................................................................ 193 10.2 Limitations of the study .......................................................................................... 198 10.3 Future research ....................................................................................................... 199 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 200 Appendices ........................................................................................................................ A-1 APPENDIX A List of Thai Compound Nouns ............................................................. A-1 APPENDIX B List of Thai Lexical Blends ................................................................... B-1 APPENDIX C List of English Compounds ................................................................... C-1 APPENDIX D List of English Lexical Blends ............................................................. D-1 xxvi

Table 1 .

 1 1 Consonants and glides for an initial consonant.........................................6 Table 1.2 Consonants and glides for a final consonant..………….…………….…..………8 Table 1.3 Clusters in Thai .…….…………...………………………………………….……8 Table 1.4 Vowels in Thai ...…..……..…….……………………………………...…………4 Table 2.1 Common feature of Tai-Kadai languages………………………………..……..13 Table 2.2 Examples of words from 4 dialects……......…………………………………..15 Table 2.3 Letters with the same pronunciation...….……………………………………..16

Table 2

 2

.4 Right-headed compounds in Thai……………………………………………..34 Table 2.5 Blends in Thai……….……………..…………………………………………..40 Table 2.6 Words borrowed from various languages……..…………...…………………..43 Table 3.1 Number of elements in Thai compound nouns…………………………….….52 Table 3.2 Lexical structure of binary compound nouns…………………………………53

Table 3

 3

.3 Structures of compound nouns with three elements……………….………….55

Table 3.4 Distribution of nominal compounds with three elements……..……………..56 Table 3.5 Structures of compound nouns with four elements………….……….………60 Table 3.6 Summary of nominal compounding constructions…………………..........…...65 Table 3.7 Distribution of types of compound nouns in Thai………………………..…...68 Table 3.8 Distribution of subtypes of subordinate compounds……….……………...…..69 Table 3.9 Distribution of the number and position of the head………………….………73

Table 3

 3

.10 Distribution of types of left-headed compounds...………..…………………73

Table 3

 3

.11 Examples of left-headed compounds.…..……………………………………74

Table 3 .

 3 12 Distribution of types of right-headed compounds …………………………74

Table 3 .

 3 13 Examples of right-headed compounds …………..…………………………75

Table 3 .

 3 14 Distribution of four types……………………………………………………78

Table 3

 3

	.15 Transparent compounds.……………………………………………………...79
	Table 4.1 Number of elements of English compound nouns……………………………87

Table 4 .

 4 2 Lexical structure of binary compound Nouns…….…..….….………………….88 Table 4.3 Proportions of the different forms of spelling………..……………………….93

Table 4

 4

.4 Summary of nominal compounding constructions in English…………....…..96 Table 4.5 Distribution of types of compound nouns in English………….………...…..97 xxvii

Table 4 .

 4 6 Distribution of subordinate compounds..…………………..…………………..97 Table 4.7 Distribution of the number and position of the head………………………….100 Table 4.8 Distribution of single headed-compounds….……….…...……………………..100 Table 4.9 Right-headed compounds………....…………….………………...……..……..101 Table 4.10 Left-headed compounds….….……………………………..…………..….….101 Table 4.11 Headless compounds……………………………………………………....….102 Table 4.12 Distribution of four types of metaphtonymic shifts……………….…………..103 of English compounds Table 4.13 Transparent compounds………….………………...…………………………103 Table 4.14 Compounds with opacity of the non-head element..……….…………………104 Table 4.15 Compounds with opacity of the head element……..….………………..……105

Table 4

 4

.16 Non-transparent compound nouns……………………………………..……..106 Table 5.1 Comparison of spelling in Thai and English compounds ………………………110

Table 5

 5

.2 Number of elements of compound nouns in Thai and English………………….111 Table 5.3 Examples of Thai and English compound nouns varied from two……………112 to five elements Table 5.4 Structures of compound nouns in both languages…………………………...114 Table 5.5 Semantic classification of Thai and English nominal compounds…..………119

Table 5

 5

.6 Distribution of headedness of Thai and English nominal compounds………119

Table 5

 5

.7 Proportion of the position of the head ………………………………………120

Table 5

 5

.8 Number of transparent and opaque compound nouns in Thai and English..121 Table

6

.1 Distribution of the number of elements of lexical blends in Thai..…………126 Table 6.2 Lexical categories of the output of Thai lexical blends………….….………127 Table 6.3 Lexical categories of the inputs……………………………………….……...128 Table 6.4 Distribution of types of lexical shortening………………………….………..130

Table 6 .

 6 5 Distribution of segment overlap in the Thai lexical blends ………….………135

	Table 6.6 Correlation between patterns of shortening and segment overlap……………..136
	in Thai blends
	Table 6.7 Distribution of split points regarding the type………….………………………138
	of phonological boundary
	Table 6.8 Distribution of the number of semantic heads and the semantic relation……139

Table 6 .

 6 9 Distribution of the position of the head of subordinate blends……….……..140

Table 6

 6

.10 Distribution of the semantic categorization of coordinate blends………….142 Table 6.11 Distribution of four types of metaphtonymic shifts….………………..……143 xxviii

Table 7 .

 7 1 Lexical categories of the output of blending in English……………………..148 Table 7.2 Lexical categories of the inputs……………………..……………….……….149 Table 7.3 Distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening……………….…………….150 Table 7.4 Distribution of segment overlap in the English lexical blends……………….154 Table 7.5 Number of blends with segment overlap…………….…………….…………155 Table 7.6 Distribution of split points regarding the type of phonological boundary….156 Table 7.7 Distribution of the number of semantic heads and………….………..……..158 the semantic relation Table 7.8 Distribution of the position of the head of subordinate blends………………158

Table 7 .

 7 9 Lexical category of the input of coordinate blends………………..………..150 Table 7.10 Distribution of the semantic categorization of coordinate blends…………160

Table 7 .

 7 11 Distribution of four types of metaphtonymic shifts of English blends……162

Table 8

 8

.1 Distribution of the number of elements…………………………..…………167 Table 8.2 Lexical categories of the output of blending in Thai and English…..…...168 Table 8.3 Lexical categories of the inputs………………………….…………………..168 Table 8.4 Distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening of binary blends…..……170 Table 8.5 Distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening of three-element blends…172

Table 8

 8

.6 Distribution of the segments of overlap of Thai and English blends………..172

Table 8.7 Distribution of split points regarding the type of phonological boundary ....173 Table 8.8 Correlation of split points and patterns of lexical shortening……………….174 Table 8.9 Distribution of the number of semantic heads and……….………………….175 types of semantic relation Table 8.10 Distribution of the position of the head in subordinate blends……………175

Table 8

 8

.11 Examples of English left-headed blends……………………………………177

Table 8 .

 8 12 Distribution of blends in Thai and English…………..……………………..177 Table 8.13 Distribution of the semantic categorization of coordinate blends………….177 Table 8.14 Distribution of semantic transparency of source words…………………….178 Table 9.1 Distribution of the number of elements in Thai compounds …………….……183

	and lexical blends
	Table 9.2 Semantic classification of compounding and lexical blending in Thai ……...186
	Table 9.3 Semantic classification of compounding and lexical blending in English ……192

  Graphic 1: 44 Thai alphabet ................................................................................................. Graphic 2: Single vowels ..................................................................................................... Graphic 3: Long vowels ....................................................................................................... Graphic 4: Letter vowels ...................................................................................................... Graphic 5: Examples of sentences written in Thai ............................................................... Graphic 6: Symbols of tones in Thai .................................................................................... Graphic 7: Letters in Pali, Sanskrit, and Thai ...................................................................... Graphic 8: Excerpt from the dictionary ................................................................................

	Chapter 1
	Introduction
	1.1. Rationale of the study
	Chapter 1
	Introduction

Table 1

 1

	Bilabial	Labio-dental	Alveolar	Post-alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
	p pʰ b
	Plosive

.1 shows the consonants, and Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 illustrate the vowels. Table 1.1 Consonants and Glides for initial consonants 1

Table 1 .4 Vowels in Thai Single vowels Diphthongs Short long Short long

 1

	y/
	ย

Table 2

 2

	.1: Common features of Tai-Kadai Languages
		Tai-Kadai
		Languages
	Lexical tone	+
	Case marking	_
	Classifier	+
	Serial verbs	+
	Verb-final	+
	Prepositions	+
	Noun-adjective order	+

Table 2

 2

	.2: Examples of words from the 4 dialects
		Standard	South	North	Northeast
	to lie	/kōːhòk/	/khîːhòk/	/khîːtɞûː/	/khîːtúa/
		โกหก	ขี S หก	ขี S จุ ้	ขี S ตั W ว
	to miss	/khídthɯ ̌ŋ/	/wǎŋwɤ̂ːt/	/khɯ ́ːdthɯ ̌ːŋ/	/khídhɔ̂ːd/
		คิ ดถึ ง	หวั งเหวิ ด	คึ ดถึ ง	คิ ดฮอด
	to go back home /klàbbâːn/	/lòːbbâːn/	/píkbâːn/	/mīabâːn/
		กลั บบ้ าน	หลบบ้ าน	ปิ W กบ้ าน	เมี ยบ้ าน
	coconut	/máphráːw/	/lûːkphráːw/	/mápâːw/	/bàkpâːw/
		มะพร้ าว	ลู กพร้ าว	มะป้ าว	บั กป้ าว
	pineapple	/sàbpàrót/	/jāːnàt/	/màːkkhánàt/	/bàknàt/
		สั บปะรด	ยาหนั ด	หมากคะหนั ด	บั กหนั ด

  In Thai writing, characters are placed horizontally, from left to right, to form syllables, words, and sentences. Vowel graphemes are written above, below, before, or after the consonant they modify, although the consonant is always pronounced first when the syllable

	Graphic 3: Long vowels
	Graphic 4: Letter vowels
				. Some
	examples of contrastive pairs are given as follows:
		/pā/	to mend
		/pāː/	to throw
	is spoken.	/dù/	to blame
		/dūː/	to watch
		/khāt/ สี /sǐː/	to bite color
		/khāːt/	to be torn
			ปู /pūː/	crab
	In Thai, there are also the diphthong vowels which consist of more than one single vowel, เท /thēː/ to pour
	making a total of 6 vowel sounds, including 4 vowel letters as illustrated in Graphic 3 and 4
	respectively.	ขา /khăː/	leg

Table 2

 2

	.5: Blends in Thai
	Blended words	Source words	Meaning
	/máhǒːlāːn/	/máhǎː/+ /ʔōːlāːn/
		(great + grand)

enormous

/phútthōwâːt/ /phútthá/+/ʔōːwâːt/ the speech of the Buddha

In the second case, the final vowel of the first source word and the initial consonant of the second source word are deleted; but before the two source words were blended, the first vowel of the second source word is changed from:

/a/ to /aː/ /i/ to /eː/ /u/ to /uː/ or /oː/.

In the last case, when there is nikhahit '( ◌ํ )', which is the symbol used in Pali and Sanskrit languages written on the consonant to replace the sound /aŋ/ and /am/ as in สํ /sāŋ/ and ชุ ˚นุ ˚

8 Other types of lexical enrichment in Thai 2.3.8.1 Borrowing

/phɔː sɔː/ the Buddhist calendar year กิ โลกรั ม /kìlòːkrām/ ก.ก. /kɔː kɔː/ kilogram โรงพยาบาล /rōːŋpájāːbān/ ร.พ. /rɔː phɔː/ hospital นั กศึ กษา /náksɯ ̀ksǎː/ น.ศ. /nɔː sɔː/ university student จดหมาย /tɕòdmǎːŋ/ จ.ม. /tɕɔː mɔː/ letter 2.3.

  -Some English final consonants are replaced by other consonants.The English diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ followed by a final consonant are also pronounced with the simple vowels /a/ or /aa/ followed by the semi-vowels /j/ and /w/ to close syllables. The final consonants of original English words are omitted in the pronunciation.The tone pattern may or may not change. Flipped words are formed for the purpose of rhyming, to concealing vulgar words, and sometimes to play for fun. See examples below:

		/khlínìk/ necktie	clinic /nêːkthāj/
	/khɛ̄ː/ English: /l/ boy	/∅/ /ʃ/ /jāmsàlàd/	care /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /bɔ̄ːj/ /jām Thai + sàlàd English /
	2. Some English words are transferred with phonological changes and adaptation. Thai: /n/ /t/ /t/ /t/ /t/ view /wīw/ (salad + salad)
		/sǐː dɛ̄ːŋ/	<=>	'salad'	/sɛːŋ dīː/
	-Weak syllables are reduced. bill /bīn/ 'red'	'good light'
		bath	/phūaŋrìːd/	/bàːt/	/phūaŋ Thai + rìːd English /
		retire brush /rɔ ːŋ hâj/	/rɯ ́thāj/ /bràt/ (bunch + wreath) <=> /ráj hɔ̂ːŋ/
		metre coach 'cry'		/méːt/ /khóːt/ 'wreath'	'without a room'
		cashier design	/khɛ̂ːttɕhīa/ /dīːsāːw/
		down /nɔ ːŋ rák/ /rɤ̄ːjɔ̂ːt/	/dāːw/ /rɤ̄ː Thai + jɔ̂ːt English / <=> /nák rɔ ːŋ/
		gown		/kāːw/ (boat + yacht)
					'yacht'
		spring /rótbàt/	/sàprīŋ/ /rót Thai + bàt English /
		stew steak test text loanwords.	/sàtūː/ (vehicle + bus) /thêːt/ /sàtèk/ /thék/ 'bus'
		script		/sàkhríp/
	film grade 4. Some other English loanwords are clipped and now appear preferably in their shorter /fīm/ /krèːt/
	form:	switch foot	/fút/ /sàwìt/
		office	/mɔ̄ːsāːj/	/ʔɔ ffít/ /mɔ̄ːtɤ̄ːsāːj/	motorcycle
		graph	/khɔ̄ːm/	/kráːp/ /khɔ̄ːmphīwtɤ̂ː/	computer
		pleat	/líp/	/plîːt/	/lípsátìk/	lipstick
		gang	/bɛ ːt/	/kɛ ːŋ/	/bɛ ːtmīntân/	badminton
	visa 3. There may be a process of hybridization, in which an English word and a Thai word are /wīːsâː/ /ʔɛ̄ː/ /ʔɛ̄ːkhɔ̄ːndìtɕhān/ air-conditioner
	combined.	zigzag	/síksɛ̂ːk/
	English: Thai:	bāː/ shampoo /ai/ /ɔi/ /au/ /iu/ /aiə/ /ei/ /eə/ /ou/ /ɔə/ bar /tɕhɛ̄ːmpūː/ furniture /fɤ̄ːnítɕɤ̄ː/ /pūːnsīːmēn/ /pūːn Thai + sīːmēn English / /aj/ /ɔj/ /aw/ /iw/ /aj/ /eː/ /ɛː/ /oː/ /ɔː/ 2.3.8.2 Flipping
		/ʔɛ̄ː/ jean		air /jɛ̄ːn/	(cement + cement)
		/khrīːm/	cream 'cement'

-Syllables composed of a consonant cluster are not permissible in the Thai phonological system. A vowel /a/ is added to separate the cluster.

-Some English initial consonants, which do not exist in Thai, have to be changed into close Thai phonemes.

-English: /g/ /v/ /z/ /ʃ/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ Thai: /k/ /w/ /s/ /tɕ h / /tɕ/ /j/ -English final clusters of two or three consonants are reduced to a single consonant.

English: /-kt/ /-ns/ /-st/ /-pt/ /-lk/ /-lm/ /-lv/ /-kst/ Thai: /-k/ /-n/ /-t/ /-p/ /-n/ /-m/ /-w/ /-k/ -There is a change of vowel phonemes where the diphthongs and triphthongs ended by close vowels /i/ and /u/ are generally reduced to simple vowels. In English loanwords, the diphthongs and triphthongs are changed into:

-As Thai is a tonal language, tones are assigned automatically, according to the pronunciation and to the syllable-type of the borrowed words. Tone marks are not used in the written form of borrowed words, but their pronunciation follows the Thai rules of orthography. The high tone seems to be the favorite tone for English

Flipping is a special form of morphological wordplay known in Thai as /kham phuan/, literally as 'flipped words'. The process usually applies to a bisyllabic word or a bimorphemic word, and and switches the vowels and tones of the two syllables/morphemes.

'beloved younger sister or brother' 'singer'

Table 3

 3

		Frequency	%
	2 elements	222	66.67
	3 elements	91	27.33
	4 elements	19	5.70
	5 elements	1	0.30
	Total	333	100

.1: Number of elements in Thai compound nouns

Table 3 .

 3 2: The Lexical Structure of Binary Compound Nouns

	Structure

Table 3

 3

	(1) N-N
	ถุ งทะเล	/thǔŋthálēː/	bag-sea	'a duffle bag'
	ตู ้ เพลง	/tûːphlēŋ/	cabinet-song	'a music box'
	นมผึ 7 ง	/nōmphª̂ŋ/	milk-bee	'honeycomb'

.2 shows all the structures of compound nouns with two elements. The findings show that the majority of compound nouns in the data collection are composed of a noun and a noun, a noun and an adjective, and a noun and a verb. The respective examples of the six groups of lexical structures are presented below.

/phàtsī:ʔíw/ to fry-soy sauce 'a dish of fried noodles with soy sauce'

Table 3

 3

	Structure

.3: The Structures of Compound Nouns with Three Elements

Table 3 .

 3 5: The Structures of Compound Nouns with Four Elements

	Structures

Table 3

 3

	Structures

.6: The Summary of Nominal Compounding Constructions

Table 3 .

 3 7: the Distribution of Types of Compound nouns in Thai

	Frequency	%

Subordinate compounds are defined as compounds in which there is a hierarchical relation between the head and the non-head. According to the findings in the present study, an overwhelming majority (326 units or 98%) of nominal compounds in Thai are subordinate, with only one head. This finding is remarkable in itself because the proportion between subordinate and coordinate items is very similar to that given by

[START_REF] Berg | Structure in Language. A Dynamic Perspective[END_REF]

for

  28) กระเทยควาย

	-An N1N2 is an N2 that is like an N1.
	(30) กระโปรงกางเกง /kràprō:ŋ.kā:ŋkē:ŋ head /
		skirt-pants
		'culottes'
		(= pants which are like a skirt)
	(31) กะลาหั ว	/kàlā:.hǔa:/
		coconut shell-head
		'skull'
		(= a head which is like a coconut shell)
		/ head kwàtɤ̄ːj.khwāːj/
		transvestite buffalo
		'male transvestite'
		(= a transvestite who is strong like a buffalo)
	(29) กุ หลาบหิ น	/ head kūlà:p.hǐn/
		rose stone
		'stone rose'
		(= a rose which is like stone)

  There are also coordinative compounds which are composed of two and three verbal constituents, but the whole unit is a noun, as shown in the examples (38) and (39).

	(38) จิ 7 มจุ ่ ม	/cǐm.cùm/
		dip-immerse
		'a hot pot' i.e. sukiyaki (a Japanese dish)
	. However, in this study, only 2% of that data set are coordinate compounds, as shown below. (39) อาบอบนวด /ʔà:p.ʔòp.nûat/
		bathe-stream-massage
	(34) กฎบั ตรกฎหมาย /kòtbàt.kòtmǎ:j/ 'a massage parlor'
		charter-law
		'charter and law'
	(35) เงิ นถุ งเงิ นถั ง	/ŋə̄nthūŋ.ŋə̄nthāŋ/
		money-in-a-bag-money-in-a-bucket
		'a lot of money'
	(36) แม่ บ้ านแม่ เรื อน	/mɛ̂:bâ:n.mɛ̂:rɯ ̄an/
		housekeeper-housewife
		'a woman who is very good at cooking and doing
		housework'
	(37) กระโปรงบานขาสั 7 น /kràprō:ŋbā:nkhǎ:sân/
		opened-out skirt shorts
		'high school students'
	From the examples (34) -(37), some items can be analyzed as showing a logical addition of

the constituents, as in /kòtbàt.kòtmǎ:j/, which indicates that an N1N2 is an N1 plus an N2, or as showing a semantic relation of synonymy, as in /ŋə̄nthūŋ.ŋə̄nthāŋ/ and /mɛ̂:bâ:n.mɛ̂:rɯ ̄an/.

Table 3

 3

	.9: The distribution of the number and position of heads
		Frequency	%
	One-headed compounds	316	94.89
	Left-headed compounds	309	92.79
	Right-headed compounds	6	1.80
	Two-headed compounds	7	2.10
	Headless compounds	10	3.00
	Total	333	100

Table 3 .

 3 10: The distribution of types of left-headed compoundsExamples of nominal left-headed compounds are presented below in Table3.11.

	Frequency	%

Table 3 .

 3 12: The distribution of types of right-headed compounds Examples of nominal right-headed compounds are presented below in Table3.13.

	Frequency	%

Table 3 .

 3 14: The distribution of the four types of semantic

	transparency/opacity
		Frequency	%
	transparency of both elements	208	62.47
	transparency of the head element	42	12.61
	transparency of the non-head element	34	10.21
	opacity of both elements of the compound	39	11.41
	Total	323	96.99

Table 3

 3 The compound nouns in Table3.15 are totally literal. The semantic transparency of compounds was evaluated separately in relation to each constituent. Each one appears literally in the paraphrase of the compound: for example, for the compound '/kā:ŋkē:ŋ.chā:w.khǎw/' (pants-hill tribe), "the tribal pants are pants of the hill tribe".

	.15: Transparent compounds
	Compound	Class Head Gloss
	/thǔŋ.nɔ̄:n/	REL L	bag-sleep
			'sleeping bag'
	/kā:ŋkē:ŋ.chā:w.khǎw/ REL L	pants-hill tribe
			'tribal pants'
	/kòtbàt.kòtmǎ:j/	COR -	charter-law
			'charter and law'
	/mɛ̂:bâ:n.mɛ̂:rɯ ̄an/	COR -	housekeeper-housewife
			'a woman who is very good at doing
			housework and cooking'

Transparency of the head member, opacity of the non-head member

  In Thai, noun compounds differ in their semantic transparency. There are compounds in Thai in which one of the elements is used figuratively or metonymically while the other is used literally. In the present study, it was found that 10.21% of the collected units are composed of a transparent head and a figurative non-head element. The examples of compound nouns in this group are shown below.

	(44) ข่ าวโคมลอย
	/khàːw.khōːm.lɔ̄ːj/
	news-floating balloon
	'rumor, unfounded news'
	(45) งานช้ าง
	/ŋāːn.cháːŋ/
	work-elephant
	'a mega project'
	(46) กะเทยควาย
	/kàthə̄j.khwāːj/
	transvestite-buffalo
	'masculine transvestite'
	From the examples given, it can be seen that the head element is interpreted literally, while

the non-head element goes through the process of metaphor for compounds like the example (44) /khà:w.khō:m.lɔ̄:j/ and (45) /ŋāːn.cháːŋ/. The non-head element of the example

(46)

  47) มารศาสนา

	/māːnsàːtsànǎː/
	devil-religion
	'a person who always mocks religion'
	(48) ขี 7 เล็ บ
	/khî:.lép/
	excrement-nail
	'nail dirt'
	(49) พ่ อเมื อง
	/phɔ̂:.mɯ ̄aŋ/
	father-city
	'provincial governor'

  constituents. All elements of the compounds are opaque; they have also gone through the process of figurativeness in two degrees: metonymy and metaphor. See the examples below.

	(50) ดอกไม้ เหล็ ก
	/dɔ :kmá:j.lèk/
	flower-steel
	'a woman who is strong and patient to handle and cope with difficulty'
	(51) ขาใหญ่
	/khǎ:.jàj/
	leg-big
	'a client who always buys many products at a particular shop'
	(52) เจ้ าโลก
	/câw.lô:k/
	the great one-world
	'genitals'

Table 4

 4

		Frequency	%
	2 elements	238	97.14
	3 elements	7	2.86
	Total	245	100

.1: The number of elements of English compound nouns elements, which is the major type of compound noun in English. The constituents are, however, not always two nouns, they may also belong to various lexical categories as presented in Table

4

.2.

Table 4 .

 4 2: Lexical Structure of Binary Compound NounsIt is intricate to identify compound nouns in an ADJ-N construction depending on the rules such as orthography, stress, and types of adjective that the compounds consist of, and which work as modifying elements. There are 26.53% of compound nouns that are composed of an adjective and a noun. In this study, an ADJ-N construction is accepted if the nouns are combined with adjectives as the first element characterized as following:

	Structure	Frequency	%
	1 Noun-Noun	165	67.34
	2 Adjective-Noun	65	26.53
	3 Verb-Noun	3	1.21
	4 Verb -Verb	2	0.81
	5 Noun-Adverb	2	0.81
	6 Adjective-Adjective	1	0.40
		238	97.10

All structures of compound nouns with two elements in Table

4

.2 show that there is a high preference for a noun plus a noun (67.34%) and an adjective plus a noun (26.53%). There are also other minor structures such as a verb and a noun, a verb and a verb, a noun and an adverb and an adjective and an adjective. The respective examples of the six groups of lexical structures are presented below.

(1) N-N Noun-noun compounds form the most productive type of compound in English, which can be seen in the results of the data collection, with more than a half of the total number of collected units, or about 67.34%. functional food /ˈfʌŋkʃ(ə)n(ə)l fu:d/ 'a foodstuff which contains additives specially designed to promote health and longevity' recreational drug /rɛkrɪˈeɪʃənl drʌɡ/ 'a drug regarded as a source of pleasure and enjoyment for one's leisure moment' dental dam /ˈdɛnt(ə)l dam/ 'a piece of latex held over the mouth as a barrier against infection in oral sex' relational adjectives, written with a solid or spaced spelling and stressed on the There are compound nouns whose first element is analyzed as a verb, and the second element as a noun. See examples below: scratch card 'a card that someone has to scratch' 'a card to be scratched away by someone to reveal a symbol indicating whether a prize has been won in a competition' waitperson 'someone waiting on restaurant patrons' 'a person who serves a visitor in a restaurant'

In some cases, it is unclear whether one should analyze the first element as a verb or a noun.

  As compounds can be written in three different ways, in a solid, hyphenated, or spaced form, some compounds in ODNW have two different spellings (e.g. road-kill and roadkill, bank assurance and bankassurance, news group and newsgroup), but most compound nouns prefer one spelling. In the data set, it was found that the majority of compound nouns collected in the ODNW are written with a space. The numbers and percentages of the different spellings are shown in Table4.3 below.

		barfly jumping	[bar-fly]-jumping
		keyhole surgery	[key-hole]-surgery
		set-top box	[set-top]-box
		airport fiction	[air-port]-fiction
		stakeholder economy	[stake-holder]-economy
		lipstick lesbian	[lip-stick]-lesbian
		4.2.3 Spelling
	Table 4.3: Proportions of the different forms of spelling
		Spelling	Frequency	%
	1	Hyphenated	26	10.61
	2	Solid	40	16.42
	3	Spaced	179	73.06
			245	100

Table 4 .

 4 5: the Distribution of Types of Compound nouns in EnglishEnglish is rich in subordinate compounds, which shows in the results of the data set used in this study: 95.09% of the compound nouns in the data set are subordinate. In order to further describe subordinate compounds, the examined units are put into two subclasses, which are attributive and relational compounds, and the number of each type is shown in Table 4.6.

	Frequency	%

.1.1 Attributive Compounds In

  an attributive compound, the non-head acts as a modifier that transfers one or more attributes to the head (an N1N2 is an N2 is like an N1). There are only 0.81% or 2 subordinate attributive compound nouns in the data set, as shown below: 28% of the English subordinate compound nouns in the study are relational, with a head element that conveys the main meaning, and a non-head element that modifies certain aspects of the head. The following compounds exemplify different relations between the

	4.3.1.2 Relational Compounds
	94.non-head and the head:
	airport fiction	'a fiction sold at the airport'
	bankassurance	'an assurance sold at the bank'
	banoffi pie	'a pie made of banoffi'
	blush wine	'a wine whose color is blush/pink'
	acquaintance rape	'a rape committed by an acquaintance'
	dragon boat 'a boat which is shaped like a dragon'
	jelly shoes	'shoes which are like jelly'

Table 4 .

 4 7: The distribution and position of the headTable 4.7 shows that the overwhelming majority of English compound nouns or 94.28% has one head. Headless compounds are found, but account for a small minority of the total count. Only 1.22% of compound nouns have two heads, i.e. are coordinate compounds, as mentioned earlier, in Section 4.3.2. The sections below present the findings and describe each group in more details.

	Frequency	%

4.3.3.1 One-headed compounds

Generally, English compound nouns have one head. Among one-headed compounds, it was found that 94.28% have the head on the right, while 0.81 % are left-headed compounds, as shown in Table 4.8. Descriptions and examples of left-headed compounds and right-headed compounds are given as follows. compounds, 93.46% are right-headed. Examples of nominal right-headed compounds are presented in Table 4.9 below.

Table 4

 4

	.11: Headless Compounds
	Compounds		Meaning
	sound bite	N-N	a shot, pithy extract from a recorded interview, speech, or
			discussion
	bodice-ripper	N-N	a sexually explicit romantic novel or film, especially one

Table 4 .

 4 12: The distribution of four types of metaphtonymic shifts of

	English compounds
		Frequency	%
	transparency of both elements	165	67.34
	transparency of the head element	9	3.67
	transparency of the non-head element	17	6.93
	opacity of both elements of the compound	43	17.55
	Total	234	95.51
	4.3.4.1.

Transparency of both elements: Transparent Compounds From

	Compound	Meaning
	step aerobics	a type of aerobics involving stepping up on to and down from a
		portable block
	alcohol abuse	the habitual excessive use of alcohol
	tone dialing	a system of telephone dialing, in which each digit is transmitted
		as a short burst of a single audio frequency
	Table 4.13: Transparent Compounds
	Compound	Meaning
	wolf-dog	a dog which is a hybrid between a wolf and a dog
	home cinema	a system for showing films in the home which is designed to
		simulate as closely as possible the viewing conditions in a cinema

the examined compound nouns, 67.34% are interpreted literally, i.e. convey the meaning literally from each element, and the whole meaning can be figured out by a straightforward interpretation of the parts or each lexeme. Some examples of transparent compounds are displayed in Table

4

.13.

Table 4 .

 4 14: Compounds with Opacity of the Non-head Element

	Compounds	Meaning
	snail mail	a mocking or sarcastic slang term for the ordinary postal
		system, emphasizing its slowness compared to electronic mail;
		a communication sent by conventional post
	toyboy	in British slang: an attractive young man is kept as a lover by
		an older person
	lipstick lesbian	a lesbian of glamorous or manifestly feminine appearance
	black information	information held by institutions such as banks and credit
		agencies about people who are considered to be bad clients

Table 4 .

 4 15: Compounds with Opacity of the Head Element

	Compounds	Meaning
	work shadowing	the process of accompanying and observing a person at work,
		for training or research purposes
	safe haven	a protected zone in a country designated for members of a
		religious or ethnic minority
	helpdesk	a section of a business or organization, staffed by specialists
		able to assist customers or users who have problems
	auto bra	in the US, a protective device to be fitted over the bodywork
		for the front of a car

Table 4 .

 4 16: Non-transparent Compound NounsFrom the examples presented in Table4.15, compound nouns are not interpretated literally, but they have gone through the process of figurativeness through metonymy or metaphor.

	Compounds	Meaning
	slaphead	a bald or shaven-headed person
	spin doctor	a senior political spokesperson employed to promote a
		favorable interpretation of events to journalists
	glass ceiling	an unofficial or unacknowledged barrier to personal
		advancement, especially in the workplace
	towelhead	a person who wears a headcloth or turban
	tree hugger	a (chiefly derogatory) term for an environmental campaigner
	mouse potato	a slang term for a person who spends an excessive amount of
		time in front of a computer, especially one who uses it online
	The compound nouns 'slaphead', 'towelhead' and 'mouse potato' metaphorically refer to
	people. There are also compound nouns formed of figurative elements that designate the
	entity metonymically, as demonstrated in the compound nouns 'spin doctor', 'glass ceiling'

Table 5 .

 5 1: Comparison of spelling in Thai and English compounds

	Orthography

Table 5 .

 5 2: Number of elements of compound nouns in Thai and English

	Number of Elements

Table 5

 5

	.3: Examples of Thai and English compound nouns varied from
	two to five elements
	Number of Elements	Thai	English
	Two elements	/thǔŋ.thálē:/	speed camera
		bag-sea	'a roadside camera, triggered by
		'a duffle bag'	speeding vehicles, which takes
			either video footage or a
			photograph of the offending
			vehicle with a record of its speed'
	Three elements	/sɯ ̂a:.khɔ̄:.klōm/	technology transfer office
		upper garment-neck-round

Table 5 .

 5 4: Structures of compound nouns in Thai and English

		Thai	English
	Lexical Structures
		(%)	(%)
	N-N	36.93	67.34
	N-ADJ	15.01	0
	ADJ-N	0	26.53
	N-V	10.81	0
	N-PREP	2.10	0
	V-N	1.80	1.21
	V-V	0.30	0.81
	N-ADV	0	0.81
	ADJ-ADJ	0	0.40
	N-N-N	9.00	2.86

Table 5

 5

	.5: Semantic classification of Thai and English nominal
	compounds
	Semantic Classification	Thai	English
	Subordinate compounds	97.89	98.78
	Relational	94.89	97.97
	Attributive	3.00	0.81
	Coordinate compounds	2.10	1.22

Table 5

 5

	.6: The distribution of headedness of Thai and English nominal
	compounds
	Headedness	Thai	English
	Headless	3.00	4.48
	One head	94.89	94.28
	Two heads	2.10	1.22
	Table 5.6 shows that the headedness of compound nouns in Thai and English is remarkably
	similar i.e., there are one-head compounds, headless compounds and two-head compounds

in quasi-identical proportions. The majority of Thai and English compound nouns in the data sets have one head. Also, compound nouns with two heads are found in both languages with about 2% of coordinate units, such as the compound wolf-dog in English and the compound /kòtbàt.kòtmăay/, meaning 'the charter and law', in Thai.

Table 5

 5

	.7: Relative position of the head
	Headedness	Thai	English
	One head	94.89	94.28
	Right	1.80	93.46
	Left	92.79	0.40

Table 5

 5

	.8: Number of transparent and opaque compound nouns in Thai
	and English
	Meaning	Thai	English
	transparency of both elements	62.47	67.34
	transparency of the head element	12.61	3.67
	transparency of the non-head element	10.21	6.93
	opacity of both elements of the compound	11.41	17.55
		96.70	95.49

Table 6 .

 6 1: Distribution of number of elements in Thai lexical blends

	Number of Elements	Number	%
		Two elements	35	94.59
		Three elements	2	5.41
			37	100
	Table 6.1 shows that the overwhelming majority of lexical blends in Thai are fused out of
	two source words, and very few of them are made up of three source words. Examples of
	lexical blends with two and three elements are shown below.
	(1) กระเปรง	/kràpreŋ/
		/kràproŋ/ + /kaːŋkreŋ/
		skirt-pants
		'pants which look like a skirt'
	(2) โสตทั ศนู ปกรณ์	/sòtthátsànuːpàkɔn/
		/sòt/ + /thátsana/ + /ʔupàkɔn/
		ear-view-equipment
		'audio-visual aid'

Table 6

 6 verb and an adjective, an adjective and a noun, and an adjective and an adjective. The examples for each of lexical category of the input are illustrated below.

	.2: Lexical categories of the outputs in Thai lexical blends
	Lexical category of the output	Frequency	%
	noun		33	89.19
	verb		3	8.11
	adjective		1	2.70
	Total		37	100
	Here are examples of lexical blends from the three lexical categories: nouns, verbs and
	adjectives:
	(3) Noun
	ศิ ลปาคาร	/sǐnlápaːkaːn/
		/sǐnlápà/ + /ʔaːkaːn/
		art-building
		'art house'
	(4) Verb
	อั ตโนมื อ	/ʔàttànōːmɯ ̄ː/
		/ʔàttànōːmát/ + /mɯ ̄ː/
		automatic-hand
		'to work with hands instead of automatic machines'

another noun (62.16%), followed by an adjective and a noun (8.11%), a noun and a verb (5.41%), a verb and a noun (5.41%), and a noun, a noun and a noun (5.41%). Other very small numbers of lexical units are composed with an adjective and a verb, a verb and a noun, a

Table 6

 6

	.4: The distribution of types of lexical shortening
	Type of shortening	Frequency	%
	AD type	16	43.24
	ABD type	16	43.24
	ACD type	3	8.11
	others (3 elements: ABDF, ABCDF)	2	5.41
	Total	37	100%

  1.1) Half of AD blends or 26.62% are fused with two source words. Before the two source words are joined, the final syllable of the first source word and the initial syllable of the second source word are clipped, and then they are simply joined. Blends in this category do not share any phonemic and orthographic material. Both source words are clipped and there is no overlapping. See the example below:

	(13) ตุ ลาภิ วั ฒน์	/tùlaːphiwát/
		/tùlaːkaːn/ + /ʔàphíwát/
		judge-advancement
		'judicialization'
	(1.2) Another half of AD blends are formed by shortening two source words
	with a change of vowels. The process of shortening is similar to the first category, but a new
	vowel is inserted between two inputs by changing the vowel of the second syllable of the
	first source word from a short vowel to a long vowel. Consider the example below:
	(14) กาลานุ กรม	/kaːlaːnúkrom/
		/kaːlá/ + /ʔànúkrom/
		time-order
		'almanach'

  15) ปิ ตาธิ ปไตย

	(18) ทั ศนู ปกรณ์		ทั ศน์ + อุ ปกรณ์
	/thátsànuːpàkɔːn/		/thát/ + /ʔupàkɔːn/
			vision-equipment
			'visual aid'
		/pìtaːthípàtai/
		/pìtaː/ + /ʔàthíppàtai/
		father-sovereignty
		'patriarchy'
	(16) อรรถาภิ ธาน	/ʔàtthǎːphíthaːn/
		/ʔàth/ + /ʔàphíthaːn/
		content-glossary
		'thesaurus'
	(2.3) 16.12% of ABD blends are formed with a full word and a final splinter,
	which is similar to (2.1), but the pronunciation of the first source is changed when it is joined
	with the final splinter of the second source word. Consider the examples below:
	(17) จั นทรุ ปราคา		จั นทร์ + อุ ปราคา
	/tɕāntárúpàraːkaː/	/tɕān/ + /ʔúpàrāːkāː/
			the moon-darkening
			'lunar eclipse'

(2.2) 16.12% of ABD blends are formed with a full word and a final splinter, which is similar to (2.1), but there is an insertion of /aː/ between the first source word and the final splinter of the second source word, as shown in the given example below:

Table 6 .

 6 5: Distribution of segment overlap in the Thai lexical blends

	Type of overlap

Table 6

 6

	.6: Correlation between patterns of shortening and segment
	overlap in Thai blends
	Type of shortening	Number of blends with segment overlap	%
	AD type	0/16	00/43.24
	ABD type	2/16	5.40/43.24
	ACD type	3/3	8.11/8.11
	others (3 elements: ABDF, ABCDF)	0/2	00/5.41

Table 6

 6 Table6.7 shows that the split point of the source words in Thai lexical blends occurs at the syllable boundary and at the onset-nucleus boundary. When looking at the split point of source words in Thai lexical blends, it is remarkable that Thai favor two patterns of phonological split points in similar proportions (51% of syllable boundary and 49% of onset-

	.7: Distribution of split points regarding the type of phonological
	boundary
	Location of the split point	Frequency	%
	Syllable boundary	25	51.02
	Onset-nucleus boundary	24	48.98
	Total	49	100

coda boundary). See the examples below:

at a syllable boundary:

(27) /tùlaːkaːn/ (in /tùlaːthíppàtai/): /tù.laː.kaːn/ (28) /ʔànúkrom/ (in /sǎːraːnúkrom/): /ʔà.nú.krom/

Table 6

 6 this study are relational, with a head element that conveys the main meaning, and a non-head element that modifies or describes its relation in certain aspects to the head.There is only one Thai blend which is attributive, as displayed below:

	.8: Distribution of semantic heads and semantic relations
	Number of heads	Semantic relation	Number	Percent
	Two heads	Coordinate	4	10.81%
	One head	Subordinate	33	89.19%
	Headless		0	0%
		Total	62	100%
	6.2.3.2 Subordinate blends
	Table 6.8 shows that 89.19% of lexical blends in Thai have one head, that they are

subordinate due to the fact that one of the source words functions as the head of the blend.

Within the category of subordinate blends, the head denotes the main meaning while the non-head element encodes a relation to the head. The Thai subordinate lexical blends examined in

Table 6

 6 were examined, and it was found that Thai coordinate blends are attested in only one category, that of additional blend to represent the instance denoting the addition of the two parts. Hybrid, polyvalence, and tautology blends could not be found.

	.10: Distribution of the semantic categorization of coordinate
	blends
	Types	Number	Percent
	Hybrid	0	0
	Addition	4	100
	Polyvalence	0	0
	Tautology	0	0
		4	100

Table 6

 6

.11 shows that all Thai blends are fully transparent i.e., both source words are interpreted literally, as in the blend /sǔnjaːkaːt/ 'airless' (< sǔnja 'empty' + /ʔaːkaːt/ 'air'), and the blend /sĭnlápaːkaːn/ 'art house' (< /sĭnlápà/ 'art' + /ʔaːkaːn/ 'building').

Table 7 .

 7 1: Lexical categories of the outputs of blending in English

	Lexical category of the output		Frequency	%
	noun	netizen	net + citizen	91	91
	adjective	skeezy	skeevy + sleazy	4	4
	verb	chillax	chill + relax	3	3
	adverb	automagically automatically + magically	1	1
	pronoun	zir	ze + hir	1	1
			Total	100	100%

Table 7

 7 Table 7.3: Distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening

	.2: Lexical categories of the inputs
	Lexical category of the input	Blends	Source words	Frequency	%
	noun + noun	banoffi	banana + toffee	72	72
	adjective + noun	intertext	intermediate + text	11	11
	noun + adjective	babelicious	babe + delicious	5	5

Table 7 .

 7 5: Number of blends with segment overlap

	Type of shortening	Number of blends with segment overlap
	AD type	20/39	32.26%
	AC type	1/5	1.62%
	ABD type	26/33	41.94%
	ACD type	11/15	17.75%
	Haplologic blending	4/4	6.46%
	Sandwich blending	0/1	0%
	Other	0/2	0%
	Total	62	100%

Table 7

 7 Regarding Table7.6, it can be seen that the majority of English blends seem to prefer syllable boundary splits, which shows the highest percentage, followed by onset-nucleus splits. It is remarkable that English seems to disprefer nucleus-coda splits. See some examples below:

		.6: Distribution of phonological split points
		Location of the split point	Number	%
	Syllable boundary	44	68.76
	Onset-nucleus boundary	19	29.69
	Nucleus-coda boundary	1	1.57
		Total	64	100
	-	at a syllable boundary:
		hooligan (in hoolivan): /ˈhuː.lɪ.ɡən/
		landlord (in slumlord): /ˈlaend.lɔːd/
		camera (in camcorder): /ˈkaem.rə/
	-at an onset-nucleus boundary:
		goat (in geep): /ɡəʊt/

Table 7

 7

	.7: Distribution of the number of semantic heads and the
	semantic relation
	Number of heads	Semantic relation Number	Percent
	Two heads	Coordinate	11	11%
	One head	Subordinate	89	89%
	Headless		0	0%

Table 7 .

 7 8: Distribution of the position of the head of subordinate blends Coordinate blends are those blends whose elements can be interpreted as being at the same hierarchical level, can be joined by 'and', in a similar fashion to coordinate compounds. Both source words are the semantic heads, and they convey the meaning equally. In the present study, there are 11% of coordinate blends. Within this class, blends can be divided into 3 groups based on the lexical categories of the inputs: 1) noun-noun units, 2) adjectiveadjective units, and verb-verb units, as presented in Table7.9.

	Subordinate blends	Number	Percent
	Right-headed		76	85.40
	Left-headed		13	14.60
	Total		89	100%
	Some examples are presented below:
	Subordinate right-headed blends
	computeracy	computer + literacy	knowledge of or experience in
				computing
	sexcapade	sex + escapade		a sexual escapade
	skyjack	sky + hijack		to hijack an airplane
	Subordinate left-headed blends
	advertorial	advertisement + editorial	an advertisement written in the form
				of an editorial, which purportedly
				provides objective information about
				a commercial or industrial subject

Table 7

 7 While looking at the figurative and literal meaning interpretations in lexical blends, different subtypes are usually distinguished. As the analysis of Thai blends (see Chapter 6) has shown, blends are classified into four fundamental types: transparent, head-transparent, non-head transparent, and fully figurative/opaque. This classification is also used to analyze English lexical blends in order to detect different degrees of opacification. The distribution of four types is presented in Table7.11.

	.10: Distribution of the semantic categorization of coordinate
	blends.
	Types	Number	%
	Hybrid	6	85.71
	Addition	1	14.29
	Polyvalence	0	0
	Tautology	0	0
		7	100

Based on this categorization, all noun-noun units are hybrid blends. None of other categories are found. It can be obviously seen that English blends prefer a hybrid concept which iconically denotes a mix of two entities. See some examples below:

Table 8

 8

	.2: Lexical categories of the outputs of blending in Thai and
	English
		Thai	English
	Lexical category of the output
		(%)	(%)
	noun	89	91
	adjective	3	4
	verb	8	3
	adverb	0	1
	pronoun	0	1
	Total	100	100

Table 8 .

 8 3 The lexical categories of the inputs

		Thai	English
	Lexical category of the input
		(%)	(%)
	noun + noun	62	72
	adjective + noun	11	11

Table 8

 8

	.4: Distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening of binary
	blends
		Thai	English
	Type of shortening
		(%)	(%)
	AD type	43	39
	AC type	0	5
	ABD type	43	33
	ACD type	9	16
	haplology	0	4
	sandwich	0	1
	others	5	2
	Total	100	100

Table 8 .

 8 5: Distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening of three-

	element blends
		Thai	English
	Type of shortening
		(%)	(%)
	ABDF	2.85	0
	ABCDF	2.85	0

Table 8

 8 .g. edu*tainment -edu.ca.tion + en.ter.tain.ment), whereas Thai AD blends prefer the onset-nucleus boundary (e.g. /tɕintàn*aːkaːn/ 'imagination' -/tɕin.tà.na/ 'to imagine' + /ʔaː.kaːn/ 'action'). This is because of the role of Pali and Sanskrit languages that

	.6: Distribution of the segment of overlap in Thai and English
	blends
		Thai	English
	Type of overlap
		(%)	(%)
	graphic-cum-phonic	14	47
	graphic only	0	12
	phonic only	0	3
		14	62

Table 8

 8

	.8: Correlation between split points and patterns of lexical
	shortening
	Location of split points	Languages	Patterns of shortening AD AC ABD ACD ACB Other	Total
	at a syllable	Thai	11	0	16	2	0	3	25 (51%)
	boundary	English	35	7	12	3	0	0	43 (67%)
	at an onset-nucleus	Thai	14	0	2	0	0	0	24 (49%)
	boundary	English	13	0	1	2	1	0	19 (30%)
	at a nucleus-coda	Thai	0
	boundary

Table 8 .

 8 9: Distribution of the number of semantic heads and types of

	semantic relation
			Thai	English
	Number of heads	Semantic relation
			(%)	(%)
	One head	Subordinate	89	89
	Two heads	Coordinate	11	11
	Headless		0	0
		Total	100	100

Table 8 .

 8 10: Distribution of the position of the head in subordinate

	blends
		Thai	English
	Subordinate blends
		(%)	(%)
	Right-headed	100	85
	Left-headed	00	15
	Total	100	100

Table 8 .

 8 11: Examples of English left-headed blends

	Blends	Source words	Input	Lexical shortening
	floptical	floppy + optical	N-ADJ	AD
	ribozyme	ribonucleic + enzyme	N-N	AD
	phablet	phone + tablet	N-N	AD
	automagically	automatically + magically	ADV-ADV	ACD

Table 8

 8

	.13: Distribution of the semantic categorization of coordinate
	blends
	Types	Thai	English
	Hybridity	0	7
	Addition	4	4
	Polyvalence	0	0
	Tautology	0	0
	Total	4	11

Table 8 .

 8 14 Distribution of semantic transparency of source words

		Thai	English
	Semantic transparency
		(%)	(%)
	fully transparent	100	89
	head-transparent only	0	1
	non-head transparent only	0	9
	fully figurative	0	1
	Total	100	100

Table 8 .

 8 14 shows that all Thai blends are fully transparent (e.g. /sĭn.lá.paː.kaːn/ 'art house' < /sĭnlápà/ 'art' + /ʔaːkaːn/ 'building'), and the vast majority of lexical blends in English are transparent too (e.g. vegelate < vegetable + chocolate), i.e. they convey the meaning directly from each source word, and show the transparency of both of source words. When comparing the proportions in the two languages, a remarkable contrast appears. Thai has a larger number of transparent blends than English does because all Thai lexical blends are fused with only transparent source words. On the contrary, in the English data set, even

	though non-transparent elements are somewhat rare in English, all four types are
	represented:
	1. transparent:
	urgicenter	(urgent + head center)

Table 9

 9

	.2: Semantic classification of compounding and lexical blending
	in Thai
	Semantic classification	Percentage in compounding Percentage in blending
	Subordinate units	97.89	83
	Coordinate units	2.10	11
	Right-headed units	2.86	86
	Left-headed units	97.13	14
	Headless units	3.60	6
	Transparent units	57.95	100
	Figurative units	42.04	0

  Consider the following examples: Blending usually becomes the preferred choice over compounding when English loans in law or jurisprudence are coined by the lexicographers of the Royal Institute Dictionary. 35% of the lexical blends in the data set can be categorized as law terms, which are primarily coined in Thai using Pali and Sanskrit words through blending. Consider the

	advertainment 3. following examples:	โฆษณาบั นเทิ ง /kôtsànaː.bantɤːŋ/ /kôtsànaː/ + /bantɤːŋ/ to advertise-entertainment
	ตุ ลาธิ ปไตย infomercial	/tùlaːthíppàtai/ สาระโฆษณา
	ตุ ลาการภิ วั ฒน์ /tùlaːkaːn/ + /ʔàthíppàtai/ /tù.lāː.phi.wát/ /sǎːrá.kôtsànaː/
	/tù.lāː.kāːn/ + /ʔà.phí.wát/ /sǎːrá/ + /kôtsànaː/ judge-sovereignty ตุ ลาการ Pali + อภิ วั ฒน์ Sanskrit 'judicial activism' information-to advertise
				judge-advancement
	ปิ ตาธิ ปไตย	/pìtaːthípàtai/	'judicialization'
	/pìtaː/ + /ʔàthíppàtai/ /khô.sà.nāː.kaːn/ โฆษณาการ father-sovereignty
	โฆษณา Sanskrit + อาการ Pali 'patriarchy'	/khô.sà.nāː/ + /ʔaː.kaːn/
				to advertise-action
	โลกาภิ วั ตน์	/loː.kāː.phí.wát/	'advertisement'
		/lôːk/ + /ʔà.phí.wát/
	2. When two input words of Thai or other foreign origin, like English and Chinese, are
	combined, compounding is favored. Consider the following examples: world-advancement
		'globalization'
	กล้ องดิ จิ ตอล 4. Remarkably, in the Royal Institute Dictionary, some common English blends were /klôŋ.di.tɕi.tɔn/
	translated into Thai, but the equivalents are compounds. This plainly indicates that blending
	กล้ อง Thai + ดิ จิ ตอล English /klôŋ/ + /di.tɕi.tɔn/ is far from being a common word-formation technique in Thai, as it can be in English. Some
	examples are shown below:	box-digital
			'a digital camera'
	infotainment	สาระบั นเทิ ง
	ค่ าแป๊ ะเจี A ยะ	/khà.pɛ ː.tɕía/ /sǎːrá.bantɤːŋ/
	/sǎːrá/ + / bantɤːŋ/ ค่ า Thai + แป๊ ะเจี A ยะ Chinese /khàː/ + /pɛ ː.tɕía/ information-entertainment
			cost + additional charges
			'tea money'

Table 9

 9

	.3: Semantic classification of compounding and lexical blending
	in English
	Semantic classification	Compounding	Blending
	Subordinate units	98.56	89
	Coordinate units	1.61	10

PFX is used as an abbreviation of the word 'PREFIX'.

SFX is used as an abbreviation of the word 'SUFFIX'.

In Thai, all letters are read individually with the unmarked vowel /ɔː/ such as /kɔː/ for /k/, /khɔː/ for /kh/, and so on.

Kathin is the name of the yellow robe offered to the monks. Thai people usually travel to the temples before Buddhist Lent Day to offer kathins to the monks, for them to use during the rainy season.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincerest gratitude and appreciation to a number of individuals who have contributed significantly to my study.

Semantic Classification of English Compound Nouns

In English, there is a wide range of possible semantic relations between the elements of compound nouns. The classification first relies on the existence or non-existence of a hierarchical relation between the constituents of the compound, which corresponds to two possible relations: subordination and coordination.

As with the analysis of Thai compound nouns, the classification argued for by [START_REF] Arnaud | [END_REF] was adopted for a semantic classification of nominal compounding, except for headless compounds, which are described in Chapter 3, Section 3.3. For subordinate compounds, two subclasses are distinguished: attributive compounds and relational compounds. The distribution of types of compound nouns in Thai is shown in Table 4.5.

Chapter 5

A Comparison of Nominal Compounding in

Thai and English

Chapter 6

Lexical blending in Thai

Chapter 6

Lexical blending in Thai

This chapter describes how lexical blends are created in Thai. The analysis is based on 37 blended words (from a corpus of 37,104 new words) which have been collected manually from the three volumes of The Royal Institute Dictionary of New words, which were published in 2007, 2009 and 2011, and the Royal Institute Dictionary of Coined Words (Neogism), an online version available since 2019. These two dictionaries were published by Office of the Royal Society, which is responisble for the Royal Thai Dictionary (i.e., the official dictionary of Thailand). I intended to use the three volumes of The Royal Thai

Dictionary of New words for data collection, as they were used for nominal compounds in Thai in Chapter 3, but only four lexical blends were found, which was not adequate for a proper analysis of the phenomenon. Consequently, I decided to collect more blends from the Royal Institute Dictionary of Coined Words (Neologisms), which is available only online.

In this chapter, 37 lexical blends are analyzed in order to provide a detailed study of their main formal and semantic characteristics.

Defining and collecting lexical blends

Like compounding, blending is the combination of two separate forms to produce a new single complex unit, but blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word, like in some words in English such as gasohol (gasoline + alcohol), motel (motor + hotel), and telecast (television + broadcast).

Some blends also combine the beginning of both words like telex (teleprinter + exchange)

and modem (modulator + demodulator) [START_REF] Yule | The Study of Language[END_REF]. In the Thai language, as described in Chapter 2, generally in traditional grammar there are three different patterns to form blends based on the word formation processes of Pali and Sanskrit: 1) clipping the vowels of both source words, 2) clipping the consonants of both source words, and 3) clipping a nikhahit '(º)' with a change of a final sound /ŋ/. However, only the first pattern has been applied and found in Thai in the previous studies. The second and the third cases are extremely rare in modern Thai (Prasinrattasin, 2011).

In this study, blending is defined as a word formation process which involves the combination of two or more lexemes with the loss of some phonic and/or graphic material

Chapter 7

Lexical Blending in English Blending involves shortening to merge at least two source words so that only part of their orthographical and/or phonological material is kept. Blends result from the application of the shortening of at least one of the source forms, either through simple clipping or through a haplologic combination of the shortened source forms. The distribution of the various types of lexical shortening are illustrated in Table 7.3, on the basis of the symbolization adopted by Plag (2018: 121), where A and B respectively represent the left-hand and right-hand part of the first source element, and C and D the left-hand and right-hand part of the second source element.

Segment overlap

Segment overlap occurs when a segment in a blend is shared by different source words, which can be sourced from either input word [START_REF] Renner | French and English lexical blends in contrast[END_REF]. Following the analysis by [START_REF] Renner | French and English lexical blends in contrast[END_REF], there are three different types of segment overlap:

-graphic-cum-phonic overlap e.g., strimmer (string + trimmer)

-graphic-only overlap e.g., faction (fact + fiction)

-phonic-only overlap e.g., dancercise (dance + exercise)

In the data set, 62% of the blends have overlapping segments, whereas 38% of them have no overlap of the two source words. Table 7.4 shows the distribution of the three types of segment overlap in the 62 blends. In the data set of English blends, it is noticeable that the patterns of lexical shortening vary up to seven patterns, while Thai makes use of only three patterns. The two languages are remarkably dissimilar in so far as the AC type, the sandwich type, and haplologic blending are found in English, but they have not been found in Thai.

In the case of three-element blends, Table 8.5 illustrates the distribution of the patterns of lexical shortening. They form a tiny subgroup in Thai, and they are unattested in English. It is remarkable that, in all cases, the first element (= AB) remains intact, and that deletion in the second and/or third element always occurs on the left-hand-side (i.e. C and/or E).

An overwhelming part of overlap blends in Thai and English display graphic-cum-phonic overlap, which is the default and most common form of overlap.

Patterns of phonological splitting

Following the analysis of phonological splitting in the Thai (Chapter 6, Section 6.2.2.3) and English (Chapter 7, Section 7.2.2.3) data sets, it appears that phonological splitting in both languages comes mainly at two different breakpoints: at a syllable boundary and at an onsetnucleus boundary. Things are remarkably similar in the two languages, except for a small minority of phonological split points in English, as displayed in Table 8.7. Table 8.7 shows some similarity in the two languages, with a majority of source words in lexical blends favoring the split point located at a syllable boundary. Thai blends differ, however, from English units in that nucleus-coda, and inside-complex-nucleus splits are not attested.

Even though Thai and English have the same two main types of phonological split points shown in Table 8.7, English seems to prefer cutting of at syllabic constituency of the blend inputs more than Thai does, but the split points in Thai blends occur at an onset-nucleus boundary more frequently than in English because the first elements of Thai AD blends usually end in a vowel phoneme (the optimal syllable structure is CV in Thai while it is CVC in English).

When looking at the behaviors of the different types of lexical shortening and the split points of lexical blends which did not manifest segment overlap in the two languages, as displayed in Table 8.8, the most significant contrast is that English AD blends favor the syllable

Chapter 9

The Competition between Compounding and

Lexical Blending in Thai and English

Chapter 9

The Competition between Compounding and Lexical Blending in Thai and English

This chapter looks at the competition between compounding and lexical blending in Thai and English based on four data sets of examined units (Thai nominal compounds in Chapter 3, English nominal compounds in Chapter 4, Thai lexical blends in Chapter 6, and English lexical blends in Chapter 7). According to the data collection, it can be seen that the number of compounds in the two languages is much higher than that of lexical blends if one compares the number of words collected from the dictionaries in the data sets. However, there are some operations of word-formation that can be explored from a competitive standpoint, putting compounding and lexical blending in the two languages face to face.

Compounding and lexical blending in Thai

Compounding and blending in Thai are both considered as creating a complex word on the basis of at least two words. The first striking difference between the two processes is that compounding is very productively used in Thai to combine words through a simple The process of blending seems to be less productive than compounding in Thai. It can be claimed that lexical blending in Thai is considered a complication as it is a word-formation process borrowed from Pali and Sanskrit languages, two dead languages, in which the rules of shortening and vowel adaptation are complex and not mastered by many Thai speakers.

However, in the data set of Thai lexical blends which were added to the Royal Institute Dictionary (RID) lately in 2017, it seems that the restriction to Pali and Sanskrit languages was ignored, as described in Chapter 5. Lexical blends are created in different ways, focusing more on the generic characteristic features of blending, which are modelled after those of English, such as segment overlap (e.g. /siː.rîat/ 'serious' + /krîat/ 'stressful' > /siː.krîat/ 'serious and stressful').

The process of blending seems to be much less productive than compounding in Thai if one compares the number of words collected in the data set (333 compounds and 37 lexical blends). In the Thai language data set, the number of compounds is more than ten times as high as that of lexical blends (333 nominal compounds versus 37 blends), but from a competitive standpoint it is interesting to investigate the competitive features between compounding and blending in Thai. The discussion can involve different levels: formal similarity, semantic similarity, and also other factors that enhance the chance of one operation winning over the other.

Formal considerations of compounding versus lexical blending in Thai

When looking at the level of formal similarity between the two input words of compounds and blends, the number of inputs, the number of syllables, the syllabic structures, the shared segments, and the stress patterns do not seem to play any major role on the onomasiological choice of one operation over the other. However, there are some issues that can be discussed as follows:

1. Regarding the number of inputs, compounding can include up to five elements while only very few blends involve three elements, and not more. Table 9.1 shows the distribution of the number of elements of compounds and lexical blends in Thai. The position of the head can canonically be found on the left. Very few units have their heads on the right. The number of transparent compounds is high, but interestingly many compound nouns exist in Thai where one of the elements is used metaphorically or metonymically while the other remains literal; in addition, the number of opaque compound nouns where both elements are not interpreted literally is remarkably high.

(2) Compounding is a very productive means of creating new words in English, a language for which it is intricate to form nominal compounding as it is constrained by rules such as orthography, stress, and specific types of adjective that the compounds may consist of, and (attributive compounds and relational compounds), and coordinative compounds. In English, the position of the head can be found canonically on the right; English also allows the leftmost element to function as the semantic head. The number of transparent compounds is higher than that of opaque ones, which have gone through a process of figurativeness involving either metonymy or metaphor. There is also the mixture of literal and figurative elements as certain compound nouns show the transparency of the head member and the opacity of the non-head member while some other compound nouns display the opacity of the head element and the transparency of the non-head member.

(3) The comparison of nominal compounding in Thai and English shows a number of marked dissimilarities between the two languages. Thai compound nouns can be distinguished from English compound nouns to the extent that they typically display more varied types of patterns, both in terms of number of elements (up to five) and of combination of lexical patterns (using a wider number of non-nouns). Thai compounds can also be characterized by a stronger external influence than is the case for English: they can contain many foreign elements (primarily from Pali and Sanskrit) and adopt patterns that are not displayed natively (like right-head structuring). In spite of their differences, it was found that Thai and English share a number of basic constructions: N-N, N-ADJ, N-ADV, V-N, V-V.

Semantically, Thai and English both make use of the two main types of nominal compounding: subordinate compounds and coordinate compounds. Noticeably, the