Blandine Ginon

Le Vinh Thai

Stéphanie Jean-Daubias

Marie Lefevre

Pierre-Antoine Champin

Adding epiphytic assistance systems in learning applications using the SEPIA system

Keywords: User assistance, epiphytic approach, generic models

In this paper, we present how the SEPIA system can be used to plug pedagogical and technical assistance systems in applications used by learners in an educational context. The SEPIA system consists in two main tools: an assistance editor that enables assistance designers to specify the assistance they wish for existing applications, and a generic assistance engine that executes the specified assistance in order to provide the application end-users with personalized assistance. We also present an experimentation of an assistance system setup with SEPIA in the context of a bachelor degree.

Introduction

In the educational context, more and more applications are used, whether they are specifically dedicated to learning, the ILEs (Interactive Learning Environment), or other software used as material of a learning activity. The acquisition of knowledge by learners can nevertheless be compromised by difficulties of handling and use of the application. Adding an assistance system, suitable to both the application and the activity pedagogical goals, is a solution to face these difficulties and prevent the user from abandoning or under-exploiting the application and losing motivation [START_REF] Gapenne | Defining categories of the human/technology coupling: theroretical and methodological issues[END_REF].

The work presented in this paper is in the context of the AGATE project in which we have developed the SEPIA system (cf. Section 2.2). With the SEPIA system, assistance designers can add assistance systems to existing applications. This paper aims to present how the SEPIA system can be used to setup assistance systems for applications used in an educational context.

First, we present the AGATE project, its theoretical propositions and their implementation in the SEPIA system. Then, we present the actors and applications concerned by assistance in an educational context, before identifying the needs to which such assistance should answer. Finally, we explain how SEPIA can be used in the educational context and we detail the experimentation that we performed. We conclude by discussing the strengths and weaknesses of our propositions for assistance to learners, comparing them with other approaches.

Epi-assistance

This research work takes place in the context of the AGATE project (Approach for Genericity in Assistance To complEx tasks). It aims at proposing generic models and unified tools to make possible the setup of assistance systems in various existing applications, that we call target-applications. This project adopts a fully generic and epiphytic approach [START_REF] Paquette | Epitalk, a generic tool for the development of advisor systems[END_REF]. An epiphytic application, that we call epi-application, is an application able to perform actions in a third-party application without requiring any change to it. Thus, the functioning of an epiphytic assistance system doesn't disturb the functioning of the target-application. The models and tools proposed in the AGATE project are not specific to an application or to a domain, but on the contrary they can be used to setup assistance in a wide range of applications, without a need for these target-applications to have been designed specifically to enable the plug of assistance.

State of the art of epi-assistance approaches

Several authors have studied the a posteriori specification of assistance systems for existing target-applications. The approaches of [START_REF] Paquette | TELOS: A Service-Oriented Framework to Support Learning and Knowledge Management[END_REF] and [START_REF] Dufresne | ExploraGraph: A Flexible and Adaptive Interface to Support Distance Learning[END_REF] make possible the plugging of an advisor system in a scenario from the Telos and ExploraGraph environments respectively. These advisor systems are defined by an assistance designer through a set of rules of the form <trigger event, trigger condition, assistance action, end event>. The trigger condition can include a consultation of the user profile and of the assistance history in order to contextualize the assistance. The proposed assistance actions are textual messages displayed in a pop-up for Telos, and animations or messages conveyed by an animated agent for Exploragraph. The approach proposed by [START_REF] Richard | Enhancing the adaptivity of an existing Website with an epiphyte recommender system[END_REF] and by the CAMELEON model [START_REF] Carlier | Educational webportals augmented by mobile devices with iFrimousse architecture[END_REF] make possible the plugging of an advisor system in a Web application, in order to trigger assistance actions when the end-user clicks on a link. The proposed actions are textual messages displayed in a pop-up, which can contain links to a Web page or to resources related to the assistance for [START_REF] Richard | Enhancing the adaptivity of an existing Website with an epiphyte recommender system[END_REF], or an animated agent able to move, perform animations and display messages for [START_REF] Carlier | Educational webportals augmented by mobile devices with iFrimousse architecture[END_REF].

Nevertheless, these different approaches cannot be used in any application. Indeed, they are specific to a given environment or to Web applications. In the context of the AGATE project, we are interested in the a posteriori plugging of assistance systems to very diverse existing target-applications. What's more, we would like to make possible a fine-grained personalization of the assistance, according to the user profile and to the assistance history, like in Telos and Exploragraph, but also according to the user's past actions, not only the browsing history as in [START_REF] Richard | Enhancing the adaptivity of an existing Website with an epiphyte recommender system[END_REF], and according to the state of the target-application. Finally, to make possible a wider personalization of the assistance, we would like to propose a large choice of assistance actions.

2.2

Propositions: process, language and system to add epi-assistance

The AGATE project leads to several propositions that we present in this section: the adjunction process of epi-assistance systems in existing target-applications, the aLDEAS language that enables the definition of various assistance systems and the SEPIA system that implements these theoretical propositions.

Adjunction process of epi-assistance systems

Figure 1 shows our adjunction process of epi-assistance systems organized in two phases: the assistance specification and the assistance execution in an epiphytic way.

The assistance specification is performed by an expert of the target-application, called the assistance designer. This preparatory phase enables the designer to specify the assistance that he wishes for a given target-application, expressed as a set of assistance rules. For this purpose, he must provide a description of the target-application interface in order to make possible the setup of an assistance that seems integrated in this application but executed in an epiphytic way. Then, the designer has to define the assistance rules that describe the behavior that the assistance system will have during the assistance execution.

The assistance execution concerns the target-application end-users. It consists in the execution of the assistance wished by the designer; it occurs at any use of the target-application by an end-user. This phase is composed of three processes: the monitoring of the target-application, the identification of an assistance need and the elaboration of an answer suitable to this need.

Figure 1 : Adjunction process of epi-assistance systems

The monitoring of the target-application is performed continuously while the user uses the target-application. It uses a set of epi-detectors (which are described in more detail in [START_REF] Ginon | Collecting traces in a Windows application , workshop EXPPORT[END_REF]) based on accessibility libraries that enable the access to all components of an application and the subscription to different kinds of events on these components. This process enables the epi-assistance system to get all information related to the interactions between the user, the target-application and the assistance system without disturbing the functioning of the target-application. The assistance system is aware of any user's low level action (like clicks, mouse movements, menu openings or item selections). This process uses the description of the target-application interface, built during the specification of the assistance, in order to identify the source component of each low level event. Indeed, knowing only the type (click, keystroke) of the user's action is not enough: it is much more informative for the assistance system to know precisely on which button the user clicked, over which image he moved the mouse pointer, etc., as in our proposition. While it is not the topic of this paper, let us stress the fact that the assistance designer could couple SEPIA to a trace management system [START_REF] Zarka | TStore: A Trace-Base Management System using Finite-State Transducer Approach for Trace Transformation[END_REF] for combining low-level actions into higher level actions (e.g. filling a form or correcting red-eyes on a photo) that could in turn be used to trigger assistance rules.

The identification of an assistance need is performed when the monitoring process detects an event: it uses the assistance description made by the designer. More precisely, an assistance need is identified by a rule whose trigger event has just been detected by the monitoring process and whose trigger conditions are satisfied. In this case, the elaboration of an answer is launched.

The elaboration of an answer to the user's need uses the assistance description to trigger one or several assistance actions in the target-application with an epiphytic approach. This process also implements the personalization of the assistance according to the assistance designers' wishes. Indeed, the launched assistance actions can differ from a user to another according to his specificities, like his preferences for instance. The assistance actions are performed in the target-application by epiassistants.

The aLDEAS language

aLDEAS (a Language to Define Epi-Assistance Systems) is a language that enables the definition of assistance systems as a set of rules. This language is the core of the adjunction process of epi-assistance systems described above: it enables the designer to define the wished assistance during the assistance specification phase, and it is used during the assistance execution through its implementation. aLDEAS is constituted of different types of components that can be combined to create assistance rules and actions, in order to answer the most various needs. The main elements of aLDEAS are event waits, consultations and assistance actions.

An event wait causes the execution to pause until the occurrence of the given event. An event can concern a user's action (like a click on a given button), an action of the assistance system (like the triggering of a given assistance rule), an absence of event (like an absence of click during a given duration), or the performing of a "highlevel" task (like the red-eyes correction on a photo).

Consultations fetch information in order to personalize and contextualize the assistance. Thus, the triggering of an assistance action can depend on information relative to the user's past actions (his traces), to his choices, to the state of the targetapplication (in order for instance to know the content of a text field, or which item is selected in a combo box) and to his profile. The user profiles used in the AGATE project can contain any information found relevant by the assistance designer in order to personalize the assistance. It can contain in particular information on the user's preferences regarding assistance, or his skills in the target-application. For space reasons, how the user profile is constructed is not discussed in this paper.

Finally, aLDEAS provides a large choice of assistance actions: messages, component enhancements, automated actions on the target-application, proposition of external resources (like demonstration videos, forums or course materials), etc.

The SEPIA system

The SEPIA system implements these theoretical propositions through two main tools: an assistance editor and a generic assistance engine.

The assistance editor implements the assistance specification phase of the adjunction process of epi-assistance systems (cf. Figure 1). It provides assistance designers with a graphical interface for defining the assistance that they wish for a targetapplication, through a set of rules complying with the aLDEAS language.

The generic assistance engine implements the assistance execution phase of adjunction process of epi-assistance systems. It provides end-users with personalized assistance according to the rules defined by the designer.

The generic engine is completed by a set of epi-detectors that enables the targetapplication monitoring [START_REF] Ginon | Collecting traces in a Windows application , workshop EXPPORT[END_REF]. Currently, three epi-detectors have been developed: for Windows native applications, for Java applications and for Web applications.

Finally, the generic engine manages a set of epi-assistants that can perform assistance actions in the target-application at the request of the engine. The epi-assistants that we have developed can perform the assistance actions proposed by aLDEAS. In particular, they can display or read messages, enhance a component of the targetapplication interface, display an animated agent able to move on the screen, to express itself textually, orally, or by gestures and animations (for instance, the Merlin companion can applause and say "Well done, we succeeded!"). Some epi-assistants are also able to perform actions on the target-application interface, for instance to automatically click on a button, set text in a text field or select an item in a combo box.

aLDEAS also provides a set of patterns in order to facilitate the combination of aLDEAS elements, especially a pattern for assistance rules with the form <trigger event, optional condition, assistance actions, optional end-event>.

Assistance in an educational context

We wish to use the SEPIA system to setup epi-assistance systems in an educational context. More particularly, we would like to enable teachers to specify an assistance system for each target-application used by learners.

3.1

Which actors are concerned?

In an educational context, the assistance designer is a pedagogical designer that wishes to plug an assistance system in an application that has no assistance or an assistance which is incomplete or unsuitable to his needs. The pedagogical designer can be a teacher or a pedagogical team, eventually assisted by a computer scientist or an expert of the target-application. The concerned end-users are the learners.

Another use of the SEPIA in the educational context could be the plugging of an assistance system by an assistance designer in a tool aimed at teachers as end-users, for example an authoring tool or a teaching assistant, but it is out of the scope of this paper.

Which applications are concerned?

There are two main categories of applications used in an educational context: the ILEs and the other software used with a pedagogical goal. Both can be concerned by the adjunction of an epi-assistance system.

An ILE is an application that is specifically intended for learning. Otherwise, a "non-pedagogical" application, i.e. an application not specifically intended for learning, can also be used in the educational context. First, a pedagogical activity can aim at the discovery of an application. For instance, a company can organize a course to train its employees to use an application that they need in their work, like an Enterprise Resource Planning or Computer-Aided Design application. Some courses for the general public may also aim at teaching how to use a tool, like image editing applications or office applications.

Furthermore, learning how to use a "non-pedagogical" application is not the only pedagogical activity that may require the use of that application. A teacher can ask his students to use Word in order to learn how to present official letters in an office course, or to use Excel in order to learn algebra [START_REF] Ritter | Towards lightweight tutoring agents[END_REF]. A tutor in a foreign language can also ask his course participants to use a sound recording application in order to improve their pronunciation. In these contexts, the non-mastery of the software used as course material can slow down the acquisition of the involved knowledge.

Finally, in some cases, the goals of a pedagogical activity can be about both application-related knowledge and domain knowledge. For instance, in a computer science course, a teacher can require his students to use a given IDE (Integrated Development Environment), such as NetBeans or Visual Studio, to perform exercises in order to learn how to use the environment and to acquire programming skills.

3.3

What are the assistance needs?

The identification of the assistance needs is a key task for the specification of an assistance system. Thanks to a bibliographic study and to a study of existing assistance systems, we identified the main assistance needs of learners that use applications in an educational context (cf. Table 1). These needs are of two kinds: technical (T1 and T2) or pedagogical (P1 to P10). In this section, we illustrate these assistance needs with examples coming from research works. 1). They can also face difficulties in later uses of an application (T2), particularly in case of occasional use, or discovery of a new functionality. In general, these technical difficulties don't directly concern the knowledge to be taught and can also occur in a non-educational context. Nevertheless, they can prevent or slow down the acquisition of the involved knowledge or cause the learner to give up the pedagogical activity.

Learners

The setup of an assistance system to answer these technical assistance needs is one solution to face these difficulties. More particularly, in the educational context, such assistance systems prevent learners from losing time or motivation because of technical difficulties. What's more, in classrooms, a technical assistance system can make the learners more autonomous and thus enable the teacher to reduce his technical interventions in order to concentrate himself on the pedagogical aspects.

Pedagogical assistance needs

In addition to the technical assistance needs, learners that use an application in an educational context can face difficulties to which a pedagogical assistance could answer. The goal of a pedagogical assistance is not necessarily to enable a learner to finish correctly and quickly a pedagogical activity. To provide the solution to a learner seems not pertinent. However, some kinds of pedagogical assistance can be considered as pertinent by the teacher in order to facilitate the acquisition of the involved knowledge.

It is the case of the assistance for the choice of a pedagogical activity (P1), in particular when this choice is done by the pedagogical designer in a personalized way for each learner [START_REF] Lefevre | An approach for unified personalization of learning[END_REF]. The help to acquire prerequisites (P2) can be useful to suggest to a learner to perform other activities (like exercises or courses) in order to help him in an activity for which he doesn't master all the prerequisites. For instance, the system ELM-ART [START_REF] Brusilovsky | ELM-ART: An intelligent tutoring system on World Wide Web[END_REF] presents to the learner links towards prerequisite concepts if he has never learnt or could not master them. Explanations on the steps to follow (P3) to perform an activity can be interesting to guide a learner and make him acquire methodology. For instance, in training mode, Aplusix [1] explains the steps of algebra problems solving upon request of the learner. Providing a learner with clues (P4, like in Aplusix) or examples (P5, like in Ambre-add [START_REF] Nogry | AMBRE-add: An ITS to Teach Solving Arithmetic Word Problems[END_REF]) can also facilitate the solving of the activity, the acquisition of the involved knowledge, as well as motivate the learner. The transitional diagnosis (P6) is useful to confirm to the learner that what he did is correct or to inform him that he did mistakes. Explanations on errors (P7) can be also given in order to help the learner to understand his mistakes. For instance, while Aplusix can only indicate that there is an error, Intelligent Tutoring Systems in Mobile Author [START_REF] Virvou | Mobile educational features in authoring tools for personalised tutoring[END_REF] can give explanations on errors. In some cases, it can be relevant to automate a part of the task (P8) without compromising the acquisition of the involved knowledge. For instance, in the case of a difficulty in problem solving, Aplusix allows the sub-tasks automation upon request of the learner. A summary or a monitoring of the activity (P9) shows to the learner what he did and what he still has to do, in order to motivate him. For instance, the Explor@ Advisor Agent [START_REF] Lundgren-Cayrol | Explor@ Advisory Agent: Tracing the Student's Trail[END_REF] displays the student's progression by indicating what has been achieved or completed. Finally, an assistance system can integrate a pedagogical scenario (P10) defined by the teacher and followed by the learner. For instance, OASIS [START_REF] Guéraud | Developing pedagogical simulations: generic and specific authoring approaches[END_REF] allows creating scenarios where learners are assisted step by step in the training mode, or where they try to achieve the final goal in a limited time without any help or feedback, in the evaluation mode.

As a conclusion, an assistance system used in an educational context may, if well designed, answer both technical and pedagogical assistance needs. The assistance provided to a learner must facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, complying with the designer's pedagogical strategy. In the next section, we present how the SEPIA system can be used to setup such assistance systems.

4

Use of SEPIA in an educational context

The SEPIA system has been designed mainly to enable the setup of assistance systems able to answer the technical assistance needs for the users of various targetapplications. Nevertheless, we show in this section that SEPIA can also be used to setup assistance systems suitable to teachers' pedagogical strategies. First, we present examples of assistance systems specified with SEPIA for various applications used in educational contexts. Then, we detail the experimentation that we performed with SEPIA in the context of a bachelor course.

Use of SEPIA for various applications used in an educational context

In French schools, 8 year-old pupils have to acquire skills in using a computer for the B2I diploma [2]. For this reason, primary teachers make them use different tools: some are specifically intended for learning, like the web site "Je Revise", or with a different purpose, like Paint. We have specified an assistance system for "Je Revise" that provides learners with pedagogical assistance and an assistance system for Paint in order to teach learners how to handle an image, which is one of the skills required for the B2I diploma.

Andes [START_REF] Vanlehn | The Andes Physics Tutoring System: Five Years of Evaluations[END_REF] is an Intelligent Tutoring System in physics problem solving. We have created an assistance system for Andes that guides students to choose activities in order to revise for an exam.

In the context of an ILE course in a master of University of Lyon, 20 assistance systems have been specified with SEPIA for a rudimentary ILE created by past students. These assistance systems aimed at helping 7-8 year-old children to discover the solar system using the ILE. Indeed this ILE didn't provide any technical or pedagogical assistance.

We have created an assistance system for CodeBlocks that is used by students in the context of the first algorithmic course of University of Lyon. This assistance system guides students through all the steps of the first practical course.

We have also specified an assistance system to handle the forge (a platform allowing collaborative development) that is used by master students, and to teach them how to use SVN tools in order for instance to manage a project, to create a branch and to solve a conflict.

Experimentation of SEPIA for a HCI course

We have also performed a deeper experimentation of the SEPIA system in an educational context: the setup of an assistance system in the framework of a bachelor degree course in HCI (Human-Computer Interaction), at University of Lyon. During this course, that is not a programming course; students have to design graphical applications, mainly in Java using the NetBeans IDE. However, many students have little experience with NetBeans and in Java programming and teachers notice each semester that students face difficulties that slow down their work, especially for the first course.

For this reason, teachers created demonstration videos available on the course website [5]. They also decided to define a tutorial integrated to NetBeans with SEPIA [6], in order to help volunteer students to discover the IDE and to practice basic exercises during the first course of the semester.

Assistance specification by teachers

In a first step, four assistance designers used the SEPIA assistance editor to specify an assistance system for the target-application NetBeans. This assistance system was a tutorial constituted of five independent parts corresponding to the main students' assistance needs identified by the teachers during the first courses of past semesters: creating a NetBeans project, editing the properties of a NetBeans project, adding and using a button in a form, creating a menu bar and handling GUI events.

Each part of the tutorial contains around 14 assistance rules and 23 assistance actions, mainly of the type assistance messages with explanations or instructions, asso-ciated with an enhancement of the related components in the NetBeans interface. The creation of each part of the tutorial took about 3 hours. Although assistance specification represents a substantial work for teachers, the specified assistance system can be reused in future semesters.

As an example, Figure 2 shows a screen-shot of two assistance actions of the tutorial: a message and an enhancement of the text field "Arguments" in the screen "Project properties" of NetBeans. In this part of the tutorial, students learn how to retrieve and use these arguments in the parameter args[] of the Main function of the project. In this basic exercise, students have to use a string array, a for loop, and they have to cast a string to an integer and display a message in the output.

Assistance execution for students

In a second time, teachers proposed to their volunteer students to use the tutorial at the beginning of the first course. On the 85 students, 64 volunteered to use the tutorial. Because of a lack of available computers with SEPIA assistance, only 52 students were able to participate. The tutorial sessions lasted between 30 and 90 minutes, depending on students. Indeed, students were free to work as they wanted with the tutorial: they could skip a part they deemed uninteresting and spend as much time as they needed on each part.

During the tutorial, students where free to exchange with other students and ask complementary information to teachers. Thus, we observed that some students who decided to skip a part of the tutorial changed their mind and do it after an exchange with another student who did it and found it useful. We also noticed that some students compared what they learned after each part of the tutorial. What's more, some of the students who had already used NetBeans compared with each other the method learned with the tutorial to the method that they previously used.

Results of the experiment with NetBeans

The experiment was preceded by a questionnaire and a pre-test, in order to know the students' level in Java programing and their skill level in using NetBeans. After the definitive close of the assistance system, a final questionnaire and a post-test aimed at assessing their satisfaction and evaluating their progression concerning the target skills.

Students were very satisfied by the tutorial: 90.4% declared that they appreciated it (cf. left chart on Figure 3) and 62% wished to follow other similar tutorials integrated to NetBeans. In particular, in their comments on the final questionnaire, many students asked for tutorials integrated to NetBeans, but addressing more advanced Java programming skills, some students also asked for tutorials integrated to other tools and IDEs used in other courses. Moreover, most students found the tutorials more efficient than a demonstration video or a demonstration by the teacher (cf. Figure 4). The tutorials seem to have facilitated the acquisition of knowledge and skills involved in the HCI course: 96.2% of the students declared that the tutorial taught them something (cf. right chart on Figure 3). This excellent result is confirmed by the improvement of their knowledge in NetBeans and Java programming measured by the comparison between the results of the pre-test and post-test (cf. Figure 5). Indeed, these tests contained notably 10 common questions with free answers: Figure 5 and Figure 6 concern these questions. We notice that the number of questions without answer has strongly decreased after the tutorial (-63%), and that the number of good answer has very strongly increased (+ 629%). The post-test also contained 3 questions that wasn't in the pre-test, in order to see if students answered more correctly to the post-test only because they were more concentrate on the part of the tutorial that deals with the pre-test questions. For the post-test, the average success rate to the 10 common questions is 64%, and the average result to the 3 questions found only in the post-test is 62%, which is equivalent.

Figure 6 : Students' success rates to the 10 questions common to both tests

Figure 6 shows the success rate of each student to the pre-test (in the foreground) and to the post-test (in the background). We notice that all students improved their success rate after the tutorial: the smallest progression is 10%, the higher one is 100% (for students who had no correct answer to the pre-test and all correct answers to the post-test), and the average progression is 53.65%.

Furthermore, teachers were particularly satisfied by the use of the tutorial and plan to use it again for the next semesters. Teachers also would like to complete the tutorial with missing parts required by students in their comments. These parts, addressing more advanced Java programming skills, are not necessary for the first HCI course. However they can be useful for the rest of the semester, in the HCI course as well as for other courses that also require Java programming skills.

Discussion

This first experiment showed that the SEPIA system can actually be used to setup assistance systems in target-applications used by learners. Such assistance systems can meet the pedagogical goals of teachers and be well accepted by learners, like the tutorial for NetBeans used in a HCI course. Indeed, if the SEPIA system is particularly intended to setup technical assistance systems, it can also be used to setup pedagogical assistance system. However, there are some limitations to the use of SEPIA in an educational context that we discuss in this section.

First, for the moment, SEPIA cannot take domain knowledge into account. Such knowledge is yet necessary for most advanced assistance. For example, in a targetapplication that deals with algebra exercises, if the assistance designer wants to provide learners with an assistance that proposes transitional diagnosis, he has to specify all the possible correct answers (integrating for instance that "X-8" is equivalent to "-8+X"). It can be very demanding for the assistance designer and it becomes impossible in the case of an ILE that randomly generates the exercises. What's more, domain knowledge could be useful to generate examples and clues. Currently, the assistance designer specifies himself all the examples and clues necessary for his assistance system. With domain knowledge, the assistance system could automatically generate such examples and clues, contextualized with the current learner's production.

Then, knowledge relative to the activities proposed by an ILE would make possible an automation of some parts of the assistance designer's work. Indeed, for the moment, if an assistance designer wants the assistance system to guide learners through several activities, he has to specify the order of those activities. With the appropriate knowledge, the assistance designer would only have to specify that he wants the learners to perform the activities in the ascending order of difficulty. Moreover, with knowledge on the difficulty level of the ILE activities, the assistance designer could only specify that if a learner makes too many errors on an activity, then the assistance system should propose him for instance to move to an easier activity.

Finally, some improvements should be done to make the SEPIA assistance editor more accessible to assistance designers. Indeed, in the case of the HCI course, teachers were also computer scientists. However, in the general case, teachers may not be familiar with the concepts of rules, conditions, actions, and events that are at the core of the SEPIA system. Teachers could also face difficulties in understanding the description of the target-application interface that is an essential step to make a link between the epiphytic assistance system and the target-application. For the moment, SEPIA can be used by a teacher to setup an assistance system in an ILE, but with the help of a computer scientist, an expert of the ILE or a SEPIA expert.

Conclusion and future work

In this paper, we have presented the SEPIA system and its use to setup assistance systems in applications used by learners in an educational context. The assistance systems defined with SEPIA are epiphytic: they can be grafted on an existing application without a need to modify this application and without a need that the application has been designed specifically to enable the plugging of assistance.

We have shown how SEPIA can be used in an educational context to setup an assistance system suitable to teachers' pedagogical goals. This assistance system has been appreciated by learners and teachers that found it nice and useful. What's more this assistance system seems to have facilitated learning. We now plan to work on proposing patterns in order to simplify the work of assistance designers. In addition, the integration of domain knowledge to the SEPIA system would be an improvement to design assistance for ILEs involving complex problems solving.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2 : Screen-shot of one SEPIA tutorial for NetBeans

Figure 3 :Figure 4 :Figure 5 :

 345 Figure 3 : Final questionnaire: students' satisfaction

Table 1 : Assistance needs in learning Technical assistance needs

 1 Transitional diagnostic To add diagnosis as a complement to the application functionalities P7. Explanations on errors To explain his errors to the learner P8. Sub-task automation To perform a part of a task instead of the learner P9. Summary, monitoring To provide a monitoring during or at the end of the activity P10.Pedagogical guidance To propose a pedagogical scenario integrated in the application

	' assistance needs in an educational context	Description
	T1. Handling	To help the first use of the application
	T2. Use	To help the current use of the application
	P1. Choice of the activity	To suggest activities suitable for the learner
	P2. Learning prerequisites To help the learner to acquire not mastered prerequisites
	P3. Explanations on steps	To split up the different steps to perform for the activity
	P4. Clues	To give clues helping to find the solution
	P5. Examples	To give examples of similar problems or situations
	P6.

Learners who use an application for the first time can face difficulties in handling (cf. T1-Table


Nicolas Labarre

Keywords: Adaptation, transmediation, Alien, comics, film, horror, genre

This article examines the 1979 adaptation of Ridley Scott's Alien. It focuses on the way the adaptation process results in two works with very different generic mix. Both the film and the comics can be read a generic hybrid, belonging both to horror and science fiction, but the balance is different. The article argues that the constraints of the comics form make it impossible to adapt the established grammar of horror cinemaespecially the effect of surprisewhich leads to the observed shift in generic affiliation. This leads to a broader argument on the effect of adaptations on genre.

Comics and cinema are an especially fruitful medium pairing when it comes to adaptation study. Even though they may appear to possess 'incompatible visual ontologies' (Lefèvre, Incompatible Visual Ontologies), they display a number of stylistic and formal similarities, which has led to mutual inspiration at various points in their respective histories (Gardner,Lacassin;Gordon,. Novelization may have a longer history in feature films adaptation than comics do, (Baetens and Lits 16) but there is nevertheless a rich history of film to comics transpositions. As a consequence, a number of established equivalences have developed over the years (the frame of the camera and the panel border, spoken dialogues and word balloons, etc.), what Francis Lacassion has called "obvious analogies" (11), which make these transpositions non-problematic in a number of cases, even when dealing with baroque or ornate film-making (Labarre) . Because of this relative closeness and because of the history of such adaptations, studying generic shifts becomes possible without having to dwell on these many non-problematic systems of equivalence.

Alien, Ridley Scott's 1979 film about a killing monster loose in a nearly empty spaceship has been the focus of much academic attention, mostly for its treatment of gender relations (see the bibliography in , but also for the way it addresses social hierarchies (Byers; Eaton) and genre (Flanagan). It is on this last point that we wish to focus, keeping in mind that genre affiliations and gender representations are by no means disconnected concerns: for instance, it is Alien's relatively innovative treatment of female protagonists within genre fiction, and notably its use of the then recent 'final girl' figure, which justified some of the attention the film initially received (81)(82).

Alien is an overt example of a film blending at least two genres, science fiction and horror. Rick Altman's simplified description of genre as composed of semantic and syntactic elements is useful in understanding how the two genres are articulated in the film. Using this approach, I would suggest that science-fiction elements are mostly to be found on the paradigmatic axis, as a catalogue of objects and situations (cryogenic coffins, spaceship, planet exploration, astronauts and alien creatures), while the narrative structurethe syntactic axisowes more to the horror film (the monster chasing and killing members a frightened group in a mostly empty building, full of shadows and dark off-screen space). At the intersection of science fiction and horror, and belonging to both genres, is the monster/alien. Hatched from an organic looking egg found in an empty spaceship, the creature is an extra-terrestrial, but its form is that of a monstrous hybrid between flesh and metal, perpetually glistening with a thin layer of liquid. It is not uncommon for sciencefiction monsters to be used in horror contexts: The Thing from Another World (Christian Nyby, 1951) and its remake The Thing (John Carpenter, 1982) are famous examples, but the atomic monsters found in films such as Them! (Jack Arnold, 1954) are also difficult to locate generically. In Alien, the creature's oft noted ambiguity and slipperiness, its 'indetermination' (Dufour 123) thus extends to its function as a generic marker. Rick Altman's study of genre offers another tool to help us understand the role of the alien and the chronology of the film, through what he calls 'points of inflexion'. Altman suggests that contrary to common knowledge and pragmatic categorizing (by academics, spectators or distributors) films commonly move from one genre to another. They offer the knowledgeable spectator several moments when he or she is invited to reconsider the genre of the story. In the case of Alien, the appearance of the monster is such a point of inflexion.

Altman's model is useful in that it allows us to understand how Alien can be read in its entirety as belonging to horror or to science-fiction, while the monster itself, the obvious dividing point, only appears after forty-five minutes. Before that, Alien emphasizes the science-fiction setting, although it moves away from the engineer's utopia of most space-faring American science fiction films, from Forbidden Planet to 2001. Through the inclusion of images of technical decadence and bricolagea vision based in part on the graphic experimentations of Métal Hurlant/Heavy Metal, already present in Dark Star (Dan O'Bannon, 1974) and to a lesser extent in Star Wars (George Lucas, 1977)these paradigmatic elements of science fiction films are not only used but reworked and altered. These transgressions within an established set of norms focus the attention squarely on these science fiction elements, foreclosing other possible readings of the initial situation in the film. When the monster appears, it is scanned, analyzed and subjected to an objective and technological description which suggests that it constitutes an understandable and ultimately contained phenomenon. In fact, the aseptic environment of the medical room conforms to the ideal of technological neatness and efficiency of space travel science-fiction films much more than the rest of the ship. Again, the film discourages alternative readings of the elements which do not align with its ostensible genre affiliation. One such example is the scene when the 'face-hugger' suddenly jumps out of its egg to smash an astronaut's helmet. The 'startle effect' may be a defining horror convention (Peter Hutching suggests that that convention was coming to fore in the genre in the late seventies), but it is framed in a generic context that encourages reading it as a dissonance, rather than a genre-shifting event.

The main inflexion point happens roughly after the first half of the film. Kane (John Hurt), the astronaut seized by the 'face-hugger' appears to have fully recovered, and is having dinner with the rest of the crew. Suddenly, his own body seems to turn against him, and after spectacular convulsions, his belly explodes, revealing a phallic monster and spraying the room with blood. In a telling reaction shot, Ridley Scott and his photographer isolate Lambert (Veronica Cartwright) one of the female members of the crew, yelling, her face covered with blood. This shot and the scene distinctively suggest a shift to the horror genre: John Carpenter's Halloween had inaugurated the slasher cycle the year before, 1 and similar shots of the 'scream queen'already a key structural elements for Italian giallo directorswere becoming a passage obligé for American horror film-makers. Of course, this was merely an expansion of a traditional reliance on the woman's scream as a way to enhance horroras early as the thirties, it was not uncommon to hire women to scream during the showing of horror film (Berenstein 143)-but the trope appears to have become omnipresent on-screen at the time. This emphasis on the characters' reaction to horror has been described as a way to prepare and direct the viewers' response to the horrific events depicted, even at times serving as a substitute for a depiction of the horror itself (Carroll 90). In that sense the effectiveness of the performance given by the screaming actress, Veronica Cartwright, conveys a sense of felt horror all the more efficiently since she had not known beforehand she would be covered with blood. The shock captured by the camera, though engineered, is genuine, adding to the intensity of the scene, and meshing with the naturalistic mode of acting used in first fifty minutes of the film. The making-of to the film included in the Alien Quadrilogy set suggests that the scenes of tensions depicted in the first half of the film reflected the actual atmosphere on the set ('We were on edge, we were on a survival mode', Sigourney Weaver said in the 2003 documentary on the making of the film). Similarly, the choice to use a sprawling set for the corridors of the spaceship Nostromo, in which it was possible to circulate, also adds to the sense of authenticity of the film (Charles De Lauzirika, The Beast Within, 55' to 80', see especially 76' about the tensions on the set). This emphasis on realism and the inclusion of social tensions within the crew is one of the elements which get re-contextualized and re-decoded after the inflexion point. This drive toward human, spatial and social realism inscribes Alien in the tradition of so-called modern American horror films, concerned with social representations and depicting horror in domestic, contemporary settings. Of course, this is also the moment when the real monster appears (the 'face-hugger' is merely a transitory creature), marking what Peter Hutchings, quoting Steve Neale, has called the 'fetishistic division of belief' in the horror genre, an expected turning point treated with spectacular emphasis (Hutchings, The problem of British horror 120).

The rest of the movie, with numerous 'startle effects' and the emphasis on the off-screen menace in darkened places among other 'shock horror conventions' (Hutchings,The Horror Film 39) confirms this inscription in the horror genre. Yet, several other inflexion points make it possible to return to a more science-fictional reading, in particular through the subplot involving the robotic crew-member, Ash, and artificial intelligence. If the dinner scene invites the spectator to reconsider what he has been shown before, later inflexion points serve to signal a refusal to abandon science-fiction altogether.

Alien thus foregrounds its generic hybridity, offering a dual reading rather than an alternative. Martin Flanagan has argued that the very aspect of the ship in the opening sequence, which he compares to a gothic castle, signals the presence of horror at this stage of the film (159). I would argue that this is not an aberrant decoding, but that it is only validated after the film's explicit turn to horror. The aspect of the ship allows the viewer to make assumptions about the genre, but early in Alien, science-fiction appears to be the favoured reading of the film.

While it is difficult to gauge the expectation the original audience had coming into the film, the available promotional material (posters, trailers, press articles) suggest that this hybridity was perceived as a selling point for the film. The Guardian's review of the film, for example, called it a cross between The Creature from the Black Lagoon and The Thing from Outer Space, describing it as a 'combination of space fiction and horror story' (Malcolm). Time Magazine, for its part, seemed to deplore its function as an 'efficient moneymaking machine' but also noted its originality as a 'pretty mean cinematic bastard' (Rich). These apparently contradictory elements were also present in the original trailer: a view of a planet from space is accompanied by an eerie music, bearing little resemblance to the symphonic score of 2001 or to the bombastic brass instruments of earlier space operas; 'realistic' views of astronauts on a deserted planet alternate with images of a chase through narrow corridors. The trailer ends with a quick montage of horrified face and half-glimpsed horrifying images. The promotion and the eventual success of Alien at the time of its release were predicated on this promise of generic hybridity. 2 This hybridity is also a key element in the film's production history: while it had been on hold before the success of Star Wars, it had also been pitched to the studio as 'Jaws in outer space' (Charles De Lauzirika, The Beast Within, 13'43'). It was thus not only marketed and received (at least by critics) as a cross-generic film, but also conceived and produced as such, at a time when the horror genre had made a sudden entrance into the mainstream, with films such as Jaws (Steven Spielberg, 1975) or Carrie (Brian De Palma, 1976).

It is therefore unsurprising that this hybridity should have been carried over to the adaptations. The success of the Star Wars comics published by Marvel had demonstrated that there was a significant market for comics to film adaptations, alongside traditional novelizations. Movies had been adapted into comics since 1934, and Dell's successful Four-Color Comics had adapted numerous films from 1939 to 1962, but Star Wars had revived the practice, which had noticeably declined in the previous fifteen years. The adaptation was written by the experienced Archie Goodwin and illustrated by the then newcomer Walt Simonsonwho would write and draw a very successful version of Thor for Marvel Comics in the mid-eightiesand it was popular enough to reach the New York Times bestseller list, the first graphic novel to do so. The choice of this creative team is fraught with expectations regarding its genre, for Archie Goodwin was a writer with notable works both in science-fiction and in horror adaptations. Not only was he the author of the record-selling Star Wars adaptation published by Marvel Comics in 1977 (illustrated by Howard Chaykin), but he had also been the editor of the black-and-white horror magazine Creepy in the previous decade, for which he had adapted classic horror tales. Walt Simonson may have had this experience in mind when he asked for Goodwin to be brought in to the project. (Nolen-Weathington and Ash 29)

The original Alien adaptation, Alien: the Illustrated Story (hereafter A:tIS), published prior to the film release as a 64 page magazine by Heavy Metal (Futura in the UK), displays the specific difficulties of adapting the generic balance at work in the film, as well as the more general issues of adapting popular franchises into comic books. Simonson and Goodwin were given access to the set, to a rough cut of the film and had the rights to the likeness of the actors. It ostensibly seeks to be faithful to the plot and look of the film, with the exception of its cover, which bears no visible connection to its source yet claims 'Based on 20 th Century Fox's Science Fiction Hit, Alien'. The claim is of course slightly misleading, since the film had not yet been released when that cover was designed, but it functions as claim for legitimacy. While adaptation theory has deconstructed the problematic relations between an 'original' and its 'adaptations', a clear hierarchy between the two cultural objects was intended in this case. Indeed, it is only a few months after the release of the film that the graphic novel came to appear in the New York Times chart. 3 Reflecting its status of 'adaptation as adaptation', 'haunted at all time by [its] adapted text' (Hutcheon 6), A:tIS acknowledges its cinematic origin through a narrative motif used in the first strip of the first page and recurring throughout: a series of three or four silent panels in which a single event is decomposed (the opening of an eye, the downward movement of an elevator, the uncoiling of the alien, etc.). The device is not without precedent, but it is used more than a dozen times in the course of the story, and in some cases, with no obvious dramatic necessity. What the device provides is a form of reconstitution of the movement on the page, not unlike Muybridge's chronograph, that seeks to emulate the perceived continuity of cinema rather than the necessary discontinuities of the comic page.

The effect does not erase the difference between the two media, but it signals an effort to narrow the gap between them. 4 The plot and dialogues also follow those of the movie closely, omitting some of the scenes shot but not included in the original releasenotably the infamous vision of Dallas trapped in an alien cocoon . Some details do differ however, the most crucial being probably an exchange between Lambert and Ripley, the two female members of the crew, discussing the fact that neither of them has slept with the captain, Dallas, and suggesting that he may not have been all that interested in women. The aside does not transform the narrative, but it adds yet another layer to the gender-oriented readings of the story. This type of minor difference is of course to be expected, and within the range of what officially sanctioned adaptations permit. By contrast's Alan Dean Foster's successful novelization was written without the writer having had access to the film's visual effects, leading to a novel which differs markedly from the movie: this did not prevent him from being asked to write further adaptations, to the point when he became the only element of continuity in the film franchise . By contrast, such minor alterations as those displayed by Alien: the Illustrated Story do not modify the plot in a way that would have implications on the work's generic affiliation.

However, another necessary consequence of the adaptation process, the transmediation of the plot, does have significant repercussion in this case. By transmediation, we mean here the effect that the retelling of an identical story in a different medium has on the presentation and perception of the story, because of each medium's specificities and constraints. 5 This processwhich results in a different text but also in a different paratexthas profound consequences on the generic balance of the work.

An obvious point of divergence between Alien and AtIS in the work happens as early as the inside front-cover. On this page, the book designer chose to reproduce a detailed close-up view of the creature's head, in white lines over a black background (illustration 1). While the next two pages offers a mosaic of images culled from the book which studiously avoid showing the alien (only the tail of the 'face hugger' is visible), in a way reminiscent of the film's trailer, this inside cover introduces the monster even before the start of the narrative. A symmetrical image is repeated on the inside backcover, and therefore appears to bookend the story. The presence of the monster thus frames the narrative, priming a horror-oriented reading. The paratext, or more precisely the peritext, thus fulfils its purpose not only as an introduction to the text, but as a way define the way it is to be consumed . After three pages devoted to various credits as well as to the aforementioned blackand-white assemblage, 7 the narrative proper opens with a double page. The top half of that space is occupied by an ornate rendition of the word 'ALIEN', sprawling across the fold. The shape of the letters is similar to the title displayed in the film, but instead of bars of light, the letters are bone colored and decorated with Giger-inspired tooth and bone structures (illustration 2). This design foreshadows the discovery of the giant spaceship in which the alien eggs will later be found but the different colour scheme imbues it with different connotations. Besides, while the spaceship, both in Alien and AtIS, is shown in blue and grey hues, thus making it appear metallic, the bone-coloured letters are more directly related to an alien body. As a matter of fact, they offer a stark contrast with the bottom half of this two-page spread. There, in four panels, the Nostromo is shown as awakening as it receives the distress signal which will eventually lead to the discovery of the alien spaceship, a sequence coloured in blue, black and mauve.

What is established in these two pages is thus an immediate co-presence of horror and science-fiction.

The two genres are presented as distinct sets of conventionsthey each occupy one half of the twopage spread, with no apparent linkbrought together on the comics page. When we turn to the next two pages, in which the crew of the Nostromo is shown awakening, horror is entirely absent, while the recognizable science fiction elements of the hibernation pod dominate the pages. At this point, the narrative moves away from horror and parallel the movies in establishing a worn-down industrial vision of space-travel. The reader, however, has already been through a generic inflexion point, since the reading primed by both the paratext and the bone-like title has already yielded to another brand of generic reading. We have argued that in Alien, generic hybridity is reconstructed through a reevaluation triggered by the dinner scene. In AtIS, by contrast, this generic hybridity or uncertainty is established in the very periphery of the narrative. Gallardo and Smith, in their analysis of the film poster, argue that it too displays the generic mix present in the film:

The poster also implies the mixing of science-fiction and horror in the vein of Them! or The Thing from Another World. The image further complicates this cross-genre impulse by replacing the masculine rocket with the ovoid form, which connects the film with monstrous birth films like Rosemary's Baby and The Omen. (Gallardo and Smith 199) It is tempting to dismiss the argument by pointing out that the poster is not as integral to the act of viewing Alien, while the cover, inside front cover and title of the comic book are inescapable steps for anyone opening the comic book. Viewers having access to Alien on television or through forms of downloads may indeed not have access to this image, but anyone seeing it in a theatre, on a DVD or a VHS is likely to have his watching of the film framed by this picture. However, the poster remains distinct from the narrative; as a matter of fact, the image does not occur in the film itself, while the bone-like title in AtIS is integrated into the very grid of the comic: it does not simply frame the narrative, it is part of it. Additionally, while Gallardo and Smith's reading is certainly a valid one, it is informed by their knowledge of the film, and serves as a confirmation of their findings. The poster may 'tell the whole tale' ( 200), but it does so in such a condensed manner that it remains ambiguous. This ambiguity is also carried by the tagline 'In space, no one can hear you scream,' which can be read as tying either to the slasher cycle (the scream) or to Frank Poole's death in 2001, a Space Odyssey (as pointed out in AlienWoman). This ambiguity invites future generic clarifications in the light of a more complete contextthe whole moviebut apart from the word "scream", there is little unambiguous content pointing to horror. The letters covered in bones, teeth and claws which form the title in AtIS point to a clearer generic affiliation: the poster may promise the emergence of the 'freak', but that lettering already affirms its presence.

As early as page 6, the freshly established and already problematic reading of the story as belonging to science-fiction is disrupted again, on the occasion of a depiction of spaceship Nostromo, which takes up the top two thirds of the page. Again, the colors suggest a different mood from that of Alien, since the ship appears in brown earthy hues. The towering and ornate structures bear a strong resemblance to the vision of Métal Hurlant co-founder, Philippe Druillet. Druillet's style is somewhat similar to Giger's, in his forceful connection of hypertechnology with biology. In the words of Danièle Chatelain and George Slusser, in an essay about space travel in French bande dessinée:

Past and future, the highest and the lowest forms of evolutionary life, supermachine and simple bivalveall are drawn as if on a Moebius strip, into a spatialized disposition of forms where linear narration is folded into a dream emblem. (Chatelain and Slusser 32) Druillet's work had been published by Heavy Metal in the United States, and for some readers at least, such a panel is bound to have been fraught with potent intertextual hints regarding the process of generic and thematic fusion at work in AtIS. Indeed, the Heavy Metal issues which contained teasers for AtIS also included works by Druillet (Heavy Metal vol.3, #1 and 2, May and June 1979).

Moreover, the panel also borrows from Druillet's aesthetic the practice of having extremely ornate panel borders. In this case, the ornamental motif is reminiscent of the details of the letters in the title page, though less easily identifiable. Their presence is all the more noticeable since no other panel in the comic book bears this kind of framing (a thin black line delineates most of them, with occasional bleeds in the margin and a few instances of blood, explosion or projected objects crossing the panel border). They do not so much reintroduce horror as reintroduce it at the periphery of the narrative, lurking literally between panels, as a reminder that an inflexion point has already been crossed. Pascal Lefèvre argues that the graphic style in comics implies 'an ontology of the representable or visualizable' (Lefèvre,. This panel suggests that style is therefore a central element in the perception of genre in comics, since genre also relies on delimiting what is expected or even possible within the confines of the story; to quote from genre theorists Jonathan Culler, 'Each genre constitutes a special vraisemblance of its own.' (Culler, quoted in Altman 85). Of course, style cannot be equated with genre, since genre is a dynamic process, which not only shapes expectations but is also subject to a redefinition when these expectations are squashed, while the graphic style of a comic narrative is integral to the work considered. Nevertheless, they do interact, through a process of reinforcement, inflexion or contradiction.

The rest of the narrative up to the dinner scene and the apparition of the monster is similar to what is present in the film, both in plot and in its adherence to a recognizable science fiction form. The function of the dinner scenethe appearance of a monster able to draw blood and inflict bodily harm, which enables and encourages a horror readingis identical in Alien and in AtIS. The dialogue is mostly identical in both versions, though the choice to include it in panels encompassing the whole crew erases most of the nuances to be found in the film performance, including sexual innuendos and looks of disgust (Gallardo and Smith 42). The difference lies in the length of the moment of uncertainty. In Alien, Kane complains of a pain in the chest and spends the next thirty seconds lying on the table, with the rest of the crew wondering in panic what is happening to him. In AtIS, this moment of hesitation is reduced to two panels, with no apparent panic. The apparition of the monster is therefore preceded in the movie by a moment of uncertainty, which displays a series of erasures: banter disappears, a man takes the place of food on the table, the divisions between members of the crew are noticeably diminished and finally, genre and bodily boundaries burst open.

In AtIS, there is no such extended preparation. In fact, the scene is distinctly unspectacular, with four rows of panels in a regular layout, people in civilian clothes and a conspicuous absence of the sciencefiction background. Comics, through its technical apparatus but also through the conventions readers are familiar with, makes possible this creation of a diegetic space which does not fully cohere (the same locale is seen on page 4, in a brighter light and a distinct technological look). The scene therefore is not meant to raise the readers' expectations. On the contrary, it is meant to appear as dull as possible, preparing the reader not for the resolution of a slow-burning crisis (Kane was brought back on board against quarantine regulations and against Ripley's will) but for a surprise. On the next page, the appearance of the 'chestburster' takes the form of a spectacular eruption of blood, which not only occupies the whole page but even spreads to the right-hand page, almost a pun on the notion of a 'splash page' (illustration 3). The creature appears to break panel boundaries, to run over the fold and eventually to leave the scene altogether through the edge of the right-hand page. The effect of surprise is effective, through the change of scale of the panel, the change of color scheme (the two pages are literally drenched in red) and the appearance of a shock to the very system of the comic.

What is does not do, however, is induce a retrospective reevaluation of the first half of the story, as the film scene does. This is indeed an inflexion point, but it is far from the first. It signals a return to horror, a shift in the balance established early in the book rather than a reversal. In the general economy of AtIS, this generic shock takes place in an already established generic mix. The moment of uncertainty, the slow erasure of boundaries pictured in Alien is not necessary since generic boundaries, at least, have already been shown to be porous.

The scene also calls the attention to the constraints inherent to the construction of this type of shock effect in the comics. The emphatic contrast between the dinner scene and the appearance of the monster derives from the necessity to heighten the experience of surprise built in the very structure of the multi-page comics. By definition, surprise marks the sudden appearance of the unexpected. In cinema, a sudden cut can introduce this effect, especially if reinforced by an accompanying aural disruption of the existing situation (Turner 88). In comics, the reader is aware not only of the panel he or she is reading, but also of the general context in which it is located, if only in a peripheral way. In addition, while temporality can in some cases be inscribed in a single panel, we will follow Scott

McCloud in arguing that reading comics implies the reconstruction of the ellipsis between two panels, or "closure", which means that a panel is only fully legible as part of a sequence (McCloud 65-73).

There is, in that sense, no present tense in comics narration, but the constant perception of a sequence of three panels. This simultaneous perception effectively prevents the creation of surprise, except in the one place where the materiality of the comics page prevents the reader from exercising his or her forward glance: the panels before and after the turn of the page. 7 Surprise is therefore possible at this junction, but is also expected by the cognizant reader or really by anyone familiar with the code of comics (Groensteen, Système de la bande dessinée 44). It is, in other words, highly constrained and severely hampered by the medium.

The rest of the comics illustrate this constraint: all but one of the appearances of the creature rely on the brief turn of the page hermeneutic gap to create surprise. However, the device offers a perceptible diminishing return, as the imposed rhythm (hint that the alien may be hereturn of the pagerevelation enhanced by a visual effect, usually a very large panel) becomes predictable.

Surprise, a crucial tool of the horror director, especially in the late seventies (Hutchings,The Horror Film 135), is therefore neutralized to a large extent. The most efficient 'startle effects' to be found in horror films blend surprise with suspense, to borrow from Hitchcock's famous distinction (Truffaut 59). As noted by Peter Hutchings, these startle effect serve to 'punctuate scenes of suspense' (The Horror Film 135) as an off-screen threat suddenly appears next to a character. This is problematic, in that, as noted by many theoreticians, there is no 'off-panel' space in comics (Groensteen, Système de la bande dessinée 50). Because every line is drawn, every sign is put on the page, no space can be seen as accidentally included, no space is neutral. In 'transparent' Hollywood storytelling, the viewer may be drawn in to the characters to the point of identifying his or her space with that of the character being shown, erasing the presence of the monstrateur (Bordwell,Narration 161). In comics, as recently argued by Jared Gardner, the graphiateur is always perceptible: the presence of the monster therefore appears as a choice rather than a frightful accident. (Gardner, Storylines) More generally, the control a film director may have over the rhythm and pacing of the narrative is yielded to the reader in the case of a comics. This is fraught with consequences in the case of the monster. As early as its first appearance, the monster can be detailed, examined at will, and though the text suggests its speed, its sudden exit ('It moves faster than the eye can follow'), the reader is at liberty to examine the creature, to reconnect it to the bone-like structures of the story's title, then to the derelict alien spaceship visited earlier.

Numerous writers have worked on referencing the differences between comics and cinema, and the lists of features mentioned above does not pretend to cover all the problems inherent in this particular transmediation (Lefèvre, Incompatible Visual Ontologies; Groensteen, Du 7e art au 9e art; Pommier; Christiansen). These areas of non-congruence between the two media have an impact on the way specific effects can or cannot be created in each medium, bearing in minds that those effects contribute to a grammar of the horror genre as it is understood in its cinematic form. Because of the many subtractions from the techniques used in horror cinema, horror in comics lacks the element of surprise and the apparent transparency of the medium. It veers towards a more intellectual and less visceral kind of horror, which endures even through sustained examination. The distance between the reader and the comics pagea distance that is much less perceptible in the classical Hollywood cinematic form (Bordwell, Staiger and Thompson, Classical Hollywood) collapses horror into a more analytical genre, and brings it closer science-fiction. The sustained examination to which the comics reader can subject the alien turns it into a frightening but understandable phenomenon. A comparison to entomology is tempting here, as the alien pinned on the page may elicit fear as a trace of its cinematic presence only in the way a butterfly in a glass case elicits reminiscence of its fluttering beauty. The emotional response is curtailed when chance glances are replaced by contemplation, by a more constructed and deliberate understanding of the presented subject. In the case of the alien, even though is first manifestation is kinetic enough, the depiction of fast movements can only urge the reader to move forward, it can only suggest an appropriate reading speed but not enforce it. If the reader fails to identify or to follow these suggestions, the alien quickly ceases to be unknowable and becomes a fully realized, frightening but understandable space monster. Thus, at the point in the plot when the film inverts its genre hierarchy, resorting to the 'conventions' of horror, the comic book does not alter its own storytelling techniques to the same extent, in large part because of the inherent constraints of the medium.

Conclusion

The interaction of science-fiction and horror in AtIS thus differs from its counterpart in Alien. While a horror reading is triggered in the film by an inflexion point after half of its running time, both genres are present in AtIS from the onset. The reversal in genre hierarchies after the dinner scene in Alien is also much less pronounced in AtIS, in part because comics do not seem to have an established style associated with the horror genre, which would support the horrific images with an appropriate narrative framework. Quite the contrary, the shift to horrific content and horrible death appear to be impaired by the constraints of the medium: not only is surprise harder to create, but the increased agency of the comics reader as opposed to the film viewer also reduce any feeling of threat, entrapment or powerlessness. A further explanation lies in the fact that there is no such thing as 'transparent' comic books -in the words of Charles Hatfield, 'there is a marked and opaque quality to the text that makes the narrative resist abstraction or paraphrase into some disembodied "gist."' (Hatfield and Gardner) while in pre-digital cinema, every time an actor is shown on screen, an irreducible remnant of naturalism is present. Body horror works all the more efficiently when an actual body is shown, through the apparently neutral eye of the camera, which also explains some filmmaker's reticence to use CGI until a recent period, since it was felt special effects done on-camera retained some of that naturalistic aura (Dufour 122). By contrast, comics foreground their own construction and their idiosyncratic depiction of spaces and bodies. That mediation of content is so crucial to the form that the photo-comic which retains all of the apparatus of comics while doing away with this ostentatious subjectivity of representation, has mostly been a marginal phenomenon. In other words, comics offer a coded representation, through the visibility of their apparatus (as opposed to the quasi-naturalized Hollywood style described by Bordwell et al.), 'the inevitable encounter with the laboring body of the graphiateur and the constrained body of the form itself' (Gardner,Storylines 66).

Comics are about code, and as such, a menace is only possible if these codes are among the threatened elements, while cinema, another codified form, has the ability to generate a different form of empathy by offering the illusion of an unmediated access to actual bodies. The horror genre has been in use in comics since the late forties, giving birth to notable works at various times (the EC horror comics, the early Creepy and Eerie published by Warren, a good part of DC's Vertigo imprint, etc.). However, it appears that in most cases, the thematic and technical aspects of horror cinema cannot be separated, which makes it problematic not to write horror comics but to adapt horror films into comics. The horror genre did generate a grammar in comics in the fifties, but these short stories and their surprise endings created a specific model with regards to pacing, rhythm and text density, with little applicability to the Alien story. While the tools developed for adapting films into comics are numerous and the practice is well-established, it appears that the horror genre is especially resistant to such a transposition. This reconfiguration of genres is significant since AtIS is conceived with faithfulness in mind. Fidelity to a source may not be a relevant criterion for academic studies of adaptation Hutcheon;Wilkins), but it is a factor for tie-in products, in the mind of their producers, creators and consumers.

In this case, the widespread promotion of the book, the pain taken to capture the likeness of the actors and the set, as well as the fact that the comic book creators had access to the set and to initial cuts all indicate that fidelity was seen as one of the keys to the success of the transposition. Walter Simonson even suggests that this was a novelty in comics adaptation, pointing out that it was uncommon before Alien to license the likeness of the actors (Nolen-Weathington and Ash 32-33), although the Star Wars comics had done it before. This calls to mind Jan Baetens and Marc Lit's remark that: 'novelization seeks to be a double of the film rather than something other' [my translation] (La Novellisation 13).

With comic books adaptation being included in multi-media franchise exploitation following the success of Star Wars, it is perhaps unsurprising that they too would attempt to create duplicates of the adapted works.

While the popular success of the book can be explained by a variety of factors besides the quality of its content, it tends to confirm that the choice to aim for faithfulness was well received. Yet, for all this attempted fidelity, as we have seen, the generic mix in the comics is much different from the one found in the movie.

It is tempting to consider AtIS and Alien as what phonologists call a 'minimal pair'. In phonology, this refers to words differing only in one phonological element. A 'minimal pair' in adaptation would be a pair of cultural objects which differ solely by the medium in which they tell a specific story. While the view is somewhat simplistic in the light of the many small differences mentioned above, it suggests that the very act of transmediation has a significant impact on the perception of genre. This shift may be specifically easy to identify in Alien, a film which openly mixes very recognizable genres.

However, studies conducted on romance and teen fiction, for instance, suggest that similar generic shifts can occur as part of the adaptation process. While a comprehensive theory of these shifts is yet to be written, it seems plausible at this stage that genre gets transmediated at the same time as the work it characterized, getting transformed along the way.

Notes

1. Peter Hutchings notes that films anterior to Halloween anticipate to a large extent the slasher format, a list which includes Black Christmas (Bob Clark, 1974) and The Eyes of Laura Mars (Irvin Kershner 1978), yet Halloween is perceived as the source from which most posterior slasher films stemmed. (Hutchings,The Horror Film 195) 2. It is worth noting, however, that for all its critical legacy, the original Alien was successful but not tremendously so. According to Boxofficemojo.com, its original gross of roughly $100 million dollars would be equivalent to a $250 million in 2012: the sixth most popular film in the US in 1979.

3. The book appeared in the best-seller list from July 29 to September 16, 1979, peaking in 7 th place in the "mass market" category. The film had a limited release on May 25, 1979 5. This assumes that a film or a comics is a specific presentation of an underlying fabula, which exists independently from its presentation in a specific object. Such view is disputed (Lefèvre,), but appears integral to any discussion of adaptation.

6. This assemblage is in itself an interesting construct, in that it presents a grid reminiscent of the comic itself, which seems to invite a narrative reading, thanks to a horizontal first strip. The rest of the assemblage, however, is unreadable according to the usual ways of moving through the comic grid. The effect is that of a fragmented narrative in which the reader is invite to cobble together meaning, by negotiating a way through the disruption. The effect is all the more striking since the content of the panels is in most cases perfectly legible, with a realistic depiction of the protagonists and visions of futuristic elements, identifiable through a familiarity with generic conventions.

7. Verbal surprises are still possible, though, since reading speech balloon is a linear task, and since peripheral vision generally does not allow us to anticipate their content, except in the case of an unusual typography.

  photogram format.(Smolderen)

  then a wider one on June 22, but it was still drawing significant audience in September (according to /boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=weekend&id=alien.htm). It is worth noting, however, that Alan Dean Foster's novelization, following his work on both Star Wars and Dark Star, was also on the list and was outselling its comics counterpart most of the time. Alan Dean Foster's work was on the list from June 22 to September 9, 1979, peaking at number 3.

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