Monica Banzato
email: banzato@unive.it

Digital Storytelling and Key Skills: Problems and Opportunities

Keywords: Key digital skills, pre-service teachers, digital storytelling, obstacles

This paper presents a pilot study conducted at the University Ca' Foscari -Venice, in Italy, in which a group of pre-service secondary school teachers explored the use of digital storytelling through workshops. The aim of this study was to determine the key skills that teachers employ in the production of DS. To this end, the study investigated in detail: the stages of Digital Storytelling (DS) perceived as difficult; the key skills that teachers are able to develop in their use of DS; the obstacles that may prevent the use of DS in schools. Although teachers have recognized the positive value of DS on the pedagogical and educational levels, the sample shows some resistance to using it at school, not so much due to the lack of technical competence, but for institutional reasons such as time constraints, access to technical equipment and curriculum demands.

Introduction

Over the past decade, several studies have shown how the new generations are increasing the hours they spend daily in communicating and sharing digital information, now averaging more than 7½ hours a day [START_REF] Family | Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8-18 year-olds[END_REF]. Their digital practices have kept up with changing fashions: if years ago, students chatted, blogged and downloaded music and video, today they tweet and employ social media apps to share photos, video and artwork on sites like YouTube and Flickr. However, the digital experiences of this generation are not in themselves informative of their critical awareness of being able "to harness human curiosity, the ability to listen, and seek diverse knowledge in the context of integrated information spaces, constant sharing, public identities, and low barriers to production" [START_REF] Hobbs | Digital and Media Literacy: Connecting Culture and Classroom[END_REF]; or to "personalize content and reorganize it in a fashion that best allows them to make sense of a topic, and to share it with peers" [START_REF] Lessig | Remix: Making Art and Commerce Thrive in the Hybrid Economy[END_REF].

The school sector has a responsibility to enhance students' formal and informal learning and to ensure their acquisition of digital literacy [START_REF] Mihailidis | Exploring Curation as a core competency in digital and media literacy education[END_REF], conceived as the ability to "access content, analyze and evaluate the messages, create presentations, reflect on findings, and work together in collaborative environments" [START_REF] Hobbs | Digital and Media Literacy: Connecting Culture and Classroom[END_REF].

Teachers today are required to be capable of promoting digital literacy and key digital competences [START_REF] Gilster | Digital Literacy[END_REF][START_REF] Buckingham | Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary Culture[END_REF], including designing authentic learning environments and experiences. In fact, "it is essential to prepare technologically proficient teachers that are able to provide the learning opportunities that facilitate students' use of technology to construct knowledge and to communicate in the networked world we live in" [START_REF] Coutinho | Web 2.0 tools in pre-service teacher education programs: an example from Portugal[END_REF].

Digital Storytelling (henceforth DS) is considered one of the educational methods that allows both significant promulgation of digital literacy [START_REF] Robin | Digital Storytelling: A Powerful Technology Tool for the 21st Century Classroom[END_REF][START_REF] Nets-T | The ISTE-International Society for Technology in Education[END_REF] and development of strategic skills for twenty-first century training [START_REF]Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament: The Digital Agenda for Europe -Driving European growth digitally[END_REF][START_REF]European Commission: Europa 2020 una strategia per una crescita intelligente, sostenibile e inclusiva. Commission of the European Communities[END_REF]. "Digital storytelling allows the creation of innovative learning experiences, supported and extended by the application of user contributed content Web 2.0 technologies, empowering teachers' abilities to communicate and integrate technologies into the curriculum" [START_REF] Coutinho | Storytelling as a Strategy for Integrating Technologies into the Curriculum: An Empirical Study with Post-Graduate Teachers[END_REF].

Seeking to harmonise technological advancements with developments in education, many scholars [START_REF] Robin | Digital Storytelling: A Powerful Technology Tool for the 21st Century Classroom[END_REF][START_REF] Sadik | Digital Storytelling: a meaningful technology-integrated approach for engaged student learning[END_REF][START_REF] Di Blas | Collective digital storytelling at school as a wholeclass interaction[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Digital storytelling for enhancing student academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation: A year-long experimental study[END_REF] have suggested that DS represents an ideal combination of technology-integrated learning and social constructivist principles. The social constructivists suggest the importance of students' collaborative learning through using digital tools in educational activities within an authentic environment [START_REF] Koohang | E-Learning and Constructivism: From Theory to Application[END_REF][START_REF] Neo | Students' Perceptions In Developing A Multimedia Project Within A Constructivist Learning Environment: A Malaysian Experience[END_REF], where learners are engaged in constructing and reconstructing their knowledge and beliefs in collaborative ways [START_REF] Vygotsky | Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes[END_REF]. In the constructivist learning framework [START_REF] Kanuka | Using constructivism in technology-mediated learning: Constructing order out of the chaos in the literature[END_REF][START_REF] Tam | Constructivism, instructional design, and technology: Implications for transforming distance learning[END_REF][START_REF] Jonassen | Mindtools: affording multiple knowledge representations for learning[END_REF][START_REF] Wheatley | Constructivist perspectives on science and mathematics learning[END_REF], knowledge is not simply transmitted from teacher to student but is actively generated and constructed by the students through social interactions with their physical, social, and technological environment [START_REF] Fosnot | Constructivism: A psychological theory of learning[END_REF][START_REF] Prawat | Constructivisms, modern and postmodern[END_REF]. DS creates an ideal synergy between digital learning environments (i.e. learning management system [LMS], blogs, wiki etc.), technological tools, software (i.e. video editor, audio editor, etc.), and educational objectives (in different subjects, from scientific to humanistic fields) which can facilitate the co-construction of knowledge among students.

However, it is essential to prepare teachers who have completed their pre-service courses and are capable of incorporating their own digital experience in authentic pedagogical pathways. In this manner, teachers should become capable of creating learning opportunities which facilitate the construction and sharing of knowledge with and through multiple channels of information.

Nevertheless, training teachers to employ innovative methods is not a road without obstacles, as beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, experiences and well-established practices, combined with the narrow constraints in which teachers operate (e.g. ministerial programs, organization of schools) can influence positively or negatively the adoption of new ways of learning. This paper aims to answer three basic questions: 1) What are the strengths and weaknesses of DS as perceived by teachers? 2) What are the key skills that teachers would be expected to utilise in DS? 3) What obstacles prevent teachers from employing digital narration in class?

The results presented here are derived from an investigation undertaken at Ca' Foscari University, January -May 2013. This research project was undertaken among the participants in a pre-service course, which aimed to instruct teachers in techniques for employing open digital resources and DS. From the 211 participants, 48 teachers of humanities subjects were chosen to participate in a pilot study. As part of the preservice course, a laboratory for the creation of DS was setup, in which the participants shared in the processes of creating and producing finished DS products on the Moodle platform. The completed DS products were utilised to stimulate self-reflection on the methods and professional practices, with the aim of collecting the perceptions of the participants: a) as students, who learn through innovative methods employed in ICT (Information Communication Technology); b) as teachers, who reflect on the key skills that they need to put into practice; c) as reflective practitioners [START_REF] Schön | The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action[END_REF], who wish to integrate proven practices with new ones.

The creation of digital stories was also aimed at improving teachers' comprehension and faith in the utility and efficacy of employing ICT in their teaching practices.

Digital Storytelling and Key Skills

There are several definitions of "Digital Storytelling". From a technical point of view, DS can be defined as the task of telling a story through digital media. The product is a short narrated video (amateur, not professional, usually no longer than five minutes) in which there are music, pictures, drawings or videos, and a voice track. The DS can be shared among a small group or among the great community of the internet by such means as posting it on YouTube (or as Open Educational Resources [START_REF]OECD: Giving knowledge for free: The emergence of Open Educational Resources[END_REF][START_REF]Paris OER Declaration. 2012 World Open Educational Resources (OER) Congress[END_REF][START_REF] Banzato | Barriers to teacher educators seeking, creating and sharing open educational resources: An empirical study of the use of OER in education in Italy[END_REF]). The creation of a DS requires the development of multiliteracies, the ability to communicate fluently through traditional and new media, as well as the ability to access, analyze and evaluate the huge amount of network information to create an individual video that weaves, in an original and personal manner, narrative text and vocalisation, images, and sounds. DS can be used in educational activities at all grade levels, up to tertiary education and beyond.

According to Lambert [START_REF] Lambert | Digital Storytelling: Capturing Lives, Creating Community[END_REF], DS should be defined by the presence of seven elements: 1. Point of View: the author begins with his own point of view; 2. A Dramatic Question: the author poses a question (or a problem) which will be answered by the end of the work; 3. Emotional Content: the author gives emotional force to the initial question in order to highlight the problem he/she is addressing; 4. The Gift of your Voice: the author tells the story in his own voice, in order to personalize the work and to help the listener understand the narrative; 5. The Power of the Soundtrack: the author selects music or other sound effects in support of the plot; 6. Economy: the author designs a brief narrative. Facts must be used to give flavour to the story, not to overwhelm the viewer with excess information; 7. Pacing: the author decides on the pace of the story (slow or fast).

DS can be employed for various purposes: to inform, to demonstrate or to communicate a personal vision. "The topics that are used in Digital Storytelling range from personal tales to the recounting of historical events, from exploring life in one's own community to the search for life in other corners of the universe, and literally, everything in between" [START_REF] Robin | Digital Storytelling: A Powerful Technology Tool for the 21st Century Classroom[END_REF]. It can be used in several ways: it could be created by teachers as a media resource to present an argument and form the subject of classroom debate, or it might be created by the students themselves, individually or in groups. "DS puts technology in the students' hands and stimulates research skills and creativity" [START_REF] Coutinho | Storytelling as a Strategy for Integrating Technologies into the Curriculum: An Empirical Study with Post-Graduate Teachers[END_REF].

According to Porter [START_REF] Porter | DigiTales: The Art of Telling Digital Stories[END_REF], "For students to be effective communicators in the 21st century, they need to be sophisticated in expressing ideas with multiple communication technologies, not just the written word". Digital Storytelling is an application of educational technology which uses almost all of the skills that students are expected to have in the 21st century [START_REF] Jakes | Standards-proof your digital storytelling efforts[END_REF]. This proposition is affirmed by Robin, who states [START_REF] Robin | Digital Storytelling: A Powerful Technology Tool for the 21st Century Classroom[END_REF]: "This creative work provides students with a strong foundation in what many educators have begun calling 21st century Literacy, Digital Age Literacy or 21st Century Skills". According to Robin [START_REF] Robin | Digital Storytelling: A Powerful Technology Tool for the 21st Century Classroom[END_REF], DS develops four key skills: "Digital literacy: the ability to communicate with an ever-expanding community to discuss issues, gather information, and seek help; Global literacy: the capacity to read, interpret, respond, and contextualize messages from a global perspective; Technology literacy: the ability to use computers and other technology to improve learning, productivity, and performance; Visual literacy: the ability to understand, produce, and communicate through visual images; Information literacy: the ability to find, evaluate, and synthesize information".

Pre-service Teachers and Digital Storytelling

A review of the literature reveals an increasing interest regarding the use of DS in the initial training of teachers. For example, Yerrick et al. [START_REF] Yerrick | Too Close for Comfort: Real-Time Science Teaching Reflections via Digital Video Editing[END_REF] analyse the use of digital video editing as a significant method to encourage meaningful reflection on the part of teachers. Their research focuses on the impact of DS on the beliefs of pre-service teachers, concentrating, in particular, on teachers' understanding of children's thinking and their own teaching experience. Barrett [START_REF] Barrett | Storytelling in Higher Education: a Theory of Reflection on Practice to support Deep Learning[END_REF][START_REF] Barrett | Digital Stories in ePortfolios: Multiple Purposes and Tools[END_REF] argues that the use of DS by teachers "is a highly motivating strategy that allows them to make concrete and visible observations about their own practices". His research has investigated the convergence of "student engagement, reflection for deep learning, project-based learning and the adductive integration of technology into instruction". Tendero [START_REF] Tendero | Facing Your Selves: The Effects of Digital Storytelling on Teacher Education[END_REF] examines the use of digital storytelling as a means by which teachers have the opportunity to develop multiple points of view for the analysis of their own beliefs. Li [START_REF] Li | Digital Storytelling: Self-Efficacy and Digital Literacy[END_REF] conducted an exploratory research project on the usefulness of the use of DS to build an e-portfolio, by means of reflection and self-assessment of the learning process. The researcher found "a useful tool in the enhancement of teaching and learning new literacies in today's technology enriched environments". Heo [START_REF] Heo | Digital Storytelling: An empirical study of the impact of digital storytelling on pre-service teachers' self-efficacy and dispositions towards educational technology[END_REF] examined the effects of the experience of DS in pre-service in terms of "teachers' self-efficacy towards educational technology". In addition, this study examined the professional arrangements of the teachers involved, including the opening of a shift to technology education, the degree of availability in the development of educational technologies and the willingness to work beyond the contractual hours of work for the integration of technology into teaching practices at school. Dogan and Robin [START_REF] Dogan | Implementation of Digital Storytelling in the Classroom by Teachers Trained in a Digital Storytelling Workshop[END_REF] examined the educational impact and obstacles of DS in the classroom, among a group of pre-service trained teachers. Kearney [START_REF] Kearney | Investigating Digital Storytelling and Portfolios in Teacher Education[END_REF] examined the potential role of DS in pre-service training, focussing on teachers' construction of e-portfolios. He also investigated digital storytelling as "a support for self-reflection during teacher training". Kearney [START_REF] Kearney | Investigating Digital Storytelling and Portfolios in Teacher Education[END_REF] noted that "digital stories can help address the problem of reflection being perceived by students as over-used and that students can use new media to initiate reflective processes in compelling ways". He affirms that further research should be conducted on the use of DS in pre-service, which he defines as "a crucial but underdeveloped area of research into teacher learning".

Background and Research Methodology

The pilot study took the approach of case studies, collecting and processing qualitative and quantitative data. The information, collected through two questionnaires, interviews and digital storytelling produced by the pre-service teachers in the workshop, is set out below:

1) The first questionnaire, used at the beginning of the laboratory, allowed the gathering of data on computer skills, the use of video and narrative methods in teaching practice.

2) The second questionnaire, which was used at the end of the workshop, allowed the collecting of information on the strengths and weaknesses of DS as perceived by teachers from two different perspectives: a) as a student, the stages of DS perceived to be difficult; b) as a teacher, the key skills that teachers were able to implement/develop in their DS projects; c) in general, what obstacles might prevent the use of DS in classrooms.

3) The interviews, conducted to triangulate the survey data 1 and 2, were carried out in oral form, throughout the laboratory, and transcribed at the end of the laboratory. The interviews provided further, accurate information on issues that surveys 1 and 2 could not investigate. This work allowed the identification of a sufficient number of significant interviews (about 80% of the participants in the laboratory). 4) DS video products were also useful for the collection of data on key competences of teachers and the educational use of DS. Given that digital storytelling is a relatively new teaching method in the Italian context and that there are no available data, this study provides information on the attitudes of humanities teachers: (1) regarding the use of basic technology by those with experience of DS methods; [START_REF] Hobbs | Digital and Media Literacy: Connecting Culture and Classroom[END_REF] on key skills that this sample of in-service teachers are able to implement with DS; and (3) obstacles that may prevent the use of innovative methods and technologies in schools.

The limitations of this study are: a) the sample size (48 participants), although representative, only covers one sector of higher education, humanities (the sciences are absent); b) the sample comes mainly from the north-east of Italy and therefore covers a limited portion of the country; c) the short time frame in which the study took place (five months) limited observations to the period of the workshop and it has not been possible to verify de facto the impact of the data collected. In fact, although a portion of the sample was contacted six months after the end of the workshop, the number of respondents was not enough to form a significant sample.

Results

Sample of teachers

The study was conducted on a sample of 48 humanities teachers, of which 60% [START_REF] Banzato | Barriers to teacher educators seeking, creating and sharing open educational resources: An empirical study of the use of OER in education in Italy[END_REF] were females and 40% [START_REF] Kanuka | Using constructivism in technology-mediated learning: Constructing order out of the chaos in the literature[END_REF] were male. A total of 77% (37) of the sample declared an average experience in secondary schools of 4.7 years for females and 3.8 years for males, an average of 4.2 years. Only 22% [START_REF]European Commission: Europa 2020 una strategia per una crescita intelligente, sostenibile e inclusiva. Commission of the European Communities[END_REF] declared themselves new graduates without significant teaching experience.

Survey results 1

The first questionnaire was distributed at the beginning of the workshop and had the following objectives: (a) to collect data on the computer skills needed to create a video (in particular, the use of Audacity and MovieMaker or another software editor for audio and video); (b) to explore whether teachers had previously employed narrative methods in their teaching practices in the classroom, not necessarily related to the use of technology; c) to determine whether the sample had previously used video in class.

Regarding (a) their knowledge of the software, 95% (46) of the sample declared that they had never used Audacity (though 70% -34 -claimed to know other software for audio recording), while 45% [START_REF] Wheatley | Constructivist perspectives on science and mathematics learning[END_REF] claimed to have used MovieMaker, 4% (2) iMovie (Apple), and 2% (1) other editing software (Adobe Premiere, Final Cut).

In response to the question (b), if they had already used narrative practices in teaching, 77% [START_REF] Heo | Digital Storytelling: An empirical study of the impact of digital storytelling on pre-service teachers' self-efficacy and dispositions towards educational technology[END_REF] of the participants said they had not specifically used narrative methods in the classroom before the workshop on DS. Based on interviews conducted on the sample, it appears that there is broad interest in narrative methods, especially after knowing DS and having enjoyed this opportunity.

The question (c) about using videos in the classroom produced the following results: 87% (42) replied, "I have used videos produced by others"; 6% (3) said, "I have created digital video"; no teacher selected the answers, "I edited videos produced by others", "I created videos with colleagues" (collaboratively constructed video), or "I assigned my students to create a video as a task".

From this preliminary analysis, it appears that the use of video is present in the teaching practices of this sample, together with other materials. However, it appears that the members of this sample did not have digital experiences of creating, editing and sharing video ("user generated content"). Furthermore, narrative methods (whether digital or otherwise) do not seem to be widespread in this sample. Finally, the analysis of the sample data does not reveal previous experience of digital storytelling or of other educational activities that merge the narration with multimedia languages (such as video) and sharing them on the internet.

Survey results 2

The second survey was conducted at the end of the workshop, after the teachers had experienced all the stages of DS and finished their video. This phase of the survey was aimed at gathering information to identify: a) the stages of DS perceived as difficult; b) the key skills that teachers are able to develop in their DS project; c) the barriers that may prevent use of DS in the classroom.

Perceptions of teachers on educational and technical phases of DS

Despite the fact that satisfaction about DS was a high 4.6 on a 0-5 scale and that very positive comments were made by the participants in the interviews, teachers reported some difficulties during the development of DS.

The main difficulties at the technical level are represented by the voice-audio recording (81%, 39) and video editing (90%, 43). From the interviews it emerged that the Audacity software is considered to be a good product, compared to other open software, although slightly more complex.

Reported difficulties were not related to use but in determining the right location to record the voice (i.e. to have audio narration of high quality and loud enough to be heard clearly) or hardware-related (lack of a good microphone or sound card) and also the ability to make meaningful the use of their voice (prosody, intonation, etc.). In this case, the teachers felt it would be interesting to promote a workshop on "reading aloud" or "theatre", in order to make the reading similar to expressive acting.

Fig. 1: Stages of DS considered the most critical are those with higher rates

The video editing was an issue for the majority of the sample (90%, 43). From a technical point of view, teachers complained that MovieMaker is not stable software: at times, it suddenly stops working and, as a result, the video editing can be lost. Video editing was perceived by teachers to be interesting, but the synchronization of audio-voice, audio-music, subtitles, video and images requires a lot of time, and the results are not always satisfactory.

Work groups were considered a strength in creating DS and the majority of the participants preferred to work in this mode (only 2 people, out of 48, chose to work individually). However, teachers identified other difficulties, such as: the phase of the initial briefing (67%, 32) was costly in terms of time, since the participants had to know each other and decide how to organize and manage the various stages of the work. The conception of storytelling (42%, 20) and the choice of topics (35%, 17) also took time, but these moments were regarded positively as creative and stimulating learning. However the "rendering of words into images, or images into words" required long reflection.

The phase of researching images and videos was much appreciated by teachers, while the creation of the images was difficult for 58% (28) of the sample. This is due to two reasons: (a) some participants believed that they did not have sufficient skills with photography and video; and (b) they considered that they had not had enough experience translating "words into images" and "images into words". During the interviews, it was possible to capture another critical aspect, which is the copyright of some images (75%, 36), the teachers often had to find ways to avoid violating copyrights (DS requires that sources from which information is derived, whether text or images, be cited). The sharing of video products in the Moodle platform was much appreciated, because the teachers could examine the videos of other colleagues (who provided new ideas and solutions for their own work) and discuss educational issues in the forum. However, only one group decided to publish its products on YouTube. For some teachers, the process of writing was critical (35%, 17), for two reasons: (a) some teachers indicated that they preferred description and explanation of topics rather than narration; (b) others noted that DS requires that scripts be written very concisely.

Key skills for teachers

Teachers were asked: "what are the key skills that your DS project develops in students?" At the beginning of the course, when DS was introduced, the teachers were presented with a list of 12 competencies developed by the American National Standards, NETS-S, and 21st Century Skills [START_REF] Nets-T | The ISTE-International Society for Technology in Education[END_REF]. To this list were added three more digital skills related to the production of user-generated content that are well suited to video DS (sharing videos, creating community, using Creative Commons). Here follows a summary of a brief description of the key competencies.

"1. Cognitive Apprenticeship: practicing real-world work of digital communication; 2. Creativity and Inventive Thinking: creating multi-sensory experiences for others; 3. Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS): going beyond existing information to add personal meaning and understanding; 4. Enduring Understanding: by telling the story of what you know and understand for others, authors deepen their own self-meaning of the topic; 5. Visual Literacy: using images to show, not tell, the narrative story; 6. Technical Literacy: mastering the craftsmanship of applying the technology tools to create powerful communication, not to just use the tools, but to mix and dance the media into illuminated understandings; 7. Information (Media) Literacy: thinking, reading, writing, and designing effective media information; 8. Effective Communication: reading and writing information beyond words; 9. Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles: addressing not only the opportunity for students to use their preferred mode of learning and thinking, but also enabling them to practice the effective use of all modalities; 10. Teaming and Collaboration: growing skills through practiced opportunities to co-produce group projects; 11. Project Management Mentality: challenge for students to practice time management of complex, involved tasks to successfully meet deadlines modelling real-world tasks; 12. Exploring Affinity: when students create meaningful, engaged work, they discover themselves as successful learners" [START_REF] Nets-T | The ISTE-International Society for Technology in Education[END_REF]. 13. Community: Use DS to create a learning community; 14. Sharing: share DS with the class, the school and wider community; 15. Using Creative Commons: respect the copyright and the resources utilised.

To answer this item of the questionnaire, teachers had to attribute scores to each of the 15 competencies presented (Very Important, Important, Some Importance, No Importance) according to the degree of importance they attributed to creation of DS by participants. Figure 2 shows the results.

The skills considered "very important" were: 2. Creativity and Inventive Thinking, selected by 69% (33) of the sample; 3. HOTS, 85% (41); 4. Enduring Understanding, 89% (43); 7. Media and Information literacy, 90%; 8. Effective Communication, 95% (46); 10. Teaming and Collaboration, 95% (46); 12. Exploring Affinity, 77% (37); 15. Use Creative Commons, 95% (46).

The skills considered "important", but not fully exploited in their DS projects, were: 1. Cognitive Apprenticeship, 48% (23); 5.Visual literacy, 66% (32); 6. Technical Literacy, 33% (16); 12. Sharing videos, 77% (37); 13. Community, 85% (41).

From the interviews, it appears that skill 1. Cognitive Apprenticeship, did not receive much attention because the participants were mainly focused on curricular issues, topics covered by ministerial programs (i.e. poems, prose, novels, writers, etc.) or topical issues (such as racism, drugs, autobiographies, etc.).

In the end, most of the projects designed by the teachers' DS did not provide links to organizations outside school. Competence 5. Visual Literacy is considered important, but teachers feel they do not have the visual skills, which could instead be developed by colleagues who teach art (most of the sample were teachers who teach Italian literature). Competence 6. Technical Literacy is considered important, but nevertheless the software used for DS is considered basic and therefore it is not thought that DS is technically difficult. The majority of teachers prefer to share the student video with the class or with the school, but they prefer not to publish their videos on the internet (12. Sharing videos).

The interviews show the following concerns: when teaching underage students, teachers have to face a heavy bureaucratic practice to get the necessary permits and this becomes expensive in terms of time and commitment. This is linked to competence 13. Create Community, which was intended as a class and/or school community, not the wider territorial community or the internet community.

Obstacles to teachers' use of DS

Participants were asked what obstacles might hinder the use of DS in their classrooms. Their responses were divided into three categories -"issues of time", "issues of curriculum" and "access to the technologies" -which had been identified as the major obstacles to the use of DS in schools by 95% (46) of respondents.

The interviews showed that teachers complain of having only a few hours a week in order to develop DS. In addition, they were concerned about having to carry out the topics required by ministerial programs (curriculum) to deadlines that the timeconsuming development of DS might interfere with. The situation is also complicated by the difficulty of access to computer laboratories. This sample stated that in the schools there is only one classroom with computers, but it must serve all classes. For this reason, teachers need to book the computer laboratory, consistent with the needs of other colleagues, and its availability is not always sufficient for the needs of their educational activities. From the teachers' responses it appears that the hardware and software are often not up-to-date and the technical staff is not always available to solve technical problems. Here are some typical participants' answers: Interviewee #13 stated: "The critical points are the few hours that we have in high school for teaching. This makes it difficult to devote myself entirely to DS; very often schools do not have up-to-date computer labs and this fact is not of secondary importance; finally, the absence of technical staff discourages the tackling of digital work".

Interviewee #8 stated: "The critical issues are related to the time required for a DS project. The ideal would be to propose it as an extracurricular activity, given the limited time in the morning devoted to school. Knowledge of how to use software needed for DS is not guaranteed: it would therefore be useful to have a course specifically for teachers and students. The computer labs are a critical point: they are not always available and the hardware is not quite up to date".

Interviewee #43 stated: "Among the most problematic situations in the context of the tradition of Italian public secondary schools is probably linked to the spread of multimedia technologies. The difficulty of making a DS video lies mainly within the limits of available hours for my subject (written and oral tests, programming to complete and large classes). There is insufficient time leftover to teach and employ video and audio editing programs".

Discussion and Conclusion

The results show that this sample of teachers is in a phase of transition from traditional literacy to digital literacy. There are still many obstacles to overcome which seem less dependent on resistance by teachers but more linked to external constraints (lack of time, ministerial programs, access to technology), as highlighted in the previous section (5.3.3). The results reveal that: (a) Pre-service teachers show openness and curiosity for innovative methods such as DS. They demonstrate a good familiarity with the technology, although they have only moderate confidence in the integration of the production of DS video in teaching, even if narrative is considered to be a very interesting and productive methodology. (b) Although these teachers appear familiar with the basic digital technologies, from their answers it emerges that they are resistant to the more advanced practices of web 2.0, such as creating, participating in, and sharing videos on social networks (i.e. YouTube, Vimeo, etc.). The sample appears more inclined to share videos in a protected environment, such as a class group or school. It seems that this choice is due not so much to lack of confidence in the practice of web 2.0, but the perceived need to avoid the bureaucracy required for publication of materials produced by minors on the internet. (c) This result is also reflected in the selection of the key competences considered important by teachers in their DS projects. It emerges from the interviews that this sample is aware of the potential of DS for the developing of a set of key competencies for digital literacy in teaching and learning. However, if some key competencies are selected above others, this is due less to diffidence or lack of digital skills in the practices of creating and sharing of materials, but results from deliberate choices to avoid logistical or bureaucratic problems of (e.g. authorizations for minors, access to technology) or for reasons of time. (d) This result is confirmed in the last questionnaire, which investigates what are the obstacles that prevent the use of DS in the classroom. The responses concentrate with great intensity on logistical problems (such as lack of equipment, obsolete computers or insufficient numbers of computer laboratories, as well as hardware and software problems and lack of technical support). They also cite the lack of available time (some stages of DS take a long time to be realized, such as group work, sharing, audio recording, video editing) and the limits due to ministerial programs (i.e. teachers, while recognizing the validity of the method, are under pressure to finish the annual program on time). DS also encounters bureaucratic obstacles, such as requests for permission to publish student work on the internet or to conclude agreements with institutions outside the school or community if the videos are to be open for viewing by the outside world. The interviews reveal that one solution might be for DS to be developed outside of the curriculum hours; however, if DS is used in curricular hours, its structure should be simplified or reduced. Teachers would need the support of school administrators, where these types of activities are encouraged and facilitated. Finally, in Italy, we would need to profoundly revise the current curriculum of the secondary schools, which is still too rigid to apply learning processes that arise from the nature of digital work, as well as continue to provide substantial support for the training of teachers, and enable them to have enough time to explore the potential of digital storytelling and its uses in the classroom. In fact, the workshop on DS at the university was not without its difficulties: given the high number of teachers who attended the course and the few hours granted to realize their DS projects in the laboratory. However, the collaborative approach of the participants led to positive results and has allowed the realization of this pilot study on the potential of DS in learning.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Stages of DS considered the most critical are those with higher rates


Christopher Tatnall

Arthur Tatnall
email: arthur.tatnall@vu.edu.au

The Effect on School Operations of the Use of School Management Software in Victoria

Keywords: Educational management systems, schools, Victoria, applications

In this paper we will discuss the effects on schools in Victoria, Australia of use of the various school management systems provided by the Education Department, and the difference the use of this software has made to school operations. To better appreciate this, using a case study methodology, we will look at the use of these systems in a primary school in metropolitan Melbourne. The Victorian Education Department provides a raft of software for various administrative tasks in its schools and these are described in the paper. The goal of the paper, however, is to analyse the difference these management systems have made to the operation of the case study school and other schools in Victoria, compared with pre-computer manual systems.

Introduction: Schools in Victoria

The Commonwealth of Australia is a federation of six states and two territories each having a considerable degree of independence. Constitutionally, school education is the responsibility of state governments [START_REF] Tatnall | The Growth of Educational Computing in Australia[END_REF][START_REF] Tatnall | Reflections on the History of Computer Education in Schools in Victoria[END_REF] and each state may approach school education in a rather different way. This paper will look explicitly at school education in the State of Victoria.

The Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD) is responsible for school education in Victoria. As this Department has had various names over the years, for the purpose of this paper when we refer to the 'Education Department' this should be taken to mean DEECD (or any other previous titles of this Department). The Victorian school education system comprises 2,236 schools: 1,529 government schools, 486 Catholic schools and 211 independent schools. This paper deals only with government schools. The 2,236 government schools have 554,683 students and 40,965 teaching staff [START_REF]Childhood Development: Statistics for Victorian Schools[END_REF]. Government schools in Victoria are, within a Government stipulated total budget, largely self-governing.

Every school needs to store large quantities of data relating to administrative matters concerning individual students and groups of students. These data are collected from many formal and informal sources including: student enrolments, early years' interviews, observational surveys, running records, other formal testing and notes [START_REF] Tatnall | A: Using Educational Management Systems to Enhance Teaching and Learning in the Classroom: an Investigative Study[END_REF]. Over the last 25 years, many different computer systems have been used around the State for school management purposes, some of the school's own design or purchased directly by this school, others provided by the Education Department. It is only those currently provided by the Education Department that are discussed in this paper.

Research Case Study: Hurstbridge Primary School

Case study research is a commonly used qualitative approach in Information Systems (IS) [START_REF] Orlikowski | CASE Tools as Organizational Change: Investigating Incremental and Radical Changes in Systems Development[END_REF][START_REF] Alavi | Review of MIS Research and Disciplinary Development[END_REF] and as IS research topics commonly involve the study of organisational systems, a case study approach is often quite appropriate. This case study involves the detailed examination of the use of school management software in a single primary school [START_REF] Merriam | Case study research in education[END_REF][START_REF] Stake | Case Study Methods in Educational Research: Seeking Sweet Water[END_REF][START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research, Design and Methods[END_REF] and its main concern is with the detail and complexity of the case, which it treats as a bounded system. The purpose of this case study is not so much to describe the various educational management systems used in schools in Victoria, but to look at their use at Hurstbridge Primary School, in outer metropolitan Melbourne, and how it has changed the way that school operations are undertaken [START_REF]Hurstbridge Primary School: Hurstbridge Primary School: Imagine, Believe, Achieve[END_REF].

The case study research undertaken involved interviews with the principal, assistant principal, several teachers and the school office staff. It also involved examination of documents, reports and websites as well as detailed observation of relevant school operations.

Hurstbridge Primary School is situated in the semi-rural town of Hurstbridge, 32 kilometres north-east of Melbourne. The picturesque setting of the newly constructed school, completed in 2005, is set amongst the gum trees along the Diamond Creek and provides a magnificent environment for members of the school's community. The school comprises two main wings, a library and computer laboratory, art room, music room, instrumental music rooms, after-care room, hall, science and Italian room.

In 2014, the staffing profile consisted of a principal and assistant principal, three leading teachers, 16 classroom teachers and many specialist teachers.

The principal indicates that Hurstbridge Primary School is proud of its student learning outcomes that are above or at the Victorian State level according to the Victorian Essential Learning Standards and National Assessment Program -Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) testing results (see section 3.5). The staff are highly focused and committed to raise this bar even further, providing excellent opportunities for their children.

The school have many different programmes to cater for children of all levels. The 'Eagles' programme provides students with enrichment and extension activities outside of things already done in the classroom. 'Eagles' operates each week and students from grades 2 to 6 (7 to 11 year olds) have an opportunity to be involved. Students are selected based on their lower than average academic results and groups change each term. 'Eagles' programs are currently offered in English, mathematics, music, computing, art and music. They also offer support programmes at each year level, a reading intervention programme in the junior school (6 to 9 years of age) and corrective reading in the upper school (9 to 11 years of age).

Students have the opportunity to attend a number of specialist classes each week, which are currently offered in music, physical education, art, library, computers and Italian.

The school leadership team runs the school operations, staffing, curriculum and budgeting. The leadership team consists of the principal, assistant principal and leading teachers. Victorian schools receive a budget to run their school each year. This budget is based on the number of enrolments in the school. From this budget the school has to pay staff, purchase resources, run curriculum programmes and pay the bills. The school leadership team needs to look at this budget and plan appropriately to ensure that they have sufficient funds to cover all the operations of the school, ensuring they do not run into a deficit.

School Management Software in Victoria

There are two categories of application software used in Victorian schools: curriculum applications and administrative applications. To keep these separate, schools have two entirely separated and unconnected networks:

 A Curriculum Network, accessible by teachers. This can be accessed throughout the school using either Ethernet or Wi-Fi connections.  An Administration Network that is accessible only to school management and school administrative office staff, but not to teachers. The Administrative Network is accessible only via an Ethernet connection at specific locations.

CASES21

In the early 1980s a newly elected Victorian Government found that it was not possible to gather consistent financial data from all its government departments, as each had its own accounting system [START_REF] Birse | Victorian Administrative Computing Unit[END_REF]. This meant that the government was unable to draw up a balance sheet for the State of Victoria as a whole, and as a consequence, it quickly decided to set up accounting standards that would be used by all government departments, and to institute a centralised accounting system [START_REF] Tatnall | Information Technology and the Management of Victorian Schools -Providing Flexibility or Enabling Better Central Control[END_REF]. In the case of the Education Department, with the aim of making schools more centrally accountable, this system imposed an unalterable chart of accounts, which for small primary schools was seen as unnecessarily complex. Birse [START_REF] Birse | Victorian Administrative Computing Unit[END_REF] suggests that "the system was definitely not set up to empower schools. It was fairly imposed, and from that point of view they got it wrong". The result was CAAS [START_REF]Schools' Administrative Systems Development Unit: Computer Aided Administrative System -STAGE 1 -Staff and Students (Version 1.3)[END_REF] where the development philosophy placed emphasis on an integrated database management system: "All school records should be part of an overall construct where a general information system comprising students, staff, assets, facilities and financial data is readily available to school-based personnel to assist in the administrative process" [START_REF]Computerised Administrative Systems Environment in Schools -MS-DOS desktop computer hardware specifications[END_REF]. CAAS was designed to be used with Microsoft (MS) Disk Operating Systems (MS-DOS) and a later version became known as CASES. Since that time CASES has been through several different versions culminating in the Computerised Administrative System Environment in Schools (CASES21) which is now used in all government schools in the State.

CASES21 6 provides support to government schools for administration, finance and central reporting (back to the Education Department). CASES21 runs on a MS Windows personal computer (PC) within the school and is claimed to have been designed to be easily modified to meet evolving school business needs. It currently has two main modules: Student, family and sundry debtors; Creditors; Asset register; Budgets; Reporting; End-of-year and end-of-financial year [START_REF]Early Childhood Development: CASES21[END_REF]. The use of CASES21 is mandatory for all government schools, and all school data are stored on site but automatically backed up online remotely by the Education Department. This means that the Education Department can create its own reports from any of the school's data and the school does not need to send it anything. Within the school, CASES21 is used by school management and office staff with no direct teacher access. CASES21 is linked to most other management systems within the school and to the Education Department.

School Maintenance System (SMS)

Audits of all (government) schools are carried out each financial year by the Education Department to determine the maintenance needs of each of their buildings. Based on priority considerations, it then determines works to be included in its maintenance programme and the prioritised data are loaded onto the School Maintenance System (SMS) in order to assist with its State-wide maintenance and infrastructure planning [START_REF]Development: School Maintenance System[END_REF]. SMS is accessed online and linked to CASES21. At the school level, SMS is used to assist with buildings and facilities, property management, repairs and urgent works. At Hurstbridge Primary it is used mainly by the assistant principal and the school office staff. As SMS works online the Education Department is always easily able to see the school's spending patterns and to check to see that the cost of all maintenance, repairs and urgent works is within the school's global budget. An important feature of SMS is for tracking urgent works, which is done automatically.

EduPay

While selection and appointment of teaching and administrative staff is done at a school level, the Education Department manages the payment of all salaries. The Department's human resources (HR) and payroll system -EduPay -is web-based and designed to enable viewing of up-to-date leave and salary information. It also allows school teaching and administrative staff to access their pay-slips, apply for leave and to view and update their contact and banking details [START_REF]Human Resources: EduPay[END_REF]. It also is linked to CASES21.

Recruitment and position advertisements are done via the EduPay website. Schools list their new teaching jobs and openings over the weeks on the EduPay website and then this is transferred to the Education Department 'Recruitment on Line' website. This system provides the only way in which teachers can apply for new positions. The way that this is done is that the teacher writes a job application, taking care to take note of the selection criteria, and then upload this as a portable document format (PDF) onto the EduPay website. EduPay then automatically sends emails to prospective applicants to tell them whether they have been shortlisted, not shortlisted, or successful. If they are successful, then EduPay sends out their employment contract.

Program for Students with Disabilities (PSDMS)

PSDMS has been designed for use by schools to provide information about support processes associated with funding applications, eligibility evaluations and budget reporting for students with physical and intellectual disabilities. This program provides funds for teacher aids to assist these students, and not for facilities or equipment. PSDMS also is linked to CASES21. SPA is provided to its schools by the North-West Region (in which Hurstbridge Primary School is located) and not by the Education Department for all schools. Its use is completely voluntary and not in any way mandated by the Education Department. Within the school each teacher enters their own class results onto a spreadsheet (or something similar) and then later uploads them to SPA. Student details can be downloaded from CASES21 and all teachers have access to this system.

As well as internal school testing, results from the NAPLAN testing can also be entered into this system. NAPLAN is an annual assessment for all Australian students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 (i.e. at ages 8, 10, 12 and 14 years) and is intended primarily to test reading, writing, spelling and numeracy [START_REF]Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority: NAPLAN[END_REF]. When all the NAPLAN results have been collated by ACARA (the National Curriculum Authority) they are sent to each school from where they can be uploaded into SPA. This enables results' analysis and a comparison to be made between this school and other local schools, a given type of school, or all schools.

QuickVic

This system allows student reports to be created by teachers. It is essentially a MS Access database and is accessible for use by teachers, school management and office staff. In the first instance, student details are downloaded from CASES21, then each teacher enters reports for each student in their class. The system then allows reports for each student to be printed and sent to each parent. Data is school-based (local) and not online, but is uploaded to CASES21 twice each year.

Ultranet

The Ultranet was designed as a web-based system to support delivery of curriculum, online teaching and learning and sharing of knowledge across all Victorian government schools [START_REF] Gev | [END_REF][START_REF] Tatnall | The Ultranet: an eGovernment Project Management Failure[END_REF]. It began its service to all Victorian government schools in September 2010. It had many of the features found in a business extranet in that it was closed to people outside the Victorian Government school community and required a username and password to gain access, but with over 500,000 users it was a good deal larger than most business extranets. The Ultranet's intended users were school teachers, as well as school students and their parents, all of whom would be issued with usernames and passwords.

The Ultranet was potentially an innovative technology that could have provided value to the Victorian education system, but for a variety of reasons [START_REF] Tatnall | The Ultranet: an eGovernment Project Management Failure[END_REF] it was not successful and was discontinued at the end of 2013.

EduMail

This MS Exchange email system is based on MS Outlook. Each teacher has their own email address provided by the Education Department. Bulletins are sent weekly from the Education Department to the school management, which then uses the system to forward these to each individual teacher. The Education Department does not normally contact individual teachers directly via EduMail. School management has access to the management side of EduMail for their own school.

An Analysis of the Effects this Software has had on School Operations at Hurstbridge Primary

Computers were used in school management applications in some schools long before the Education Department released the forerunner of CASES21. Some schools, in which a particular teacher had an interest in computing, used teacher-designed BASIC programs on Apple computers for things like scheduling and recording information about school sports, word processing in the school office, for assistance with timetabling and for listings of students in each class. These were very much single school applications, but by the mid-1980s the Education Department began to show an interest in using computers for administrative purposes. In a letter to the Director General from the State Computer Education Centre in May 1985, possible applications for the use of computers in school administration were listed as: word processing, student records, accounting, timetabling/scheduling (in post-primary schools mainly), inventory, ordering/budgeting and library [START_REF]Some thoughts on computers in School Administration[END_REF]. A 1986 report by the newly-formed Schools Administrative Computing Unit (SACU) noted that a large number of schools used a variety of hardware and software in school administration and that: "The general lack of in respect of systems, both software and hardware, prompted the development of the schools' accounting system". It went on to say that: "The proposed increase in responsibilities for school administrators will result in the need to provide management information to school councils and school communities to facilitate accordant analysis of school operations" [22 :4].

There is no member of staff currently at Hurstbridge Primary who remembers how school administration was carried out in the 1980s, but it is unlikely that the school then made any use of computers for this purpose.

CASES21

Thus, before CASES, many schools made no use of computers for school administration and those that did make some use of computers did so in a fragmented un-coordinated way. For administrative details of schools' financial and other data, the Education Department had to reply on typed (or sometimes handwritten) reports, make telephone calls and gain information from visits by school inspectors. CASES21 made a fundamental difference to this.

Apart from assisting schools with some administrative tasks, perhaps the biggest difference made by the introduction of CASES21 was the flow of information back to 'Spring Street' -the location of the Education Department. It is now very easy for someone in Spring Street to obtain details of the finances, enrolments, teachers, students and maintenance requests for any school in the State.

Financial matters are now handled by office staff in the school, but the Education Department has online access to all these data at any time. Use of CASES21 makes the task of handling finance, record keeping and enrolments by the school very much easier.

School Maintenance System (SMS)

Before introduction of this fairly new system, purchase orders to a contractor for any school maintenance tasks had to be handwritten at the school and then sent off to CASES21 for Education Department approval. Now, after the school has set up the system with contractor names and other details, when maintenance is needed, it sends an order to the contractor and also enters this directly into CASES21 where all the data is stored remotely. The school office staff then just pay the bills from CASES21, making it easy for the school to track spending.

This system is also used for routine inspections and occupational health and safety issues. Once set up, the system remembers dates for checking and ordering of these inspections. Use of this system has made these school administrative tasks a good deal easier.

EduPay

For quite some time teachers have been paid by direct bank transfer rather than by cheque. Before the EduPay system, teachers were sent payslips each fortnight with information about their pay, leave etc. All this information is now provided online. Whether this is better is a matter of personal opinion: some teachers are happy with this, others would prefer a printed payslip rather than having to go online to check.

Programs for Students with Disabilities (PSDMS)

The school has found that the system's provision of information about support processes associated with funding applications, eligibility evaluations and budget reporting for students with physical and intellectual disabilities is a big improvement on doing this by hand.

Student Performance Analyser (SPA)

Prior to the introduction of this program, each teacher tended to keep their own student assessment data, in some cases in a spreadsheet and in other cases on paper. Now at Hurstbridge Primary, student details can first be downloaded from CASES21. Each teacher then enters their own class results onto a spreadsheet and then later uploads them to SPA. The system has made analysis simpler with its sortable reports that can interpret and monitor student progress. Comparisons can be made between individual students, classes, cohorts, boys/girls, or the whole school. (SPA provides information only for this school and no comparison can be made with other schools, and unlike most of the other systems, data is stored within the school and the Education Department does not have direct access to this.)

QuickVic

Before introduction of this system, some student reports were handwritten by teachers and others were typed, in some cases on a typewriter but more recently using MS Word. In those times, one paper copy of each student's report had to be sent to their parents and another kept in a file at the school. The school duplicate had to be created either by using carbon paper, sensitive paper, or by photocopying. Copying and filing the reports was thus a large administrative burden on the school. Now, student details are first downloaded from CASES21. Each teacher then enters results and reports for each student in their class on their own (local) computer before uploading them to the school server, from where summary data is available to school management. This system is not online but later the results, but not the reports, are uploaded to CASES21.

One criticism of computer-generated reports like this, sometimes heard from parents and teachers, is that these are nowhere near as personal as the old handwritten reports. This is a difference, but whether positive or negative is a matter of opinion.

Ultranet

Use of the Ultranet could potentially have made a significant difference to the way the school operated, but this is no longer the case as the Ultranet was discontinued at the end of 2013.

EduMail

Almost everyone, of course, now makes use of email, whether they use it for work or at home, and teachers are no different. The system provides each teacher with their own email address and in addition to these individual staff accounts, the school also has its own email account. While at one time in the past the Education Department used to communicate with schools and teachers via 'The Victorian Education Gazette' printed monthly, in more recent times a summary weekly bulletin was provided by fax. Now everything is sent to the school by email.

Conclusion

What difference to school management and to teachers have these new systems made at Hurstbridge Primary School? The answer is that they have made a great deal of difference. Very little administrative output is now handwritten, with some purchase orders being an exception. This has made a quite dramatic change in the way that the school office operates, and has changed the roles and tasks of office staff. The old cash books are gone and there is now no need for office staff to count or balance cash: office staff jobs are very different. Much more access to data is now available and reports can easily be generated for each subject budget (which was very difficult in the past) and for any other account. This provides more easily accessible information, to both teachers and school administrators. All accounts and bills are settled by electronic payment and parents pay any school fees via BPAY (an Australian electronic bill payment system). This makes quite a difference at the parent-school interface.

Office work is now easier and more interesting, but more computer knowledge than before is needed. Computerised school management systems have radically changed the way that the school handles its administrative matters, and this has considerably affected teachers, school administrators, office staff and parents.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: CASES21  Administration Module: Student and family records, photographs, enrolments and census; Student medical records, welfare, accidents and sick bay; Attendance; Student achievement, incidents, discipline and merit; Activities, excursions, home groups and houses; Staff records and photographs; Daily organisation and calendar; Timetabling; School details, management, council and parents' clubs.  Finance module: Payroll, staff records and leave for school-level employees;Student, family and sundry debtors; Creditors; Asset register; Budgets; Reporting; End-of-year and end-of-financial year[START_REF]Early Childhood Development: CASES21[END_REF]. The use of CASES21 is mandatory for all government schools, and all school data are stored on site but automatically backed up online remotely by the Education Department. This means that the Education Department can create its own reports from any of the school's data and the school does not need to send it anything. Within the school, CASES21 is used by school management and office staff with no direct teacher access. CASES21 is linked to most other management systems within the school and to the Education Department.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: School Maintenance System (http://prms21.eduweb.vic.gov.au/home/)

Fig. 3

 3 Fig. 3 EduPay (http://www.education.vic.gov.au /hrweb/pages/resources/edupay.aspx)

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Program for Students with Disabilities (http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/ principals/finance/Pages/swdsystems.aspx)

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Student Performance Analyser (https://www.studentperformanceanalyser.com.au/spa/)

CASES21 is a customised version of the Maze school software system, marketed commercially by CIVICA.


Alan Strickley
email: alan.strickley@criatech.co.uk

Online Free School Meals as a Cloud-Based Solution: Three Case Studies of its Use in England

Keywords: Free school meals, stigma, eligibility checking service, cloud, online

. Whilst the use of the system can be judged an overwhelming success, most Local Authorities (LAs) have stopped short of the full web-based system in which parents can apply directly via an online form as a result of the perception of negligible cost benefits created by a lack of technical expertise, scarce resources and server and development costs. The paper describes how these issues were overcome by developing a generic cloud-based solution. The paper looks at the general structure of the solution and examines the experiences of three types of user: an academy consortium, a single school and a large LA to illustrate adoption, implementation, usage and benefits. It concludes that a cloud-based system is cost effective by removing much administration and as a result of lowering the stigma of applying can result in an increase in applications. This has resulted in financial advantages for schools and LAs.

Background

The provision of free school meals (FSM) for children within England and Wales requires that the parent/carer provides evidence that they are eligible, based on a number of criteria. From April 2012 these criteria concerned children whose parents were in receipt of certain support payments [START_REF]Children's Food Trust: Free school meals: why don't all parents sign up? Findings from a survey of parents in England. Children's Food Trust[END_REF].

The online free school meals (OFSM) programme was supported by the Department for Education (DfE) and implemented by Connect Digitally in England and Wales in 2010. The full process, documented in Strickley [START_REF] Strickley | Data sharing between local and national governments for the benefit of the citizen: Online free school meals as a transformational project[END_REF], consisted of a web portal which, based on the three criteria of surname, date of birth and National Insurance number (NINO) or National Asylum Support Service (NASS) reference number, can check if a parent/carer qualifies for the entitlement of FSM for their children.

The process is performed using a system called the Eligibility Checking System (ECS) which matches the three criteria against data held in three central government databases, namely, the Home Office, the Department of Work and Pensions (DWP) and Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC). A decision is normally received in seconds.

The new online system removes the paper evidence required to prove eligibility [START_REF]Eligibility Criteria[END_REF] thereby creating efficiencies in terms of time and cost for a local authority (LA), removing the stigma for a parent/carer's application [1,4 ,5] as well as giving quick turnaround of a decision, an audit of continuing eligibility and a free school meal for the child within days of an application. As [START_REF] Strickley | Data sharing between local and national governments for the benefit of the citizen: Online free school meals as a transformational project[END_REF] describes, use of the FSM ECS was quickly adopted by LAs and resulted in large efficiencies for schools and LAs as a result of no longer requiring paper proof of eligibility and through continual audit of those eligible.

However, without moving to the full web enabled stage (Stage 4 as described by Strickley) the system was not as streamlined and stigma-free as might be, due to the parent/carer being required to provide a paper application (although no paper evidence) to the school or LA and the need for the data to be input into the ECS (via the portal) by the LA periodically as a comma-separated value (CSV) file; often generated and stored in a spreadsheet.

At the time of the Strickley paper (2013) only 10 LAs had taken the transformation to the full web-based solution. This was because for an individual LA the costs of developing a web-based service solution were high compared to the added benefits that such a system was perceived to generate (assuming that the technical expertise was available to the LA in the first place, which in smaller LAs might not be the case). These costs could generally be assigned as:  Designing the web-based public facing form.  Generating the code for the form and hosting it.  Developing the web services code to communicate with the ECS.  Obtaining accreditation for these web service calls from the DfE FSM Support Desk.  Communicating the eligibility outcome to the parent and school.

Supported by the work done by Connect Digitally with respect to the OFSM programme, an independent development company, Software for Data Analysis (SDA) [START_REF]SDA: Home page[END_REF], in partnership with the author, developed a solution for the support of OFSM using web services which would help remove these obstacles of cost and resources and enable the full system to be implemented through the following initiatives:  Creating a generic web-based public facing form that could be adapted to the look and feel of the LA whilst still keeping the basic structure and functionality.  Using the same web service calls for every form instance.  As a result of using the same web service calls for every form instance, achieving accreditation from DfE with very little code change.  Creating a generic email communication system.  Developing interoperability with the school management information system (MIS).

In addition, a generic back-office system was created for the LA, school (or both as appropriate) where the eligibility check results could be viewed.

By holding both the application form and the back-office systems on a cloud-based system it was possible, with very little adaptation of the generic model, to give users access to the results of eligibility applications made by parent/carers for their children.

Development began in May 2011 of a cloud-based solution and the initial prototype was available in early 2012 with the first users implementing between May 2012 and April 2013. These early adopters are the subjects of the 3 case studies.

Implementation

As explained in the "Background" section, the process was intended to be relatively seamless. This section briefly describes the steps involved in creating a system for any type of user. It also examines the various components of the system.

The system was promoted using existing contacts within LAs using a demonstration system via a dedicated web page [START_REF] Sda | OFSM home page[END_REF]. Costs were calculated on the size and status of the user and the number of FSM pupils based on government statistical data, but were tailored to the existing conditions of austerity within the UK at the time such that an "average cost" would be in the region of £5,000 per LA and £500 for a single school as against £15,000 to £20,000 for a bespoke solution [START_REF]Connect Digitally: Frequently asked questions for web services[END_REF].

Once agreement was made with the LA, implementation was via the following steps:  Accreditation from the DfE was sought via the company in partnership with the host LA [START_REF]DfE: FSM system integration guide[END_REF].  A URL was assigned for the application form and back-office functions.  A list of schools and user details were supplied by the LA.  Any existing FSM data were supplied in a format defined by SDA for import into the new system.  Local Land and Property Gazetteer (LLPG) data were supplied by the LA for the address checker. (Where this was not available a national address checker was available at extra cost.)

Once this was arranged the application URL was given to an LA with an LA backoffice and school back-office both accessible via the web. These three components are described in "The components of the solution" section below. In addition, user guides were also distributed.

These processes generally could be achieved within 2 weeks. As described above, the system is cloud-based. Whilst this makes for major efficiencies, with respect to upgrades, bug fixes and speed of implementation, it did cause concerns around security. Hence this next section on "Security" deals specifically with this area.

Security

Any system needs to be secure but one that utilises cloud technology has to be more so [START_REF] Wyld | Moving to the cloud: An introduction to cloud computing in government[END_REF]. The company, SDA, was chosen to provide the highest level of data security and comply with all appropriate regulations and codes of practice. In particular, SDA had extensive experience in providing and managing systems involving the transferring and handling of large quantities of personal data, for example, the DfE's National Pupil Database (NPD) and Key to Success (KtS) service. In addition to working on many projects and services for the DfE, SDA also worked for many other central government, local government and non-departmental public body organisations.

Only trained SDA staff, with experience of handling personal data, were permitted to access the OFSM system. All SDA staff were cleared to Baseline Personnel Security Standard and had Enhanced Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) clearance.

The SDA servers are located in one of TelecityGroup's [START_REF]Home page[END_REF] data centres in London. TelecityGroup is the leading operator of network-independent data centres in Europe and all of their data centres are certified to the ISO 27001:2005 (Information Security Management) standard and have Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) accreditation. Physical access to the data centre is controlled by biometrics and access card and the centre is fully staffed for 24 hours every day of the year.

Intrusion detection mechanisms (both within the OFSM domain and between the OFSM domain and connected networks) were in place to identify potential attacks. The OFSM service also has mechanisms in place to detect suspicious activity and to identify suspected multiple applications. Information security events were reported through appropriate management channels as quickly as possible. Management responsibilities between SDA and the LA were established to ensure quick, effective and orderly response to information security incidents. The OFSM service also incorporated reliable user authentication, including measures concerning password strength, renewal and re-use. Audit logs, recording the activities of all users, exceptions and information security events, were produced to assist in future investigations and access control monitoring.

The Components of the Solution

The OFSM system consisted of two major elements: the public facing application form and a back-office which collated the results of the application for schools and LA.

Application form

The application form was a generic transactional web form which consisted of 5 major sections.  Home screen: General information and the choice to start a new application or amend an existing one (requiring a unique reference and applicant's date of birth).

 Declaration: A screen explaining the general requirements for eligibility, including legal and essential information such as privacy notices and data protection information.  Parent/carer: Details of the parent/carer making the application (or for whom the application for eligibility is being made). In particular the legal surname, date of birth and NINO or NASS reference numbers as these are used in the eligibility checking process. In addition, address information, relationship to the child and email address are collected.  Child: Details of the child/children including their current school. The school is essential so that the application can be seen by the appropriate establishment.  Submit: Submission of the information above, to the ECS, with electronic declaration of accuracy to ensure due diligence against fraudulent applications.  End: Almost instantaneous outcome of eligibility check is given to the applicant together with next steps. In addition, an email (if address supplied) is sent to the applicant and at the end of each day the school is sent an email to inform them that there are new eligibilities in their back-office system.

Upon completion of the form the result is stored in the cloud database and is viewable through the LA and school back-office functions.

School back-office

The school back-office is a cloud-based application accessible from any browser that allows the school to examine applications made for FSM eligibility by parents for children in their school. These may be viewed under a series of menu items. The screen in Figure 1 shows the list of currently eligible children in a school obtained from selecting the menu item Eligibility. The list may be re-ordered by clicking on the appropriate column heading, printed as a screen dump or downloaded as a portable document format (PDF). Additional menu items along the top have the functionality as below:

 Saved Not Found: This menu item allows the non-eligible pupils to be viewed as a single view.  Changes: This screen shows all of the applications which have changed status in the recent past (e.g. last 5 days).  Day by Day: This screen displays the new applications and changes, in daily lists, over the recent past (e.g. the last 5 days).

In addition, clicking on the reference (column 5 in Figure 1) brings up a screen containing the complete application data set as shown in Figure 2. Here various functions may be performed such as adding siblings, transferring a pupil's eligibility status to another school using the same system and editing the existing application details.

Figure 3 shows the search menu item through which applications may be searched, based on a single criterion or multiple criteria. In addition, this screen may be used to obtain a CSV file output of the results of the search. Figure 4 shows the school information screen by which the various administrative functions, such as adding users and changing the school details, may be accessed.

LA back-office

The LA back-office enables the LA to see all of the applications for schools within its area using the search menu or for a single school if selected from the school's menu. Whilst encompassing all of the usual administrative functions such as user setup, audit frequency, email content, etc., the main function of the back-office is to see the status of applications made. This is achieved under a series of sub-menus as shown in Figure 5. The school back-office is essentially a cut-down version of the LA back-office with a restricted view of the school that the login allowed. A fully functional demonstration version of both the application form and the back-office functions can be found at [START_REF] Sda | OFSM home page[END_REF].

Research Approach

The purpose of this research was to investigate how effective the introduction of a conceived user-friendly, cost-effective, cloud-based solution for OFSM would be in a variety of school settings. It was decided to look at three distinct groups of users that were using the system: an LA (which included all the schools within the LA); a single school; and a consortium of schools (academies) that were geographically disparate.

Although there are now three large LAs, several single schools and consortia using the system, with as many waiting for implementation to commence, it was decided to focus on the first users of each of the three category types, to give the study early results in what was a very short time period.

The case studies utilised semi-structured interviews with the users (a selection in the case of the LA and consortium, based on availability) and administrators. These were carried out by one of the developers not known personally to the interviewee. In addition, emails received as a result of the process, support calls and statistics before and after implementation were also used.

The interviews asked questions about the system including the user's reasons for choosing the solution, how they previously checked eligibility, advantages and disadvantages of the system, how they rated the system, possible improvements and any additional comments.

Interviews were conducted via telephone following an email request with a preview of the questions above and the option to respond via email; however, none of them chose this option.

These interviews were intended to obtain an evaluation of the system and were open ended to give the users ample opportunities to express their opinions without too much structure or question bias.

Case Study One: An Academy Consortium

Background

The Academy Consortium is a consortium of 18 academies (27 from September 2013) across England from Portsmouth to the Midlands. As an academy is independent of the LA and is directly funded by the government, the group wanted the advantages of an online system that they could use as a consortium of schools that made up the group.

The how, when and where

As a result of information from an existing OFSM system user one of the finance directors arranged for the system to be demonstrated to the consortium managing group and a decision was made to pilot the system with one school and after the success of the pilot go for a full implementation across all the schools in January 2013.

What

A Consortium-branded online form was created with an appropriate universal resource locator (UR)L and back-office systems. The system was rolled out to one school in December 2012 and following the success of this pilot to all the 19 schools in January 2013. From September 2013 a further 9 schools joined the Consortium and are using the OFSM system.

Result

The initial pilot school had already asked parental permissions to check eligibility on their behalf and where they had consented had given the appropriate details to the school. All of these applications were run through the system in the first couple of weeks. As a result 10 new eligible pupils were identified, resulting in provision of a school meal for these pupils and an extra income as a result of Pupil Premium (an extra amount of pupil-focused funding for children who are eligible for FSM) of around £6,000.

Interviews were carried out with the contact officer, who initiated the system across the academy group and supported the users on a day-to-day basis and considered the software to be "Outstanding". However they did consider that transfer of the data to their school management information system (MIS) would be an improvement.

An interview with a school administrator resulted in the following comment:

"Everyone thinks it's brilliant and has significantly reduced admin [sic]".

Case Study Two: A Single Academy School

Background

This single academy primary school obtained academy status in 2012. Previously part of the LA, the school had been and still was part of the LA's batch ECS service which schools could buy into. This would typically involve the school collecting eligibility status data from parents/carers (name, date of birth, NINO, etc.) creating a data file and sending to the LA. The LA would then check this file against the ECS and append with the appropriate result. However, the school wanted a real-time system that parents could access themselves at any time and would give an instant decision to both parent and school, without having to use the LA as an intermediary.

The how, when and where

As a result of networking with a neighbouring LA the school was made aware of the SDA product that would enable the school and citizen to have a faster response and more control over the process. A demonstration of the system was organised on the school office computer in February 2013.

What

The solution consisted of a transactional web application form customised with the school logos and look-and-feel that was accessed via an appropriate URL/web address. The school's own privacy notices and data protection advice together with any other information were also added.

Result

The system removed the need for parents to bring personal data into the school allowing them to make applications in the privacy of their own home (or office, internet café, library, etc.) and gave them an instant response. This removes the stigma and the waiting associated with the old system. The school gets an immediate update of eligible pupils allowing them to organise the free meal as quickly as possible as well as accumulating data for Pupil Premium and other FSM-based benefits.

Conclusion

Although only running the system for a month, through publicity in the school magazine the school had already had 2 new eligible applications which they put down to the ease of use of the system for parents.

An interview with the office manager resulted in the following statement:

"Saves time and cuts down on paperwork and administration".

This was mainly as a result of the self-documenting features of the software and the removal of the need for office staff to examine and make decisions based on the paper evidence supplied.

This was echoed by the office administrator who thought the software was: "really good… brilliant".

In addition they were impressed by the speed of the online decision (usually seconds) and thought its extension to the area of uniform grants would be helpful.

Case Study Three: A L LA

Background

The LA is a large local authority with over 500 schools and over 17,000 children potentially eligible for free school meals. The LA was already a regular user of the ECS for the batch processing of school meal applications from parents. Written forms from parents were delivered to the schools and passed on to the LA or delivered directly to the LA. Once the results of the application were known, the LA would pass on the data to the schools, usually on a spreadsheet.

The how, when and where

The LA wanted to enable parents to apply online, thus reducing the use of paper and keyboard entry at the LA. They wanted to get an immediate result and to notify both the school and the LA at the same time. In addition, they wanted to encourage the use of electronic communications between the parent, the LA and schools and to conduct automatic audits and renewal applications.

Setting up such a service in-house would have made demands on scarce internal resources, involving both staff and hardware, and any new development would have to compete for priority with other critical applications.

Result

SDA were able to offer an efficient and cost-effective cloud-based solution to the LA; there were minimal start-up costs and a low annual rental charge. The LA was also given a reduced cost for being a regional lead authority.

The LA initially conducted a pilot with four schools to ascertain how the system would work in practice. SDA customised the online application form with the logos and look-and-feel of the LA web site and assisted the LA with their own data protection statement and privacy notices which appear on the initial pre-application screens.

Following a pilot in March 2012, the LA decided to roll out the system to all schools in the LA. The LA supplied legacy OFSM data and contact details for each of its schools and SDA were able to populate the new system with these data. SDA also set up initial user identification data (IDs) and passwords for each school user. Schools were given the URL link to access the application form and the back-office system.

Local Land and Property Gazetteer (LLPG) data were uploaded to enable postcode validation, mapping and address lookup facilities, with none of the ongoing costs usually associated with using commercially available addressing data. The list of participating LA schools is presented to applicants in school selection dropdown menus.

Conclusion

Because all schools and the LA are essentially using the same database, changes are immediate and visible to all those with rights to view them. Any amendments to how the system functions are done on the cloud by SDA so the LA is relieved of all the system maintenance responsibilities associated with client-based systems.

In all, the system requires minimal LA and school input and runs the OFSM process automatically as far as this is possible. In addition, it gives schools more control over their business and minimises the demands on scarce LA resources.

Despite being the largest user in this research the comments were the most positive of the three. This can be summed up by the quotation below from the catering services manager:

"The new free meal eligibility checking system has improved efficiency and communication between the LA and schools. School Administrators are very happy with the access to real-time information, and it has simplified our LA process, reducing time spent on checks whilst ensuring their accuracy. We now hope that the online route will encourage more parents of children eligible for free meals, to make sure their children have them."

It seems that the simplification of the process and the reduction in time needed to administer it in a larger environment is greater for a larger number of users and particularly in a public service environment. Further studies in other comparable LAs will enable more evidence regarding this.

Conclusions

The use of the system described appears to have been an outstanding success based on the evidence collected. Initiating the online system is fairly easy including creating a URL for the establishment and a bespoke application form. Accreditation for web services can be turned around in a week as all the security and web service calls are identical for each system.

The system has the advantage of giving the LA up-to-date information about all applications, removing the need for annual reapplication and performing regular audit at weekly intervals ensuring that the benefit is always available to those who are eligible. However, additional benefits are being recognised. For example, the removal of the stigma of application at the school can increase applications, helping to increase the number of applications from the estimated 200,000 parent/carers [START_REF] Strickley | Data sharing between local and national governments for the benefit of the citizen: Online free school meals as a transformational project[END_REF] who do not currently apply for the entitlement but who are considered to be eligible.

Further work

As more LAs roll out the system there will be greater data to make comparative studies of the system's usage, effectiveness in terms of increasing eligibility application and overall user satisfaction. This will form the basis of a more quantitative study in the future.

The addition of early year's entitlement for 2-year-olds based on FSM eligibility further increases the scope of an eligibility checker and this is currently in development.

FSM eligibility is also used as a trigger for summer schools (additional tuition for pupils when they move between primary and secondary schools). The on academic performance as a result of this extra teaching and learning will be interesting, although, of course, these need to be tempered against the reported advantages [START_REF]Home page[END_REF] of receiving regular nutritious meals themselves.

The system can be used within England and Wales as they have the same criteria for FSM; however, it is considered that given the cooperation from the appropriate government that the principles could be extended to the rest of the UK or beyond through the use of a similar middleware solution connecting central databases to a public portal in a secure way.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Eligibility screen

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Application details

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Search screen

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: School information

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: LA back-office menu