Laurianne Charrier
email: [lcharrier@liris.cnrs.fr

Alisa Rieger
email: alisa.rieger@hoomano.com

Alexandre Galdeano
email: agaldean@liris.cnrs.fr

Amélie Cordier
email: amelie.cordier]@hoomano.com

Mathieu Lefort
email: mlefort@liris.cnrs.fr

Salima Hassas
email: shassas]@liris.cnrs.fr

The RoPE Scale: a Measure of How Empathic a Robot is Perceived

Keywords: Human-Robot Interaction, Social Robots, Perceived Empathy, Psychometrics

To be accepted in our everyday life and to be valuable interaction partners, robots should be able to display emotional and empathic behaviors. That is why there has been a great focus on developing empathy in robots in recent years. However, there is no consensus on how to measure how much a robot is considered to be empathic. In this context, we decided to construct a questionnaire which specifically measures the perception of a robot's empathy in human-robot interaction (HRI). Therefore we conducted pretests to generate items. These were validated by experts and will be further validated in an experimental setting.

I. INTRODUCTION

According to [START_REF] Vignemont | The empathic brain: how, when and why?[END_REF], empathy "might have a crucial role in human communication" and "might serve as the origin of the motivation for altruistic behavior and cooperation". Empathy-as defined in the cognitive psychology and HRI literature-is "a complex process whereby one understands and/or shares an entity's frame of reference, and/or reacts appropriately without having doubts about which frame of reference belongs to whom" [START_REF] Charrier | Empathy display influence on human-robot interactions: a pilot study[END_REF], and an essential component of interaction. Empathic capabilities can be separated into two analytic categories: [START_REF] Barrett-Lennard | The relationship inventory: A technique for measuring therapeutic dimensions of an interpersonal relationship[END_REF] the capabilities that are emotional, with the ability to share the affective experience of someone else; [START_REF] Bavolek | Developing empathy in families[END_REF] the capabilities that are cognitive, with the ability to represent and understand the mental states of someone else and their perspective [START_REF] Charrier | Empathy display influence on human-robot interactions: a pilot study[END_REF]. Cognitive empathy has many subcategories, including empathic comprehension and empathic response. Empathic comprehension, sometimes called empathic understanding, describes the ability to become aware of and to understand another person's unique experience and feelings [START_REF] Schmid | Comprehension: the art of not-knowing. dialogical and ethical perspectives on empathy as dialogue in personal and person-centred relationships[END_REF]. Empathic response describes how one communicates their attempts at understanding someone else's frame of reference, including their feelings and motives [START_REF] Bavolek | Developing empathy in families[END_REF].

Being empathic seems to be a component of human interaction which is greatly linked to how positive we are perceived by our interlocutor. In order for social robots to accomplish what they are made for, i.e. to "perform social interactions in a Human-like way" [START_REF] Charrier | Empathy display influence on human-robot interactions: a pilot study[END_REF], they need to know what humans feel and what their mental states are, so that they can adapt their behavior [START_REF] Nomura | Empathy as signalling feedback between humanoid robots and humans[END_REF]. As said by [START_REF] Nomura | Empathy as signalling feedback between humanoid robots and humans[END_REF], there is a need for means to assess how empathic a robot is perceived.

II. RELATED WORK

There are various ways of measuring human-human empathy in the literature. The Barrett-Lennart Relationship Inventory (BLRI) [START_REF] Barrett-Lennard | The relationship inventory: A technique for measuring therapeutic dimensions of an interpersonal relationship[END_REF] is one of the "most widely used client-rated measure of empathy" [8]. It can also be a self-rated measure of empathic understanding. An other widely used self-rated measure of empathic concern and perspective taking is the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) [START_REF] Davis | Interpersonal reactivity index[END_REF]. Other questionnaires that measure the empathy quotient of a person can be found [START_REF] Lawrence | Measuring empathy: reliability and validity of the empathy quotient[END_REF], [START_REF] Jolliffe | Development and validation of the basic empathy scale[END_REF].

Perceived empathy in human-human interaction can be measured with the Accurate Empathy Scale (AES) [START_REF] Truax | A scale for the rating of accurate empathy[END_REF] which is, as an observer-rated measure, commonly used in context of therapy with the evaluation of the therapist's empathy. Other questionnaires are used to measure perceived empathy [START_REF] Barrett-Lennard | The relationship inventory: A technique for measuring therapeutic dimensions of an interpersonal relationship[END_REF], [START_REF] Plank | A short measure of perceived empathy[END_REF].

In search of applicable metrics for perceived empathy of robots in HRI, we found that in the HRI research community the concept of empathy in robots is measured mostly using homemade questionnaires and few self reported measures [START_REF] Bickmore | Relational agents: Effecting change through humancomputer relationships[END_REF], [START_REF] Van Ruiten | Attitude of elderly towards a robotic game-and-train-buddy: evaluation of empathy and objective control[END_REF] which have not been clearly evaluated in term of validity and reproducibility. Frequently, metrics for measuring human empathy were only slightly changed and applied without previous validation [START_REF] Nomura | Empathy as signalling feedback between humanoid robots and humans[END_REF]. Moreover, these approaches come with various biases, as involving cognitive abilities that robots do not have (e.g., saying that it is playing a role), whereas human empathy and robot empathy are, although with similarities, still two different concepts that can not be measured in the same way [START_REF] Charrier | Empathy display influence on human-robot interactions: a pilot study[END_REF], [START_REF] Nomura | Empathy as signalling feedback between humanoid robots and humans[END_REF].

To promote the comparability of HRI empathy experiments and to get results as unbiased as possible, it is necessary to have standardized and validated methods of measuring the perceived empathy of robots [START_REF] Nomura | Empathy as signalling feedback between humanoid robots and humans[END_REF]. From our literature review, we conclude that the HRI research community lacks attempts to find standardized metrics for perceived empathy in robots, and-for that reason-we propose such a metric.

III. GENERATION OF ITEMS

The Robot's Perceived Empathy (RoPE) scale is composed of 18 items divided in two scales: empathic understanding and empathic response (see Tab. I) with four filler (i.e., catch) items. The scales are based on the results of a previous pilot study with an exploratory approach [START_REF] Charrier | Empathy display influence on human-robot interactions: a pilot study[END_REF]. Items are based on id Empathic Understanding subscale items (EU) EU1

The robot appreciates exactly how the things I experience feel to me.

EU2

The robot knows me and my needs.

EU3

The robot cares about my feelings. EU4

(-) The robot does not understand me.

EU5

The robot perceives and accepts my individual characteristics.

EU6

The robot usually understands the whole of what I mean. EU7

(-) The robot reacts to my words but does not see the way I feel.

EU8

The robot seems to feel bad when I am sad or disappointed.

id Empathic Response subscale items (ER) ER1 (-) Whether thoughts or feelings I express are "good" or "bad" makes no difference to the robot's actions toward me. ER2

(-) No matter what I tell about myself, the robot acts just the same.

ER3

The robot comforts me when I am upset.

ER4

The robot encourages me.

ER5

The robot praises me when I have done something well.

ER6

The robot helps me when I need it.

ER7

The robot knows when I want to talk and lets me do so.

ER8

(-) The robot's response to me is so fixed and automatic that I do not get through to it.

id Filler items (FI) FI1

The way the robot acts feels natural. FI2

The robot knows what it is doing. FI3

The robot is responsible for its actions. FI4

When I interact with the robot, I feel anxious.

Table I THE ITEMS COMPOSING THE ROPE SCALE. TO CALCULATE THE SUBSCALES' SCORE, SUM THE VALUE OF EACH ITEMS AFTER HAVING MULTIPLIED BY -1

THE VALUE OF THE ITEMS MARKED BY (-).

human empathy metrics [START_REF] Barrett-Lennard | The relationship inventory: A technique for measuring therapeutic dimensions of an interpersonal relationship[END_REF], [START_REF] Davis | Interpersonal reactivity index[END_REF] adapted to robots, avoiding unexpected formulations that involve capacities that robots clearly do not have. We verified the relevance of each item of the French versionaccording to the concept of the scale it represents by the valuation of 15 experts in cognitive sciences or other social sciences, and 10 experts in robotics or artificial intelligence. According to their advice, three items have been modified to stick as close as possible to the concepts of empathic understanding, and then confirmed by another group of experts.

Expert validation of the English version ?? of the questionnaire has to be done to confirm the modifications in both languages.

IV. FUTURE WORK

In a future experiment, we plan to evaluate the reliability and validity of the French version of our metric. For this experiment, we will use Anki's Cozmo robot because it can display emotions easily and without the use of speech which could induce biases [START_REF] Crowelly | Gendered voice and robot entities: perceptions and reactions of male and female subjects[END_REF]. We will film an interaction between Cozmo and a person, who will tell Cozmo about their vacation. This interaction will be filmed twice. During both of them, Cozmo will display its emotions through its face and its behavior in a Wizard of Oz setup. In the first video, Cozmo will react empathically and display its understanding of the person's state of mind and emotions. In the second one, Cozmo will only display neutral and emotionless reactions signalizing that it is following the conversation, merely nodding. We will select two groups of about 150 French-speaking participants within a broad age span and from diverse demographic backgrounds, following the French population quotas. This sample size has been calculated as the minimum to be sensitive to small to medium-sized effects with a great statistical power [START_REF] Lakens | Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: a practical primer for ttests and anovas[END_REF]. Each video will be submitted with a questionnaire to a group. Forms will be sent twice, several weeks apart, to ensure with a testretest task that the metric is reliable. Reliability, validity and sensibility of the measure will be tested in various statistical ways to validate the quality of the French version of the scale.

V. CONCLUSION

We proposed a new measure of perceived empathy in HRI and validated the items of the French version with experts from cognitive sciences and robotics. There are obviously still many things to do to get to the point of having a valid metric, such as reliability, sensibility, and generalizability tests. The purpose of this metric is to improve the reproduciblity, validity, and comparability of robotic empathy research.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by the French Association Nationale de la Recherche et de la Technologie (ANRT) contract 2017/0226 and the joint laboratory BEHAVIORS.AI funded by the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) contract ANR-16-LCV2-0003-01.


Gunwinyguan

Non-Paman-Nyungan

Maïa Australia

Ponsonnet

This chapter presents the semantic extensions of the word for 'face' in Dalabon, a language of the Gunwinyguan family from northern Australia (non-Pama-Nyungan group). As is common in this region, the Dalabon word for 'face', dje-, also means 'nose' and 'nostril'. The word has relatively limited semantic extensions as a bare noun but features in a significant number of lexicalized compounds pertaining to the semantic domains of facial appearance and expressions, emotional dispositions, behaviors and states, as well as social interactions. In most of these compounds the semantic contribution of dje-is tied to its 'face' rather than its 'nose' or 'nostrils' meanings, although the latter senses are more prevalent for the bare noun. In a number of respects, the semantic extensions dje-in Dalabon are reasonably representative of the semantic profiles of words for 'face' in this part of Australia, and perhaps in the rest of the continent.

Introduction 1

This chapter explores the semantic extensions of the term for 'face' in Dalabon, a Gunwinyguan language (non-Pama-Nyungan group) spoken in the central north of Australia. The word in question is the noun dje-no, which primarily means 'nose' or 'nostril', but can also be used to refer to the whole face. Interestingly, although 'face' is only a secondary denotation of dje-no, a significant proportion of the semantic extensions of the form derive conceptually from this sense, rather than from 'nose' or 'nostril'. All these semantic extensions occur via lexicalized expressions that include the form dje-. 2 Contrary to what we see in many languages of the world, in Dalabon descriptions of the body, including partonomies and figurative compounds involving body-part nouns.

Because Australian traditions have been mostly oral until colonization, there is no written historical data on Dalabonthe earliest written records we have date back to the early 1960s [START_REF] Capell | Dalabon grammar. In Some linguistic types in Australia[END_REF]. Like with other Australian languages, it is possible to infer some of the history of Dalabon based on comparison with other Gunwinyguan languages [START_REF] Harvey | The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region[END_REF]. However, given that linguistic research in this direction has remained relatively preliminary so far for this family, most of the suggestions we can articulate in this realm remain quite speculative. Given the modest scope of this chapter, I will limit myself to the discussion of the synchronic data available for Dalabon, and mostly refrain from discussing cross-linguistic or historical matters.

Like other languages of the Gunwinyguan family, Dalabon is highly polysynthetic, largely head-marking with respect to verbal arguments, with some suffixal case-marking nominal morphology mainly targeting adjuncts. There exists no full grammar of Dalabon at this stage, but there is a dictionary [START_REF] Evans | A First Dictionary of Dalabon[END_REF]. A number of articles and theses describe various aspects of the language, including the verbal template, tense/aspect/mood categories, person prefixes [START_REF] Evans | Dalabon pronominal prefixes and the typology of syncretism: A network morphology analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | The non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: Comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Who said polysynthetic languages avoid subordination? Multiple subordination strategies in Dalabon[END_REF], demonstratives [START_REF] Cutfield | Demonstratives in Dalabon. A language of south-western Arnhem Land[END_REF] or prosody [START_REF] Evans | Big words, small phrases: Mismatches between pause units and the polysynthetic word in Dalabon[END_REF][START_REF] Ross | Prosody and grammar in Dalabon and Kayardild. School of Language and Linguistics. Merlbourne: The[END_REF]. [START_REF] Ponsonnet | The language of emotions: The case of Dalabon (Australia)[END_REF] offers a detailed account of the linguistic encoding of emotions. This is particularly relevant here because body parts play a prevalent role in Dalabon figurative descriptions of emotions. [START_REF] Ponsonnet | Nominal subclasses in Dalabon (South Western Arnhem Land)[END_REF] discussion of Dalabon possession classes presents a detailed analysis of the grammatical status of body-part nouns. In the following section, I summarize the most important of these grammatical properties, as a useful background to the analysis of the semantic extensions of the Dalabon noun for 'face'. [START_REF] Ponsonnet | Nominal subclasses in Dalabon (South Western Arnhem Land)[END_REF] has shown how Dalabon nouns are distributed across six distinct possession classes, each of which exhibits its own set of morphosyntactic behaviors and properties with respect to possession. Many languages in the world have two possession classes, and in such cases one of them is usually labelled alienable, and the other inalienable [START_REF] Nichols | On alienable and inalienable possession[END_REF][START_REF] Chappell | The grammar of inalienability: A typological perspective on body part terms and the part-whole relation[END_REF][START_REF] Lichtenberk | Attributive possessive constructions in Oceanic[END_REF]. In Dalabon, this (in) given that there are six, rather than just two, possession classes. Although some of these classes are clearly less 'alienable' than others, Dalabon inalienability is better regarded as a cline.4

The grammar of body-part nouns in Dalabon

Dalabon body-part nounsalong with detachable parts such as hair, products such as saliva, and abstract attributes of the person such as one's name, shadow, spirit etc., see Ponsonnet (in press) form one of these grammatical possession classes. In this section, I present three grammatical properties that define this class. Firstly, body-part nouns are morphologically bound; secondly, their possessors are usually raised to argument functions; and thirdly, they can incorporate into verbs (Ponsonnet 2015: 21-25).

The first and second grammatical properties are important to understand Dalabon bodypart nouns, albeit less relevant to our present discussion of the semantic extensions of the noun for 'face'. Morphological boundedness means that Dalabon body-part nouns cannot occur without some morphological materialeither a suffix or a wordappended to their right. The material in question can be anything, for instance another noun forming a compound as in (1), an adjective as in the second occurrence in (2), or some verbal material when a noun is incorporated into a verb complex as in the third occurrence in (2) (see below about noun incorporation). If the context does not provide any material to be appended, then a body-part noun will be followed by a possessive suffix, as with see in the first occurrence in (2). This suffix can default to a third person singular suffix -no where the possessor is unknown, as reflected in body-part citation forms [START_REF] Evans | A First Dictionary of Dalabon[END_REF]. This is why the noun for 'face' is cited as dje-no rather than dje. To the extent that they must receive a possessive suffix when used on their own, Dalabon body-part nouns are said to be 'obligatorily possessed'.

20100725_002_MT 14 [Stim] [START_REF] Chappell | The grammar of inalienability: A typological perspective on body part terms and the part-whole relation[END_REF]. That is, the possessor (i.e. the whole) gets cross-referenced as an argument on the verb instead of the body part itself, as illustrated in the second line in (3). If dje-no 'nose, nostril, face' was cross-referenced on the verb, then the person prefix at the beginning of the verb complex would be ka-, third person singular acting upon an inanimate third person singular. But the prefix buka-cross-references an animate second argument, namely the person whose nose has been cut off.

20110518a_002_QB 625 [Narr] [From a traditional tale.]

(3) Ka-h-dadjka-ng keninjbi-dorrungh, kanh lawk, 3sg/3-R-cut (5) Mamam-ngan ka-h-karlang-ka-ninji. grandfather-1sg.POSS 3sg/1-R-shoulder-take-PCUST 'My grandfather (mother's father) used to carry me on his shoulders.'

20120706b_005_MT 095 [ContEl] (6) Delegram buka-h-marnu-burlh-miyan, email 3sg/3sg.h-R-BEN-come.out-FUT mulah-no-kun ka-h-lng-kangu-yowyow-miyan. mother'sister-3sg.POSS-GEN 3sg-R-SEQ-belly-flow:REDUP-FUT 'She'll get a phonecall, and she will be pleased about her mother's sister.' This lexicalization pathway, via frozen noun-incorporation constructions, is the main avenue of semantic extensions for body-part nouns in Dalabon. All these metaphors are lexicalized, and therefore conventional. Free, poetic metaphors are relatively rare in Dalabon (Ponsonnet 2014: 230) adpositions. The current noun for 'face' dje-no shows no signs of such grammaticalizationcontrary to the noun for 'chest', berru-no, which can attract spatial interpretations. The extensions of dje-no, on the other hand, occur mostly via the sort of lexicalized compound predicates discussed above, as well as via nominal compounds. They concern the semantic domains of physical appearance, emotions and social interactions. Before discussing these three domains in Sections Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable. to Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.

below, in Section Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable. I present the primary denotations of dje-no.

Body parts and denotations of the bare noun

As already mentioned, the word for 'face' in Dalabon is dje-no. There is no other word to talk about the whole face. Dje-no has several meanings, and as evidenced by speakers' responses to pointing tasks and other tests (Ponsonnet 2012: 368-75), 'face' is not its primary denotation.

Instead, dje-no primarily means 'nose', as in (7) (and (3) above); and often means 'nostrils' as well. When presented with visual stimuli featuring faces and asked to identify dje-no, speakers always point to the nose first, and never point to the whole face spontaneously. The 'face' meaning of dje-no is nevertheless clearly attested, as in (8) (and (2) above), but it is less frequent, especially outside of compounds. Several languages of the Gunwinyguan family, such as Kunwok [START_REF] Garde | Bininj Kunwok Lexicon[END_REF] or Rembarrnga [START_REF] Saulwick | A First Dictionary of Rembarrnga[END_REF], also colexify 'face' and 'nose'. This occurs elsewhere on the continent too (e.g. Kukatja, Pama-Nyungan, Western Desert, Peile 1997), and more generally in many Australian languages the word for 'face' also denotes a part of the face, such as the forehead (e.g. Yolngu, Pama-Nyungan, Arnhem Land, Zorc and Bowern 2012) or the eyes (e.g.

Kaytetye, Pama-Nyungan, Arandic, Central Australia, [START_REF] Turpin | Body part terms in Kaytetye feeling expressions[END_REF]Turpin &[START_REF] Ross | Prosody and grammar in Dalabon and Kayardild. School of Language and Linguistics. Merlbourne: The[END_REF].

In addition to human-oriented denotations, dje-no can also be used to talk about equivalent parts of animals, such as the beak of a bird or the nostrils and tip of the nose of a crocodile. in Table (1). We see that most of the compounds refer to a part of the nose, reflecting that this is the primary denotation of the dje-no. Applied to objects, dje-no can mean 'hook', typically the peg of a spear-thrower. This sense is another extension of the 'nose' sense, with a metaphor inspired by the shape of spear-throwers.

Compound

An important conclusion from the set of denotations of dje-no is that the primary sense of this Dalabon word is 'nose'. 'Face' is a secondary meaning, in fact even more backgrounded than 'nostril'. However, as the following sections will reveal, the semantic extensions of this form mostly rely on the meaning 'face' rather than 'nose' or 'nostril'.

Physical appearance

A number of lexical compounds featuring dje-relate to the physical appearance of the face. These compounds can describe lasting properties of someone's facial appearancewhether properties of their features (Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.), or momentary facial expressions (Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.). All these senses derive most naturally from the 'face' sense of dje-no. Combined with the adjectives mon, mondih or burrama, all meaning 'good', or with weh or wehkurla, meaning 'bad', dje-can be used to qualify the attractiveness of people's features, as in (9). The meaning of such expressions is compositional, and dje-does implicitly refer to the face here, not the nose. These expressions are lexicalized to the extent that the combinations of components are somewhat frozen: for instance, dje-is not a natural combination with marrkidj 'beautiful'.

Looks

20120718a_000_MT 058 [El] (9) Kanh kirdikird mak ka-dje-burrama, ka-h-dje-weh. DEM woman NEG 3sg-face/nose-good 3sg-R-face-bad

Bah bulu ka-h-dja-berrmeberrma-ng. but 3pl 3sg/3-R-FOC-joke:REDUP-PP 'This woman is not pretty, she's ugly. But she makes jokes with them [with men].' (Joking with someone is akin to flirting with them and liking them, hence the implication that men like this woman although she is not pretty.) In addition there are also some lexicalized expressions where dje-combines with men-, the latter meaning 'ideas, mind, consciousness' [START_REF] Ponsonnet | Aspects of the semantics of intellectual subjectivity in Dalabon (southwestern Arnhem Land)[END_REF]. That is, one can say dje-menburrama instead of dje-burrama for 'good looking', or dje-men-weh instead of dje-weh for 'ugly'.

Elsewhere in my data, men-produces compounds related to cognitive functions (intellectual states and processes, plus some emotional states). While there is no clear-cut explanation to the presence of men-in facial-appearance compounds, given the ubiquity of body and part-of-the-person nouns in Dalabon in this semantic domain, these occurrences of men-'ideas, mind, consciousness' are hardly surprising. The accumulation of two body-part nouns before a predicate is a widespread phenomenon. Like other nouns for holistic aspects of the person (e.g. njerrh-'body'), men-'idea, mind', can have abstract, and somewhat more neutral semantic contributions (Ponsonnet 2014: 357-58). For instance, both men-yer(mu) and yer(mu) mean 'be ashamed', so that the contribution of men in this compound is neutral (Ponsonnet 2014: 338-39).

As illustrated in (10), some compounds with dje-denote facial resemblances. Dje-rokrok is another compositional compound, as rokrok means 'same' and the compound means 'look alike'. Note that a synonym is men-rokrok, where 'ideas, mind'+'same' means 'look alike' (facial resemblance). That is, the semantic contributions of men-and dje-to the compound are the same, in spite of these elements having quite different meanings in isolation. We also see in the second line of example (10) that 'look alike', and more specifically here 'look like one's ascendant' can also be expressed as men-wan 'ideas, mind'+'follow'.

Bulnu bula-h-men-wa-n. […]

Bala-h-dje-rokrok. find the resemblance in question endearing, because it emphasizes social connection. She expresses her endearment using a diminutive and an interjectionsee Ponsonnet (2014: 81-109).)

We see in example (10) that another compound, dje-dadjka 'nose/nostril/face'+'cut', 'look alike', also denotes resemblance. It produces an opaque metaphor, CUTTING SOMEONE'S FACE IS LIKE LOOKING ALIKE, for which I have no compelling conceptual or cultural explanation. This is the only figurative compound with dje-in the semantic domain of physical appearance.

Facial expressions

Apart from aesthetic properties of the face, compounds with dje-can also describe temporary facial expressions such as laughter, tears etc. The facial-expression compounds that occur in my corpus are listed in Dalabon: yirru-mun 'be angry', for example, was found to combine with dalu-'mouth', langu-'hand', marru-'hair', mumu-'eyes', and more (Ponsonnet 2014: 332-36).

20110530_003_MT 245 [ContEl] (11) Bulu-no kardu ka-h-yirru-mu-n, bulu ka-h-du-ng. father-3sg.POSS maybe 3sg-R-conflict/anger-INCH-PRS 3pl 3sg/3-R-scold-PRS 'The father may be angry, he scolds them.'

20120719b_002_MT 42 [Film] [Commenting on a movie character conveying her disapproval of another character by means of a facial expression.]

(12)

Buka-h-marnu-dje-yirru-m-inj. 3sg/3sg.h-R-BEN-nose/face-conflict/anger-INCH-PST 'She's angry against him [and expresses it] from the face.' With dje-yerrk(mu) 'face'+'slip, flow', 'cry' and dje-borlk(mu) 'face'+'fall out', 'put a sad face', dje-modifies the interpretation of the predicates. In each case, the addition of dje-, referring to the face, imposes a figurative reading of the compound, as we can see from the semantics of yerrk-minj in (13) vs dje-yerrk-minj in (14). 'As for him now, he's breaking into tears [face-slip/flow], he's going to cry, the husband.'

Emotional associations

The compounds discussed in Section Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable. evidently relate to emotions, however strictly speaking they denote the expression of emotions. Below I discuss compounds that relate to the same moods, but denote either people's emotional dispositions or behaviors (5.1), or emotional states themselves (Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.). Some of the compounds discussed in the section can denote facial expressions as well, but I deal with them here as long as they also denote emotional dispositions, behaviors or states. The djecomponent of these expressions is interpreted literally, mostly as 'face', yielding facial-expression denotations like the ones discussed in Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.. The resulting compound then attract an emotional reading based on the FACIAL EXPRESSION FOR CORRESPONDING EMOTION metonymy (Kövecses 2000: 134).

Emotional behaviors

Derived from the association of the face with laughter are two compounds that describe emotionally charged behaviors, presented in Table ( 4) below. Although dje-rekohrekoh (which is opaque in synchrony since rekoh has no meaning of its own) can occasionally mean 'laugh', its primary sense is 'be a jolly/funny chap' (illustrated in ( 15)). Hence it describes a personality trait and corresponding behaviornot a facial expression. Dje-rekohrekoh can also evoke flirtatious behaviors, although this appears to be a secondary meaning. The semantic extension from being entertaining to being flirtatious reflects a relatively pervasive cultural association between laughing and joking on the one hand and flirting on the other hand: people of opposite gender engaged in lively, smiley chats are normally considered to be flirting. Dje-kol(mu) 'nose/face'+'pretend' has very similar meanings as dje-rekohrekoh. It can be used in similar contexts to describe someone who keeps being funny, puts on a show to remain the focus of attention; it can also mean 'to flirt' (Ponsonnet 2018: 109-110). Here the semantic contribution of dje-is minimal: the verb kol(mu) exhibits very comparable meanings when used on its own. The presence of dje-in this compound is probably due in part to an analogy with other dje-compounds that describe laughter. Kol(mu) combines with a number of body parts, all with meanings revolving around seduction, so that this sense is not very specific to the face. 'Young men, men, young women, teenage girls, when they go around and follow each other. That's when they're flirting. They try and seduce each other. They might end up with a lover.'

Compound Meaning

Other component dje-kol(mu), v.i. dje-kolmiyi, adj. act silly to make people laugh, flirt kol(mu) v.i. 'pretend, act funny' kolmiyi not well attested outside of compounds dje-rekohrekoh, adj.

laugh, be a jolly chap, a funny chap; flirt rekohrekoh not attested Table 4. Compounds with dje-denoting emotional dispositions and behaviors. A number of dje-compounds can be used to describe emotional statesunsurprisingly, those strongly associated with facial expressions, such as being sulky or sad. These compounds are listed in Table ( 5) and discussed below.

Emotional states

Compound Meaning

Other component dje-bruH(mu), v.i.

be sulky, sad (emotion)/put on a dark face (expression) bruH(mu), v.i. 'blow'

dje-dol(mu), v.i. sulky unclear dje-ngarrk(mu), v.i.

feel very bad, feel sick and tired ngarrk(mu), v.i. 'be sick' Table 5. Compounds with dje-denoting emotional states.

While dje-dol(mu) and dje-ngarrk(mu) are only marginally attested, dje-bruH(mu) 'nose/face'+'blow', 'sulky, sad/put on a dark face' is amongst the most frequent emotion words in Dalabon (Ponsonnet 2014: 180;184). The emotional sense is the most salient, however the facialexpression sense 'put on a dark face' still applies in some contexts. It is more than likely that it is the most ancient meaning, and that the compound has developed purely emotional senses, illustrated in ( 17) and ( 18), from the initial facial-expression meaning. Mulah-ngan ka-h-moyh-yo, nga-h-dje-bruH-minj. mother's.sister-1sg.POSS 3sg-R-sick-lie:PP 1sg-R-nose/face-blow-PP 'My mother's sister was sick, I was sad.'

The trope instantiated by dje-bruH(mu) 'nose/face'+'blow', 'sulky, sad/put on a dark face' is somewhat obscure: assuming that dje-refers to the nose in this particular compound, it would translate as BLOWING FROM THE NOSE FOR FEELING SAD. While this could be a metonymic allusion to animals blowing in anger,7 this association did not seem to evoke anything for speakers, and it does not fit well at all with the rest of the emotional figurative 'system' observed in Dalabon [START_REF] Ponsonnet | The language of emotions: The case of Dalabon (Australia)[END_REF]. Instead, the figurative dimension of dje-bruH(mu) is probably better understood with reference to an apparently archaic sense of bruH(mu), probably around the notions of growth or swelling. 8 The trope would then become GROWING/SWOLLEN NOSE/FACE FOR FEELING SAD. This is evocative of a size trope found in a number of Australian languages across the continent, where expressions meaning 'big nose' are used to denote negative emotions or moodi.e. LARGE NOSE FOR NEGATIVE EMOTION/MOOD (Ponsonnet and Laginha 2021, 57;Turpin 2002, 281;Peile 1997, 128). Indeed, a calqued expression occurs in the local Kriol, shwelopnos, from English 'swell up'+'nose', meaning 'be sulky, angry'. The underpinnings of the conceptual association between the size of the nose and negative emotions remain obscure. The meanings of 'big nose' expressions across Australia suggest that it could be inspired from behaviors involving movements of the face, and/or the appearance of the nose when these movements occur. Note that comparable tropes are found elsewhere in the world. In French for instance, 'avoir quelqu'un dans le nez', 'have someone in the nose', means to dislike them.

Social associations

Last but not least the Dalabon word dje-occurs in a number of compounds that describe social interactions (Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.), as well as, also in the social domain, kin terms (Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.) and an idiomatic way to say 'thank you' (Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable.). The compounds related to social interactions are clearly metonymic extensions based on the 'face' sense of dje-no, with a FACE FOR PERSON metonymy. The motivations of the other two extensions remain opaque. In a couple of compounds, listed in Table ( 6), dje-could be interpreted as a reference to the person as a social individual. This FACE FOR PERSON metonymy is based on a more general PART FOR WHOLE metonymy (Kövecses 2002: 151-152). Here again, the 'face' meaning of dje-no is a more plausible conceptual source of the associations that the 'nose' meaning. In constrast with the extensions discussed in previous sections, which are all intransitive, here the verbal compounds with dje-are transitive. This in line with the fact that they describe social interactions, involving two participants. Dje-djawan 'nose/face'+'ask' is only marginally attested, but kodj-djawan '(crown of) head'+'ask', with the same sense of 'ask permission to someone with authority', has more attestations (Ponsonnet 2009: 23). The alternation between dje-'nose/face' and kodj-'(crown of) head' is not at all surprising given how flexible Dalabon is with the use of body-part nouns in social, cognitive and emotional compounds. No other body part is attested in combination with any other kinship term in Dalabon, and generally speaking the presence of body-part nouns in kin nouns is not frequently attested in Australian Indigenous languages 9 . This is somewhat surprising, given the salient role of body parts in sign language across the continent, as reported by [START_REF] Kendon | Sign languages of aboriginal Australia: Cultural, semiotic and communicative perspectives[END_REF]. But even there, the face and its parts do not feature prominently (1988: 336-338). Given such comparative insights, it is not entirely clear whether dje-'stands' for 'face/nose' in the compounds listed in Table ( 7), or whether this may be an archaic remnant of a form that used to mean something else. Further investigation of neighboring and other Australian languages could help shed light upon this question.

FACE FOR PERSON AND SOCIAL

Compound

Kinship terms

Expression of gratefulness

Combined with the past form of the verb ngun 'eat

] Dja-h-milh-ngu-nj. 1sg/2sg-R-forehead-eat-PP Ka-h-mon dja-h-dje-ngu-nj ya-h-yenjyenjdju-ng yang. 3sg-R-mon 1sg/2sg-R-nose/face-eat-PP
1du.incl-R-talk:REDUP-PRS language 'I thank you. It's good I thank you that you and me talk in language.' 'Nose/face' can also be replaced by another body part depending on the event one is grateful for. For instance, one would 'eat someone's hand' if they shared food (with their hand), 'eat someone's feet' if they brought something over (walking, using their feet), etc. However, dje-'nose/face' is the default, used when the event is unspecified, which could reflect the salient status of the face as a social representation of the person.

Conclusions

Like many Australian languages of the same region and across the continent, in Dalabon the word for 'face', dje-no, also denotes other parts of the face, namely the nose and nostrils. Despite the fact that the 'nose' sense is primary, dje-no yields a range of semantic extensions that are relatively typical of 'face' words in the world's language. They include physical appearance of the facefeatures and facial expressions -, emotional dispositions, behaviors and states, and social interactions. Dje-no has not developed semantic extensions in the domain of space, as words for 'face' often do in other languages. In part, this reflects that the grammar of Dalabon does not strongly encourage the grammaticalization of nouns into adpositions, which is the main avenue of semantic extensions of 'face' terms to the domain of space. Instead, in Dalabon, the semantic extensions of dje-no 'nose, nostril, face' occur via lexical composition resulting from noun incorporation or nominal compounding. across the world's languages (Kövecses 2000: 134). Indeed, many Australian languages include the word for 'face' in emotional collocations (Ponsonnet and Laginha, 2021, 58). It is more puzzling that the most frequent dje-compound in this semantic domain, dje-bruH(mu)

'nose/face'+'blow', 'sulky, sad/put on a dark face', seems to rely upon a trope involving the nose, namely GROWING/SWOLLEN NOSE FOR FEELING SAD. Although attested in a number of other Australian languages, the metonymy LARGE NOSE FOR NEGATIVE EMOTION/MOOD remains unexplained.

The occurrence of the Dalabon word for 'face' in compounds denoting social interactions is no more surprising than its occurrence in emotional compounds. It relies upon the widespread FACE FOR PERSON metonymy. In addition, in Dalabon the word for 'face' also features in kinship terms, which is not particularly well-attested elsewhere in Australia. In addition, dje-occurs in compounds used to thank people, which is attested in other languages of the Gunwinyguan family neighboring Dalabon, but not elsewhere in Australia as far as I am aware.

It is interesting that the vast majority of the extensions of the Dalabon noun dje-no 'nose, nostril, face' are better understood conceptually on the basis of the 'face' sense of the word, although the primary meaning of the base noun is very clearly 'nose'. This could be because there is not much conceptual ground for semantic extensions based on the 'nose' sense (or the 'nostril' sense), apart from the metaphoric extensions based on visual similarity of the body part and certain pointy/sharp objects. This may lead speakers to exploit the secondary sense 'face' for semantic derivation.

  **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  alienability contrast makes less sense, **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  , and I have not found any involving the face in my data. Contrary to what is observed in many other languages of the world, body-part nouns do not very naturally grammaticalize into **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

3

  '00''/30015a/2008 (LB) [ContEl] (7)Dje-no-walung [...], ka-h-dja-kulu-bo-n, kanh wurdurd-wurd [...]. nose-3sg.POSS-ABL 3sg-R-just-mucus-go-PRS DEM child-DIM '[It's running] from her nose, this child's nose is running.' **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill. 20100716_002_MK_JG 0588 [ContEl] [Touching her cheek and side of chin.] (8) Wurdi nga-h-dje-werleberrk-mu! INTJ.neg 1sg-R-nose-?hang.down?-PRS 'Oh dear, I'm all wrinkled!' Dalabon body-part nouns are often part of compounds that denote other body parts. The forms found with dje-are listed

  **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  3pl 3pl/3-R-ideas-follow-PRS 3pl-R-face/nose-same:REDUP 'The children look a little like her [their cousin], how cute. They follow her features. They have the same face.' (The cultural emphasis on family relations leads the speaker to **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  melbe ka-h-nahb-inj ka-h-lng-yerrk-minj. brother-1sg.POSS mud 3sg-step-PP 3sg-R-SEQ-slip/flow-PP 'My brother stepped into the mud and slipped.' 20120705b_001_MT 119 [Stim] [Commenting on a video where a woman leaves a man alone after rejecting the flowers he offered.] (14) Yibung-karn-wali ka-h-dje-yerrk-minj 3sg-EMPH-in.turn 3sg-R-nose/face-slip/flow-PP ka-h-ru-yan, duway-no-yih. 3sg-R-cry-FUT husband-3sg.POSS-ERG **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  she's a jolly chap, she always makes you laugh.' **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  Yawurrinj biyi, kirdikird-wurd yawk-no, young.man man woman-DIM young.woman-FILL bale-bobo-n bala-h-wawa-rru-n. 3pl:SUB-go:REDUP-PRS 3pl-R-follow:REDUP-RR-PRS Nunh kanh bala-h-dje-kol-mu. DEM DEM 3pl-R-nose/face-pretend-PRS Bala-h-marnu-dje-kol-murru-n. Kardu mararradj wubulu-yidjnja-n. 3pl-R-BEN-nose/face-pretend-RR-PRS maybe lover APPR:3pl/3-have-PRS

  **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  20110605_003_LB_ND 088 (LB)[Stim] [Describing a picture where a character looks sulky.] (17)Kardu yibung-karn bulu ka-h-djare-ninj nahdah bala-h-bo-ni. maybe 3sg-EMPH 3pl 3sg-R-like/want-PI there 3pl-R-go-IRR Ka-h-lng-dje-bruH-mu mak nol nga-h-marnu-bo-niyan. 3sg-R-SEQ-nose/face-blow-PRS NEG 2pl 1sg/2-R-BEN-go-FUT 'Perhaps he wanted them to go there [altogether, instead]. He's sulking: I won't go with you.

  **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  INDIVIDUAL **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  The occurrence of the Dalabon word for 'face' dje-in compounds denoting physical appearance is by no means surprising, and in these compounds dje-attracts a plainly literal interpretation. Compounds denoting emotional dispositions, behaviors and states are also expected, as they can derive from FACIAL EXPRESSION FOR EMOTION metonymies well attested **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

  We find dje-in a number of Dalabon verbs and adjectives used to describe somebody's looks, as recapitulated in Table(2) and discussed below. In these compounds, dje-refers literally to the face.

	Compound	Meaning	Other component
	LOOKING GOOD
	dje-(men)-burrama, adj.	good looking	burrama, adj. 'good, healthy'
			men-no, n. 'ideas, mind'
	dje-mon/mondih, adj.	good looking	mon, adj. 'good, fine'
		(may also occasionally mean 'good-	mondih, adj. 'good'
		tempered')
	dje-(men)-weh, adj.	ugly (may also occasionally mean	weh, adj. 'bad, unhealthy'
		'quarrelsome')	men-no, n. 'ideas, mind'
	dje-wehkurla, adj.	ugly	wehkurla, adj. 'bad'
	LOOKING ALIKE
	dje-dadjka, v.t.	look like someone
		(particularly a family member)

**DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

dadjka, v.t. 'cut' dje-rokrok, adj. look alike rokrok, adj. 'same'

Table 2. Compounds with dje-describing facial features.

-ru-dih, adj. not

	Compound	Meaning	Other component
	dje-borlk(mu), v.i.	put a sad face	borlk(mu), v.i. 'fall out'
	dje-redjiredjing, v.i.	laugh	redjing, v.i. 'laugh', reduplicated
	dje

Table (3)

. Here again, dje-implicitly refers to the face, not the nose; and as with facialappearance compounds, this reference is literal rather figurative, i.e. the compounds literally denote an aspect of the face. Interestingly, dje-exhibits different semantic contributions with different compounds. crying ru, v.i. 'cry', -dih, privative suffix

dje-yerrk(mu), v.i. cry

yerrk(mu), v.i. 'slip, flow'

dje-yirru-mun, v.i. express

hostility with the face yirru-mun, v.i. 'be(come) angry'

Table 3 .

 3 Compounds with dje-describing facial expressions.With dje-redjiredjing 'laugh', redjiredjing also means 'laugh' in itself, and dje-does not really modify its meaning; it simply signals that the face is involved in laughing. The same can be

	said of crying, however *ru-dih 'cry-without' does not occur on its own, so in this case dje-is
	'indispensable', so-to-say. With dje-yirru-mun, dje-shifts the meaning of the predicate without
	modifying it entirely, from the emotional sense 'be(come) angry' to the facial-expression meaning

'express anger with the face'. This mechanism whereby a body part combines with an emotional predicate to describe the expression of the emotion with this body part is somewhat productive in **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

Table 6 .

 6 Compounds with dje-with social meanings. I have forgotten him, I can't remember his face, what he looks like [his appearance].'

	Strictly compositional interpretations of dje-bengkan 'nose/face'+'know' and dje-nan
	'nose/face'+'see', as in 'see someone's face' (for instance on a picture) or 'know someone's face'
	are not attested and seem to be avoided by speakers. Nevertheless, the purely compositional
	reading usually remains available as well, in combination with a lexicalized social reading -
	basically because seeing someone physically normally involves seeing themselves physically. In
	0, dje-bengkan 'nose/face'+'know' means 'recognize someone', including their whole body rather
	than just their face. In 0, it means 'know someone' -which implies knowing their face, but refers
	to social acquaintance in the broader sense. In (21), dje-nan 'nose/face'+'see' means 'see
	someone' in the sense of being able to interact with this person; and in (22), dje-rok-nan
	'nose/face'+'appearance'+'see' means 'see someone socially', 'catch up'.
	30087/2007 -1' (MT) [El]
	(19) […] nga-h-dja-marnu-kodj-muk-minj
		1sg/3-R-FOC-BEN-head-cover-PP
	mak nga-dje-bengka-n	dorrung-no-dorrungh.
	NEG	1sg/3-face/nose-know-PRS body-3gs.POSS-?body/COM?

**DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

'

  As is typical of Australian languages[START_REF] Dousset | Australian Aboriginal Kinship. An introductory handbook with particular emphasis on the Western Desert[END_REF], Dalabon has a relatively extensive kinship terminology, including distinctions between different types of grandchildren: the language has distinct terms for female's daughter's children, male's son's children, etc., and often more than one word for each category. The form dje-occurs in two kinship terms, both denoting types of grandchildren, as presented in Table(7).

	Compound	Meaning	Other component
	dje-kanhwoh(-kadjdji), kin n.	woman's son's child	kanjwoh, kin n. 'woman's son's
			child'
	dje-mawah, kin n.	man's son's child	mawah, kin n. 'man's son child'

**DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

Table 7 .

 7 Kin compounds with dje-.

  ', dje-'nose/face' can be used in social interactions to express gratefulness, i.e. to say 'thank you', as illustrated in 0. Speakers report comparable expressions in neighboring languages. They usually translate this expression literally (in Kriol or English) as 'eat your nose' rather than 'eat your face', but this does not constitute evidence that the expression derives from the 'nose' sense of dje-no. Instead, it may simply reflects

	(23)	20111208_002_MT 13 [El]
		[Referring to elicitation sessions.
	that early Kriol speakers used nos for 'face' as well as for 'nose', matching Dalabon/Australian
	lexical categories (Ponsonnet 2012: 374, note 34; 2018; 2020). Alternative parts of the face can
	feature in comparable contexts, like milh-'forehead' in 0.

9 See the Austkin database: http://www.austkin.net/index.php?loc=project **DRAFT** Ponsonnet. 2023. The affordances of 'face' in Dalabon, Gunwinyguan, non-Paman-Nyungan, Australia, Pattillo K. and Waśniewska M. eds. Embodiment in Cross-Linguistic Studies: The 'Face', 277-299. Leiden: Brill.

The data collection for the chapter was funded by an ELDP grant from the Hans Rausing Foundation (IGS0125), as well as two AIATSIS Grants (G2007/7242 and G2009/7439). I am immensely grateful to the Dalabon speakers I worked with on for this research, particularly †Maggie Tukumba, †Lily Bennett and Queenie Brennan.

The suffix -no is not included in lexicalized expressions. See Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable. for further discussion.

The literature suggests that comparable phenomena may occur in other non-Pama-Nyungan languages, however they have generally been analyzed from a different angle (see for instance[START_REF] Evans | The syntax and semantics of body part incorporation in Mayali[END_REF][START_REF] Harvey | Body parts in Warray[END_REF][START_REF] Mckay | Body parts, possession marking and nominal classes in Njébbana[END_REF] and Ponsonnet (in press) for an overview).

Abbreviations not listed in the Leipzig glossing rules. APPR: apprehensive mood; compass: compassion; DIM:

Apart from the presence of men-in these compounds, there is not much additional evidence to indicate that men-no could have meant 'face' at an earlier stage of the language.

Horses, buffaloes and donkeys, originally imported by farmers, have grown significant wild populations in this part of Australia.

In synchrony, bruH(mu) can be used in specific contexts to describe the growth of a pregnant woman. The neighboring Jawoyn language, from the same Gunwinyguan family, has a cognate form bur'-ma-[buɹʔma]) which means 'swell up'[START_REF] Merlan | Jawoyn-English Dictionary and English Finder List[END_REF].

This data collection was funded by the Endangered Language Project of the Hans Rausing Foundation (IGS0125). I am immensely grateful to the Dalabon community, and particularly to the speakers who have shared their knowledge with me over the years.


Sami Barrit

Alexandre Niset

LogDoctor: an open and decentralized worker-centered solution for occupational management in healthcare

Occupational stress among health workers is a pervasive issue that affects individual well-being, patient care quality, and healthcare systems' sustainability. Current time-tracking solutions are mostly employer-driven, neglecting the unique requirements of health workers. In turn, we propose an open and decentralized worker-centered solution that leverages machine intelligence for occupational health and safety monitoring. Its robust technological stack, including blockchain technology and machine learning, ensures compliance with legal frameworks for data protection and working time regulations, while a decentralized autonomous organization bolsters distributed governance. To tackle implementation challenges, we employ a scalable, interoperable, and modular architecture while engaging diverse stakeholders through open beta testing and pilot programs. By bridging an unaddressed technological gap in healthcare, this approach offers a unique opportunity to incentivize user adoption and align stakeholders' interests. We aim to empower health workers to take control of their time, valorize their work, and safeguard their health while enhancing the care of their patients.

Background

Work-related stress is a long-standing and widespread public health issue [START_REF] Leka | Work organisation and stress: systematic problem approaches for employers, managers and trade union representatives[END_REF], associated with inadequate working conditions [START_REF] Lawrence R Murphy | Occupational stress management: Current status and future directions[END_REF] due to structural failures [START_REF] Pross | The culture of organizations dealing with trauma: Sources of workrelated stress and conflict[END_REF]. Health workers are particularly exposed due to common resource-constrained [4] and crisis settings [START_REF] Prasad | Prevalence and correlates of stress and burnout among US healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A national cross-sectional survey study[END_REF], as well as the inherent physical and emotional burdens of caregiving [START_REF] Mariné | Preventing occupational stress in healthcare workers[END_REF]. Primary missions such as caring, education, and research are often impeded by cost-cutting measures reducing supportive resources and the increasing administrative burden from medical liability documentation. These mismatches between resources and capacities result in work overload [START_REF] Nirel | Stress, work overload, burnout, and satisfaction among paramedics in Israel[END_REF] [8] [START_REF] Michie | Causes and management of stress at work[END_REF], job dissatisfaction [START_REF] Aiken | Hospital nurse staffing and patient mortality, nurse burnout, and job dissatisfaction[END_REF], and work-life imbalance [START_REF] Humphries | Hospital doctors in Ireland and the struggle for work-life balance[END_REF].

On a personal level, this leads to loss of health and life due to burnout, depression, suicide, stroke, and cardiovascular diseases [START_REF] Greiner | Occupational stressors and hypertension: a multi-method study using observer-based job analysis and self-reports in urban transit operators[END_REF] [13] [START_REF] Ferguson | A study of occupational stress and health[END_REF] [START_REF] Steptoe | Stress and cardiovascular disease: an update on current knowledge[END_REF]. On a collective level, it compromises the population's safety by undermining the quality of care [START_REF] Moustaka | Sources and effects of work-related stress in nursing[END_REF] and contributes to the brain drain of healthcare professionals and staff shortages, creating a self-reinforcing cycle [START_REF] Humphries | Hospital doctors in Ireland and the struggle for work-life balance[END_REF]. This growing issue threatens both the human and the economic sustainability of healthcare systems [17] [18].

Various institutional, national, and supranational initiatives have been undertaken to tackle this challenge [START_REF] Kim | The 2017 ACGME common work hour standards: Promoting physician learning and professional development in a safe, humane environment[END_REF] [START_REF] Sundberg | The Swedish duty hour enigma[END_REF]. However, even legal regulations have shown their limits in changing poor working conditions in healthcare [START_REF] Rachel | UK doctors' views on the implementation of the European Working Time Directive as applied to medical practice: a qualitative analysis[END_REF] [START_REF] Cresswell | Optimising working hours to provide quality in training and patient safety: a position statement by the Association of Surgeons in Training. Royal College of Surgeons[END_REF] [23] [START_REF] Machtey | Regulations of night shifts of pediatric residents: review of responses to a European survey[END_REF], partly due to the shortcomings of most working time recording systems. These employer-driven solutions focus on shift planning, rostering, and billing but are not designed to ease time tracking for health workers or ensure accurate activity tracking and safety monitoring [25] [26] [START_REF] Planner | [END_REF]. Additionally, the recordings may be subject to opaque management and manipulation, further exacerbating the issue, as they are particularly exposed to peer, hierarchical, and socio-cultural pressures [START_REF]49th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, HICSS 2016[END_REF].

Here, we propose an open and decentralized worker-centered solution utilizing machine intelligence. Our objective is to provide an empowering solution for health workers to take control of their time, valorize their work, enhance their capacity, and safeguard their health and that of their patients despite socio-cultural or economic pressures.

Conceptual framework

The input consists of multimodal data provided by the health worker, employer, or an approved third party. Data processing occurs within a multilayered approach, with the health worker retaining control and validating the processed data for a specific period. Following validation, a transaction is recorded on an open ledger, ensuring the immutability of the validated data. The output consists of multi-level reports and real-time monitoring tools. Feedback loops continuously enhance data processing through machine intelligence. The multimodal data input encompasses a combination of fixed attributes set for predetermined periods (e.g., gross hourly wage) and dynamic information. This dynamic information consists of individual tracking data with collective intelligence insights captured continuously. Timing inputs can be entered synchronously or asynchronously relative to the tracked event, either as a schedule or record. Timing inputs fall into one of several predefined mutually exclusive states (e.g., "at work," "available," or "on leave"). Indicators can be used to label or tag these inputs. Labels are predefined standardized sub-options tailored for collective needs (e.g., "care," "education," "research," and "administrative" for the "at work" state; "on-call" and "second-line" for the "available" state; "annual leave," "scientific leave," or "sickness leave" for the "on leave" state). Tags are freeform keywords defined by individual users for their specific needs. Additionally, indicators include sporadic event tracking, which can be either user-driven (e.g., incident reporting) or solution-driven (e.g., mood monitoring).

Process: a multi-layered approach

Input integration employs a tiered approach that combines various layers of timing data, such as schedules, time tracking, and records, along with complementary indicators. These layers serve as safety nets for missing information and can be tailored or deemed obligatory in accordance with specific needs or legal requirements. The multilayered approach for multimodal data integration enhanced by machine intelligence.

To address conflicting information between these layers, the solution offers four automated resolution options: union, intersection, superseding layer, or a machine learning (ML) forecast. Health workers have the ability to review and validate their time recordings on a punctual basis. Optionally, they can place the validated recording on hold for an approval period, allowing employers or authorized third parties to review it. In case of an unresolved dispute, the pending litigations are described in the final report. This report is then securely and immutably recorded on the blockchain.

Output: multi-level reporting

At the individual level, a dashboard displays time tracking, wage estimates, occupational safety, health monitoring, and legal compliance metrics. Users can generate on-demand static reports to summarize validated data for a specified period with automated email reports. At the collective level, the solution provides overview reports based on geographic or organizational criteria, such as institutional, local, or global levels. These collective reports are made openly accessible on a dedicated platform for all stakeholders and the general public.

Governance

A decentralized autonomous organization (DAO) [START_REF]Ethereum Whitepaper -ethereum[END_REF] [30] [START_REF] Jentzsch | Decentralized autonomous organization to automate governance[END_REF] facilitates distributed governance, enabling all stakeholders to participate equitably in decision-making and oversight of operations. Governance tokens act as a voting mechanism, featuring dynamic supply adjustments to prevent single-entity dominance [START_REF]Plutus. 408 BCE[END_REF]. Token distribution considers the varying sizes and influences of participants and allows individuals to delegate their voting power to trusted organizations. Sybil attacks -i.e., fraudulent creation of multiple accounts for increased voting power -are prevented by identification and authentication processes for user verification with rewarding protocols relying on proof of attendance, effort, and contribution [START_REF] Sizon | Decentralized Proof of Attendance Protocol[END_REF]. SubDAOs, functioning as independent DAOs within the larger organization, cater to specific endeavors. Developers can collaborate to address challenges such as feature development, technological enhancement, solution maintenance, and security monitoring. Besides, local stakeholders from specific regions or institutions can organize daily operations, dispute resolution, and policymaking, as well as request customizations to meet their unique requirements. This structure complements the delegation system.

Legal frameworks

The solution ensures compliance with governmental working time regulations and specific recommendations by generating derived metrics for informing health workers and stakeholders. In terms of data protection, it upholds privacy and security best practices. Key principles, such as purpose and storage limitations, are observed by processing data solely for its intended use and retaining it only for the necessary duration. Additionally, data minimization, pseudonymization, and encryption techniques are employed. Sharing aggregated personal data is contingent upon obtaining explicit user consent. Secure machine intelligence protocols, including federated learning, are incorporated to guarantee user privacy and data security, addressing related legal concerns.

Technological stack

The stack utilizes accessible open-source tools in a decentralized framework, promoting transparency and collaborative development. Crowdsourcing approaches engage various perspectives and innovations, bolstering the system's flexibility, adaptability, and versatility. Machine learning further empowers the solution to improve its capabilities continually in response to evolving user needs.

Versatile architecture

This robust, distributed, and privacy-preserving technological stack integrates multi-factor authentication, end-to-end encryption, blockchain technology, and machine intelligence. Users authenticate their identities using mobile phonebased two-factor authentication via a decentralized authentication protocol [START_REF] Yasuda | OpenID for Verifiable Credentials A Shift in the Trust Model Brought by Verifiable Credentials[END_REF] with electronic identification and signature. Data transmission security is ensured through end-to-end encryption, safeguarding sensitive information by allowing access exclusively to intended recipients. Blockchain technology offers a decentralized, transparent platform for data storage and sharing, guaranteeing data immutability, trusted timestamping, and tamper resistance. Furthermore, state-of-the-art blockchains feature Turing-complete smart contract capabilities, extensive decentralized applications ecosystems, and native interoperability. These blockchains provide virtual machines, enabling the execution of complex, logic-based smart contracts and applications designed to address the wide range of our use cases and requirements [29] [35].

Machine intelligence

Recurrent neural networks with long short-term memory units effectively analyze sequential data patterns, such as timing input resolution, work schedule optimization but also burnout prevention, and mood monitoring through sentiment analysis [START_REF] Hochreiter | Long Short-Term Memory[END_REF]. Anomaly detection identifies potential issues like overwork, resource misuse, and legal compliance violations [START_REF] Chandola | Anomaly Detection : A Survey[END_REF]. Additionally, convolutional neural networks complement these applications by managing image recognition and processing tasks involving multidimensional data, such as user interaction patterns, behavioral signals, and image-based input processing [START_REF] Yamashita | Convolutional neural networks: an overview and application in radiology[END_REF]. Adhering to the decentralized approach and privacy concerns, federated learning provides a secure and privacy-preserving method for analyzing aggregated user data. This technique enables the processing of individual data locally on the user's device or through anonymization and encryption before transmission, allowing global models to be trained without sharing identifiable raw data. Customized deep-learning models can be developed using available open-source frameworks suited to the solution's requirements [START_REF] Abadi | TensorFlow: Large-Scale Machine Learning on Heterogeneous Systems[END_REF] [40] [41] [START_REF] Paszke | PyTorch: An Imperative Style, High-Performance Deep Learning Library[END_REF].

Implementation

The solution's rollout requires addressing technical deployment challenges while promoting early adoption among users and stakeholders. To this end, we aim to capitalize on its agile infrastructure and innovative approach, tackling an unaddressed but widespread and longstanding issue in healthcare.

Technical deployment

Scalability is essential for accommodating an increasing user base and extending features. A modular architecture, employing microservices that integrate cloud and on-premises open-source software, can facilitate efficient scaling and performance while meeting user-specific needs and requirements. Interoperability, through standardized data exchange protocols, enables seamless integration with existing health information systems and time-tracking platforms. We propose a simplified time-tracking file in CSV format as a standard. Security must be maintained by thorough testing, periodic audits, and ongoing monitoring to protect sensitive data and ensure privacy regulation compliance. A dedicated subDAO will oversee these endeavors supported by the opensource community.

Early adoption

This solution bridges a technological gap in healthcare, addressing a critical unmet need for health workers by offering a versatile platform for individual and collective insights into occupational management. To promote early adoption, we will target individual users, particularly showcasing the platform's features and benefits for individuals. Creating momentum, we aim to incentivize diverse stakeholders to onboard subsequently, fully leveraging the potential of the platform. Moreover, open beta testing with pilot programs will provide real-world validation and insights for refining the solution, demonstrating its viability, and encouraging further adoption and retention. Engaging stakeholders, such as health workers' associations, governmental organizations, and healthcare employers, is essential for broad acceptance and impact. Along these lines, distributed and transparent governance aims to align often conflicting interests by maintaining the priority on improving health workers' lives and working conditions. Stakeholder engagement through workshops and seminars will foster shared ownership and address diverse perspectives. Coupled with incentivization via gamification and reward systems, this approach will motivate active engagement, contributing to long-term success. Additionally, providing training and support will empower users to effectively navigate the solution, ensuring maximum utility and benefits for all parties involved.

Conclusion

We have introduced a comprehensive worker-centered solution to support health workers facing pressing issues of safety, well-being, and productivity. By harnessing machine intelligence, this solution integrates multimodal data through a multilayered approach, enhancing user experience. Blockchain technology enables distributed governance and transparency, fostering effective cooperation among stakeholders. We have demonstrated the technology's readiness for deployment in compliance with the most stringent openness, decentralization, and privacy-preserving standards. Overcoming implementation hurdles is critical to realizing the solution's full potential and delivering a lasting, transformative impact on public health. This solution can bridge an unaddressed technological gap in healthcare, offering a unique opportunity to incentivize health workers' engagement and stakeholders' alignment in developing occupational management for better care.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: The conceptual framework

  Figure 2: The multilayered approach for multimodal data integration enhanced by machine intelligence.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Examples of timing conflicts resolution approaches

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Example of a DAO-subDAO structure for synergistic yet independent working groups.

Table 1 :

 1 Examples of timing input modalities with their features.

		provider	timing	user friction	resilience *	infrastructure requirement
	manual completion	worker or employer	async	high	low	low
	physical badging	worker	sync	mid	mid to high	mid to high
	digital log	worker	sync	low to mid	mid	low to mid
	geofencing
	smart contact	process	sync	low	high	low to mid
	tracing

* resilience as the potential ability to withstand internal and external influences.

Table 2 :

 2 Examples of insights, metrics, indices, and alerts of interest.

	Work	Safety	Wellbeing	Wage
	working time	shift durations	mood tracker	salary calculator
	overtime	resting time	burnout index	extra pay
	unsociable hours legal compliance job satisfaction	salary comparisons
	activity tracking commute risk	incident reporting professional expenses

Table 3 :

 3 Examples of standardized fields and values for activity tracking

	Fields	Description
	location	latitude and longitude as decimal numbers
	employer	unique ID of employer
	start/end date	the date when the tracked activity begin-
		s/ends, in the format YYYY-MM-DD
	start/end time	the time when the tracked activity begin-
		s/ends, in the format HH:MM:SS
	state/label/tag	according to customized lists
	Cloud-based processes and cross-platform compatibility further enhance the solution's versatility. Customization,
	enabled by adaptable application programming interfaces (APIs), permits tailoring the solution to particular needs.

Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude to Maaz and Syed Ali Shahbaz from Timecrypt for our collaboration on this project. Additionally, we extend our thanks to the Belgian junior doctors from la Délégation des Médecins Francophones en Formation for their diligent alpha testing of the prototype app and their critical insights.