Keywords: adaptation culturelle, adaptation linguistique, criticisme de traduction, évaluation de traduction, internationalisation, localisation des sites Web, recherche de corpus, sites Web de firmes, traduction fonctionnaliste, traduction publicitaire, transcréation advertising translation, corporate websites, corpus-based research, cultural adaptation, functionalist translation, internationalization, linguistic adaptation, transcreation

Cette thèse explore le degré de localisation des sites Web et leur degré d'adaptation selon la langue et la culture cibles. Elle tente d'aborder le sujet en utilisant des théories de la traductologie, des points de vue de l'industrie, de marketing international et des études culturelles, pour combler le fossé qui existe entre la traductologie et l'industrie de la localisation. La recherche se limite aux notices publicitaires de produits des sites Web de multinationales qui sont localisés en langue arabe. Contrairement aux genres numériques émergents, comme les logiciels et les applications, le contenu publicitaire obéit à des conventions établies en traductologie. Cependant, ce genre de contenu a rarement été étudié dans le contexte de la localisation. Étant donné les définitions proposées de la localisation en traductologie et dans l'industrie, les adaptations linguistique et culturelle sont essentielles dans ce concept. Par conséquent, le genre de texte étudié a été choisi en raison de sa fonction persuasive et du besoin de ce type d'adaptation. De plus, la localisation en arabe est sous-étudiée, ce qui rend cette étude nécessaire. Le corpus est composé de 15 sites Web de multinationales dans les domaines de la haute technologie, de l'ameublement et des cosmétiques. La recherche est orientée vers la cible et la fonction des textes. Elle commence par définir les marqueurs de la fonction et les aspects principaux de l'analyse, qui présente deux phases : monolingue et bilingue. La première affine le corpus en fonction des marqueurs prédéfinis. La seconde propose une analyse approfondie. Le cadre théorique abordant plusieurs notions floues en traductologie et dans l'industrie, comme la qualité de traduction, l'adaptation et la transcréation. Les résultats permettent d'en approfondir la compréhension, en clarifiant les pratiques actuelles et les approches adoptées. Ces résultats portent sur les mécanismes et stratégies de transcréation, les causes de problèmes fonctionnels du texte, et permettent de modéliser la relation entre la qualité de la traduction, la taille de l'entreprise et le domaine. La recherche prend en compte le processus de la localisation et l'impact potentiel de l'internationalisation sur la traduction.

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INTRODUCTION

dans une journée ordinaire, un citoyen européen pourra boire un café importé du Pérou dont l'étiquette est traduite, lire dans son journal des informations traduites par une agence de presse, consulter sur un ordinateur (dont le système d'exploitation a été localisé) ses courriels (dans une interface localisée) puis, dans les transports en commun, lire un roman finlandais (traduit), au travail manipuler une machine-outil dont le manuel est traduit, utiliser un site de traduction automatique pour avoir plus vite des informations sur les évènements en Islande, rentrer chez lui pour regarder une série sous-titrée, et ainsi de suite. (European Commission, Directorate-General for Trans, 2011, p. 4) In an increasingly globalized world, people in different countries tend to use the same products, watch the same TV shows and movies, and even go shopping to the same nearby brand stores wherever they live. Moreover, channels such as the Internet have provided free accessibility to the same services and objects for almost everyone. Such an open culture has been considered as a movement which includes free software, free sources and open content [START_REF] Lacour | TIC, collaboration et traduction : vers de nouveaux laboratoires numériques de translocalisation culturelle[END_REF]. These channels, in turn, have resulted in new communication trends on the social and economic levels, which have manifested through social media applications, games and websites for various purposes. For example, the use of digital environments absorbs 20-30 per cent of the advertising expenses (Stenger & Bourliataux-Lajoinie, 2014, p. 132). This is sometimes referred to as "Internet advertising" or "netvertising" (Alamán, 2003, p. 375).

Many companies provide international branded products and are known to be global businesses. Going international has been for a long time thought to be as simple as working domestically, but companies have learnt by experience that each country and culture is a new world [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF]. The new trends and increased global flow has led to a virtual migration of information through using languages other than the one used on the original materials, which in turn brought the necessity for and the challenge of localization (Cronin, 2006, pp. 28-29). Despite the increased use of English as a lingua franca, people's needs are different when it comes to purchasing. As Globish is not enough anymore to persuade the consumers to buy a product, localization is being used as the key to address them in their native language (Collombat, 2014, p. 20). It has been found that online buyers increasingly prefer purchasing at websites which offer information in the local languages [START_REF] Depalma | Can't read, won't buy: why language matters on global websites. An international survey of global consumer buying preferences[END_REF]. Hence, localization has become a need for every business wishing to go international. In turn, content has become more visible to the public than ever thanks to the Web and localization. On the contrary, localization is "invisible" in the lives of non-English speaking users (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, pp. 26-27). The end users benefit from the localized products, interact with them and integrate them in their lives without necessarily knowing that these products have been through a complicated cycle to customize them for the target language and culture. End consumers see the result, the final product, and expect it to function properly.

In fact, localization "did not appear as an independent object of enquiry until the 2000s, when the number of web users increased fivefold" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 134). This increase was reflected by a language service growth of 5 per sent over 2016 1 . The increase in the demand was also highlighted in Translation Studies (TS), where it was reported as being larger than the supply in Canada for instance [START_REF] Bowker | What does it take to work in the translation profession in Canada in the 21st century? Exploring a database of job advertisements[END_REF]. Furthermore, localization education started to develop to meet the industry needs of students and professors (ibid.). The increased demand for translation services is not only related to the required volumes, but also to the reach, i.e. the range of languages into which texts are translated (Drugan, 2013, p. 10).

Several definitions have been suggested by the industry first and in TS later. The most common components of localization are represented by the linguistic and cultural adaptation of the product to the target market [START_REF] Esselink | A practical Guide To Software Localization[END_REF][START_REF] Rémon | Interculturel et Internet: le site Web, objet culturel ? Didactique du FLE et de l'interculturel: Littérature[END_REF]Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]. Such notions have been introduced as the additional aspects which localization includes and which distinguish it from "traditional" translation. However, "determining the cultural appropriateness and how it should be reflected in a linguistic form are still unspecific" (Kassawat, 2019b, p. 209). Thus, there is a need to investigate current practices, how and to what extent content is linguistically and culturally adapted for the target audience. Moreover, the quality of the provided translation should be assessed given its visibility, reach and costs. This is particularly necessary in light of the complex process of globalization a localized product goes through, which includes internationalization, localization and translation. Investigating the aforementioned aspects should reveal whether the localization goals and expectations are met, and explain the possible factors which affect the translation quality positively or negatively. The industry indicates that although roughly half the Fortune 500 companies have developed localized websites, less than half of their efforts can be considered anywhere near comprehensive (Yunker, 2003, p. 25).

While the subject of translation quality is widely discussed in TS, and is still controversial, it can be approached from the point of view of the translator, the translation agency, and the client, where the criteria of quality differ remarkably (Bass, 2006, p. 69). This research, however, will take the notion of translation quality from a critical point of view. It will investigate the final product as seen by the end-user, as it will be detailed in the following chapters.

The rapid growth of the localization industry and the risk it represented with respect to the translation practice have drawn the researchers' attention. Scholars from different disciplines started to research localization with respect to their specializations. On their side, TS scholars started to react to the phenomenon as well, particularly with the increasing demand for translators to work in the field. In particular, the technical [START_REF] Cermak | A framework for cultural localization of websites and for improving their commercial utilization[END_REF] and visual aspects of localization such as design, pictures and symbols have drawn their attention [START_REF] Nauert | Translating websites[END_REF][START_REF] Bahri | The avatars of culture in website localization[END_REF]. Certain scholars have discussed the workflow [START_REF] Lenker | Workflow specification for enterprise localisation[END_REF], processes [START_REF] Bouffard | De l'intégration des facteurs ergonomiques, linguistiques et culturels dans l'évaluation du SITE localisé. Traduction et Francophonie[END_REF], tools, localization training and the translator's skills [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF][START_REF] Bowker | What does it take to work in the translation profession in Canada in the 21st century? Exploring a database of job advertisements[END_REF][START_REF] Austermühl | Training translators to localize[END_REF][START_REF] Gouadec | Profils de compétences et formation universitaire. Traduction, terminologie, rédaction : actes des universités d'été et d'automne[END_REF][START_REF] Kelly | Student mobility on translator training programmes[END_REF]. Moreover, the semiotic aspects of the website (Bolaños Medina, Rodríguez [START_REF] Medina | Analysing digital genres: function and functionality in corporate websites of computer hardware[END_REF][START_REF] Nauert | Translating websites[END_REF][START_REF] Bahri | The avatars of culture in website localization[END_REF][START_REF] Popova | Translation and Localization Strategies in Automotive Advertising of Multinational Companies in Russia[END_REF], especially in advertising translation, have occupied a significant share of TS research conducted on localization. Textual elements have been also addressed, particularly hypertexts in websites [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web genres in localisation: a Spanish corpus study[END_REF]2009). Other TS research has addressed the adaptation level in terms of textual blocks removal and addition practices which are applied on the macro structure [START_REF] Mousten | Thesis: Globalisation and Localisation Influences on Web Site Text Distribution: a Case Study of Text Travel Between Two VELUX Web Sites[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Loss" or "lost" in translation: a contrastive genre study of original and localised non-profit US websites[END_REF]. Studies which have addressed the cultural aspect of translation in localized products have dealt mostly with video games adaptation [START_REF] Mangiron | Journey to the East: Cultural adaptation of video games for the Chinese market[END_REF]. However, little research has been done on online textual content with established genres and conventions. Translation strategies in tourism websites, for example, have been looked at but in a rather general approach [START_REF] Pierini | Quality in web translation: an investigation into UK and Italian tourism web sites[END_REF].

From another perspective, an overall look at the localization literature in TS shows that few languages have been included in corpus-based studies. Widely spoken languages have not got the same attention. For instance, very few studies have researched Arabic in localization [START_REF] Benaida | The link between automated translation of the Arabic language[END_REF] although many international businesses target several countries in the Arab world. On top of that, the cultural aspects linked to Arabic can generate interesting findings in the field. In addition, Arabic is a challenging language in web localization due to its need for right-to-left (RTL) support, its characters and managing bi-directional texts (Yunker, 2003, p. 392). While these are technical aspects of the Arabic language, Arabic translation is considered costly (ibid.), which necessitates examining the textual product. At a worldwide level, Arab users form about 4% of global Internet users with a penetration rate of at least 45,16% in 20172 .

Although TS has been influenced by the industry discourse with all its aspects, TS research has emerged, such as the seminal monograph The Moving Text [START_REF] Pym | The moving text: Localization, translation, and distribution[END_REF], works on the relations between the localization industry and the academia [START_REF] Pym | Localization, training, and instrumentalization[END_REF], Translation and Web Localization where an adapted map of TS was proposed for Localization Studies [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF], and research in game localization [START_REF] O'hagan | Shifts, but not as we know them? Research models and methods in Translation Studies[END_REF]. Even though, more recent works show that there is still a gap between translation and localization [START_REF] Achkasov | If the mountain won't come… Translation Studies meets localization[END_REF] and that the boundaries seem to be still blurry between TS and localization research [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Localization research in Translation Studies: expanding the limits or blurring the lines[END_REF]. This gap exists in terms of the points of interest in the industry versus the discussed topics in the academia: "a wide localization industry-academia gap exists, as TS scholars normally highlight internal quality, while industry experts often debate external issues" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 105). Hence, there is still a need to bring the two concepts closer in order to ensure a valuable contribution of translation in the localization industry.

To look at a specific type of localized products, commercial websites are increasingly localized in order to serve a wider audience across the borders. In 1995, the first advertisements appeared on websites of companies such as amazon, eBay and Yahoo! [START_REF] Stenger | E-marketing & E-commerce[END_REF]. Nowadays, advertisements take several shapes, such as display advertising (popups, banner ads, landing pages), advertisements which are served through social media, videos, email, search results, and similar channels. Moreover, these ads are served on mobile devices [START_REF] Aydın | Attitudes towards digital advertisements: Testing differences between social media ads and mobile ads[END_REF] and desktops, which have become part of people's daily routine. The consumer can view the content and see these advertisements voluntarily during online shopping or just Window shopping, or involuntarily due to "personalized advertising" [START_REF] Yu | Hello, Mrs. Sarah Jones! We recommend this product![END_REF], i.e. serving customized advertisements based on personal interests and research activity. This extensive exposure to advertisements turns commercial websites into main platforms for businesses, or even store fronts to showcase their products. Furthermore, these platforms are localized, particularly by international corporations. Hence, the high daily exposure to such content on multiple channels and in local languages, the interactivity of the consumer with it and spontaneity of its delivery make websites considered as cultural objects [START_REF] Rémon | Interculturel et Internet: le site Web, objet culturel ? Didactique du FLE et de l'interculturel: Littérature[END_REF]. The cultural impact of websites caused concerns in academia, particularly that many websites are localized typically from English into other languages. Although localization comes from the notion of the local, it was not clear whether it aims to disseminate US-influenced culture around the world, or to highlight local identities and differences [START_REF] Mcdonough Dolmaya | The politics of localization[END_REF]. The role of translation and the use of local languages to persuade more efficiently was also highlighted by Collombat who discussed the similar impact of propaganda and advertising (2014, p. 22).

Therefore, the need to investigate the English language and US culture influence (if applicable) over the localized products is more urgent than before. It is important to find out whether the claimed goals of localization are being met and how. From a different perspective, the increasing volumes of translation in the world drew the attention of visionary scholars. Cronin argues that: the technology-led infinite production of goods and services is not sustainable and that by association, the growth mantra of the localization industry is ethically and ecologically problematic. The world may not need more translation but less. Or rather it may need more of certain kinds of translation (directed at public goods such as health, education, civic rights) and considerably less of other kinds (directed at maximizing private profitability) if energy resources are to be used in a sustainable manner. In other words, there needs to be limits to growth and part of our thinking about translation technology involves thinking of translation as a scarce resource which needs to be used judiciously in conjunction with basic social and economic needs in the era of climate change. (Cronin, 2020, p. 522) While the above concerns aim at ensuring a sustainable ecological planet, cultural sustainability needs to be examined too. The massive exposure of people to a wide variety of translated texts can play a major role in enriching their cultures, but it can also cause a major damage. Such kind of damage can have long terms ramifications. This research will attempt to examine whether and how linguistic and cultural sustainability can be achieved through the current localization practices. This, in turn, directs the research in a way or another to concepts such as quality and culture in translation. Cultural adaptation is not a new concept in Translation Studies, neither is quality assessment. However, these notions have been examined through the analysis of translation as we know it. Researching the same notions in localization can: first, bridge the gap between translation and localization practices on the one hand, and between TS and the localization industry at the other; second, it is highly likely to bring new or different results to what research in TS has found in these particular areas, in light of the technology used and the conceptualization of cultures and languages in the localization industry. Filling such gaps is quite important as "the conceptual relationship between 'localization ' and 'translation' remains ambiguous in Translation Studies mainly due to a lack of theorization of the localization phenomenon." (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 87).

In light of the above brief discussion, this thesis will attempt to address the following research questions:

1-Given the localization definitions which focus on the notions of the function and adaptation, to what extent are localized advertising texts of a commercial website linguistically and culturally adapted to meet the intended function? 2-Given the emergence of new digital genres and assimilation practices in their translation [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF], does the translation of such conventionalized genres meet the intended function in the new channel(s)?

3-As localization is understood as "a target-oriented translation type and, in line with the functionalist notion of adequacy" (ibid., p. 18), how to determine the function parameters that should be used in criticizing the textual localization of a website? 4-What kind of impact does the globalization process have on the textual content of a conventionalized genre, i.e. are there noticeable markers of the targeted language and culture in a localized content or different versions look rather similar?

Focusing on the function of the text with regard to its linguistic and cultural aspects should help in giving an idea on the existing practices of localization, and how they correspond to its definitions and goals. What follows is further details on the significant points of this research in the field of localization as well as TS.

This thesis aims to add to existing research which has been done to bridge the gap between localization and Translation Studies. On the one hand, it will attempt to apply TS theories in the localization domain. On the other hand, it will focus on integrating the relative part of localization research within Translation Studies. Furthermore, it will shed light on the quality of localized texts with a conventionalized genre, and which has been researched thoroughly in TS, such as advertising translation. This research should contribute to Translation Studies due to the different nature of the electronic corpus, its channel, its complex process and collaborating agents.

Most importantly, this research will attempt to provide the function markers which are necessary in the analysis of translated texts, whether they are translated traditionally or through the localization process. In addition, it will adopt a functionalist approach (to be explained in the theoretical framework in relation to localization) right from the beginning during the corpus compilation phase. In fact, the corpus selection as well as its analysis will be based on the function of the text. This function is meeting the target recipient's expectations and the communicative purpose, which should be expressed through the use of the conventions of the target language and culture. Hence, the main contribution to knowledge of the research is its methodology including the corpus compilation and analysis. It should help in leveraging the functionalist theory in localization criticism. The findings are expected to provide an objective criticism of the translation quality of a highly visible and publicly accessible content. They will provide an insight of the functionalist approach validity in the field of localization.

The research at hand will mainly deal with a non-hypertextual corpus. Its analysis will not address other elements in the website, such as images, hypertexts or audiovisuals. The analysis will be limited to specific linguistic and cultural quality aspects which can have an impact on the user's experience and his/her interactivity with the text.

Given the complex process of localization and the collaboration aspect of work, the research will not deal with the processes or the agents who worked on the translations. These aspects are particularly challenging due to the difficulty of tracking the text journey, knowing the used tools and technologies, and the participating people throughout the process. Therefore, the research will be conducted based on the final product as seen by the end user, to criticize in its context.

Given the newness of localization as a domain within Translation Studies, which will be detailed further in the first part, there is a need for empirical research which examines the translation quality of online localized texts. In order to answer the aforementioned research questions, in light of the cultural aspect of the analysis requirements, the research will adopt a qualitative approach. A corpus-based study will be conducted as an established method of research in TS [START_REF] Baker | Corpus-based translation studies: The challenges that lie ahead[END_REF][START_REF] Saldanha | Research Methodologies in Translation Studies[END_REF] and which has become an adopted approach in localization research as well [START_REF] Bouffard | Localisation et variation linguistique. Vers une géolinguistique de l'espace virtuel francophone[END_REF][START_REF] Mcdonough Dolmaya | The politics of localization[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF]). An electronic corpus [START_REF] Loock | La Traductologie de Corpus[END_REF] will be collected from corporate websites [START_REF] Medina | Analysing digital genres: function and functionality in corporate websites of computer hardware[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web genres in localisation: a Spanish corpus study[END_REF][START_REF] Mousten | Thesis: Globalisation and Localisation Influences on Web Site Text Distribution: a Case Study of Text Travel Between Two VELUX Web Sites[END_REF][START_REF] Lee | The medium is global, the content is not: translating commercial websites[END_REF][START_REF] Popova | Translation and Localization Strategies in Automotive Advertising of Multinational Companies in Russia[END_REF] which illustrate retail products used by people of different ages, genders and backgrounds on a daily basis. The corpus should consist of blurbs: a tagline and a short description of a product. The corpus will be bilingual: English and Arabic. As a pilot project, a sample of the corpus will be collected and analyzed in order to explore the common trends and patterns. The main function markers of the genre should be specified at this stage in order to guide the next phase of the corpus compilation. Then, a wider sample will be selected based on the patterns found in the pilot analysis and the function markers of the targetlocale-text, such as the readability, fluency, linguistic and cultural conventions. Then, a comparison of the target Arabic text with the international English text will take place to check other function markers, such as the overall intended message, and to analyze the observed practices.

As mentioned earlier, the selection of the corpus will be function-based. It will mainly take into account where the function of the translation has been met and where the translation failed to fulfill the function. The analysis will highlight both functioning and non-functioning translations.

It should not aim to count the errors, evaluate the translations or finish by a mark or record. The research aims to assess the adaptation level through investigating the existing patterns and to reveal the localization best practices to be adopted and/or issues to be avoided in order to improve the end user's experience.

The thesis originally aims to explore the text adaptation notion in localized websites, including how linguistic and cultural adaptations are done. Therefore, the first part of the theoretical framework focuses on advertising translation and the adaptation concept. Then, the theoretical discussion will include the notion of quality as well, based on initial findings, as it will be detailed. The structure of the thesis will therefore narrate the evolution and expansion of the research phase by phase.

The first two chapters will provide a theoretical background of localization. Such discussions about the field are critical for localization research in TS. On the one hand, the first chapter will provide an introduction to localization as a concept, an industry, and a process. It will present several definitions of localization found in the discourse of the industry and in Translation Studies. It will briefly clarify the nature of a localized content and illustrate a timeline of its development in terms of content types and technology. Then, the chapter will detail the global cycle which encompasses localization, and explain the position of translation in the cycle. Both the role and impact of globalization, and the resulting localization practices, on cultures will be investigated. Finally, the need for research on website localization in Translation Studies will be explained. Therefore, the first chapter will put the foundation of understanding localization as a framework and field of study for this research.

The second chapter will illustrate arguments which show various points of view with regard to frequently asked questions (FAQs), besides what similarities and differences translation and localization have as concepts, practices, and processes. Those questions that seem to be still at the table start from terminology of the translation and localization concepts themselves, extend to their relationship at the historical and academic levels, and tackle process-related differences, including technology use. It will also look at important changes in translation internal processes, agents, and education, which can have an impact on the localization outputthe subject of this research. Most importantly, the chapter will also highlight how pivotal notions in TS have been addressed differently, such as "language" versus "locale", "reader" or "recipient" versus "user", and "source text" versus "internationalized text". Showing these differences is necessary for this research in order to clarify why certain terms will be used as such.

The third chapter will move to a commonly discussed area in TS: advertising translation.

It will look at traditionally researched topics in this field, such as the translation strategies and conventions, but it will also discuss emerging terms and concepts that are under-researched in modern TS especially within the localization field. These concepts include transcreation, which is being used in the literature and the industry interchangeably with adaptation and localization sometimes. The chapter will attempt to untangle these concepts, find clear definitions that can serve the research at hand, and place them in the framework of localization. Integrating traditionally discussed topics in TS within localization should help push the field forward and enhance localization research in TS.

The fourth chapter will investigate TS theories on the quality of translation. It will examine the notion of quality in translation. It will attempt to establish an understanding of the terms related to translation quality assessment. Then, it will investigate different assessment models which range from macro-level approaches to micro-level approaches. The chapter will deepen the discussion with regard to the translation quality criteria and address certain quality criteria that are required in the context of localization, such as readability and comprehensibility. The discussion of translation quality will lead to the topic of ethics in translation, in light of the importance of the user's experience and the accelerating needs for productivity. The chapter should eventually provide a sufficient outlook of TS theories which can help in leading this research through the most suitable method, using the most relevant criteria of analysis.

The Methodology part will start by a chapter that summarizes the first step of the practical part of this research. It will explain the pilot project which was conducted in an attempt to test the theoretical input and obtain initial results on the cultural and linguistic adaptations on a sample of websites, in order to establish a solid method or to improve the method that is intended to be used.

The second chapter of this part will go through the notion of quality in localization, and discuss methodological areas in localization research. These include the advantages that localization research brings into TS, structural considerations to be taken into account, along with textual considerations in light of the change of certain notions in translation such as the source text and the target text. The chapters of this part will go more deeply into the notion of the locale and shed light on the amalgamation which happens on international websites based on marketing decisions. It will also include a discussion on the hosting environment of a digital text, and it can affect the translation. The Methodology part will be concluded by a discussion on translation criticism models which can help design a method of analysis in this research.

The third chapter will pave the way for the methodology to be used. It will highlight key considerations in localization research, such as the nature of corpora collected from websites, some process-related aspects, and other aspects related to the source and target texts. It will also address emerging issues in localization, such as the amalgamation of locales, which has been already approached in TS. Even though, it will need to be highlighted in the framework of this study. The discussion should help organize the design of this research better and enlighten future studies following similar paths too. The chapter will end by narrowing down the models discussed earlier in order to find one which suits the nature of this research and meets the nuances it imposes compared with similar TS research. The chapter will briefly describe the nature of the research and the corpus. It will explain the methodology step by step, starting by the criteria determination before the corpus collection, how the corpus was collected, the phases of the corpus collection and analysis.

The third part consists of three chapters. The first one will illustrate the obtained results of each phase of the research. Then, it will provide further interpretation of the findings, such as what makes a text functional and what would have affected its functionality. This will help clarify the extent to which the analyzed texts are adapted, and answer the main research question. The second one will provide a few examples on how transcreation is done, and on the main issues which affected the functionality of the texts. Moreover, it will expand the scope of the examples and provide more details on approaches to product naming in the Arabic locale. The examples will help understand how these elements are dealt with, given the blurry convention in Arabic with this regard. The third chapter will provide a detailed discussion of the results in relation to the literature review. It will attempt to compare the results of this research with findings of previous studies.

The chapter will expand the discussion to highlight the notion of translation quality in localization.

It will also underline the impact of localization on cultures, whether it is positive or negative. It will attempt to briefly discuss the emerging requirements in translation and localization university programs, in light of the results. It will suggest a few ideas to improve these programs to meet the expectations of the industry. The chapter will point out the significance and limitations of this research, which can help future studies.

Finally, a conclusion of the research will sum up the research question, methodology, and the results. It will highlight the main points that the research will have addressed and how it will have contributed to Translation Studies. A few suggestions will be provided for future research, depending on the obtained results. An assessment of the needs of the discipline will be briefly done. The conclusion will also provide recommendations for the industry as well as ways to implement the results of this research empirically.

Localization: definitions, history, and process

Before starting to investigate localization quality, it is important to have a look at localization as a concept. In this chapter, a brief history of localization will be provided along with a description of the process. Furthermore, the localization definitions will be discussed from the point of view of both the industry and Translation Studies, besides its types, levels and contradictions.

1.1.

What is localization?

One of the early definitions that is usually mentioned in TS and the industry resources was introduced by LISA association, which stopped in 2011:

Localization involves taking a product and making it linguistically and culturally appropriate to the target locale (country/region and language) where it will be used and sold. (cited in Esselink, 2000, p. 3;Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 13) Such a definition refers simply to applying certain modifications to the product to facilitate selling it. Moreover, it underlines the linguistic and cultural components of the product (Quirion, 2003, p. 547) and avoids the term "translation" to imply the localization distinct nature (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 13). The definition was considered broad and applicable to translation (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 88). A more explanatory definition was given by the GALA association providing that localization "is the process of adapting a product or service to a specific locale.

Translation is only one of several elements of the localization process"3 . The aim of localization according to GALA is "to give a product the look and feel of having been created specifically for a target market, no matter their language, culture, or location" (ibid.). This definition provides more details in terms of the localization elements, which implies translation, and introduces the notion of the market which encompasses language, culture and geographical location. Most importantly, this latter definition adds content localization as a different component from a product, suggesting textual work. The common aspect these definitions provide is the cultural appropriateness or originality through linguistic and cultural adaptations. How cultural appropriateness and originality can be achieved was not explained, let alone how to measure such appropriateness and originality. However, more clarification was given in another definition by Yunker: "Localization is the process of modifying a product for a specific locale. This includes making technical, visual, and textual modifications to your site" (Yunker, 2003, p. 17). He explained the nature of the modifications which are required to reach the localization end by the three mentioned areas. The technical modifications may include the layout, formats, while the visual modifications may include images and colors, and the textual ones include translating.

Although linguistic and cultural adaptations are repeatedly mentioned as the pillars of localization, there is still little detail on how to ensure such types of adaptation. Whether in the industry or in TS, cultural elements are often understood as the number format, date format, currency, food-related terminology, songs, colors, design, gaming habits (in video games localization), images, legal issues, dialogues and boxes [START_REF] Esselink | A practical Guide To Software Localization[END_REF][START_REF] Fernández Costales | Translation 2.0. The localization of institutional websites under the scope of functionalist approaches[END_REF][START_REF] Mangiron | Journey to the East: Cultural adaptation of video games for the Chinese market[END_REF]. However, such aspects are considered on the "shallow level" of cultural adaptation in localization, while the "deep level" of the value system causes struggles to localizers (Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF]. This reflects the Onion Model which represents culture by two layers:

Practices (symbols, heroes and rituals), and Values [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations -Software of the Mind -Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival[END_REF].

Therefore, cultural adaptation requires sophisticated knowledge of the second layer which goes beyond words (symbols). Moreover, cultural adaptation is a wide-range term. In a pilot study conducted on a trilingual corpus, different interpretations of a message were found to reflect different translation strategies (Kassawat, 2019a;2021a). Certain localized versions of websites resulted in translations that may not suit the target culture. Such initial results highlight individual perspectives towards cultural adaptation and reflect various ways and levels of understanding the target culture, because no one "knows all aspects of a culture, and each person has a unique view of a culture" (Gudykunst, 2004, p. 42). Therefore, although language competency helps in deepening one's knowledge about the culture [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations -Software of the Mind -Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival[END_REF], the linguistic and cultural adaptation processes seem to have a blurry line in the industry.

Before moving to TS views towards localization, another important party's view in this industry should be highlighted too. Translation agencies and Language Service Providers (LSPs) tend to include a wide range of services nowadays to meet the needs of the industry, such as localization, transcreation, intercultural marketing, branding, and testing. Their definitions of these services differ in its presentation from those provided by the industry associations. RWS, for example, is one of the most reputed translation companies worldwide. Their website lists various services and specializations under the Localization section, including translation and interpreting4 .

In their conceptualization of website localization, they not only highlight their translation services but also the technology they use5 . A quick look at their presentation shows their focus on technology when it comes to localization, and on cultural matters when it comes to translation.

Along with Lionbridge, Transperfect and others, SDL offers "transcreation" services as a different specialization from localization and translation. The transcreation concept will be discussed later in more detail. The LSPs view of their services might not be precise or sufficient but provides a deeper understanding of the industry practices and how the general definitions discussed earlier are manifested in reality. The linguistic and cultural adaptation requirements are not mentioned as such or even explained by these companies. This might be due to the fact that translation already implies these notions. It can also be due to LSPs attempting to correspond to the clients' main concerns and requirements which fall under the technical solutions, out of the general understanding of localization as a tech-based domain. Moreover, it is the nature of the localized content that might lead to such an understanding, which will be briefly discussed below.

The localized content

Although localization included in its beginnings some print materials such as user guides, it is widely considered as a digital-content related concept (Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF], see also [START_REF] Anastasiou | Translating vital information: localisation, internationalisation, and globalisation[END_REF][START_REF] Alshtaiwi | Parlons du localisateur : rôle et profil[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Localization research in Translation Studies: expanding the limits or blurring the lines[END_REF]. This tendency can be attributed to the emergence of the World Wide Web and websites in the late 1990s (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 133). More emphasis on the digital content is given when discussing web localization:

Web localisation deals not just with simple user interfaces but with more general digital content. This digital content can include material on a wide variety of topics, including history, education, politics, culture, entertainment and gaming (Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF].

In a later paper [START_REF] Anastasiou | Translating vital information: localisation, internationalisation, and globalisation[END_REF], it was argued that the text of a software is "translated", while its visual part is "localized", meaning that localization deals with non-textual components. Such view reduces localization to its minor elements and does not represent the localization reality in terms of the translation role and processes.

From another perspective, and on the textual content level, a text in localization can be "any textual unit that is developed or presented to the receiver as such" [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web genres in localisation: a Spanish corpus study[END_REF].

This latter statement suggests a wider conception of the text, regardless of the communication channel or medium. The above views imply that localization might have contributed to the expansion of the notion of the text, whether through the channel, medium, technology use, or

processing the text, as will be detailed later. Coming back to the localized content, Yunker reminds that localization is not a new tendency that is limited to businesses and digital content. He gives examples of Hollywood movies and TV that were duplicated into other languages [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF].

Similarly, print media and literature can be classified as localized products if the communicative purpose is taken into account. Such a rapprochement shows not only that the localization concept applies to any product and channel, but that it has also learnt from other disciplines, including translation.

The newness of the localization industry

Localization started in the late 1970s when US computer companies brought their products to major markets such as France, Italy, Germany, Spain (FIGS countries) and Japan, resulting in the "localization industry" as we know it today (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 7). The reason behind this expansion was to increase their sales in other countries and to drive a higher return on investment (ROI) (Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF]. However, localization has evolved not only in terms of the targeted countries and the number of supported languages which doubled on websites of global leading companies in the last decade [START_REF] Yunker | Think Outside the Country: a Guide to Going Global and Succeeding in the Translation Economy[END_REF], but also in terms of content types it has dealt with, the process structure and its technologies (see Figure 1). The localization industry is relatively young. US software companies did not realize the need to internationalize and localize their products until the beginning of the nineties (Esselink, 1998, p. 6). Until then, the process seemed chaotic as the developed software was being sent to localizers who would, due to technical difficulties, return it to the developers to make it ready for localization [START_REF] Esselink | The evolution of localization[END_REF]. Therefore, software localization marked the beginning of the localization industry [START_REF] Cancio Pastor | De la localisation à la délocalisation : enjeux professionnels[END_REF]. From the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s, and inspired by the adoption of the Internet and Web technologies, website localization emerged, followed by social media localization in the mid-2000s until now, and the emergence of voluntary communities (Folaron, 2020, pp. 210-211). The Internet development and the introduction of websites led to a change in the localization project conception which started to expand as well to content localization rather than merely software localization [START_REF] Esselink | The evolution of localization[END_REF]. This "turn of the century also introduced a new view towards localization and translation" (ibid.), included more kinds of digital texts that millions around the world use daily, leading to a localization market that amounts to over $3 billion worldwide and is considered the fastest-growing sector in translation (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 7). This three-generation evolution was also accompanied by an increased maturity of the work structure and the used tools. The localization workflow was initial and unstructured in 1985-1995, using "ad hoc solutions"; structured in 1995-2005; and virtual starting from 2005, through moving from desktop-based to web-based environments (Schäler, 2008, p. 198). To detail the tools in each generation, LSPs used desktop translation tools in early 1990s, server-based translation tools in late 1990s, project management and team collaboration (Esselink, 2020, p. 110). Hence, the localization industry has evolved both content-and technology-wise simultaneously. The emergence of new content types, e.g. websites and social media, and phenomena such as community crowdsourcing (CF. Jiménez-Crespo, 2017), necessitated new practices and technologies.

This evolution was reflected in localization-related works such as A practical Guide To Software Localization in 1998, which was updated into A practical Guide To Localization in 2000, both volumes authored by Bert Esselink. These works were followed by others from the industry as well, which introduced the localization concept and process. As Pym notes, "[t]he discourse of localization has come from the industry itself, most notably from the fields of software, web-based e-commerce and international information services" (Pym, 2006, p. 750). The localization maturity can be represented on four levels: (1) content and technologies, as illustrated above;

(2) the emergence of specialized associations, such as LISA (1990-2011) and GALA in 2002; (3) the emergence of localization research journals, such as Localization Focus -The International Journal of Localisation (1996Localisation ( -2015)), Tradumàtica (2001-) and the Journal of Internationalization and Localization (2009-) besides institutions, such as the Localisation Research Centre (LRC 1995(LRC -2015) ) and its successor the ADAPT Centre in Ireland; and (4) the introduction of university localization trainings (Folaron, 2020, pp. 208-209).

The above presentation of the localization beginnings and evolution shows only the economic and technical aspects of this industry. To look at localization as a concept in TS beyond increasing sales, there is a need for a definition in order to understand its nature, its processes and its agents. Several definitions can be found, particularly those suggested by the industry itself, including specialized organizations and translation companies, besides a few definitions proposed by TS scholars.

Localization in Translation Studies

As localization is an interdisciplinary field, where translation occupies an important part, it is considered one of the concepts that are "steadily making their way into Translation Studies, although they rarely appear in mainstream Linguistics" (Pym, 2005, p. 17). The earliest discussions on localization in TS were mostly limited to its definition and the extent of its impact on translation concepts and practices (Folaron, 2020, p. 209). Despite the fact that localization theoretical research emerged in the late 1990s in Translation Studies (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, p. 29), its definition has taken different shapes as well based on the researched aspects. However, those definitions seemed influenced by the industry generic views and terminology, focusing on the technical, linguistic and cultural adaptation of the product [START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF][START_REF] Rémon | Interculturel et Internet: le site Web, objet culturel ? Didactique du FLE et de l'interculturel: Littérature[END_REF]; in addition to eliminating the traces of the country of origin [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF]Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF][START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF] and focusing on the product cultural appropriateness to the target market [START_REF] Pierini | Quality in web translation: an investigation into UK and Italian tourism web sites[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]. Other definitions enlarged the concept to include the product, its documentation and delivery to the target market where the acceptability therein is highlighted:

Localization is the process of changing the documentation of a product, a product itself or the delivery of services so that they are appropriate and acceptable to the target society and culture. (Quah, 2006, pp. 19-20) Although Quah's definition is generic and product-marketing oriented, Jiménez-Crespo notices the cultural and linguistic adaptation requirement in localization, besides the existence of a target locale, a product (digital content), and the avoidance of the term "translation" when localization is defined (Jiménez-Crespo, 2007, p. 5). Nonetheless, few definitions have been proposed in relation to the translation practice and Translation Studies:

Localization is therefore conceptualized as a target-oriented translation type and, in line with the functionalist notion of adequacy, emphasizes users' expectations and achieving the communicative purpose for which the localization was commissioned, rather than equivalence relationships to source texts (STs). (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 18) The above definition not only classifies localization as a translation type but also specifies the target-oriented strategy, and focuses on the communicative translation function. That is why the functionalist theory is often adopted in localization research, as it focuses on the target text and how it functions in the given situation. This is the core of the localization of texts, as highlighted in the above definitions. These aspects will be discussed further in another chapter. Nonetheless, A brief summary was provided on localization, its content, channel, technology, linguistic and cultural aspects, and how they have been approached in TS. The following will explain the localization process itself as it drew the attention of many scholars.

this

The GILT process: from globalization to translation

In fact, localization represents only one phase of a global cycle called GILT (Globalization, Internationalization, Localization, Translation). This process did not exist as such in the beginnings of the industry. It rather started by translation simply, then developed to include other phases to avoid encountered issues, which has led to the GILT process [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Localization research in Translation Studies: expanding the limits or blurring the lines[END_REF]. In a previous work, Jiménez-Crespo points out that the GILT process starts with internationalizing the product, localizing it, then translating it into a neutral language and culture (Jiménez-Crespo, 2010).

Globalization is considered as the key for a long-term growth of any company with global aspirations [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF]. The GILT abbreviation itself suggests that globalization is an independent phase by itself, which is sometimes confused with localization, particularly in the industry, where the term "glocalization" is used by localization vendors (Yunker, 2003, p. 21) but rarely in the academia [START_REF] Musacchio | Quality in translation through "controlled" writing, editing, and/or revising[END_REF]. The general understanding of globalization in the industry though is that it is the global cycle which encompasses both the internationalization and the localization phases [START_REF] Esselink | A practical Guide To Software Localization[END_REF], where internationalization happens once and localization can be repeated as many times as needed [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF][START_REF] Valli | Fundamentals of localization for non-localizers[END_REF]. This understanding has been circulated in TS as well:

We might thus say that there is one general process called globalization, of which internationalization and localization are parts. In order to globalize, you first make your product general in some way general (internationalization). Then you adapt (localize) to specific target markets (locales). [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF] However, Yunker explains that the product cycle starts off by preparation, which includes selecting target markets/locales, testing brand names or creating new ones. He adds the driving engine of the process, content management, as a third phase in the globalization workflow. This phase includes developing the system and implementing Translation Memory (TM) software in order to store previous translations for future reuse for the new or modified content, training staff to support localized site, maintenance that includes leveraging TM, translation, editing, staging and testing, and supporting customers. [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF]. In this thesis, more focus will be given to the two major phases, i.e. internationalization and localization.

Internationalization

Several definitions have been given to internationalization with regard to the technical aspects as well as the text and documentation of a product. The internationalization phase emerged out of the lessons learned over the years, in software products in particular. In its beginning, it aimed simply to adjust the software to make it usable in certain countries or regions, such as "enabling" it to process the text used in Far-Eastern countries (Esselink, 1998, p. 2). More generally, it is "the process of creating a 'world ready' product, one that can be efficiently localized for any market." (Yunker, 2017, p. 52).

Although this process is a preparatory one in the product life, it includes many details and aspects that guarantee, among several areas, eliminating any technical adaptations when the localization phase begins (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 25). On the technical level, this phase includes isolating and modifying software functionality that requires localization; modifying payments systems; currencies, calendars, measurements, dates and times; designing the interface in a globalfriendly way that is easy to localize; and removing graphics and items which take a long download time. On the textual level, it includes isolating text strings that need translation, moving them to one resource file and rewriting the source text in a way that facilitates its translation. [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF]. Implied in the technical and textual aspects are the cultural references which should be eliminated as well (Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF]. As Gouadec puts it, internationalizing the product means:

[…] gommer tout ce qui, dans les produits et/ou leurs compléments, relève de spécificités culturelles, linguistiques, techniques, religieuses, philosophiques, de systèmes de valeurs, de systèmes de représentation, de modes d'argumentation et de présentation ou autres. Pour parodier un slogan à la mode, il faut rechercher le « zéro spécifique ». [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF] Given the technical/functional, linguistic and cultural preparatory adaptation of the product, different terms are used to refer to internationalization, such as "localization-enablement" (Quah, 2006, p. 115), "delocalization" which refers to the displacement of a product activity [START_REF] Cancio Pastor | De la localisation à la délocalisation : enjeux professionnels[END_REF] and creating a "culture-less technical world" [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF].

While the technical aspect was explained, the linguistic and cultural aspects seem to be more complicated to internationalize due to the complex nature of language and culture.

From the industry perspective, the "translation-friendly, globally friendly text" should be short and consistent; free of Americanisms, clichés, puns, word play and slang, while avoiding marketing lingo and acronyms; have as little humor as possible as it is highly culture-specific and rarely translates well; be punctuated properly and written in complete sentences, while avoiding analogies and metaphors that are not relevant to other cultures (Yunker, 2003, pp. 268-269). Such recommendations and general practices aim, as discussed above, at preparing for and facilitating the localization phase in all its components (technical, linguistic and cultural). Most importantly, they aim to reduce the costs as much as possible [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF] through saving time and money by creating a template that can be easily localized [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF].

Hence, internationalization is a behind-the-scenes process which paves the way to the main phase, localization, without directly resulting in a tangible output or content for the non-English speaking consumer. However, internationalization and localization are often regarded as two faces for the same reality, aiming to distribute the product worldwide (Froeliger & Ladmiral, 2010, p. 619). More importantly, internationalization has received its share of criticism in TS. On the one hand, one of its functions is "the efficient assurance of equivalence in translation" (Pym, 2004, p. 54). This in turn contradicts the concept of localization as direct equivalence can lead to cultural neutrality in the localized text as well. Therefore, one should distinguish between the "translational equivalence" and the "internationalization-based equivalence" (ibid., p. 63). On the other hand, Pym claims that "internationalization would spell the death of cultural difference on many levels" (ibid., p. 37), and highlights the "sick term 'glocalization', in which the local is embedded in the global" (ibid.). He also points out that internationalization can produce equivalence, "not by referring to a place without language or culture, but by building its own technical languages and cultures, which assume authority over less powerful locales." (ibid., p.62).

The calls alerting of the internationalization effects do not always seem to apply. For instance, O'Hagan and Mangiron (2013, p. 91) distinguish the goal of internationalization of games from that of software: while internationalizing a product aims to make it general, it aims to keep the original and highlight it in a game rather than eliminating it.

Localization

The GILT process was briefly illustrated above, including the internationalization concept, which is delicate enough and might be a determining factor of the localization success even if it is just a preparation phase. Now, it is time to explain the localization process itself, the elements it tackles and how translation is done through it. The term "localization" is seen as problematic. It is usually used in its general meaning [START_REF] Cancio Pastor | De la localisation à la délocalisation : enjeux professionnels[END_REF] and sometimes understood as the global process.

"A typical localization process involves three stages, namely project preparation, the translation proper and quality assurance" (Quah, 2006, p. 114). The preparation part here is at the project level. It intersects with the translation process as there is a need to design the translation workflow, test prospective translators, integrate computer-aided tools, create detailed instructions for the translators [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF], and other related tasks that are not the subject of this thesis. In addition, the glossary is prepared prior to translation in order to indicate the essential terms, such as product names and how they should or should not be localized, besides any new terminology.

Hence, this sub-phase should pave the way for translation through providing the necessary tools as well as human and technical resources. Once the glossary is validated, translation can start (Esselink, 1998, pp. 264-265). 6The use of translation memories (TMs) along with the different computer-aided tools has led to a "non-linearity" in the text production, which is seen as a "further feature of localization", also called "leveraging" or "chunking" (Pym, 2005, p. 21). This means breaking up the text into parts that would enable different people to work on it at different levels (ibid.). Although this feature is supposed to help the translator, reduce the time and cost, and avoid translating the same 39 chunks repeatedly, it is important to mention that the text is provided to the translator with no formatting or form, i.e. the translator receives a fragmented "decontextualized text" (Canım Alkan, 2017, p. 511). More details on TMs and translation tools will be discussed in the next chapter. The translation work is followed by editing and reviewing, usually in the target country.

Each sub-phase can be done by multiple people (freelancers or in-house specialists) and through different translation and localization, and/or review vendors. Each party can follow a customized workflow, or a unified one developed especially by or for the client. Then comes the visual design localization and testing the functionality and usability of the staging website all together [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF].

Following the set workflow does not necessarily guarantee the quality, whether on the textual or technical level. The final sub-phase in the localization cycle is quality assurance (QA), where the translated text and the functionality of the localized product (e.g. software, game, website) are checked. The translated text can first be checked by automated systems to spot basic errors like untranslated segments and tagging, which is not always enough to ensure the quality although it can augment the human review [START_REF] Esselink | Multinational language service provider as user[END_REF]. Human review can be performed by either internal translators and engineers or external vendors, where "the translation is reviewed and checked for content accuracy, grammar and spelling. If, for instance, the translation is of an operating manual, the operating procedures of the product are also performed and checked" (Quah, 2006, p. 115). Although quality assurance is often presented in TS as a linguistic quality tracking process to spot and enhance any translation errors or inadequacies [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF], it is rather more comprehensive. It can involve language and engineering specialists to ensure the final product is usable and functional. Therefore, translators and/or reviewers themselves may participate in functional quality assurance independently or along with other localization agents.

For instance, reviewers, as specialists in their language, can be sought for checking if words are broken when transferred into the site, the swiping direction, and the correct text alignment for right-to-left languages.

The globalization cycle is repeated with the inclusion of any new products in the distribution pipeline. Moreover, the internationalization phase can be redone even for the same products in case of failure to adapt certain aspects. As for the localization phase, it is usually ongoing, depending on the client size and needs. A website, for example, can expand or be updated over time, which means creating new contents or updating existing content through the same cycle (preparation, translation and quality assurance). The final quality assurance of the product as a whole, i.e. including the analysis of sales per market, traffic, calculating ROI, and other tasks detailed by [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF], is done by experts outside of the localization cycle per se and such a stage depends mainly on the target user experience with the product.

Internationalize to localize

As shown above, internationalization and localization are two interdependent processes.

Internationalization would not be necessary if localization is not required, and localization would be relatively complicated if not preceded by internationalization. However, they seem contradictory in terms of the aim and results. This contradiction was clearly highlighted in [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web internationalisation strategies and translation quality: researching the case of "international[END_REF] regarding the goal of releasing local-like websites in localization, while developing language-and culture-independent products in internationalization. This phenomenon is referred to as the "diversity paradox" as globalization leads to both an international lingua franca and an increase of translations (Pym, 2006, p. 750). Nonetheless, the localization efforts of recognizing linguistic differences are sometimes suspected to be hiding a globalizing culture [START_REF] Pym | Localization and the changing role of linguistics. Conférence Traduction humaine[END_REF]. Collombat also discussed the paradox of globalization and translation where the latter is usually considered as a homogenizing factor contradicting with linguistic diversity, which was itself the reason of translation (2014, p. 18). She highlighted the potential deep influence of translation on target languages due to integrating foreign notions in them (ibid., p. 22). At the same time, she recognized the advantage of globalization for enriching minority languages and revitalizing others that had disappeared, which has led to "pluricentrism" instead of the dichotomy of the center and the periphery, and can pave the way for a new paradigm of tradition and modernity in the form of durable adaptability: translation (ibid., p. 27). While translation is usually discussed in relation to language as well as culture, localization is seen as a marketing strategy. This is true in principle, but its consequences on cultures might be beyond marketing. It can either enrich cultures with their differences, or assimilate them in a standardized manner.

The role of localization for cultural sustainability

Localization, as discussed earlier, is defined and promoted for based on linguistic and cultural adequacy (a detailed discussion will take place later on the similarities and differences between translation and localization). However, notions such as the source text and the target text still exist. This relation is often viewed as an interdependent one in translation but it is "a form of dependency which is potentially enabling than confining or disabling" (Cronin, 2006, p. 36).

Having said that, although a target text may depend on a source text, the output spreads the source rather than limiting it. This corresponds with the notion of "memes" proposed by Chesterman, which is inspired by the "genes" concept evolving through transmission (2016). Memes represent words, phrases, and ideas that are recycled to evolve. Moreover, their evolution "can even counter genetic evolution: culturally transmitted ideas and practices can become more powerful than purely genetic pressures" (ibid., p.2). Chesterman explains that when conventions and ideas survive over time and through cultures, they prove to be relevant to more people and, thus, create a norm (ibid.). Therefore, translations can push cultures forward or backward, creating two sides of the same coin. They can either enrich a culture and prolong its existence if they survive the surrounding circumstances and find their way into that culture, or demolish it if they do not manage to fit into the culture or get a wide acceptance to create new norms.

Localization seems to be an engine for either result. On the one hand, the approach of content translation into multiple languages in one place seems to acknowledge linguistic and cultural differences, and enhance the individual cultural sustainability. On the other hand, new conventions and norms emerge, which can in turn enrich or assimilate a culture to the used source.

In a paper which briefly discussed how linguistic and cultural mediation in localization can play different roles in cultural sustainability [START_REF] Kassawat | Localization for cultural sustainability: a linguistic or cultural mediation[END_REF], examples were provided on the translation strategies used to localize product blurbs into Arabic. The examples contained both cultural mediation approaches through the use of local idioms and cultural references, enhancing the sustainability of the target culture and language, and linguistic-transfer-based instances which consequently led to meaning-or naturalness-related issues for the lack of cultural adequacy (ibid.).

Localization issues in terms of language and culture have been observed in different contexts, just like in translation. However, the wide spread and accessibility of content on the Internet puts more pressure on localization as a factor that can enrich or impoverish cultures.

How would localization impoverish cultures while it adds content to them? One of the influencing factors is the need to sound foreign even in the localized product, in order to please certain customers in the target markets who would be interested in purchasing products originated from the US or Europe rather than the local markets [START_REF] Yunker | Think Outside the Country: a Guide to Going Global and Succeeding in the Translation Economy[END_REF]. Therefore, "over localizing" or sounding too local can hinder the reach of the company (ibid.). This notion leads us to raise the following question: to what extent should a product be localized in order to sound local enough but in the same time be distinguished as an international or foreign product in a local market? In other words, would it be possible to have the best of both worlds? In the following section, the localization types and levels will be discussed in order to explore the current trends and practices with this regard.

The localization types and levels

Having briefly explained the process of each phase of the globalization cycle, it is important to highlight the fact that not all the localized products are necessarily subject to the same complex process, particularly in the web localization area. This, in turn, leads to various localization practices and processes, where certain phases can be skipped to reduce the cost, the human resources or the tools. On the one hand, Jiménez-Crespo identifies four main distinct web localization processes according to the client size or the nature of the process itself: "large corporations, medium and small ones, volunteer-crowdsourcing, and individual localization in which a single agent performs all the tasks" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 29). On the other hand, localization can be also identified according to the adaptation level. Adaptation is also understood at two levels: the back-end level and the front-end level. While the former involves the global template design, the latter involves explicit global or local features on the website, including the provision or not of a language option, the use of human or machine translation for the web pages and displaying country-specific options on the home page of the website [START_REF] Singh | The Culturally Customized Web Site: Customizing Web Sites for the Global Marketplace[END_REF].

Based on the front-end criteria, Singh and Pereira (ibid.) classify websites into five categories 7 : a-Standardized websites, where the same content is provided for both domestic and international users, without any translation, internationalization or localization efforts. b-Semi-localized websites, where contact information about foreign subsidiaries are provided to international customers. c-Localized websites, which have country-specific web pages with translation. d-Highly localized websites with country-specific URLs and translation, in addition to localizing local information such as time, date, zip code, and number formats as in www.amazon.com. e-Culturally customized web sites, which are designed in a way that reflects a complete "immersion" in the culture of the target market.

Of course, such a classification is marketing-oriented and represents a holistic view at website elements, i.e. it takes into account the macro structure of the website. Such explicit cultural aspects are the result of technical adaptation in terms of the design, language gate, and formatting, and do not seem to include the textual component of the website, which is also supposed to talk to the consumer with the same mentality and cultural approach, and more importantly, constitutes usually a large percentage of the website component. Moreover, the third category limits localization to minor aspects of culture that aim merely to facilitate the transaction, i.e. localizing the number representing the price, the currency and the zip code for shipping. Although these aspects should not be neglected in global-oriented websites, they do not correspond to the localization concept which revolves around linguistic and cultural appropriateness in its wider sense. Surprisingly, such a concept is only represented in the last category, which is not common according to a survey conducted for the same study (ibid.).

Translation in the GILT process, the T09n phase?

The afore-discussed cycle shows that translation takes place in the localization phase, which means it is part of a phase or a sub-phase. The "fragmentary nature" of the localization process itself (Pym, 2014, p. 40) and its preparatory process(es) seem to take the glow and degrade the prestige of translation and the importance of its role. Pym mentions even the fact that translation was not assigned an abbreviation (ibid.) as the other processes. In localization, "[t]he number 10 refers to the number of letters between L and n. Similar abbreviations are used for internationalization (i18n) and globalization (g11n)" (Yunker, 2003, p. 18).

However, the industry speech does not seem ignorant of the translation role in the process, although it is often seen merely as "converting written or displayed text or spoken words to another language" (Esselink, 1998, p. 3). The GALA association defines translation simply as "the communication of meaning from one language (the source) to another language (the target)" but stresses its cultural mediatory role between cultural and language differences:

The purpose of translation is to convey the original intent of a message, taking into account cultural and regional differences between languages. 8

After the discussion on GILT as a global cycle of a localized product, GILT can be considered as a misleading abbreviation if it is supposed to represent the process. It suggests a specific order of the process phases that does not correspond to how these phases are conducted or how they interrelate. We have seen that globalization is the inclusive concept that represents all the phases rather than a phase by itself. Moreover, translation was added as the final phase in GILT, while it is part of the localization phase. As for quality assurance, it was inserted within the translation process (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013), while it deals not only with the translation quality but the quality of all textual and non-textual components. The abbreviation suggests translation as an end of the cycle although translation is a sub-phase that is followed by quality assurance. The globalization cycle can be understood by two main phases: internationalization and localization.

Localization, in turn, consists of translation (project preparation, textual translation and revision)

and quality assurance (linguistic and technical). Moreover, certain preparatory phases are repeated, such as adding new terms, product names in case of new products for the same client, updating terms regularly and cleaning up old translations to ensure consistency across the whole content.

While this thesis aims at this stage to provide a global idea of the concept of localization from different points of view, it will not adopt the limited presentations of the translation agencies.

It will rather benefit from TS theories. Such an approach should help in enhancing TS with new insights form the localization industry and integrating localization in TS in an attempt to explore its current practices. The following section will highlight the need for website localization in TS.

The necessity of research on website localization

Web localization is one of the phenomena that emerged from the WWW, from a TS and international business perspectives [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | International business, marketing and translation studies: impacting research into web localization[END_REF]. Website localization has drawn the attention of multiple TS scholars who investigated various areas such as linguistic and 8 https://www.gala-global.org/industry/intro-language-industry/what-translation: "Accessed on February 23rd, 2022" cultural adaptation [START_REF] Medina | Analysing digital genres: function and functionality in corporate websites of computer hardware[END_REF][START_REF] Popova | Translation and Localization Strategies in Automotive Advertising of Multinational Companies in Russia[END_REF][START_REF] Bouffard | Localisation et variation linguistique. Vers une géolinguistique de l'espace virtuel francophone[END_REF], the level of translation [START_REF] Benaida | The link between automated translation of the Arabic language[END_REF], besides tackling different website types such as corporate websites [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF] and non-profit NGOs websites [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Loss" or "lost" in translation: a contrastive genre study of original and localised non-profit US websites[END_REF]. From another perspective, the collaborative Web provided a new dimension and value to the translators' work [START_REF] Lacour | TIC, collaboration et traduction : vers de nouveaux laboratoires numériques de translocalisation culturelle[END_REF]. Moreover, website localization is increasingly gaining more importance as due to [START_REF]pdf&embedded=true?iframe=true&width=700&height=450[END_REF] the complex nature of the content which includes product prices, contact information, menus, and hyperlinks. [START_REF] Esselink | A practical Guide To Software Localization[END_REF][START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]; (2) "the complex environments in which the content is authored, managed, stored and published" (Esselink, 2003a); (3) the fact that websites are now used as platforms for multiple purposes, such as promoting products and services, and communicating. In other words, they form a universal content environment that is shared by all cultures, which make the website considered sometimes as a cultural object [START_REF] Rémon | Interculturel et Internet: le site Web, objet culturel ? Didactique du FLE et de l'interculturel: Littérature[END_REF].

In fact, this description of websites seems increasingly more realistic as websites include all types of content and are becoming inclusive platforms where everyone can publish content, and everyone can find what he/she is looking for. Therefore, websites are indeed objects that we use every day and their content, regardless of its type, is part of culture particularly with the high accessibility and closeness of users to this "object".

Summary

This chapter was an attempt to introduce localization as a concept and a process. It discussed some of its definitions in the industry and in TS to bring its problematic concept to the front. The chapter provided a brief history of localization as an industry and a discipline in TS. It briefly illustrated the simultaneous evolution of the localized content and the used technology. The process has proved to be a complex one due to its multiple sub-phases, including translation. A discussion took place on these contradictory phases, particularly internationalization and localization, and the influence of this contradiction on cultures and cultural sustainability.

Furthermore, the localization types and levels were explained based on the existing research in TS and other disciplines such as marketing and business. Finally, the chapter addressed the need for research on website localization in particular in TS. The next chapter will further detail the localization versus the translation concepts, tools, channels and practices, and how these concepts are viewed by TS scholars and in the discourse of the localization industry. Moreover, frequently asked questions (FAQs) will be under discussion in order to achieve a rapprochement between translation and localization. Moreover, the process workflow will be highlighted with a special focus on the internationalization phase, its goals and output. The chapter will continue by exploring different terms, such as "language" and "locale". Finally, the discussion will naturally lead to the translator's localization skills and the changing nature of his/her profession and tasks.

Localization and translation

The following sections will look at the relationship between translation and localization as they are discussed in Translation Studies on the assumption that TS is an interdisciplinary field as well as localization, and that they both interrelate and have intersections. The chapter will attempt to address certain frequently asked questions with regard to translation and localization and does not aim at distinguishing or comparing between the two interrelating domains. The goal of the discussion in this and the following chapters will be rather a reasoning of the gap which will be tackled in this research.

Terminology fuzziness in the literature

In the previous chapter, the global cycle was illustrated and its phases were explained.

Translation is widely understood as a part of the localization phase. However, the whole globalization cycle aims to prepare the product (and its documentation) for translation through the internationalization phase, to translate it and to ensure its usability. Therefore, translation is a part of the localization phase but represents the center piece in the cycle. Even though, it has been noticed that the term "translation" is sometimes confused with "localization" in the industry and in research (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019), or that both terms are used interchangeably as in "website translation" rather than "website localization" [START_REF] Lee | The medium is global, the content is not: translating commercial websites[END_REF] or together as in "content translation localization" which refers to "content localization" (Esselink, 2003a) or "textual localization" (Dunne, 2006, p. 105). Moreover, other terms, such as "adaptation", are used in literature on localization as noted by [START_REF] Dam | Professionals' views on the concepts of their trade: what is (not) translation[END_REF]. Not only have scholars and specialists in the industry confused the terms, but also the professionals who tend to see the localization process as a translation process in the first place [START_REF] Sun | Why cultural contexts are missing: A rhetorical critique of localization practices[END_REF]. Such tendency has been interpreted by the fact that in-house divisions and external localization agencies "are usually developed from the old translation division or previous translation agencies" (ibid.).

This confusion of terms, according to Jiménez-Crespo, dates back to the beginnings of localization when programmers used to translate extracted strings directly, assuming that the linguistic process should be simple (2019, p. 29). Then, the GILT process emerged to tackle issues such as the character limits and other needs (ibid.). The author points out the "terminological fuzziness" in using "translation proper" and "localisation proper" in that the former "is used by scholars when discussing localization to indicate a fuzzy notion that involves the previously mentioned reductionist approach to translation" (ibid. p. 39). Moreover, other terms such as "adaptation" have been used frequently and interchangeably with "localization" in early literature, whether in the industry or in TS, leading to fuzzier boundaries (ibid. p. 33). Therefore, investigating the two notions at several levels is necessary in order to appropriately integrate the localization practice in TS. Not doing so can lead to more fuzziness for professionals and scholars alike, and less valid research findings. The following discussion should help framing this research and finding out which areas have to be taken into account in addition to the regularly studied ones in TS.

Translation versus localization

Historically and academically

The emergence of the globalization of product distribution and the localization process has necessitated the involvement of translation professionals and raised interest in the subject within TS research. This, in turn, made the translation process during localization "immersed in a global development cycle" [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web genres in localisation: a Spanish corpus study[END_REF]. In addition to the industry discourse that does not always seem to recognize the translation position in the localization definitions as discussed earlier, the inclusion of translation in the global cycle has triggered several scholars in TS to argue about the translation importance and role in this process. Many scholars have investigated which one should be part of the other, translation or localization [START_REF] Mousten | Thesis: Globalisation and Localisation Influences on Web Site Text Distribution: a Case Study of Text Travel Between Two VELUX Web Sites[END_REF][START_REF] Achkasov | If the mountain won't come… Translation Studies meets localization[END_REF]. Pym noted early that notions like market-driven translation and client instructions have made their way into and challenged the basic concept of translation as a linguistic matter (Pym, 2004, p. 55), and that there is now "a real choice to be made: either one allows "translation" to cover almost everything we are here calling "localization", or one insists that the term corresponds to a more limited phenomenon, with inherent definable restrictions." (ibid., p. 56).

Scholars have also argued that historically, translation is considered a much older practice than the twenty-year-old localization [START_REF] Achkasov | If the mountain won't come… Translation Studies meets localization[END_REF], and that localization is an extension of the ancient practice of translation [START_REF] Froeliger | Le facteur local comme levier d'une traductologie pragmatique[END_REF] and by so, "localisation historically evolved from translation" [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web genres in localisation: a Spanish corpus study[END_REF]. For his part, Pym states: "The discourse of localization has not developed from translation theory, nor is it an invention of academic linguistics, as far as I know. It comes from practice" [START_REF] Pym | Localization and the changing role of linguistics. Conférence Traduction humaine[END_REF]. In fact, some TS scholars were criticized to use the industry terminology instead of influencing the industry by TS theories [START_REF] Achkasov | If the mountain won't come… Translation Studies meets localization[END_REF].

Adding to the given definitions of localization, the way translation is viewed by other academic disciplines reduces its function too. In a co-authored work that combined a TS scholar and an International Business academic, the latter states: "most companies treat brand localization as a strategic marketing issues [sic] and delegate translation as a tactical task to be accomplished by in-house or outsourced translators" (Jiménez-Crespo & Singh, 2016, p. 253). Jiménez-Crespo comments that such view reduces translation to a simple "textual transfer" stage within a broader strategic marketing process, and that there is a potential lack of influence of modern TS in the discipline because their conception of translation relates to the earlier days of the translation discipline (ibid.). This perspective has led many scholars to raise flags for the lack of recognition of translation and Translation Studies in literature on culture and websites for example [START_REF] Achkasov | If the mountain won't come… Translation Studies meets localization[END_REF] and the non-existence of the term "translation" among the main concepts of localization theory [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF]. Pym argues that translation is viewed from the perspective of localization as merely "the minimalist replacement of natural-language strings" (ibid.). Furthermore, only a third of the total budget goes for translation, while the rest of the expenses is split between product engineering and management (ibid.). Other scholars point out that the translation partial role in localization can have an impact on the translation profession (McDonough Dolmaya, 2018, p. 346). Even in the industry, translators or even linguists in general do not seem to get the desired recognition in the industry, while all the credits go for technology makers, or to technology itself.

As an example, an article criticized a conference on Google Assistant, where no mentioning was given to the hundreds of linguists who also worked on the product10 .

Despite the reductionist views of translation in the industry and the lack of recognition of TS in localization research, there are few voices that show translation as more than a "textual transfer" or "replacement of natural-language strings". The translation's role in localization and content management has been highlighted, in addition to its own workflow that gets more complex with the complexity of the site (Yunker, 2003, p. 122). Esselink also drew the attention to the cultural issues in translation early in 1998:

In localization, translation is not a word-for-word "global replacement" process. It requires accurately conveying the total meaning of the source material into the target language, with special attention to cultural nuance and style. (Esselink, 1998, p. 3) He even widened this recognition to the different participating disciplines in localization:

"today we see a new appreciation of all the core translation skills and domain expertise that we often considered no longer critical in localization" (Esselink, 2003a). More recently, the role of the translators has been seen as a pivotal one for companies wishing to go global. They are depicted as a secret weapon for the company, the user advocates and co-creators [START_REF] Yunker | Think Outside the Country: a Guide to Going Global and Succeeding in the Translation Economy[END_REF].

It can be noted that there is a gap between the TS and the industry perceptions of translation.

While translation receives a "reductionist view" in the localization industry, localization is not fully recognized "as a phenomenon of epistemic significance within the Translation Studies community" (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 103). This is clear in the limitation or absence of discussions on localization in translation conferences and the tendency in TS to separate localization and view it as a business model "rather than as a translation phenomenon worthy of in-depth investigation from a theoretical perspective" (ibid., p. 99). In fact, a survey conducted on the professional background of translation scholars indicated a relatively low number of scholars who work in localization as a primary or secondary activity (8% and 4% respectively) (Pym, 2016, p. 116). This refers to the limited knowledge translation scholars have on the practice of localization. This, in turn, is reflected by the business-oriented academic input on the subject in TS, the tendency to summarize localization by the technology used, or to conceptualize it in a way irrelevant to translation. On a different note, "fuzzy" localization theories started to emerge and focus on non-translation issues (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, p. 27). This thesis focuses on translation as part of the localization process. However, it will attempt to position translation issues in the center rather than be taken by the peripheral aspects and tasks which do not make part of the translation work. This focus is especially important in a multidisciplinary industry where different agents focus on their respective roles leaving translation matters to their professionals.

If the emergence of localization is a "turn" in TS, which is defined by Van Doorslaer as a "change happening in and through translation" (2019, p. 222), then the uncertainty and hesitation are due to this new territory (ibid.,). However, the word "turn" might be relatively stronger than the reality, given the gradual development of localization and the gradual involvement of translation in it. A turn represents a sudden shift of/in a discipline. However, translation is still translation. It has been rather enriched by technology and integrated in more domains, i.e.

translators are more needed than before. However, Van Doorslaer might be right in his interpretation that "[s]ticking to translation proper may be more comfortable than facing the unclear outcomes of a confrontation with fuzzy conceptual borders and intersections with other disciplines" (ibid.). This might be because in localization, translators are no longer recognized similarly as in traditional literary translation for instance. They are less visible, using stranger methods and tools that were not invented by linguists, and collaborating with different agents from other disciplines rather than working individually. At the same time, one should not forget that this also applies to many other disciplines participating in localization and collaborating in the same workflow without getting a significant recognition. If it is a "turn", it should be a turn in the nature of team work in general, and not only in translation or in localization.

The following sections will highlight basic areas which are often debated in comparisons between translation and localization. Each section should contribute in clarifying these confusing areas in order to extract important points which would need to be covered further in research.

Process-related aspects

Technology use and digital texts

The discussed reductionist views of translation compared to other engineering-or marketing-oriented tasks may have resulted from the "overlapping circular set of processes" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, p. 29). This explains what Pym said earlier in time that "not many notions of translation would include all the technical and marketing decisions that are encompassed by the concept of localization" [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. From this perspective, marketing and technology decisions and tools are viewed as distinguishing factors of localization which differ in this regard from translation as we know it and make it a wider discipline:

In theory, the translation part of work on websites need not be any different from any other kind of translation, since texts can be extracted from site, rendered in accordance with the required communicative purposes, then reinserted into the site. The localization of websites, however, involves more complex processes, in addition to the normal constraints and goals of translation. (ibid.)

Moreover, it is usually argued that website localization differs from translation in that the former requires identifying the translatable/non-programming elements, using specific tools, besides the preparation and coordination work that precedes and accompanies the localization project (ibid.). This highlights the need for technical adaptations in localization which are sometimes discussed in a generic manner to include code treatment for example (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019) although they are handled by engineers and not related to the translation task(s). Moreover, the need for technical adaptation is sometimes used as a distinguishing factor which makes localization thought of as more than translation [START_REF] Austermühl | Training translators to localize[END_REF]. In fact, certain technical adaptations are required during the translation work of a text such as localizing URLs, handling formatting tags, and placeholders. Therefore, technical adaptations can be considered an additional factor that distinguishes digital text translation in the localization process from translation of other text types. One might argue that the translation of print documentation of the product (e.g. a user manual of a mobile phone or a washing machine) is integrated in the same process although the produced text is not digital. Digital texts include non-translatable elements that are dealt with at the back end, such as those mentioned above which are invisible in the final product. Such nontranslatable elements require a basic programming understanding in order to keep the integrity of the format and usability of the textual units. This also led to distinguishing localization by the content type and calling it "high-tech" translation [START_REF] Anastasiou | Translating vital information: localisation, internationalisation, and globalisation[END_REF]. Another argument revolves around the use of tools. Translation technology has been extensively researched nowadays [START_REF] Quah | Translation and Technology[END_REF][START_REF] Koskinen | Love letters or hate mail? Translators' technology acceptance in the light of their emotional narratives[END_REF][START_REF] Leblanc | I can't get no satisfaction!' Should we blame translation technologies or shifting business practices?[END_REF][START_REF] O'brien | Moving towards personalizing translation technology[END_REF][START_REF] O'hagan | The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Technology[END_REF]. Using these tools is not limited to those working in localization as they have become an integral part of any translator's "workstation" [START_REF] Somers | The translator's worstation[END_REF]. It is worth mentioning though that different managerial and localization platforms can be employed in addition to CAT tools. Moreover, in localization, texts are "embedded in a technological platform" (O'Hagan, 2020, p. 92). This raises the question of whether any translated digital content is considered as localized (Torres del Rey, 2019). The fact is that the text can be considered localized if it passed through the whole or part of the GILT process in the first place. However, one should note that saying "a digital text is localized" implies the final result, which might or might not reflect the concept of localization. In other words, a localized text is a final product that is expected to be linguistically, culturally, and technically adapted to the target market. This can only be verified through assessment.

In a note on technology use, its negative consequences have been widely discussed along with its benefits. For example, an exploratory project was conducted on technology acceptance through asking participants to write a short "love letter/break-up letter" to the tool [START_REF] Koskinen | Love letters or hate mail? Translators' technology acceptance in the light of their emotional narratives[END_REF]. The used tools are also seen to have an effect on the translation quality. For instance, translatable elements are extracted automatically and texts are usually maintained regularly, which leads to working on "decontextualized fragments" and spreading literal approaches due to the restrictive nature of the texts [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. This section has briefly summed up how the use of technology and the nature of digitalized texts represent important factors which make up the different nature of localization. While these factors should be borne in mind in studying localized contents, there are other factors which are also worth mentioning, such as the workflow and collaborative nature of the process.

Management workflow

The management part is often given more importance than the actual localization tasks, particularly the translation-related ones. Although management is part of any translation process which needs coordination among different agents, such as in publishing houses, it constitutes a pivotal and more complicated entity in the localization cycle. The process is highly interdisciplinary, multi-phased and multi-agent-driven. Translation and localization project managers, in addition to many other titles the process involves, are the backbone which ensures a sound plan and handling of the project, and an appropriate control over the project changes, which are seen as failure factors to a localization project [START_REF] Esselink | A practical Guide To Software Localization[END_REF]. LSPs handle in most of the cases the terminology base creation and maintenance, besides product naming, as in the case of Lionbridge (Yunker, 2003, p. 90), implementing TM software (to store all previous translations for future reuse for new or modified source texts), training staff to support the localized site, maintenance that includes leveraging TM, translation, editing, staging and testing (ibid.). Such a role has led to consolidated localization agencies (LSPs) which take the management burden or a significant part of it from the general distribution cycle. These agencies provide a wide range of language services without necessarily employing translation staff. They rather recruit a team to define processes and monitor quality (Esselink, 2020, p. 109). The workflow management can be distributed and done in coordination between the external language service agencies and an internal localization department for multinational companies with a large website, or centralized based on the company and website sizes (ibid.). It is important to point out that not all websites go through a complicated process. The project management workflow can be excluded for certain websites where smaller budgets are allocated. An example of such websites would be those of nonprofit organizations [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]. Thus, workflow management needs in fact to be given such attention with respect to its influence on the process and the final product quality, i.e.

the translated product. However, it will not be primarily focused on in this research as it does not constitute a translation task but it will rather be taken into account. In fact, it has been noted that localization components, such as management, graphics adaptation and others that are not related to the "regular translation processes" have been more stressed in research (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, p. 33). Moreover, such tendency is also manifested in certain localization definitions which "highlight tasks or processes that often cannot be completed by translators themselves" (ibid).

Such approaches in TS might have led to the separation of localization and translation as processes and concepts. Therefore, this research will not mainly focus on management or technology use.

The above remarks were provided only to be taken into consideration during the research and analysis. The next section will also help understand the role multiple agents play in the process and how this role should also be considered in translation-related research on localization.

Collaboration and agents

A few debates have been initiated with regard to the team work and collaboration which localization has offered to translation. More specifically, it is the "active co-operation between translators-localizers and development engineers" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, pp. 16-17). The localization process involves multiple agents: developers, managers, engineers, and "so-called 'localisers' or 'localization' specialists and-or translators" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, p. 29)11 . The translators' title is also blurry due to the different tasks they can perform: translation, revision, post-editing, terminology, and locale's team managing. This debate triggered arguments that these components exist already in translation where multiple agents collaborate to produce a final translated text as well (ibid.). Few views have adopted a non-comparing approach between localization and translation with regard to the multi-agency. A study conducted in a translation company showed that both localization and translation can coexist easily as the tasks they both involve are performed by the same people [START_REF] Dam | Professionals' views on the concepts of their trade: what is (not) translation[END_REF]. In the same vein, localization is seen as a collaborative work achieved by a multidisciplinary team (Cancio Pastor & Belmonte, 2010, p. 666).

It is crucial for the research at hand to highlight the different terms which refer to the translator in the localization field regardless of their role or tasks. A tendency has been observed

in TS calling for engineer-linguists, localizers, communication specialists, linguists, or localizers, rather than translators (ibid.). Hence, there is a mix of concepts and terms. For example, the term "localizer" is used sometimes to refer to the agent who performs the linguistic and cultural adaptation tasks as in adapting images and sounds [START_REF] Alshtaiwi | Parlons du localisateur : rôle et profil[END_REF], which is not a purely translation task. It has been also used as a general concept and a professional title [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF][START_REF] Froeliger | De la localisation à la délocalisationle facteur local en traduction[END_REF][START_REF] Mcdonough Dolmaya | The politics of localization[END_REF][START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF], as a reduced task which describes the person who works on chunks [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF], or an alternative to the term "translator" who can also be called a "language localizer" (Mousten, 2008, p. 36). Moreover, both terms "translator" and "localizer" are sometimes used interchangeably [START_REF] Popova | Translation and Localization Strategies in Automotive Advertising of Multinational Companies in Russia[END_REF] or together in a more flexible and general way as "translators/localizers" or "translator-localizer" [START_REF] Olvera-Lobo | Website localisation in the corporate context: a Spanish perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]2007). More specific terms have been suggested as well, such as "language experts working in localization" as a term different 56 from "translators" (Schäler, 2008, p. 197). Most of the terms attempt to either distinguish the technical (and cultural) tasks/competencies of a translator, highlight localization as a translation specialization, generalize the term to include as many agents and skills as possible, or to highlight the role of the translator. The term multiplicity can be normal for a relatively recent industry, where random titles can be given due to the urgent and evolving demand for linguistic expertise with particular and multidisciplinary competencies and experiences. However, TS research has adopted such terms and contributed to their proliferation. More attention started to be paid to the translator's role in the localization process recently. It has been found that "a translator who takes part in such a process should not necessarily be called localizer or localization expert" (Canım Alkan, 2017, p. 516). The translator's position changes depending on the nature of the task: website localization or a simple "website translation" (ibid.). Although this distinguishing attempt seems vague, as to what is the difference between website translation and website localization, it shows translation as an essential task in the translator's practice. It also underlines the term "translator" as the same person who performs multiple tasks but which all fall within the same field of translation.

Based on the discussed terms, there has been a tendency in TS to merge the terms and profiles or to use hyphenated ones instead of distinguishing the translator's and translation position in localization [START_REF] Mellinger | Re-thinking translation quality[END_REF][START_REF] Olvera-Lobo | Website localisation in the corporate context: a Spanish perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]. It is true that linguistic-technical profiles exist in localization. Such profiles include, but are not limited to, engineers with linguistic competences, linguists and translators with technical competencies, or other agents who can intervene in the translation process, such as marketing and law specialists. However, many of the suggested terms in the literature can fit into any localization agent's profile, whether they are related to translation or not. Although TS localization research refers to the translator as "translator-localizer" or "language localizer", the industry seems to keep and recognize the translators as they are. Many translation agencies and LSPs refer to "translators" on their websites. Sometimes, they are even called "linguists" to generalize their tasks and/or their required qualifications. GALA association for example provides a list of the language industry stakeholders which includes: LSPs, language technology and software developers, in-house localization/translation teams, linguists, research analysts, publications and training institutes, globalization and localization consultants.

57

The term "localizer" is used inconsistently in the industry to refer sometimes to the cultural adaptation, technical knowledge or the use of tools. As these aspects have been discussed earlier in relation to translation, they do not justify the use of the term "localizer" as a title of translators or any language professional working in localization. In addition, the term "linguist" which is used in the industry marginalizes the main translation task and limits it to the target language proficiency. A person with a linguistics knowledge does not necessarily have the capability to translate (Lederer & Seleskovitch, 2014, p. 16).

The next section will show how such multiplicity of terms can lead to a confusion in the perception of the translator's tasks and skills. Furthermore, it will explain the terms to be used in this thesis based on the assigned tasks in the industry and the academic perceptions.

Concepts and terminology

Linguistic and cultural adaptation

As discussed in the previous chapter, several definitions of localization have focused since its beginnings on the adaptation aspect it implies, whether in the industry or in TS. Such a tendency was adopted when discussing both software and web localization. For example, the term "localize" has been seen as a more accurate one than "translate" for its claimed relativeness to the local culture (Thibodeau, 2000, p. 127). It has been also believed that localization "entails the linguistic and cultural adaptation of the software and user-interface (UI), documentation (books, online help, tutorial), and packaging to accommodate requirements in foreign markets" (ibid.). Localization has also been viewed as a more inclusive concept which "goes beyond the translation and adapts the source content to the culture of the place where the translated text is to be used" [START_REF] Anastasiou | Translating vital information: localisation, internationalisation, and globalisation[END_REF]. Many research studies have also looked at the visual aspects in a translated content although it does not typically fall into the translator's tasks [START_REF] Lee | The medium is global, the content is not: translating commercial websites[END_REF][START_REF] Popova | Translation and Localization Strategies in Automotive Advertising of Multinational Companies in Russia[END_REF]. These visual aspects are sometimes believed to be the elements in need for cultural adaptation rather than the textual ones [START_REF] Sun | Why cultural contexts are missing: A rhetorical critique of localization practices[END_REF]. In addition to the technical and cultural aspects of adaptation, such tendency started to be noticed in the industry by TS scholars, where adaptation is seen as the "additional component that localization provides, as opposed to the textual or wordly nature of 'translation'" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 15).

The notion of adaptation (which will be discussed in the next chapter) seems unspecific and can include many connotations regarding what changes through the adaptation: technical and physical elements, cultural and visual aspects, or linguistic and translational aspects. In light of the above arguments, it is often understood in terms of technical adaptation of the functionality and usability enablement of the product in its wider concept, which is purely an engineering task, even if the linguist's help is sought in certain cases. As for other linguistic and cultural adaptation requirements, it is widely believed that these are not limited to localization (Sandrini, 2005(Sandrini, -2007) ) and not new to non-digital text translation, e.g. characters in magazines were being adapted to the other culture [START_REF] Quirion | La localisation, palimpseste de l'aménagement terminologique ? Stratégies d'implantation terminologique et marketing[END_REF]. Units, formatting, numbers, dates and terminology adaptations have been present in technical translation [START_REF] Froeliger | Le facteur local comme levier d'une traductologie pragmatique[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]; colors and images adaptations have been always key in locally-customized print advertisements [START_REF] Torresi | Advertising: a case for intersemiotic translation[END_REF]; and audiovisual adaptation has been also used in dubbing movies into other languages [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF].

Cultural adaptation has been also discussed in TS by Katan in 2009, meaning that it is not a new concept to the discipline (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013) 12 . In fact, adaptation is sometimes discussed as a common point between localization and translation rather than an additional component. This is mainly because both concepts share the text transfer to a specific culture [START_REF] Pierini | Quality in web translation: an investigation into UK and Italian tourism web sites[END_REF][START_REF] Fernández Costales | Translation 2.0. The localization of institutional websites under the scope of functionalist approaches[END_REF].

From another perspective, the notions of culture and language need more clarification with (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010, p. 8) language means learning to adopt someone else's frame of reference» (ibid., 389). The same applies to persuading a target customer to purchase a product, which is achieved through words as they are "the vehicles of culture transfer" (ibid.). This means that the cultural adaptation should also be manifested through the linguistic adaptation.

Internationalization and the source text

Although internationalization is not part of the localization phase per se, it has drawn the attention of a few scholars with respect to the use of Controlled Language (CL) [START_REF] Quah | Translation and Technology[END_REF][START_REF] Cadwell | Readability and Controlled Language: Does the study of readability have merit in the field of controlled language, and is readability increased by applying controlled-language rules to texts?[END_REF][START_REF] O'brien | Controlled language and writing for an international audience[END_REF]. Internationalization constitutes a phase by its own, as shown in the previous chapter. Its importance though comes from the fact that it is a preparatory phase for localization. It is designed to ensure a smooth adaptation, whether it is technical, linguistic or cultural. Thus, it is believed to have an influence over the localization success [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web genres in localisation: a Spanish corpus study[END_REF]. Pym questions the name of the localization industry and suggests that internationalization is its key element (Pym, Perekrestenko, & Starink, 2006, p. 56). What is more, internationalization is seen as a more important phase than translation, and even the "real revolution" with respect to the potential losses it can generate if it is not done properly (Pym, 2014, p. 42). In this section, more emphasis will be given to the linguistic aspect, Controlled Language specifically as it relates directly to the translation work although it might not always be used in every localized website.

The collaboration relationship between translation and writing (O'Brien, 2019) can be applied to the internationalization and localization phases, which is not present in the translation practice.

Controlled Language "aims to improve comprehensibility, readability, intelligibility, and translatability" (ibid. p. 66). Besides its vocabulary, grammar and style restrictions, it aims to "improve the quality of translation output by humans or machines" (Quah, 2006, p. 48). Thus, the translation work can be preceded by pre-editing and followed by post-editing (discussed later) and both processes are done by human editors as needed (ibid.):

The main task of pre-editing is to discover any elements such as odd phrases or idioms and typographical errors that may create problems for the machine translation system during the translation process. The human editor or translator amends the source-language text accordingly. Post-editing involves correcting the translation output generated by the machine translation system, a task performed by the human editor or translator in order to bring the text to a certain pre-determined standard in terms of language style and appropriate use of terms. (ibid. p. 11)

These processes, in turn, improve "the clarity and consistency of source-language text and improve the quality of the translated text (as well as the speed at which it's translated)" (Yunker, 2003, p. 269). It is therefore considered as a way of "writing for translation" [START_REF] Musacchio | Quality in translation through "controlled" writing, editing, and/or revising[END_REF].

CL has been used by several companies like General Motors to reduce the costs and provide an easy-to-understand text to native speakers as well (ibid.). Processed texts were tested in a study which evaluated the translation and user experience on a university website. It was found that the translatability-oriented source text (a text prepared for translation and translated by a machine) generated a better translation in terms of accuracy and style, although it included several errors, and that it was also more preferable by the users [START_REF] Bowker | Translatability and User eXperience: compatible or in conflict?[END_REF]. These results can help understand the importance of textual simplification before translation whether it is to be done by humans or machines.

The new element internationalization brings to the table is not merely a new process to translation. Internationalizing the text prior to translation has changed the source text concept in translation. The source text here is pre-edited, i.e. processed and intended for translation.

Furthermore, the process makes the source-target text relation different in localization. New models have emerged with this regard in translation, such as the "one-to-many" model versus the "language-into-language" model [START_REF] Pym | Globalization and the politics of Translation Studies[END_REF]. Consequently, new terms have been suggested as a result, such as the "internationalized text" or "internationalized version" which is "a source text that has had as many source-culture elements removed as possible" [START_REF] Pym | Translation Technology and its Teaching[END_REF]. Hence, the internationalized text is multi-purpose: on the one hand, it aims to be easily read by its native speakers around the world; on the other hand, it is designed to be flexible and translatable. The source text can be seen as a dynamic text which is standardized and customizable.

In view of the above, the internationalization process along with the English language as a lingua franca, has alerted certain TS scholars to the source language influence over the translated text. In spite of adopting adaptation approaches, which should help in solving equivalence-related issues, localization is seen to be restricting translation due to the use and enforcement of "prefabricated equivalences" (Pym, 2004, p. 57), see also [START_REF] O'hagan | Shifts, but not as we know them? Research models and methods in Translation Studies[END_REF]. In a study conducted on localization and linguistic variations, the authors question the cultural unification aspects of the Internet which is leading to people speaking different languages but with a neutral register without life [START_REF] Bouffard | Localisation et variation linguistique. Vers une géolinguistique de l'espace virtuel francophone[END_REF]. The authors found calquing practices on five websites localized into French, as in terms translated word for word from English (ibid.). Similar results were found in a comparable corpus study of original and localized Spanish websites, where the established genre conventions in the target culture were not followed [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF].

Going back to the localization goal, translated websites are supposed to have "texts with differentiated characteristics from natively produced ones" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2010, p. 17). Hence, there is a need to know how a neutralized localized website can be received equally by receivers from different cultural backgrounds (ibid.

). An investigation of this influence would occupy a significant importance given the global/local and central/peripheral dichotomies [START_REF] Collombat | Babel 2.0: mondialisation, traduction et glottodiversité[END_REF]. It also implies an analysis of the use or lack of use of target culture conventions and/or imposing the central language genres on the peripheral target language:

Since web-based text genres are of recent, centralized creation, the translator working from a central language will tend to impose the genres on the peripheral target languages. [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF] In a pilot study conducted on international corporate websites, similar translation approaches were noticed in a trilingual corpus (English, Arabic and French) where different interpretations were compared for several countries (Kassawat, 2021a). In the same study, several texts did not show locale-related expressions but a similarity with the international English version (ibid.).

The above discussions were intended to explain the nature of the internationalization process, the tools and the type of text that is dealt with in localization. Clarifying these differences should help specify the elements to be analyzed in the research. As the source text is assumed to be simplified and prepared for translation, it is not supposed to include any source-culture references. However, such a goal contradicts with the goal of localization, i.e. linguistic and cultural adaptation. Therefore, this research is going to look at how the internationalized text, if applicable, is being culturally adapted. More specifically, it will look at the use or lack of use of references from the target culture as will be more detailed in the Methodology chapter.

Language versus locale

The previous section explained how the internationalization process has changed the notion of the source text in translation. This section will discuss the notion of the locale which is used in the industry rather than "language" and "target language", why it is used and what it refers to.

The term "locale" can be used to refer to both the international and local versions depending on the categorization of the market, as will be discussed later. It is believed that the term localization "stems from the notion of 'locale'" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 12) and that the term "locale" was provided by the industry to TS as a way to refer to markets rather than languages (Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, p. 28). Although TS might have started using the term by influence of the industry, the term "locale" was used earlier in Cultural Studies in relation to identity (Bhabha, 1994, p. 2). In TS, it is defined as a notion which unites language varieties and cultural differences under the market umbrella:

'Locale', as a specific union of language variety and cultural norms, effectively divides the space of varieties into interdisciplinary units, using market criteria to resolve contradictions between sociolinguistic levels. [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF] In the industry, the term definition varies based on its usage: "On an operating system, a locale can refer to a specific combination of language, geographic region, keyboard layout, and date/time display format, to name a few. On a web site, a locale might be as simple as 'Spanish.'" (Yunker, 2003, p. 16). Companies tend to present themselves to the world based on "language markets" or "country markets" (ibid. p. 17), or through "language gateway" or "country gateway" (ibid., p. 308). Classifications can also be based on the "educational level or income bracket" of the target audience [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. Therefore, when checking a localized website, a combination of the region/country and language (locale) is represented as a code in the URL of each local version of the website. For example, the code would be fr-fr for the website version that is intended for consumers located in France and speaking French, and eg-ar for consumers in Egypt and speaking Arabic. However, this strategy is not always specific or organized. Only a few countries are served by a customized website for their culture and language, while the others might not have the same opportunity if they do not represent a significant market for the company (Kassawat, 2021a, p. 95).

Such approaches lead usually to an "amalgamation" of locales (ibid.). Upon analysis of websites localized into Spanish (Jiménez-Crespo, 2010), the author found that the industry did not exclusively use the standardized locale codes. Instead, geographical denominations other than countries were used. The largest targets for Spanish localization appeared to be: Spain (42%), Mexico (32%), the United States (27%) and Argentina (27%). The author highlights two strategies in terms of determining the locale: decentralized and centralized. The centralized model is where:

[…] a single localized version is presented as a local production for each targeted locale, that is, even when the localised version is the same. Users can select their own country from the locale selection option and the site is presented to them as localisation exclusively for that country. (ibid.)

Given the common strategies found on websites, the locale can be rather understood as a market-based indicator or a commercial-oriented concept which makes use of factors such as the market size and potential revenue (McDonough Dolmaya, 2018, p. 347). These factors are sufficient to limit the number of the targeted languages, and raise the need for "common languages" (Pym, 2006, p. 746). Such variety in understanding the concept of the locale can represent a challenge to localization, and to translation to be more particular. On the one hand, the concept of the locale provides a new perspective to translation of looking at a target language as it "designates both a language variety and a set of cultural preferences" (Pym, 2005, p. 18). On the other hand, the geographic location cannot be a reference in defining the linguistic and cultural peculiarities of a certain locale. Furthermore, target languages in this commercial context are perceived as "languages of consumption" [START_REF] Pym | Localization and the changing role of linguistics. Conférence Traduction humaine[END_REF]. It is, thus, crucial to investigate how website content is treated and adapted to different locales, whether local peculiarities are taken into account or not, or if the localized versions have the identity of the target locale (language and culture).

Reader versus user

The Internet and digital environment as channels have resulted in a change in the reading practices. These practices might have led as well to a change in the perception of the reader in research. While the terms "reader" and "user" are sometimes used synonymously [START_REF] Spyridakis | Guidelines for authoring comprehensible Web pages and evaluating their success[END_REF], the term "user" is referred to in studies on the reception of websites for example [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. This is due to content type itself. A person who surfs the Internet for specific information, scans a popup advert as he/she searches for something different, plays a video game or uses an application, cannot be considered a reader in the same sense that is used in research on literature for instance. Even at the textual level, the user deals with hypertexts and buttons which are clicked, thus used. The term "user" is more general as it includes the surfer, the gamer, the consumer, the customer, and any other genre-based interactor. A reader of a website is viewed as a user particularly that usability research is associated with human-computer interactions (Suojanen, Koskinen, & Tuominen, 2015, p. 35). At the same time, the medium is not considered as the decisive factor, but also the genre, e.g. the user's interaction with printed items (ibid.).

Given that the term "user" has been adopted in several studies in TS and along with the evolution of localization research [START_REF] Thibodeau | Making a global product at MapInfo Corporation[END_REF][START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF][START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF][START_REF] Bowker | Translatability and User eXperience: compatible or in conflict?[END_REF], it will be used to highlight the functionality of the translation in context. Reading a text, if any, is only part of the overall experience with the product, whether it is an app or a website. The term "recipient" was used by functionalists deliberately to avoid monotonous style using "reader" or "listener", and to convey the intention of the text's "producer" or "sender" with regard to a target "recipient" versus the text's "writer" who addresses a "reader" (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 4).

Therefore, the term "user" reflects the function of the localized text more accurately for the purpose of this research.

Localization: a set of skills or additional requirements?

The section above included a discussion of the different terms to be used in this research, including those that are often used to refer to the localization agents. The discussion naturally leads to investigate the translator's tasks and required skills to work in a field that is seen as a "new translation modality" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2009, p. 79) or as a sector of the translation profession [START_REF] Cancio Pastor | De la localisation à la délocalisation : enjeux professionnels[END_REF]. The following paragraphs will aim to further clarify the general framework of localization. Furthermore, highlighting the translation skills which are required for localization should provide information about the background of the agents who perform the translation-localization of a product, websites in this research. Such knowledge will help in the analysis and discussion which will take place at a later stage of the research. It will help knowing which skills are being used in practice, how and in which manner they are applied, and whether there are missing skills that would enforce the localization quality.

The skills and competencies for a translator in localization have drawn the attention of several scholars [START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF][START_REF] Gouadec | Profils de compétences et formation universitaire. Traduction, terminologie, rédaction : actes des universités d'été et d'automne[END_REF]. In general, the linguistic, cultural, physical, and technical components in localization are perceived to be demanding greater skills than those in "traditional" translation (Olvera-Lobo & Castillo-Rodríguez, 2019, p. 35). This translates into the need for the traditional package of translation, besides a technical background [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF].

More particularly, an increase in demand for technology knowledge over years has been observed [START_REF] Bowker | What does it take to work in the translation profession in Canada in the 21st century? Exploring a database of job advertisements[END_REF]. However, at least the linguistic and cultural components are required and even researched in TS [START_REF] Katan | Translating cultures: An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators[END_REF][START_REF] Kelly | Student mobility on translator training programmes[END_REF], with the need for familiarity of technology tools in most of translation projects nowadays. Therefore, technology knowledge can be understood in relation to the translational work of localization as the basic programming knowledge to deal with hard-coded strings which require specific number or gender agreements, besides fitting the translation into a limited space [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]. Nonetheless, technological knowledge should not be overestimated in translation as it can result in a profile of localization engineer or technology knowledgeable non-specialized translator:

[I]f this technological knowledge is not accumulated on top of specialized translation competence in its wider sense, including cross-cultural, cross-linguistic, communicative or textual skills, the resulting profile is simply a localization engineer, localization manager or a bilingual natural translator without specialized translation competence. (ibid. p. 166) This has been also shed light on by [START_REF] Pym | Localization, training, and instrumentalization[END_REF] who notes that university courses which focus on localization tend to be mainly about translation tools, memories and technology, which make only part of localization. Furthermore, academic institutions provide fragmentary courses rather than a "unitary 'localization competence'" which is not and cannot be understood as translation or interpreting competence (ibid., p. 41). There is a need as well to include cognitive and communicative aspects of the translation of the digital content [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Applying Corpus Data to Define Needs in Web Localization Training[END_REF].

In fact, such tendencies of over-weighing technological knowledge are common not only in university courses, but also in research. A general profile of a "localizer" would include mastering specialized translation, re-writing, and project management, besides having informatics knowledge to modify menus, icons, and dialogue boxes, with the ability to create term bases and performing QA tasks [START_REF] Alshtaiwi | Parlons du localisateur : rôle et profil[END_REF] 13 . Similar task grouping was suggested by [START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF] regarding the profile of the "localizer", whose tasks are usually performed by multiple agents in the localization process. The translator is perceived as a super hero with engineering, management, and translation skills, which does not relate to reality or logic. It is true that translators might be assigned linguistic and/or technical quality assurance (QA) tasks, and can end up in project managing, this remains restricted to few ones who master the materials and who have more experience [START_REF] Matis | Quality assurance in the translation workflowa professional testimony[END_REF]. Such generalized perception of the translator's tasks might be due to the different general terms discussed earlier, which seem to have led to comprehensive profiles. From another perspective, it can be interpreted by the confusion which occurs between TS and the industry, in that the suggested terms attempt to make translation comprehensive to localization 13 See also [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF] on the required skills.

through putting more (non-translation) tasks in the translator's package. This, in turn, contradicts the approach which considers "localization competence as a specialized subset of translation competence" [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Applying Corpus Data to Define Needs in Web Localization Training[END_REF]. In the industry, however, profiles seem to be better defined. Software localization involves a strong focus on technical skills and complexity for the translators, while content localization involves a strong focus on linguistic skills and technical simplicity [START_REF] Esselink | The evolution of localization[END_REF]. This distinction of the translator's skills corresponds to the fact that content translation includes handling technical, legal, advertising, literary, scientific texts, and other text types, making the localizer's profile vary based on the situation (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013).

While "translation tasks" are viewed separately from "localization tasks", which include a wider range of stakeholders [START_REF] Austermühl | Training translators to localize[END_REF], this distinguishing tendency limits the range of the translation phase itself. QA for instance is a task conducted by a linguist but overlaps with engineering tasks.

In light of the blurry terms, it is important to specify the terms to be used in this thesis. The localizer is understood as an engineer who works in localization in the technical and programming sense, rather than an umbrella title. The translator can perform multiple roles, such as post-editor, reviewer, and terminologist. Moreover, he/she may not necessarily hold a translation qualification per se. He/she can come from different disciplines, such as literature, with or without a translation experience, to work bilingually or mono-lingually. He/she is perceived as a langagier (language professional) because language has been considered the principle quality in his/her tasks (Quirion, 2003, p. 547). Furthermore, it has been discussed that localization cannot be a single competency but multiple ones [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF][START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF][START_REF] Alshtaiwi | Parlons du localisateur : rôle et profil[END_REF] that can be utilized in certain situations in the localization industry. Hence, the term "localization language agent" (LLA) will be used in this thesis as a general term which shall encompass translators, post-editors, reviewers, proofreaders, terminologists, language managers, and any other parties that can intervene in the translation product. The word "localization" precedes "language agent" to indicate the nature of and the technical competence required by this industry. More specific terms will be used when referring to their main tasks. Agents who are not involved in the linguistic and textual treatment per se are excluded, such as project managers, marketing people, and engineers. The intervention of non-language specialists will be taken into account to avoid holding the language agents responsible of the translation quality. The suggested term can be considered closer to the linguistic work of the translator, and corresponds to the reality more than other vague and indecisive terms.

As for the cultural aspects that a translator should deal with, they are logically implied in the notion of language [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations -Software of the Mind -Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival[END_REF]. Moreover, the term "localization" will be used as the general concept, industry, and process [START_REF] O'hagan | Shifts, but not as we know them? Research models and methods in Translation Studies[END_REF]. The verb "localize" will be used, when necessary, to refer to functional adaptations in the textual transfer, such as changing or treating a URL for the target locale.

Hence, localization can be understood as a stage of the globalization cycle, revolving around and intersecting with translation. Translating to localize is where language agents collaborate in a managed and multidisciplinary environment to generate functional and multilingual versions of a content, typically out of a customized standard version, in a way that respects the target market cultural conventions and facilitates the sales therein. Now that the technical and linguistic skills that are required in localization are pointed out, it is important to provide an overview on the changes which have been occurring to the translator's profile and his/her work nature.

The changing nature of the translator's work: risks and challenges

There is no doubt that translation technology plays a pivotal role and represents a key requirement for the LLA's profile. Despite the rejection of CAT tools in their beginnings, these have become a requirement in job descriptions and part of university training programs [START_REF] Zetzsche | Freelance translators' perspectives[END_REF]. Translation tools are even sometimes seen as a factor which enhances the translators' hermeneutic abilities and creativeness (Austermühl, 2006, p. 75). There are various points of view with regard to the technology advantages and disadvantages for the translation profession and quality. When translators were interviewed in a study on the use of MT and post-editing, they reported the advantages of MT with simple structures and content types with low visibility levels versus those with high visibility which need more care of style and terminology [START_REF] Arenas | What do professional translators think about post-editing[END_REF].

One of the disadvantages of MT is missing the sense of creativity but the need to keep up to date and stay in the market seem to push translators to deal with it (ibid.). Moreover, terms such as revision, editing and post-editing are becoming increasingly blurry due to the use of TMs and MT [START_REF] Jakobsen | Moving translation, revision, and post-editing boundaries[END_REF]. This, in turn, has led to terms such as the "start text" to refer to the nature of the material which the translator deals with, which is made of TMs, glossaries, term bases, and MT input (Pym, 2013, p. 492). Therefore, the translators should now process two source texts: the "true" ST and a match from the TM database (O'Brien & Conlan, 2019, p. 82).

To start with, Translation Memories (TMs) are designed to keep consistency among the translations, and reduce the repetitive translation work and costs. They are used when changes are required to the updated parts of the product [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF][START_REF] Leblanc | I can't get no satisfaction!' Should we blame translation technologies or shifting business practices?[END_REF]. TMs provide the translator with 100 percent matches (exact matches) and fuzzy matches which appear when any minimal difference exists. As for the similarities that go below 80 percent, they are left for manual translation (ibid.). Hence, working with TMs implies double tasking for the translator: translating and reviewing. The translator is seen to be dealing with two source texts: the ST and a match from the TM database [START_REF] O'brien | Moving towards personalizing translation technology[END_REF]. The translator actually reviews the offered translations and/or translates/re-translates the segments. Moreover, the text is broken up into segments which consist of a word or string of words in order to facilitate matching [START_REF] Quah | Translation and Technology[END_REF]. Disadvantages have been reported by translators with regard to TMs. It has been found that they change the translator's relationship with the text due to dealing with segments and not the text as a whole [START_REF] Leblanc | I can't get no satisfaction!' Should we blame translation technologies or shifting business practices?[END_REF]. They are even seen as a barrier to creativity and a factor to the translator's passiveness and laziness, which makes beginner translators in particular depend heavily on TMs input and leads to repetitive errors in the new translations (ibid.). Several studies have been conducted on translation technology to explore its acceptance by the practitioners [START_REF] Koskinen | Love letters or hate mail? Translators' technology acceptance in the light of their emotional narratives[END_REF]. Although many studies highlight the negative aspects of its usage, translators have expressed their appreciation to translation-and non-translation-specific technology such as general-purpose systems and applications like the Internet (ibid.). Translation technology has been also seen as a solution which fulfills an intended purpose [START_REF] Bowker | Fit-for-purpose translation[END_REF].

Technology integration in the translator's practice and work station, besides the emergence of certain requirements in localization, have led to pessimistic views. A "dehumanizing tendency" of the localization discourse has been observed in terms of "translators (who risk getting lousy jobs) and translation theory (whose recent advances are threatened with immediate extinction)" (Pym, 2005, p. 22). The translation practice in localization is seen as a segment replacement process and finding equivalences in the other language, or a "donkeywork" (Pym, 2014, p. 43).

Although segments or strings should guide the translator through a project, he/she would work on the sentence or word level in translating any regular document. The difference in localization though is the need to translate or just update a segment in isolation of its context due to a change in the source text. Thus, LLA's work is "reduced to processing descontextualized textual segments" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 52), adding to that the increasing need to work from controlled language texts [START_REF] Quah | Translation and Technology[END_REF]. Moreover, the use of TMs and MT will limit the amount of translations done from scratch and increases the need for post-editing and correction of existing translations, which are unusual tasks for recruited language agents, necessitating a training process by LSPs to qualify those agents for the required work [START_REF] Esselink | Multinational language service provider as user[END_REF]. Such technology developments are expected to transform translators into technical writers (pre-editors) or reviewers of machine translations (post-editors) [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. Given those needs, the translator's role is changing along with the development of the tools. Similarly, the technology evolution is expected to continue to challenge the discipline and bring new phenomena [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Localization research in Translation Studies: expanding the limits or blurring the lines[END_REF]. In light of the advantages and disadvantages, the risks and challenges which are perceived with regard to translation technology, it is important to investigate their impact on the translation quality.

Therefore, this research should take different areas of translation technology into account throughout the analysis. It should eventually help in determining which localization skills mentioned earlier are being made use of and which are not.

Summary

This chapter aimed to provide a general picture of the perception of localization and translation in the industry and research. It looked at how the relationship between translation and localization is seen from historical and academic perspectives. There appeared to be a gap between the two disciplines due to the lack of influence of TS theories in the localization industry and the fuzziness of the terms used in TS when discussing localization. These remarks necessitate conducting more translation-related research and tackling translation issues which might have emerged in the localization field. This type of research should benefit from TS theories to deal with localization, from the perspective that translation is viewed as a linguistic issue and is left to its own specialists in the industry.

Moreover, the chapter briefly discussed the different aspects that localization implies. It attempted to clarify the misleading notion of linguistic and cultural adaptation as an addition that localization is believed to entail. Clarifying the various extensions of the concept of adaptation is a necessary key element of this research which will focus on how these adaptations are manifested through the translated textual product. Moreover, a brief discussion took place with regard to the management and workflow roles as an influential factor in the product quality. Internationalization was discussed in more detail given its importance for the localization success and the potential issues and expected results of the internationalized text on the translation. Then, different notions in localization were also analyzed in terms of their effect on the translation, such as the locale, the user, and the multiple agents.

Important notions have been highlighted, such as the Return on Investment (ROI), the economic limitations which can have an impact on the localization level, introducing a multilingual approach to translation instead of the bidirectional one, in addition to the multiplicity of agents who collaborate in the process. Noting that each aspect of these needs to be examined in TS research for its possible impact on the translation, other aspects can be added as well. The internationalization phase is considered a new addition to translation as discussed earlier (Cf. [START_REF] Pym | Translation Technology and its Teaching[END_REF][START_REF] Pym | Localization, training, and instrumentalization[END_REF]. Its impact on the translation quality needs more attention and investigation in order to check its usefulness, and the extent to which it improves the translation and facilitates the linguistic and cultural adaptation.

From another angle, translation is commonly perceived as a multidisciplinary field.

However, the focus in TS research that is conducted on localization seems to be on finding a position for translation in the localization industry or finding a place for it in the multidisciplinary research of localization. In the same vein, little TS research can be found combining translation with other disciplines, such as TS and international business [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | International business, marketing and translation studies: impacting research into web localization[END_REF].

Although such research has not benefited of TS (ibid.), it does not seem to struggle to find its position in localization as translation does. For example, the lack of an abbreviation of "translation" in "GILT" has been criticized [START_REF] Pym | Localization, training, and instrumentalization[END_REF]. Unlike globalization (G11N), internationalization (I18N) and localization (L10N), there is no T09N short form for translation.

However, this can be interpreted by the fact that globalization, internationalization and localization are general concepts, processes or methods rather than independent and established disciplines like translation. Moreover, translation alone is part of the localization phase rather than a standalone phase. In fact, translation is represented as is in the process, unlike other important disciplines which collaborate in the same process, such as engineering, marketing, and design. Moreover, as localization is not a discipline or science by itself but rather an umbrella which gathers different fields, each field seems to be responsible of enhancing its input to merge well in the process and contribute to the final product quality. The problem with translation looks different, though. While the evaluation of the quality of the product (the translation) is left to the translation discipline, this latter is occupied by defining its place and position in the process. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the final quality of the translated product in order to ensure that the required linguistic expectations are met efficiently in the localized output.

Moreover, technology in localization has been brought into focus [START_REF] Achkasov | If the mountain won't come… Translation Studies meets localization[END_REF], knowing that it is used in most of the translation projects nowadays. More attention needs to be paid though to the higher complexity of the tools and activities (Esselink, 2003a;[START_REF] Achkasov | If the mountain won't come… Translation Studies meets localization[END_REF] which are employed before, during, and after localization. Such activities can be on the level of the project or the one task, such as translating new segments, reviewing and editing TM suggested translations. Given the complexity of tracking such activities, this research will focus on the final product as it is offered to the final user. More importantly, it will follow a "lumping" approach (Chesterman, Moving conceptual boundaries: so what?, 2019) to the concepts, i.e. it will focus on the similarities rather than on the differences between translation and localization.

Although adaptation is a notion that is widely employed to evoke localization, it is a procedure in translation (Delisle, Lee-Jahnke, & Cormier, 1999, p. 114;[START_REF] Vinay | A methodology for translation[END_REF].

Therefore, it will not be considered as a distinguishing component of localization, but rather as a required method depending on the localized genre. In this thesis, localization, in its broader meaning, shall refer to the industry, process, and concept (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013) that encompass multiple disciplines, agents and tools; and to the translation type (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013) which deals with different genres and adopts the notion of the function. The latter, in turn, employs different translation strategies and procedures (including but not limited to adaptation) to provide an acceptable content variation by the target sociolinguistic communities.

The next chapter will attempt to address other fuzzy notions, such as adaptation and transcreation, in both translation and localization, in the industry and in the literature. It will also introduce to this research a major aspect in localization: marketing. The chapter will aim to highlight and discuss marketing, and advertising more particularly, as a frequently used genre in both translation and localization, which needs particular care of adaptation to the target audience.

Promotional text localization

A conventionalized genre from translation to localization Given that the main goal of localization is to increase the product sales, marketing and advertising represent major areas of localization. Much attention has been paid to emerging genres in localization such as UI elements and hypertexts, besides theoretical aspects of localization in TS. However, there seems to be a need for more empirical research in established translation genres such as advertisements. In fact, the digital environment has become pivotal for marketing in different industries and services. It absorbs between 20 and 30 percent of advertising expenses with an increasing pace (Stenger & Bourliataux-Lajoinie, 2014, p. 132). This success is due to advanced technologies such as PCs, tablets, mobile phones, and other digital platforms [START_REF] Chaffey | Marketing Digital[END_REF] which make it possible for businesses to reach customers wherever they are and whatever they are doing. This in turn has changed the channel used to present the advertisement along with its different formats.

Advertising translation within Translation Studies

Advertising translation has always been a discussed area in TS. There seems to be a common agreement among translation scholars on its strategy and expectations. The audience needs to be convinced to buy a product, and by this, the recipient's persuasion has been the central point of those discussions. Formulas have been suggested to deal with advertising translation, such as AIDA which represents drawing Attention, arousing Interest and Desire, and causing the purchase (Achat) [START_REF] Boivineau | L'A.B.C. de l'adaptation publicitaire[END_REF]. This corresponds to how Nord defines the appellative intention as to "persuade the receiver to adopt a certain opinion or perform a certain activity" (2005, p. 55). Moreover, attempts to analyze the advert elements have been made. A traditional advert consists of the illustration, typography, esthetic value and words. Words, in turn, include the title, the body and the slogan (ibid.). For Guidère, an advert consists of appellative elements: a product name and a slogan, besides a body [START_REF] Guidère | Publicité et Traduction[END_REF]. While a title is considered the most difficult to treat due to its function of attracting the recipient, it should carry an information and a complete proposal without confusing the reader with unnecessary details [START_REF] Boivineau | L'A.B.C. de l'adaptation publicitaire[END_REF].

Hence, there is an informative and an aesthetic aspects in the title. Such double function suggests a double translation strategy: literal and creative. Boivineau clarifies that although literal translation can provide an acceptable title, it would be heavy without dynamism. At the same time, a slogan is untranslatable except for rare cases (ibid.). As for the body, it usually has less problems in adaptation (ibid.). Hence, the effect represents a key point in translating an advert and each of its elements has a function to meet.

The functionalist theory has been widely adopted and discussed in the advertising translation area. It provides a range of translation strategies starting from literal translation to rewriting [START_REF] Reiss | Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained[END_REF]. Advertising translation has been termed "advertising localization" when adverts are served on the web (Popova & Stepanova, 2018, p. 5) even though it is discussed based on the adaptation notion known in TS. This means that adaptation has not been thoroughly analyzed in terms of the function, i.e. how adaptation is done, to what degree a text is adapted, how to determine this degree and whether it meets the required function. Moreover, although advertising translation has been widely researched, there is a scarcity of discussions on web advertising [START_REF] Pierini | Quality in web translation: an investigation into UK and Italian tourism web sites[END_REF] and advertising localization. The following sections will discuss the notion of adaptation in advertising, its levels, and the common practices in the industry with regard to emerging terms such as "transcreation". The discussion aims to set the grounds of this research to help find definitions of the aforementioned notions. This should help narrow down the corpus and the analysis, and make them specific to translation areas relevant to localization.

Target-oriented approaches to advertising translation

Adaptation

Given the importance of the message effect in promotional texts and advertising, several studies have adopted the functionalist theory [START_REF] Torresi | Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts[END_REF][START_REF] Obeidat | Translation strategies in the English-Arabic e-brochures of baby care products[END_REF][START_REF] Vandal-Sirois | Le traducteur et ses cibles : lectures analytique et empathique en adaptation publicitaire[END_REF][START_REF] Xia | Specialized comparable corpora in translation evaluation: a case study of English translations of Chinese law firm advertisements[END_REF]. The need for the functionalist approach was also highlighted by Tatilon who emphasized translating the spirit rather than the letter, and the functions rather than the words [START_REF] Tatilon | Le texte publicitaire : traduction ou adaptation?[END_REF]. In a similar vein, advertising translation requires a range of strategies and procedures to meet the function. The functionalist approach has been used thanks to the freedom it provides in order to persuade an audience and make it difficult to guess which text is the ST and which is the TT (Cruz-García, 2018), i.e. to make the translation sound as an original text. Such freedom is represented by the wide range of translation strategies:

The limits of translation are represented by transcription or transliteration, in which 100 per cent of the ST surface elements are preserved, and free text production (in the target culture), in which none of the ST surface elements are preserved. Between these two poles we find several forms of translation, which are characterized by different percentages of adaptation, depending on the translation skopos. (Nord, 2005, p. 33) Nord points out that she "would prefer to include the feature of adaptation into the concept of translation in order to make people (i.e. the users and initiators of translations!) understand what translation is really about." (ibid. p. 28). However, applying the skopos does not mean always conforming to the target culture but that adaptation is one possibility [START_REF] Reiss | Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained[END_REF].

The skopos can revolve on expressing the source-culture as well. Hence, the skopos theory allows many possibilities between the two extremes, including hybrid cases (ibid.). In this vein, Nord states that the quality and quantity of the relationship between the source and target texts "provide the criteria for the decision as to which elements of the ST-in-situation can be 'preserved' and which may, or must, be 'adapted' to the target situation (facultative vs. compulsory adaptation)" (Nord, 2005, p. 32). Moreover, messages differ according to the dominant element: the content or the form (Nida, 2012, p. 142). It is not about matching the message in the target language with that of the source language, but about the "dynamic relationship" which ensures matching the relationship between the original recipient and message with that between the target recipient and message (ibid., p. 144). From another perspective, the effect is achieved through a target-oriented approach by the ciblistes (target-oriented translators) who translate from the recipient's perspective, while the sourciers (source-oriented translators) translate from the author's perspective and focus on the words [START_REF] Ladmiral | Sourcier ou Cibliste[END_REF]. For this research, adaptation will be discussed based on the following definition:

A translation procedure where the translator replaces a socio-cultural reality from the source language with a reality specific to the culture of the target language in order to accommodate the expectations of the target audience. (Delisle, Lee-Jahnke, & Cormier, 1999, p. 114) Although the above definition focuses on the cultural aspect of adaptation, language is considered to be part of culture, as seen earlier in the Onion Model [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations -Software of the Mind -Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival[END_REF]. Therefore, adaptation will be discussed and used as a term on the linguistic and cultural levels. The next paragraphs will highlight the notion of adaptation in localization in relation to the peculiarity of the source text, knowing that it is not always applicable, and the adaptation levels as seen in TS.

A source text customized for adaptation

In the advertising genre, texts are considered both informative and appellative. The recipient-message dynamic relationship and the effect differ based on the "cultural distance"

between the text world and the receiving culture (Nord, 2005, p. 150). "Cultural distance" occurs when the text world corresponds to the source culture and is difficult to match the TT recipient.

However, the "zero-distance" occurs when the text world does not relate to the source culture and would need explanation for both source and target recipients. The third possibility is when the text world corresponds to the source culture but the sender has "de-culturalized" it or generalized it to achieve the "zero-distance" for both cultures (ibid.). This latter case describes the case of the internationalized text discussed earlier. The emerging problematic in the localization context is with the function of this source "de-culturalized" text. On the one hand, its function is to provide a culture-free information which is suitable for all recipients (including localization language agents). On the other hand, it should facilitate the adaptation of the product, i.e. it has been created with the expectations of acculturating it into the target locale. Therefore, the purpose and nature of the source text imposes certain functions and expectations on the translation. While cultural translation errors are related to determining whether to adapt the conventions to the target culture (Nord, 1997, p. 77), more attention should be given to determining when and how to acculturate a text with a "zero-distance". This problematic has been highlighted in undergraduate students who cannot always easily detect a culture-specific reference of a cultural nuance in a text, and may not be sure of how to transfer such references when they are spotted (González [START_REF] Davies | A problem-solving and student-centred approach to the translation of cultural references[END_REF].

Based on the function of the source text or the translation itself, adapting a text according to the target audience is considered to be more accepted in advertising translation than in literary translation due to the absence of an author to trait: Si l'idée d'adapter un texte d'après le public ciblé est davantage acceptée en traduction publicitaire qu'en traduction littéraire, par exemple, c'est justement parce qu'il n'y a plus d'auteur à trahir, mais seulement un mandat bien précis à remplir. [START_REF] Vandal-Sirois | Le traducteur et ses cibles : lectures analytique et empathique en adaptation publicitaire[END_REF] To reframe that in localization, the text is made to be adapted, and it can be prepared by multiple agents for that purpose, the language agent is expected to adapt for the recipient and to be loyal to the function. This flexibility is often seen as an advantage of the Skopos theory which allows translating the same text in various ways to meet the TT purpose and the assigned commission (Munday, 2016, p. 129). What follows is further explanation of the levels of adaptation, particularly in advertising translation, besides other more specific approaches to understanding adaptation.

Adaptation levels

Adaptation has been discussed in TS particularly in advertising translation in early literature on this subject [START_REF] Boivineau | L'A.B.C. de l'adaptation publicitaire[END_REF]. Boivineau also called for the development of adaptation and creation given the dominance of the use of English in advertisements. As such observation is still valid today, a deep analysis is necessary for this research questions. To start with, the term itself is sometimes mistakenly referred to as a strategy rather than a procedure [START_REF] Guidère | La Communication Multilingue[END_REF]) (a detailed discussion will be included in next section) that is even reflected on the translators who are called tradaptateurs (tradaptators) (ibid., p. 32). Moreover, the adaptation level has not been thoroughly analyzed. In other words, an advertisement can aim simply to inform the recipient, but can also go beyond this goal to persuade him/her to purchase the product. It was found that the information-to-persuasion ratio of B2C promotion [START_REF] Torresi | Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts[END_REF] is influenced by the adaptation level.

Adaptation in websites can be understood through two paths: the process and the text. The process path was discussed earlier in the first chapter which showed the degree to which a website is adapted. As for the text path, adaptation is viewed from different perspectives. While adapting an advertisement means following the same process a copywriter has followed, and eliminating any elements that can shock the reader with respect to his/her cultural package [START_REF] Boivineau | L'A.B.C. de l'adaptation publicitaire[END_REF], it can be limited to modifying the surface and the structure of the original statement, which is termed as l'adaptation formelle (formal adaptation) versus l'adaptation idéelle (conceptual adaptation) which synchronizes the initial content with the cultural expectations of the target recipient (Guidère, 2000, p. 124).

[l'adaptation idéelle] touche le sens même de l'énoncé, que ce soit de façon fortuite ou délibérée. L'adaptation formelle a pour but de rendre l'expression du slogan d'arrivée recevable par le public d'accueil et si possible familière et idiomatique, tandis que l'adaptation idéelle vise la synchronisation du contenu initial avec les attentes culturelles du récepteur final. (Guidère, 2000, p. 124) From another perspective, the translation decision was explained by a voice-selecting process [START_REF] Mossop | The translator's intervention through voice selection[END_REF]. This includes using (1) the neutralizing voice, where the translator uses his/her linguistic biography and chooses a specific word for no specific reason; (2) the ventriloquizing voice, which implies rendering the writer's or audience's voice; or (3) the distancing voice in which the translator distances him/herself from the situation and disregards the knowledge of the recipient (ibid.). While the neutralizing voice reflects a random decision taken by the translator, only the second voice can be considered applying the notion of adaptation, which in turn implies imitating the writer or the audience. Similarly, House proposed applying a "cultural filter" between the source text and the translation text in order to "view the source text through the eyes of a target culture member" (2015, p. 57). However, applying the aforementioned conceptualizations of adaptation on localization, a nuance emerges with regard to the nature of the source text. Assuming that a translation is produced out of an internationalized text (culturally neutralized or filtered), the translational action function (rather than the TT function which stays the same as the ST) is to add a cultural layer besides, possibly, filtering any remaining elements in the source which do not suit the target culture. Another point of view regarding the decision making strategies in advertising translation suggests that two readings are required for adaptation: a logical reading, where the translator reads the text to understand the message with its situation and obstacles; and an emotional reading that is influenced by his/her knowledge of advertising and the cultural package of the target audience [START_REF] Vandal-Sirois | Le traducteur et ses cibles : lectures analytique et empathique en adaptation publicitaire[END_REF]. Such a method of translation decision making fits well in localization, where the second reading is flexible in that both filtering and/or adding local layers can be applied as necessary.

Based on the above, adaptation is a procedure that takes multiple forms and can reach various degrees from structural and linguistic modifications to holistic reformulations and recreations. In discussing adaptation, Guidere mentions three procedures: suppression, adjunction and substitution (2008, p. 20). Substitution, in turn, includes re-creation which is about re-writing the message while preserving only the ideas and functions of the original (ibid.). Although keeping the ideas of the original contradicts the author's notion of conceptual adaptation suggested in an earlier work, this leads the discussion to re-writing as a procedure, and more importantly, to transcreation, which is a relatively recent term in TS. The following section will address transcreation as a concept in TS as well as in the industry. It will attempt to define its position within translation and clarify its role and use in advertising translation.

Transcreation (Kassawat, 2020a) 14

Similarly to other phenomena, transcreation has been a debate in Translation Studies. There are arguments on the independency of transcreation from translation, let alone the industry presentation thereof. Certain studies have shown that transcreation is one of the translation strategies. The following discussion will attempt to frame transcreation and identify its nature for the sake of the research at hand. Creativity is often researched in literary translation [START_REF] Bassnett | Translation and creativity[END_REF], while adaptation is used as a term and translation procedure in advertising translation. As a result, "literature in contexts such as marketing and advertising transcreation is relatively scarce" (Pedersen, 2014, p. 63). Transcreation is considered a service in the localization context (Yunker, 2017, p. 126). It is needed in websites to ensure a natural sound of the messages to the end users (ibid.). Hence, it is important to conceptualize it in TS in order to approach it and analyze it in the localization context.

The term "transcreation" can be traced to India and Brazil (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 196) but it started to emerge in translation about a decade ago (Gaballo, 2012, p. 95). Among the translation strategies, re-writing is usually classified as a high-level adaptation. Addressing rewriting should help in understanding transcreation. Re-writing is conceptualized in two ways: providing an expressive orientation that is different from the idea of the initial message, or developing an idea that is completely new while respecting the original style (Guidère, 2000, p. 129). Considering re-writing as a translation procedure goes in line with the idea that "translation means transformation. It means mediation. It means change." (Maitland, 2017, p. 159), and that "the articulation of another's experience in one's own words requires the importation of other ideas, other viewpoints, other worldviews." (ibid., p. 07). "Re-writing" as a term, though, does not carry the transfer notion; "transcreation" does. Jeremy Munday discusses translation, copywriting and transcreation in that "translation is placed on the factual end of the continuum, copywriting on the creative/motivational end, with transcreation in the 'conceptual' middle" (Munday & Gambier, 2014, p. 20). Although transcreation is positioned in the middle between copywriting and translation, it might have caused opposite debates which view it independently from translation, and even as a more comprehensive term.

While transcreation is viewed as a translation strategy in general [START_REF] Costales | Exploring translation strategies in video game[END_REF], it is claimed to "not duplicate or fully match any other term, not even the more general term 'translation', and therefore it has its own right to exist." (Gaballo, 2012, p. 96). However, the professional respondents of the same study (ibid.) viewed transcreation as a strategy focused on the target audience in order to adapt the text to the targeted market. Therefore, transcreation as a translation strategy cannot be classified in a superior position to its umbrella term "translation".

Others share the separating view of transcreation from translation as the former provides more than the traditional language transfer [START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the concept of transcreation-transcreation as 'more than translation'? Cultus[END_REF] or that it is a "creation of a new original" [START_REF] Benetello | Transcreation as a creation of a new original: A NortonTM case study[END_REF]. In other words, it "removes the preconceived authority of the original and allows room for another original to be created" (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 199). It is even considered as a "radical adaptive strategy" in the localization of video games (ibid., p. 196).

From another perspective, the term multiplicity is considered destabilizing for both students and Translation Studies scholars (Munday & Gambier, 2014, p. 21). It can even limit translation to word-for-word transfer and marginalize modern translation theories. Even though, differences between transcreation and translation have been highlighted, such as the productivity of translation and its ability to generate new solutions [START_REF] Gaballo | Exploring the boundaries of transcreation in specialized translation[END_REF]. Moreover, the adaptation of cultural nuances has been thought to be the focal element that transcreation provides more than translation (Pedersen, 2014, p. 60). In the advertising context, "transcreation seeks to perform all the adjustments necessary to make a campaign work in all target markets, while at the same time staying loyal to the original creative intent of the campaign." (ibid., p. 58). Such view intersects with multiple points of view regarding translation theories, which have paid attention to the cultural aspect of the message in order to transfer its desired effect (see the previous section). Furthermore, respondents in Gaballo's study (2012) agreed that cultural adaptation is a requirement of a good translation and that a good translator should already be a transcreator.

Therefore, a definition of transcreation has been proposed to frame it as a translation strategy but one that can envelop several strategies [START_REF] Gaballo | Exploring the boundaries of transcreation in specialized translation[END_REF]. Such definition attempts to explain transcreation in terms of its requirements but also to determine its superior position with respect to other strategies.

Transcreation is an intra-/interlingual re-interpretation of the original work suited to the readers/audience of the target language which requires the translator to come up with new conceptual, linguistic and cultural constructs to make up for the lack (or inadequacy) of existing ones. It can be looked at as a strategy to overcome the limits of 'untranslatability', but in fact it is a holistic approach in which all possible strategies, methods and techniques can be used. It requires fluency (the ability to generate ideas and meaningful responses), flexibility (the ability to repurpose ideas), originality (the capacity to produce rare and novel ideas) and elaboration (the capacity to develop ideas). It requires the translator not only to conceive new words, but also to imagine new worlds. [START_REF] Gaballo | Exploring the boundaries of transcreation in specialized translation[END_REF] Problem solving and agility to intervene in texts have been also highlighted with respect to dealing with shifts between informative and persuasive styles occurring in the same text. [START_REF] Torresi | Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts[END_REF]. Transcreation has been also highlighted as a possible solution to achieve certainty in the translator [START_REF] Katan | Translation at the cross-roads: Time for the transcreational turn?[END_REF]. However, Gaballo's definition does not fully correspond to the concept of a strategy which "applies globally to any given text and is distinguished from ad hoc decisions such as those regarding the application of various translation procedures" (Delisle, Lee-Jahnke, & Cormier, 1999, p. 192). It is not a holistic approach like "domestication" and "foreignization" [START_REF] Lawrence | Strategies of translation[END_REF] for instance. At the same time, it cannot be diminished to a procedure, similar to calquing or borrowing, due to its complex nature. Hence, transcreation "can be seen as a dynamic and functional translation genre-specific strategy, or sub-strategy, that can be applied on a text segment or a whole text, and implies creativity through combining and making use of different strategies and procedures to achieve an aesthetic, entertaining and/or persuasive effect in the audience" (Kassawat, 2020a, p. 76). Moreover, transcreation is usually viewed as a domesticating approach, while it can use foreignization to meet the required purpose, as in using foreign words to draw the recipient's attention or to create a deliberate cultural strangeness for specific purposes.

While cultural adaptation and creativity are two main distinguishing elements of transcreation, this distinguishing view seems to be formality-and economic-driven too.

Chesterman discusses how transcreation is viewed as an "extra service" which goes beyond translation proper and, by so, is paid for as something extra (Munday & Gambier, 2014, p. 20;Chesterman, 2019, p. 19). Moreover, other opinions support the idea that the term has been sought by LSPs to describe their activities, while avoiding the term "translation" (Pedersen, 2014, p. 69).

This approach can be associated with the spread of machine translation, while "humans still rule in transcreation projects" (Gaballo, 2012, p. 102). Thus, the term seems to be used by the agencies to keep providing their services and by scholars to keep the prestige of the professional translation practice. Such attempts are manifested by calls to translators to take the "transcreational turn" in order to distinguish themselves from volunteer translators [START_REF] Katan | Translation at the cross-roads: Time for the transcreational turn?[END_REF]. Therefore, the above views seem to "commodify translation" (Kassawat, 2020a, p. 75). In addition to the reasons for using the term "transcreation", fuzziness has been observed in the terms "adaptation", "transcreation", and "localization" too. Therefore, the paragraphs below will attempt to untangle these concepts in order to have a clear vision and help in the analysis phase of this research.

Adaptation and transcreation

In the above discussion, transcreation has been addressed from multiple points of view, including the industry and the academia. Despite the attempts to frame it as an independent approach, the literature and the provided definitions of transcreation present it in relation to translation, and in a way that associates it, intentionally or not, with adaptation forms. Therefore, there is a need to determine when each term of these is used and for which function(s).

The adaptation level has been addressed with regard to the market nature, importance, and structure. In other words, the more competitive the market, adaptation is performed with more liberty compared to the original. At the same time, conformity to the original increases, in order to reduce the costs, when the market becomes more segmented.

Selon la complexité de la structure, l'adaptation sera une copie plus ou moins conforme du site initial. En règle générale, le degré de conformité est fonction de l'importance de la cible : plus le marché est concurrentiel, plus on constate de liberté par rapport à l'original. À chaque fois que les marchés sont segmentés, on remarque une conformité avec l'original, due essentiellement à la volonté de réduire les coûts. (Guidère, 2008, p. 51) Therefore, transcreation should be expected in competitive markets given the liberty it requires and creativity it introduces, while linguistic transfer is expected in segmented markets.

Having said that, transcreation is used for specific requirements of persuasion and competitiveness.

Moreover, the translation strategy is expected to depend on financial and marketing criterion.

Nonetheless, this can be considered part of the function. If a certain content is not expected to influence the consumer's decision and convince him/her to purchase a product, then, linguistic transfer should be enough to meet the required function. As for advertisements, their persuasive function is usually discussed while paying less attention to the informative one. For this reason, the information-to-persuasion ratio refers to the need for transcreation: "the higher the persuasion and the lower the information, the higher the possibility, and potentially the need, to trans-create" (Torresi, 2010, p. 25). Transcreation is often discussed by stressing the creativity taken by the translators (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 196;[START_REF] Rike | Bilingual corporate websitesfrom translation to transcreation[END_REF]. Therefore, assessing an advertisement translation should take into account both functions in light of the market nature and the translation acceptability to the target audience, even when linguistic non-creative transfer is performed. Otherwise, the function of the text as an advertisement cannot be considered achieved.

The research question of the study at hand necessitates analyzing these functions to assess their status in the localization context as it will be detailed in the Methodology chapter.

Transcreation and localization

Having discussed the advertisement functions briefly, along with the employed translation strategies, this section aims to provide an idea on how transcreation, as a sub-strategy, relates to localization. Transcreation has been compared to localization, which is a "translation type" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 18) and a concept accommodated in the concept of translation (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 107). First, the functionalist approach in transcreation has been clearly pointed at [START_REF] Katan | Translation at the cross-roads: Time for the transcreational turn?[END_REF], besides the target-audience and culture importance in transcreation and in localization. Transcreation has been described as "rethinking at the local level" for example (Yunker, 2017, p. 126). Second, transcreation is looked at differently sometimes from localization given the creativity aspect of the former [START_REF] Rike | Bilingual corporate websitesfrom translation to transcreation[END_REF] although it is used in localized products where the function necessitates its use. Even though, the term "transcreation" is considered to refer to marketing and website translation (Chesterman, 2019, p. 18). Third, the preparation phase of the text and the cooperation between the stakeholders have been viewed as points in common [START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the concept of transcreation-transcreation as 'more than translation'? Cultus[END_REF]. Moreover, the creativity aspect of transcreation associates it closely with advertising translation, as both share the same goal of persuading the customer (ibid.).

Based on the brief arguments above, the similarities and differences between transcreation and localization lead to major discrepancies regarding the hierarchy of the terms. It can be noticed that there is an amalgamation in categorizing a strategy, a concept/domain and a translation genre.

While the suggested arguments are logical in practice, the formula can be expressed differently. In other words, instead of discussing transcreation and localization in terms of difference and similarities, this research will look at these points as factors which make transcreation a suitable approach for localization, particularly in advertising translation in the digital channels, which can meet the required function of the genre within its global context.

Research on Transcreation

Transcreation has been discussed so far as a term, a strategy, and a practice from multiple perspectives. There seems to be an agreement in the literature on having a shortage of empirical research in this area, particularly in marketing and advertising [START_REF] Gaballo | Exploring the boundaries of transcreation in specialized translation[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the concept of transcreation-transcreation as 'more than translation'? Cultus[END_REF].

Despite the availability of research in TS on advertising translation [START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the concept of transcreation-transcreation as 'more than translation'? Cultus[END_REF], transcreation as an offer in marketing and advertising has been presented by the industry. TS scholars have been blamed to have "passed the buck to the industry" to dictate freely the preferred terminology (Gaballo, 2012, p. 98) and the term itself "has only recently gained considered attention" in TS (Pedersen, 2014, p. 63). It was used sometimes to avoid the "fuzzy concept" of adaptation which "encapsulates one of the key characteristics of localization" (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 107).

Research has been conducted on the fuzzy terminology related to translation, localization, adaptation, and transcreation [START_REF] Dam | Professionals' views on the concepts of their trade: what is (not) translation[END_REF]. It found that practitioners have the same blurry lines among these terms which exist in TS literature (ibid.). The authors point out that Transcreation is a recent term but not a new practice or object of study: it has existed for many years precisely under the label "advertising translation" or "marketing translation" (e.g. Risku et al. 2017)" (ibid., p. 216). Therefore, there is a need to dissect transcreation in order to provide a deeper understanding of it as a concept and a practice in TS and to understand its role and application in the localization field.

In order to study transcreation in advertising translation, the next sections will provide an overview of the advertising translation conventions with regard to the target culture, including an important element of adverts which is the product name, and how the advertising function can be met using foreignization strategies, unlike the common conception of such genre which dictates using domestication strategies. The following discussion will help in framing advertising translation further in the localization concept and purposes.

Advertising conventions

Target-culture conventions

As a discussion was provided on the use of transcreation and adaptation in advertising, it is important to highlight the advertising conventions which dictate to a certain extent the translation strategy. This should help in determining what to expect from a functional advertisement. First of all, an overview on the concepts of norms and conventions will be provided and applied on advertisements.

Conventions are associated with culture and collective knowledge. Conventions, in general, are defined as the "implicit or tacit non-binding regulations of behavior, based on common knowledge and the expectation of what others expect you to expect them (etc.) to do in a certain situation" (Nord, 1997, p. 53). This also relates to what is called "general structures of expectation" (Kramsch, 1998, p. 27). Genre conventions are viewed to be not ruled by a law and that they are mentally understood by language users [START_REF] Göpferich | Comprehensibility assessment using the Karlsruhe Comprehensibility Concept[END_REF]. In turn, genre conventions result from texts used in certain situations for similar function(s) repeatedly, requiring "conventional forms that are sometimes even raised to the status of social norms" (Nord, 1997, p. 53). According to [START_REF] Chesterman | Memes of Translation: the Spread of Ideas in Translation Theory[END_REF], a norm cannot be breached, unlike the convention which is weaker and not binding. However, a convention can change over time and under certain conditions, while it remains acceptable in the society. This is pointed at by Nord as genre conventions are "not universal, but linked to a certain culture at a certain time" (2005, p. 21). Vermeer and Reiss detailed the concept of the convention by the fact that they can change as the culture as long as the changes are valid (2014). Moreover, conventions can be applied on all linguistic and textual levels, including vocabulary, grammar, phraseology, macrostructure (layout), content structure, aesthetic patterns, and punctuation (ibid.). They are seen as triggers of expectations as well: "Once they have recognized a genre (class) by its conventional patterns, expert readers will anticipate certain text features as well" (ibid., p. 169). By this, if the text does not meet the readers' expectations, it can be regarded as defective (ibid.).

From another point of view, breaking the norms can become a norm. Chesterman provides the example of using English words in certain kinds of Finnish adverts in order to ensure efficiency and notes that when the norm becomes expected to be broken in certain kinds of texts, the expectancy itself may become a norm (2016, p. 65). The example he provided can be applied to multiple languages, particularly with the influence of English in the media. Therefore, the global factors can lead to changes in norms and conventions depending on the situation.

Convention changes can be noticed easily in the advertising context, particularly in product names and terminology. While the general adaptation expectations have been detailed in the previous chapters, persuasion requires an attractive and comprehensible brand and even product name in the advertisement to achieve the function and in order to make the product memorable as well. It is true that the translator does not always have the opportunity to translate brand names, but it is a key word to persuasion in an advertisement [START_REF] Tatilon | Le texte publicitaire : traduction ou adaptation?[END_REF]. Endless examples from the industry have shown how the translation and/or adaptation of a brand or product name can affect its success and acceptability in a market. Therefore, it is critical to detail this element in the advertisement for its role in meeting the persuasiveand informativefunction.

In the context of digital genres, the language agents' active competencies can be limited as they cannot be specialized in all the different genres they have to deal with, which leads to "the production of digital genres that to some extent lack the conventions expected by users" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2011, p. 144). It was suggested that following a convention facilitates understanding and expecting what is next in the text [START_REF] Göpferich | Comprehensibility assessment using the Karlsruhe Comprehensibility Concept[END_REF]. Conventions are also important in localization, particularly with the new digital genres such as hypertexts [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Web genres in localisation: a Spanish corpus study[END_REF] that still adopt the global convention due to the lack of locale-based one. The problem becomes insisting when it comes to cultures merged into generic markets regardless of their individuality (see the discussion on amalgamation in the second chapter of the second part). Moreover, changing conventions is becoming increasingly common with the increasing use of global English and the emergence of new genres. This in turn can either enrich the target locales or lead to a negative impact on the long run.

Product naming

The notion of the convention and what it represents in the target cultures was briefly explored. More attention will be given in this section to an important element in the advertising text: the product name. The product name is usually presented in the slogan of the advertisement and can be mentioned within the body text. This makes it play an important role in convincing the consumer and catch his/her attention. The name consists of individual sounds called phonemes which have two functions: they are "the basic building blocks of language and are combined to form syllables and, in turn, words", and "can provide meaning themselves through sound symbolism" (Yorkston & Menon , 2004, p. 43). Therefore, the consumer is influenced by sound symbolism effortlessly (ibid.). Therefore, studying how the name is transferred is more important due to the changes or lack of changes it passes through which influence its effect in the target market and culture.

The product name has been investigated in multiple studies with this regard. Some of these highlight the influence of English over the translated names through loan words [START_REF] Friedrich | English in advertising and brand naming: sociolinguistic considerations and the case of Brazil[END_REF][START_REF] Diniz De Figueiredo | To borrow or not to borrow: the use of English loanwords as slang on websites in Brazilian Portuguese[END_REF][START_REF] Al Abed | Ta'athyr tarjamat ale'elanat altjaryah al enjilyzyah 'ala allughah al'arabyah[END_REF], and/or the inappropriate strategies to certain names [START_REF] Obeidat | Translation strategies in the English-Arabic e-brochures of baby care products[END_REF], which lead to major impacts on the product success and acceptance in the target market. Although the problematic of brand naming is not new in TS, it needs to be addressed and researched in the localization context. The internationalization process introduces interesting factors which can affect the translation, in addition to the localization process itself which implies the marketing decisions, terminology translation, and consistency among team members.

Internationalizing the name aims to make it acceptable as is, adaptable, or translatable in as many locales as possible to unify a marketing campaign. Moreover, the channel through which the advertisement (and sometimes the name alone) is displayed necessitates an empirical investigation of this element in terms of its function and impact in online platforms. While few studies have looked at the consumer's behavior towards a product name (Jackson Harris, Garner-Earl, J. Sprick, untranslated [START_REF] Torresi | Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts[END_REF]. This strategy is termed as "transplantation" which is about transferring the product or brand name as it is without adaptation, translation or transcription, i.e.

the appellation is provided in its original form (Guidère, 2000, p. 94).

While adapting the name receives the least attention in TS, many scholars have addressed the transliteration and non-translation strategies out of the hierarchical view of languages. On the one hand, this can be discussed from the perspective of foreign languages influence or the prevalent of "superior" languages [START_REF] Mousten | How streetsmart marketers try phishing customers: (mis)communication or missed communication through loan words[END_REF]. On the other hand, the relationship between words and their meanings have been pointed at as a risk of taking English words for granted (ibid.). Mousten underlines the fact that the meanings of loan words do not necessarily accompany the word into the other language but that they are understood in their real context (ibid.). However, loan words are commonly used in different languages. In a study conducted on English-Arabic e-brochures to explore their effectiveness to the target web surfer, a tendency to maintain the foreignness of the original product was observed: 84% of the studied names were transferred, out of which 16% were transliterated [START_REF] Obeidat | Translation strategies in the English-Arabic e-brochures of baby care products[END_REF]. This was interpreted as a way to provide a unique sense of peculiarity to help consumers quickly recognize the product, despite the fact that transliterating and non-translating lead to incomprehensible and ambiguous text in the TL and confuses the Arab surfer who can be ignorant of the name's implications in Arabic (ibid.). While skopos theory was adopted in the translations assessment, maintaining foreignness in brand names has been viewed

as compatible with all of the skopos principles (ibid.).

Foreignness serves the function

Foreignizing the name is used for different purposes. English use is sometimes justified by the fact that it symbolizes modernity, is intelligible, its linguistic properties make it attractive, refers to Westernization, and provides the advertisers with more room for creativity (Friedrich, 2002, p. 22). In the localization context, this use can be enhanced by the character limit factor, as certain languages require more space in the digital environment, let alone what has become the norm in certain industries. Therefore, English loan words accommodate the function linguistically and in terms of the marketing campaign, which needs usually to be unified. Moreover, using foreign words/names is sometimes appealing, depending on the prestige of the company, as it highlights the notion of "belonging to a global community" (de Pedro Ricoy, 2007, p. 264). The origin of products is widely believed to have an added value to their internationalization, such as French perfumes and cosmetics, German cars, etc. (Guidère, 2008, p. 10).

Despite the continuous arguments on the influence of English on other languages, based on the skopos theory, foreignizing strategies can be and are being used. However, attention should be paid to the extent to which they meet the function, i.e. whether they are comprehensible in the target language, readable, and acceptable by the target culture. Few studies have detailed the strategies used for their transfer, with a shortage of such studies in the localization context. This research aims to investigate such strategies more deeply as applied and presented in online advertising in order to explore to what extent the agreed upon advertising conventions are met.

Summary

This chapter aimed to re-examine advertising translation as a traditionally researched genre, including the function of the advert and its elements, the advertising conventions, and the translation strategies that are expected to be used to meet that function.

Translation quality and assessment approaches

As advertising translation has been discussed as an established genre in Translation

Studies, with its conventions and strategies, along with goals and expectations of localization, certain gaps have been found. These gaps are related to the degree of meeting the localization and the advertising function, the function criteria and the impact of the internationalized text on the localized one. Studying these aspects necessitates a model of analysis of the resulting quality of the translation. Meeting the function includes both meeting the language standards and the genre conventions. With the relative absence of quality assessment models designed specifically for localization, there is a need to find a suitable one in order to gain reliable results out of the research.

It has been noted that early research focused on literary texts, while professional evaluation usually focuses on commercial translations which mainly look into effectiveness and productivity of the translator [START_REF] Martínez Melis | Assessment in Translation Studies: Research needs[END_REF]. This highlights the need for criticism-based models for research in localization, particularly that "different translation purposes and content require different tools and eventual quality levels." (Drugan, 2013, p. 73).

This chapter will start off by an overview of how quality has been conceptualized in TS. It will then discuss terms such as quality evaluation, assessment and criticism to determine the terms to be used. It will attempt to provide a general idea on the quantitative and qualitative approaches in TS and which approach should be used for the study at hand. Finally, it will explore different existing evaluation and assessment models in order to extract approaches and criteria that can help in the analysis of the corpus. Although the conventions and translation strategies discussed previously play a role in meeting the translation function, other quality-related criteria will be further detailed in this chapter, such as comprehensibility, readability, and acceptability.

The problematic of quality and its assessment

Translation quality: definitions and limitations

As quality has been a debatable issue in TS and the translation practice, it should be noted that the discussion does not aim to suggest a definition or to review all the points of view with this regard. It rather aims to find a common ground and a starting point for this research. While the functionalist theory has been key in this subject, it will also be adopted in conceptualizing quality and its assessment because:

Evaluating the quality of a translation presupposes a theory of translation. Thus different views of translation lead to different concepts of translational quality, and hence different ways of assessing quality. (House, 1997, p. 1) Quality can be a critical problematic for the industry as issues arise in the practice. To start with, a perspective from the industry will be the starting point of the discussion. With the increasing complexity of the translation processes, purposes and tools, two definitions have been suggested which incorporate the "scope" of the translation15 , e.g. gisting translation, summary translation, localization and transcreation, and the "specifications", e.g. the product and user type (Koby, Fields, Hague, Lommel, & Melby, 2014, p. 416):

A broad definition:

A quality translation demonstrates accuracy and fluency required for the audience and purpose and complies with all other specifications negotiated between the requester and provider, taking into account end-user needs. (ibid.)

A narrow definition:

A high-quality translation is one in which the message embodied in the source text is transferred completely into the target text, including denotation, connotation, nuance, and style, and the target text is written in the target language using correct grammar and word order, to produce a culturally appropriate text that, in most cases, reads as if originally written by a native speaker of the target language for readers in the target culture. (ibid.)

On the one hand, emerging terms have been distinguished due to the spread of translation agencies and LSPs which mediate between the translator and the client. Therefore, customers include the requester, the provider and the end-user, where the provider is the person or organization which produces a translation (ibid.). It should be noted that the authors have widened the quality concept to include the responsibility of the providers to understand the purpose of the requester and the audience 16 . On the other hand, accuracy and fluency have been looked at as main pillars of quality. The authors agree on a possibility of "perfect" accuracy and fluency, where the former represents a "bilingual notion" and the correspondence between the ST and the TT, and the latter represents a "monolingual notion" that refers to the properties of the TT (ibid.). Although 91 this is often an axiom among most translation scholars and practitioner, it contradicts views that consider the purpose of the translation as key to determining the quality level. For example, Pym points out the unnecessary over-investment in the translation process when the effort overweighs the benefits (2000a, p. 189). He refers to over-investment as a possible crime which is like underinvesting (ibid.). More importantly, although the authors who suggested the above definitions adopt a functionalist approach, they exclude localization and transcreation specifically from the narrow definition as they do not qualify as "translations" under this view [START_REF] Koby | Defining translation quality[END_REF]. Does this exclusion mean that localization and transcreation necessitate different strategies not mentioned in the narrow definition to achieve a high quality or that lower quality can be accepted in these fields?

With the increasing adoption of MT in different translation types, particularly in localization, the published translation can have passed through several revisions and quality control procedures, or not. This is due to the MT dependence on the grammatical similarity between the SL and the TL [START_REF] Pym | Quality[END_REF]. Moreover, using raw MT can cause extra costs due to linguistic errors as well as damaging the company image and reputation (ibid.). However, the layers of retouches or major corrections can differ based on the client's specifications. The translator no longer necessarily start from scratch. He/she rather starts with a translation produced by a machine, glossaries or TM suggestions, i.e. a draft to edit, which Pym terms a "start text" (ibid.). The extent to which accuracy should be a strict criteria of quality becomes problematic, particularly when external factors are taken into account, such as the translators' rates and time spent on MT and TM suggested texts. Therefore, the notion of quality is relative and cannot be defined generally, particularly in the commercial context which imposes influencing factors on the provided quality.

Quality-related procedures: terminology and concepts

This section will attempt to distinguish certain terms which are often used interchangeably or in an inconsistent manner. The terminology issue was highlighted by TS scholars due to its importance in research methodology:

The terminology associated with translation quality can be confusing. Some authors write about quality evaluation, others about quality assessment or even quality assurance. Quality assurance normally refers to systems and processes used to help create or maintain quality. We understand the term evaluation to be a more general term relating to the testing of quality, whereas quality assessment, or QA, is a term frequently used in a professional context to describe the step in the translation process that involves the counting and classification of translation errors. (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, pp. 95-96) Before going forward into discussing the existing assessment models, it is timely to clarify the terms to be used in the research. The literature in TS is rich with studies and theories that look into translation quality. However, there is often a confusion in the terms in use whether in empirical or theoretical research. Terms such as "assessment", "evaluation", "criticism", "revision", "quality control" and "quality assurance" are sometimes used or referred to interchangeably in different contexts. This aspect was highlighted by [START_REF] Karoubi | Translation quality assessment demystified[END_REF] and Hatim and Mason:

Even within what has been published on the subject of evaluation, one must distinguish between the activities of assessing the quality of translations (e.g. House 1981), translation criticism and translation quality control on the one hand and those of assessing performance (e.g. Nord 1991:160-3) on the other. (Hatim & Mason, 1997, p. 164) To start, revision is generally understood as the process of looking over a translation to decide whether it is of satisfactory quality; and making any needed changes" (Mossop, 2011, p. 135). Mossop adds that the "degree of revision effort may depend on the importance of the job" (ibid., p. 137), which corresponds to Pym's point discussed earlier on the investment in the translation quality (2000). However, the central challenge of revision is considered to be spotting the error in the first place (Mossop, 2011, p. 138). This point can be one of the distinguishing factors of revision from other quality-related procedures. As for translation evaluation, three areas have been categorized: published translations, professional translator's work and translation teaching [START_REF] Martínez Melis | Assessment in Translation Studies: Research needs[END_REF]. In addition, two evaluation models have been highlighted: measurement and management with sub-types based on the goal of each model/type (ibid.). It can be noticed that the above categories of evaluation refer to general types of quality procedures, while the term "evaluation" itself seems to be used usually for more specific cases of non-published translations. These include evaluating a translator candidate's competency or a student's exam, i.e. for didactic purposes (Arango-Keeth & S. [START_REF] Arango-Keeth | Translator training evaluation and the needs of industry quality assessment[END_REF]. In other words, evaluation can be considered an approach followed by a kind of feedback to the requester, which does not normally apply to published translations. The latter are often categorized under terms such as "assessment" and "criticism" of translation, as it will be discussed. To briefly pass through quality assurance (QA) and quality control and the similar terms, they are understood as procedures followed during the translation and/or localization mission, i.e. in the professional context and before publishing the translation (see the references discussed on QA as a phase of localization in the first chapter).

With terms used in the industry and education being discussed, the focal point to frame this research is to distinguish between assessment and criticism. To conceptualize translation quality assessment, Karoubi defines it as "[t]he process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information to aid in decision making about the quality of translation." (2016, p. 256). However, he differentiates between "translation quality assessment" and "translation competence assessment" (ibid.) 17 . Karoubi's views are generic in terms of the concept. The context where the procedure is used is not clear. Its purpose is not specified. The goal "to aid in decision making" is not specific enough. It can be applied in multiple contexts: education, professional settings, and research. He points out the confusion in using the term "translation" itself as it refers to the product and the process of translating, and adds that:

the object of assessment in many of the assessment models that are allegedly called 'translation' assessment models is not translation as a product, but translation as a process or even the competence of translators. (ibid.)

On a similar note, assessment seems to be seen as a generic term which can take the form of "descriptive analysis" that is relative to the reader's or client's expectations and "evaluation" or "evaluative assessment", where the latter is conducted to measure how good or bad a translation is and whether it conforms to required standards and particular values (Chesterman, 2016, p. 117).

The above perspectives are generic and focus on the structural and purposeful aspects of assessment. Although Karoubi points out that "the notion of quality as fitness for purpose is inclusive", he seems to view the assessment of a translated text as an equivalence-checkup process rather than a function-checkup one:

The assessment of a translated text seeks to measure the degree of efficiency of the text with regard to the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic function of ST within the cultural frame and expressive potentials of both source language and target language. (al-Qinai, 2000, p. 499)

Colina, for example, seems to adopt a functionalist approach for her quality assessment study through defining a translated text as one that "fulfills and/or attempts to fulfill a specific function in a target culture […] and that bears a translation relationship to another text in another 94 language […]" (2011, p. 43), while taking into account the adapted/versioned texts which do not have an equivalent relationship with the ST (ibid.).

Based on the views discussed so far, the notion of quality differs depending on the context and purpose. Therefore, the nature and purpose of an assessment changes as well depending on the area of application: a production process or a research study (Castilho, Doherty, Gaspari, & Moorkens, 2018, p. 12). This brings the discussion to the main point of this section, i.e. assessment for research purposes, which is different from empirical measurement in translation production and education. As long as it does not aim to evaluate a translator's or a student's competence and progress, and as far as its purpose is not about improving a translation or determining its publishability, it can be referred to as "translation criticism". Translation criticism is viewed to be "either non-existent or, if practiced [sic] at all, is carried out in a subjective, undisciplined/ad hoc fashion" (Martínez Melis & Hurtado Albir, 2001, p. 273). Moreover, it has been observed that criticism has been limited to literary and sacred texts translation based on criteria such as fidelity (ibid.).

More importantly, House uses the term "criticism" and elaborates in her explanation by specifying its two basic functions, an ideational and an interpersonal function:

These two functions have their counterpart in two different methodological steps. The first and, in my estimation, the primary one, refers to linguistic-textual analysis, description, explanation, and comparison, and it is based on empirical research and on professional knowledge of linguistic structures and norms of language use. The second step refers to value judgments, social, interpersonal and ethical questions of sociopolitical and socio-psychological relevance, ideological stance or individual persuasion. Without the first, the second is useless, in other words, to judge is easy, to understand less so. (House, 2001, p. 256) House's understanding of criticism corresponds with that of Broeck who also highlights the critic's skills whether they are scholarly, literary or interlinguistic and intercultural, in order to provide an objective translation criticism (1985, p. 60). Broeck also suggests starting by a comparison of the ST and the TT, and distinguishing between the critic's norms and the followed strategy or the translator's poetics (ibid., p. 56). However, this might be the most controversial part of criticism. Moreover, criticism should highlight both the translator's work as well as the issues to ensure objectivity [START_REF] Reiss | Translation criticism-potentials and limitations: Categories and criteria for translation quality assessment[END_REF]. Using the term "translation criticism" in this research will ensure framing it within an objective and purposeful pathway as it does not aim to judge or improve 95 but rather to look into specific aspects in the final product. Below is an explanatory illustration of the above brief discussion which may contribute to research related to quality. The table above is an attempt to include the basic forms of quality measurement types in different contexts. Most importantly, it highlights the elements which specify the type itself based on the person in charge, the phase of publication, where applicable, and the purpose. It can be noted that the first two types which are applied prior to a publication impose responsibility on the translator/reviser with respect to the final quality of the product, unlike the rest of which aim to merely provide feedback on the quality or describe certain aspects of it. Each of the above types follows a specific approach whether quantitative and error-based or qualitative and generalfeedback based. The next section will be a quick overview of the two approaches in order to help in determining the one to be followed in this research.

Quantitative versus qualitative approaches to quality

It can be noticed that quality measurement approaches in the industry are mainly quantitative and error-based, "where errors found in (samples of) the translated text are counted, classified and weighted according to their severity" (Castilho, Doherty, Gaspari, & Moorkens, 2018, p. 14). However, a "TQA [Translation Quality Assessment] can be quantitative or qualitative: it can be based on mathematical/statistical measurement (as in the case of most academic instruments) or on reader response, interviews and questionnaires (e.g. Nida)." (Williams, 2009, p. 4). In research, external evaluators are sometimes employed to investigate the translation quality. For example, an assessment scale based on questions can be provided to evaluators who determine the quality of the given texts (Rothe-Neves, 2002). Nonetheless, Williams highlights the fact that this approach implies varying attitudes of the evaluators as some of them can accept certain errors rather than others [START_REF] Williams | Translation quality assessment[END_REF]. In addition, he refers to the difficulties encountered by TQA models which are based on analyzing a sample versus a full text, besides the determination of the level of the error severity or seriousness. More importantly, he points out the need to generate an overall rating of the quality through multiple levels of assessment, which include accuracy, TL quality and situationality (ibid.). Another issue that translation quality evaluation still has is the subjectivity of the evaluator even when the feedback is based on a corpus [START_REF] Hassani | A Corpus-Based Evaluation Approach to Translation Improvement[END_REF]. On a similar note, evaluating by using original corpora helps only with lexical elements, while cultural or extra-textual ones cannot be evaluated quantitatively [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF]. In an earlier work, Williams details the pros and cons of the quantitative and qualitative methods of assessment. On the one hand, quantitative methods cannot assess the acceptability of the overall translation [START_REF] Williams | The application of argumentation theory to translation quality assessment[END_REF]. The micro-textual analysis hinders the assessment at the macrostructure (ibid.). On the other hand, non-quantitative methods of assessment "cannot offer a cogent acceptability threshold either, precisely because it does not propose error weighing and quantification for individual texts." (ibid.).

TQA models have been widely criticized in TS. Testing those models in localization should help in applying them on more utilitarian texts. Moreover, such utilitarian fields necessitate new approaches in assessment in general and in criticism in particular. The following sections will discuss different quality assessment models in TS, in order to withdraw elements that can suit the context of localization and help in answering the research question of this thesis.

A top-down conceptualization of translation quality assessment

This section will provide a general discussion of different approaches to quality in order to determine an approach to follow to answer the research questions. The terms discussed earlier will be used interchangeably as used in the original references. It is noticed that the term "assessment" is generally used in TS studies providing assessment models. However, these models are not specific for research purposes. Therefore, and in light of the shortage of research-specific methods to assess the translation quality, the provided models will be discussed in order to extract the criteria necessary to the research at hand and to tailor a method that suits its aim. It is important to note that this discussion will make use of TS studies on quality assessment to nurture and contribute to proposed models in localization. While certain translation scholars focused on nontextual aspects affecting the translation quality, such as the project structure and nature, others investigated thoroughly the textual aspects and parameters at various levels. What follows is an overview of Drugan's observations out of an on-the-field study with regard to external factors influencing the translation quality. This will be followed by more text-based approaches to translation quality assessment, where more focus is given to the text elements and the quality of the final translation.

Experience-based approaches

Structure-based approaches look into non-textual external aspects that can affect the translation quality. In other words, these aspects do not relate to the competency of the translation agent or the produced text directly. They are associated with the project structuring and other considerations which seem to determine the translation quality even before the start of the project, as it will be detailed below.

To start with, Drugan (2013) investigated the factors which affect the translation quality in the industry, while taking into account the tools used and the workflow type. She recognizes the limitation of research in the area of electronic tools impact on quality and states that: (3) the post-translation stage, where quality control processes take place prior to project completion (consistency and compliance checks, proofreading, review, spotchecking), translator's feedback on the revision results, TQA/QE, project management processes (invoicing, archiving), project review (e.g. satisfaction surveys) (Drugan, 2013, pp. 77-80).

Based on the above mentioned stages, the author observed a general impact of internationalization on the quality although it is in the preparation stages. However, she did not report more details on how this impact is manifested or how it may impede the translation workflow. As for the translation stage, and having conducted her research study in a working place where she was able to observe professionals in their usual working conditions, she reported that the translators use different platforms to do their searches in addition to various databases and the Internet. Moreover, in-house translators seemed to have superior research resources than the freelancers. Drugan highlights the fact that quality assurance tools help in identifying errors related to the compliance with the project glossary, consistency, number formats, incorrect numbers compared to the ST, tags, unopened segments and untranslatable (ibid., p. 84). In other words, these tools do not spot linguistic and cultural issues.

At another level, Drugan finds that the project and the client also have an impact on the process of the QA stages. She distinguishes between two models:

1-Content-based model, where the QA and management levels are tailored based on the content. For example, sensitive content might be translated by experienced translators and reviewed by an automatic QA tool, in addition to a full review by an in-house translatorreviser, with the possibility for further checks of the TT for any stylistic issues. As for general content, self-revision is used.

2-Purpose-dependent model, which is applied in commercial contexts with considerations related to the user and the budget. The author notes that this model is associated with efficient resource allocation based on the client's size for instance.

Based on these observations, Drugan criticizes this approach due to the problems it may cause at the expense of the quality as less challenging texts translated by less experienced translators with fewer checks can lead to major impacts on the company's image. Moreover, she highlights the main features of such models, including their emphasis on human and technological resources; structures, workflow and processes; and different quality levels in relation to fast delivery for example [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF]. She also notes that these models are "relatively inflexible, often applying a single 'one size fits all' model" (ibid., p. 126). While the observations can be considered generic, "the methodology of the research project is rather vaguely described" (Abdallah, 2016, p. 269). In addition, there is a need to investigate the tangible impact of the factors found on the quality of the translated text. However, the study investigates quality at the external and structural levels, and provides a general idea of the industry practices to ensure the translation quality. It outlines the impact of translation technology and the developments in the practice on the quality, which is an area that has not been investigated sufficiently in TS. It is critical though that the afore-discussed factors and approaches are taken into consideration in any quality assessment model or attempt to criticize a translation, particularly in the localization context which is highly dependent on these processes and tools. The next section will present text-based models to measure and assess quality.

Text-based approaches

Several assessment models have been proposed in TS. While a few models provide criteria or lists of problematic issues that might arise in a translated text, other models take a rather holistic approach to the overall quality of the translation. However, Larose suggests a double goal of any assessment method: first, describing an object and determining the criteria and modalities of assessment; and second, reducing personal preferences as much as possible [START_REF] Larose | Méthodologie de l'évaluation des traductions[END_REF]. For Larose, there are four main poles that should be taken into consideration when assessing a translation:

1-The object of the assessment: what is being assessed, the fidelity of a text with respect to another, the transfer of meaning, the equivalent effect, clarity, readability, or all of these elements? 2-The assessor: his/her needs and values, a reviser or quality controller in a translation service, a client, etc.? 3-The parameters: what has guided the translator's choices, the possibility of counting and hierarchizing the parameters? 4-The method: the how in the object assessment, adopting a holistic or analytic method, the way fidelity, meaning transfer, efficiency and readability have are to be measured. (ibid.) This section will briefly discuss some of these models, but it does not claim that any of them is perfect. The discussion should rather help in finding a framework for the research at hand. It will start off by holistic approaches represented by proposals of Nord and House. It will then look into semi-holistic approaches such as the argumentation model presented by Williams. It will finally present more micro-textual and error-based approaches such as in the works of several other TS scholars. The discussion will provide key areas that distinguish each of these models, in addition to the similarities and differences among them, and the aspects which are still missing.

Holistic approaches

Holistic approaches to translation quality deal with general concepts in translation without specifying detailed criteria to analyze in or outside of the text. For example, Nord's starting point is that a translation is initiated for a purpose:

A translation process is usually initiated by a customer or "initiator" (INI), approaching a translator (TRL) because they need a certain target text (TT) for a particular target addressee or receiver (TT-R). […] (Nord, 2005, p. 6) While the focus is on the target text and the target addressee, she states that a ST analysis does not lead automatically to achieving the target text function as the latter is "pragmatically defined by the purpose of the intercultural text transfer" (ibid., p. 11). Therefore, she proposes a model for translation criticism that is based on the target text, where a translation critic must begin with an analysis of the target text in its situation and check the coherence of the target text with the situation in which it is "functioning" (Nord, 2005, p. 182). This analysis is "not confined to a mere intratextual analysis of grammatical, lexical, and stylistic normativity and semantic coherence, since it includes extratextual factors such as the pragmatic dimensions of receiver, time, place, etc." (ibid.). As for the next step in criticism for her, it depends on "whether there is any explicit information about the transfer phase, i.e. about the intended translation skopos, the methods and procedures of translation, and the handling of certain translation problems" (Nord, 2005, p. 183). Then comes the source-text analysis step where the target and source texts are contrasted (ibid., pp. 183-184). Nord adds that reconstructing "the implicit principles and methods of transfer by ST/TT comparison also leads to a TT profile" (ibid., p. 184). This is where translation critics can have more information about the consistency of strategies (ibid.). Nord excludes comparing single ST elements and focuses on contrasting two texts in the same situation (ibid.0.

Such an approach seems close to Larose's call for evaluating not only the original and the target language and culture but also their pressure on the translated text based on the client's needs and values (1998). He emphasizes evaluating what is perceived in a text and the adequacy of the results with the desired objectives, while depending on the fact that there is no ideal translation without taking the purpose into account:

As with the original model […], the revised model, too, defines translation as the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language. (House, 2015, p. 63) House redefined her original model only by taking into consideration the functional equivalence through covert translation:

The original assumption in the model that a TT, in order to be adequate, should have a function equivalent to the function of its ST had to be redefined in the light of the crucial distinction between overt and covert translations: it is thus only in cases of covert [all emphasized by the original author] translation that it is in fact possible to achieve functional equivalence. (ibid., p. 60) Based on the above, semantic and pragmatic equivalence can cause contradictions with the notion of the functional equivalence even under the light of "covert translation". That is because achieving the functional equivalence may necessitate major semantic changes for vocabulary that do not correspond to the target language and/or culture, particularly if the "cultural filter" [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social evaluation[END_REF] is applied.

House lists a few interacting factors which affect a translation, including the structural characteristics, the extra-linguistic world, the source text, the linguistic-stylistic-aesthetic norms of the target lingua-cultural community, the target language norms, intertextuality, traditions, principles, histories and ideologies of the target culture, the translational brief, his/her workplace conditions and the translator's knowledge, expertise, ethical stance and attitudinal profiles as well as her subjective theory of translation (House, 2015, pp. 2-3). Those factors can be summarized in what she called earlier "linguistic description" and "social evaluation" [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social evaluation[END_REF]. She differentiates between linguistic explanation and evaluative statements based on social, political, ethnical or individual grounds (ibid.). Although House specifies the factors which affect a translation, these factors remain general. More importantly, the way to measure them is not specified, let alone the fact that some information might not be accessible or known for the assessor, such as the translation brief, the workplace conditions and the translator's translational postulate.

Similarly to House, Reiss (2000) provides categories for translation criticism to look for.

They include the text type, style (how the linguistic characteristics of the SL have been represented in the TL), linguistic and pragmatic categories (semantic, grammatical, and lexical elements), and extra linguistic determinants (the immediate situation, the subject matter, the time and place factors, the audience and the speaker factors, and affective implications). Contrary to Nord, she specifies the criteria without indicating the method for the critic, noting that certain criteria cannot be easily defined. Her approach seems to be focused on the ST and following the same path of the translator. She also concentrates on the notion of equivalence (ibid., p. 51). However, how would a critic be neutral in the analysis if there is the possibility of being influenced by the ST and the process that the translator followed? Applying Reiss's approach, and any equivalence-based approach, on the localization context can be problematic, given the frequent updates of certain versions of a website while leaving the other versions translated based on the outdated source.

Moreover, the notion of equivalence does not apply in localization in the way it is applied in literary works for instance. This is due to the nature and purpose of the content in most of the cases. The following paragraphs will continue investigating TQA models in order to enrich our understanding of the subject and find a more sophisticated approach to this research.

Semi-holistic approaches

An approach to translation assessment has been introduced by Malcolm Williams [START_REF] Williams | The application of argumentation theory to translation quality assessment[END_REF]2004;2009) which is based on argumentation. This approach looks at the translation as an argument which has elements represented by discourse categories. He states that the text-based models do not propose "clearly defined overall quality or tolerance levels" [START_REF] Williams | The application of argumentation theory to translation quality assessment[END_REF]. Like House, he attempts to avoid overall judgments on the text, but criticizes Nord's assessments as they are "not related to a measurable scale of values" [START_REF] Williams | The application of argumentation theory to translation quality assessment[END_REF]2009). He starts from the idea that:

[…] every instrumental source text contains an argument macrostructure and that it is this structure that the translator must preserve in the target text. This does not mean that other textual features and functions are not present and are not important. What it does mean is that preserving the argument macrostructure is the overriding consideration for TQA. (Williams, 2009, p. 11) The argumentation model of assessment is based on the following discourse categories: [START_REF]pdf&embedded=true?iframe=true&width=700&height=450[END_REF] the argument macrostructure; and (2) rhetorical topology, including organizational schemas, conjunctives, types of argument, figures and narrative strategy [START_REF] Williams | The application of argumentation theory to translation quality assessment[END_REF]. Understanding an argument by two elements, the claim and the grounds, Williams supposes that:

[…] application of the macrostructure opens the door to a new concept: a translation defect that seriously undermines the usability of the translation because it impairs the core reasoning, and specifically the grounds and claims, in the text. (Williams, 2009, p. 13) He interprets that by presenting severity levels of the errors (or defects)critical, major and minor (ibid.)based on the extent to which a defect impairs the argument transfer. To add to holistic models, Williams attempted to specify the parameters of the assessment based on the core and purpose of use. These include the grounds/claims, other elements of transfer, usage/grammar and typography. He also proposes a set of standards based on context and end use which determine the readiness of a text for publication or its overall acceptability. These standards are: [START_REF]pdf&embedded=true?iframe=true&width=700&height=450[END_REF] maximum/publication standard, where the text renders all grounds and claims and satisfies all noncore parameters; (2) minimum professional standard, where the text accurately renders all grounds and claims; (3) student standard, where the text renders grounds and claims and satisfies non-core parameters; and (4) substandard, where the text fails to render grounds and claims and fails to satisfy one or more of the non-core parameters (ibid.).

Although the argumentation approach has been criticized for being based on equivalence (Colina, 2011, p. 45), in order to save time for the evaluation, Williams suggests reading the complete translation first to "identify problem areas and restricting detailed TQA to passages containing argument macrostructure components" (2009, p. 14). In other words, he gives priority to the target text situational quality rather than comparing directly with the source, which is close to Nord's suggestion described earlier. However, his suggested method can miss accuracy issues that would not be spotted in reading the target text even if the argument structure is fine. While the model includes micro-textual features in addition to the macro-structural elements, the set parameters restrict the analysis, while Nord's approach is more flexible in terms of specifying the parameters according to the function and purpose. The parameters are limited at the linguistic level as well. The TL criteria should not be limited to grammar and typography issues. They also include employing suitable vocabulary, terms and collocations for the given context, as these elements too affect the argument and alleviate its effect. It is important to note that the argumentation model is flexible to a certain extent as the author ignored certain linguistic issues when they are irrelevant to the analyzed text, which delimits the notion of the "zero defect" (ibid., p. 19) that is present and sought for in other translation assessment models, as it will be shown later. Although the structural aspects of a text are important, the model does not take into considerations the cultural aspects of the text. It is rather concerned with the equivalent coherence and cohesion as mentioned earlier.

What follows is a brief overview of a different type of assessment models which are based on spotting the error at the textual level.

Micro-textual error-based approaches

As macro-structural approaches to assessment have been criticized for addressing the translation quality in a general way, more sophisticated models have been proposed attempting to provide more framed models. Such models are often detailed in an attempt to include the maximum or all the possible types of errors which can occur in translation.

Keeping the term definitions discussed earlier in mind, Mossop provides parameters of revision grouped into meaning transfer (accuracy and completeness), content (logic and facts), language and style, visual presentation, and client instructions [START_REF] Mossop | Revising and Editing for Translators[END_REF]. Hence, he tries to include macro and micro elements that are usually addressed in TQA models. Martinez Melis and Hurtado Albir, for example, look into specific notions that should be taken into account when classifying errors. They are basically on the difference between: errors related to the ST (accuracy) and those related to the TT; functional and absolute errors; systematic and random errors; and between errors in the product and errors in the process (2001). Furthermore, they attempt to address the seriousness and impact of the error, which is a metric introduced by the industry to evaluate the translation quality, as in the LISA error-based model with Minor, Major and Critical severities [START_REF] Pym | Quality[END_REF]. For them, the error gravity can be analyzed from a functionalist perspective, taking into account the importance of the error with respect to the text as a whole, the TT coherence and cohesion, the degree of deviation from the ST, the functionality of the TT at a communicative level and any adverse consequences regarding the purpose of the translation [START_REF] Martínez Melis | Assessment in Translation Studies: Research needs[END_REF]. More interestingly, they take into consideration the etiology of the error, i.e.

"discovering the causes in order to find the remedy" (ibid., p. 282). Such orientation helps in investigating the adopted translation strategy which has led to a certain error, an issue in the ST or a non-textual issue that might have affected the quality. Moreover, they specify basic principles in their assessment in order to be fair and objective. These principles might not be all useful for research purposes but can be learnt from in order to refine the method to be followed. The authors underline the importance of adhering to specific criteria in the assessment, taking into consideration the assessment context and purpose to specify these criteria, knowing the object and level of assessment, i.e. what should be and should not be assessed, and considering the indicators which help in identifying the competencies under evaluation (ibid.).

In a similar vein, textual parameters have been detailed in al-Qinai's model (2000), which also seems to be equivalence-based. These parameters include textual typology and tenor, formal correspondence of the text layout and arrangement, coherence of the thematic structure, cohesion, text pragmatic equivalence, besides lexical properties and grammatical and syntactic equivalence [START_REF] Al-Qinai | Translation quality assessment. Strategies, parametres and procedures[END_REF]. When the author applied those parameters on an advertising text translated from English into Arabic, he sets a framework categorized into (1) macro-textual features, which include text typological conventions and standards of textuality such as acceptability, cohesion and coherence; (2) micro-textual features; (3) invariability of overall message; (4) overall potential impact and (5) adequacy for purpose (ibid.). Therefore, the model addresses translation problems at several levels of the text but does not approach the notion of severity as in other models. This choice can be interpreted by allowing more flexibility of the model's application based on its purpose. However, certain measures and criteria were not elaborated, such as the adequacy for purpose, let alone measuring the overall potential impact which is user-based and cannot be assessed through the proposed model alone. Moreover, the model shares with others the fragmented criteria, which makes it look like a check list of individual parameters to be verified in the text. This and similar textological TQAs based on a set of parameters cannot provide an overall valid judgment of a text quality:

In textological, parameter-specific TQA, the target of the assessment is multiple-subject matter, composition, cohesion, tenor, and mode. How can a valid overall TQA be extracted from the individual assessments? (Williams, 2001, p. 335) Moreover, Al-Qinai's model was criticized by Drugan for not taking the translation process into account and for aiming to evaluate the adequacy rather than the equivalence degree (2013).

Moreover, she questions its ability to be applied on all text types and in professional translation settings, where team work is common with subsections of texts and segments, and frequent updates as in localization (ibid.).

Another categorization model of the textual features is the one proposed by [START_REF] Karoubi | Translation quality assessment demystified[END_REF]. These features are divided into two groups: one related to structural properties and another related to the lexical and stylistic properties of the translated text (ibid., p. 262). While the first group includes grammatical and cohesion-related issues, spelling, and layout, the second group addresses the issues in turn at two levels: micro level which includes issues related to meaning and co-occurrence of lexical items, and macro level which includes pragmatic issues such as acceptability and informativity (ibid., p. 266). Although the model takes to a great extent the assessment of the target text, it fails to address the function of the translation. Different assessment models have been proposed but they lacked certain aspects. For instance, models which suggest starting by the ST analysis and comparing, such as that of [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment : a model revisited[END_REF], were criticized as well for the lack of access to the client's brief, the work conditions and used tools, let alone focusing only on mismatches between the ST and the TT even if the changes are for the improvement of the text [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF]. In the same vein, the emphasis on the purpose or skopos of the translation, which was proposed by [START_REF] Reiss | Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained[END_REF], did not help in explaining how this would work in practice [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF].

Overall, it can be noticed that notions such as adequacy, functions and the recipient's expectations stay vague in most of the models. How these notions are achieved in the translation and then how they are assessed does not seem to have been detailed. Moreover, function-based evaluation approaches "generally remain vague as to how evaluation is to proceed after the function of the translation has been established" (Colina, 2011, p. 46). Therefore, the coming chapters will attempt to design a methodology of criticism for the goal of this research in a way that avoids the pitfalls of the afore-discussed models and ensures meeting the research purpose.

Many other error-based and parameter-based models have been proposed in TS and others applied in the industry. However, the so-far-discussed models should be sufficient to help in framing the research at hand and design a suitable methodology which responds to its needs.

Criteria of the translation quality in a localized text

In light of the discussion of different translation assessment models, certain criteria need to be addressed for their importance in this research and for the lack of clarity in terms of their measurement. Such criteria include comprehensibility, readability, acceptability, style, and effect. Moreover, other non-linguistic criteria have been discussed but still need more clarification in order to define the framework of this research. Nonetheless, the nature of the localized text let alone the workflow and the technologies localization has brought and developed for translation necessitate highlighting the importance of the translation quality in the localized products.

One of the major aspects of localization is the growing need to translate into many languages, which is "economically and nearly realistically impossible to meet" with the limited human translation (HT) workforce available (Allen, 2003, p. 300). This shortage of translators compared with the large volumes of work, along with the companies' need for affordable ways and the users' tendency of using "translation gisting" to understand in their language the main idea of a document that is only provided in a foreign language, has led to using MT post-editing18 as a faster and cheaper solution for texts with low sensitivity (ibid.). Time is particularly looked at more highly than quality when it comes to producing big quantities, where "usines à mots" (word factories) are the choice [START_REF] Gouadec | Profils de compétences et formation universitaire. Traduction, terminologie, rédaction : actes des universités d'été et d'automne[END_REF]. MT has been widely criticized, and its negative points might be highlighted more than its positive ones. For example, a translator/post-editor would need more time to assess the quality of a machine-translated segment and decide whether to use it or redo the translation (King, 2020, p. 159). MT is also believed to limit creativity and produce a poor quality of the final product even if it is post-edited (ibid.). Another finding with regards to the use of technology is that it: often hinders the production of the most suitable solution in the superstructural level, since the translator is constrained by the preexisting database structure, and the technology tools employed favor the mere cloning of the source text structure. [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Applying Corpus Data to Define Needs in Web Localization Training[END_REF], p. 1008) Other than the use of MT, the localization level and quality can also be influenced by the product type. For example, it was found that more expensive and durable products get more delicate and better adapted websites [START_REF] Popova | Translation and Localization Strategies in Automotive Advertising of Multinational Companies in Russia[END_REF]. In addition, localization efforts can vary depending on the number of languages of translation, the scope and complexity of the project, as budget and planning are taken care of more carefully as the project complexity increases [START_REF] Valli | Fundamentals of localization for non-localizers[END_REF]. Such difference in the provided translation quality raises question marks with regard to the ethical aspect of localization and its perception by the target cultures:

Translation is thus operating not just on words, but on the ways cultures perceive their relations. The adoption of one translation strategy or another can have an effect on those perceptions. And that is an ethical question of extreme pertinence to localization. It can influence the future of our cultures in the technical discourses most localized, particularly with respect to languages that are being brought into the electronic media for the first time. [START_REF] Pym | What localization models can learn from translation theory (revised)[END_REF] Therefore, despite the justification of meeting only the needs of the client or the product type through providing a "fit-for-purpose translation" [START_REF] Bowker | Fit-for-purpose translation[END_REF], the low quality resulting from cheaply and quickly made translations is "turning our computers and web sites into wonderlands of linguistic error" [START_REF] Pym | What localization models can learn from translation theory (revised)[END_REF]. This in turn can affect the target cultures on the long term even if it might seem less critical at the moment, given the big amount of data available which make low quality texts the expected norm. With the common conceptualization of localization distinguished by the notion of adaptation to the target culture(s), localization has been questioned in terms of its contribution to the cultural sustainability and whether it really deals with cultural differences or remains at the surface of language [START_REF] Kassawat | Localization for cultural sustainability: a linguistic or cultural mediation[END_REF].

However, as users are commonly thought to skim web pages and read carefully when they find what they are looking for [START_REF] Yunker | Think Outside the Country: a Guide to Going Global and Succeeding in the Translation Economy[END_REF][START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF], the quality of the content does not receive much attention in the first place [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. Assuming the validity of the users' practices, the provided content gets a different function or purpose which is catching the eye and mind of the user during the skimming or quick surfing phase in the first place, particularly in advertising and marketing content, to ensure maintaining him/her on the page rather than creating linguistic and cultural obstacles that might push him/her away from using the offered service or product.

Therefore, as the internationalized content that is created according to specific guidelines and for a specific purpose, the localized content should also meet a specific threshold to be understood and perceived appropriately even if it is not highly sensitive or creative. The following sections will highlight basic requirements of any text, including a translated and/or localized one, to ensure the basic criteria of quality are met within the chaos of quality levels, expectations and purposes.

Textual criteria measurement

Certain terms are used interchangeably or together in TQAs, such as readability, comprehensibility and acceptability. Before distinguishing these criteria in detail, it should be noted that they are considered important for a translation, but critical in the localization context given the usage environment and purpose. One of the known aspects of online content is the reading speed. Users search web pages for a specific information by scanning the page(s) and once they locate the content, they try to make sense of it and become "readers" [START_REF] Spyridakis | Guidelines for authoring comprehensible Web pages and evaluating their success[END_REF]. This tendency is common among print material readers as well. Therefore, writing decisions of a web page, let alone translating one, are advised to be based on its purpose and audience (ibid.). This is because content should accommodate skimming, and it should be "built for use, not just for reading" [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. Web writing guidelines include similar ideas to those provided for localizing the web (cf. [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF]. They include easy-to-understand sentences, frequently used and concrete words, short and pronounceable words, particularly in titles which affect the reader's decision to look at the site or follow a link, easily understood syntax, active voice verbs, omitting unnecessary details, and others [START_REF] Spyridakis | Guidelines for authoring comprehensible Web pages and evaluating their success[END_REF]. In light of the peculiarity of reading the web, related criteria will be investigated in order to find common grounds which might help in their measurement. The issues of readability and comprehensibility in general have been debatable for a long time whether in TS or in linguistics. What follows is an overview of how textual quality criteria have been conceptualized as well as a brief discussion on quantitative and qualitative approaches to readability to help in framing the purpose of the research at hand.

Conceptualizing translation quality criteria

As said earlier, there are several terms used simultaneously and sometimes interchangeably in studies which tackle the translation quality. This section aims to sharpen the boundaries between these terms as much as possible.

Adequacy, fluency and acceptability

To start with, translation quality is often measured by its adequacy. Adequacy is typically defined as "the extent to which the translation transfers the meaning of the source-language unit into the target." (Castilho, Doherty, Gaspari, & Moorkens, 2018, p. 18). It is thus related implicitly to the notion of equivalence, as the transfer can refer to transferring the effect according to the skopos (cf. Lavault-Olléon & Allignol, 2014). More precisely, adequacy represents the relationship between a ST and a TT with a consistent attention paid to the purpose (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 127). However, from a skopos perspective, adequacy does not equal equivalence. It is more comprehensive as it depends on the function, while equivalence is a product-oriented or "result-oriented" concept (ibid., p. 128).

Another criterion that is often mentioned in quality-related research and in the practice is the fluency of the text. While adequacy is used to measure the transfer in the translation, fluency is a notion used to measure the quality of the target text. It is defined as "the extent to which the translation follows the rules and norms of the target-language (regardless of the source or input text)" (ibid., p. 18).

Another notion of quality related to the target text is its acceptability by the target audience and the extent to which it meets their needs and expectations (Castilho, Doherty, Gaspari, & Moorkens, 2018, p. 20). In the industry, acceptability determines the reception of a product or service and works as an indicator of its commercial success [START_REF] Lavault-Olléon | La notion d'acceptabilité en traduction professionnelle : où placer le curseur ? l'Institut des langues et cultures d'Europe, Amérique[END_REF]. In terms of translation as a product, acceptability is understood in relation to norms whether they are explicit, such as ISO and norms proposed in the industry, or implicit, which are cultural, social and cognitive (ibid.) 19 . Based on the abovementioned points of view, there can be a conflict between notions such as adequacy and acceptability in that an adequate translation is not necessarily acceptable to the target audience. For example, transferring a cultural reference without adaptation can be linguistically adequate but might not be acceptable to all audiences with their different backgrounds. Therefore, adequacy cannot be conceptualized out of a function.

Comprehensibility, accessibility and readability

On the one hand, the notion of comprehensibility can be addressed at the linguistic level where incomprehensibility has been observed to be the result of sticking to the surface structure of the message [START_REF] Poletaeva | Linguistic Interference in the Context of Teaching Future Translators[END_REF]. It is when semantic, grammar and phonetics interferences happen and one language system influences the other, which is clear in syntactic interference which leads to long and complex sentences (ibid.). In other words, literal translation and the absence of adaptation is one of the factors that lead to incomprehensible texts [START_REF] Himood | Incomprehensibility vs. acceptability-oriented approach to Arabic-English translation[END_REF]. On the other hand, adaptation has been discussed thoroughly earlier in terms of its importance in advertising translation in particular. However, it seems a critical strategy to ensure comprehension by the target readers. As Nord puts it: "Readers who want to "understand", have to connect or associate the new information given by the text with the knowledge of the world already stored in their memories" (Nord, 2005, p. 96). Moreover, the cultural, historical or mental distance between the ST writer and the TT recipients makes comprehensibility challenging (Suojanen, Koskinen, & Tuominen, 2015, p. 54). Therefore, measuring the comprehensibility of the target text has been pivotal particularly for pragmatic texts, out of the understanding of comprehensibility in relation to the skopos adequacy [START_REF] Göpferich | Comprehensibility assessment using the Karlsruhe Comprehensibility Concept[END_REF] 20 . The importance of comprehensibility was underscored by [START_REF] Baker | Other Words[END_REF] who said that if a reference is unknown to the reader, or can disrupt the continuity of the text and obscure the relevance of any statement associated with it (p. 230).

In a similar vein, comprehensibility has been viewed as an indicator of accessibility, where accessibility is defined as "favoring all marginal groups for inclusion" [START_REF] Ruel | L'accès à l'information sous l'angle de sa compréhensibilité : lorsque l'émetteur rencontre le récepteur[END_REF]. Comprehensibility, which is the main focus here, is considered as a concept that envelops comprehension, readability and intelligibility altogether, i.e. readability alone does not ensure comprehending the information (ibid.). In contrast, other points of view consider readability as a main concept through which comprehensibility can be measured [START_REF] Wolfer | Comprehension and comprehensibility[END_REF]. In this context, a study on the relationship between readability and comprehensibility found that comprehensibility levels of translated texts are higher than those of the source texts, which was interpreted as an indicator to the translation role of clarifying the messages [START_REF] Acar | Readability and comprehensibility in translation using reading ease and grade indices[END_REF].

While there is still a conflict of points of view with regard to the notions of readability and comprehensibility, and which concept is parent of the other, the aim of this theoretical discussion is to understand the definition and parameters of each concept. While comprehensibility can be understood as the ease of understanding a message, readability "relates to the ease with which a given text can be read by one or more person(s)" (Castilho, Doherty, Gaspari, & Moorkens, 2018, p. 18). As to how readability can be measured, there are several ways which are typically based on "linguistic features such as word frequency and sentence length, in addition to extra-linguistic features such as formatting and spacing" (ibid.). Readability is conceptualized in two contexts: the target reader and the translated text (Kambaja Musampa, 2018), i.e. it is a critical criteria particularly from a functionalist point of view 21 . It is important in this context to point out that readability as conceptualized above is different from legibility which is a measurement of the physical prerequisites of the text, e.g. the font size and layout. [START_REF] Wolfer | Comprehension and comprehensibility[END_REF][START_REF] Dubay | The Principles of Readability[END_REF], which can also hinder comprehensibility and have an impact on readability. While certain scholars focused on coherence-related aspects and ambiguity in the text to approach readability [START_REF] Beck | Improving the Comprehensibility of Stories: The Effects of Revisions That Improve Coherence[END_REF], others followed different approaches which will be detailed below under quantitative and qualitative orientations. 21 Readability has been also studied in CL as a determiner of translatability, cf. [START_REF] Cadwell | Readability and Controlled Language: Does the study of readability have merit in the field of controlled language, and is readability increased by applying controlled-language rules to texts?[END_REF][START_REF] Cadwell | Readability: Examining its usefulness in the field of controlled language[END_REF].

In light of the above brief overview of certain terms related to textual quality, certain terms are used interchangeably. Yet, readability and comprehensibility in particular should be the focus of this research. As this research does not follow a reader-based approach, the texts cannot be assessed by their users. Therefore, what follows is a deeper look into readability measurement approaches in order to feed the analysis criteria for this study.

Quantitative approaches to readability

Several readability formulas have been proposed due to the importance of this notion for any type of writing including translation. These formulas include: the Lorge formula, the Flesch formulas, the Dale-Chall formula, the Farr-Jenkins-Paterson formula, the Fog index, and the Spache formula, besides new ones such as the Devereaux formula, the Jacobson formula, the Botel formula, the Rogers formula, the Danielson-Bryan formula and many others [START_REF] Klare | Assessing readability[END_REF]. To provide a general idea on how these formulas function, Dale's readability prediction formula, for example, is based on the average sentence length and percentage of unfamiliar words (words outside the Dale list of 3000 words) (Dale & Chall, 1948, p. 37). After collecting a sample, the formula suggests that the number of words should be counted as well as the number of sentences and unfamiliar words, while proper nouns are considered familiar even if not mentioned in the list (ibid.). Therefore, readability formulas measurement is based on text quantification and refer usually to a list of predetermined vocabulary list.

Such formula elements limit its application to specific languages, namely English, without considering different text types and genres which might require more words and sentences. In addition, readability formulas have been being used in certain cases as a guide to writing and revising merely due to the lack of better methods with this regard [START_REF] Beck | Improving the Comprehensibility of Stories: The Effects of Revisions That Improve Coherence[END_REF]. More importantly, readability formulas also fail to measure unquantifiable textual aspects such as the writing style, tone and word order [START_REF] Redish | Readability formulas have even more limitations than Klare discusses[END_REF]. Even at the aesthetic level, these formulas do not take into consideration the benefits of layouts which can improve the readability such as bulleted lists and white spaces (ibid.) 22 . This idea was also highlighted as formulas can measure limited factors but that there are other undefined factors in a text, called sometimes the "Black Box", which include for instance the explicitness of the connection between 22 Cf. [START_REF] Cormack | Reading is Believing? A Study of the Relationship Between Website Readability and Online Credibility[END_REF] clauses, pragmatic factors of discourse and sentence topic and focus, the interference load placed on a reader, the epistemological status of statements and appropriateness of vocabulary for a particular audience reading with limited background knowledge. [START_REF] Davison | On the failure of readability formulas to define readable texts: a case study from adaptations[END_REF].

In light of the culture-oriented nature of localization, such formulas might not assist in the translation criticism properly due to several reasons. First, the need to analyze cultural aspects along with the functionalist aspect of the translation requires more qualitative approaches. Second, the nature of the advertising content follows various translation strategies, and thus different criteria of readability and comprehensibility. Third, these formulas have been widely tested mainly on English texts, and not so in other languages such as Arabic. Fourth, while lengthy sentences are considered a hindering factor of readability, such aspect cannot be relied on in the translation context due to the need for explanation sometimes to deliver a clear message to the target reader:

Whereas excessive concision always leads to poorer comprehension, a lack of concision may not have this type of negative effect, and there are even culture-specific differences with regard to the concision expected. (Göpferich, 2009, p. 42) 23Fifth, the target audience of advertising texts is usually wide and various, i.e. the audience comes from different backgrounds with different education levels. This makes readability formulas inapplicable due to its standardized dimensions.

Therefore, more qualitative approaches to readability will be discussed further, besides conceptualizing other important terms that are used in the literature and will be used in the actual research.

Qualitative approaches to readability

Readability has been viewed as an important factor that can have an impact on the translation quality in general. In the advertising context, a study showed that readability can affect the persuasiveness of the message particularly if it is accompanied with a lack of motivation [START_REF] Chebat | Testing consumers' motivation and linguistic ability as moderators of advertising readability[END_REF]. Although the study is on print adverts, it highlights the importance of readable messages particularly for online pages where the users scan the pages and thus need texts adapted to the new medium and screen presentation [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]. Moreover, readability has been studied in relation to the information credibility, in the medical field for example [START_REF] Cormack | Reading is Believing? A Study of the Relationship Between Website Readability and Online Credibility[END_REF]. In a survey designed to rate a mock health website by users in terms of credibility of information and intentions to act, certain participants reported that a low-readability website written with plain language facilitated comprehension (ibid.). Others considered that the site appeared unprofessional due to the low readability (ibid.). Therefore, low levels of readability can influence the users' comprehension and decision to act positively. Moreover, low readability has an effect on the image of the entity which presents the information. Such factors become highly critical for international stakeholders who seek maintaining their reputation and increasing their customers' engagement on the website. That is why this notion will be investigated more deeply to build a methodological basis for this research.

Although readability, as a textual characteristic, is relevant to both the target text as well as the source text, more emphasis will be given to readability of the target text in the translation context of this research. This is attributed to the focus given to the target reader, as readabilityrelated studies are often concerned with his/her reading ability, prior knowledge, interest and motivation [START_REF] Dubay | The Principles of Readability[END_REF]. Readability can be approached at the layout level and at the level of the text itself [START_REF] Kambaja Musampa | La qualité de la traduction de la notice du medicament a l'aune des conventions rédactionnelles[END_REF]. With this regard, experts and researchers have compiled "golden rules" of writing which apply regardless of the medium. They include using short, simple and familiar words, avoiding jargon, using culture-and-gender-neutral language, using correct grammar, punctuation and spelling, using simple sentences in the active voice and the present tense, using the imperative mode to provide instructions and using bulleted lists and numbered steps (DuBay, 2004, p. 2). Although the abovementioned points are general and do not indicate how to measure certain parameters (what is a familiar word or a culture-neutral language?), they seem to be similar to what Yunker (2003, pp. 268-269) recommends in his localization guidelines discussed earlier. Consequently, readability should be taken as an essential criteria in localizing websites too.

In a translation-related study, the readability of the source text was compared with the readability of its translation and back translation [START_REF] Mujiyanto | The comprehensibility of readable English texts and their back-translations[END_REF]. While back translation was achieved using Google Translate automatic translation, the resulting lengthy sentences were considered an improving factor of the translation which should have added more explanation of the source text (ibid.). The study looked into readability per text type as well and found that academic texts tend to have lower readability compared to fictional texts (ibid.). Such comparison merges different text types and functions together and assumes that all texts should be measured similarly in terms of readability. Hence, there is a need to define readability with respect to the function of the text. For example, academic texts can be readable enough for their intended users, while fictional texts might not be so particularly that they are intended for a larger audience.

Readability and comprehensibility dimensions

This section will show how the notions of readability and comprehensibility have been defined and approached, and by which dimensions. As discussed earlier, the reason why these basic textual aspects are focused on is the need for guidance to determine a threshold of a lowquality translation for it to meet only the required function. Such guidance is specifically urgent for online content, which witnesses non-linear and accelerated reading practices of its "readers" and an acceptance of lower quality translation containing grammatical errors and unidiomatic phrasing (Cronin, 2012, pp. 477-478), "as literacy expectations evolve, so too will translation practices." (ibid.). On the one hand, the issue of comprehensibility has received attention in TS with regards to the TT and was related to "translatability" and achieving the "communicative purpose" (Hatim & Munday, 2004, p. 15), i.e. if the message is not understood, communication fails. On the other hand, the readability issue can be explained by the text ability to be read, which is different from legibility that is related to the visual presentation in terms of typography, font size and style, page design, colors and other technical aspects (Suojanen, Koskinen, & Tuominen, 2015, p. 50). More focus will be given here to the readability issue for its direct relation to translation. The need for readable texts was highlighted in a study on adverts, which found a relationship between readability and motivation to read ads reflected on the readers' interaction [START_REF] Chebat | Testing consumers' motivation and linguistic ability as moderators of advertising readability[END_REF]. The study findings support the idea that low readability levels inhibit the reader's ability to process the information (ibid.). The notions of readability and comprehensibility as concepts have been briefly compared, and the readability dimensions have been discussed. What follows is a summary of research literature on comprehensibility dimensions which have common points with readability dimensions.

Chesterman summarizes the concept of readability as: the style of writing. Word choice, sentence length, argumentation structure, the rhythm of the text, smooth transitions between text parts, active versus passive voice, and reader-orientation all affect the readability of a text. Moreover, readability is conventionalized: we expect certain familiar text features and find them easy to read. Therefore, readability is also culturally determined, as particular conventions have developed in their distinctive ways in different cultural contexts. (Chesterman, 2016, p. 51) 24 , 25 In addition, cohesion and terminological consistency are also viewed as readability dimensions which determine the readability of a text in a qualitative way (Suojanen, Koskinen, & Tuominen, 2015, p. 52).

Göpferich suggests dimensions to provide a comprehensible text in the functionalist paradigm (2009). These include consision or the economy in the amount of signs, correctness, motivation, structure, simplicity and perceptibility (ibid.). These dimensions are based on the communicative function and should be decided by the author in terms of importance (ibid.).

Göpferich details each dimension, which helps in explaining certain common notions interchangeably. For example, simplicity is explained by the adequcy of the words used for the target readers, i.e. "whether the unexplained terms and abbreviations that occur in the text can be regarded as familiar to the target group and as appropriate for the genre" (Göpferich, 2009, p. 46).

In addition, simplicity is related to syntax adequacy (grammatical simplicity) which is about the sentence complexity to the extent that the communicative function allows, using more verbal constructions versus nominalization, the use of the active-voice, the use of affirmative sentences instead of negative ones, and more importantly whether such measures make the text "more readable for its target group" (ibid., p. 47). The author adds to that consistency in the syntax used with the genre and the avoidance of ambiguity of the terms and grammatical constructions (ibid.). Therefore, the simplicity dimension is conceptualized to encompass both the syntactical and symantical aspects discussed in readability-related approaches.

In a similar vein, comprehensibility has been addressed in functional texts that are meant for lay people or the general public (Patient Information Leaflets translated from English into Danish), where the recipient needs to be able to act upon the given information [START_REF] Nisbeth Jensen | Optimising comprehensibility in interlingual translation: The need for intralingual translation[END_REF]. The approach depended on dimensions similar to Göpferich's, besides other dimensions like avoiding officialese (formal or foreign-sounding and old-fashioned expressions), avoiding compounds (which does not apply to all languages) and avoiding synonomy (redundancy and repititions) (ibid.). The study takes into account both interlingual and intralingual aspects in the notion of comprehensibility in translation and how to assess whether a text is comprehensible (ibid.). The author defines comprehensibility as "not a property of the text but the result of an interaction between a set of particular text characteristics and the target text receivers" (ibid., p. 166). As for analyzing text comprehensibility, three main categories of methods have been suggested: numerical or formula-based (as the quantitative methods discussed earlier with readabilty), outcomes-focused (such as think-aloud protocols, focus groups or one-on-one interviews) and elements-focused methods which include checklists of elements as the ones discussed above (ibid.). While the first formula-based type has been discussed and found to be irrelevant to the research at hand, the second outcomes-focused method is assumed to be unsuitable for translators, translation researchers and evaluators due to the lack of access to the target audience (ibid.). Therefore, the last method shall be used through taking the relevant elements only which can help in the analysis. For example, Nisbeth Jensen suggests that including one specialized term or one nominalization does not result in an incomprehensible text, but the excessive use of these elements can affect the comprehensibility [START_REF] Nisbeth Jensen | Optimising comprehensibility in interlingual translation: The need for intralingual translation[END_REF]. When the specified elements of comprehensibility were applied, the study revealed a literal translation approach in many cases, where the author argues that for such cases, the translation would require extensive intra-lingual translation competence:

Intralingual translation as an integral part of interlingual translation needs further exploration in light of the increasing demand for accessible and comprehensible information for the general public as well as the blurred boundaries of translation and translation-related activities such as localisation, transcreation and adaptation. (ibid., p. 186-187).

From another perspective, and in a closer look at a comprehensibility/readability element, the effect of syntactic transformations on the cognition and recall of advertising slogans has been studied [START_REF] Bradley | Surface-structure transformations and advertising slogans: The case for moderate syntactic complexity[END_REF]. The study is based on Chomsky's theory on transformational grammar (the relation between the surface structure of the word order and the deep structure of the meaning). It examined how surface-structure transformations affected readers' comprehension, recognition, recall, and attitudes toward slogans (ibid.). The results included that "[s]logans with moderate syntactic complexity showed a significant positive effect on free morphemic recall and attitude toward the advertisement […]" (ibid.). The results in general show an influence of small changes in the syntax on the reaction of the recipients, which emphasizes the necessity of such aspects for the quality of a text in general and for an advertisement in particular.

It can be noticed that there might be a confusion between the way readability can be achieved and the way comprehensibility can be ensured. Both notions have been approached by similar dimensions or elements such as the sentence length, words simplicity and other syntactic aspects. Although the dimensions used in the literature might sound comprehensive, they are limited to the surface of the linguistic aspect of the text. They do not cover cultural aspects which might be unclear for the target audience if translated literally or in an inappropriate manner.

Moreover, the given dimensions and element checklists leave practitioners and researchers confused between both notions. For this research, comprehensibility will be conceptualized as ease of understanding, which implies ease of getting the intended message with its vocabulary and structure. Comprehensibility shall be framed as a meaning-related issue as the recipient will not be able or will have obstacles in understanding the message. Moreover, it can be viewed as a macro-structural concept due to its effect on the clarity of the general argument. Readability shall be conceptualized as the ease of reading, which implies having a flow and natural language use which sounds native for the recipient and free of awkward constructs or terms even if they are comprehensible in general. While readability has been studied thoroughly in different domains of communication, it has been rarely investigated in advertising [START_REF] Chebat | Testing consumers' motivation and linguistic ability as moderators of advertising readability[END_REF]. This research will aim to contribute partly to this area through analysis of readability and comprehensibility as basic function criteria.

The textual criteria have been theoretically addressed in this section. The next one will highlight non-textual criteria. Those criteria are important to be taken into account in any analysis within the frame of localization, given their potential major impact on the quality of the final product.

The user experience, productivity, and the ethical dimension of quality

This section aims to discuss important non-linguistic criteria in the translation quality, particularly in the localization industry, according to today's practices. It will mainly shed light on the importance of the user's experience with the translated product, the urge for productivity in a rapid-request-based industry and highlight the ethical dimension of ensuring the translation quality in light of those criteria.

With the emergence of the Internet and its spread and accessibility for many users, there has been a shift in the way customer satisfaction is measured. For example, measuring the traffic to a website, click-through rate26 , collecting user reviews, and asking users for target feedback are some of the known strategies merchants use to understand their audience and measure their brand's online reach and/or the success of a campaign. Hence, the user experience is a common term and criterion that corporate marketing teams take into account. In the same vein, as international corporations pay a special attention to their worldwide customers, their websites and products are usually localized into different locales. There is some awareness of translation quality, which can affect their products, thanks to the product feedback and the informed users [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF].

Besides the user's judgment on the translation, the "pull" model of translation can have certain effects on the quality (ibid., p. 27). It is a model which ensures avoiding unnecessary translations based on the user's translation requests of specific materials, which raises questions such as "Who judges which needs are most significant and allocates the appropriate quality levels to the job?" (ibid.). In fact, the aforementioned criteria in addition to the Return on Investment factor can help the decision makers in determining which content is visible to which group of users and which content needs translation to which languages and regions. Therefore, the user plays an important role in judging the quality of a translation as he/she is the concerned and the targeted.

Although taking users' feedback on the translation quality is a practice introduced by the localization industry and out of marketing principles, it has its flaws. For instance, Drugan points out the fact that users' critical comments and feedback mean that non-professional individuals are judging translations without knowing the production conditions (ibid.). Despite the lack of professional and contextual knowledge of the users, such approach can be considered an important leap in translation and Translation Studies. It helps in anticipating and understanding tangibly the audience's (famously discussed) expectations. More importantly, international corporations do not necessarily employ linguist or non-linguist native speakers of all the locales of their products, and thus they need to ensure the translation quality they are providing in a neutral way.

As the use of machine translation and translation memory have been discussed earlier in this literature review in different translation types, including localization, it is important to pass through this factor which can influence the user's opinion towards the translation quality. While there are several areas where TMs and MT are used intentionally for specific purposes, the main reason of their usage is to increase the translation productivity and shorten the turnaround time of delivery. Bowker investigated the impact of TM on the translation productivity and quality and noted that localization has brought with it a large volume of material that needs translation, and an increased pressure on translators to work more quickly while providing a high quality job [START_REF] Bowker | Productivity vs quality? A pilot study on the impact of translation memory systems[END_REF]. Due to the newness of TMs, she adds that the subject has just started to be studied in terms of its impact on the speed and quality of translation (ibid.). Bowker highlights the advantages of TMs with respect to the increased productivity and consistency for one or among multiple translators, and the disadvantages, namely the segmentation into sentences out of context (ibid.).

In her pilot project conducted on three groups of students working respectively without TM, with a prepared TM and with an intentionally erroneous TM (ibid.), she found that productivity increases with students using TMs, but not with those using an erroneous one. In terms of quality, the students who worked without a TM provided a reasonable translation but with differences among each other, while the TM-dependent group provided inconsistencies of terms and style (sentence-salad effect) and the last group tended to accept the introduced errors in exact matches but questioned them in fuzzy matches (ibid.). Although the study is a trial one based on the researcher's assessment relying on her judgment, the results give an idea of the issues that TMs can generate and their potential effects on the translation quality. Such factors should also be taken into consideration when assessing and/or criticizing a translation.

Other factors that should be highlighted include the use of MT which can also be helpful time wise, but it has been widely known for its effect on the quality. However, its use can still suit the purpose of the translation despite its shortcomings on the quality:

[…] machine and computer-aided translations often appear to fall short of excellence, even though they may actually do an excellent job of fulfilling their intended purpose. However, if we ensure that the notion of fit-for-purpose is considered as part of any judgment about the quality of translationswhether produced by humans, machines, or some combination of the twowe may see things in a different light. (Bowker, 2020, p. 453) The author underlines three factors which affect the translation quality in terms of management: speed, cost and quality, which cannot be usually achieved together (ibid.). Moreover, the difficulty in specifying the translation purpose is often due to the lack of such information on the side of the client who might misinterpret his/her needs (ibid.). However, she refers to a factor which contributes to the translation quality level and its purpose, namely the "perishability of content" [START_REF] Way | Traditional and emerging use-cases for machine translation[END_REF], which determines the desired quality particularly on websites, as they are updated more frequently. The above factors, the perishability of content in particular, necessitates an investigation of the quality of the published online content as it falls under this issue in order to assess how reasonable the provided quality is. O'Hagan and Mangiron also commented on publishable quality translation in that "the end purpose of localization is largely functionalitydriven" and the user is likely to be concerned with the functional goal of a text rather than with its literary quality (2013, p. 97). More importantly, they note that there is no clear correlation between the quality of localization and the sales the product generates (ibid., p. 328).

Having said that, the lowest standards need to be met in the translation because otherwise this would lead to an ethical issue of a low quality content with a wide spread and easy access.

This in turn can gradually leave its negative effects on the target audiences at the educational, linguistic and cultural levels. Such effects would be due to exposing a wide group of a society to a poor quality content which is depended on increasingly 27 . In fact, producing translations that are limited to a specific function, even if this means including minor linguistic issues, can have a direct impact on the addressed language and culture on the long term. Audiences can get used to such issues, due to the intensive exposure, and start to consider them as the normal over time. Cultural issues can have an even stronger impact due to their relationship with the core values of the users.

For instance, if a suitable level of adaptation is not provided for a translation of a culture-specific phrase in the source, the target audience will receive this phrase as a cultural shock, or adopt it as it is, which leads to a linguistic and/or influence of the source text on the target audience.

Therefore, providing a mediocre quality should not be taken lightly under the pretext of the function at all times. However, there are two problematic sides that present themselves. First, to know whether all and every content must be translated to the highest standards or that only applies to specific and very visible content types. The client rightfully thinks about the worthiness of his/her investment, which makes it necessary to compromise the quality or the speed. When the latter is more important, quality is the last aspect to consider. Ensuring a specific level of quality 27 See [START_REF] Shaikh | A survey of online reading habits of internet users[END_REF] on online reading habits based on the document type.

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or meeting specific quality criteria for the required and most visible content is becoming the solution to this dilemma. Second, the extent to which translators should be held responsible of the produced quality, given their role of respecting their language and culture. Working on independent segments can make the tasks boring for translators, or less worthy than other traditional ones. This can have a negative impact on the quality too. There are currently variant levels of awareness of the localization practices in translation programs at the universities around the world. Translators might not always be aware of the sensitivity of the localized content with regard to the target culture and language.

Moreover, as translation quality evaluation is being done by non-professional users, the feedback is expected to be detached from the reality of the process and the workflow. Thus, the users' feedback can impact the translators' reputation. At the same time, the users' feedback is expected to be provided in questionnaires or surveys that are prepared by non-linguist marketing specialists. That means the specified criteria might not be based on common linguistic and cultural standards agreed on and transferred through translation and language education. Such criteria should be based on the marketing expectations and need to know if the translation quality offered currently is enough to satisfy the consumers and make them purchase the product to the desired extent of sales. If, for instance, the consumers/users are happy enough with the provided text, this is a sign for marketers that they can continue offering the same translation quality, even if that means presenting erroneous texts, as far as the audience does not see the errors as such. Such approaches encourage the use of any speed-based mean to provide texts that are acceptable to the required extent only, without taking into account the linguistic and cultural damage and pollution these texts can have on the long run. In fact, users' feedback can be biased depending on how the surveys are designed and on the individual subjective point of view of each user. While many factors intervene in the localization process, such as the deadline, the rates, the importance and visibility of the content, this research will focus mainly on specific criteria that characterize the studied genre, and will avoid blaming any party, as it will be discussed later.

The above factors and scenarios can have a major impact on the selected methodology of this research, due to the complexity and lack of information of the process. Specifying the criteria of the translation quality needs an objective approach that suits this process. A critic might not be able of accessing information with regard to the client's purpose and needs, the importance of the

Pilot project

In the previous part, advertising translation was discussed as an established genre in Translation Studies, which has its conventions and strategies. Given the theoretical gaps found with regard to the degree of meeting the localization function and the advertising conventions, and the potential impact of the internationalized text on the localized one, a pilot exploratory project was designed in order to build a general idea of the existing practices in the industry. Conducting a pilot project should give an idea on "how much data might need to be collected to establish some level of credibility" (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, p. 22), besides determining the corpus scope and the type of the advertising content. Moreover, it is supposed to help in providing solutions or suggesting improvements for the full corpus collection and the selection criteria.

Initial corpus design

As was highlighted earlier, advertising translation is considered an established and widely discussed genre in Translation Studies. However, approaching this genre within a different channel like the Internet and in an environment such as websites can help investigate any emerging practices in the industry. More particularly, the process followed to localize this genre is relatively more complicated, as explained in the first chapter. Therefore, online advertisements have been determined to be the core of this study particularly that its functions correspond to those of localization. However, several forms of advertisements exist online with various display fashions, including audiovisual adverts, commercials, emails, popups, and other formats that can be hard to access or collect online.

In order to determine the advertisement type to analyze, several websites of commercial nature have been surfed, looking for those localized into Arabic from international and/or French brands. These websites provide the content in multiple languages and represent local and international corporations in industries such as oil and gas, cosmetics, food and hospitality, tourism, furniture, and technology. However, several challenges emerged during this phase, including (1) the shortage of websites localized into Arabic, compared to other languages such as Spanish and French in the international context; (2) the absence of an acceptable and analyzable language quality in many of the Arabic versions. For example, the most prominent issue was the incomprehensibility and lack of sense of the texts due to the clear use of non-edited machine translation, which prevents the analysis of the translations; (3) the uncertainty of the source language. For example, not all French brand websites seem to be translated from French as some Arabic texts include transliterations from English, which indicates the possibility of translation from English; (4) as for the local Arabic websites which are provided in English, they have been avoided for the same reason mentioned in the last point, besides the potential inconsistency of the corpus that would have been caused in terms of the industry and product types. A more thorough discussion will be provided in a later section on localization research challenges and considerations.

Given the above challenges, and for the sake of collecting a harmonized corpus in terms of the advertised product and the content type, product blurbs have been chosen as the main unit of analysis. A product blurb is a short text which consists of a tagline and a short description of the product. It is usually accompanied by an image of the product. The online blurb is assumed to have passed through the localization process or part of it. Therefore, it is a representative unit for the research question. It has been chosen for several other factors too: (1) it is a type of online advertisement which is supposed to attract the user and provides him/her with information, i.e. it simulates street panels, TV, radio and magazine advertisements. Online advertisement was found to have a similar reliability to print and outdoor advertisement (Anwar & Climis, 2017, p. 47); (2) it is rich in information as it includes appellative and informative contents, unlike SMSs and banners which are designed to attract the customer; (3) it is fixed, easily accessible in several languages, and collectableunlike popup or email advertisements which are displayed as suggestions based on personal searches, and are usually provided in the user's preferred browsing language, which prevents exploring the translation strategies used to localize them; and (4) online blurbs can be the last step the consumer takes before clicking the Buy button and purchase a product (Tseng, Kuo, & Chen, 2014, p. 32), which makes the text more influential on the consumer's final decision. More precisely, websites of international corporations have been determined as most suitable for harmonizing the corpus. First, they are usually localized into multiple locales, including Arabic versions for several Arab countries. Second, the product presentation is similar in terms of the use of blurbs on many international websites. This makes product blurbs on international corporate websites most suitable for the research at hand.

As mentioned above, several Arabic versions are often provided for different countries. All the Arabic versions were observed to be identical in terms of the provided translation. Only the products themselves were not always available in both the international and Arabic version, which can be explained by the fact that some products might not be offered in every market. To harmonize the corpus, the Saudi Arabian version has been looked at mainly, when available, due to its wide presence on international websites and Saudi Arabia's position as a main market in the Arab world.

Moreover, the penetration rate in this country (the portion of the population that has access to the Internet) is expected to reach 61.5% in 2022 and 70,9% in 2025 28 . That makes online content accessible and visible to a wider population.

Sample collection and initial results

As an exploratory sample for the pilot project, four international websites (representing 49 blurbs of cosmetic products) have been selected and analyzed in terms of adaptation and creativity.

The analysis focused mainly on the function markers based on Gully's findings and analysis of Egyptian Arabic advertisements (1996). He found that it is common in advertisements to use metaphors, rhetorical devices and vernacular language, even in printed advertising. His findings correspond to what Pederson say about advertising:

[…] texts usually have a persuasive character, and elements such as wordplay, assonance and alliteration are frequently applied. The focus is on ensuring cultural/local relevance, and commercial intent involved. (Pedersen, 2014, p. 62) Based on the above markers, 34 blurbs were found, besides other forms and units of speech that enrich the text and give it a local touch, such as literary vocabulary, collocations, attractive expressions, and the use of exclamation and question marks. However, only two transcreation examples were found in the sample based on the understanding of the concept established earlier.

Interestingly, aspects which were not considered for the analysis emerged. In fact, linguistic and translation issues were observed during this pilot project. They included spelling, grammar, and meaning errors. Moreover, the analysis revealed linguistic issues such as the lack of comprehensibility and readability of some sentences. In addition, product names and terms, which represent an important appellative element of the blurb, were sometimes inconsistent within the same blurb or across the same website. More importantly, they were transferred inconsistently into 130 Arabic using various translation strategies. Such strategies led to incomprehensible or difficult to pronounce names in certain cases, which raises red flags with regard to the existing of lack of relevant conventions. On another note, images were not found to have an influence on the translations as they do not include figures or themes. They showcase the product as an object only.

Therefore, images are not seen as a necessary element for deep analysis in this project.

Corpus expansion

Given the initial results and discovered issues generated from the pilot project, the corpus has been considered as unsatisfactory in terms of the product type/industry and, of course, the number of the included websites. The issues found in the analysis necessitate conducting a wider analysis on a wider corpus in order to provide reliable results and representative cases. The shortage of creativity in the translations and the issues found can be limited to specific cases. The same does not necessarily exist in other websites. Therefore, the corpus has been expanded to include a wider range of products, while keeping it harmonized. It was enlarged to include websites of cosmetic, furniture, and high-tech products, i.e. retail products that most people use whose blurbs can be considered of high visibility. More details on the full corpus will be provided later.

However, the emerging challenge was related to the analysis itself. The known advertising criteria have not been sufficient to provide a comprehensive analytical coverage. Moreover, the linguistic issues which emerged in the few cases of the pilot project cannot be ignored. Hence, there is a need to find a suitable assessment model to specify more comprehensive criteria for the given function(s) and to analyze an enlarged corpus, while taking into account the localization context and complexity.

In the next chapter, more methodological aspects will be addressed, such as considerations to be taken in relation to the source and target texts in research, the amalgamation of locales and the text ecology. Discussing such aspects should enhance the criticism approach which will be followed in the localization context and adopted in the analysis of the enlarged corpus.

Towards an approach to localization criticism

In the fourth chapter, translation quality assessment models were discussed in order to help in determining the function criteria and the analysis method to follow in this research. This chapter should provide an understanding of the concept of quality in localization, how it can differ from and what similarities it has with that in TS. The afore-discussed methods should help in designing a method to measure the quality of a localized content for research purposes.

Research on and definitions of quality have been criticized as they refer to the process to achieve quality rather than what quality is [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF]. Moreover, the lack of one evaluation model in TS has been viewed as a factor of the lack of such model in localization (ibid.).

While several QA models have been introduced in the industry, such as the LISA QA Model, MQM Model and the DQF Model, they are mostly based on error categories and severity levels [START_REF] Lommel | Metrics for translation quality assessment: a case for standardizing error typologies[END_REF], which is an aspect that was detailed earlier. MQM Model for example includes eight dimensions: accuracy, design, fluency, internationalization, locale convention, style, terminology, and verity (the relationship between the content and the world in which it exists) (ibid.). Notions such as style, fluency, and accuracy are vague and lack a clear definition, let alone the lack of measurement tools to determine their success or failure. Moreover, comprehensibility does not have a place in such models although it is an important notion in TS and linguistics. In these and other TS models, the process is often ignored. Sometimes, the error type Client Edit is used to refer to an error caused by the ST or the lack of context. Although this can help discharging the translator from the responsibility, the error type does not ensure a good quality. It is the final product that will be published and eventually assessed. While the process of localization has been already overviewed earlier, its complexities will be discussed next to highlight its potential impact on the quality of the published localized content.

In the localization context, Quality Assurance is usually the final step of evaluating and polishing a product to prepare it for publication. This phase includes the linguistic and technical quality assurance. While the first assures the easiness of reading and understanding the text by the target audience, the second applies to technical aspects such as layout, bugs, and the software [START_REF] Matis | Quality assurance in the translation workflowa professional testimony[END_REF]. More importantly, launching a QA is influenced by several factors, such as the allotted budget, the type of the project, the customer's need for quality or speed, the volume as larger projects necessitate several people with consistency requirements, the resources like the staff's experience in working with the same client and the schedule which determines if there is enough time to conduct the QA phase (ibid.). Assuming the QA phase has been decided, the linguistic QA type can mainly focus on the end user, take a sample of the project, be a full QA which compares the ST and the TT but not every translation aspect, or be an extended QA which includes a comparison along with the end user TT and other linguistic aspects (ibid., pp. 151-152).

The technical QA can also be based on a sample to check layout matching, or extended to check figures, localized items, number separators, currencies, URLs, special symbols, and complete translation of all the texts (ibid.).

Given the recent inclusion of QA and other phases in the translation workflow, Mellinger calls for including the notions of editing and revision in TQA models besides self-revision (2018).

Furthermore, in light of the evolving processes and workflow organizations, there is an orientation towards double TQA models to encompass product-and process-oriented approaches and provide a wider perspective to examine the translation quality (ibid.). The importance of editing and revision in the current translation workflows means that quality assessment is not done directly after the draft translation anymore, but is applied on the final translated product (ibid.). The abovementioned suggestions underline the importance of the process and the final product in determining the quality, as detailed earlier as well. In addition, external factors should be taken into account when assessing and criticizing a localized content. The next section will be an overview of other peculiarities that should be taken into account in localization research.

Methodological considerations for TS localization research

Translation Studies and localization theories and points of view have been discussed

regarding quality and its assessment. It is important to point out a few areas which need to be taken into consideration when conducting a research in localization in general, and in relation to the translated product and its quality in particular. First, positive areas will be highlighted with regard to localization research and what it brings to Translation Studies. Second, certain established notions in TS will be framed and defined for research of localization.

The added value of localization research in Translation Studies

With the spread of corpus-based translation studies, the need for multi-lingual corpora has increased. While research-aimed corpora are not always available in the required languages, online localized content represents a rich source of material which, in spite of its cons, it has several pros from a methodological perspective.

-Accessibility at mostly no cost, given the availability of content for the general public through a channel that has also become a main communication means;

-Diversity of the textual and audio-visual genres, which makes the new channels a rich source of research materials and corpora;

-Diversity of the genres: websites can offer their main material that can be scientific, literary, commercial, and entertainment-oriented, besides documentations which represent the legal aspect and policies of the website;

-Availability of localized versions for different locales, providing multi-lingual corpora of the same genre and same texts, where research can reveal translation strategies and orientations based on each language (Kassawat, 2021a). This is also referred to as "multiple

presentation" where the one text has several translations, versus "double presentation" and "single presentation" [START_REF] Pym | The moving text: Localization, translation, and distribution[END_REF];

-A different perspective to the concept of language versus locale (see Textual considerations below);

-Providing a marketing-oriented and function-based perspective to translation decisions, as content is not necessarily localized into all languages, but rather influenced by marketing or politicized decisions;

-An opportunity for minority language specialists to benefit from more experienced ones in other major languages;

Structural considerations

As the localization process was explained in the first chapter, the following will stress its impact on quality. External factors of the translation quality are not only process-related but also source-text-related. There is a relationship between the source text (ST) and target text (TT) deadlines. Drugan (2013, p. 18) highlights the effect of the late delivery of the ST in the production cycle, in addition to deadlines in general, speed and rates, on the translation quality. That is because translation is often done at the end of the cycle, which puts pressure on the translators regarding the turnaround time (ibid.). Moreover, late delivery of a language pair can put on hold the other pairs for a multi-lingual product (ibid.). Another influencing factor is the experience of the LSPs.

Drugan reports the positive impact of established providers and translators coming from "established translation 'cultures'" on quality (ibid., p. 26). While the translators' experience is important to ensure the desired quality in general, the LSP's experience is rarely mentioned in TQAs, if not at all. Speaking about the experience of agents, Drugan points out the trend where technically-competent agents are recruited rather than linguistic experts, which often leads to assigning translation jobs to inexperienced translators [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF]. Such external factors should be more focused on in any translation assessment attempts for what they can reveal behind the scenes.

Another important factor which has also occupied TS is the technologies used. Drugan elaborates on the impact of translation memories and different technological tools used in the process on the translation quality. For instance, she highlights the fact that the translators do not always have access rights to edit a 100 percent match even if it contains errors, which results in transferring errors across generations (ibid.). While this contradicts the advantages of using TMs, the translator in this case is confused whether to provide a higher quality or adapt their translation to the existing poor quality in order to ensure consistency (ibid., p. 115). Moreover, as it is known, the segmentation process in TMs can introduce errors, where the translators face short text extracts out of context (ibid., p. 111). The author adds that segmentation increases faithfulness to the source language norms at the expense of the target language (ibid., p. 111-112). This is logical with the absence of the context in many cases and the need for speed in general, but it is contradictory to the localization goals represented by the linguistic and cultural adaptation. Drugan refers to the focus given to technical issues reported by the tools at the expense of other aspects of quality which can matter more to the client [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF]. While technical issues are important to look at to avoid, for instance, broken words, missing tags or dis-functioning hypertexts, it can be time consuming and distracting from the linguistic aspects. In relation to technology, TMs are usually concerned. The author discusses the TM heritage and uses the word "corruption" of the resources which happens when multiple suppliers contribute to the databases, which adds to these permanent errors in the TM without correction (ibid.). Although several researchers have reported the TM disadvantages with regard to these permanent errors, it should be mentioned that, depending on the client's size and needs, 100 percent matches sometimes pass through a review phase and/or a Quality Assurance phase in order to check for any linguistic or contextual issues left.

Based on the professional experience of the author of this thesis, another important aspect in the process and the agents working in localization is whether a coordinator or locale lead exists to keep the whole team on the same page. The lack of consistency among the team regarding the translation of certain terms or the writing style can also lead to quality issues. Having a coordinating agent keeps the team consistent and leads to achieving the same level of quality.

Finally, perishability of the content can be given an additional weight in determining the required level of quality, because high quality might not be seen as important if the content is updated very often. Sometimes, the need for fast delivery necessitates a quick revision to spot essential errors only for "short-lived translated texts for internal circulation" or to "achieve a publishable quality for the final revised MT output" (Castilho, Doherty, Gaspari, & Moorkens, 2018, p. 27). This is a practice that would also impact the final output negatively. Therefore, the process and its components are key to determining the final quality of a translation. Although the abovementioned factors do not intervene directly in the research process, unless the research is in the field, it was important to highlight them to provide a general idea of the context in which translation quality is managed. The next paragraphs will highlight key areas related to the source and target texts which need to be reviewed for research purposes.

Textual considerations

Several established notions in TS have been mentioned so far without highlighting the nuance that exists when they are used in the localization context. The main notions include the "cultural filter" proposed by House and its application in localization, the relationship between the ST and the TT, their function(s) and nature(s), the medium or channel versus the hosting environment of the localized text, and the process impact. Along with the complexity of the localization process and collaborators, one cannot ignore the nature of both the source text and the target text. While the former is neutralized, standardized and simplified, the latter is rather hybrid in terms of the actors and the components.

ST-related considerations -the Reference Text (RT)

In light of the multiplicity of versions on international websites, and the complex process that the researcher is not aware of, the term "reference text" (Kassawat, 2020a; 2021a) will be used for methodological purposes. The reference text is a text to be aligned with the one to analyze. It is another version that can be the source or a translated one. It is provided in the same localized product, including virtual products such as websites, video games and social media posts, and physical products such as mobile phones, tablets, PCs and wearables. Using the notion of the reference text is critical due to several reasons. An offsite researcher does not necessarily have access to the "internal knowledge" (Pym, 2004, p. 28), as only the localization agents know the ST and SL. A researcher, like the end-user, has access only to the "external knowledge" that is known to people outside the process who are concerned with the final text rather than with its origin (ibid.). In addition, given the "one-to-many geometry" versus "language-into-language situations" which are based on the notions of the "source text" and "target text" [START_REF] Pym | Globalization and the politics of Translation Studies[END_REF], the relationship between the ST and TT has become ambiguous in the web localization domain [START_REF] Lee | The medium is global, the content is not: translating commercial websites[END_REF]. The notion of equivalence has become less important depending on the text function. This means that the notion of accuracy has become more flexible. Moreover, "the concept of the "original" attached to the ST becomes even less apparent" (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 105) when all the versions are released simultaneously. From a practical perspective, the continuous updates of the online published content, whether on the "source text" alone or along with the target text(s), makes the measurement of accuracy problematic using the existing TQA models. For example, if a phrase has been removed from the source text or a term has been updated in the target locale, even onsite agents might not be able to track the changes and judge accuracy at a given moment. The research in this case has no clue to determine if the TT is accurate, up to date, or even to know why a certain term is translated in such way or why a phrase is omitted in a text when compared to another. The independence of each version makes the source text considered as "unstable" or "absent" [START_REF] Pym | The moving text: Localization, translation, and distribution[END_REF]. From a functionalist point of view, in the website localization context, and inspired by Nord's functionalist terminology, the source text has started to be viewed as an "offer of information" [START_REF] Jiangbo | Study of the translation errors in the light of the Skopostheorie: Samples from the websites of some tourist attractions in China[END_REF]. It is no longer a main criterion of the translation decision and has lost its long-life strict association with the produced target text.

Conceptualizing the text as a reference "enables researchers to avoid direct comparisons of the version in question with another one, which might be updated without the change being reflected in all versions. It allows them to instead analyze the localized versions based on their monolingual functionality in the target language, as seen by the end user." (Kassawat, 2020a, p. 77)

TT-related considerations

The internationalization phase, if done, can imply certain consequences on the TT and its relation with the ST. However, the localization process and technology have also an effect on the TT and the way it can be approached in research. For example, the researcher does not have any clue whether MT was used or not, whether MT was followed by post-editing or kept as is, or if the translation is fully done by human translators. With the increasing use of MT, "the boundary between HT and MT has become increasingly blurred in recent years" (Castilho, Doherty, Gaspari, & Moorkens, 2018, p. 27). Moreover, MT has been looked at as an integrated component of the process which necessitates its integration in research together with HT:

[…] it consequently becomes more difficult to identify the agent of a translation, and even if a human agent is identified, unless we are operating in a research environment where independent variables can be controlled and manipulated, it is typically unknown to what extent MT or other translation technologies and tools have been involved in the process. We therefore suggest here that traditional separation of human and machine is no longer valid, and drawing an arbitrary line between HT and MT no longer serves us in research, teaching and professional practice. (ibid.)

In addition to the participants to and the technologies used for the TT, its nature and relation to the ST should be highlighted too. As the purpose of localization requires certain translation strategies, such as adaptation, and in certain cases, transcreation, the relationship between the ST and the TT has changed. Such change is emphasized by the points listed in relation to the ST.

House differentiates between overt and covert translation, and between translations and versions [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social evaluation[END_REF]. While translations are based on the notion of equivalence, versions are not but rather have a different function from the "original text" (ibid.). She defines a version as follows:

Producing a version results from a deliberate turning away from the original, a reevaluation and often renunciation of the original. Versions are "freed" to become their own original, particularly in contexts where only intentions of clients and product specifications count, i.e., in highly practice-oriented, mostly technical translation activities, in which considerations of equivalence would only stand in the way of achieving client satisfaction and consumer service. (ibid.)

The above statement hints to the use of transcreation and the adaptation requirements of localization where the resulting text should sound original and meet the client's needs. Therefore,

the internationalized text has an additional function to that of the target text (facilitating the translation). However, the purpose is the same, i.e. persuading the customer to buy a product, clarifying an idea in a Help article, or entertaining, regardless of the target culture. Moreover, several content types are localized, which makes it difficult to determine whether the resulting texts are versions or translations. A more critical case would be texts which have two or more functions, such as the texts of the corpus of the pilot project. In such cases, the title can be "transcreated" to meet the appellative function while the body text is "translated" to meet the informative function. Thus the localization context imposes a mix of strategies and requires merging concepts such as "translation" and "version" particularly given the focus on the target text function. Reiss and Vermeer seem to rather call everything a translation because "a lack of textual equivalence does not mean that the target text is not a translation. The target text has simply been assigned a different function from that of the source text" (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 123).

Furthermore, the effect of the original text should be transferred or another similar effect that meets the function should be created in the translated text. The problem arises with regard to certain languages with colloquial and standard variations, such as the Arabic language. Al-Qinai discusses in general the casual style in the ST and how it is transferred into Standard Arabic rather than into a colloquial dialect [START_REF] Al-Qinai | Translation quality assessment. Strategies, parametres and procedures[END_REF]. Applied on the localization context, this aspect becomes more complicated due to the simplified text. The transfer of the effect would necessitate using a dialectical way in content such as advertisements for instance. As a result, the TT would lack personalization due to the use of a direct language that is often used in formal settings.

Moreover, "the intention of the ST producer to make his text attractive and easily digestible has not been fully realized in TT to the same degree as in ST" (ibid., p. 502). Hence, the standardization of the locale can have an impact on the transfer of the style or the personalization of the translated text. Further discussion will take place later on the amalgamation of the notion of the locale on localized websites.

Whether the style and effect are transferred or re-created in the TT necessitates having a look at the notion of the "cultural filter" introduced by [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social evaluation[END_REF]2015). While the "cultural filter" is applied on the TT to bridge any cultural gaps that could exist between the source and target cultures, there should be the assumption that the source text includes a culture-specific reference or notion. When it comes to the localized content, two aspects need to be looked at. First, the ST (as understood by the language agent) is culturally neutralized and should introduce no issues with this regard. Thus, the notion of the "cultural filter" seems to have ideally been already applied on the source text rather than on the target one. Second, the TT necessitates not a direct transfer of the ST or filtering it per se, but rather enveloping it with a local color or re-creating it.

Moreover, websites are often accessible via language gateways and country gateway options or both (Yunker, 2003, p. 308). It has been observed as well that these gateways can be based on the continent, region (such as the Middle East) or both. In the case of the Middle East for instance, language and country gateways can also be added in addition to the flag of Saudi Arabia in most of the times. While this is similar to the use of the flag of Spain for all Hispanic countries, it can be inappropriate from the perspective of the user as not all Spanish-speaking people are from Spain (ibid.). However, the linguistic/cultural issue can be less impactful for the Arabic language and countries given the use of Standard Arabic in most of the published content. However, the translation can require more attention even in Standard Arabic which also includes vocabulary used in certain Arab countries more than others. Therefore, the standardization of the translation should be taken into account in criticizing a localized content. The market range needs to be also considered as it refers to the country or region that is targeted directly by the client.

Based on the above, the term "locale" is elastic and can include different ranges of geographical areas depending on the similarities and marketing needs. Moreover, different audiences are targeted with various degrees of importance. As Pym notes in a bilingual advert, there are three kinds of locales: participative, observational and excluded (2004, pp. 9-10). These types of locales are employed based on the desired function first and foremost. They are designed to trigger the required action, whether it is to take part and engage with the advertisement, to be informed only about the necessary information, or to attract a limited audience by filtering out the others through writing the text in a language that only specific people speak. This is reflected on websites to a certain extent, as in having a fully localized website that is intended to attract and please a wide audience, a website that provides information just for the readers to know or get the main idea, or a website that only provide contact details for trade purposes rather than addressing online consumers. Hence, the locale can extend to include a wide range of linguistic and cultural elements or be limited to very particular recipients, which in turn specify the language used and maybe its quality.

The text ecology

Localization emerged to meet the needs of a growing production of digital content, as in operation systems, software, applications, video games, and websites. That is why digital texts are often considered as a distinguishing factor between "traditional translation" and "localization" [START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF][START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF], where texts are embedded in a technological platform (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 92). However, the physical product type was given as much importance as the text nature. Localization is often associated with digital devices [START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF], such as computers, laptops, mobile phones, tablets, and even wearable items, such as smart watches. There is a need, however, to differentiate between the text nature, type and genre, and its hosting environment and channel. As for text types, they can be categorized within already proposed types in Translation Studies. A digital text can be technical, advertising, or literary, and can be brought alive through press, television, radio or the Internet. The commissioner and, more importantly, the channel/medium lead to different conventions, which generate in turn "genre variants" with more specific conventions than those of "genre classes" (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 167). New text types have emerged and cannot be ignored, such as User Interface (UI) strings and hypertexts due to their interactive function. The discussion will focus mainly on what will be referred to as the "text ecology" for this research. The text ecology is the hosting environment of the text, knowing that multiple ecologies can host the same text. For instance, a string can be used as a UI element in a mobile application and/or a tablet. Thus, it would need to be translated in a comprehensible way for the user and to be shortened to fit in the character limit. Such strings may impose more restrictions and be further customized if they are displayed in a smart watch. Another example would be an advertisement that would appear on a website with a desktop version and a mobile-friendly version. Therefore, the translation can vary based on its ecology. Therefore, the text ecology has become a decisive factor in the text treatment to ensure a pleasant user experience through providing a short and easily comprehensible text.

Non-interactive texts are under-researched in the localization literature. Their adaptation can have similarities with the adaptation of traditional texts. However, the interface, commands and buttons are usually considered as the elements which need localization [START_REF] Quirion | La formation en localisation à l'université : pour quoi faire ?[END_REF]. At the same time, terminology in general is given a significant importance in localization as the translated terms have to fit within the used screen. One of terminology qualities in localization is the "miniaturization", i.e. the smaller the screen, the more terminological and less translational the words become (ibid.). While terminology is not limited to UI elements, the screen size can affect the text functionality regardless of its type. Moreover, the evolving channels have led to a change in the reading practices. There is an increasing need for quick and comprehensible information particularly on the Internet:

In effect, the Internet encourages a shift from steady, cumulative, linear reading to a form of accelerated power browsing. (Cronin, 2012, p. 477) […] as we move from a technological world defined by the printing press to one defined by the electronic computer, reading practices and literacy norms are inevitably transformed. (ibid.)

Therefore, the text ecologybesides the channelneeds to be taken into account when dealing with a text translation and in the quality assurance process. More importantly, there is a need to assess the translation function of such texts in relation to their ecologies. Such situational approach should help in building a global framework where a localized text can be criticized within its context and the actual user's environment.

Which model for localization criticism?

Research on quality assessment of web localization suggests flexible models. Such models include accuracy in the core, and take extra-textual and intra-textual criteria into account (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 129). Both error-based and holistic approaches are possible in the model in relation to the time available and the effort made, while making a balance between adequacy and effectiveness (ibid.). The model should help in the practice or when the relationship between the source and the target is important. However, this relationship does not have to be taken into account in research and criticism which focus mainly on the target. Moreover, the model does not suggest the method to follow in the assessment.

Quality discussions can take different approaches depending on the perspective from which quality is viewed, i.e. from the client's perspective and compliance to the brief, based on equivalence, the function, or the final product as presented to the user. For this research, the final product is focused on given the lack of information regarding the brief and the client, and due to the difficulty of specifying the general public that is addressed by the localized product. This section aims to explain a target-based approach, define it and adopt it, while taking into account the similarity and differences with the reference text, excepting equivalence-related aspects.

The functionalist approach has been criticized for inadequacy with respect to (1) the relationship with the source text and the focus on the target lingua-cultural environment, (2) for the ambiguity in how to fulfil the skopos (House, 2015, p. 11), (3) for the "damage to the discipline's view of 'equivalence'" resulted from the skopos and the descriptive translation approach (ibid., p. 13), and for the bi-directionality-based evaluation of a translation [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social evaluation[END_REF]. Details on the functionalist theory have been provided earlier, necessitating a need for a pragmatic solution to localization criticism which gives priority to the target text as the center of the localization practice and research, with a focus on in-situation criteria, such as "intratextual coherence" which concerns the recipient's understanding of the text and is prioritized over the assessment of fidelity (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 101). The required solution should provide a framework of analysis based on defined criteria that correspond to the function and the intended purpose because the use of the concept of function presupposes that there are elements in any text whichgiven appropriate analytical tools -can reveal that text's function" (House, 2015, p. 23).

The solution needs to take into account the different process-and participants-related factors, while still allowing comparison of specific areas.

Based on the overview provided of different TQA models, it can be noted that most of them focus on general criteria of translation quality, and usually following House's approach (2015) which calls for a detailed analysis of the ST. Although most of these TQAs specify the criteria, they rarely explain the method, i.e. how the specified criteria should be examined and to which text they should be compared in case the final product is focused on. In criticism in the localization context, starting from the source text can be problematic. It is considered as a reference rather than a primary source and does not necessarily require blind adoption of equivalence. This underlines prioritizing the target text. Although House criticizes assessment schools which focus on the receptor, she considers their statements inappropriate basically "for making valid statements about how and why a translation qua translation is as it is" [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social evaluation[END_REF]. She adds that "the approach does fail to provide criteria for judging the merits and weaknesses of a particular "case"" and questions the criteria to be used for judging merits and weaknesses of a given translation (ibid.). Given that the criteria suggested in TQA models are based on finding the weaknesses without giving credits where possible, it implies the lack of certainty of what a good translation is in general. What are the cases that need to be credited and based on which criteria? Therefore, this research will avoid using a given TQA model and attempt to design a model of criticism which helps in answering the research questions objectively.

In light of the importance of the TT in localization, Jimenez-Crespo suggests to apply error typology only after having evaluated the skopos in the translation, based on the translation brief [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF]. This approach can help in spotting pragmatic inadequacies in the target language, and eventually evaluate any other accuracy-related areas:

[…] the development of an empirical error typology that would incorporate recurring pragmatic inadequacies, combined with an additional holistic level that could assess the entire text through descriptive statements, would evaluate more reliably whether texts look like they have been developed "in-country". (ibid.)

Although such dual approach to evaluation would be useful in many translation types, it has become a necessity in localization. While ST based analysis and its relationship with the TT are still adopted in translation evaluation and even under the notion of the function [START_REF] Adab | The translation of advertising: a framework for evaluation[END_REF], it can be considered an approach to be followed by the translator rather than the critic. Such approach can mislead the critic as he/she can be influenced by the similarity of the given translation to its original, if it is known.

Therefore, a target-based approach is necessary to start with to meet the how or the method of criticism [START_REF] Larose | Méthodologie de l'évaluation des traductions[END_REF]. Such approach corresponds to the "prospective assessment" type which looks forward from the target text to the effect this has, or is designed to have, on its reader, rather than back to the source text. The centre of attention becomes the communication norm rather than the relation. (Chesterman, 2016, p. 126) The approach should be followed by a comparison with the reference text in order to interpret the strategies used and explain the possible "hows" and the "whys" of a translated text [START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: linguistic description versus social evaluation[END_REF]. However, conducting a comparison does not necessarily imply the application of an error typology. The purpose of this research is not to give a score or a kudos to the studied websites, but rather to investigate the existing practices. Conducting a comparison after the TT examination replies to skopos theory criticism in that it does not deal with translation strategies at the micro level [START_REF] Nisbeth Jensen | Optimising comprehensibility in interlingual translation: The need for intralingual translation[END_REF]. Moreover, it corresponds to the causal model suggested by [START_REF] Chesterman | A causal model for Translation Studies[END_REF] after the comparative and process models. He starts from the idea that the comparative model is "a kind of relation of equivalence (X=Y)" and the fact that "process models are useful if one is interested in sequential relations between different phases of the translation process" (ibid., p. 18). Having said that,

Comparative and process models help us to describe the translation product and its relation with the source text, but they do not help us to explain why the translation looks the way it does, or what effects it causes. The questions asked are 'what? ' and 'when?' or 'what next?', rather than 'why?' (ibid., p. 19) For Chesterman, the causal model views translations as "caused by antecedent conditions and as causing effects on readers and cultures" (ibid., p. 15), which makes it the richest among the other models (ibid.). It also accommodates the four types of hypotheses: interpretive, descriptive, explanatory, and predictive (ibid.). The explanatory and the predictive hypotheses have been highlighted by Olohan as they figure within the causal model in two ways, firstly with regard to the relation between the target text and the causal conditions (i.e. when we propose that a translation has particular features because of a particular cause), and secondly with regard to the relation between effects and translation (i.e. when we propose that a given effect was caused by a particular feature of the translation). [START_REF] O'hagan | Shifts, but not as we know them? Research models and methods in Translation Studies[END_REF] This elaboration on the causal model provides the general grounds of the methodology of this research. It aims to look at the effect of the translation, i.e. to what extent the TT meets the function, and it investigates the cause of its features, e.g. the possible effect of internationalization, the strategy, the tools used, and the process, which supports the dual approach further. The next chapter will detail the methodology step by step besides the corpus nature and characteristics. It will provide more specification and definitions of the criteria to be checked and analyzed in the corpus. Furthermore, it will go through the corpus selection and the analysis processes through an illustration of the criticism model which was designed for this research. was an attempt to take the functionalist approach further in order to encompass more physical factors which should be taken into consideration in assessing and criticizing the translation quality.

Summary

While some methodological considerations are specific to research, some others can be applied and integrated in the practice, such as the "reference text", the locale's dimensions, and the text ecology.

The above discussions do not suggest covering all the methodological notions of localization. They are rather open for elaboration based on the developments in the field. However, discussing them seeks to better frame localization in TS research in order to avoid confusion of concepts and methodologies. It also aims to point out important aspects which should be taken into consideration while assessing or criticizing the quality of a localized text. While error typology is used in research and in the industry, how to spot an error especially in relation to cultural appropriateness, naturalness, and readability is not sufficiently explained in the literature.

Therefore, the next chapter will detail the method which will be followed in this research, including the determination of the quality criteria, the function parameters, and the way these criteria and parameters will be applied in the analysis of the corpus.

A function-based corpus: collection and analysis

This chapter will detail the methodological aspects of the research. It will start off by explaining the nature of the research and its goal. Then, it will describe the anatomy of the analyzed corpus used for the study which should clarify the elements of the main unit and the purpose of each of these elements. Later, a step-by-step description will be illustrated to show how the corpus was collected, according to which criteria and through which process. Finally, more details will be explained on the analysis of the compiled corpus and the approach used to interpret the results.

Nature of the research

In the previous chapters, detailed discussions took place in relation to the existing literature on website localization, advertising translation and translation quality assessment models. Those discussions helped in determining a suitable text type and an appropriate method to find answers to the researched questions and/or explanations of the observed initial results of the pilot project.

The research questions necessitate a qualitative approach for several reasons: (1) the cultural aspects which are expected to be found in an adapted text and that are required in a localized text, besides the concepts of comprehensibility and persuasiveness, cannot be analyzed through quantitative methods;

(2) the afore-discussed assessment models which take a quantitative approach are error-based and do not allow an objective criticism of the localization phenomena.

Although they can seem objective, they are criticized for being "reductionist" as they simplify what is very complex and influenced by many factors into merely counting and categorizing translation errors for instance (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, p. 96); and (3) the research central interest is not merely in underscoring issues or praising creativeness, but also in exploring how creativity is done and why issues are produced. It is important to note that qualitative research in website localization, particularly with regard to quality, still needs to be enriched and related to Translation Studies.

Furthermore, the research attempts to test a methodological and functionalist approach proposed by [START_REF] Nord | Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis[END_REF] in settings different from print text translations. It will use the functionalist theory in all the work phases: preparation (determining the selection criteria), corpus compilation, and the analysis process. Such an approach makes the research take a deductive aspect, involving "the testing of existing theories or hypotheses through data (it moves from general statements to specific instances)" (ibid., p. 15). As the main research question raises the issue of quality and meeting the expected results or the function, it allows measuring the impact of the determined variables on the final translation. This in turn can help in better understanding the current practices and eventually "change our techniques, training, or tools in order to better meet quality requirements" (ibid., p. 96). Although the research takes into account the process of translation in localization and keeps in mind the end user's experience, the main focus of the study is on the final product, which is the online published translations as seen and used by the public, or what is called "extrinsic quality" (Gouadec, Quality in translation, 2010, p. 270). The text type that will be taken as a case study in this research is advertising-related given its wide audience and visibility, compared with legal texts or help articles for instances which are not constantly consulted by the users. What follows is a detailed description of the text elements and their respective functions.

Characteristics of the corpus

Nature of the corpus

As it was presented in the first chapter of this part, a pilot project was conducted through a small sample of advertising blurbs published on websites of international bricks and mortar corporations. The tested text type was chosen given the nature and function of advertising, and the extent to which it would help in investigating the research question. After the evaluation of the preliminary results, the tested text type proved to be a suitable one for the research. However, the nature of the advertised products (cosmetic products) was not sufficient to provide a comprehensive idea of the current practices. Therefore, the corpus was expanded to include websites advertising furniture and high-tech products. The selected product types are supposed to be used and purchased by a large group of people, of different ages and various education backgrounds. What follows is a summary on the chosen text type: what it is, how it differs from a print advertisement, and how it fits into the studied genre.

To start with, websites have been researched as a "web genre" or a "digital genre" (Jiménez-Crespo, 2007, p. 6) given their conventionalized form that is associated with a particular communicative event (Hatim & Munday, 2004, p. 88). Therefore, the content they include has aspects different from printed materials if it exists in a printed form at alltake for instance hypertexts and popup windows. Moreover, as "complex genres" can embed other genres [START_REF] Reiss | Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained[END_REF], websites fit into this category as well given the various content they may host.

Websites have increasingly become a subject of research in TS with the wide variety of online content. Other than international corporate websites, locale SME websites have been studied

(Olvera-Lobo & Castillo-Rodríguez, 2019), NGO websites have been analyzed in terms of the localization level (Jiménez-Crespo, 2012), oil and gas company websites have also been investigated [START_REF] Isa | A genre analysis of corporate websites of oil and gas companies[END_REF], in addition to tourism websites where transfer strategies and translation problems and errors were examined in terms of effectiveness [START_REF] Pierini | Quality in web translation: an investigation into UK and Italian tourism web sites[END_REF]. However, the online advertising textual content is under-researched in TS. In the localization field in particular, the Arabic language is also under-researched despite the urgent need for research that looks into its linguistic aspects and the cultural peculiarities which characterize the Arab world. In a study on English-Arabic e-brochures of four corporate websites, the texts were analyzed with a focus on the verbal elements and used strategies [START_REF] Obeidat | Translation strategies in the English-Arabic e-brochures of baby care products[END_REF].

However, there was no mentioning of the term "localization" or an investigation of the influence of the process on the translation. This reflects the need for more research on content localized into Arabic. The Arab world region has a particular importance for research: first, it is becoming increasingly present on international corporate websites whether through a country gate, a region gate or a language gate. Second, it consists of twenty-two Arab countries, each of which has a specific culture even if the similarities exceed the differences. Third, the first thing that distinguishes this region is the language. However, this is only true with regard to Standard Arabic and not the various dialects. It has been observed that Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is commonly used in written textual content online, which is a similar practice to printed texts.

Nonetheless, although the standardization of the language variant does not cause issues such as those frequently reported due to standardizing Spanish for all Hispanic countries, it necessitates a deeper look into the suitability of this approach for a culturally and linguistically diversified region.

As discussed earlier, the language of the source text is only known to the agents working on the translation and who are aware of the process. Therefore, the Arabic text will be analyzed mostly independently but in relation to the "reference text". Although the translation may not directly relate to the reference text, the corpus can still be considered a parallel one:

Although we said that the typical parallel corpus contains source texts and translations, strictly speaking, a direct translational relationship does not have to exist between the texts. (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, p. 68) The corpus can thus be considered as a reference-based parallel corpus. The corpus is bilingual (ibid.; Saldanha & O'Brien, 2014) and includes commercial blurbs in both English and Arabic taken from localized corporate websites. Similarly to the absence of knowledge of the source language, the researcher does not have access to the tools or processes used to localize the texts, including machine translation and post-editing. Moreover, the boundaries between human translation and machine translation are blurred particularly with the increased integration of the latter along with translation memories (O'Brien & Conlan, 2019, p. 84). This is also why the focus in the study will be on the final product, the translation that is the Arabic text, as received by the user.

Corpus anatomy

As mentioned earlier, commercial blurbs describing products will be the subject of the corpus for this study. Based on the pilot project, this type of text proved to be a suitable sample to investigate the research question. What follows is a detailed description and profiling of the blurb and the function of each element.

In general, a product blurb consists of a tagline, a description and, sometimes, an image. It is often followed by the price and the Buy button, which increases its importance in convincing the consumer to purchase the product online. As the research focuses mainly on the textual part of content, and as images show the product itself without people or other elements that can influence the translation, as observed in the pilot project, images are not included in the analysis. Therefore, only textual elements will be detailed. The tagline can consist of the product name alone, a catchy phrase or expression, or both. Therefore, the tagline is the part responsible of the appellative intention (Nord, 2005, p. 55) even when it only has the product name. The tagline is thus expected to be concise, clear, and persuasive to encourage the user, particularly online, to read more about the product, i.e. the description. The description, though, lists more details on and characteristics of the product. Although it has an informative function, it is expected to be written in a clear and concise manner to be easy to understand and in a way that suits the target audience and respects their culture. Any advertising-related text, including a descriptive blurb, can be categorized under the "operative type" which is "encoded at the level of content and persuasion (to which the level of aesthetic organization is occasionally added)" (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 182). These characteristics are usually associated with corporate websites in general, as they "have a directive communicative function, but they are also informative" (Bolaños Medina, Rodríguez Medina, Medina, & Losada García, 2005, p. 125). In light of the intersections of text types and functions, text typology is sometimes seen as a rigid division because "the translation method depends on far more than just text type. The translator's own role and purpose, as well as sociocultural pressures, also affect the kind of translation strategy that is adopted." (Munday, 2008, p. 75).

Now that the elements and functions of the blurb have been briefly explained, the compilation process will be explained below in detail, while providing an illustrative map of the followed method from the preparation phase, to the selection phase, and the analysis phase.

The methodological phases

General process

As the genre and text type have been determined, it was time to compile the corpus of the study. The web has been considered a major source of data, including that collected for corpora.

Since the informatics revolution in the second half of the twentieth century, the term "corpus" has become generally a synonym of "electronic corpus" (Loock, 2016, pp. 20-21). While the web has become a data bank which provides quick and easy access to linguistic inputs that would not be accessible otherwise (ibid., p. 89), it imposes several challenges. These challenges start with the way search engines determine which pages are indexed and according to which criteria, the fact that they distinguish relevant pages, showing only the first thousand results, besides the difference in the listed results from a search to another even when the same browser is used (ibid., p. 90).

Moreover, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the linguistic origin of data, whether it is original, human-translated or automatically translated (ibid.). These challenges are coupled with the fact that web content is susceptible to change. Websites for instance have a dynamic nature as they are regularly updated [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]. In localization research, corpora are limited to instances of products that are localized into the researched language, which can also limit the scope of research to few cases and lead to results that may not be generalizable. Moreover, the amalgamation of locales hinders the research due to the number of cultures and linguistic differences that may be included under the one locale. At the same time, such amalgamation tends to open up the way to issues in need of investigation. Another challenge of web corpora is the multimodality and interactive nature of content. This also applies to other digital products and contents that are not necessarily on the web. For example, the integration of sound, images and audiovisuals in a videogame can play a major role in the analysis which can become more complicated than analyzing a traditional corpus. On websites and apps, User Interface elements depend mostly on the user's actions; popup adverts are associated with the user's preferences, likes and dislikes; hypertexts, alternative texts and buttons are sometimes part of the studied text without relating directly to the main subject of the study.

Digital corpora are often compiled automatically using special software that are also employed for the analysis. However, given the nature of the selected text type of this research, and the qualitative nature required for the main question, the automatic process of extracting the samples would have been complicated, if not impossible. Therefore, the corpus was compiled manually, which is called a DIY corpus (do it yourself) or "corpus maison" (Loock, 2016, p. 79).

This is an approach where the researcher selects him/herself each text, saves it in a text document to be worked on through a software (ibid.). Below is the general map of the adopted method with its two main phases. As discussed earlier in this thesis, a target-based approach will be followed to concentrate on the function. While functionalist approaches have been criticized for the lack of clarification with regard to the procedure of determining the function of the source and the target texts [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF][START_REF] House | Translation quality assessment: Past and present[END_REF], the method to be followed will attempt to fill in the gaps of previous studies and to determine specific areas to focus on at the macro level of the function and at the micro level too. The process starts with determining the selection criteria for the monolingual analysis phase that was conducted on the Arabic texts, which is followed by a bilingual analysis to explain the tendencies and practices. The compilation and the analysis phases are interrelated.

The corpus was not collected randomly but rather through analysis and based on criteria. The sampling process can be firstly categorized under "convenience sampling" as the texts are easily accessible from websites (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, p. 34). However, working based on predefined criteria turns the process into a "purposive sampling" (ibid.).

Reasoning & categorizing

The corpus domain consists of fifteen websites of international corporates which offer either furniture, high-tech products, or cosmetic products. The pilot project resulted in insufficient data out of cosmetic product websites alone. Furthermore, a study showed differences in the advertising approaches based on the product type. It found that there is a focus on the global description and a use of connotative language (using metaphors and puns) in promoting products whose parts cannot be detailed, while an objective approach is used in promoting products that can be easily divided such as automobiles and computers (Adam & Bonhomme, 2000cited in Cruz García, 2013. Therefore, three different industries and product types were included in the corpus in order to observe any possible tendencies or different practices with this regard. The selected types are mostly used and purchased by most people of various ages, education and economic backgrounds. On this basis, the websites were selected according to a series of criteria (Loock, 2016, p. 80).

The corpus compilation started off by searching well-known brands in each industry through the search engine Google Search, which then provided similar and relative suggestions.

Incognito mode was used to generate suggestions independent from the researcher's preferences.

Each of the suggestions was checked out to see if the brand's website is localized into Arabic or not. For localized websites, the Arabic texts were also checked out briefly to filter out websites where texts are clearly machine-translated, unreadable, and unanalyzable. The adopted method helped in finding twelve websites promoting cosmetic products, two websites promoting high-tech products, and one website promoting items of furniture. Although the number of websites in each industry/product type is not equal to the other, the focus at this stage was on the volume of these websites, as it will be detailed later. Moreover, the corpus compilation was limited to the availability of corporate websites localized into Arabic. That explains the larger number of cosmetic product websites compared to high-tech and furniture websites. It is obvious that the Arab world is not a target market for all industries equally. For instance, furniture is usually purchased locally except for international companies that have local stores like IKEA. Moreover, the search for websites was based on the brand, not the corporation itself, because a corporation can have several brands and products with a website for each brand.

A list of the selected websites and brands was prepared. The Arabic version of each website was visited, while keeping the international English version of the website open in another tab.

The English texts were taken from the international version of each website, or the United States version if an international version is not provided as such. For consistency and based on availability, the Arabic texts are taken mostly from the Saudi Arabia version wherever a country gateway is provided in a website. If not, the Middle East gateway is chosen for the Arabic language, which was the case of two websites only. The presence of a Saudi Arabian version in most of the websites shows the importance of its position as a market in the Arab world and its appropriateness as a case study. Only web pages which show off the products through blurbs were analyzed based on previously determined criteriasee details below. Only the selected blurbs were copied into and saved in an Excel file to facilitate the analysis of the final phase. When an Arabic text is selected, the corresponding English text was copied and aligned to it. What follows are the detailed criteria used in the first monolingual phase upon which the Arabic content was selected.

Criteria determination

As mentioned above, before the monolingual analysis of the Arabic texts started, a set of criteria had been determined in order to ensure an objective and neutral approach.

The specific individual translation, the result of this process, should be evaluated by objective and relevant criteria. Only then is it possible for the more or less spontaneous practice of translation criticism to meet the benchmark of an objective translation critique. (Reiss, 2000, p. 4) Quality assessment and criticism should also have a function too, a point referred to by Karoubi by the term "the assessment skopos" (2016). Based on the purpose of the assessment, or criticism in our case, a theory is implicitly presupposed (Colina, 2011, pp. 43-44) by the critic.

Colina underscores the obstacles in finding common grounds amongst evaluation approaches due to not relying on any explicit theory and opting for priorities responding to different "evaluative purposes" (ibid.). Therefore, the need for previously set criteria, that are limited to the research purposes in this case, is essential to avoid criticizing the translations randomly and subjectively.

These criteria should be verifiable [START_REF] Reiss | Translation criticism-potentials and limitations: Categories and criteria for translation quality assessment[END_REF] and defined, not chosen in an arbitrary manner.

Reiss recommends in her method to be clear about the text type of the original, just as the translator does before he/she starts working on it (ibid., p. 16). Then, the critic verifies the "thoroughness of its orientation to the target language" (ibid., p. 31). In fact, Reiss and Vermeer set out general rules for the translational action, which focus on the skopos in the translated product, and include coherence within the translation itself then with the source text (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 107). Accuracy seems to be the least important as it falls at the end of their list (ibid.). The order of their rules was criticized particularly the one related to coherence with the ST [START_REF] Chesterman | Reflections on Translation Theory: Selected Papers 1993 -2014[END_REF]. However, as updates can be done on specific versions of a website rather than others, accuracy cannot be assessed logically in websites from an outsider's point of view due to the lack of knowledge of the translation and source text histories. Therefore, accuracy will be only checked in the bilingual analysis if there is a contradictory information or ambiguity in the Arabic text, i.e. issues that can have an impact on the end-user and that can be spotted through the monolingual analysis. The set of criteria that was adopted for the monolingual analysis consists of criteria related to the fluency of the Arabic text, and criteria related to required function of an advertising text, i.e. the expected aspects of appellation.

To start with, readability and comprehensibility have been main areas discussed in translation quality assessment within the functionalist framework (see [START_REF] Göpferich | Comprehensibility assessment using the Karlsruhe Comprehensibility Concept[END_REF]. Based on the discussion that took place in the fourth chapter of the first part, a few textual markers can be withdrawn in order to verify the readability of a text. Only qualitative markers were employed, while adopting the ones that are relative to the Arabic language and to the function of the studied text type. Readability in our context relates to complying with the style of the local language, including word choice, conciseness (not measured by word counting but by whether there are excessive lengthy sentences or unnecessary redundancy), perceptibility (to be measured by the presence or absence of uncommon and/or unacceptable cultural references), simplicity in terms of the vocabulary for the given context, audience and product (as in the complexity of understanding words used in old literature for a modern day-to-day used product), and sentence structures, avoiding jargon, using a culture-neutral language, and avoiding awkward constructs or terms, such as uncommon collocations29 or expressions. An expression can be an idiom or a proverb that is fixed in the mind of the recipient, and it evokes "a range of associations connected with the typical contexts in which the expression is used" (Baker, 2018, p. 70). However, collocations may be used in unconventional manners as in humor, poetry and advertisement "to challenge our expectations" as recipients, where they are termed "marked collocations" (ibid., p. 58). The analysis was open for such instances due to the nature of the investigated texts. The appropriateness of the layout, format and design of the text were not taken into consideration given that the studied text has a standardized design, and that such aspects are not included in the translation phase of localization.

As for comprehensibility, it relates to the clarity of the information and ease of understanding the intended message, i.e. it is a meaning-related issue that affects the user's experience. Readability and comprehensibility can be considered the pillars of any text to meet the least of its function.

They are thus essential for texts of an informative nature, such as commercial blurbs. As texts that are categorized under advertising comprise a factual nature and a persuasive nature [START_REF] Lee | The medium is global, the content is not: translating commercial websites[END_REF], the persuasive function should have a set of markers as well.

Markers of the appellative intention can be more complicated to verify given their creative nature which implies endless elements. However, the monolignual analysis extracted the texts which include specific elements that are necessary to conform to the profiled consumer [START_REF] Antonucci | The language of beauty: localisation processes and transcreation phenomena in nationally-targeted advertisements[END_REF]. Such elements can be adapted in the translation, and their criticism cannot be simply based on criteria and categories:

The criticism of "adaptations" cannot be held to a consistent observation of the criteria and categories appropriate to translation criticism. The critic must instead determine whether the transformation has achieved the special purpose for which it was intended.

The judgement becomes one of a functional category. (Reiss, 2000, pp. 90-91) Having outlined the markers or the informative function of the text type, the markers of the appellative function will be specified based on the genre conventions, which serve as identifying features, as triggers of expectations and as a guideline for text comprehension (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 168). Therefore, a few markers were specified to be looked for in the Arabic blurbs as it was done in the pilot project. These include the use of vernacular language, metaphors and rhetorical devices, based on [START_REF] Gully | The discourse of Arabic advertising: preliminary investigations[END_REF], besides wordplay, assonance and alliteration [START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the concept of transcreation-transcreation as 'more than translation'? Cultus[END_REF]. A rhetorical device "occurs when an expression deviates from expectation, the expression is not rejected as nonsensical or faulty, the deviation occurs at the level of form rather than content, and the deviation conforms to a template that is invariant across a variety of content and contexts" (Mcquarrie & Mick, 1996, p. 425) المضطرب المرتجف وقفة محرابها في التاريخ وقف Homonym (using two words that are similar in pronunciation but different in meaninghouses in its physical sens and its emotional sense as in having a place in the heart):

منازل القلوب في منازل يا لكِ Assonance (making last words rhymquloub and huroub (hearts and wars)):

الحروب سبب واللجاج القلوب، صدأ الحقد

At this stage of the analysis, cultural references were added, which may include proverbs, food names, songs, character names, symbols, entities, language-specific expressions and idioms (cf. González [START_REF] Davies | A problem-solving and student-centred approach to the translation of cultural references[END_REF]. To be more specific, cultural references are defined as:

Any kind of expression (textual, verbal, non-verbal or audiovisual) denoting any material, ecological, social, religious, linguistic or emotional manifestation that can be attributed to a particular community (geographic, socio-economic, professional, linguistic, religious, bilingual, etc.) and would be admitted as a trait of that community by those who consider themselves to be members of it. Such an expression may, on occasions, create a comprehension or a translation problem. (González [START_REF] Davies | A problem-solving and student-centred approach to the translation of cultural references[END_REF] The function-related criteria were specified to an extent that allows verifying them, and were intentionally not further detailed to avoid limiting the analysis and missing other cases that can reveal points of interest for the research. The set of markers was open to expand during the analysis.

The threshold of quality

Through looking at Table [START_REF]pdf&embedded=true?iframe=true&width=700&height=450[END_REF], page 95, the research at hand deals with translation criticism.

Hence, both issues and credits should be highlighted to help in the investigation and answering the research question. By using the term "credits", the expected practices of the studied genre are highlighted to examine to what extent they are present, while "issues" refer to any elements or aspects which hinder the flow of the message, which is an aspect observed in the pilot project.

Such a comprehensive approach should help in avoiding the traditional models of translation quality assessment whose initial focus is on the concepts of equivalence, literality and freeness of the translation, using subjective criteria (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, p. 95). In the field of localization, the concept of quality seems to be changing gradually given the functional nature of the localized products. For instance, Bouffard conceptualizes the quality of a localized site by the ability to reproduce the intentionality of the original even through reconstructing the skopos in a new communicational situation30 , while respecting the cognitive capacities of the user and taking into account the cultural, linguistic and pictographic norms of the target audience ( 2004). On a similar note, there is a tendency of putting several goals of the translation quality, as in a "good enough quality" used in informative texts and "quality similar or equal to human translation" used in texts which should be publishable (Eszenyi & Dóczi, 2020, p. 126). The criteria include only essential aspects that are necessary for the main function, i.e. for the text to be flowing and understood, and for the message to be delivered and perceived appropriately. Therefore, linguistic issues, including spelling, grammar and punctuation, will not be taken into account in the bilingual analysis as long as the message is read and understood correctly, i.e. if the spelling or grammar mistake does not lead to a different meaning or a difficulty in reading the text. This approach helps in limiting the research to its specific question, i.e. the function of the studied genre and the basic goal of localization. It also eliminates the need for quantitative results based on counting minor errors which do not necessarily affect the overall experience of the user.

Hence, the monolingual analysis aims to extract cases of two poles: texts with issues that prevent the translation from meeting the minimum function, and texts with verifiable constructs which relate to the target language and culture, and that are expected for this type of genres and in this context of localization. All the other texts which fall at the threshold of quality specified for this research were ignored in the monolingual phase. In fact, the fit-for-purpose translations are commonly used in localization studies, as "the user is less likely to be concerned with the literary quality of the text as long as the text's functional goal is met" (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 97).

Therefore, these excluded texts are considered to be functioning in terms of linguistic and cultural acceptability. They neither fully fulfil the desired function (the persuasive effect and expected practices, which are not always applicable anyway), nor do they cause cultural nuances or issues which prevent the user from getting the message. This is because "expectancy norms" are not static or permanent, they are open to modification and change (Chesterman, 2016, p. 65). Norm breaking can even enhance the function in some cases (ibid.). Therefore, the genre requirements should not be criticized one by one. More space should rather be given to explore how aspects of a genre may be changing or not in a different setting such as localized websites.

The monolingual analysis

After the specification of the criteria of the monolingual analysis, the selected websites were Repetitions were observed during the process, i.e.

the same text was sometimes used for multiple products which share similar characteristics.

However, these repeated texts were ignored and were not counted to avoid false or exaggerated results. The analysis at this stage resulted in selecting 283 blurbs, including 70 blurbs from high-tech products websites, 58 blurbs from the one furniture website, and 155 blurbs from the cosmetic products websites. The selected blurbs equal 12,000 Arabic words and 12,826 English words that will work as a reference in the next phase analysis. Table (2) details the number of the blurbs which were viewed and the number of the selected ones in each website. Examples on the excluded cases and why they were excluded will be provided later as part of the findings of the monolingual phase.

The bilingual analysis and reasoning

The analysis, with both phases, aims to be comprehensive, i.e. it should "account for what is present in the discourse as well as what is absent from the discourse" (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, p. 93). Moreover, TT criticism can have a limited role due to "the lack of reference to the original, and if it is to avoid such vague generalities as 'fluent translation', 'reads like an original', 'uneven translation', etc, it needs to be supplemented by a close comparison with the original" (Reiss, 2000, pp. 14-15). Therefore, the Arabic texts were compared with the English texts for reference to help explain the observations that the monolingual analysis generated. In case of observing issues in a translation, Reiss highlights the importance of reasoning:

In a negative criticism the critic should try to ascertain what led the translator to make the (alleged) error. On the one hand this process opens an opportunity for examining the background of the passage, of placing it in a broader context, and determining possible causes of the error, [...] (ibid., p. 4)

At this stage of the analysis, not only the reasons which caused the issues were examined, but also how the translations complying with the genre conventions were fulfilled, i.e. the strategies and procedures which were used to achieve such results and meet the desired expectations. This is because how something is transferred is as important as whether it is transferred and what is transferred (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 85). Therefore, the comparisons revealed several categories which explain the observed practices. These categories include reasons of existing issues in the translation, such as mistranslation, linguistic issues, calquing, or literal translation, the use of awkward or foreign terms, redundancy, cultural and pragmatic aspects, and other reasons which will be detailed with examples in the next chapter. The categories also include elements, aspects, strategies and procedures which helped in improving the text in its situation.

These include, but is not limited to, linguistic and cultural adaptations, the use of colloquial language, transcreation, and cultural references, whose definitions and concepts have been already

discussed in detail in theoretical framework.

Summary

This chapter explained the nature of the research and that of the corpus, with details on the corpus unit and its elements. It aimed to provide an overview of the practical part of the research.

It started by describing the process which was followed to collect and analyze the corpus. The target-based approach was based on criteria which were pre-determined based on the function of the corpus unit, i.e. the blurb. These criteria were also narrowed down to meet the purpose of the research. They were specified around the notion of the threshold of quality. The mono-lingual phase helped in detecting the previously set criteria, while the bilingual phase helped in interpreting the observed findings. The next chapter will illustrate the results of the analysis in the monolingual and the bilingual phases. The examples will illustrate how and why certain cases were excluded after the first phase, and how the maintained ones were interpreted and categorized.

While the results will answer the research questions to a great extent, the examples will provide more insight into the findings in a close-up view.

Part 3: Results and Discussion

The function of the text in the target locale

Following a target-based method to answer the research question, the findings provide more understanding of the actual situation of translation quality in international websites localized into Arabic. This chapter will sum up these findings in terms of the number of blurbs which correspond to the intended function according to the basic criteria set for this research, besides the observed markers in the monolingual phase. It will illustrate the percentages of two poles out of the checked blurbs: for the cases where transcreation was used (representing the high expectations of localization for the studied text type), and for the cases where the translation failed partly or completely to meet the function.

Findings of the monolingual phase

The monolingual phase focused on spotting the pre-defined markers, and evaluating the for trade across the borders. However, the cases found with such issues manage to deliver the message clearly without causing a cultural shock to the user, and without producing awkward word combinations. Examples on these issues can be observed by an Arabic speaker in the examples that will be provided in the next chapter but they will not be the central interest of the results. They were considered to be functioning, particularly that the adaptation level might have been required

to be at the minimum to reduce the costs for the client. Moreover, no statistics have been collected on these issues, in order to limit the results to the research question which concerns mainly with the function of the text. It is noted that such type of linguistic issues is introduced sometimes in advertising texts in Arabic, but this does not underestimate the negative impact they might have on the user's or certain users' experience(s). Figure ( 4) illustrates the percentages of the functional blurbs in the corpus compared to the selected cases. Moreover, below are a few examples on the functional blurbs which were excluded from the corpus.

RT Go Fresh Fresh Touch Beauty Cream Wash Enjoy the look of radiant skin and the refreshing scent of cucumber and green tea with this gentle hand wash. BT Hand wash liquid with a fresh touch Enjoy a skin that glows with health and freshness and has the fresh scent of cucumber and green tea with the hand wash liquid that is gentle on the skin.

In the example above, taken from the Dove website, the Arabic text is very similar to the English one in terms of words and syntax. The Arabic tagline seems to be a paraphrased version of the English text, but without introducing creative elements. The overall text is straightforward, clear, and functional. It delivers the same message of the reference text, using similar words.

RT Essentials Classic Beauty Fluid

We've enriched the Olay Classic Beauty Fluid with precious moisture-rich nutrients that work deep down in the skin and lock in its natural moisture.

TR Essentials

التجميل سائل

البشرة. عمق في تعمل بالترطيب غنية بعناصر أوالي من التجميل سائل أغنينا لقد

BT Essentials Beautification liquid

We enriched the Olay beautification liquid with elements that are rich with moisture that work deep in the skin.

In the above blurb, checked on the Olay website, the tagline does not have the word "classic" in Arabic. The part "lock in its natural moisture" is also absent. However, there is no evidence that these parts were omitted intentionally in the translation. They can be simply added later to the English text without updating the other versions. The Arabic text lacks dynamism, particularly due to the weak structure and repetition of "enriched" and "rich" which are derived from the same root and cause redundancy. Despite the aforementioned defects, the Arabic text does not confuse the user or shock him/her. It still provides the core message and achieves the intended purpose of the blurb.

RT

BT UP FOR EVERYTHING LASH MASCARA

A waterproof and eyelashes lifting mascara that provides incomparable curly eyelashes that last for 24 hours and ultra-voluptuous volume.

The last blurb was found on the Mac website. The Arabic translation has the last part omitted. Moreover, the word "eyelashes" is an object in Arabic, so it should be conjugated in the nassb case .رموشا However, this linguistic error did not affect the message or the style. Therefore, this and similar cases were excluded from the corpus. The above blurb, from the IKEA website, matches the English text in terms of syntax and style. The part "that keeps your table top clear" was translated in Arabic using the same English style, knowing that خاليا الشيء على ذلك يحافظ is not common in Arabic. It should be translated as يحافظ للعمل أكبر مساحة ويوفر الطاولة سطح خلو على .ذلك Despite of the linguistic error, the meaning was clear, the style was not completely odd, and the text was functional. There was no need to further analyse the strategies. The Arabic text does not even introduce any creative elements. Hence, it was excluded.

RT LINNMON / FINNVARD

RT The bright way to capture Make sure your images stay bright wherever you shoot. Galaxy A6+ features a 24MP camera with a faster, wide aperture F1.9 lens to let in more light when capturing in darker environments.

المظلمة. البيئات في الصور التقاط عند الضوء من المزيد بدخول وتسمح أسرع نحو على الصور تلتقط

BT A bright way to capture images Make sure your images stay bright wherever you shoot, because Galaxy A6+ features a 24Mega Pixel camera with a wide aperture F1.9 lens that captures images faster and lets in more light when capturing images in darker environments.

The above example was analyzed on the Sumsung website. The Arabic and international versions are very similar, including the tagline, which does not introduce any creative or attractive elements in Arabic. The translation does not have any issues either although the two texts indicate a possible literal approach. Nonetheless, the text is functional and does not necessitates any further analysis for the purpose of this research. The last example was retrieved from the Nivea website. The similarities between the reference text and the Arabic text are obvious. The Arabic text introduces a translation nuance in the tagline which can be understood as "protecting the antiperspirant". The word order and sentence structure could have been improved into التعرق مضادات توفرها التي الحماية for instance.

However, the meaning was clear from the context. It would not be detected by a user whose aim is not linguistic assessment. Moreover, the redundancy and stylistic issue caused by using "person" did not affect the message either. It could have been said otherwise as رؤيتها يمكن العرق رائحة من التخلص بها! والشعور Using an impersonalized approach. This and similar cases were excluded because they are functional in the context at hand, and do not include any of the pre-determined creative elements.

The monolingual phase resulted in selecting 283 blurbs, which include issues and/or expected function markers. The number of the blurbs which include issues (192) exceeds the number of those which include the expected markers (104), i.e. the compliance with the target language style and genre conventions discussed earlier. This finding is prominent in cosmetic product websites, where blurbs found with issues (126) outnumber those found with the expected markers (40). On the contrary, high tech websites show an opposite behavior. Blurbs with issues fall to 9 blurbs only out of 840 checked cases, while the blurbs which contain the expected markers go up to 63. At the same time, high tech websites take up the majority of those highly functional cases, i.e. 63 out of 104 cases of the corpus were found in high tech websites with the expected markers. The one furniture website in this study included 57 cases with issues, which is a significant number compared to the cases with the expected markers [START_REF]pdf&embedded=true?iframe=true&width=700&height=450[END_REF]. However, it is relatively small in proportion to the number of the checked cases (880). In fact, the number of cases with issues in this furniture website represents approximately 6.5%, while it represents 15.7% of the checked cases in cosmetics websites. The above results show discrepancies in the levels of quality based on the industry type.

At the same time, the expected markers of the studied genre seem to be more present in technology websites, accompanied with a low number of cases with issues. Therefore, translation with the expected quality meeting the function seems to be more favorable in the technology sector. The next section will present the results of the bilingual analysis. More specifically, it will show the number of transcreated cases, based on the adopted definition. It will also explain observations with regard to the approaches to product naming in the localized texts.

Findings of the bilingual phase

Upon the bilingual analysis, it was found that the number of the blurbs where the expected markers were spotted does not fully represent transcreated cases, based on the adopted definition (see the third chapter). After the comparison of the Arabic text with the English RT, only 69 cases correspond to the definition, i.e. 2.7% of the corpus (2524 blurbs). Interestingly, 14 out of the preliminary selected 104 cases were spotted in the monolingual phase due to having cultural constructs that relate to the target locale, but they turned out to be very similar to the RT after the second analysis. The transcreation cases were found in four websites only, two websites in the high tech industry (49 cases), and two others in the cosmetics industry (20 cases).

While cases with issues and/or function markers were selected, product names were observed too in the localized version. Product naming was not included specifically in the function markers, due mainly to the lack of a convention for translating such type of text in Arabic, and the shortage of research dealing with this problematic. However, the general approaches were observed in the bilingual analysis. No specific statistics can be provided in an objective way, as the selected blurbs were based on other criteria which did not include the product name except for cases of comprehensibility issues. Even though, the 283 selected blurbs in the monolingual analysis can help understand the adopted approaches at least per website. These approaches should be consistent to a certain extent in light of the unified approach that a client may prefer for the brand. In other words, the other non-selected functional blurbs should have followed similar approaches within the same website. Overall, and as expected, product naming is still transferred in an inconsistent manner in the Arabic locale across websites. Various approaches were observed, including untranslated or English names, translating, transliterating, using foreign non-English names, and other hybrid approaches, such as translating and transliterating, using English names with explanations, translation, or partial translation 31 , where a part of the name is translated and the rest is in English). Hybrid approaches were present as well within the one blurb, where the product name would be left in English for instance, but translated or transliterated in the body text.

Such approaches make the quantitative analysis even less accurate. Therefore, the table below shows the general approach(s) followed in each website of the corpus. The solid cells represent the dominant approach in a website, while the grey ones represent less dominant but commonly used approaches in a website. Certain websites were examined but their cells have been highlighted

with a light shadow, due to the relatively small numbers of selected blurbs.

Website Selected blurbs English Translation Transliteration

Trans./Trans.

Exp. + English Partial translation

Other foreign language

Dove 26        Olay 12        Mac 54        Ikea 58        Tresemme 5        Benefit 33        Sunsilk 3        Lux 0        Nivea 14        Essence 3        Gillette 3       
31 See [START_REF] Kassawat | The double function of language: an analysis of product naming and industry terminology in Arabic localized websites[END_REF] for a detailed analysis of product naming strategies. The table shows the inconsistency of approaches across the websites and within certain websites. For example, the product names in the first website are transferred into the target locale through at least five strategies. No clear relationship was found in terms of product naming in a specific industry, except for high tech websites which clearly use English terms. This also refers to the consistency of the approach which can be explained by the technical nature of the product itself and its potential target audience of youth and educated people who should be familiar with English. From another perspective, names in a foreign language other than English were found in one website only, which is that of the Swedish company Ikea. The products are presented under Swedish names that can be hardly pronounced by Arab users due to the lack of familiarity with the language. Although the approach was consistent across Ikea website, no rule can be drawn from it and applied on the related industry. This is because the approach can be used for specific marketing purposes associated with the preferences and goals of the company.

Braun 1        Herbal Essence 1        Samsung 35        Apple 35       
This chapter illustrated the findings of the first and second phases of the analysis. The next sections will provide more insight into these findings. They will go into detail to explain why certain cases were considered transcreated and how they met the function, and why other cases were considered erroneous. On the one hand, transcreated cases will be dissected in order to have more information into the transcreation process and components. On the other hand, errors which were found to have an impact on the function of the text will be categorized and interpreted.

Reasoning of the findings

Components of transcreation (Kassawat, 2020a) 32

As it was illustrated in the previous section, transcreation cases ( 69 were found to be used as integrated translation procedures in transcreation. The use of cultural references was present in 7 cases only, while colloquial language was limited to one case, possibly due to the need for consistency with the use of Standard Arabic all over the website. Below is a more detailed table with the transcreation components per website.

Website Rhetorical devices

Linguistic adaptation

Cultural adaptation

Cultural references

Paraphrasing Rhetorical devices+

Colloquial Dove 2 Benefit 3 5 3 7 32 The results were presented in the referenced paper.

33 See also [START_REF] Gail | The use of rhetorical devices in advertising[END_REF] Table

-Transcreation components per website

As it was mentioned earlier, 14 cases were identified in the first phase due to the locale constructs they have, but they were found to be similar to the RT upon the second phase. Therefore, they were not considered as transcreated. Interestingly, there seems to be common cultural references, and structures which resulted in a rhetorical style. However, this trend seems to be limited, as detailed below. Table 6 -Accidental transcreation -per website

Website

Issues affecting the function

Cases with issues were found to be double those with the expected markers. Although most of these issues were spotted in the first phase of the analysis, and were categorizable at that phase too, the bilingual phase provided more insight into why certain issues emerged, as in accuracy related issues which cannot be explained without a comparison with another text. The main issues which have an impact on the function are related to awkward collocations (37 cases), difficulty of understanding (34 cases), misuse of certain vocabulary (28 cases), linguistic issues (26 cases), and mistranslation (22 cases). Other issues were found to include redundancy, cultural distance between the texts which result in ideas that are unacceptable in the target locale, stylistic choices, using foreign terms which hinder the understanding of the message, using forms of address that do not suit the target audience, omitting information that are necessary for comprehensibility, and using unclear words. The figure below shows the issues found per website in detail. It is followed by detailed charts showing the issues in each website alone, except for the website of the brand Lux where no issues were found and the website is relatively small. The monolingual phase revealed less issues in the high tech industry in general, compared with cosmetics and furniture. This is represented in the charts below which show no linguistic issues affecting the function in the industry of technology, while even the other types of issues remain minimal. When it comes to the industry of furniture, there does not seem to be a pattern of a specific issue. The top errors are related to comprehensibility, accuracy, vocabulary and style, but with various numbers of other issues. The industry of cosmetics show significant linguistic and collocation issues which have an impact on the function. The next sections will illustrate examples of each of the cases, including transcreations and issues, in order to clarify the extent to which the determined markers manage to meet the function and/or the impact of the found issues on this function. Moreover, examples on product naming approaches will be given to discuss this important element of a blurb in meeting the function too.

Summary

This chapter aimed to provide a detailed description of the results, and to illustrate them in a way that clarifies the root cause analysis per website and industry. The findings of the monolingual phase helped know the extent to which commercial blurbs are linguistically and culturally functional. They showed that the vast majority of the checked blurbs are functional based

Existing practices in commercial blurbs

2.1.

Transcreation: a mix of procedures and solutions (Kassawat, 2020a) 34The transcreation cases found in the corpus consist of different components and solutions/procedures put in a different frame in the target locale. The examples below will show how transcreation was used mostly in taglines, as appellative elements in the blurb. The reference text (RT) will be presented first to clarify the context. Then, the Arabic translation (TR) will be provided, and followed by the back translation (BT) into English. A full list of the examples below along with their websites can be found in the annex.

Rhetorical devices as a transcreation component

Rhetorical devices have been found in previous studies as markers in advertisements.

Therefore, they were an expected marker of the function of the tagline in commercial blurbs. The first example shows the use of the metaphor "meeting place" to describe the characteristics of the mobile phone. It includes a linguistic error too. The preposition should have been replaced by the connector "and", i.e. والرقي التألق .ملتقى However, the metaphor reflects the device's two aspects of being elegant and refined, which exist in the English version. They are put in a new frame and image in Arabic, and combined in "the meeting place", with a syntactical shift of the structure.

Example

RT Elegantly refined

The Galaxy On7 Prime boasts a stunning brushed metal finish with zero camera protrusion to ensure an overall ultra slim design. Its enlarged screen features flowing curved edges for optimal viewing and comfortable single handed use. In addition to being a great desktop computer, Mac mini powers everything from home automation to giant render farms. And now with eighth-generation Intel quad-core and 6-core processors and Intel UHD Graphics 630, Mac mini has even more compute power for industrial-grade tasks. So whether you're running a live concert sound engine or testing your latest iOS app, Mac mini is the shortest distance between a great idea and a great result. BT A runner's speed. A wrestler's capability Mac mini is not only a tremendous desktop computer, it is also a device that is responsible of all tasks, starting from home automation processes to giant render groups. And thanks to eighth-generation Intel quad-core and 6-core processors and Intel UHD Graphics 630, Mac mini has now more compute power that meet huge professional tasks. So whether you're running a live concert sound engine or testing your latest apps on iOS system, Mac mini provides you with the shortest way to move from a wonderful idea to a great result.

The last example of this component includes the same metaphor in both the tagline and the body text. In the first occurrence, the metaphor "a captivating shine" is different from the English version "switch-on Wow" in terms of the words and idea. The Arabic translation sounds simple and short, but delivers the message well, while depicting the shine as a person who captivates/imprisons others. In the second occurrence, "a captivating shine" was used in Arabic, while the English text has "glow that's gorgeous". The Arabic use of the metaphor is slightly exaggerative but makes up for the omission of the product name "watt" that is used in English in a play of words which cannot be rendered in Arabic in a similar manner.

Example (4) RT Watt's Up! Cream Highlighter soft focus highlighter for face WHY WE LOVE IT Switch-On Wow!

Our soft focus highlighter turns on "watt" you got with a delicate rose-gold glow that's gorgeous. The creamto-powder finish is a switch-on "wow" for all complexions. You'll adore the smooth applicator. It can be noticed that metaphors were used more than similes in the last examples. This type of rhetoric comes from the simile, but it depends on impersonation, providing dynamism and life to objects (Al-Khouss, 1992, p. 111). Such use should enhance the function and persuade the user.

While the above examples showed how rhetoric is used as a transcreation component, the following ones will combine rhetorical devices with cultural references, the use of colloquial language, and translation procedures such as addition and linguistic adaptation.

Cultural references as a transcreation component

Cultural references can be used alone as a transcreation component. In the example below, the RT includes the expression "eye-opening" to describe the device's capabilities, while the Arabic text uses "eye-fulfilling", which sounds close to the English one but is more adapted to the Arab culture and language. "eye-fulfilling" is commonly used to express satisfaction, particularly in dialects. Moreover, there is more explanation/addition in the Arabic text as it starts the tagline by "a strong graphic performance" which explains the following expression before it is introduced.

Example (5) RT Graphics

Eye-opening graphics performance.

MacBook Pro features a Radeon Pro discrete GPU in every 15-inch model, combining impressive power with remarkable power efficiency. And now we've paired each discrete GPU with 4GB of GDDR5 memory standard, giving you fluid, real-time performance for pro tasks like rendering 3D titles in Final Cut Pro X.

The 13-inch model with Touch Bar features powerful integrated graphics with 128MB of embedded DRAM twice as much as the previous generationwhich accelerates graphics tasks. In Example (6) below, the translation was inspired by the Arabic proverb "death is death regardless of the causes", with the tweak of the subjects in both parts: "Causes" became "tasks" and "death" became "port". Therefore, the proverb was adapted based on the given description of the product. Although the main words of the proverb changed, it still rings a bell in the ear of the Arab user, due to its common usage in every-day language as well as in Standard Arabic.

Example (6)

RT USB-C. Singularly versatile.

The USB-C port puts everything you need in a port all in one place. It provides charging, speedy USB data transfer (up to 5Gb/s), and video output in a reversible design that's one-third the size of a USB 3 port, giving you the flexibility to easily connect your favorite devices. BT USB-C. The tasks may vary but the port is the same.

USB-C gives you all port usages in one place, as it provides charging, speedy USB data transfer (up to 5Gb/second), and video output in a design that works on both sides with one-third the size of a USB 3 port, giving you the flexibility to easily connect your favorite devices.

In the example below, the expression "at the size of the pocket" was used in Arabic to reflect the meaning of "pocketable". This expression is widely used in daily life and sounds colloquial. However, it contains Modern Standard Arabic words. Using a conversational style helped again in enhancing the message effect in a way that is familiar to the locals. It should be noted here that the end of the body text uses a metaphor too. "Whenever inspiration visits you" depicts inspiration as a person who visits the user.

Example (7) RT Design

Compact. Portable. Pocketable.

iPad mini features a thin, light, and portable design that makes it the perfect on-the-go companion. At 300 grams and 6.1 mm thin, it's easy to carry with you in one hand or take out of a pocket or bag whenever inspiration strikes.

BT Design

Small and portable. And at the size of the pocket.

iPad mini features a thin, light, and portable design that makes it a perfect companion while moving.

Because it weighs 300g and its thickness is 6.1 mm, you can easily carry it in one hand or take out of your pocket or bag whenever inspiration visits you.

In Example (8), the Arabic text seems pretty much different from the English one in terms of the idea. While the English text is straightforward, focusing on the health advantages the user would get out of the product, the Arabic text reflects the message in a more local way. It introduces an expression used in day-to-day language "leave the rest on us", which is used to express willingness to help and serve the other, and asks the user to relief.

Example (8)

RT Rest and relax for a better you Learn about your nighttime so you can feel better the next day. Galaxy Watch tracks your sleep quality, creating a log including 4 stages of sleep. It also monitors your stress levels to assist you with reduction through guided breathing.

TR

علينا الباقي ودع باسترخاء نم

The next example shows a different way to paraphrase. It was spotted in the monolingual phase due to the use of the exclamation mark and the verb "show off" that is commonly used by the targeted audience of the website in every-day language. Paraphrasing might be a less precise term for this case as the idea seems different from the RT. "Curl power!" in English is "show off your eyelashes" in Arabic. However, the essence of the idea was kept in that the "curl" gives confidence to the consumer to "show off". The addition of "eyelashes" provided more clarity, and was based on the product name and description. The play on words of "curl power" which sounds like "girl power" was lost in the translation. The first sentence of the body text includes "it'll leave you wide-eyed!" in the RT, while this part was not reflected in the Arabic version. It seems to have been merged with the first part "a wonderful and great mascara deal". This did not affect the function of the text though as presented to the user.

Example (10)

RT A wonderful and great mascara deal! Get the bestselling full-size and free mini mascara from Benefit to curl eyelashes. Roller Lash's Hook 'n' Roll™ brush catches, separates, lifts and curls all the lashes…while its formula ensures an instant curve for 12 hours.

Examples (11) was selected in the monolingual phase due to the obvious inspiration of the translation from the product name "stay don't stray" that was kept in English in the Arabic version.

While the product name refers to the product itself which holds eyeshadow, the translation of the tagline "stay as you are" addresses the user with the feminine form of the verb. Comparing the translation with the RT shows that both texts sound similar in terms of the idea, but used different wording and style that suits the target audience.

Example (11)

RT This dual-action power primer is applied 360 degrees around the eyes to fix concealers and eyeshadows so concealers stay fixed longer and eyeshadows remain vibrant and fixed. It also contains sodium hyaluronate known to hydrate and vitamins "C" and "E" which fight the signs of aging. show how they can be different and how they can intersect. Example (16) was selected in the monolingual analysis due to two phrases: "thanks to a rich lather that leaves a soft and silky touch on your hands", which is a metaphor, and "Say goodbye to the days", for the same reason. Other linguistic issue-related aspects contributed to the selection too but will not be discussed in this section. Upon the bilingual analysis, the translation was very similar to the RT in terms of the idea.

The part "feel like silk" was just written in a more common way in Arabic which includes the verb "leave" and adds the adjective "soft". The part "gone are the days" looks also very similar to the Arabic expression, with the change of the verb and the direct speech towards the consumer (the woman). Both parts were translatable in a way similar to the RT, but were rather modified slightly to suit the Arabic language and sound more natural. The reason of considering these cases as transcreated ones, or partly transcreated, is the introduction of creative elements, such as metaphors, which correspond better to the expected function.

Example (16) RT Hand Wash

With our hand washes, the everyday act of hand washing becomes an act of care.

We don't count the number of times we wash our hands in one day, but if we did, we'd realise that most liquid hand soaps get more action than our entire beauty bag combined.

Which is why we're so thankful that Dove hand wash does the hard work to give our hands the star treatment and care they deserve. The cleansers effectively wash away dirt and oil on the skin's surface, with a rich, creamy lather that will feel like silk in your hands.

Gone are the days when washing your hands was just an essential task -now it's an enjoyable step in your skin care routine. You might even find yourself sneaking off to do it again and again…

BT Hand Wash

With our hand wash group, everyday hand washing has become an act of care.

We don't count the number of times we wash our hands in one day, but if we did, we'd realise that we use the liquid hand soaps more than any other product to take care of our beauty.

So, we're thankful that Dove hand wash does this task and gives our hands the necessary stars care. The hand wash effectively washes away accumulated dirt and oil on the skin's surface, thanks to a rich lather that leaves a soft and silky touch on your hands.

Say goodbye to the days when washing your hands was just an essential task to do in the day, today it's a step that you enjoy in your skin care daily routine. You might even sneak off to wash your hands again and again…

The example below has also a similarity between the Arabic and reference text in terms of the idea, which is also related to the image in this unique case. In the RT, the adjective "sweet" refers to the word "surrender", while in Arabic, it refers to the product. Most importantly, while "surrender" is provided in a generic way in the RT, it is addressing the consumer directly, again.

Example (17)

RT sugarbomb ultra plush shimmering pinky nude lip gloss

WHY WE LOVE IT Sweet surrender!
Our plush glosses glide on extra smooth and feel ahhh-mazing. The six irresistible shades, from sultry nudes to punchy pinks, come in soft-squeeze tubes with a custom tip designed for perfectly even application. BT The sugarbomb ultra plush product shimmering pinky nude lip gloss why we love it Surrender to this sweet product! Our lip gloss products glide smoothly to give you a great feeling! The six charming shades, from attractive nudes to captivating pinks, come in soft-squeeze tubes with a custom tip designed for a perfect usage.

Shimmering pinky nude

Silky and smooth usage

Luxurious formula

In the last example of this component, the idea of the tagline in the Arabic text is different from that of the RT. While the English text employs the product name "gogotint" in the tagline, the Arabic text introduces another expression that avoids the name, which is untranslatable into Arabic in a way that reflects a similar effect. The product name was apparently replaced by "be ready!" but with the addition of the expression "our darling", which is common in Arab societies.

The idea of "readiness" seems to be used to produce a more linguistically acceptable text, but it changes the idea slightly. The RT includes the notion of motivation and courage to go, while the Arabic text introduces the notion of staying still and ready. However, it managed to achieve the required effect of the blurb. Within the body text, "pops till you drop" is English specific and has a play on words. The Arabic text uses a simpler expression that has the commonly used metaphor "captivating look". As for the other metaphors found in the monolingual analysis, they were similar to the RT and, thus, were not considered as transcreated because they are likely influenced by a source text, whether it is English or not. provided Arabic translation does not include any such sexual aspects in the text in a way that suits the target culture. Moreover, the second sentence in the body text, "this kiss of sheer color gives you the juiciest lips" includes similar connotations in the RT, but they were expressed in a simpler manner in Arabic as "this balm gives you captivating lips". Lips with a whiff of fruits!

The chachabalm product contains mango butter and sodium hyaluronate which protect and hydrate lips. This balm gives you captivating lips.

Mango colour

Shape-able colour

Softens lips

The next example seems simplified as well in the Arabic version. The tagline "very soft lips" does not include any creative elements, but when it is compared against the RT, it seems to have eliminated certain notions that exist in the English and other versions. The notion of "bliss"

was not present in Arabic. This can be due either to its potentially problematic consequences of such a religious notion, or the linguistic difficulty to reflect it in Arabic. The translation was recreated in a simple way. However, it should be noted that the "softness" notion in the Arabic version does not correspond completely to the nature of the product, which is a gloss. Moreover, "punchy pinks" in the RT is "alluring pink shades". The translation does not use the "punch" notion but the used word could not but introduce a relevant notion that can be suggestive too. It should also be noted that there are introduced issues, such as the unidiomatic translation of "tip" which was translated as "side" making it out of context and unclear.

Example (20)

RT The monolingual analysis aimed to spot the function markers which include cultural references and other locale-specific elements. However, the comparison of the selected Arabic texts with the RT revealed a great similarity in terms of the ideas, wording, and play on words. In the first example below, assonance was used in the words "cords" (hibal) and "mind" (albāl), but the words were similar to the English version. Although assonance was used as such in the English text, the similarity was reflected in a favourable manner for the function of the Arabic text. A similarity between the two texts can be also noticed in the translation of the body text, where no remarkable deviation exits at the word, phrase, and expression levels.

Example (21)

RT Goodbye cords, hello peace of mind You may not realise this, but the cords on blinds and curtains pose a strangulation risk for small children. We believe children are the most important people in the world, which is why we work hard to make homes safer. So, we set about adapting our range of blinds and curtains to make your windows as safe as possible. We spent four years coming up with safe alternatives, and where we couldn't, we simply removed the product from our range. BT Goodbye cords, hello peace of mind You may not realise this, but the cords on blinds and curtains pose a strangulation risk for small children.

We believe children are the most important individuals in the world, which is why we work hard to make homes safer. We started adapting our range of blinds and curtains to make your windows as safe as possible.

We spent four years coming up with safe alternatives, and where we couldn't do that, we simply removed the product from our product collection.

The next example includes "velvet softness" in the Arabic text, which is a metaphor commonly used in Arabic. It turned out that the same metaphor was also used in the RT.

Example (22)

RT BT EXTRA DIMENSION SKINFINISH/ EL SEED A luxurious face powder that is dome-shaped with light-brown degree and velvet softness provides the skin with a radiant final touch and comes in a limited-edition package that is rich with calligraphy designed by eL Seed.

The same finding was present in the tagline of the next example. Interestingly, the tagline rings a bell as it reminds the user with an old and famous Arabic song called "laughter, joy, seriousness, and love" وحب) وجد ولعب .(ضحك This title is highly culture-specific and enhances the persuasive function of the blurb. Despite the similarity of the idea and words used in both texts, the Arabic translation puts those elements in a different framework. The tagline was presented in a way closer to the song title. The word "work" was translated in a way close to everyday language but is still used in Standard Arabic. The word "laughter" was introduced in Arabic. Therefore, despite the similarity with the RT, the Arabic tagline can be considered transcreated as it was adapted to suit a completely different frame.

Example (23)

RT Work, learn, and play using AR.

Augmented reality combines digital objects and information with the real world to create entirely new experiences. iPad is the perfect device for truly immersive ARwith front and back cameras, the A12 Bionic chip with Neural Engine, a large, vivid display, and sensors for motion tracking. Augmented reality merges digital objects and information with the real world to create entirely new experiences, and iPad is the perfect device to enjoy augmented reality experiences that immerse the senses thanks to the front and back cameras, the A12 Bionic chip with the neural engine Neural Engine, a large display with vivid colours, and sensors for motion tracking.

In Example (24), the tagline as well as the body text look similar in both languages.

However, the RT includes the word "period" at the end of the tagline, indicating the seriousness of the subject. The same expression is also used in Arabic to indicate the same notion. In Arabic, the expression is also used in everyday language and would sound familiar to the Arab user.

Example (24)

RT Privacy and Security Your information belongs to you. Period.

Like every Apple product, iPad Air was designed with your privacy and security in mind. Touch ID makes unlocking your iPad Air simple and secure. And you can make purchases conveniently and safely with Apple Pay. Just place your finger on the Touch ID sensor and you're good to go.

204

The similarities found between the RT and the Arabic text in the cases above do not necessarily indicate literal translation, whether English was the source language or not. A translator should have estimated the extent to which an expression can be transferred as is safely into the target language. Therefore, transcreation is also about knowing when an element can function similarly in the target text and when it does not. It is also about knowing what and how much to adapt in order to deliver the same effect.

Colloquial tone as a transcreation component

Only one example of the use of colloquial language was spotted. In the Arabic tagline of the example below, the used word "mood" )كيف( comes originally from Standard Arabic, but it is commonly used in colloquial dialects, which makes it considered rather colloquial. The vocabulary used is widely common among young people, which makes the blurb closer to the audience of the product.

Example (25) RT Apps

Make your iPad whatever you want it to be.

BT Apps

With them iPad adapts to your mood. iPad Air comes loaded with Apple-designed apps for your daily usage, like photos, messages, mail, and Safari apps. You'll also get a group of powerful apps that help you be productive and achieving, including Pages, Numbers, and Keynote. And if you want to release your artistic creativity, just use GarageBand and iMovie.

As a general observation, simple language was used among the vast majority of the checked blurbs, i.e. Modern Standard Arabic that is usually understood by all the Arab users, and which is used in modern written materials. Some cases included simple vocabulary that sound like the words used in everyday language, but they are still derived from Standard Arabic.

This section aimed to provide some examples on transcreated blurbs. It provided more insight into how transcreation is done, what it consists of, and what elements it may have. The afore-provided examples represent the functional cases in the context at hand which correspond to the highest requirements of the studied text genre, and meet its function based on the predetermined markers. The next section will highlight the other side of the story of international corporate websites. Although the majority of the blurbs which were checked in the monolingual cases corresponded to the minimum standards of the specified function, there were some issues found in that first phase which needed to be analyzed. These issues will be focused on due to their impact on the function, whether on the linguistic or the cultural levels.

Errors affecting the function

This section will attempt to provide a few examples on the major issues which found to be affecting the function of the localized text. As seen in the illustration of the findings in section 9.1., the number of these issues is relatively limited, compared to the whole corpus. A categorization of the issues will be used for more clarity and detailed analysis. The category determination benefited from the TQA models discussed in the theoretical framework. The categories include issues related to: accuracy, collocations, vocabulary use, redundancy, linguistic issues, cultural distance, low comprehensibility levels, style, use of unclear foreign terms, audience, omission, and unclear wording. Some of these categories were determined as function markers for the monolingual phase. Others emerged during the bilingual phase of the analysis, such as accuracy and omission.

It should be noted that more than one error can exist in one blurb, but the examples will focus on one category at a time.

Accuracy issues

As it was mentioned above, accuracy or mis-translation issues were discovered in the bilingual analysis when the Arabic text was compared to the RT, due to issues found in the first The Arabic text of the next example ends with a confusing idea. Describing an eye shadow powder as being mixable is inappropriate. The general message can be understood in this context but the word choice is not logical. "Mix" suggests having bigger quantities of powder to be mixed, and it is usually used in recipes not with colors. It should rather have been explained while using a more appropriate word. A suggested translation would be closer to the RT wording using the verb "blend" .(مزج)

Example (27) RT EYE SHADOW

A highly pigmented powder that applies evenly and blends well.

TR EYE SHADOW

جيد. بشكل خلطه ويمكن متسق بشكل وضعه يتم الصبغة عالي مسحوق

BT EYE SHADOW

A highly pigmented powder that is put consistently and can be mixed well.

The next example contains an awkward word as well, "wrinkles", which does not correspond to the advertised product (a mascara). It should be translated using "curl" Example (29) has many instances of adaptation and transcreation similar to the ones discussed earlier. However, it introduces an awkward construct, "coloured fruity whiff". It indicates that the product has a smell of fruits, while it is about the color. In the RT, the corresponding part is "juicy colour". Moreover, the adjective "fruity" sounds awkward and uncommon in Arabic, let alone the combination of "whiff" and "coloured", which are contradictory noun and adjective. The above examples contain accuracy issues that were the result of different factors. In some cases, the misuse of vocabulary led to an incorrect meaning. In others, it was the illogical constructs introduced in the Arabic text. The next section will show examples of issues resulted from incorrect or uncommon collocations in Arabic, without necessarily affecting the overall message.

Collocations issues

The monolingual analysis took into account function-affecting factors. Not only meaningrelated issues should affect the function, but also the other linguistic aspects which make the text sound awkward, foreign, and/or weakly structured. Therefore, collocations were included as they led in many of the cases to texts that sound like a translation due to the mis-used collocations or using ones that do not suit the context of the blurb.

In the first example, the word "combating" (مكافحة) corresponds to "anti-aging" in the English text. Although the intended meaning is clear, the word "combating" is usually used in Arabic with social, economic, and political aspects, such as combating corruption and poverty.

Using it along with "skin aging signs" sounds awkward. It could have been replaced by a lighter word like "reducing" (التخفيف) or "limiting" من) ّ .(الحد It was used repeatedly in this and other blurbs in the website, which makes the error spread and become more visible. Highly absorbent muslin square textile made of 100% cottonperfect to use when baths, nappy changes and to protect the shoulder after the children's mealand always provides practicality as it is portable in a bag or jacket pocket.

Example (32) includes an awkward collocation in Arabic as well. It has "night sleep" where "night" is an adjective for "sleep". It is awkward because sleeping is known to be at night. Naps have a different word, of course. The translation is similar to the RT in terms of the words and structure. The tagline could have been translated as "beautiful days start with a good night" (األيام هانئة) بليلة تبدأ ,الجميلة where the adjective "good" means literally "carefree", which occurs more commonly with "night" to refer to sleeping without the need to mention the word "sleep" at all. Another variation can be "beautiful days start with a good sleep" هانئ) بنوم تبدأ الجميلة .(األيام Example (32) RT Good days start with a good night's sleep Jump-start your day with a good night's sleep. With the comfort and quality you get from our sturdy single beds, you'll wake up refreshed and ready to roll. To make more of your space, go for a bed with built-in storage or one that you can slide boxes underneath. And we have everything else, like a mattress or a duvet, to complete your bed in style. In the next example, "saggy tufts" was used in Arabic, while in the RT, it is "limp locks".

The Arabic translation uses an adjective commonly used with skin, while the product concerns the hair. Using that adjective does not clarify the message and can confuse the user.

Example (33)

RT Tired of dry, limp locks? A good conditioner helps to transform thirsty tresses into smooth and silky strands that look healthy and moisturized. Get ready to meet your match! TR ناعم شعر إلى الجافة الطويلة الخصالت تلك تحويل على جيد بلسم اختيار يساعدك والمترهلة؟ الجافة الخصالت من ِ مللت هل كال لك! المالئم المنتح إليجاد استعدي بالترطيب وغني صحي مظهر وذو حرير BT Have you got bored of dry and saggy tufts? Choosing a good conditioner helps to transform those dry long tufts into smooth hair like silk that looks healthy and rich with moisture. Get ready to find the product that suits you!

The above examples focused on collocations which were found to have an impact on the function. There is a slight nuance between these examples and the following ones which are on using inappropriate vocabulary in a given context but not necessarily in a collocation form.

Vocabulary issues

The corpus included cases where the vocabulary used was inappropriate in its context, without necessarily leading to a transformation of the meaning. The first example includes two words that do not suit the context and/or are used in an awkward syntax. The word "collection" is usually used for several items under a specific theme. However, it was used in this context to refer to a "combination" of pieces or functions in one piece. The word "related things" (المتعلقات) in Arabic is an adjective in the plural form. The word in the singular does not suit the context, and it is uncommon in its plural form. The word was not correctly integrated into the context and can be confusing for the user. It was followed by the word "products" in an attempt to clarify the intended message. The addition of "products" makes the part "related things" unnecessary. Another suggestion for the context would be "stationary" or "school necessities" المستلزمات أو (القرطاسية .المدرسية)

Example (34)

RT STUVA / FRITIDS Wardrobe, white, white When life revolves around school, friends and leisure, your child needs spaceand practical storage. This combination has space for everything from trophies and clothes to sports and school items. When life revolves around school, friends and leisure times, your child needs spaceand practical storage units. This collection has space for everything from prizes and clothes to sports gears, related things and school products.

The next example has "hectic morning rush hour" in the RT, which is expressed in the Arabic text as "feverish morning peak hour". The expression "peak hour" is not very common, but is still comprehensible. However, the word "feverish" (المحمومة) is very awkward in Arabic in this context. It usually refers to "having a fever" which is completely out of context and does not reflect the intended idea. This part could have been explained and translated as "even in the early morning when everyone wants to use the bathroom before leaving"

الصباح في (حتى الباكر استخدام الجميع يريد عندما الحمام المغادرة قبل )
. Other possibilities exist of course, but with an explanation as each culture might have different morning habits.

Example (35)

RT Find what you need (and some inner calm) Our bathroom storage organises things so everyone can calmly find their hairbrush, even during the hectic morning rush hour. We've everything from extra shelf units to storage stool in styles to match your choice of washstand and sizes to fit your space. Just take some measurements and browse through our selection to find the one that works for you. BT Find what you need (and some internal calm)

Our bathroom storage and cabinets organise things so everyone can calmly find their hairbrush, even during the feverish morning peak hour. We've everything from additional shelf units to storage seats in various shapes to match your choice of washbasin units and in various sizes to fit your space. Just take some measurements and browse through our selected collection to find what suits you.

The next example includes two issues in terms of the vocabulary used. First, the word "styling" (تصفيف) was used with "facial hair", but it is usually used with longer hair, and particularly with women's hair. It implies the meaning of a hairdo and does not suit facial hair. Instead, it can be translated as "shaving the chin with a specific shape" (ح ّد) محد بشكل الذقن لق . Second, the word "packages" (عبوات) refers to the box or container of the blades, rather than to the blades themselves.

Its use is inappropriate in this context because it confuses the user in that how a razor would fit packages. It can be understood from the overall context, but could have been omitted altogether as the word "blades" alone would have been clear.

Example (36)

RT FUSION5™ PROSHIELD™ CHILL RAZOR WITH FLEXBALL™ TECHNOLOGY Gillette Fusion5 ProShield Chill razors for men feature 5 Anti-Friction blades for incredible comfort.

With lubrication before & after the blades, it shields skin from irritation and cools while you shave. BT Jillette razor® Fusion5™ Proshield™ Chill™ for men Gillette Fusion5 ProShield Chill razors for men feature 5 anti-friction blades to get extreme comfort.

With moisturizing before and after the blades, it protects skin from irritation and cools while you shave.

It features FlexBall technology which responds to facial traits and gets almost every hair. The precise trimmer on the back is perfect for hard-to-reach areas and styling facial hair.

One razor blade package is enough for up to one month of shaving. Fusion5 ProShield Chill men's razor fit all Fusion5 blade packages.

Gillette Razors, formerly called Fusion ProShield Chill.

In the example below, describing eyebrows as "not having shape" in Arabic carries a negative connotation that can affect the user's self-esteem. It corresponds to "shapeless" in the English text, but it was translated in a way that sounds negative.

Redundancy issues

Redundancy can affect the function of the localized text due to the unnecessary length the user will have to handle online, where quick information should be provided. The first example of this category includes two expressions which refer to the same notion: "permanent" and lasts for The above examples of linguistic issues were selected due to affecting the function of the text, particularly its comprehensibility. Typo errors and grammatical issues exist in many other cases in the corpus but they were ignored when the meaning is clear or can be guessed. However, the selected issues can make an obstacle in reading the text, providing texts of lower quality, and thus, affecting the user experience. The user can leave the blurb or page if an idea is not clear or the message is not provided in a professional way. The next section will provide examples of a more critical aspect of the function that is related to the culture of the target audience.

Cultural-distance issues

While the goal of localization is adapting texts and products to the target language and culture, cultural issues were spotted in the first phase analysis. The issues found affect the function due to the obvious distance between the Arabic text and the Arab culture. In the first example, the tagline "touch your softer side" sounds close to the RT in terms of wording. However, "get in touch" does not equal "touch". While the English expression implies an emotional message, the verb "touch" in Arabic refers to the physical action. The tagline can be understood as "touching one's soft part of the body to feel how smooth it is". Such connotation does not fit into the context, and more importantly, it is inappropriate for the target culture. Another suggestion would be:

"textiles that suit the softness of your sensations" أحاسيسك) نعومة تناسب .(منسوجات The suggestion focuses on promoting the product through an emotional association of the textiles with the consumer's feelings, without hinting to body parts or using the verb "touch".

Example (44)

RT Get in touch with your softer side

We've put a lot of time into creating beautiful bathroom textiles that stay softeven after lots and lots of bubble baths. Because there's just something comforting about wrapping up in a clean, soft towel or stepping onto a warm bath mat. And we think those moments are worth enjoying.

the function negatively and, possibly, turn the user off the product and the company itself. The next example is highly culture-specific due to the name of the product, which is associated with the American culture. The name is associated with California and is based on a play on words, merging "girl" and "California". Taking into account that the name choice has marketing purposes, it cannot be adapted although California does not have a specific connotation in the Arab mentality other than the fact that it is a US state. The description, though, is depended on for more clarification. The tagline in the Arabic version "Who doesn't like the Californian girl's look!" remains ambiguous as the relationship between the Californian girl and beauty is unclear for the Arab woman. Other solutions might not be easy to find out due to the product name itself and the play on words in the text that needs to be kept in the translation.

Example (47)

RT Children grow fast, but with the STUVA combination you will not have to enlarge their furniture. You can choose a ready-made combination or solve it by your ownand fabricate the addition at any time while your child needs change.

In the next example, the first part of the body text includes two unclear ideas. First, "individual thing" is similar to the words used in the RT, but sounds out of context in Arabic. The word "individual" in Arabic (فردي) is used in counting items or people for instance, not to refer to something personal. The connotation was not clearly expressed. Second, "warmth ratings" was translated in a similar way to the RT too, without clarifying its meaning. The first two sentences can be translated as follows to provide a comprehensible and well explained message: "The concept of comfort when sleeping is totally personal, and that's why our duvets give you the possibility of choosing the warmth degree you prefer and the filling volume that suits you to enjoy a good sleep on your way." The example below includes a complex structure in both the RT and the Arabic version.

The part "get-ready-in-the-morning-without-thinking" is the adjective of "part" in the English text. In Arabic, the idea is unclear and the structure of the end of the sentence "without thinking about a part of it" is confusing. The first part of the body text can be translated as the following: "How do you get an organized hallway to be the corner that is ready to help you before going out every morning?" How do you get the hallway to be that stumble-free, get-ready-in-the-morning-without-thinking part of your everyday? Our different styles of shoe storage and coat and hat racks help make your outdoor things easy to get at without using up too much of your space. BT Shoe cabinets, and coat and hat shelves Coat, hat, shoes and go! How do you get a mess-free hallway and get ready in the morning without thinking about a part of it every day? We have different forms of shoe storage and coat and hat shelves that help organize your external things to access them quickly without using up too much of the space.

The next example introduces an unclear tagline that does not represent the intended message and the described product. The tagline should send the message that the pen allows the user to write on a screen as smoothly as on paper. However, the Arabic translation contains the word "nature" that carries the meaning of "mother nature" rather than "writing naturally". A suggested simple translation that reflects the intended meaning would be: "the seamlessness of writing on paper" The handy S Pen allows you to enjoy a natural feeling of writing just like on paper. The perfect thickness of the S Pen gives you a comfortable and convenient grip, while its enhanced pressure sensitivity with 4,096 pressure levels allow you to write out words and characters elegantly. The S Pen is also water resistant so it stays protected even when you are taking notes in the rain. The S pen

The S Pen allows you to enjoy the feeling of writing just like writing on paper. The perfect thickness of the S Pen gives you a very comfortable grip, while the enhanced pressure sensitivity with 4,096 pressure levels allow you to write out words and characters seamlessly. The S Pen is also water resistant so it stays protected even when you are taking notes in the rain.

The above examples represent several cases found under this category. They include having complex structures, transformed meaning, or unclear sentences that affect the main function of any text, which is being comprehensible and easy to understand. The next examples will represent style-related issues, where the expressions, structures, and words are uncommon in Arabic and sound like a translation from a foreign language.

Style issues

Style issues can be considered less impactful than accuracy, comprehensibility, and cultural issues.

However, they should be highlighted as style is an important aspect in the field of advertising translation, and the lack of a local and familiar style can affect the function negatively. In the first example, "bad news" was introduced in Arabic. The expression is not used in Arabic in such contexts, i.e. hair exposure to high heat. For the Arab native speaker, the expression "bad news" is commonly be associated with tragic news. An alternative can be through simplifying the expression and merging it with the following sentence as "it's bad, but we provide you with the heat protectant spray…" الحرارة. The examples above represented a few cases with style issues in the corpus. These issues are mainly due to using a foreign-like style in the Arabic text. This seems to be caused by the influence of the source language, whether it is English or not, over the translation. The next section will highlight another problematic area in the selected cases, which is about the use of foreignnames in the Arabic text in a way that hinders the user's understanding of the message.

Foreign-term issues

Foreign names and terms are widely used in Arabic advertising. This is due to their potential positive impact on the audience. A few cases were found in the corpus where foreign terms and product names were kept in English or transliterated instead of being translated. This was found to have an impact on the function of the text. The first example shows how several terms were transliterated in the sentence: "palette", "eye shadow", "highlighter", and "metallic". Most of the sentence was transliterated although the terms have common Arabic equivalents: ,"لوحة" عيون" ,"ظل إضاءة" ,"قلم and ."معدني" The use of transliteration for some terms can be interpreted by the need to sound trendy, but it can also be unclear or uncommon for many communities. It should be noted The next example has a similar issue, where the masculine form was used instead of the feminine form in the verb "massage" in the tagline. It can be noticed that the descriptions above include words and style that are usually not used to promote men's products, at least in the Arabic language. The style overall and the nature of the product indicated the need for a linguistic adaptation to suit the target audience.

Omission issues

One case was found in the first phase analysis in relation to omission as a cause of the malfunctioning text. In this case, other than the comprehensibility issue in the structure of the description and ambiguity of the message, there is an omission of the unit after the number.

Unclear wording issues

This category was also limited in the corpus. Only three cases were found with unclear wording. In the example below, the translation "contouring design" الكونتوري) (التصميم is uncommon and unclear in Arabic as "contouring" was transliterated. A research of the transliterated term revealed that it is found mostly in contexts related to architecture. However, it can be confusing for non-specialists, particularly that the context itself is related to technology. Another translation would be "the stylish touch around phone" الهاتف) محيط على األنيقة (اللمسة or any other explanative translation. consistent approach was found to be using foreign names in a language other than English, Swedish Example (67)name translation and transliteration RT Olay Natural White Cleansing Face Wash For All Skin Types 100 ml Olay Natural White Cleansing Face Wash thoroughly cleanses your skin to bring it one step closer to a beautiful fairness. Its rich and complex formula with only natural ingredients works to inhibit melanin production and help restore your natural radiance. This gentle foam cleanser removes all impurities from your skin, including traces of make-up, and prepares your skin for the next steps of daily your beauty routine. The next example has an English product name in the Arabic version but with a simple explanation, the word "lash kit" الرموش) ّة (عد which clarifies the nature of the product. The explanation in this case helped having an idea of the product from reading the tagline. The English name by itself would not have been clear. The approach was also consistent within the body text.

Example (68) -English names with explanation RT Let the others talk about your eyelashes beauty with the Debutante Lash lash kit! These soft and separated lashes gradually curl upwards for a cat-eye look. Longer lashes at the outer corners make the eye shape look long and beautiful.

The example below illustrates how the product name was partly translated. "Natural White" was in English and "day lotion" was translated. However, the same approach was not adopted in the description, where "Olay Natural White" was transliterated. This example represents several cases that lack consistency in product name transferring approaches in Arabic.

Example (69) -Name partial translation RT Natural White Day Lotion Olay Natural White Day Lotion is the ideal day-time protection for oily or combination skin. It effectively blocks out UVA and UVB radiations that may darken and damage your skin. This lotion nourishes skin from deep inside to reveal its inner health and radiance.

Olay Natural White Day Lotion contains no chemical bleaches -its pure natural ingredients make your skin look milky, translucent white in just 2 weeks. It is ideal to cover up dark spots, freckles and sun spots and also acts as a base for make-up. The above examples were on the approaches which were inconsistently used in the studied websites. The goal of this section was only to sum up the general observations obtained during the

Discussion

The results being illustrated and representing examples being provided, the following discussion will attempt to interpret the results in relation to the theoretical framework. It will start by a brief reminder of the background of the research question, how it was addressed, and what findings resulted from the followed method. The discussion will then evolve, attempting to find common patterns and correlations with previous research. It will also underline any differences and contradictions which might exist between the findings and the existing theories. The discussion will evaluate the methodology followed in terms of its sufficiency for the research question, besides how it can be developed to be used in similar research. Finally, the significance and value of the results will be shed light on in terms of how they fit in the field and what they add to existing research. Moreover, more about the limitations of the study will be shared. The challenges faced during the corpus compilation and the analysis will be detailed along with ways to help prevent them in the future.

Localization: from definition to application

This research focused on the localization of websites, given their widespread and increasing accessibility. It started off by a discussion of the definitions of localization in TS and the industry. Then, it was oriented towards the linguistic and cultural adaptation aspect of localization. The literature review revealed a shortage of studies on the textual content in the Arabic language, particularly in relation to TS theories. Moreover, conventionalized genres were found to be under-researched as well. Therefore, the study revolved on commercial blurbs localized into Arabic on international corporate websites. This kind of texts falls into underresearched subjects. In addition, there are few studies on the textual part in the advertising content in the field of localization. This research attempted mainly to estimate the extent to which localized advertising texts of commercial websites are linguistically and culturally adapted to meet their intended function. This problematic generated sub-questions concerning the potential effect of the channel on the function of the text, how to define this function, and what impact the globalization process has on the textual content. appropriateness and familiarity for the target market, and the conceptualization of localization in TS, which emphasizes the user's expectations and discourages equivalence relationship to a source text (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 18). Having said that, most of the studied corpus corresponds mainly to the linguistic aspect of localization, i.e. the "textual modifications" (Yunker, 2003, p. 17) or language transfer. The tendency to transfer only the linguistic elements of the texts makes localization far from the standards of the industry and those of translation proper. In comparison with the Onion Model [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations -Software of the Mind -Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival[END_REF], the textual content on the localized websites remains mostly at the surface, i.e. the "Practices" layer and manages to reach the "values" layer only in few cases. This comparison corresponds with what TS scholars consider as remaining on the "shallow level" of cultural adaptation due to the difficulties encountered when dealing with the "deep level" of the value system (Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF].

What follows is an attempt to interpret the obtained results based on the theories, in terms of notions such as the function of a text and the translation quality. The impact of quality will be highlighted with regard to culture in particular. The methodology used will be also discussed in order to benefit from the lessons learnt from this research and to suggest a general outline to approach the quality of localized texts.

The functions of the localized blurb

This section will discuss in detail the appellative and informational functions in the blurb in light of the obtained results. It will also shed light on the internationalization factor and its potential influence on the convention, besides the process of localization in relation to the resulted quality.

Remarks on the appellative function

The tagline and product name are the two main elements concerned by the appellative function. This was discussed theoretically and observed in the results and the examples illustrated earlier. The examples of transcreation cases showed various strategies, procedures, and solutions. This confirms Gaballo's definition in that transcreation is a "holistic approach" (2012) or a "genrespecific strategy, or sub-strategy" (Kassawat, 2020a, p. 76). Although other forms of trancreation might exist if a bilingual analysis is done for each blurb, the selected cases showed how transcreation is applied for a specific genre only, using the conventional markers.

Despite the relatively low number of selected cases, observations were possible with regard to the intonation and language used. In general, simple Arabic that is close to day-to-day language was mostly used, influencing the choice of some cultural references and local expressions, as in examples ( 5), ( 7), ( 8), ( 14), ( 18), (20), and (24). High-register Arabic was avoided, which is a practice that suits the marketing purposes in addressing a wide range of audience. Although the language used was Modern Standard Arabic, which is used in formal settings and in writing, the tone was simple and the messages were clearly expressed. In a few cases, a slight influence of rhetoric from the Arabic literature and official discourses was observed, as in examples ( 1) and ( 13). Yet, the messages were clear and simple. These observations can be interpreted by the emotional reading done to adapt, which is influenced by the translator's knowledge of the genre and the audience's cultural package [START_REF] Vandal-Sirois | Le traducteur et ses cibles : lectures analytique et empathique en adaptation publicitaire[END_REF]. Colloquial language was not commonly used. Example (25) included a colloquial-like expression. It sounded colloquial but it used vocabulary from MSA. This also corresponds to the general tendency of the simplicity of the used language. Traits of modernity were added through making Arabic words rhyme with English words, as in Example (2). This can be attributed to the need to sound modern, attractive, and westernized (Friedrich, 2002, p. 22). Old proverbs were adapted to feature the product in a witty way, as in Example (6). These examples made use of the rich Arabic language and culture and helped instill them, enriching Arabic through recycling some cultural references that might be used less nowadays. The translations also seemed to enhance certain social and cultural values sometimes. In Example (11), the created message "stay as you are!" أنت!) كما (إبقي confirms that women should not change to become pretty.

The study have revealed how and when transcreation is mostly used in the industry, in light of the "internationalized text" [START_REF] Pym | Globalization and the politics of Translation Studies[END_REF]. It is important to note that although the data withdrawn from cosmetic products websites of this study indicated a low number of transcreation cases, the appellative element in those websites was mostly the product name itself. The tagline did not include other persuasive elements neither in the RT nor in the Arabic text. Therefore, the source text should have been written in the first place in a way that does not necessitate creative approaches. The examples indicated a tendency to use creativity when using similar words of the RT would lack dynamism, or would sound heavy or incomprehensible in Arabic. Therefore, the nature of the source text should have been an important factor that determines the translation strategy and quality. An exception in cosmetic product websites with this regard was that of Benefit. It indicated a higher number of function markers, including cultural references, word play, metaphors, and slang, compared to other websites in the same industry. When compared to the RT, the latter was also found to have culture-related expressions and references. Similarly, hightech websites present taglines with play on words or attractive expressions in the RT even through using simple words, which shows the general approach of the website. Hence, the assumption that can be withdrawn from these findings is that texts which are difficult to translate literally, or have culture-specific references, are more likely to motivate following adaptation and creative approaches in the translation. This goes in line with Gaballo's description of transcreation as "a strategy to overcome the limits of 'untranslatability'" (2012). In such case, transcreation works on adding a cultural layer to the target text, rather than applying a "cultural filter" between the ST and TT (House, 2015, p. 57), whether the ST contains culture-related references or not. In addition to the product type as a factor which determines the translation strategy, the internationalization approach seems to play an important role as well.

While it is unknown in this study whether the ST was internationalized or not, the above assumption questions the need for internationalization in the process if creativity is required. The results included very few cases of transcreation where the Arabic text was similar to the RT in terms of the words, syntax, and idea, as in examples ( 21), (22), and (23). The excluded cases seemed to be neutralized in the translation due to the lack of any markers. They seem to have been made according to "pre-fabricated equivalences" (Pym, 2004, p. 57), and unified aspects of cultures [START_REF] Bouffard | Localisation et variation linguistique. Vers une géolinguistique de l'espace virtuel francophone[END_REF]. The selected cases were between transcreated and problematic texts. Therefore, simplification and neutralizing the ST facilitates neutralized and simple translations too. This, in turn, contradicts the statements which point out the position of the target culture in localization, and changes the common standards adopted for the localized genre, i.e. advertising in this case. Therefore, "the characteristics and norms of an established text type can change under the influence of the process it undergoes, and the influence of the nature and function of the 'source text'" (Kassawat, 2020a, p. 86). This goes in line with the findings of a previously discussed study [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF], where genre conventions in the target language were not followed. However, it cannot be applied to all the studied samples. In high-tech websites, the Arabic translations reflected a deep understanding of the target language and culture, although the international version can be considered neutralized to a certain extent.

Based on the above, and in association with the theoretical discussion of this thesis, the internationalized text is made for translation purposes as well as for targeting an international audience. It also has a double function for translation: it is made to accelerate the translation with less problems, and/or open the door for cultural customization when needed (ibid.). The first function helps in providing low-cost and fast localization with a comprehensible and culturally neutral content, i.e. with "zero distance" (Nord, 2005, p. 150). The second one allows applying major modifications in the goal of rendering the required message effect (Kassawat, 2020a, p. 86).

Hence, the results highlight both the function of the translated text and that of the source text. They also shed light on the similarities of approaches and solutions used to meet the function in translation and transcreation.

From another perspective, internationalization provides a general product that is ready to "adapt" to a specific market [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF], or extracting any peculiarities associated with a certain system to reach the "zéro spécifique" [START_REF] Gouadec | Le bagage spécifique du localiseur/localisateur : Le vrai « nouveau profil » requis[END_REF]. However, to adapt, there should be a problem (untranslatable element, cultural reference, or foreign style) in the ST to be modified in the first place. Otherwise, there would be no need to adapt and literal translation would be sufficient. Based on the obtained results, the similarities between the localized version and the RT, besides the lack of local markers in the excluded cases, indicate a literal approach in the translation in general. In other words, creativity was not significantly present in the corpus, nor was the local look and feel35 . This can be attributed to the lack of dynamism in the ST. In addition, the differences between the RT and the Arabic version indicate more transformative approaches. The RT included play on words and creative messages, as well as the Arabic texts. Therefore, internationalization seems to aim to facilitate literal translation where persuasion needs are low or with less sensitive contents, while it aims to provide a row material for transcreators that is easy to understand, given the simple vocabulary used, and easy to modify and/or re-create. Hence, adaptation can be perceived as an obligatory procedure, while transcreation can be an obligatory or optional strategy to meet the marketing purposes.

Other foreign non-English names were also used, as in Ikea website, where the names were presented in Swedish. Moreover, the Ikea founder received the Nordic Language Award of 2017 for promoting the Nordic languages and culture around the world38 . Although the original country and culture of a product can enhance its marketing, the approach does not align with the definitions of and expectations in localization. In other words, the product naming approach is sourceoriented, not target-oriented. Swedish letters might not be as easy to read as the English alphabet for Arab people, particularly for those with humble knowledge of foreign languages. While this applies to speakers of other languages, the approach shows that there is an additional function of names, and of localization in general. It seems that localization in this case promotes the source culture and language, and helps in selling products globally at the same time. Whether English or non-English terms were used in the translation, the foreignizing approaches used might serve the marketing function, but there is little evidence of their effect on the user's decision. For example, a study on fashion brands found that Arab consumers consider marketing in Saudi Arabia different from the global market regardless of the fashion brand names (Busnaina, 2014, p. 15). Moreover, meanings of loan words are not always transferred to the other language because they are understood in their real context [START_REF] Mousten | How streetsmart marketers try phishing customers: (mis)communication or missed communication through loan words[END_REF]. This can be particularly important with products which target a wide audience of different education and economic backgrounds.

The procedures followed in transferring product names vary in the corpus, and do not represent a specific convention. This goes in line with findings of other studies that showed a lack of the expected convention (Jiménez-Crespo, 2011, p. 144). However, in Arabic, the results reflect a lack of convention for translating these elements in the first place. They can also indicate that "[g]enre conventions are not universal, but linked to a certain culture at a certain time" (Nord, 2005, p. 21). This can be attributed to "globalization and the introduction of new products, which are fabricated in certain countries and promoted in others, using non-traditional channels" (Kassawat, 2020b, p. 39). Although issues with the convention were expected, the inconsistencies were not. Inconsistent translation of terms can be attributed to skipping certain steps in the preparation phase of localization. For instance, testing brand names or creating new ones [START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF] might have been skipped due to time and budget restrictions. Inconsistent approaches can also be due to the lack of details in the brief, making translators struggle to come up with hybrid solutions and formula to transfer the terms [START_REF] Kassawat | The double function of language: an analysis of product naming and industry terminology in Arabic localized websites[END_REF]. Moreover, transliterated names were long in many cases, or several terms were transliterated successively (see Example (36)), which makes them difficult to pronounce and understand. Whereas foreignizing procedures were massively used, "reverse localization" (Schäler, 2007[START_REF] Schäler | Linguistic resources and localisation[END_REF] seems to be present in this appellative element at least. This research resulted in discovering a wide range of procedures used with brand names, compared to studies with a smaller corpus and range which only showed foreignization procedures [START_REF] Obeidat | Translation strategies in the English-Arabic e-brochures of baby care products[END_REF]. The scale of the study allowed to discover inconsistencies within individual websites and in the Arabic locale in general. It pointed out possible reasons of such inconsistencies in relation to the process, the budget, and the client's image.

The above discussion aimed to highlight specific patterns and areas noticed in the results, such as how localization can enrich the target language and culture when the function markers are enhanced in the translation. It also attempted to interpret the transcreation tendencies in relation to the internationalized or simplified text. Product names and branding were also discussed briefly, given the limited quantitative data obtained from the research. However, the discussion revealed the relationship between the position of the corporation at a global level and the consistency in employing foreign names. More importantly, it addressed an uncommon practice which contradicts the concept of localization through promoting the source culture. The next section will discuss another side of the results, which deals with the issues found.

Remarks on the informational function

A relatively small percentage of the corpus (8%) contained issues, rather than the expected function markers. This proportion needs a discussion as it doubles the percentage which has the expected markers (4%). Given the absence of access to the process, this section will attempt to interpret the resulted issues in light of the knowledge gained early in the research.

To start with, the general observation which can be made out of the obtained results is the similarities between the RTs and the Arabic texts in terms of the vocabulary and syntax used. This can be interpreted by adopting literal approaches, which led to issues at the level of language and the culture. For instance, collocations were problematic in several cases. Although the context might not be available for the localization language agent (LLA), a certain level of linguistic awareness is expected at the level of two words, as in Example (33) where the adjective is suitable for the skin and the noun is related to the hair. Similarly, Example (30) includes a noun that does not suit the words used in the same sentence. Moreover, the employed collocations are not common and seem influenced by the ST, as in Example (32). It should be noted that these issues can be due to the use of machine translation, whether the texts were post-edited or not. In other words, the LLA can be held in charge but the process should also be taken into account. The "start text" (Pym, 2013, p. 492) should have had an influence on the agent too. It can encourage laziness and prevent the agent from using his/her own linguistic package as a native speaker. As a result, the agent has an option to accept and pass without or with little edits. The same reasoning applies to issues related to cultural distance as in examples ( 45), ( 46), and (47), where cultural references are similar to those in the RT. In such cases, the mechanic work of reviewing and/or editing a "start text", and comparing it quickly with the source text and glossary, can put time pressure on the agent who would overlook any potential cultural issues. When the source text is neutralized, cultural issues become less frequent, making their identification require more attention and sensitivity. The [START_REF] Tatilon | Le texte publicitaire : traduction ou adaptation?[END_REF] and an ignorance of the expected relationship to be achieved between the target recipient and the message (Nida, 2012, p. 142). The results show a tendency to modify the surface, as compared with the reference text, i.e. adapting the form, rather than adapting the message or concept where needed (Guidère, 2000, p. 124). The observations indicate a tendency to use the "ventriloquizing voice" [START_REF] Mossop | The translator's intervention through voice selection[END_REF], rendering the "writer's" voice (in the case of localization, multiple writers might cooperate). This, in turn, is leading to a distance from the knowledge of the recipient, i.e. the "distancing voice" (ibid.). This tendency is the opposite from what was discussed in the previous chapter, where transcreated cases show a use of the "neutralizing voice" (ibid.), where the linguistic biography of the native agent is used. In fact, the voice-selecting process proposed by Mossop can have intersections, as seen above. More importantly, the "ventriloquizing voice" applies to both sides, the audience and the writer (ibid.). This represents the bright side and the dark side of localization. Mimicking the voice of the "writer" often leads to a lack of dynamism and strangeness in the target locale. Mimicking the voice of the audience enhances the function and persuasion thanks to using what the recipients expect. Both sides intersect with the "neutralizing voice" and the "distancing voice".

Another important issue identified in the analysis was the tendency to use redundant sentences. This causes an issue in general, as lengthy sentences are difficult to understand. On commercial websites, redundancy can reduce the user's motivation to read and, as a result, lead him/her to leave the web page. Therefore, redundancy should be considered a major issue in digital content in particular, as it can affect the user's experience negatively. This can also be due to depending on the "start text" without attempting to shorten and improve it as long as the used terms and the reflected message are acceptable from the point of view of the agent(s). However, linguistic issues which affect the function of the text can be attributed to the agent, at least partly, as in Example ( 42). Other factors which can lead to such issues are TMs containing errors. Agents do not always have access to edit 100% TM matches, which leads to accumulated errors that keep circulating in the content even when it is updated. Another factor that can also cause redundancy issues is the potential lack of instructions to use short sentences, the lack of a brief and/or style guide or the provision of an unspecific one. Such resources should guide the agents to the client's expectations, in case the observed issues are considered as such in the first place.

A few cases were found with less frequent issues, such as those with incomprehensible foreign terms which were transliterated although they have a commonly-used translation in Arabic.

The tendency to address the audience with a trendy language seemed to be frequently used. For example, transliterated terms led in some cases to the opposite effect due to the complicated words generated from the chosen strategy. Moreover, issues related to the audience were few but indicate similar potential causes of those mentioned earlier, as in examples ( 58) and ( 59). The causes include the lack of context and use of machine translation where the masculine form is assumed to be standard regardless of the context. The nature of localization projects can also contribute to such issues. For instance, segmented texts are sometimes presented in a random order, which makes it difficult to guess the logic of the text flow and the addresses. In addition, working on small projects, which contain updated segments out of their context, i.e. "decontextualized text" (Canım Alkan, 2017, p. 511), can also lead to standardizing the pronouns of the text. Besides, "chunking" (Pym, 2005, p. 21) is also used to enable multiple agents to work on the text, which leads to coherence issues, let alone "spreading literal approaches due to the restrictive nature of the texts" [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. Less frequent issues included the use of unclear words, which can be the result of the lack of glossary in the first place. The preparation of glossary and other languagespecific resources starts at the beginning of the localization process, but building these materials continues throughout the work flow, particularly with new content being added and updated on the website, with new terms to be added or existing terms to be changed to suit newer contexts. As for omissions, they can be interpreted by the lack of attention to the details or the absence of the review phase, as in Example (66).

The importance of the product names makes them susceptible to have a major impact on the image of the company. While high-tech websites show consistency in using English names which suit the target audience of the youth and educated users who like to be trendy, cosmetic product websites generally show an inconsistency of the translation strategies. This can be due to the lack of a Style Guide, a brief, and/or a glossary. Updates and use of TMs can also lead to inconsistencies, particularly that the LLA might use a strategy that suits the segment he/she is working on regardless of the other segments. Based on the above, it can be noticed that the process and work flow can be considered factors which affect the quality of the localized text, regardless of the human skills employed.

The role of the translation technology used in the process seems to be highly important, while compromising the linguistic output as it was noticed in some cases. The importance of technology is also clear from the LSPs presentation of their services and from Figure [START_REF]pdf&embedded=true?iframe=true&width=700&height=450[END_REF] which shows the evolution of the technology used in localization over time. Tools have been developed to facilitate management and the workflow, but not to enhance awareness for cultural and linguistic issues. These seem to have been left for the translators to treat, who might have tight deadlines, technical issues with the tools and platforms used, or a lack of training or brief from the client. Moreover, QA is ideally supposed to take place on the textual content as well as on the functionality of the website. However, with the observed issues, this seems to be used for limited clients, or only on the technical aspects. These aspects relate to the internal resources, such as the project glossary, numbers and number formats, tags, and untranslated segments (Drugan, 2013, p. 84). On a side note, regarding the case of Arabic, tools do not seem to spot linguistic issues which are usually spotted in other languages. Many such issues were observed in the corpus, while they should have been spotted by the automatic validations. These issues also include punctuation marks which were used in their Latin form in the Arabic text. As mentioned earlier, Anastasiou and Schäler (2010, p. 12) distinguished localization from translation by the fact that the former deals with the visual part and the latter with the textual part. Comparing this point of view with the above interpretation, there are major intersections between the act of translating and the localization process, which affect the textual output. However, the localization process does not deal with the textual elements at the micro level, or beyond the engineering work and the presentation of the text on the website.

Putting the burden of the linguistic issues on the LLAs should be logical in a collaborative industry, where each agent is concerned with his/her task. The lack of understanding of the function of the text, as seen in some examples, refers to a shortage of awareness on the side of the LLAs, let alone the fact that non-translators might contribute as well to the edits. This is, of course, related to the partial role translation plays in localization (McDonough Dolmaya, 2018, p. 346). In addition, the notion of "context" has been essential in most of the translation theories. However, dealing with texts without context is rarely discussed. This was observed as a major issue in the studied corpus, even in the excluded cases, where dynamism could have been achieved if the context was clearer. The translations seemed pale sometimes, even when they are comprehensible and fulfil the minimum of the function. The theories that solve translation issues in localization can be considered scarce. This is mainly due to the uncomfortableness of facing unclear concepts and the interdisciplinary industry of localization [START_REF] Van Doorslaer | Bound to expand: the paradigm of change in translation studies[END_REF]. The scarcity of theories is also reflected by the absence of discussions on localization in TS conferences, and viewing localization as a business model, rather than a phenomenon related to translation (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 99). The outcome observed in this research indicates a gap that LLAs suffer from the most. This gap is due to the complex process of localization, the various levels of investment made in project management, and the shortage of orientation to better understand the expectations, whether from the educational institutes or the industry. While this might be achieved to a certain extent in a few countries, this interpretation is based on the results obtained from the Arabic locale.

With regard to internationalization, it was discussed earlier in terms of the simplicity it provides to the text at the level of language and culture to facilitate the translation phase, avoid incomprehensible elements for the target cultures (Yunker, 2003, pp. 268-269), and reduce the costs [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF]. While it is not known whether the studied websites had gone through internationalization before translation, or not, the cultural neutrality observed reflects a certain degree of simplicity. However, this simplicity is being rendered in the translated versions.

Although it helps avoid issues caused by cultural distance, which were minimal in the corpus, the resulting texts present awkward styles and incomprehensible messages. Moreover, it was noticed that taglines in most of the cosmetics websites consist of the product name. They are deprived of any language-or culture-related marker, unlike "richer" taglines of high-tech corporate websites, which include in many instances play on words even in simple ways. This strategy of cosmetics websites facilitates the translation, particularly where the name is transferred through a foreignizing strategy, at least the Arabic version does not meet the requirements of the studied genre. This due to the lack of dynamism and the use of a straightforward approach. The results correspond to what Pym claims on internationalization as "the efficient assurance of equivalence in translation" (Pym, 2004, p. 54). Moreover, the analysed texts, whether in the first or second phase, contain a native-less tone. While this cannot be easily analysed, a lack of native conventions was dominant due to the cut sentences, complex structures, neutral styles, and foreign terms. These aspects indicate an imitation of or assimilation to another text. This, in turn, implants new conventions and triggers the emergence of new genres in the "less powerful locales" (ibid., p. 62).

The validity of these conventions and the acceptance of these genres should be proved or denied over time. However, the obtained results indicate using assimilation and neutrality in less visible contents, compared to high-tech corporate websites which are rich with locale-specific markers.

In other words, new conventions still have to prove validity and efficiency. Claims that "internationalization would spell the death of cultural difference" (ibid., p. 37) are thus applicable in certain contents only, whose function does not require major cultural adaptations. This section discussed both the appellative and the informative functions in the corpus, and how they were met or failed as shown in the results. The next sections will go beyond the corpus.

They will present reflections on the notion of quality in localization, in light of the results. They will include thoughts with regard to translation and localization training. The latter will be a brief hint only as it is not the main concern of this research. Then, the cultural impact of localization will be highlighted to expand the framework of discussion of localization and translation beyond the text. Moreover, TQA models will be viewed from a slightly different perspective, after having obtained empirical results.

The notion of quality in localization

The literature review highlighted how the notion of quality in translation has changed to fit the requirements of the industry and the needs of the users. At the same time, the results proved this change, given the various levels of quality found in Arabic translations. This corresponds to the relationship between the web localization processes and the client size (large, medium, small, volunteer, or individual businesses) (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 29). However, the literature provides little about the relationship between the localization process, quality, and the type of business. The results helped understand the variations of translation quality, based on the industry type as well as on the corporate size, which in turn influence the content visibility and the need for high quality translation. On the one hand, the results revealed more local and genre markers in high-tech corporate websites, where the business is relatively large and the content is highly visible, given the importance of the image of the business. On the other hand, cosmetics and furniture corporate websites had less markers and more issues. The results can be also interpreted by the fact that users, at least in Arab countries, tend to purchase high-tech products more online, while they purchase cosmetics and furniture in-store. Users can also look at descriptions of several high-tech products to compare and have an in-depth understanding of the features before going to purchase their choice in-store. On the contrary, cosmetics can be directly chosen in-store or in the supermarket. Furniture items are tried in the store as well, particularly those of large sizes. At the level of the audience, the term "user" seems to be generic. A "user" of a commercial website can be an ordinary consumer, but can also be a merchant. Depending on the marketing strategy, the corporation can address its website mainly to merchants. In such case, high quality and attractive texts can be considered an "over-investment" (Pym, 2000a, p. 189) compared with the desired outcomes. If a website is intended to serve merchants, localizing the technical aspects and providing basic linguistic transfer should meet the purpose. This is particularly practical given that a third of the localization budget goes for translation [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF].

From another perspective, high-tech corporations can be considered more competitive than cosmetics and furniture ones, which corresponds to what Guidère explains, as conformity with the original is a tendency in segmented markets in order to reduce the costs (2008, p. 51). Moreover, Drugan's QA models (2013) can also be used to interpret the results. While the content-based model is where the QA level is tailored based on the content type, e.g. its level of sensitivity, the purpose-dependent model is based on the user and the budget, including the client's size (ibid.).

Nevertheless, cosmetics websites might have a less-than-expected quality of translation in the blurbs, but might provide a better quality of legal texts due to their sensitivity. Therefore, there are intersections between the obtained results of this research and these two models, in terms of the corporate size. However, there is no mentioning of the visibility of the content and the type of the promoted products. As for the function of the text, Torresi (2010, p. 25) found that the need to transcreate increases when the function is highly persuasive and less informative, but the results show that this is only applicable at the "segment" level. In high-tech websites, where transcreated cases were more common, transcreation was present mostly in the taglines. The body paragraphs of the blurbs were informative. Hence, the main function of such texts can be considered informative, but transcreation was used in parts of the text. In addition, the corpus included websites promoting various products and industries. The results show that the expected markers accompanied with little issues are associated with high-tech websites, which advertise products with a relatively short life. New high-tech products are released more often than items of furniture and cosmetics. Therefore, short-life products necessitate more persuasion and, thus, more dynamism and high textual quality.

Comparing the results with Singh and Pereira's categories of localized websites [START_REF] Singh | The Culturally Customized Web Site: Customizing Web Sites for the Global Marketplace[END_REF], the textual translated content cannot be easily defined. While "standardized", "semi-localized", and "localized" websites (ibid.) were excluded since the preparation phase of this study, the analyzed websites go mainly under the "highly localized websites", which have customized URLs, translation, and technically adapted elements, and the "culturally customized websites", which show a complete "immersion" in the target culture. However, this categorization is marketing-oriented. For instance, cultural immersion can be represented by the visual elements of a website, rather than the textual parts. The results of this research did not aim to classify the textual types of websites. Nonetheless, they helped in obtaining a deeper insight on how texts can be treated by: "mechanic linguistic transfer", "minimal fit-for-purpose adaptation", and "full linguistic and cultural transformation". to the client's budget and purpose of the translation. While the former can be defined by a researcher, the latter cannot, due to the need for internal knowledge which might not be available even for the working agents. While there are several studies on the function of the text, there seems to be little attention paid on the function intended by the client in translation, and how it affects the quality. Financial matters in the translation industry receive little focus in TS. The localization industry has brought different kinds of services and levels of quality that suit each client's financial capabilities, deadlines, and resources. These services include, but are not limited to, post-editing, light post-editing (as a final touch on a MT), spot-check reviews, full reviews, and services defined by the time spent. Each services can focus on a specific aspect of quality, e.g. accuracy over style, correct spelling and grammar over terminology, or technical aspects over micro textual aspects of a localized text. Transcreation is also one of these services, which proved to fulfill both functions mentioned above. However, although calling transcreation an "extra service" (Munday & Gambier, 2014, p. 20;Chesterman, 2019, p. 19) blurs the concept of translation itself, it can be considered better than calling light post-editing as a translation. To look at the positive side of the story, and in light of the increasing demand for translations, providing focus-based services should have an advantage to the translators. In such services, translators should not be expected to endeavor to provide a "perfect translation", particularly if their wages do not correspond to the work done. The downside is, of course, the impact of the resulted quality on the target language and culture. This can be a major impact if the sensitivity and visibility of the content is not estimated accurately.

Based on the above, a text can be translated with various quality levels, depending on its visibility and sensitivity, the importance of the market for the corporation, the cost, and the function of the source text (Kassawat, 2020b, p. 87). Therefore, "the culturally and linguistically neutral approach is not necessarily associated with dealing with new genres but also to other economic and source-text-related factors which shape the function and strategy of the translation, over and above the workflow itself" (ibid., p. 86).

Another element which can have an impact on the target culture is product and brand names. Although the subject has received attention in research of different languages and cultures, localization revives it in a different light. The inconsistencies observed, the lengthy transliterations, and the non-conventional approaches hint to having a foreign effect intervening in a possibly shocking manner. For instance, examples (30) and (36) contain both English words and transliterated words in the same tagline. Example (55) has a full tagline consisting of English words. Although these approaches have been used in Arabic advertising, the excessive use that lacks organization should be unusual for the Arab user. Many of the examples contained transliterations of terms which already have an Arabic common equivalence. This phenomenon will have to prove its acceptance in the target language and culture, and its relevance to more people to create a norm [START_REF] Chesterman | Memes of Translation: the Spread of Ideas in Translation Theory[END_REF]. Moreover, new conventions can be viewed as enriching a language. Conventions generated from new genres, e.g. digital genres, should have a similar impact. This can only be done if they survive and find their way into a culture (ibid.). On a similar note, conventions apply to vocabulary, grammar, structure, and punctuation [START_REF] Reiss | Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained[END_REF]. As a result, they are associated with the genre (ibid., p. 169). When conventions are "raised to the status of social norms" (Nord, 1997, p. 53), even minor linguistic issues, including those which were excluded in this research, should have an effect on the language on the long run. Users' expectations can get lower when they become used to foreign styles, complex structures, and linguistic issues. The vast majority of the corpus was excluded in the first phase because the texts meet the minimum of the function. However, they do not necessarily meet the language and genre requirements, leading to functional content with genre deficiency in many cases.

Reflections on localization training

The importance of localization training in Translation Studies has been highlighted by several authors discussed briefly in the literature review. The results of this research can also help in finding key areas of localization training that might need to be focused on further. The translation of several websites was found to be functional to various degrees, whether by using locale markers or by providing the minimal expectations. Moreover, dominant approaches of literal translation in this and other studies do not necessarily indicate a lack of translation competence or a lack of linguistic and cultural knowledge in the agents. Localization language agents (LLAs) are not expected to always transcreate or to stuff local references in every text. Moreover, although technological knowledge is seen as insufficient without translation and linguistic competencies (Jiménez-Crespo, 2013, p. 166), such sophisticated skills are not always required. If a website does not receive high traffic, its content is not highly visible. Therefore, creative translations, and even error-free translations, might not be critical for the client. This is especially important in terms of the budget. In some cases, LLAs might be required to only meet a function that is as limited as evaluating a MT and post-editing to the minimum. This is particularly demanded with low-visibility content with less need for stylistic improvements or creativity [START_REF] Arenas | What do professional translators think about post-editing[END_REF].

Translators in such missions cannot be considered as unprofessional or lacking competence. On the contrary, they need to have a different set of skills which enable them to judge a "start text" (Pym, 2013, p. 492), or two source texts (O'Brien & Conlan, 2019, p. 82), including MT, previously determined terminology, and TM matches. Translation memories, in particular, have been viewed as a barrier to creativity and an inciter of laziness for beginner translators [START_REF] Leblanc | I can't get no satisfaction!' Should we blame translation technologies or shifting business practices?[END_REF]. Thus, translators would need to know when and to what extent they should postedit and improve the translation. Consequently, a person with a technological knowledge with natural linguistic skills would not be able of performing this task successfully. The task still necessitates linguistic and cultural skills to distinguish what needs to be edited and filter out what is working. More importantly, it needs problem-spotting and problem-solving skills which enhance the work speed and efficiency. The results show a gap in this area, given the frequency of the linguistic errors in general and those which affect the function negatively in particular. Based on professional experience, and in limited scenarios, LLAs are being asked to learn how to resist the urge to edit and to refrain from over post-editing. Such kind of services is provided to clients with content of low visibility or with straightforward content, where the user is aware of the context and does not need to be persuaded, as in instructional or FAQs pages. Therefore, university programs might need to address the notion of function in a more elastic way. Students usually learn how to provide a "perfect" translation, while they also need to learn to be flexible and to be aware of different demands for "not-so-bad translations" as well as "very good translation". This is critical for time management as well, as the time given for MT-PE is obviously less than the time allowed for creative contents. At the same time, calls for taking the "transcreational turn" to distinguish professional from volunteer translators [START_REF] Katan | Translation at the cross-roads: Time for the transcreational turn?[END_REF] sound exaggerative and generic.

All content is not creative. On a different note, translation has always focused on the context. In localization, the lack of context is often a major reason of misunderstanding the message and providing an out-of-context translation. Therefore, translators need to acquire the skill of researching and working independently sometimes to deal with cut-out texts, besides their knowledge and understanding of the domain at hand, and their cultural package.

Given the results of this research, localization needs to be re-defined in TS to reflect the reality with regard to the requested quality levels. Modern approaches to quality have already emerged in TS, such as "fit-for-purpose" translations [START_REF] Bowker | Fit-for-purpose translation[END_REF]. Therefore, the notion of quality needs to be approached more clearly to help students and practitioners in addressing the challenges and meeting the requirements. It was mentioned earlier that disciplines such as marketing seem to view translation based on old theories (Jiménez-Crespo & Singh, 2016, p. 253).

There might be a lack of developed TS theories which fit the localization requirements better. Some translation and localization agencies recruit agents based mainly on their linguistic and technological skills, but provide them with training on specific tools and about each client's expectations. This indicates an awareness by these agencies of the potential lack of knowledge in the education systems. For instance, the functionalist theory is known and taught in TS, and it is applied in localization. However, less freedom seemed to be taking place in the studied corpus, given the similarities between the translated texts and the reference texts. This can be due to the traditional approaches which focus on the loyalty to the source text and the author, which is inherited from translating religious texts and literary works, where both the "author" and the source text have strict positions. The tendency of literal translation in Arabic in association to religious texts was pointed out by Darwish (2008, p. 67). Furthermore, in light of the use of controlled language, simplified, or internationalized content, TS seems to be still lagging behind on how to deal with such source text. Now that there is more collaboration between translation and writing [START_REF] O'brien | Moving towards personalizing translation technology[END_REF], the function of the translation will need to be defined further in each project. Moreover, translation students will need to learn the function of the source as well, and how to distinguish the elements or aspects which need to be kept from those which need to be adapted. The nature of the source text in localization, where applicable, has received little attention in TS. It was noted that university courses of localization tend to focus on translation technology (Pym, 2014, p. 41), and the need to include cognitive and communicative aspects of the translation of digital content was highlighted [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Applying Corpus Data to Define Needs in Web Localization Training[END_REF]. Nonetheless, the evolution of "literacy expectations" (Cronin, 2012, pp. 477-478) does not seem to be reflected on the translation practices yet. Textual aspects, such as simplicity and perceptibility [START_REF] Göpferich | Comprehensibility assessment using the Karlsruhe Comprehensibility Concept[END_REF] applied in CL, are often needed and expected in digital content, where the need for fast reading is high. In addition, issues such as spotting cultural references and knowing how to transfer them have been pointed out in research (González [START_REF] Davies | A problem-solving and student-centred approach to the translation of cultural references[END_REF]. The results of this study show that these issues are becoming harder to solve by the translators, with the absence of cultural references in other versions (the RT in this study). The lack of dynamism in the translations indicate a mirroring approach of a culture-less text, or missing adaptable constructs due to their minimal presence.

A model suggestion for website localization criticism

The literature review discussed several TQA models in TS, which helped detail the criticism model to adopt in the context of website localization. Although the adopted method helped in answering the main research question, the following aims to suggest a model based on this experiment that can also be applied in future research on localization criticism. The discrepancies between theory and practice necessitate new approaches to the notion of quality in both TS and the industry, which takes the liberty to provide services with various degrees of quality that fit the purpose of the client. While the notion of the purpose was highlighted in Jiménez-Crespo's definition, "achieving the communicative purpose for which the localization was commissioned, rather than equivalence relationships to source texts" (2013, p. 18), it was noticed in the analysis of this study that the communicative purpose often encourages equivalence relationships, which are clear from the lack of dynamism in the translations and the similarities with the RT words and syntax. The "communicative purpose" seemed to be different from the marketing purpose. While the former is about the text genre and message transfer, the latter is about the importance of the content, its visibility and sensitivity, and how critical the market is.

Therefore, models of quality criticism need to take these factors into consideration.

This study provided a new insight into the relationship between the translation quality standards in TS, learning from the functionalist theory and the existing TQAs, and those in the industry, including factors such as the workflow. As it was discussed in the fourth chapter of the first part, TQAs in TS tend to focus either on the process [START_REF] Drugan | Quality In Professional Translation: Assessment and Improvement[END_REF], micro-textual or macrotextual factors. However, external factors which affect the quality of a localized text rarely accompany the textual aspects and the assurance of the function. The external factors include, but are not limited to, the access of the critic to the internal knowledge (Pym, 2004, p. 28), e.g. the process, the tools, the client's budget, the brief, the agents' experience, wages, and deadlines; and the degree of sensitivity and visibility of the content (Mossop, 2014, p. 151). Taking these external factors would be helpful in both criticism and assessment, in TS and in the industry. For instance, a meaning error can be considered major in a legal content, but not necessarily so in a less visible commercial content. Similarly, a linguistic or cultural error in a highly visible advertising text can be considered major or even critical if it affects the image of the company, while it is minor in less visible texts of less known companies or on websites with low traffic. In addition, the adopted methodology of this research showed the importance of analyzing the roots of issues to a certain extent. This aspect also needs to be given an important position in criticism models in order to provide neutral and realistic feedback. What follows is a suggestion of a model of criticism for website localization. It makes use of existing models of criticism in TS discussed earlier, such as Nord's model ( 2005) which provides a functionalist method and that of [START_REF] Larose | Méthodologie de l'évaluation des traductions[END_REF] which provides the main components of criticism. It attempts to integrate the lessons learnt from this empirical study, to enrich and adapt these existing models to suit the current and continuously developing processes of translation in the localization industry.

The diagram below provides steps which help a critic determine the purpose of the task of criticism itself first, i.e. for research, industrial, or other purposes. The diagram integrates internal resources which might not be always available for the critic, such as the brief, the source language and text, the tools used, the workflow, the budget, human resources, the client's size and position, and the skopos of the client. Integrating these internal resources and process-related factors should provide more neutrality and comprehensiveness in criticism, although they are not binding for criticism to be performed. The diagram progresses, whether these internal information are available or not, into textual aspects. The critic should be able to determine the text type and genre, the degree of sensitivity and visibility of the analyzed content, and the function(s) (informative, persuasive, etc.). Once the general function is defined, more specific aspects should be set.

Criticism can be partial or comprehensive. It can focus on accuracy, general style, web style (conciseness, clarity, and simplicity), linguistic quality (grammar, spelling, and punctuation), cultural acceptability, handling of technical elements, or the functionality of the content in context.

The purpose of criticism defines aspects to be analyzed. To analyze each aspect objectively, its markers need to be defined prior to the analysis. These markers can be general and/or genrespecific, and they ensure meeting the intended function. Specifying these markers ensures a neutral measurement of the extent to which a localization agent managed to handle that aspect successfully and whether the text meets the function or not. The above are only preparation steps to be taken before the actual analysis. The analysis starts with assessing the function of the target text. This step can be error-based or qualitative. Depending on the purpose of the criticism, it can focus on either intra-textual or extra-textual elements, or both of them. For multi-country markets/locales, the country of the analysis should be limited depending on the purpose as well. At this stage, the severity of an issue is determined by the level of sensitivity and visibility of the content. For instance, cultural acceptability might not be critical in a legal text of a global nature. After assessing the TT, it is compared with either a reference text in another locale, or with the source text, if available. This step helps in checking whether the text in hand reflects the same or similar effect, and whether it carries a similar meaning. At this stage, the critic should take into consideration that one of the compared version might have been updated without reflecting the changes onto the other version(s). Therefore, issues such as omissions and additions might not be spotted, unless they affect the logic of the message. In such case, the issue should have been spotted

previously in the monolingual analysis. Finally, the critic performs a root cause analysis to find out potential reasons for the issues and possible factors which enhanced the text. This can be in relation to the text of comparison, in addition to the internal information where available.

The proposed model is flexible depending on the purpose of the criticism. It can be used for a qualitative approach, given its inclusion of the cultural aspects, and providing procedures of objective measurement of qualitative textual aspects. It can also be used in quantitative methods, where error count is required in the purpose, including qualitative errors. A combination of methods is feasible too. Moreover, some steps are modifiable. For example, if the purpose is to assess the linguistic quality of a text in a specific language, there would be little need to specify the genre and the function, or to compare with the source text. In this research, the internal knowledge was not available to the researcher. Even though, the discussion above provided some interpretations based on theory and practice. Moreover, the TT analysis focused on selected aspects in the content and excluded others. This, of course, has led to limiting the research with respect to certain aspects, such as the linguistic quality. At the same time, the results answered the main research question and highlighted areas which were not considered prior to the analysis. The next section will show in further detail how this research contributes to TS and the translation industry.

It will also pinpoint the limitations it has, and how these limitations can be addressed in future research.

Significance and limitations of the results

This research dealt with the translation quality on websites localized into Arabic, in terms of selected aspects of the text. It aimed to explore the extent to which websites are adapted linguistically and culturally to suit the target market. The results answered this question and revealed other areas which were not in the scope of the study. These areas include product and brand naming conventions per industry and the lack of a convention in certain industries. The results also showed how transcreation is being performed and which elements constitute it. They also pointed out key issues at the textual and cultural levels, which contradict the goals of localization. The results provided insight on the quality of advertising texts on the Internet. They pinpointed the strengths and weaknesses in the translation of this genre in light of the localization process and requirements. Comparing the Arabic text against a reference text revealed how much similarities there are, which provided more input on the potential effect of the internationalized text, if applied. The similarities between the compared texts revealed an assimilation tendency that is dominant in the selected cases. The results went in harmony with several previous studies in terms of the mirroring approach which seems to be dominant in the industry. The results supported previous discussions on the effect of globalization and the internationalization phase on the translations. However, the findings contributed with empirical information to existing knowledge on the relationship between the quality, the localization requirements, and the type of the industry.

As for the methodology, it benefited from TS previous research in both advertising translation and in localization. It employed the functionalist theory in this website localization study. Although existing criticism models provided insight into the general design, the research attempted to improve and add to these models. It made use of the notion of the function, but defined it further through determining its markers. The methodology proved to be effective for the research criteria and requirements. Along with the results, the adopted methodology paved the way for a proposed model of criticism which can be applied in localization research. The research method and the proposed model integrate the functionalist theory in website localization criticism, which adds a different dimension to how this theory can be applied. Moreover, root cause analysis enhanced the interpretation of the results and added more input into the study. It helped decode what transcreation is and how it is done. Attributing the observed issues to possible causes enlightened the gaps which exist in the process and how these gaps affect the function of the text.

Researching the potential reasons of the issues and the enhancing factors of transcreation has fostered the neutrality of the analysis. However, it should be noted that the exclusion of many functional cases since the first phase could have led to missing other kinds of transcreation components. On the one hand, comparing each blurb with the reference text could have revealed more about transcreation cases where other markers might be used. On the other hand, performing a full comparison would have gone beyond the research scope, which is specific to finding local markers indicated by other studies in Arabic or other languages. Moreover, the number of blurbs which were checked in the first phase (2524) is relatively big and time consuming, compared with the possible additional results which might have been generated. On this note, depending on the target-text analysis according to Nord's model [START_REF] Nord | Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis[END_REF] proved to be practical and suitable for the nature of localized websites, given that the obtained results were sufficient for the research problematic. While the linguistic aspects were beyond the scope of this study, including them in the analysis would have provided quantitative data on the amount of linguistic mess on the web. This would have also enriched the knowledge on the impact of localization on the target cultures and languages.

While no corpus can be considered representative of the Internet, localized websites limit research, particularly with a relatively restricted presence of certain markets in certain industries.

Therefore, the number of websites that were included in the corpus, the type of industries they relate to, and the number of cases analyzed carry a certain degree of liability. The volume of the corpus and number of samples, accompanied with the sampling method, eased the way for obtaining reliable results. However, given the fact that the research is limited to a specific locale and a specific text type, "a lack of generalizability does not necessarily invalidate a research project" (Saldanha & O'Brien, 2013, p. 36).

The corpus would have been narrowed down to a specific industry or product type. Dealing with texts on different products, which target different audiences, did not allow specifying the analysis for a certain group with a particular level of education and economic capability for example. The analysis addressed the texts through basic criteria which are expected to be met for any group of users. Hence, the volume of the corpus had a positive impact in terms of the issues found in a specific industry, which was not an expected factor at the beginning of the research.

The pilot project was the indicator of expanding the corpus, due to the limited number of the local markers found in the sample. However, it paved the way for exploring more websites and obtaining more generalizable results.

One of the challenges which the research encountered was the methodology to follow. The literature review enriched the design of the research though discussing various theories and points of view on the translation quality and its assessment. More importantly, despite the availability of proposed models of evaluation in the field of localization [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF], there is little knowledge on criticism in localization research. Translation and localization quality assessment models depend heavily on spotting the errors, which is the required function of these models.

However, the research question necessitated pursuing a general picture on the existing practices and translation quality, including the "good practices" as well as the issues. Therefore, this research managed to draw a customized design which suits the nature of the localized corpus and goes in line with TS theories. Another challenge was determining the source language of each website. As it was explained earlier, website URLs are usually marked by a locale code, but there is no clue to find out which locale/version was used as the source. Therefore, the notion of the "reference text" was used to progress on the safe side and to avoid generating illegitimate assumptions on the observed practices and adopted translation strategies.

To sum up, the design of the research managed to address the key areas and allowed exploring other aspects too. Despite the limitations, the results can be considered sufficient and within the scope of the study. They added some empirical insight on the quality of translation on websites localized into Arabic. They also shed light on important factors in localization to be taken into account in the translation practice and in TS. The methodology benefited from the functionalist theory, which is commonly adopted in localization research. The corpus included fifteen websites of international corporations localized into Arabic. The websites included three industries: technology, furniture, and cosmetics. The corpus collection was based on a target-text-based analysis. This monolingual phase aimed to spot predetermined local markers, which enhance the function, and issues which affect the function negatively. This phase resulted in excluding 88% of the checked blurbs which meet the minimum requirements of the function. The rest of the blurbs included 8% of cases with issues and 4% of cases with the expected markers. These blurbs were pushed into a second phase of bilingual analysis. The Arabic texts were compared against a reference text (the English international version). In this phase, root cause analysis was performed to understand the potential reasons of the issues and the enhancing factors of transcreated cases.

The initial results indicated a higher quality of translation in terms of the determined local markers in high-tech websites. These websites had very few cases with issues (9 cases), compared with websites of cosmetics (192 cases). The one furniture website had one case with the expected markers, but relatively less cases with issues compared with cosmetics websites. The selected cases of this stage revealed inconsistent approaches of product naming in most of the cosmetics websites.

However, high-tech websites presented consistency with this regard, using English terms in the translation. Non-English names were only present in the furniture website, spreading the language and the culture of the country of origin of the supplied products. The inconsistencies of product naming in several websites in the corpus mean a lack of common convention in Arabic, and an influence of the marketing approach on the translation strategy. This can also be applied to the level of the translation quality published on each website. The results on this stage uncovered various levels of quality associated to a great extent with the size of the corporation and the sensitivity of its public image, such as technology corporates. These initial results contributed to existing theories and previous research through highlighting the relationship between an important aspect in translation like quality, and the type of the product and the size of the client. Such aspects have been discussed theoretically, and little was known with regard to the influencing factors which can affect the quality. The notion of "fit-for-purpose translation" [START_REF] Bowker | Fit-for-purpose translation[END_REF] has been observed across the corpus. Although little knowledge was available on the clients' budgets, the results helped in finding common patterns per industry, and at the level of the corporate rating and marketing purposes.

The findings of the bilingual phase came up with further details on the reasons of the issues and on how the local markers were employed. The issues found resulted mainly from using awkward collocations, difficult-to-understand structures, web style issues, cultural distance, the use of foreign terms, accuracy issues which affect the logic of the sentence, and linguistic issues which affect the function. As for the locale markers found, they were used individually, such as rhetorical devices, cultural references, linguistic and cultural adaptation, colloquial tone, and paraphrasing, or in combination with other markers. Product names ranged from English and non-English names, to translated, transliterated, and hybrid names consisting of multiple approaches.

The results of this stage uncovered similarities at the syntactical and semantical levels with the reference text. Stylistic similarities were also present. This tendency referred to an influence of a source text on the localized versions, whether this source text was internationalized, simplified, or not. Moreover, the findings corresponded to a great extent with previous research which showed conformity to the source text [START_REF] Bouffard | Localisation et variation linguistique. Vers une géolinguistique de l'espace virtuel francophone[END_REF], and assimilation tendencies [START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Conventions in localisation: a corpus study of original vs. translated web texts[END_REF]. They also provided some evidence on the impact of internationalization and how the localization process leads to imposing genres on peripheral languages [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF].

The research made use of TS theories in the framework of localization. The functionalist theory was adopted. However, the function was defined and studied prior to the analysis. The theory was also applied in the corpus collection phase. The aspects to be analyzed and how they are measured were all determined beforehand to ensure performing an objective criticism and obtaining reliable results. The advertising genre in website localization has been under-researched, although it is a conventionalized genre in TS. Hence, the research contributed with more insight on such genres which encompass multiple functions and require linguistic as well as cultural awareness. The research made use of Cultural Studies. It started with the Onion Model [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations -Software of the Mind -Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival[END_REF] and applied it on the expectations of localization. The results showed discrepancies with the expectations and with the layers of the aforementioned model. The similarities found indicated a tendency to stay at the surface layer, i.e. the symbols, and to only extend the effort to reach the core in limited cases discussed earlier. These results and correlations with previous research were interpreted through existing knowledge on the process of and the tools used in localization. The objective interpretation, although based on assumptions due to the absence of the internal knowledge, has helped in incorporating TS theory in localization and vice versa. In addition, it clarified some blurry notions around the translation quality of websites, as it is not only a linguistic matter.

At the theoretical level, the literature review addressed critical notions for this thesis. These notions also seemed problematic in Translation Studies. For example, there have been discrepancies in approaching the concept of localization within TS. The discussion attempted to utilize the different conceptualizations of the term in order to pin point its key aspects. It also showed the intersection points between translation and localization, as a concept, an industry, and a translation type. The process was focused on as a key area in terms of the technology used, managements, and participants. The discussion showed how certain TS terms are used in localization, such as adaptation, and how other terms have had nuances, such as a "language" and a "locale", a "reader" and a "user", and a "translator" and a "language agent". More importantly, the theoretical framework discussed the notion of transcreation in detail. Discussing this notion in the context of advertising translation helped in narrowing this concept down, and detailing the markers of such strategy. Previous research on advertising translation enriched the thesis with empirical-based pillars which assisted to a great extent in building the adopted methodology. A definition of transcreation was provided, due to its fuzzy understanding in the literature. It was considered "as a dynamic and functional translation genre-specific strategy, or sub-strategy, that can be applied on a text segment or a whole text, and implies creativity through combining and making use of different strategies and procedures to achieve an aesthetic, entertaining and/or persuasive effect in the audience" (Kassawat, 2020a, p. 76). The definition aimed to place it within TS as a translation strategy, in a way that does not underestimate translation or overvalue transcreation. The arguments provided also distinguished transcreation, as a strategy, from adaptation, which is a translation procedure. It also clarified the concept in relation to localization. bad quality. Focusing on specific aspects helped in getting a more objective criticism that resulted in findings which deviate from what is traditionally thought of as simply bad quality.

On another note, the provided examples along with the recommendations can help the practitioners and the localization agencies in meeting the function of the translation in a more effective and economic way. Moreover, the proposed model of criticism is flexible enough to be applied in the process, depending on the client's needs. Certain steps of the model apply to other quality assurance processes, such as revision, evaluation, and assessment. Specifying the important aspects of the quality for a required function can help both the language agent and the agency to provide a better output. Similarly, defining the markers of each aspect ensures a target-based approach and a more accurate way of measurement. While the source language and text might not be available for the critic, they should be known for the agent. Thus, starting with the target text first (for an evaluator) or assessing the raw text to be post-edited (for a translator) can boost the judging process when the text is viewed in isolation of its source, i.e. the way the user will view it. This should, in turn, improve the user's experience.

The results and the illustrated examples provided beginner translators and students with a clearer understanding of the function, how to determine it, and how to meet it. For instance, the transcreation components found, although they are not considered as comprehensive, can show the path to follow in the studied genre. They demystify the term transcreation and enlighten the path to follow when dealing with the studied genre. Moreover, the linguistic and cultural issues found highlight sensitive aspects of localization which are often ignored amid the process, or else, missed due to the time spent on using the tools and focusing on the technical elements. The results helped in integrating TS theory further in localization, and in benefiting from the latter to enrich existing TS methods.

The research had a limited scope on a specific genre and in a specific language, regardless of its source. The notion of language combination was avoided, given its complexity in compiling a localized corpus, and the usefulness of the notion of the reference text which was considered as an offer of information and not as an original text. More research is still needed in other languages, particularly those which are considered peripheral or minority in the context of localization. Such studies can help criticizing a local language without the obligation of comparing the text with a possibly more influential one. The notion of internationalization still needs to be assessed in terms of its impact on such languages. Other genres in commercial websites to be studied include, but are not limited to, help content pages, legal pages of websites, contact pages, and presentational pages. Studies on such genres should uncover the quality provided in relation to the function, sensibility, and sensitivity of the content. Research in TS has mostly been interested in the technical aspects of localization and the localized content. More translation-and text-oriented research is needed to help evolve TS theories in order to progress along with the industry. Product naming in Arabic is still under-researched, which was an obstacle for this research. Empirical studies are needed to determine which conventions are common, in which industries and types of products, and in which countries. Studies which are audience-oriented or user-oriented are scarce in Arabic and in general. The literature review presented a few studies which took a sociological approach in the field of localization. However, more studies of this kind would be necessary to better understand the background of the language agents, namely translators, how they enhanced their linguistic, cultural, and technological skills (university programs, practical experience, special training), and to what extent they feel satisfied with their role and tasks in the localization industry. The agents' insight on the process would also enlighten the industry stakeholders into more effective ways for the services they provide. Moreover, with the importance of culture in localization and the impact the latter has on cultures and languages, TS research will need to open up further to other disciplines, such as cultural studies and marketing. While there have been such initiatives, TS scholars still seem hesitant to step in other areas. Although this research did not approach the notion of culture to a sufficient degree, it compared the results to the Onion model which encompasses the language within culture in an interesting manner, which deserves more exploration. Translated texts can be considered as corpora suitable for such kind of multidisciplinary research. Another area which needs to b e researched, particularly in the Arab universities and institutes, is localization training programs. There is a need to assess the skills students acquire throughout their studies to see the extent to which these skills would enable them to work in a highly technology-dependent industry, such as localization. With the overall literal approach observed in the corpus of this study, more investigation would yield interesting findings into the methods used in translation teaching, the text types and genres taught in the universities, and whether translation theories are introduced or not, or to what extent. Such studies should provide interpretations of the common approaches. Finally, transcreation has been analyzed in this

  ....................................................... Table 3 -Detailed results of the monolingual phase analysis ......................................... Table 4 -Product naming tendencies per website .......................................................... Table 5 -Transcreation components per website ........................................................... Table 6 -Accidental transcreation -per website ............................................................

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1 -Content-and technology-based evolution of localization ................................

Figure 2 -

 2 Figure 2 -The "Onion": Manifestations of Culture at Different Levels of Depth (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010, p. 8) ......................................................................................

Figure 3 -

 3 Figure 3 -Methodological map .......................................................................................

Figure 4 -

 4 Figure 4 -Functional and problematic cases in the corpus .............................................

Figure 5 -

 5 Figure 5 -Transcreation components per blurb (Kassawat, 2020) .................................

Figure 6 -

 6 Figure 6 -Issues per website ...........................................................................................

Figure 7 -

 7 Figure 7 -Issues found in Dove website .........................................................................

Figure 8 -

 8 Figure 8 -Issues found in Mac website ..........................................................................

Figure 9 -

 9 Figure 9 -Issues found in Olay website..........................................................................

Figure 10 -

 10 Figure 10 -Issues found in Ikea website ........................................................................

Figure 11 -

 11 Figure 11 -Issues found in Tresemme website ..............................................................

Figure 12 -

 12 Figure 12 -Issues found in Benefit website....................................................................

Figure 13 -

 13 Figure 13 -Issues found in Sunsilk website ...................................................................

Figure 14 -

 14 Figure 14 -Issues found in Nivea website ......................................................................

Figure 15 -

 15 Figure 15 -Issues found in Essence website ..................................................................

Figure 16 -

 16 Figure 16 -Issues found in Gillette website ...................................................................

Figure 17 -

 17 Figure 17 -Issues found in Braun website......................................................................

Figure 18 -

 18 Figure 18 -Issues found in Herbal website ....................................................................

Figure 19 -

 19 Figure 19 -Issues found in Sumsung website ................................................................

Figure 20 -

 20 Figure 20 -Issues found in Apple website......................................................................

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1 -Content-and technology-based evolution of localization

  or other definitions do not cover all the localization components simply because, as Singh puts it, localization is a broad term from an academic perspective[START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | International business, marketing and translation studies: impacting research into web localization[END_REF].The above definition was an attempt to frame localization in Translation Studies, knowing that agreeing on a definition of localization would necessitate first an agreed upon definition of translation because "[a]ttempting to define localisation without having a consolidated model or agreed definition of translation is thus like jumping into the void without a net"(Jiménez-Crespo, 2019, p. 31). This lack of an agreed upon definition of translation has led to "fuzzy" localization theories that focus on specific components or issues which are not supposed to be part of translation proper (ibid. p. 27). Jiménez-Crespo tries in the majority of his works to bridge the gap between translation and localization by applying translation theories into localization research, adapting these theories to suit the localization process and product, while attempting to include localization into the TS family. Moreover, the commonly argued notion is that there will always be various definitions and perspectives of localization "because various parties, including localizers, translators, translation scholars, researchers, and industry experts have different perspectives about what concepts are encompassed by the term"(McDonough Dolmaya, 2018, p. 343). Therefore, localization is conceptualized and discussed depending on the discipline involved in its global process. Pym provides the example of IT people who might not be concerned with the translational aspects in their work with localization (2000b).

  This chapter will start off by discussing the notions of translation and localization and how they are perceived in the industry and in TS. It will mainly address common issues and questions raised in TS research. It will start by highlighting the fuzziness caused primarily by the different terms in use. Then, it will attempt to detail the claimed differences and similarities between translation and localization. The chapter will start by looking at the historical, economic and academic conceptualizations of both notions. It will then tackle the marketing and technological factors which have a major influence therein. It will look more thoroughly into the linguistic and cultural adaptation requirements which are called for in both translation and localization.

  respect to the translation requirements in localization. Culture cannot be conceptualized merely by images, colors and formats. One of the representations of culture is in the Onion Model which consists of two layers: Practices (Symbols, Heroes and Rituals) and Values (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Language (words) is included in the outer layer Symbols which are easily developed and regularly copied by others. Practices are visible to an outside observer. However, their cultural connotation is interpreted by the insiders. Working in localization needs to have an insider's knowledge about the target culture to render the intended message successfully because "[h]aving to express oneself in another12 See also[START_REF] Conway | Cultural translation: two modes[END_REF] on how cultural translation developed over time and how intercultural societies meet.

Figure 2 -

 2 Figure 2 -The "Onion": Manifestations of Culture at Different Levels of Depth(Hofstede,

  This chapter will attempt to briefly discuss the channel and marketing strategies developments in relation to translation and localization. It will explore advertising as a translation type, how it has been tackled in TS, and what relation it has with localization. It will address fuzzy notions in use in this regard: translation, adaptation and transcreation. Furthermore, it will highlight certain aspects which have been researched in advertising translation, such as conventions and branding.

  It attempted to place the notions of adaptation and transcreation in the framework of localization, and to analyze these notions from the perspective of the industry and TS. It helped fill in the theoretical gap which exists with regard to the fuzziness of the terms. For example, the discussion that took place on the concept of transcreation. Providing a definition of this concept should help in proceeding in in this and future research. As the research progresses, we believe that the above discussions will guide the researcher through the corpus analysis and in discussing the results. More importantly, addressing the aforementioned notions stresses the need to find out to what extent the advertising function is met through translation; and if the function is met, then, to what extent and how? These areas need further investigation in translation in general, and in localization in particular, given the functionalist approach it has and the ambiguity which surrounds terms like "transcreation" and "adaptation" in practice. Researching these notions and understanding how they are applied are necessary actions in localization research particularly that the source text is not necessarily creative or culture-specific. This aspect urges the need to know whether and how cultural layers are added in the translation, and to what extent they help in meeting the expected purpose.

  Evaluating translation quality itself is challenging, but adding complicating factors of process-based research, working conditions and relatively new technologies compounds the difficulty. (ibid., p. 107) Therefore, technical and structural factors should have an impact on the localization quality, as detailed earlier in the localization process discussion. Drugan categorizes various factors based on the three translation stages: (1) the pre-translation stage, which encompasses pricing, planning (deadlines, teams structuring, meetings), human resources, source file preparation and quality control (internationalization support, feedback on ST quality, pre-editing), terminology resources, translation resources, project management resources, and training for suppliers (translators, terminologists) to ensure they comply with standards; (2) the translation stage, which includes drafting and generating target files, monitoring, planning, self-checking, and participating in feedback cycle;

  This chapter was an attempt to highlight the notion of quality in the field of localization. It has also discussed key methodological areas which are often overlooked in TS research, such as the importance of localized corpora in TS applied research, and what TS can make use of through localization research. Moreover, it has reminded us of the macro-structural aspects related to the process of localization which can have an impact on translation quality. Most importantly, it has suggested new points of view to approach common notions in TS such as the source text and target text, and provided functionalist perspectives into the notion of the reference text and the complex nature of the target text and its creation. The chapter has discussed the amalgamation of locales and how the notion of language has changed based on marketing-related decisions. It showed how these decisions can affect the user's experience and intervene in forming non-traditional sociocultural and linguistic characteristics of certain communities. Finally, the notion of the text ecology

Figure

  Figure 3 -Methodological map

  viewed between March and April 2019. They include two websites of high-tech products (840 blurbs), one website of furniture-related products (880 blurbs), and twelve websites of cosmetic products (804 blurbs), making a total of 2524 blurbs localized into Arabic which were viewed and analyzed monolingually. These are approximately equal to 107,095 Arabic words.

Figure 4 -

 4 Figure 4 -Functional and problematic cases in the corpus

  مما ا خالي الطاولة سطح على ذلك يحافظ األوراق. أو الكتب أو للطابعة الحامل تحت الرف على كبيرة مساحة للعمل. أكبر BT LINNMON / FINNVARD

RT

  ويشعر يراها أن للمرء يمكن العرق رائحة من حماية BT PEARL & BEAUTY Protection of antiperspirant a protection from the sweat smell that a person can see and feel!

  ) represent 2.7% only of the corpus. Despite the relatively low number, these cases provide sufficient knowledge of how transcreation is done, and what its components are, at least in advertising texts. The pre-determined function markers were found in the monolingual analysis, besides other forms which enhance the function. Rhetorical devices (as defined by Gully, 1996, and Mcquarrie & Mick, 1996 and discussed earlier) 33 as a standalone component represent almost half of the transcreated cases (32 cases), while 11 cases include rhetorical devices along with other locale-related constructs and/or translation procedures. This makes rhetorical devices represent 62% of all the transcreation cases found in the corpus. Paraphrasing (8 cases), cultural adaptation (7), and linguistic adaptation (7)

  Figure5-Transcreation components per blurb[START_REF] Kassawat | Decoding transcreation in corporate website localization into Arabic[END_REF]

Figure 6 -Figure 7 -FigureFigure 20 -

 6720 Figure 6 -Issues per website

FigureFigure 22 -

 22 Figure 21 -Issues found in the industry of technology

  markers. The findings of the bilingual phase helped understand the existing tendencies with regard to two poles: transcreation and problematic translations. The analysis of this phase provided further information and details into how transcreation is being done and what kind of issues are there that affect the function of a blurb negatively. Moreover, the research provided a rich material which allowed to make other observations, such as the approaches to product name translation in Arabic. Although the research does not specifically aim to get accurate statistics with this regard, the observations and remarks obtained out of the second phase analysis helped in spotting the main approaches used. Such observations should help in future research in Arabic in particular, where no fixed convention is set and multiple conventions are possible in any context. The next chapter aims to provide examples of each category, whether on the transcreation components, the issues which affected the function of the blurb, and the product name approaches.

TR

  المكبرة شاشته أن كما للغاية. نحيف تصميم لضمان اإلطالق على بارزة غير كاميرا مع مصقولة معدنية بطبقة يتميز واحدة بيد االستخدام وسهولة مثلى مشاهدة لك يتيح انسيابي بشكل . Example (3) RT Part racehorse. All workhorse.

  The above few examples of paraphrasing as a transcreation component provide an idea on how this translation procedure can contribute to improving the function of the text. The next examples will show how rhetorical devices can be used along with other solutions to provide a creative translation.

  درجات من الساحرة، الست الدرجات تأتي رائعا! شعورا لتمنحك بنعومة الشفاه لتلميع مستحضراتنا تنساب بح دة ّ ومزو ّنة لي أنابيب في اآلسرة، الوردية الدرجات مثالي. الستخدام خصيصا ّمت صم افة متأللئ وردي نود لون وناعم حريري استخدام فاخرة تركيبة

Example ( 18 )

 18 RT gogotint cheek & lip stain bright cherry tinted lip & cheek stain WHY WE LOVE IT You gogo, girl! Gogotint is the wildest flush you can get from a bottle! Our see-through bright cherry red lip & cheek stain is vibrant, juicy and pops till you drop. Release your inner rebel with colour that lasts! Comes in full size &

Example

  conditions & hydrates with mango butter and sodium hyaluronate. This kiss of sheer color gives you the juiciest lips.

TR

  المعزز. الواقع في وشغل. ودرس ولعب ضحك يد و ، كليا جديدة تجارب البتكار الواقعي العالم في الرقمية والمعلومات العناصر المعزز الواقع مج iPad المثالي الجهاز هو وشريحة والخلفية، األمامية الكاميراتين بفضل للحواس غامرة معزز واقع بتجارب لالستمتاع ، الحركة. بتعقب الخاصة ومستشعراته الزاهية، لوانهاBT Laughter, joy, learning and work. In augmented reality.

iPad

  Air comes loaded with Apple-designed apps you'll use every day, like Photos, Messages, Mail, and Safari. You'll also get a suite of powerful productivity apps, including Pages, Numbers, and Keynote. And you can get creative right out of the box with GarageBand and iMovie. الصور تطبيقات مثل اليومي، الستخدامك Safari كما . ستحصل ذلك في بما واإلنجاز، اإلنتاج على تساعدك التي الفعالة التطبيقات من مجموعة على أيضا Pages و Numbers و Keynote استخدام سوى عليك فما المبتكرة الفنية إلبداعاتك العنان تطلق أن أردت وإذا . GarageBand و iMovie .

  phase. For instance, Example (26) includes an awkward sentence in the Arabic version: "sit with your shoes put on". It can be understood in Arabic as if the person can sit down only if they are not barefooted. This part should rather be understood as "have a seat while putting on your shoes" 206 as in the English text, which is the function of the product in the first place. The translation contains a confusing message, compared to the English version. while putting on your shoes. The simple, classical design with a touch of tradition looks great with other furniture in the HEMNES series. TR HEMNES أبيض لألحذية, تخزين وحدة مع مقعد تكون بينما اجلس مجموعة من األخرى األثاث قطع مع ا رائع يبدو تقليدية بلمسة البسيط الكالسيكي التصميم حذاءك. ا مرتدي HEMNES . BT HEMNES Bench with shoe storage unit, white Sit with your shoes put on. The simple, classical design with a traditional touch looks great with other furniture in the HEMNES collection.

  a large molded brush that creates extreme volume and curl. TR IN EXTREME DIMENSION LASH شديدة. وتجاعيد ا حجم تمنحك ضخمة فرشاة باستخدام المسكرةBT IN EXTREME DIMENSION LASHA mascara with a huge brush gives you volume and extreme wrinkles.

Example

  liquid lip colour with a pop of juicy colour, vitamin E & shine! This cushiony, creamy lip colour is punches of fun! smooth, non-sticky shine finish lightweight من لمسة الناعم الكريمي المستحضر هذا يضفي كما إي! وفيتامين ملونة فاكهية بنفحة هذا السائل الشفاه ملمع يتميز الصقة غير وناعمة المعة لمسة خفيفة كريمية تركيبة 208 ال بتنعيم المعروف إي فيتامين على يحتوي شفاه بـ متوفر شفاه ملون 5 مشرقة درجات BT The punch pop! product liquid lip colour Why we love it For attractive lips! This liquid lip colour has a coloured fruity whiff and vitamin E! This soft, creamy product gives a touch of fun! smooth, non-sticky shiny touch light creamy texture contains vitamin E known to soften lips lip colour is available in 5 bright shades

  صباح؟) كل في خروجك قبل لمساعدتك الجاهز الركن يكون ب ّ مرت مدخل على تحصل (كيف Moreover, using "external things" (أشيائك الخارجية) in Arabic is unspecific and vague. It should have been explained further as in "things" (أغراضك) alone or "going-out clothes" الخروج) .(مالبس Example (50) RT SHOE STORAGE, COAT & HAT RACKS Coat, hat, shoes and go!

  كل منه جزء في بالك تشغل أن دون الصباح في ا جاهز وتكون الفوضى من خالي مدخل على تحصل كيف شغل دون إليها الوصول لسرعة الخارجية أشيائك ترتيب في ساعد ُ ت والقبعات المعاطف ورفوف األحذية خزائن من مختلفة مساحة المكان. من كبيرة

  تتيح بالضبط. الورق على الكتابة مثل الكتابة بشعور االستمتاع S بمنتهى به اإلمساك المثالية الـ ضغط مستويات مع المعززة الضغط حساسية بينما الراحة، 4,096 ا أن كما بسالسة. والحروف الكلمات كتابة لك تتيح لقلم S المطر تحت مالحظاتك تدون عندما حتى ا محمي يظل وبذلك للماء مقاوم . BT Writing as in nature

Example ( 59 )BT

 59 RT GIVE YOUR SKIN A TREAT THAT DELIGHTS YOUR SENSES SKIN DELIGHT GLOWING ROSE OIL IN BODY MILK body care NIVEA Skin Delight will give your skin a treat & delight your senses TR Massage your skin with an ultra-quality cream from Nivea Skin delight cream with rose glow and oil moisturizer in milk body care Skin Delight from Nivea to treat your skin and refresh your senses

  assimilation practices in the translations[START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF] seem to have also caused comprehensibility issues. Similar versions of the RT and the Arabic text indicate potential abidance by the source text. Structures were mirrored in examples (48) and (49). The same idea was used in both versions as in examples (51) and (54). Similar expressions were employed in both versions in examples (52) and (53). However, Example (50) indicates a meaning issue as well, due to the complicated structure and ambiguity of the sentence. The results indicate a lack of dynamism which should exist in the studied genre

  The methodology in this research was based on the functionalist theory. It aimed to define the functions of the text under study based on the genre. The results provided more insight into what a function is also about besides the purpose of the text. Two functions can be withdrawn from the results and the literature: the genre required function, and the client's intended function. The first function relates to the text itself, as it was analyzed in this study. The second function relates

Figure

  Figure 24 -A proposal for website localization criticism

  localization definitions and aimed to test localized websites to find out the extent to which localized advertising texts, which represent a conventionalized genre, are linguistically and culturally adapted to meet the intended function. To answer the question, the research raised the issue of defining the function of a text. Moreover, the literature review explained the process of localization which falls into a globalization cycle. Thus, the research approached the cultural aspect of the localized content to see whether the different version of a website look similar or different with markers of the local culture.

Table 1 -

 1 Elements of translation quality measurement approaches ..................................

Table 2 -

 2 Checked and selected blurbs per website .

Table 1 -

 1 Elements of translation quality measurement approaches

			Empirical measurement/judgmental		Descriptive
						function/non-
						judgmental
	Approach	Self-	Revision/QA	Evaluation	Assessment	Criticism
		revision/post-	(separate)
		editing
	Assessor	Translator	Reviser/tester	Professor/trainer	Assessor	Researcher/critic
	Area	Professional/	Professional	Professional/	Professional	Research/
		learning		education		publications
	Phase	Pre-publishing	Pre-publishing	N/A	Pre-or post-	Post publishing
					publishing
	Feedback	N/A	Yes/No	Yes	N/A	Yes/No
	Approach	Self-correction	Error-based w/	Error-based	Error-based	How and why.
			correction/			Analytical: issues
			functionality check			& credits
	Purpose	Improvement	Improvement	Recruitment &	Reporting to	Objective analysis
				education	the
					requester
	Measuring	Acceptability	Acceptability	Competence	The final	Final product
					product

Table 2 -

 2 Checked and selected blurbs per website 160

	Brand name	Checked blurbs	Selected blurbs
	Dove	83	26
	Olay	29	12
	Mac	260	54
	Ikea	880	58
	Tresemme	28	5
	Benefit	110	33
	Sunsilk	17	3
	Lux	23	0
	Nivea	151	14
	Essence	10	3
	Gillette	42	3
	Braun	39	1
	Herbal Essence	12	1
	Samsung	610	35
	Apple	230	35
	Total	2524	283

  UP FOR EVERYTHING LASH MASCARA A waterproof and lifting mascara that provides 24-hour unleashed curl and out-of-bounds voluptuous volume. Complimentary Cleanse Off Oil sample included.

TR UP FOR EVERYTHING LASH MASCARA ولمدة اليضاهى بشكل مقوسة رموش تمنح الماء ضد الرموش لرفع مسكارا 24 فائق. بشكل جذابة وكثافة ساعة

Table , black

 , -brown, beechPlenty of room on the shelf under the trestle for your printer, books or papers. That keeps your table top clear so you have more room to work.

Table ,

 , black-brown, beech Plenty of room on the shelf under the holder for the printer, books or papers. That keeps your table top clear so you have more room to work.

Table 3 -

 3 Detailed results of the monolingual phase analysis

	Industry	Websites	Checked	selected blurbs	w/ issues	w/ the
			blurbs			expected
						markers
	Technology	2	840	70	9	63
	Furniture	1	880	58	57	1

Table 4 -

 4 Product naming tendencies per website

  This soft and rose-gold glowing highlighter will give you a captivating shine. Its creamy texture transforms into powder to suit all skin types. You'll adore the smooth applicator.

	TR	Watt's Up	! اإلضاءة كريم
		آسرة إلشراقة إضاءة مستحضر
			نحبه لماذا
			آسرة! إشراقة
	البشرة. أنواع جميع لتناسب بودرة إلى الكريمية تركيبته ل ّ تتحو آسرة. إشراقة ذهبي وردي بلون والمضيء الناعم الهاياليتر هذا سيمنحك
		الناعمة. االستخدام أداة ستعشقين
	BT The Cream Highlighter Watt's Up!
	A highlighter product for a captivating shine
	Why we love it
	A captivating shine!

  That means more time for what matters mostcreating amazing work.MacBook Pro combines great power and high efficiency in energy consumption thanks to a separate Radeon Pro graphics processing unit in all the models of the size 15-inch. And now we've added to each separate graphics processing unit a GDDR5 memory of 4GB in the basic settings to give you fluid and simultaneous performance for pro tasks like rendering 3D titles in Final Cut Pro X. The 13-inch model with Touch Bar features powerful integrated graphics with 128MB of embedded DRAM that is twice as much as the previous generation to ensure a higher speed in completing the graphics tasks. That means more time for your task that matters most, which is creating amazing work.

	TR							الغرافيك رسومات
								العين. يمأل قوي، رسومات أداء
	Radeon	غرافيك رسومات معالجة وحدة بفضل الطاقة	استهالك في العالية والكفاءة الهائلة القوة بين	MacBook Pro	يجمع
	الغرافيك رسومات معالجة وحدات من منفصلة وحدة كل إلى اآلن أضفنا وقد إنش.	15	مقاس الموديالت جميع في منفصلة	Pro
	تصي ير	مثل االحترافية المهام تنفيذ أجل من وفوريا سلسا أداء لمنحك األساسية اإلعدادات ضمن	GB	4	سعة	GDDR5	ذاكرة
	مدمجة غرافيك برسومات فيتميز	Touch Bar	مع إنش	13	مقاس الموديل أما .	Final Cut Pro X	في األبعاد ثالثية العناوين
	لك لتضمن السابق الجيل في السعة ضعف توازي	MB	128	بسعة مدمجة	DRAM	ديناميكية عشوائي وصول ذاكرة مع قوية
	األعمال ابتكار وهي أهمية، األكثر لمهمتك الوقت من المزيد تخصيص مكنك	ي وهكذا الغرافيك. مهام إنجاز في أكبر سرعة
								الرائعة.
	BT Graphics
	A strong graphic performance, it's eye-fulfilling.

  This dual-action power primer works 360 degrees around the eyes to make concealers AND eyeshadows STAY PUT. Concealers don't crease, eyeshadows stay vibrant & true. Contains sodium hyaluronate known to hydrate and vitamins C & E known to help fight the signs of aging.

	stay don't stray eyeshadow primer
	stay-put primer for concealers & eyeshadows
	WHY WE LOVE IT
	Go steady already!
	TR			stay don't stray	العين ظالل برايمر
				العيون وظالل للكونسيلر ّت مثب برايمر مستحضر
					نحبه لماذا
					أنت! كما ِبقي ا
	يطول لكي العيون وظالل الكونسيلر مستحضرات لتثبيت	360	بزاوية العينين حول الثنائية القوة ذات كيبة	التر هذه وضع يتم
	المعروفة الصوديوم هيالورونات على تحتوي كما وثابتة. بالحياة نابضة الجفون ظالل وتبقى الكونسيلر مستحضر ثبات
	السن. ّم تقد	عالمات تحارب التي و"د" "ج" والفيتامينات المرطبة بخصائصها
	BT stay don't stray eyeshadow primer
	a primer product to fix concealers and eyeshadows
	Why we love it
	Stay as you are!

  Our plush glosses glide on extra smooth and feel ahhh-mazing. The six irresistible shades, from sultry nudes to punchy pinks, come in soft-squeeze tubes with a custom tip designed for perfectly even application.Our lip gloss products glide smoothly and make you look great! This product comes in six charming shades, from attractive nude shades to alluring pink shades, and it comes in soft-squeeze tubes with a tip designed especially for perfectly even application.

	Berry pink
	Silky smooth structure
	Luxurious formula
	In the above examples, a different kind of transcreation was used. Instead of creating new
	ideas or introducing locale-specific and linguistic devices in the translation, simplification was
	used and cultural neutrality was opted for. The output in the above examples was recreated, given
	the difference with the RT, and still had a pleasant effect in Arabic that serves the function with
	the vocabulary used.
	2.1.7. Literal hervana ultra plush berry pink lip gloss transcreation? translation	or	accidental
	WHY WE LOVE IT
	Pure lip bliss!
	Berry pink
	Silky smooth wear
	Luxurious formula
	TR			hervana ultra plush	مستحضر
				توتي وردي شفاه ملمع
				نحبه لماذا
				النعومة! غاية في شفاه
	درجات من ساحرة، درجات ست في المستحضر هذا يتوفر رائعة. تبدين وتجعلك نعومة بكل الشفاه لتلميع مستحضراتنا تنساب
	متناغم لتطبيق خصيصا ّم صم طرف مع عليها الضغط	السهل من أنابيب في ويأتي المثيرة، الوردية الدرجات إلى الجذابة النود
				مثالي.
				توتي وردي
				ناعمة حريرية تركيبة
				فاخرة تركيبة
	BT The hervana ultra plush product
	berry pink lip gloss
	Why we love it
	Very soft lips!
		201

  ا مدرك تكون ال قد أهم هم األطفال أن نعتقد نحن الصغار. لألطفال اختناق خطر تشكل المعتمة والستائر الستائر ل لنجعل المعتمة والستائر الستائر من تشكيلتنا تكييف في بدأنا وقد ا. أمان أكثر المنازل لجعل بجد نعمل ولذا العالم، هذا أفراد 202 أجل من سنوات أربع أمضينا اإلمكان. قدر آمنة نوافذك قمنا ذلك، من فيها نتمكن لم التي الحاالت وفي آمنة، بدائل إلى التوصل منتجاتنا. تشكيلة من المنتج بإزالة

	TR	للحبال، ا وداع
	البال براحة ا مرحب
	حبا لكن ذلك،

  EXTRA DIMENSION SKINFINISH/ EL SEED A luxurious, slow-baked, velvety soft, domed face powder with a radiant finish in special-edition eL Seed calligraphic packaging.

	TR	EXTRA DIMENSION SKINFINISH/ EL SEED
		محدودة عبوة في وتأتي مشرقة نهائية لمسة البشرة كسب ُ ت مخملية ونعومة خفيفة ُمرة س ودرجة قبة	شكل على فاخرة وجه بودرة
		.	eL Seed	تصميم من الخط بفنون مزدانة اإلصدار

  Like all Apple products, iPad Air design takes your privacy and security into account. The Touch ID feature allows to unlock iPad Air in a simple and secure way, while Apple Pay allows you to complete purchases simply and safely. Just place your finger on the Touch ID sensor and that's it.

	TR							واألمان الخصوصية
								السطر. على نقطة وحدك. ملكك معلوماتك
	iPad	فتح	Touch ID	ميزة لك تتيح إذ وأمانك. خصوصيتك	iPad Air	Apple تصميم يراعي ،	منتجات جميع في الحال هو كما
	على إصبعك	وضع إال عليك ما وآمنة. بسيطة بصورة الشراء عمليات بإتمام	Apple Pay	لك تسمح بينما وأمان، بسهولة	Air
								األمر. وانتهى ،	Touch ID	مستشعر
	BT Privacy and Security
	Your information belongs to you only. Period on the line.

TR

  هادئ ليلي بنوم تبدأ الجميلة األيام ل بنوم يومك ابدأ لبدء ا وجاهز ا منتعش تستيقظ سوف القوية، المفردة األسرة من عليها تحصل التي والجودة الراحة مع هادئ. يلي تحته. الصناديق وضع يمكنك سرير أو مدمج بتخزين ا سرير اختر لديك، المتوفرة المساحة من المزيد على للحصول اليوم. الس األلحفة، أو المراتب مثل آخر، شيء كل ولدينا بأناقة. سريرك مكونات تكمال BT Beautiful days start with a quiet night sleep Start your day with a quiet night sleep. With the comfort and quality you get from the strong single beds, you'll wake up refreshed and ready to start the day. To get more of your space, choose a bed with built-in storage or a bed that you can put boxes underneath. And we have everything else, like mattresses or duvets, to complete your bed components in style.

TR

  الداخلي) الهدوء بعض (مع تحتاجه ما على احصل الذروة ساعة خالل حتى بسهولة، شعرهم فرشاة على العثور من الجميع يتمكن بحيث األشياء الحمام ودواليب خزائن نظم ُ ت وحدا من اختيارك لتناسب متنوعة بأشكال تخزين مقاعد إلى إضافية رفوف وحدات من شيء كل لدينا المحمومة. الصباحية ت للحصول المختارة مجموعتنا واستعراض القياسات بعض أخذ سوى عليك ما مساحتك. تناسب متنوعة وبمقاسات الغسل حوض ُناسبك. ي ما على

  It features FlexBall technology which responds to contours and gets virtually every hair. The Precision Trimmer on the back is great for hard-to-reach areas and styling facial hair.One razor blade refill equals up to one month of shaves. Fusion5 ProShield Chill men's razor fit all Fusion5 blade refills.

	Gillette Razors, formerly called Fusion ProShield Chill.
	TR		للرجال	تشيل ™	بروشيلد ™	فيوجن 5 ™	®	جيليت الحالقة ماكينة
	بالغة. راحة على للحصول لالحتكاك مضادة شفرات	5	بـ للرجال تشيل بروشيلد	5	فيوجن جيليت الحالقة ماكينات تتميز
		الحالقة. أثناء وترطب التهيج من البشرة تحمي وبعدها، الشفرات قبل الترطيب مع
	الخلفي الجهة على الدقيقة التشذيب أداة عد ُ ت ا. تقريب الشعيرات كل إلى وتصل الوجه لمعالم تستجيب لتي ة	ا بال فليكس بتقنية وتتميز
			الوجه. شعر وتصفيف إليها الوصول ب ُ يصع التي للمناطق مثالية
	ل تشيل بروشيلد جميع لرجال	فيوجن الحالقة ماكينة تناسب الحالقة. من واحد شهر حتى تكفي الحالقة شفرات من واحدة عبوة 5
								فيوجن شفرات عبوات 5 .
		تشيل. بروشيلد فيوجن ا سابق تسمى كانت التي جيليت، الحالقة ماكينات

  The sentence could have been restructured as "If you suffer from thin brows that don't have a specific shape, you can now turn them into shaped and styled brows immediately) يمكنك محدد، غير شكل وذات رفيعة حواجب من تعانين كنت (إذا ) فورا ومحددة منمقة حواجب إلى تحويلها .اآلن This section illustrated a few examples on the role of vocabulary in affecting the function of the text. The next section will provide more examples on cases with excessive redundancy that can also have an impact on the text function.

	Example (37)
	RT Brow Contour Pro
	4-in-1 defining & highlighting brow pencil
	WHY WE LOVE IT
	Do your brows like a pro!
	Define & highlight your brows with this 4-in-1 contour pencil. Our multi-tasking brow pencil features a
	lighter brow shade, deeper brow shade, edge definer and arch highlighter to create clean, shaped brows with
	depth & dimension. Turn shapeless, flat brows into defined, contoured brows in an instant. Available in 5
	shades for a wide range of hair colours and skin tones!
	TR					Brow Contour Pro	قلم
						1	في	4	الحواجب وإضاءة لتحديد قلم
						نحبه لماذا
						كالخبيرات! حواجبك نمقي
	حواجب بدرجة بنفت من اإلستخدامات المتعدد الحواجب تحديد قلم يتميز .	1	في	4	الكونتور قلم مع حواجبك وإضاءة بنحت قومي
	عميقة لمسة مع ونقية منمقة حواجب طلة تمنحك إضاءة ر	ومستحض األطراف لتحديد وأداة أكثر، داكن بلون درجة و فاتحة
	مختلف تناسب درجات	5	بـ متوفر وهو آني. بشكل ومحددة منمقة حواجب إلى والخفيفة الشكل العديمة حواجبك حولي وكثيفة.
						والبشرة! الشعر ألوان
	BT The Brow Contour Pro pencil
	4-in-1 pencil for defining and highlighting brows
	Why we love it
	Shape your brows like pros!
	Sculpture and highlight your brows with this 4-in-1 contour pencil. The multi-usage brow defining pencil
	from Benefit features a lighter brow shade, deeper brow shade, edge definer and a highlighter product to
	give you pure and shaped brows with a deep and thick finish. Turn your brows that are thin and don't have
	shape into shaped and instantly-defined brows. It's available in 5 shades for a wide range of hair and skin
	colours!

  بالكامل والسرير الليل. طوال هادئ نوم على لتحصل جسمك يحتاجه الذي الدعم النوابض مرتبة توفر الكامل، السرير هذا في كذلك؟ أليس ذكية، فكرة ملفوفة. واحدة وعبوة مسطحتين عبوتين في يأتي

	متينة رمادي, ,	Divan	سرير
	BT SÄBÖVIK
	Divan bed, grey, firm
	In this complete bed, the bonnell spring mattress provides the support needed for your body so you can get
	a quite sleep all the night. And the entire bed comes in two flat-packs and one roll-pack. A clever idea, right?

  It can be omitted instead, or replaced by another commonly used corner at Arab homes.

	Example (46)
	RT VÄXJÖ
	Pendant lamp, orange
	This lamp gives a pleasant light for dining and spreads a good directed light across your dining or bar table.
	TR	VÄXJÖ
		برتقالي معلقة, إضاءة
	البار. أو الطعام طاولة عبر موجها جيدا ضوءا يبعث فهو الطعام. لتناول رائعا ضوءا يعطي المصباح هذا
	BT VÄXJÖ
	Pendant lighting, orange
	This lamp gives a great light for dining. It spreads a good directed light across your dining or bar table.

  You can choose a ready-made combination or find the suitable pieces to assemble by yourselfand add more whenever you want based on how your child's needs change."Children grow fast, but with the STUVA series they don't have to outgrow their furniture. Choose a readymade combination or make your own solution -and add on at any time as your child's needs change.

	"( بنفسك لتجميعها المناسبة القطع إيجاد أو جاهزة مجموعة اختيار يمكنك -طفلك. احتياجات تغير حسب شئت متى المزيد وإضافة )
	Example (48)
	RT STUVA / FÖLJA
	Storage combination with bench, white
	TR			STUVA / FÖLJA
				أبيض مقعد, مع تخزين تشكيلة
	تحلها أن أو جاهزة مجموعة	اختيار يمكنك أثاثهم. تكبير إلى تضطروا لن	STUVA	ي مجموعة مع ولكن ا، سريع األطفال نمو
		للتغيير. طفلك يحتاج بينما وقت أي في اإلضافة وتصنع	-	بنفسك
	BT STUVA / FÖLJA
	Storage collection with bench, white
	GALifornia
	sunny golden pink blusher
	WHY WE LOVE IT
	Everyone loves a GALifornia girl!
	Benefit's NEW GALifornia golden pink blusher is part sun, pure fun! It blends bright pink with shimmering
	gold, capturing the warm glow of California sunshine in a box. The signature GALifornia Dreamin' scent
	features notes of pink grapefruit & vanilla. Comes complete with a custom rounded blush brush for soft,
	diffused application.
	TR			GALifornia	مستحضر

  Sleeping comfortably is an individual thing. Our duvets come in a range of warmth ratings and fillings so you can choose what's best for you. So whether you like being warm or cool in bed, or prefer down and feathers or new materials like easy to care for lyocell, you'll find the quilt you need for a comfortable night's sleep. األفضل تختار حتى والحشو الدفء معدالت من بمجموعة ألحفتنا تأتي فردي. أمر مريح نوم على الحصول تجد سوف به، العناية يسهل الذي الليوسيل مثل الجديدة الخامات أو الريش ألحفة تفضل أو بارد، أو دافئ سرير في النوم تحب تحتا الذي اللحاف مريح. لنوم إليه ج BT Duvets that provide you with comfort Getting a comfortable sleep is a completely individual thing. Our duvets come in a range of warmth ratings and fillings so you can choose the best for you. So whether you like to sleep in a warm or cold bed, or prefer feather duvets or new materials like lyocell that is easy to take care of, you'll find the duvet you need for a comfortable sleep.

	TR	الراحة لك توفر ألحفة
	كنت فسواء لك.
	ل لك المالئم الحشو ومقدار ّلها تفض التي الدفء درجة اختيار إمكانية ألحفتنا تعطيك ولذلك ، تماما شخصي أمر النوم عند الراحة (مفهوم تنعم
	طريقتك.) على هانئ بنوم
	Example (49)
	RT Quilts with comfort that suits you

  ..) من الشعر حماية بخاخ لك ّم نقد لكننا مؤسف، .(هذاThe example below contains a similar issue to the previous one. "And another important news" is used for local and global news as on TV and the radio. The syntax used was incorrect in Standard Arabic. It was colloquial due to the lack of a question word. Colloquial language does not fit into the context and the overall used style in this blurb and the website in general. This part can be translated as "but this is not all because this organizer is made from…" فهذا المزيد، هناك (لكن

	BT high brow eyebrow highlighter
	creamy brow highlighting pencil
	Why we love it
	Your eyebrows seem lifted!
	This creamy eyebrow highlighter enhances the eyebrow arch for brighter, fresher and younger-looking eyes.
	This perfect pink pencil that is for all skin tones glides onto the brow bone and blends in seamlessly to get
	a natural look, and it has our unique beauty tips!
	visibly lifts brows
	New creamy, blendable formula
	Natural and matt look
	Example (52)
	RT HEAT DEFENCE SPRAY
	Did you know heat applications on hair can reach up to 230°C? Ouch. Enter: heat protectant spray, designed
	to help protect against heat damage.
	TR		الحرارة من عر	الش حماية بخاخ
	حماية بخاخ إليكِ مؤسف. خبر مئوية؟ درجة	230 °	إلى تصل قد لحرارة شعرك ض يعرّ بالحرارة الشعر تصفيف أن تعلمين هل
	بالحرارة. التصفيف عن الناجم التلف من شعرك حماية على ليساعدك خصيصا المصمم الحرارة من الشعر
	BT Spray for hair protection from heat
	Do you know hair styling by heat exposes your hair to heat that can reach up to 230°C? Bad news. Here is
	a heat protectant spray, designed to help protect your hair against damage caused by styling by heat.
	من...) مصنوع م ّ .المنظ
	Example (53)
	RT GODMORGON
	Box with lid, set of 5, smoked
	GODMORGON organisers bring an end to bathroom clutter. Another great thing? This one is made from
	about 50 recycled 500 ml PET bottles -using waste as a resource helps reduce our environmental footprint.

  that the tagline was fully left in English in the Arabic version, in this and other blurbs on the Fancy your own personal styling zone, with everything you need within easy reach? Our stylish dressing tables make this dream come true. You can hide away your mascara and jewellery in the drawers or get a few mysterious-looking boxes for the table top. Choose a dressing table with a built-in mirror or add a vanity mirror that suits your style.

	Example (58)
	RT DRESSING TABLES
	Your personal styling station
	TR	الزينة طاوالت
		الخاصة أناقتك منطقة
	هذا لك تحقق لدينا األنيقة الزينة طاوالت اليد؟ متناول في إليه تحتاج شيء كل تتضمن التي الخاصة، أناقتك بمنطقة تحلم هل
	سط على تضعها المثير الشكل ذات الصناديق من مجموعة شراء أو األدراج في والمجوهرات الماسكارا إخفاء يمكنك الحلم. ح
		ذوقك. تناسب تجميل مرآة أضف أو مدمجة بمرآة زينة طاولة اختر الطاولة.
	BT Dressing tables
	Your personal styling area
	reference website.
	Example (55)
	RT MAC GIRLS EYESHADOW PALETTE / QWEEN SUPREME
	A new palette of eight Eye Shadows and one Highlighter in rich metallic tones
	TR	MAC GIRLS EYESHADOW PALETTE / QWEEN SUPREME
		الغنية. الميتاليك بدرجات واحد وهاياليتر آيشادو ألوان ثمانية من مكونة جديدة باليت

Do you dream about your own personal styling area, with everything you need within easy reach? Our stylish dressing tables make this dream come true. You can hide away your mascara and jewellery in the drawers or get a few boxes with exciting shapes to put on the table top. Choose a dressing table with a builtin mirror or add a beautifying mirror that suits your style.

  Uponreading the Arabic text alone, it is unclear what the number refers to and in which unit of measurement. Comparing the translation with the RT shows that not only the unit was omitted but also the number was not accurate.Contact areas with soft, dyed-through 1.2 mm thick grain leather that is supple and smooth to the touch.

	Example (60)
	RT SKOGABY
	Two-seat sofa, Robust Glose, Bomstad black
	TR				SKOGABY
	أسود	Robust Glose, Bomstad	بمقعدين, كنبة
	الملمس. ناعم المرن الجلد من سماكة	2	1 .	عميقة صباغة مع تالمس مناطق
	BT SKOGABY
	Two-seat sofa, Robust Glose, Bomstad black
	Contact areas with deep dye 1.2 thickness of supple and smooth leather.

  in the studied case, (Example 64). Apple Pencil opens up new possibilities for iPad mini.4 Together they turn iPad mini into your takeanywhere digital notebook. Jot down notes, sign documents, and fill out forms. Or capture your most creative ideas by drawing, painting, or sketching on the go. على والتوقيع مالحظاتك لتدوين استخدامه ويمكنك مكان. أي إلى معك تأخذه أن تستطيع باإل التنقل. أثناء التصاميم تخطيط أو التلوين أو الرسم طريق عن اإلبداعية أفكارك ألمع تدوين إلى ضافة BT Apple Pencil When Apple Pencil meets min expect wonders. Apple Pencil opens up the way for new capabilities for iPad mini.4 With it, iPad mini turns into a digital notebook you can carry with you everywhere. You can use it to take notes, sign documents, and fill out forms, and you can write down your brightest creative ideas by drawing, colouring, or sketching designs on the go.

	Example (62)
	RT Apple Pencil
	Pencil meets mini. Magic happens.
	TR							Apple Pencil
					العجب. ع ّ توق	mini	و	Apple Pencil	يجتمع عندما
	رقمي بوك نوت إلى	iPad mini	معه يتحول حيث	iPad mini ، 4	على جديدة إمكانيات أمام المجال	Apple Pencil	يفتح
	االستمارات، وملء المستندات Example (63)
	RT EYE SHADOW
	A highly pigmented powder that applies evenly and blends well.
	TR							EYE SHADOW
			جيد. بشكل خلطه ويمكن متسق بشكل وضعه يتم الصبغة عالي مسحوق
	BT EYE SHADOW
	A highly pigmented powder that applies in an even way and can be blended well.
	Example (64)
	RT VITTSJÖ
	Laptop table, black-brown, glass
	Made of tempered glass and metal, hardwearing materials that give an open, airy feel.
	TR							VITTSJÖ
					كأس بني,	-	أسود المحمول, الكمبيوتر طاولة
			متجدد. طلق بهواء الشعور لك تعطي متينة ومواد مقوى، ومعدن زجاج من مصنوع

  BT Olay Natural White cleansing face wash for all skin types 100 ml Olay Natural White cleansing face wash cleanses your skin completely to make it closer to a beautiful balanced colour. A rich formula of only natural ingredients that works on producing melanin and helps in restoring your natural skin radiance. This gentle foam cleanser removes all impurities from your skin, including traces of make-up, and prepares your skin for your next daily steps of your regular beauty routine.

	TR	مل	100	سعة البشرة أنواع لجميع وايت ناتشرال أوالي الوجه منظف غسول
		من ّة غني صيغة الجميل. المتوازن اللون نحو أقرب ليجعلها بالكامل بشرتك ف ّ ينظ وايت ناتشرال أوالي الوجه منظف غسول بش إشراقة استعادة على وتساعد الميالنين إنتاج على تعمل والتي فقط الطبيعية نات ّ المكو ب ف ّ المنظ هذا الطبيعية. رتك الرغوة
		جمالك بروتين الخاصة اليومية للخطوات بشرتك ز ّ ويجه المكياج، آثار ذلك في بما بشرتك، عن الشوائب كل يزيل اللطيفة
				المنتظم.

  Give high society something to talk about with the Debutante Lash! These soft, separated lashes gradually fan outwards for a subtle cat-eye effect. Longer lashes at the outer corners create the illusion of a long, sleek eye shape.

	BT Debutante Lash lash kit
	Soft and separated false eyelashes
	Why we love it
	What a magic!
	Debutante Lash
	soft, separated false eyelashes
	WHY WE LOVE IT
	Oh my posh!
	TR			Debutante Lash	الرموش ّة عد
				ومتفرقة ناعمة اصطناعية رموش
				نحبه لماذا
				السحر! لهذا يا
	تدريجيا والمتفرقة الناعمة الرموش هذه تلتف !	Debutante Lash	الرموش ّة عد مع رموشك جمال عن يتحدثون اآلخرين دعي
	وجميال. طويال يبدو العين شكل الخارجية وايا	الز عند الطويلة الرموش تجعل القطة. عيون ة ّ بطل شبيهة ة ّ لطل األعلى نحو

https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/language-localization-market.html: "Accessed on February

22nd, 2022."

https://www.ciatec.com/2018/03/arab-digital-population/: "Accessed on February 23rd, 2022."

https://www.gala-global.org/industry/intro-language-industry/what-localization: "Accessed on February 23rd, 2022."

https://www.rws.com/: "Accessed on February 23rd, 2022."

https://www.rws.com/localization/: "Accessed on February 23rd, 2022."

More details on the different technical preparatory details can be found in[START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Translation and Web Localization[END_REF]

[START_REF] Yunker | Beyond Borders: Web Globalization Strategies[END_REF], classifies localization based on the company size into "incremental", which allows small companies to test the target markets before starting a large investment, "comprehensive" for large companies, and "customized" for multinational companies, through redesigning the website to make it more global friendly (pp. 129-130).

This section was the subject of the paper "Translation and localization: frequent arguments through asymmetric binoculars"[START_REF] Kassawat | Translation and localization: frequent arguments through asymmetric binoculars[END_REF]

https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/may/28/a-white-collar-sweatshop-google-assistant-contractorsallege-wage-theft?fbclid=IwAR3I0fRTWBElNVpdGU-hhNHiJNTC2vAKBo3fmOWc9hsz-8e6mp9U3yC0JQI: "Accessed February 23rd, 2022"

See also(Katan, 2016, p. 374) on the localizer as a non-professional translator.

This section was the subject of the paper "Decoding transcreation in corporate website localization into Arabic"(Kassawat, 2020a)

[START_REF] Harris | Effects of foreign product names and country-of-origin attributions on advertisement evaluations[END_REF], the research at hand will focus on the product and/or brand name's function from a critical research perspective, as it will be detailed later.A range of translation strategies is applied to product names, based on their function and target recipient. To start with, transliteration or phonetics adaptation is used to avoid taboos or undesired associations, to make meanings or implications transparent in the language of the target market[START_REF] Torresi | Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts[END_REF], and/or to make the name readable particularly in the languages which do not use the Latin letters, such as Chinese, Arabic, and Russian(Guidère, 2000, pp. 96-97). Names can be also adapted like other text elements. Two cases of "transmutation" are highlighted: the case where the original name is replaced by a completely different one, and the case where the name is adapted to suit the target country, using various procedures (ibid., p. 100). Whether the name is transliterated or adapted, such procedures imply the target culture and language considerations. On the contrary, as brand names are usually treated as proper names, they are left

See also[START_REF] Jiménez-Crespo | Crowdsourcing and translation quality: Novel approaches in the language industry and Translation Studies[END_REF] for more on user-focused approaches for quality and the fit-for-purpose model.

See also[START_REF] Gouadec | Quality in translation[END_REF] on the external factors which affect quality.

Juger d'une traduction, c'est d'abord et avant tout évaluer l'adéquation des résultats obtenus aux objectifs visés en s'appuyant sur le principe selon lequel il n'existe pas d'idéal de traduction hors d'un rapport de finalité.(Larose, 1998, p. 2) The importance of the function of the target text has been highlighted. It can be noticed that Nord's model is clearly general and provides a method rather than criteria. The methodological aspect is certainly critical for the process, particularly that it implies solutions of known problems in the translation assessment/criticism, such as the equivalence-based relation between the ST and the TT, where it should be taken into account and where not. However, the model is based on the general function, which is already an unspecific notion in TS. Moreover, knowing the intended skopos comes second in the model although a critical or non-critical reader pre-supposes a purpose/expectations of a text before reading it. In other words, examining a translation within the situation in which it is functioning requires understanding that situation before starting to read, e.g. a reader of a novel may pre-suppose reading for entertainment. Therefore, specifying the skopos comes logically and automatically first. In addition, looking into the coherence of a text in its situation requires certain basic criteria which should be specified prior to the first step.From another perspective, House bases her assessment model on a detailed analysis of the ST out of the notion of semantic and pragmatic equivalence in translation:

Post-editing can take two forms: (1) minimal post-editing , which aims to provide an understandable working document rather than a high-quality one; and (2) full post-editing, which is time consuming but ensures a better quality(Allen, 2003, pp. 305-306)

For more on the translation quality through acceptability and readability, cf.(Franscisca & Ardi,

2019).20 For modeling and measuring approaches to comprehensibility, cf.[START_REF] Hansen-Schirra | Approaching comprehensibility in translation studies[END_REF]

See also[START_REF] Davison | On the failure of readability formulas to define readable texts: a case study from adaptations[END_REF] on the need for explanation in shortened sentences and specific single words, which necessitate methods different from formulae.

See also[START_REF] Xia | Specialized comparable corpora in translation evaluation: a case study of English translations of Chinese law firm advertisements[END_REF] on readability dimensions related to the sentence length, complexity and formality.

See also[START_REF] Aluisio | Readability assessment for text simplification[END_REF] on a readability assessment approach to assist in the simplification process.

The ratio of the number of users who click on a link to the number of those who view its content, e.g. an advertisement.

https://www.statista.com/outlook/dmo/ecommerce/saudi-arabia: "Accessed on February 24 th , 2022."

See the results of Cómitre Narváez & Valverde Zambrana (2014) which show the lack of compliance with the target culture and language stylistic conventions in translation.

"It has been frequently claimed that a translatum should have the 'same effect' as the source text; but, for this to be possible, it may be necessary to change the function. For these reasons, we shall not regard invariance of effect as an absolute requirement."(Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 93)

Most of the examples in this section have been provided and discussed in(Kassawat, 2020a).

https://www.gala-global.org/industry/intro-language-industry/what-localization: "Accessed on February 23rd, 2022."

https://www.thelocal.se/20171205/ikea-praised-for-making-swedish-language-popular: "Accessed January 9th, 2019."

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I am extremely grateful to my supervisor, Professor Isabelle Collombat, for her invaluable advice during my PhD study. I highly appreciate the support she provided me

Corpus resources https://www.apple.comaccessed on April 23 rd , 2019. https://www.benefitcosmetics.comaccessed on April 19 th , 2019. https://us.braun.comaccessed on April 20 th , 2019. https://www.dove.comaccessed March 25 th , 2019. https://www.essence.eu/home -accessed on April 20 th , 2019. https://gillette.comaccessed on April 20 th , 2019. https://www.herbalessences.caaccessed on April 20 th , 2019. https://www.ikea.comaccessed on April 18 th , 2019. https://www.lux.comaccessed on April 19 th , 2019. https://www.maccosmetics.com -accessed on April 2 nd , 2019. https://www.niveausa.com -accessed on April 20 th , 2019. https://www.olayarabia.comaccessed on March 30 th , 2019 http://www.samsung.comaccessed on April 22 nd , 2019. https://www.sunsilk.in/home.html -accessed on April 19 th , 2019. https://www.tresemme.comaccessed on April 18 th , 2019.

Part 1: Localization: an overview translated content, or the technology used in the translation. He/she will face this challenge of conducting a fair assessment which looks into the main areas of quality that matter at least for the purpose of the assessment itself.

Summary

This chapter aimed to investigate translation quality assessment models which take quantitative and/or qualitative approaches. It started by a discussion on the notion of translation quality, which then developed into an examination of the terms used with this regard. The discussion helped in distinguishing terms such as revision, evaluation, assessment, and criticism, which will clarify the methodological path to be followed in this research. The chapter looked more deeply into the different approaches of assessment which exist in the literature. The discussed approaches varied from macro-to micro-level ones, and others which are experience-or textbased. Determining the method of collecting and analyzing the corpus will benefit from these approaches, as they provided a thorough idea of quality aspects and criteria which will be checked in the analysis and customized for the purpose of the research. Moreover, the chapter addressed the notion of quality in localization, while employing TS theories. It focused on important quality criteria in localization, such as readability and how it is measured, and comprehensibility. In light of the use of translation technology in the localization industry, the last part provided a discussion on how it can impact the user's experience, the translator's productivity, and the translation ethics.

The latter was also addressed in terms of the client's goals and the translator's responsibility. The next chapter will introduce the methodology of this research, including its nature and the challenges it encountered, and which can be also considered in other localization research studies.

Part 2: Methodology

Although a "cultural filter" would still be necessary to remove any remaining linguistic aspects of the source, the TT is subject to the addition of cultural layers rather than using a filter. These layers can be as thick as the localization agent finds appropriate. From this point of view, the notion of the "cultural filter" should be used with caution as it implies removing certain aspects and/or adding specific aspects.

To summarize, based on the above, and at least for research purposes, the term "reference text" will be used instead of "source text" to avoid any specification of the SL during the analysis.

While the reference text will be considered an "offer of information" [START_REF] Reiss | Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained[END_REF],

the localized text will still be considered as a translation, due to the text genre studied in this research.

Language and the amalgamation of the locale (Kassawat, 2021a; 2019a)

The locale is a term which combines a linguistic variety and cultural norms, and uses the market criteria to resolve contradictions between sociolinguistic levels [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF]. The market criteria include the language, currency, the educational level of the consumer, based on the communication nature [START_REF] Pym | Website localization[END_REF]. The notion of locale is expressed by a combination of the country/region and the language, e.g. for the market of France, the code can be fr-fr, for the market of the UK, the code can be en-UK, and for the market of Egypt, the code can look like eg-ar. The market code appears usually in the website URL.

Although this strategy looks specific according to market criteria, not all the countries have the same opportunity of being offered a culturalized version of the website if they do not represent significant markets. Based on the market scope, different geographic denominations appear instead of using country-specific codes. For example, Jiménez-Crespo (2010) found that the main target hispanic markets are Spain (42%), Mexico (32%), the United States (27%) and Argentina (27%).

Provding a general language of communication under which several cultural communities are listed in a website highlights the marketing approach which focuses on the "languages of consumption" [START_REF] Pym | Localization and the changing role of linguistics. Conférence Traduction humaine[END_REF] instead of languages belonging to specific cultures. In addition, the geography that is associated with language is unspecific (Guidère, 2000, pp. 26-27). This geography is supposed to specify linguistic, cultural and economic peculiarities (ibid., p. 29).

BT The meeting place of brightness and sophistication It features a polished metal layer with a camera that is not noticeable at all to ensure a very slim design. Its enlarged screen has curved edges in a flowing way that provides you with optimal viewing and comfortability of usage with one hand.

In the next example, the whole idea seems to have been transformed. While the English text suggests "adding music, making GIFs, and getting likes", "music" was combined with "GIF images" in Arabic, and the word "admiration" was introduced within a metaphor which depicts it as a liquid that does not dry. Assonance was also used in the word "GIF" and the verb "dry" (yaǧif), which made a rhyme. Moreover, the overall structure of the tagline looks different from that of the English text. While the latter is divided into three parts, separated by full stops in an instructive manner, the former consists of two parts separated by three dots. This structure also have contributed to the flow of the tagline.

Example (2)

RT Add music. Make GIFs. Get likes.

Super Slow-mo lets you see the things you could have missed in the blink of an eye. Set the video to music or turn it into a looping GIF, and share it with a tap. Then sit back and watch the reactions roll in.

TR

مع الموسيقى صور GIF يجف. ال إعجاب ...

صورة إلى تحويله أو موسيقية بمعزوفات الفيديو فيلم إغناء فيمكنك عين، غمضة في فاتك ما كل متابعة جدا البطيئة الحركة ميزة لك تتيح

GIF مكان كل في الجماهير تفاعل وراقب اآلن ِ استرخ واحدة. ضغطة بمجرد شاركه ثم ، .

BT Music with GIF images… an admiration that doesn't dry.

The super slow motion feature allows you to follow up everything that you missed in the blink of an eye, as you can enrich the video film with musical pieces or transform it into a GIF image, then share it with one tap. Relax now and watch the audience's reaction everywhere. Example (3) shows that the translation shares the notions of power and speed with the RT, with a metaphor that suits the Arab user's imagination, and most importantly, the common collocations that go with the used vocabulary. The two-part structure is similar in both texts, and the length is also similar, which helped express the strength of the product in a way that suits the words "speed" and "capability". The Arabic version introduces more variations. While "horse" was used in the English text, "runner" and "wrestler" were used in Arabic, which convinces the user further. While "part" and "all" relationship was used in English, the words "speed" and "capability" helped provide a favourable association, particularly that they consist of the same number of letters and they rhyme: "sur'a" and "qudra".

BT Sleep and relax and leave the rest on us

Learn more about your sleeping patterns during night so you can be better when you wake up. The Galaxy Watch tracks your sleep quality, and creates a log including 4 stages of sleep. It also monitors your stress levels to assist you with reduction through breathing through its guidance.

The above examples show how cultural references are used in translations independently as a transceation component. Despite the similarities found between the RT and the Arabic text in some instances, there was a clear local touch in the translation. Moreover, although Standard Arabic was used, the expressions used were simple and very close to what people would say in their dialect. This, in turn, approaches the users in their way of speaking, and that is another factor which enhances the translation in the studied context.

Paraphrasing as a transcreation component

Paraphrasing was used in limited cases, knowing that it can be sometimes confused with linguistic adaptation (examples will be provided later). In the example below, both the RT and the translation share the same idea of "light". The Arabic text does not include any obvious creative components. It was the contrast between the "glow" and the "dark" which led to including this case in the corpus. The translation benefited from the description itself and had the addition of "even in the dark", while "bright photos" seems to be a simplistic expression used in Arabic, which is different from the English phrase "keep light".

Example (9)

RT Keep light on your side Capture clearly even when light may not be on your side. Galaxy A7 features a high-resolution rear triple camera with low aperture to let more light in and reduce noise when shooting in low-light environments. BT Bright photos even in the dark Capture clear photos even when light may not be nearby. Galaxy A7 phone features a high-resolution rear triple camera with low aperture to let more light in and reduce noise when shooting in low-light environments.

Rhetorical devices with other components

To start with, rhetorical devices are sometimes accompanied with explication or addition.

The example below contains such a case in the body text. It includes wording that sounds out of context, such as "superiority" and "highness". Upon comparison with the RT, the translation seems to have these words as additions due to their absence in the English text and the absence of any other similar words. The words above are usually used in Arabic literature to refer to favourable characteristics in people. They can also be considered of a higher register but they were used to refer to the user rather than to the product, which enhances the persuasive function through achieving this closeness with the user. The Arabic text includes a metaphor too. The metaphor does not exist in the RT. It is through the verb "fly" which referred to the user in this case to invite him/her to explore experiencing the product. Reversing the form of address towards the user has again enhanced the function of the text.

Example (12)

RT Premium Screen (Quad HD Super AMOLED Display)

The precise color saturation and the high contrast of 5.7'' Quad HD Super AMOLED display will drive you to feel the fluent and vivid color as if you are looking with the naked eye. High resolution boasts tremendous viewing experience. Truly optimized for web-browsing and e-booking. BT Ultra Screen (Super AMOLED display with a resolution that is four times the high resolution)

Enjoy the precise color saturation and the high contrast of the Super AMOLED display with the resolution that equals four times the high resolution and with a size of 5.7 inches, which makes you feel superiority, highness and bright colors as if you are looking with the naked eye. Fly in the world of exciting view thanks to the high resolution. Watch the real development for web-browsing and reading e-books.

The translation in the next example includes a metaphor in the beginning of the body text that is commonly used in different contexts in Arabic, which makes it culture-related. It is inspired from the product name "Galaxy Fold" and the description of the product itself. It depicts the past and the future as pages in a book that can be turned, which corresponds with the flexibility featured in the device. This in turn represents the use of a cultural reference that already employs a rhetorical device.

Example (13)

RT In Example ( 14), the idea of "magic" is similar in both texts but was expressed differently.

The translation introduces an Arabic expression in the first part, "they capture the mind", which is used particularly in dialects by young people to express high admiration of something unusual. It was done using Modern Standard Arabic words. Moreover, the translation has two parts, separated by full stops, and each ends with a rhyme. The two parts, with the rhyme provide dynamism to the translation. Therefore, a cultural reference was used along with addition, while rhetoric was integrated too. In Example (15), the tagline inspires from the end of the body text which hints to "stars".

The tagline employed this metaphor to reflect the message more efficiently. First, it has a similarity with the RT in focusing of the "best face", but it seems to have paraphrased the idea in a different frame. Depicting the user as a movie star addresses him/her directly again in a favourable way. In addition, the last part "your face will look shiny like a charming movie star" seems to have also been paraphrased or re-translated to correspond to the tagline.

Example (15)

RT The few examples provided on the common use of rhetorical devices alone or with other solutions show how this component enhances the function due to the new frame it gives to the message that makes it closer to the user.

The following examples will focus on the use of linguistic adaptation in transcreation.

Linguistic adaptation as a transcreation component

Linguistic adaptation is commonly used as a translation procedure. It is sometimes confused with transcreation too. The examples below will attempt to untangle these concepts and The above examples showed how linguistic adaptation makes use of elements that can be considered creative in the monolingual analysis. They also attempted to clarify the blurry line between linguistic adaptation and transcreation. The findings were based on the monolingual analysis as they included the pre-determined markers of the function. This has helped in spotting when linguistic adaptation is a transcreation component and when it is not. Given the presence of Arabic-specific expressions in some of the translated texts, linguistic adaptation might be a way to avoid literal translations which lead to awkwardness, and thus can help transcreate. In the following section, cultural adaptation will be highlighted as a transcreation component, which also needs to be distinguished from linguistic adaptation and transcreation.

Cultural adaptation as a transcreation component

The example below was selected due to the use of "whiff of fruits" in the tagline and the use of the metaphor "captivating lips" in the body text. In this case, both spotted parts look very different from the RT. The English tagline is "a juicy pout", which carries sexual connotations.

The Arabic tagline includes the same notions, i.e. "pout" and "juice", but they were expressed in a different way. Simply "lips" mirrored "pout", and "whiff of fruits" mirrored "juicy". The Example (30)

RT Olay Total Effects 7inOne Anti-Ageing Day Moisturiser SPF15 50 ml Olay Total Effects 7inOne Anti-Ageing Day Moisturiser is an all-in-one everyday skincare solution, enhanced with broad spectrum SPF15 UV protection. Designed to provide powerful anti-ageing benefits for younger-looking skin. Total Effects 7inOne Day Moisturiser helps reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles, helps minimise skin redness, hydrates for firmer-looking skin, provides nourishing moisturisation, evens the skin tone, smoothens and evens out skin texture, and gives the skin healthy radiant look. Enjoy visibly firmer, younger-looking skin that is better protected against sun damage.

TR

BT The day moisturiser Olay Total Effects 7 in 1 for combating skin aging signs with a protection degree of SPF15 and size of 50 ml

The day moisturiser Olay Total Effects 7 in 1 for combating skin aging signs is the integral solution for daily skincare, with a broad spectrum with a protection degree of SPF15 UV. It was designed to provide powerful benefits for combating skin aging signs to look younger. Total Effects 7 in 1 day moisturiser helps reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles, helps minimise skin redness, hydrates for firmer and young skin, provides nourishing moisturisation, evens the skin colour, smoothens and evens out skin texture, and gives the skin healthy radiant look. Enjoy firmer, healthier skin that looks younger with the best protected against sunlight damage.

In the next example, the notion "shoulder protection" is similar in both texts. However, using the verb "protect" with "shoulder" means that the shoulder can be injured if it is exposed.

The context of the blurb is simply about providing more coverage to the shoulder to prevent dirt.

For instance, it can be translated as "to avoid dirt on the clothes in the shoulder area" اتساخ (لتجنب الكتف) على .المالبس Moreover, the part "provides practicality" can be understood as "provides the process" since the words "practicality" and "process" are written and pronounced in the same way.

It could have been translated as "it's always practical"

RT HIMMELSK Muslin square, white, grey Highly absorbent muslin square made of 100% cottonperfect to use when baths, nappy changes or as shoulder protection after the baby's mealand always practical to bring in a bag or jacket pocket. TR HIMMELSK long periods". The word "permanent" should not have been used because it has a nuance in meaning that slightly contradicts the following words "lasts for long periods". An even shorter translation could have been provided, such as ) طويال (يدوم that has an adverb equal to "long-lasting".

Example (38) RT PRO LONGWEAR EYE LINER

A long-lasting eye liner that delivers creamy, dense colour that glides on smoothly.

TR PRO LONGWEAR EYE LINER

لو يمنح طويلة لفترات ويدوم دائم للعين خطوط محدد بانسيابية. ينزلق ا ومرن ا كثيف ا ن

BT PRO LONGWEAR EYE LINER

A permanent eye liner that lasts for long periods and delivers dense and flexible colour that glides on smoothly.

In the next example, the part "have too much that exceeds your need" is too lengthy and complicated to read in Arabic. It also repeats the same idea using different words. Despite redundancy, the message remained unclear. The part "of any good thing" sounds vague in Arabic and needs explanation. Therefore, the sentence is redundant without adding value to the translation. A suggestion of a translation of this part would be: "sunshine and cooling breezes are really beautiful, but sometimes you can benefit more of these joyful moments" والنسمات الشمس أشعة (إن الممتعة). اللحظات هذه من أكثر االستفادة أحيانا يمكنك لكن ، حقا جميلة العليلة

Example (39) RT PARASOLS & GAZEBOS

Keep sun and wind under control Sunshine and cooling breezes are lovely, but sometimes you can have too much of a good thing. Our parasols and gazebos give you shade and excellent protection from UV rays while our windshields shelter your balcony from wind and nosey neighbours. Many of the fabrics we use for these outdoor products are washable, to keep your outdoor space looking fresh. The number of redundancy cases was relatively low. Therefore, the examples above should be sufficient to provide an idea of this category. The next examples will show the effect of linguistic issues on the function of the text.

Linguistic issues

Linguistic issues were not the focus of the first-phase analysis, i.e. spelling and grammatical mistakes were considered acceptable for the goal of this research wherever they do not impact the function. However, a few cases were found to be affecting the comprehensibility of the message. The examples below will show some of these issues in the corpus. Example (40) includes a typo in the second bullet point in Arabic. The word "dry" (الجفاف) was written as ,(الدفاف)

i.e. "āldafāf" instead of "ālǧafāf", which does not make sense in Arabic and affects the comprehensibility of the message. It is caused by replacing one letter by another.

Example (40)

RT Go Fresh Fresh Touch Beauty Cream Bar Enjoy softer, healthier-looking skin and the refreshing scent of cucumber and green tea with this gentle beauty cream bar.

About this product

• Refreshing cucumber and green tea scent revitalises your senses The second example starts with a syntactically incorrect tagline. This is a general observation that can be noticed in other examples of the same website (see the previous example), where the words are put together without conjunctions or correct structuring. Compared to the RT, no clear relationship was spotted other than the fact that the English version seems to also follow the same approach. "Nutritive Solutions" in the RT does not have a syntactical relationship with the words that follow it. The tagline, consisting of the product name, was fully repeated in the body text as well, leading to a linguistically-incorrect sentence. A workaround would be to add a dash between the two parts of the tagline, while putting the whole name within quotation marks within the text to improve readability as below: "Prevent hair fall** with "Dove daily carea conditional to prevent hair fall", for a remarkably thicker hair*." BT Dove daily care a conditioner to prevent hair fall Prevent hair fall** with Dove daily care a conditional to prevent hair fall, for a remarkably thicker hair*.

In the next example, there are two linguistic errors that affect the function. The first is a typo, marked as "XXX" in the BT. It is the word "tatawaṯar" (تتوثر) which should be "tatawaffar" (تتوفر) instead. The second error is the conjugation of the verb "increase" in the last part of the body text. It is conjugated in the singular masculine form in the Arabic version, while it refers to "supports" that is a feminine singular noun. This can confuse the user at the first reading in that the verb in the masculine form can be associated with "laptop" which is masculine too.

Example (42)

RT Desks that work anywhere Whether working from home or updating your profile, it's easier to get it done when you have a desk that works for you. Our computer desks come in different sizes to fit wherever you have space and give you plenty of room for paperwork and cables. The GALANT series is approved for professional use, and you'll even find laptop supports that make it more comfy to work in bed or on the sofa if that's more your style. The following example introduces a couple of social aspects that are not common in the Arab culture. First, "your guests will never fight for a sitting place again" is not usual in the Arab families and homes. In fact, the verb "fight" itself raises the issues due to the value Arab people give to their guests. This part should have been adapted. Here is a transcreated suggestion that would suit the target culture better: "a tiny house will fit a thousand friends" ( بيت سيصبح يسع الضيق صديق) ,ألف which is a popular proverb that contains a rhyme in "dya" and "ṣadyq". Second, the last part "when it's time to show off your latest dance moves" introduces a habit that is uncommon when Arab families have guests. A more suitable translation would be "when it's time for children With a little help from our stools and benches, your guests will never have to fight for a place again. Benches seat more people and ours are designed to match our tables in size and style. And you can stack most of our stools away or just push them under the table when it's time to show off your latest dance moves. The above examples were few in the corpus. However, their impact can be major on the advertised products and the image of the company. Moreover, it contradicts the goal of localization which is culture-oriented in the first place. Cultural issues can sometimes be unclear for the target user, or incomprehensible due to the existing gap between the source and target cultures. However, comprehensibility can also be caused by factors unrelated to culture, as it will be shown below.

Comprehensibility issues

A text is provided to send a message. If the message is not clear, the text is not considered functional. This issue is highly important in website localization in particular, where the user needs to understand the message quickly and the company wants to convince him/her with a few words.

The corpus contained several issues related to the lack of comprehensibility. This section will illustrate a few examples. The first blurb below introduces an unclear sentence at the end of the body text of the Arabic version. The part "make your own solution" in the RT was rendered as "solve it by your own" in Arabic, which does not provide a clear idea to the consumer. The part "add on at any time as your child's needs change" in the RT should be understood from the context and the nature of the product, which is about adding extra pieces of furniture to extend the original size as children grow up. It was rendered in Arabic as "fabricate the addition at any time while your child needs change". The translation introduces an unclear meaning by using the verb "fabricate" and using "needs" as a verb that relates to the child, rather than using it as a noun.

BT GODMORGON

Box with lid, set of 5 pieces, dark GODMORGON organiser help in ending the chaos of the bathroom. And another important news? This organizer is made from 50 recycled 500 ml PET plastic bottlesusing waste as a resource helps reduce the impact on the environment.

The example below has the tagline translated as "your eyebrows seem lifted!". Although it is clear and readable, it lacks the dynamism required for this text genre. What makes it less suitable is addressing the user as if she is already using the product. It is very similar to the English version, where this style can be more common. However, the tagline should have been more inviting through using a call-for-action verb. For example, it can be translated as "lift your brows with one touch!" واحدة!) بلمسة حواجبك . The subtitle of the example below has also transliterated terms: "invisible" and "clean".

Following this approach in this case affects the function in that the transliterated words have equivalents in Arabic and are uncommon in their foreign pronunciation. Moreover, the structure of the subtitle, i.e. adding the word "clean" at the end without a clear connection to what precedes it and with no clarification of its connotation, is also confusing. The word "invisible" was transliterated in the subtitle, but was translated in the description, which can clarify the product usage and goal.

BT Invisible protection

Invisible for black and white clothes clean antiperspirant protection

Invisible protection of the skin and clothes that lasts for 24 hours.

The next example has the tagline transliterated too. It contains the product name alone.

Although the translation approaches of product names will be further illustrated in the next chapter, this case contains an issue that affects the function of the text. The transliteration of "Cool Kick" can be pronounced in Arabic as "coal cake", which means "eat cake". Moreover, the product name was not transliterated in a consistent way in the blurb. In the tagline, "cool" was transliterated as "coal" .(كول) In the body text, there is an extra "w" which makes it read more clearly as "cool" .(كوول) The word "kick" though remains as "cake".

Example (57) RT COOL KICK antiperspirant protection

Vitalizing freshness & reliable protection

The NIVEA MEN Cool Kick Deo instantly offers me a great feeling of vitalizing freshness while it protects me reliably all day long. The mild Cool-Care formula vitalizes the body pleasantly and regulates transpiration effectively. Furthermore it has a stimulating scent.

Freshness and reliable protection

The men Cool Kick deo from Nivea guarantees an instant feeling of vitalizing, freshness, and protection all day long, and the mild cool-care formula provides a perfect mix of Nivea refreshing care and effective protection of sweating as it regulates transpiration, and it has a stimulating nice scent.

The above examples attempted to provide an idea of issues related to the translation of terms and/or product names. They showed how the translation approaches and strategies used are leading sometimes to misunderstanding, misspelling, or confusing the term. Hence, such issues can have a major impact on the function and the product promotion, particularly if the targeted audience is not familiar with the English transliterated term.

Audience issues

A few issues were found in relation to the targeted audience. Although these issues were limited, they need to be highlighted too. On cosmetics websites, most of the products are made for women and the blurbs address women. This was often clear from the images on the website besides the context itself. The example below targets women, based on the description which has the words "jewellery" and "mascara". The English language allows gender neutrality, but it is not always the case in Arabic. The translation has some verbs that already have a gender neutral form, but introduces many verbs in the masculine form. These include "dream", "need", "put", "choose", and "add". Using these forms would sound awkward for the female user and can affect the perception of the product.

Example (61) RT Clear View Cover

Its semi-transparent design blends beautifully with the contoured finish of your phone to safeguard its appearance without sacrificing style. You can also manage incoming calls effortlessly without lifting the cover. The stylish Clear View Cover comes in-box in matching colour for added protection for your Galaxy Note FE.

BT Clear View protection cover

Its semi-transparent design blends beautifully with the contouring design of your phone to protect the appearance without impacting the phone's style. You can also deal with incoming calls effortlessly without lifting the cover. The stylish Clear View cover comes in-box in matching colour to provide more protection for the Galaxy Note FE phone.

This section illustrated representative examples of all the categories of the issues found in the corpus, based on the percentage of each category. The next section will provide further examples on the approaches used with product names in Arabic.

Existing approaches to product naming

As it was mentioned earlier, product and brand names were not part of the function markers.

Nonetheless, general observations need to be highlighted. This section will illustrate the existing approaches to transfer these elements into Arabic. Examples will be provided based on the consistency of the approach used. More examples can be spotted from the previous sections.

Consistent approaches

The existing approaches to product and brand naming were illustrated based on general observations in Table ( 5). It can be noticed that English names were used consistently in the two high tech websites (Example 62) and one cosmetics website (Example 63). It was noticed in the cosmetics website that the product names were all translatable, but were used in English in Arabic even though, for consistency and/or for marketing purposes. Moreover, the English names are also used within the body text, without further explanation or translation in most cases. The second BT VITTSJÖ

Laptop table, black -brown, a glass

Made of tempered glass and metal, durable materials that give the feeling of renewed air.

In the last example, the names are not familiar to the Arab user, and the pronunciation can be difficult, let alone remembering the name of the product. In general, using foreign words, even in English, can be less pleasing for some users who are not familiar with languages other than Arabic. The case of Ikea product names expectedly leads to similar issues for consumers who speak languages other than Arabic. Although Ikea's strategy focuses on the Swedish identity, this contradicts the goal of localization. Despite the fact that foreign names are commonly used for marketing purposes on a global level, they might not be a suitable approach in the cosmetics industry. While high tech websites target a specific group of people with a certain education level, cosmetics websites address women in general, or men in a few cases. This group of targeted people is large and the education level cannot be easily identified. The same applies to the furniture website, which targets families. Economic factors can help defining the targeted group that can be interested by the product but cannot necessarily help identifying their education or language competencies. Therefore, it is suggested to use translation and explanations in these areas, or replacing the foreign names by local ones for more familiarity and a better user experience. In cases where the original identity and cultural image are intended to be transferred, as in the case of Ikea, the effects are assumed to be minimal if the brand depends on this identity and image to reflect quality and reliability.

Inconsistent approaches

Other approaches existed in the corpus, including hybrid approaches where more than one procedure was used. The examples below show how these approaches were followed in an inconsistent way across the websites, knowing that more than one approach was also used in some websites. The first example represents how translation was used to transfer names into Arabic. The Arabic tagline looks written originally in Arabic, rather than translated. It expresses the nature and usage of the product clearly. It should be noted that translated names did not always have a correct syntax though. However, the idea was usually clear and the product was well explained through the name/tagline.

Example (65)name translation

RT Go Fresh Fresh Touch Beauty Cream Wash Enjoy the look of radiant skin and the refreshing scent of cucumber and green tea with this gentle hand wash. BT Hand wash with a touch of freshness Enjoy a skin that radiates with health and freshness and has the refreshing scent of cucumber and green tea with this hand wash that is gentle on the skin.

The example below shows how the product name was transliterated. The name was spelled incorrectly though as "sensationk". In this case too, the name could have been easily translated as Example (67) shows a hybrid approach that combines both translation and transliteration in the tagline. While "Olay Natural White" was transliterated, the rest of the name was translated as it was considered an explanation of the name. The approach was consistent within the blurb.

The name was also transliterated in the body text but without the rest of the explanation.

analysis with regard to product names, which are often the tagline, and are appellative elements in advertising translation.

Summary

This chapter illustrated examples with issues that had a negative impact on the function. The issue categories were not comprehensive, and had left out certain linguistic aspects that are usually considered problematic or unacceptable. However, the findings helped explain the existing practices. They were sufficient in relation to the function markers. Finally, the examples of the product name approaches were an important addition to the results. They not only revealed the existing tendencies, but also revealed some important aspects, such as the lack of consistency within the one website, and within the one blurb sometimes. The next chapter will discuss the above findings in light of the theoretical framework and in relation to the main theories which were based on in the methodology. The discussion will focus on main areas of the research and point out other aspects which worth highlighting.

In order to answer these questions, existing theories and studies were explored in TS literature as well as in the industry. The literature review discussed research in the field of TS, localization, and advertising translation. This helped in defining the convention of the studied genre, and in having more insight into the process and existing views towards localization. The literature also indicated a conflict between fuzzy notions and terminology, besides different points of view between TS and the industry. Therefore, the theoretical discussion had to address these issues before carrying on in the research. The discussion attempted to detangle terms, such as adaptation, transcreation, translation, and localization. Doing so helped in conducting the research on a solid basis, knowing what each term refers to. It also assisted in the methodology design, and corpus compilation and analysis.

After an exploration of the literature, a pilot project was conducted. It revealed linguistic and cultural issues that needed more investigation. The preliminary findings led to a corpus expansion. Furthermore, a TQA model was needed to address these issues. The literature review expanded as a result, to specify the function of the text further in terms of its readability, comprehensibility, and acceptability. The methodology was based on a discussion of several assessment and criticism models. Function-oriented models were found to be more suitable for the studied corpus, and were also commonly used in localization research. Therefore, Nord's model of criticism [START_REF] Nord | Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis[END_REF] was used. It is target-based and features a neutral approach to quality that suits the research purposes. The lack of definition of the function in this model was filled in by knowledge gained from the literature. The function markers were specified.

The corpus included commercial blurbs from international corporate websites localized into Arabic. The method consisted of two phases. First, a monolingual phase took place, where Arabic texts were assessed in light of pre-set function markers. Texts with issues were selected, besides texts which contain the expected markers and correspond to the genre convention. Any other functional texts were passed away. This phase resulted in excluding 88% of the corpus where the blurbs were functional, and selecting 8% of the corpus representing blurbs with issues that have a negative impact on the user's experience, and 4% of the corpus which represents blurbs with the expected markers of the studied genre. The expected markers used in advertising were found in taglines, as expected, due to their appellative nature. The results at this stage helped estimating the extent to which the studied texts are adapted, answering the main research question.

Second, a bilingual phase started by comparing the selected texts with the international English version of the website, a reference text (RT). The comparison helped in conducting a root-cause analysis for both the issues and the distinguished function markers. This phase provided further insight into the results. It contributed to the theoretical discussion of this thesis with regard to transcreation. The comparison clarified where transcreation was used and how. It also revealed the causes of the issues found. The analysis generated interesting findings with regard to existing tendencies of product name translation, as an appellative element.

Patterns and correlations among the results were detected with regard to the type of the industry and the quality of the texts. A high number of blurbs with issues was found in cosmetics and furniture websites, compared to the small number of such cases in high tech websites. At the same time, high tech websites contained more cases with the expected markers, with a big proportion of transcreation cases of the whole corpus. Furthermore, high tech websites are more consistent in terms of the translation strategy of product names, where English is mainly used.

Interestingly, the furniture website Ikea had a different approach from the rest of the samples, but that was consistent too. It contained Swedish names of products. The rest of the websites showed various translation strategies even within the same website and the same blurb in a few cases. As the research question has been briefly restated and the method and the main findings have been reminded of, the following is a detailed discussion of the output of the study in relation to the theoretical framework.

Localization: from practice to theory

Due to the continuously-criticized communication between TS and the industry, particularly in the field of localization, the following discussion will attempt to contribute to TS through practical insight based on findings about online localized websites. To start with, the number of the functional blurbs, which were excluded from the detailed analysis, was relatively high. This means that the online content studied meets the minimum criteria of quality specified for this study. However, only 4% of the corpus corresponds to the genre criteria [START_REF] Gully | The discourse of Arabic advertising: preliminary investigations[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the concept of transcreation-transcreation as 'more than translation'? Cultus[END_REF]. Knowing that the corpus does not represent all the practices on other websites, it showed how online content does not fully meet the academic and industry discourses regarding the orientation towards the target culture. This small proportion represents the cases which meet the localization principles and definitions of the industry, which focus on the cultural On a side note, creative approaches are understood to have a transformative effect through the translation. This was also discussed in Guidère's conceptualization of re-writing through providing an idea different from the original, or through developing a new one while respecting the original style. However, examples ( 21), ( 22), ( 23), and ( 24) indicate similarities, i.e. literal approaches in terms of the idea and style, which means that creativity is also about knowing when literality is better to be used to meet the function, and where it suits the target recipients.

Having covered a part of the appellative function, which is the tagline, product and brand names are important factors in marketing, as well as in translation. While target-based approaches are often conceptualized as domestication-oriented, foreignization is also used to meet the purpose while taking the target audience into account. This was also clear in some examples discussed earlier, where English names were rhymed with the Arabic words to create a persuasive effect.

Therefore, linguistic and cultural strangeness is used to fulfil the function. This use was represented by procedures, such as name transliteration, partial translation, hybrid forms, English and Swedish names. This goes in line with the fact that "breaking the norms can become a norm" and that "the expectancy itself may become a norm" (Chesterman, 2016, p. 65). Although there is little knowledge on product naming expectancy in Arabic, the use of English names has been often discussed [START_REF] Al Abed | Ta'athyr tarjamat ale'elanat altjaryah al enjilyzyah 'ala allughah al'arabyah[END_REF]. This can be interpreted by the fact that foreign names are expected to be used, whether they are treated as proper names [START_REF] Torresi | Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts[END_REF], or to appeal the consumer through using the original name of the product (Guidère, 2000, p. 94). Moreover, foreign names were used in a consistent way across two high-tech websites (Samsung and Apple) and one cosmetic product website (Mac Cosmetics). This pattern can be associated with the visibility of the content and the image of the afore-mentioned companies. For example, Apple ranks first and Samsung ranks third in the Forbes' list of Top 100 Digital Companies for the year 2019 36 .

Similarly, Mac Cosmetics ranks eighth in the list of "top 20 most influential mass cosmetics brands in the world in 2019" shared in Vogue 37 . The other companies included in this research were either listed at a lower position or not included at all in the mentioned lists.

36 https://www.forbes.com/top-digital-companies/list/#tab:rank: "Accessed on May 25 th , 2021."

37 https://www.vogue.fr/beauty-tips/article/these-are-the-top-20-most-influential-mass-cosmetics-brands-in-theworld-in-2019: "Accessed on May 25th, 2021."

The impact of localization on cultures

Although this research was not designed to address the impact of localization on cultures, the literature review raised a few issues that the results might be able to clarify. For instance, the amalgamation of locales has been observed in languages other than Arabic, where linguistic and cultural issues arise. However, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is being used for all the Arabic pages regardless of the country, which is the general norm for written contents. Technical elements, such as the currency, were often customized for each country, which can be considered as intra-locale nuances. While the use of MSA can be seen as an advantage to spread it and reduce the costs needed for customized versions, the peculiarities of each country seem to be blurred in the translations. No major issues were spotted in relation to the target culture of the analyzed version. At the same time, no country-specific markers were present either. There is a linguistic and cultural unification, which makes use of common linguistic aspects in Arabic that can be understood by virtually every Arab person. Local markers at the level of the country were absent, knowing that certain vocabulary can be used differently from a country to another even though they belong to MSA. The unification tendency on international corporate websites reflects the understanding of the locale as it uses market criteria to "resolve contradictions between sociolinguistic levels" [START_REF] Pym | Localization: on its nature, virtues and dangers[END_REF]. At the same time, the use of MSA is primarily used as a readymade solution to find a "common language" [START_REF] Pym | Globalization and the politics of Translation Studies[END_REF] for a given market. Otherwise, local variations might be able to provide more dynamic translations that sound closer to the ordinary user, particularly in products like cosmetics and furniture which do not need a high level of education or knowledge of technological terms.

Using MSA in online commercial content has a positive impact on the Arab readership, with reservations on the word "readership" with this type of content. Book readership in many Arab countries has been viewed to be relatively low (Harabi, 2007, p. 14). With the increasing dependency on online content, localization should have a positive impact when it meets the conventions of the target language. Hence, localization can play a double role with regard to its impact on the target culture: as an enhancer, when it enriches the language (Collombat, 2014, p. 27); or as a damaging factor, when it provides a low quality translation. At the same time, it has proved to play a major role in enhancing and spreading the source culture, as in the case of IKEA product names, and video games (O'Hagan & Mangiron, 2013, p. 91).

Summary

This chapter aimed to discuss the results obtained from this research. It started off with the relationship between the definition of localization and how it is applied. Then, the chapter provided a detailed interpretation of the results in light of theory. The discussion addressed both the

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

The research of this thesis started off from the definitions of localization provided by the industry and TS scholars, which focus on the linguistic and cultural adaptation and providing products in a way that suits the target market and culture. The objective of internationalization was also discussed, given the scarce research with this regard. The definitions of localization were examined to check their validity and the extent to which they reflect the reality, in terms of meeting specific criteria of the desired function and the internationalization effect on the translation. In 3-As localization is understood as "a target-oriented translation type and, in line with the functionalist notion of adequacy" (ibid., p. 18), how to determine the function parameters that should be used in criticizing the textual localization of a website? 4-What kind of impact does the globalization process have on the textual content of a conventionalized genre, i.e. are there noticeable markers of the targeted language and culture in a localized content or different versions look rather similar?

The advertising text, namely the blurb, was chosen as a genre, due to the high position culture has in this genre. Moreover, advertising and advertising translation have conventions researched and established through several research studies. The Arabic language was chosen due to the lack of localization research on this language and the more or less recent inclusion of the Arab countries as a target market by international corporations. The Saudi Arabia market was chosen, where available, for consistency in the corpus. Thus, the research questioned the

The discussion of these terms should have helped in reducing the confusion caused sometimes from the propositions and definitions of the industry.

By looking at how the methodology evolved throughout the research, notions related to translation quality have been also discussed. As a starting point, the notion of quality itself was looked at, particularly from a functionalist perspective. Previous research contributed with various models of assessing the translation quality, quantitatively and/or qualitatively. These contributions have helped in designing the research and proposing a model of criticism eventually. However, terms such as assessment, evaluation, and revision have been used without always clarifying where the processes are applied, who perform the task, or what the purpose is. The main focus was mostly on the error categories and the areas of the quality. This research benefited from these areas but adopted the term criticism, which was found to better fit the purpose of this study. On the practical level, the results show that the translation quality can be affected by the process, the technology used, and the importance of the linguistic quality itself in the process.

However, the findings indicated that the majority of the analyzed texts meet the predetermined criteria. While this does not mean that most of the content is error-free and culturally acceptable, the studied texts meet the function at required level for this research only. The use of particular function criteria helped in avoiding the tendency to generally view online content as one with a Blurb • 5,128,129,150,151,161,166,167,170,181,182,183,197,202,204,205,208,209,219,222,226,229,236,239,242,243,244,267,270 C Comprehensibility • 111,112,119,222 Convention • 25,84,85,131,169,182,241,243,248,266,271 Corpus • 130,150,300 criticism • 305 Criticism • I,2,6,21,24,37,89,92,93,94,96,100,101,102,107,114,124,130,142,143,144,145,147,154,156,157,160,241,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,272,274,275 Cultural adaptation • 19,58,172,198 Cultural references • 172, 173, 186 E Evaluation • 71,89,91,92,93,96,102,104,105,107,123,124,131,143,144,148,154,268,274,275 F function • 305 Function • I,2,16,20,21,22,34,49,64,71,73,74,75,76,77,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,93,94,95,100,101,102,104,107,109,110,111,113,116,117,119,122,127,129,130,133,135,136,137,138,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,150,151,152,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,164,165,168,169,171,172,173,180,181,182,183,186,190,191,192,194,195,198,201,202,204,205,206,208,211,214,216,218,219,221,225,226,228,229,230,233,239,240,241,242,243,245,246,247,248,249,251,253,254,256,257,259,260,261,263,264,265,267,268,270,271,272,274,275,276,277,305 functionalist • 305 G Globalization • 4, 35 Internationalization • 4,33,35,36,40,59, 70 J 33,34,35,42,48,49,139 Ces résultats permettent de modéliser la relation entre la qualité de la traduction, la taille de l'entreprise et le domaine.

B

I

Mots clés : adaptation culturelle, criticisme de traduction, internationalisation, localisation des sites Web, recherche de corpus, traduction fonctionnaliste, traduction publicitaire, transcréation

A function-based approach to translation criticism of localized corporate websites:

Orientations in Arabic product blurbs

This thesis explores the extent to which localized websites are textually adapted to the target language and culture. The research is limited to product blurbs in international corporate websites localized into the Arabic language.

Given the definitions of localization proposed by the industry and TS, linguistic and cultural adaptations are the core of this concept. Hence, the studied genre was chosen due to the need for such kinds of adaptations.