Alain Bensoussan
email: alain.bensoussan@irt-saintexupery.com

M-Storm

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I. INTRODUCTION

Well-known Quality Standards in various industry domains rely or are close to Military Standards MIL-STD [START_REF] Hdbk | NSWC-10 RELIABILITY HDBK[END_REF] and JEDEC methods [START_REF]Reliability Qualification of Semiconductor Devices Based on Physics of Failure Risk and Opportunity Assessment[END_REF]. Now entering the 4.0 industry paradigm as the fourth Industrial Revolution (the Age of cyber and robots), quality/reliability models and tools headed by Health Monitoring (HM) leads toward more crucial and vital questions. When systems are constructed on innovative and disruptive technologies, such standards and methods are in general obsolete and inadequate to prepare their industrialization and qualification for just-in-time commercialization. This is the case in particular for the Deep-Sub-Micron technologies entering progressively to the More than Moore era.

How to quantify reliability for such evolving technologies?

When considering deep submicron (DSM) integrated circuits, the shrinkage of geometries (down and lower than the 20 nm range) induces shrinkage of electrical parameter limits and condition of use may produce multiple-stress in operation jointly producing multiple failure mechanisms concurrently. In such technology, multiple failure mechanisms can be induced simultaneously and are in competition, considering each of them described by its single activation energies defined in the Standards. Existing Quality Standards are considering stress tests and related Physics of Failure (PoF) mechanisms without entanglements. Device failure rates are seen to be a sum of each existing failure rate taken individually. Bathtub curve is an idealized view of instantaneous failure rate scenario generally considered in well-known MIL, JEDEC or TELCORDIA [START_REF] Bellcore | Reliability Prediction Procedure for Electronic Equipment[END_REF] Standards. In 2013, a generalized view of the existing reliability models was presented by E. Suhir et al. [START_REF] Suhir | Probabilistic Design for Reliability[END_REF], [START_REF] Bensoussan | Design-for-Reliability (DfR) of Aerospace Electronics: attributes and challenges[END_REF], describing probabilistic design-for-reliability (PDfR) concepts addressing a version to predict the reliability of aerospace electronics. The Boltzmann-Arrhenius-Zhurkov (BAZ) model very similar to *Research conducted under Electronic Robustness contract Robustness Project IRT-008 managed by IRT Saint Exupery, Toulouse (France) and sponsored by: Agence Nationale de la Recherche, Airbus Operations SAS, Airbus Group Innovation, Continental Automotive France, Thales Alenia COX model [START_REF] Cox | Regression Models and Life-Tables[END_REF], was refined for the evaluation of the Probability of Failure (ProF) under operational application at given temperature and under the various stresses (not necessarily mechanical).

More recently, a complementary set of principles was proposed by J. Bernstein et al. and focused quantifying failure rates as a combination of multiple failure mechanisms thanks to the High Temperature Overstress Lifetest (HTOL) method [START_REF] Bernstein | Reliability Prediction from Burn-in Data Fit to Reliability Models[END_REF], and [START_REF] Bernstein | Reliability Matrix Solution to Multiple Mechanism Prediction[END_REF]. The key novelty of the Multiple-HTOL (M-TOL) testing method proposed is its success in separating different failure mechanisms occurring on devices in such a way that actual reliability predictions can be made for any user operating conditions defined. After a brief description of the M-STORM principles, we will see how this model can be applied to any technology and in particular considering the example of the DSM Bulk CMOS will be reviewed. Advantages and drawbacks of the approach will be highlighted then.

II. M-STORM DESCRIPTION

A. Multiple stressor weights

The Arrhenius equation relates reaction rate r of transition from a reactant in state A to a product in state B is depending on temperature and the activation energy as also modeled by Transition state Theory, developed by E. Wigner in 1934 [START_REF] Wigner | The transition state method[END_REF] and by M. Evans, M. Polanyi in 1938 [START_REF] Evans | Inertia and driving force of chemical reaction[END_REF]:

ߣ ൌ ߣ ή ݔ݁ ቀെ ா ೌ ή் ቁ ( 1
)
where Oo is the rate prefactor, Ea the activation energy, T the absolute temperature in Kelvin, k the Boltzmann's constant (8.6174 10 -5 eV/K).

The BAZ model determines the failure rate r for a material or a device experiencing combined action of an elevated temperature and external stresses S:

߬ ൌ ͳȀߣ ൌ ߬ ή ݔ݁ ቀ ா ೌ ିఊήௌ ή் ቁ ( 2
)
where S is the applied stress, W0 is the time constant and O0 the failure rate constant defined as 1/W0, J is a factor of loading characterizing the role of the level of stress (the product J•S is the stress per unit volume and is measured in the same units as the activation energy Ea.

B. Multiple mechanism effects

Standards are generally related to parts and system hardware functions based on constant failure rate considering the element of interest have been manufactured and screened efficiently, operating in a given environment and assuming wearout failure rate well beyond the operating End of Life time (EOL). The common approach for assessing device reliability today is the High Temperature Operating Life (HTOL) testing [START_REF] Xilinx | Reliability Report[END_REF], which is based on the assumption that just one dominant failure mechanism is acting on the device [START_REF] Bernstein | Reliability Prediction from Burn-in Data Fit to Reliability Models[END_REF]. However, it is known that multiple failure mechanisms act on the device simultaneously [START_REF] Bernstein | Physics-of-failure based handbook of microelectronic systems[END_REF]. The new approach M-TOL method predicts the reliability of electronic components by combining the Failure in Time (FIT) of multiple failure mechanisms [START_REF] Bernstein | Reliability Prediction for Aerospace Electronics[END_REF]. Degradation curves are generated for the components exposed to accelerate testing at several different temperatures and core stress voltage. Data clearly reveals that different failure mechanisms act on the components in different regimes of operation causing different mechanisms to dominate. A linear matrix solution allows the failure rate of each separate mechanism to be combined linearly to calculate the actual reliability as measured in FIT of the system based on the physics of degradation at specific operating conditions.

III. APPLICATION TO DSM TECHNOLOGIES

An experimental results of the M-TOL method tested on both 45 FPGA devices from Xilinx that were processed at TSMC (according to the Xilinx data sheets) is presented and is running at IRT Saint Exupery, Toulouse (France). The FPGAs are tested over a range of voltages, temperature and frequencies, and the test program is conducted by Bernstein, J., Ariel University, Ariel (Israel). Ring frequencies of multiple asynchronous ring oscillators simultaneously stressed in a single FPGA were read and recorded. Hundreds of oscillators and the corresponding frequency counters were burned into a single FPGA to allow monitoring of statistical information in real time. Since the frequency itself monitors the device degradation, there is no recovery effect whatsoever, giving a true measure for the effects of all the failure mechanisms measured in real time. The common intrinsic failure mechanisms affecting electronic devices are, Hot carrier Injection (HCI), Bias Temperature Instability (BTI), Electromigration (EM) and Time Dependent Dielectric Breakdown (TDDB). The failure mechanisms can be separated due to the difference of physical nature of each individual mechanism [START_REF] Bernstein | Reliability Matrix Solution to Multiple Mechanism Prediction[END_REF]. An example of results of three failure mechanisms superposed have been obtained on FPGA 45 nm and is shown in figure 1. The stresses applied degrade the reliability with respect to the temperature range domain. Quality Standards recommend in general to operate at low temperature (close to 25°C) to improve reliability. For such technology, this is no truer when the temperature range is reduced in excess down to negative values. Indeed in the classical approach, the two mechanisms BTI and EM decrease the extrapolated FIT observed at low temperature range because of the positive activation energies. Here the methodology quantify the contribution of the HCI (negative activation energy) compensating the effect of the other mechanisms and demonstrating worst FIT values at low negative temperature range for this DSM technology.

IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

To this day, the users of most sophisticated electronic systems that include GaN power devices, ASIC and Deep-Sub-Micron technologies etc. are expected to rely on a simple reliability value (FIT) published by the supplier. A way to predict reliability assessment based on the system environment including space, military and commercial was presented in this paper, using the common language of Failure In Time or Failure unIT (FIT). A Multi-phySics mulTi-stressOrs predictive Reliability Model (M-STORM) is discussed in this paper for an easy to use, to quantify and to predict probability of failure of new products and technologies.

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author would like to particularly thank Professor Joseph B. Bernstein, from Ariel University, Ariel (Israël) for his collaboration and the major comments and deep discussions we had during the manuscript preparation.

  fr/ Eprints ID : 18227 To link to this article : DOI: 10.1109/NMDC.2016.7777115 URL : http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/NMDC.2016.7777115 To cite this version : Bensoussan, Alain M-STORM Reliability model applied to DSM Technologies. (2016) In: NMDC 2016 (Nanotechnology Materials and Devices Conference), 9 October 2016 -12 October 2016 (Toulouse, France).

Abstract-

  Failure mechanisms described in JEDEC publication JEP122G constitute commonly accepted models for silicon device physics of failure. Such models are generally described in term of stress parameters and/or specifically measured drift parameters; however, they consider only a single stress condition, single parameter signature and single failure mechanism at a time. When considering new disruptive technologies for deep submicron integrated circuits, the shrinkage of geometries (down and lower than the 20 nm range) induces shrinkage of electrical parameter limits and condition of use may produce multiple-stress in operation jointly producing multiple failure mechanisms concurrently. This paper is related to the generalized Reliability Model for semiconductor devices called M-STORM for Multi-phySics mulTi-stressOrs predictive Reliability Model.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Reliability curves for 45nm technology showing FIT versus Temperature for Voltages above and below nominal (1.2V) and frequencies from 10 MHz (dashed line) to 2GHz (solid line).


Alice Braun

In the Memorial Room: The Conditions of Being a Writer

Keywords: metafiction, autobiography, romanticism, post-colonialism, death of

In the Memorial Room, the second novel by Frame to be published posthumously, announces many of the themes that she would develop only a few years later in Living in the Maniototo, including the role of the artist in her own fiction. The artist figure this time is a young New Zealand man who has been awarded a fellowship giving him the chance to live and write in the same French town where Margaret Rose Hurndell, a national literary figure, spent some time before she died. By staging the gradual erasure of its main protagonist, In the Memorial Room allows us to reflect on the place of the artist in a society obsessed with the cult of celebrity, when being a writer should imply a dissolution of the ego and the foregrounding of language as the main driving force of his/her art. Through the seemingly trivial attention given to the artist's material condition, Frame dramatizes the dialectics of the author's role with regards to his/her creation through the main characters who epitomise the different modalities of being a writer.

been awarded the Watercress-Armstrong Fellowship and is about to leave for Menton, where according to the terms of the Fellowship, he is to write in the Margaret Rose Hurndell Memorial Room. There, much to his dismay, he discovers the place to be a bare room without basic facilities such as running water or lighting. Similarly, the flat he has been offered to rent is bleak and uncomfortable, adding to Harry's general sense of unease. As he struggles to find more appropriate living arrangements, he finds that his attention is constantly sought by the members of Menton's English-speaking community (some of them New Zealanders, like the Watercresses and the Fosters; others English expatriates, like the Markhams and the Lees), all of whom are obsessed to varying degrees with Margaret Rose Hurndell, the famous late writer who presides over Harry's experience.

A New Zealand writer who died at a young age in France, Hurndell is a thinly disguised version of Katherine Mansfield, the first literary celebrity to have been claimed by New Zealand (although her "New Zealandness" has been contested), and to whom Frame 2 herself was constantly compared in her life-time. In his interaction with the English community in Menton, Harry finds that his privacy is increasingly encroached upon. In particular, his writing is constantly interrupted by forced socialising and the need to find more suitable accommodation. Moreover, after he is befriended and finally taken up by the Fosters, Margaret Rose Hurndell's own sister and brother-in-law, and allowed to use a studio in their villa, Harry discovers that his hosts are in fact having alteration works undertaken in his studio, endangering the quiet of his "sanctuary". In Frame's work, the house is a powerful symbol of identity, but it is also a place to which the artist can retreat to be alone with her work [START_REF] Braun | The Writer at Work: Two Short Stories by Janet Frame[END_REF]. Yet it seems that nowhere in Menton is Harry able to find a place where he can concentrate on his writing. Similarly, Harry's position as the beneficiary of the Watercress-Armstrong Fellowship is undermined by the Watercresses themselves, who ! 2 believe that their own son Michael would make a far better Fellow than Harry. As a result, Harry, who describes himself as "a dull personality, almost humdrum, a plodder from day to day with an occasional glimpse of light" (Frame 2013, 4), starts wondering if he is not a usurper, and if Michael Watercress, the "stereotype author" (34), is not the real Fellow and, more disturbingly, the truer writer of the two. Small talk, human interactions and alteration work all become part of the background noise that interrupts Harry's creative flow. While he had been convinced for years that he was going blind -and was fascinated by the drama of it -Harry discovers at the end of the novel that he has become completely deaf instead, and his speaking voice dissolves into a stream of correspondence-style clichés. At the end of the narrative, it becomes clear that, as part of the exploratory path that Harry has been following, he has managed to get rid of the different models of authorship under the spell of which he had been under, in order to espouse a more postmodern representation of the author as a mere channel for language.

In the Memorial Room can be read as a blueprint for Living in the Maniototo, which was published in 1979, only five years after In the Memorial Room was written. Similar in theme and imagery to its illustrious successor, In the Memorial Room also appears to supply information that was only hinted at in the piece missing from Living in the Maniototo, in which several fictional elements (i.e. the names Watercress and Margaret Rose Hurndell, and the Menton setting) identify it as the novel that the protagonist, Mavis, sets out to write before her attention is commandeered by her four guests:

And where was my novel? I had briefly visited Menton where Margaret Rose Hurndell lived for a time, and I was interested in the 'experts' which surrounded her, her work, and her memory.

[…] The Watercress family, the known experts on Margaret Rose Hurndell, clamored for my attention which I was paying them in writing the novel. [START_REF] Frame | Living in the Maniototo[END_REF](Frame [ ] 2006, 128) , 128) ! 3

In the Memorial Room is therefore metafictionally embedded in Living in the Maniototo, further reinforcing the deep thematic and formal bonds between the two novels. Both of these are concerned with the author's relationship to his/her own writing and to the rest of the world. Mavis, just like Harry, is being offered a place where she can write, but finds herself besieged by friends of her benefactors, who insist on taking up her attention instead of letting her finish the novel she is supposed to write. Similarly, the focus on Harry's material conditions (and the conflict that this issue creates between his need for isolation and his necessary reliance upon others for the basic needs of everyday life) eventually leads to a deeper reflection on the role of the author within society and within his/her own creation. In the Memorial Room is indeed concerned with the artist's condition(s), namely with his social status and his privileged standing within the relevant community, but also in the physical sense of the word with the many afflictions, diseases and physical frailties that set him apart from the rest of that community. Moreover, although the main character in the novel is a man, writer, represents the future, and to Harry's mind, seems only too eager to push Harry to one side, in order to take his place in the spotlight. Although a moderately successful author, Harry is mostly renowned in his own country as a historical novelist, a label which does not have the allure of fame associated with a poet or a novelist. Literary celebrity is a relatively recent phenomenon, and can be traced back to the Romantic period, when the status of the author changed along with changes in the law. While there was a shift from the profession of writer to the legal category of author, it was also a consequence of the emergence of the individual as separate from the group (Bernadet 2001, 13-14). In the works of such authors as Wordsworth, Coleridge or Keats, the poet and his emotions occupied the centre of the writing stage as they became the main source of inspiration for literary creation. As Raymond Williams has shown, the Romantic artist became "a special kind of person" (Williams 1958, 39): no longer a craftsman, this artist belonged to another plane of humanity, and was gifted with quasi-divine qualities. The Romantic ideal of pouring one's sensibility into one's own writing, of engaging directly with the reader's emotions, created the illusion of an artist who could be known, befriended, and even loved, as his/her projected self became a vehicle screen for the reader's fantasies. Gradually, the cultural image of the artist caused them to become associated with a certain form of marginality, which became recognised as the privilege of the gifted.

As old cultural hegemonies started being contested, the value of marginality shifted towards those who had been the victims of colonial oppression. As Graham Huggan has shown, the emergence of postcolonial literature created its own brand of marginal heroes, as part of a process following the same cultural logic. Exoticism, in his view, is an offshoot of Romanticism in that it valorises resistance and difference: "In contemporary cultural theory, marginality is often given a positive value, being seen less as a site of social exclusion or ! 5 deprivation than as a locus of resistance to socially imposed standards and coercive norms" (Huggan 2002, 20). In In the Memorial Room, Frame deconstructs the discourse of heroic marginality as being congruent with the condition of the artist in order to give it another definition. As we will see, writers need to let their ego be pushed to the side in order for their writing to take centre stage. If there is anything Harry Gill resists, it is the stance of resistance itself. A historical writer, he is more concerned with facts than with the sacralised power of imagination. Moreover, one of his main characteristics according to others is his "spinelessness" (Frame 2013, 130). In other words, he is everything but celebrity material, unlike Margaret Rose Hurndell and Michael Watercress, whose past and future auras as literary heroes all but doom Harry as writer to disappearance. Yet what if authors had to allow their selves to disappear as the main condition of becoming an artist? I contend that In the Memorial room deconstructs the discourse built around what an artist should be and paradoxically charts the emergence of a new sort of artist: the disappearing one. The issue of literary celebrity allows Frame to question the status of the artist regarding his own work by showing that the cult of venerating famous authors depends on a deeply parasitic process. It also allows her to reflect on the writer's subject matter via the examination of his relationship with the world. I will show that Harry's position on the representational spectrum is closer to the contemporary, Foucaldian definition of the author as mere function, or an element of discursivity. Yet although he is the novel's main protagonist, Harry should not be construed as a straightforward representative of the author within her own text. This kind of reading, which has been widely practiced by authors such as Patrick Evans, is usually rather risky, in that although she creates characters who may seem close to her, Frame never fully identifies with them. In In the Memorial Room, Frame is ultimately more interested in the process of Harry's ! 6 disappearance, and more generally the disappearance of the author from his own text as well the creative possibilities that this process would enable.

Throughout the novel, Harry is almost making excuses for being such a drab personality, as opposed to the flamboyant Michael Watercress, for example. In truth, he has not completely renounced the myth of the artist as Romantic hero; nor has he renounced one of its most important variants, the suffering hero. From the outset of the narrative, we learn that Harry is obsessed with becoming blind, a condition he deems noble enough for a writer, but that he is instead struck by deafness, which he judges as far less dignified. Being deaf instead of blind feels to him like a major "anticlimax", although he feels better thinking of Beethoven: "How comforting to ally oneself with the great" (Frame 2013, 145). Similarly, in the course of his conversations with the keepers of Margaret Rose Hurndell's legacy, Harry learns that she had a limp, and could not walk without a stick, which can be read as a reference to Mansfield, who used to walk with a stick in the later stages of her illness (123).

The constant repetition of such details about Hurndell's life is, as we will see, part of an hysterical fetishizing of the dead writer's memory, and of the Romantic vision of the artist as crippled, maladapted, forever on the margin.

The character of Harry does not escape the edge of Frame's irony, as he is under just as many illusions about the figure of the artist as anyone else. Yet he will gradually shed some of these during his tenure as the Watercress-Armstrong Fellow in Menton. The main reason for this is that in the course of his stay he discovers that being a writer requires not only inspiration, but also the material conditions without which inspiration simply cannot occur.

The fact that Harry is offered a fellowship in the name of a dead literary celebrity means that he himself is expected by his patrons to turn into another literary celebrity, and that Margaret Rose Hurndell's inspiration is supposed to be passed on to him, as if they both belonged to the ! 7 same class of individual distinct from the rest of humanity. The same naive, almost animistic reasoning is at work, on the one hand, in the Watercress-Armstrong Foundation's choice to have the Fellowship recipients work in the basement of the house where Hurndell is supposed to have lived and, on the other, in its obsession that Harry must "feel" Hurndell's presence in the room to be able to write his novel (Frame 2013, 49). As Janet Wilson has shown, the anxiety of influence at work here operates on another level: instead of attempting to "feel" Margaret Rose Hurndell's presence, Harry chooses to feel in a way that is similar to hers, in the sense of cultivating the same aesthetic of perception [START_REF] Wilson | Cultural Wealth and Diaspora Despair: Janet Frame's In the Memorial Room[END_REF]. Moreover, this Romantic belief in the spirit of place, and in inspiration as ghost-like in its presence, is defeated by the focus on Harry's material and bodily needs: the room has no electricity or running water, and this is incompatible with the physical needs of writing, which include eating, excreting, and being warm. The insistence on the artist's bodily needs throughout the novel pertains to the deconstruction of the figure of the artist as marginal hero, remote from the necessities of everyday life. Yet it is a discourse that Harry and Frame herself as apparent 3 in her autobiography, are still struggling to come to terms with.

In the Memorial Room is the first novel in which Frame examines the issue of literary celebrity head-on. By the time Frame travelled to Menton, she already enjoyed budding celebrity: she was the acclaimed author of a number of literary works and had already received several national awards for her fiction. Yet her realistic representation of psychiatric institutions (in Faces in the Water, more particularly) had also garnered much unwanted attention from journalists and scholars -and unhealthy fascination by the public -as the myth developed that she actually suffered from the mental illness of schizophrenia herself (even though this diagnosis would be overturned later on). Although she consistently avoided nevertheless aggrieved by contentions made by scholars like Patrick Evans, who insisted on reading her books from a strictly autobiographical perspective, treating them as romans à clef [START_REF] Evans | Farthest from the Heart: The Autobiographical Parables of Janet Frame in Special Issue: Modern New Zealand and Australian Fiction[END_REF]. As Michael King reports in his biography of Frame, she wrote Evans a letter in which she accused him of being "One of the Porlock people" (King 2000, 419), a reference to the unwanted visitor who interrupts Samuel Taylor Coleridge just as he is dreaming up his poem "Kubla Khan". As we know from her autobiography, Frame was an avid reader of Coleridge's poetry and essays, so this reference is more than proverbial. The person from Porlock interrupts the artist's creative flow, as he intrudes on the artist's reverie, wrecking the poetic vision forever. He is also a figure of the more mundane aspects of everyday life, reminding the poet that the material world needs to be attended to (to borrow from the lexical framework of Living in the Maniototo), running along the deeply Romantic fault-line between the world of art and the rest of the world. As Seamus Perry explains, in the Romantic worldview, "The person from Porlock is a representative of the great world outside the magic circle of art and the artist's consciousness" (Perry 2008, 6).

In some respects, Frame, an admirer of the Romantics, shared this vision of the artist's condition as distinct from the rest of humankind. From that point of view, the artist is condemned to being forever intruded upon by others who cannot but remain alien to the artistic world. Creativity, in turn, is constantly hindered by everyday material necessities, and by the need for affection. Those two basic needs are generally conflated in Frame's fiction in the characters' struggle to keep warm, a symbol for both the need for material objects and for human contact. This need for warmth is usually represented as a hindrance in the author's life, interrupting their creative flow and forcing them to attend to their basic physical needs. In his first apartment, Harry is unable to find warmth:

! 9
At night, I'd put all my clothes on the big double bed and creep under the thin blankets provided with the apartment, resting my head on the long sausage bolster, and listening to my transistor radio, its small white earpiece thrust in my ear. I cursed that I was a bachelor. What a dreary life an author's life is, I thought (Frame 2013, 58).

Ironically, the Fosters, who then let him stay in their far more comfortable studio, precisely to make sure that he is warm enough start the alteration work that will send him off the edge. As he is driven into a corner of the apartment to escape the noise of the work, Harry reflects on the constant interruptions the artist has to suffer: I have observed this attitude towards people who write or paint or compose or in any way desert the living and the visible world to create a world of their own that is a threat to the existence and survival of the generally known world. I have known people to use all kinds of delaying tactics

[…], -Don't write today. Come and visit us. Let's talk. Let's drink. Let's make love. You don't really want to work today, do you? Don't desert us, don't threaten us, stay here with us, safe in the known world, looking at the sky and the sunlight, relaxing, after all, you're a long time dead. (Frame 2013, 138) Here, Frame adds a twist to the paradigmatic division between the tangible world and the realm of the imaginary by suggesting that the artist may be just as afraid of leaving "the generally known world" as anybody else.

These constant interruptions are the price to be paid for artists' dependence on their patrons. As such, the writer in Frame's novel is in the position of the parasite who, as Michel Serres describes in Le parasite, eats at the table of others and is only able to repay the courtesy of his/her hosts by telling them stories. Yet the positions of host and parasite are profoundly interchangeable, and Harry's hosts quickly turn out to be true parasites, feeding off the artist's aura, basking in the derivative glory of being "a relative of the famous" as sister or friend of the dead writer Margaret Rose Hurndell, or parent of the writer-to-be Michael Watercress. As Michel Serres shows in his study, the French word parasite may also ! 10 be translated as "static", as in the droning background noise that interferes with communication. The parasite is a disruptive figure; its relationship with the world is one of interruption, just like the Watercresses, the Fosters, the Markhams and the Lees, who keep interrupting Harry, all the while expressing their desire to be his hosts. The Lees, the English couple who run the English library in Menton, try to lure Harry into their house by making this predatory admission, "We'd love to have you" (Frame 2013, 107), before he turns down the invitation, one in a series of offers from the entire Margaret Rose Hurndell community; each couple then vies with the others in a competition to attract the writer to their home. Yet Harry struggles to remain out of his hosts' grasp, first by asserting his invisibility, and then by becoming deaf, so as to shut himself off from the "static" of meaningless social exchange.

In the novel, deafness is not just a coping mechanism -it is a strategy of resistance, similar to that of a host rejecting a foreign body from its system. This analysis is congruent with the diagnosis made by Harry's doctor, who comes to the following conclusion: "Can't help you. Modern disease. Auditory retaliation. Strategy of war" (Frame, 2013, 151). The idea that the positions of host and guest are reversible is also explored in Living in the Maniototo:

The notion fascinated me because it seemed to suit the mysterious unexpected nature of guests and their relation to hosts, and even after having corrected my mishearing, I still marvel at the idea of the 'guess towel' and at the richness of meaning within the words 'guest' and 'host', with a guest as originally 'host', a stranger, hostis, an enemy, a host as guest, an army, a multitude of men, women, angels; planets, stars; a guest as parasite sheltered by the host, the host as sacrifice and ultimately a blessed food." [START_REF] Frame | Living in the Maniototo[END_REF](Frame [ ] 2006, 153) , 153) Chris Prentice demonstrates in a recent article, using Baudrillard's notion of "seduction", how in her later fiction, Frame uses the very materiality of language in order to break out of binary oppositions and enact innovative dialectics in order to challenge our usual assumptions about the world. For Prentice, binary oppositions are replaced in Frame's later novels, such as ! 11

Living in the Maniototo or The Carpathians, with the "duel" of opposites, which causes them to meet and which creates "an agonistic reciprocity", or a coexistence of contraries. By creating a relationship of reversibility between the positions of host and guest, Frame reveals the ambivalence of the relationship between the two. The parasite may not be the 'freeloading' guest feeding on his/her host's generosity, but may instead find him-or herself fed upon. The status of literary celebrity does not bring the artist out of her marginality and into the magic circle of public attention and commercial success. It paradoxically cannibalises the artist's substance only to leave an empty shell behind.

In In the Memorial Room, Frame analyses the parasitic nature of the obsession with artists and their life narratives that is ingrained in the cult of literary celebrity: I had a horrifying vision of the Watercress family, and the Fosters, and the Lees, assembled in the Rose Hurndell Memorial Room, feeding on the death of Rose Hurndell, nourishing themselves with the power of permanence which death has and which they so much desire. It was like a pagan ceremony. (Frame 2013, 65) Unable to create anything of their own, the Watercresses and the other couples subsume their existences under the memory of Margaret Rose Hurndell, as if they could pick up the scraps of her aura and claim it for themselves. As Harry eventually realizes, the process of glorification is akin to a form of living embalmment. The death of an author is always more desirable than his/her life: in death, artists are under control, a portable version of themselves.

In life, they escape definition, and will forever defeat the expectations of others, "a living anticlimax" (Frame 2013, 148). Harry also comes to realize the link between his own

Romantic obsession with blindness and the cult of literary celebrity:

In a way, by turning to blindness, or being directed towards it, I was following a similar path to those around me whom I was beginning to condemn for both their romantic notions of writers ! 12 living and dead and for their uncontrollable desires to seek shelter and permanence in the dead and the work of the dead. (Frame 2013, 136) Through the figure of Margaret Rose Hurndell, Janet Frame mocks and denounces both the "memorialisation" of the artist's life and the transformation of her art into "heritage", which relegates the writer's actual work to the background. The obsession over minute details of her life amounts to a form of commodity fetishism. Indeed, Harry finds out that some of Margaret Rose Hurndell's letters were recently sold at Sotheby's for an astonishing sum of money.

Here, the name of the celebrity writer has imparted an almost magical value to seemingly insignificant scraps of information, as if her aura could be bought and passed around for enjoyment. As Walter Benjamin has shown, there is a deep link between the commodification of art and the cult of celebrity. The cult of celebrity sucks the life out of the work of art by transforming it into a commodity, depriving it of its immediacy; all the while, the name of the author becomes akin to a brand. The novel's other writer figure is Michael Watercress, who also threatens to erase Harry. Harry feels undermined by his imagined rival, not because Michael has actually written anything yet, but because in appearance, Michael looks exactly like a writer. Harry and Michael even get mistaken for one another at an official ceremony to welcome the new Watercress-Armstrong Fellow:

Standing near Michael Watercress, the perfectly presentable stereotype of the modern author, you could see if you looked closely, though half the body was out of the photo, a rather stocky young man with glasses and curly hair and a look of what might be frenzied embarrassment on his face. He was holding his hand in a mimicry of the bearded young writer's pose. (Frame 2013, 34) Here, Harry is literally pushed to the sidelines by the avatar of the writer, in a reversal of the Platonic original/copy dichotomy (Frame 2013, 55). This reversal is reminiscent of the ! 13 mechanism of original/replica reversal which is at work in what is called the "house of fiction" in Living in the Maniototo (Frame 1979, 64). Although Harry is essentially the writer, the rest of the world believes Michael to be the writer, because he has the semblance of one.

Michael embodies the shift described by Walter Benjamin in The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: by dint of calling oneself a writer, anybody can actually become one (Benjamin 1936). As Max tells Harry:

Michael is going to cover [the reading of Margaret Rose Hurndell's works] for his newspaper in England. He's doing so well with his writing. He's not written a book yet, but the discipline will come to him, in time. (Frame 2013, 51)By overvaluing the individual personality of the artist, the cult of celebrity has effected an ontological reversal: an artist is not necessarily someone who has created a work of art, but someone who has the personality of one.

Interestingly, Michael is compared on several occasions to the young Ernest Hemingway, a writer who, even before his death, had achieved tremendous fame based largely on aspects of his life story, both real and fantasized (see Del Gizzo 2010): "-When we were in the East, Grace said, (they had been in the East, and many of their sentences began with 'When we were in the East') -people were talking of him as the young Hemingway" (Frame 2013, 41). The effect of the comparison with Hemingway is two-fold.

First, it conjures up another representation of the artist as hero with the journalist-turnedwriter, who endows his/her writing with the prestige of actual experience. Second, it poses the question of the subject matter chosen by the artist. Michael's and his family's perception of him as a writer has to do with his experience of a mysterious, essentialised "East". The capitalisation of the word "East" reveals the overarching stance adopted by Grace and Michael regarding their experience abroad: an experience which is essentially conceived as an encounter with a general sense of foreignness (see [START_REF] Said | Orientalism[END_REF] taking its roots in the imperial divide between self and other. Michael, then, can be construed as the colonial version of the ! 14 artist as hero, who grounds his writing within his cross-cultural experience. In her 1977 essay entitled "Departures and Returns", Frame examines the question of experience and the injunction to travel in order to "gather material". She contrasts the "writing traveller", who writes "about" a country and its culture, with the "travelling writer", who dissolves his/her being into the experience of foreignness in order to become foreign him-/herself. For her, poets "do not 'take' the pulse of another culture, they become its pulse" (Frame 2011, 60).

Michael Watercress can be described as one of those writers who nurture the remains of colonialism by pitting their experiencing selves against the alterity of the foreign culture; this culture is de facto exoticised by their gaze (see Huggan 2002, 9-11).

If Michael can be construed as the archetypal "experiencing" writer, Harry is ambiguously attracted to this brand of creativity as he wonders what to do with his newly acquired deafness:

Here I was, then, newly deafened Mr Anticlimax, feeling like one of the species of writers whom I despised -those, growing in number, who must "experience" so as to feel the experience of being of different race, who will work for a year in an office, live in prison, in a cave, on a desert island, in a monastery, in order to write their "intimate story" of life in these places. (Frame 2013, 156) By his own admission, Harry is no traveller (Frame 2013, 3): as a historical novelist, his writing is dedicated not to reporting his own experience, but to reestablishing the truth: "Wairau Days was written to correct or bring to full blossoming the half-truths of the story of Wairau" (4). Yet, at the beginning of the novel, Harry feels that it is time for him to embark on a new course of creativity. The rewriting of history, as Wilson Harris has shown, is a horizon that needs to be overcome in order for post-colonial literature to break free of its hegemonic shackles (quoted in Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin 2003, 33-34). Just as Harry's disappearing act is a way to escape the logic of literary celebrity and Romantic heroism, it is also a way for ! 15 him to bring forth a new form of writing and to move away from the logic of author intentionality.

In "Departures and Returns", Frame reflects on the idea that one of the main effects of globalisation in literature is the erasure of the author, which, she says, "leaves them in an international exposure to the skeletal themes of literature" (Frame 2011, 65). Instead of resisting that trend, she instead suggests that writers should let themselves be erased in order for another type of literature to be able to emerge:

Sometimes the writer's answer to this trend has been to go a step ahead, as I think the French writers may have done, and fashion a so called 'new novel', where the writer tries to erase himself from his language, which then, clean as can be, untouched by living human experience, becomes, strangely enough in the 'new' novel, a language of the past in the sense that slumbering etymologies are free to waken and haunt the pages, complaining or rejoicing at their metamorphoses. Here the words, the language itself, and its history, become the heroes and heroines. (Frame 2011, 65) This reflection of Frame's is reminiscent of Mavis's belief in Living in the Maniototo that "language is all we have for the delicacy and truth of telling, that words are the sole heroes and heroines of fiction" (Frame 1979, 112). The focus is shifted to the words themselves, which are the real agents of literature, before it is shifted to the writer, who indeed must be erased. In In the Memorial Room, the process of Harry's erasure is a gradual one and culminates with the sudden onset of his deafness. Just as Dr Rumor had diagnosed Harry's failing eyesight as a form of "intentional invisibility" (Frame 2013, 60) (in a reversal of the positions of emission and reception), Harry's sudden deafness may be interpreted as the extinction of his own individual voice. From the beginning of the narrative, Harry is forced not only to labour under the weight of Margaret Rose Hurndell's legacy, but also to remain outside Michael Watercress's shadow. In appearance, Harry Gill looks like a pale copy of ! 16

Michael Watercress, who appears to be the Platonic idea of the author: "His appearance was so much his ally. The easily identifiable writer, whereas I had long experience of being ignored because I resembled a clerk, a doctor, a commercial traveller, anything but the accepted idea of a 'writer'" (Frame 2013, 193). By contrast, Harry consistently describes himself in the novel as a nonentity, "a fool, a doormat, someone who is forever imposed upon" (26), "an habitual agreer" (39), similar in aspect to "a waiter, or a schoolteacher or a floorwalker or a farmer" (41) and even as "a man of straw" (139). In the novel, Harry Gill is not represented as a celebrity, but as a dull, grey, boring individual who happens to write books. He has no political opinions or Hemingwayesque travel stories or sexual exploits to brag about. For Dr Rumor, Harry is complicit with those who wish to annihilate him, not only because he is too spineless to resist his own erasure, but precisely because as a writer, he must remain spineless: that is, remain supple and loose, keeping his identity open to the words that he is in charge of writing. For him, as well as for Frame, authors must relinquish their mastery over their own writing and dissolve their ego into a continuum of human experience and voices. In Living in the Maniototo, Mavis makes a similar retreat to within the house of fiction: once her characters enter the fictional stage, she is forced to withdraw to her studio and away from view (Frame 1979, 154). The author is not at the centre of her fiction; she is only a channel for it, and she agrees to become overwhelmed by her creation to the point of complete disappearance. Similarly, in In the Memorial Room, Harry believes that, "In authorship, the author is not the tree scattering his books like leaves; the books are the tree; the author is shed, blown away, dies to make compost for other leaves and other trees" (113).

Michel Foucault observed during the same period, in the wake of Barthes's pronouncement on the death of the author, that a new paradigm had emerged around the figure of the writer in association with authors like Proust, Flaubert or Kafka: that of the ! 17 necessary sacrifice of the author, condemned to be erased by their oeuvre (Foucault 2001, 821). This paradigm, Foucault argues, has presided over the evolution of writing from the 5 late 19th century onwards and has informed the nouveau roman's enactment of the death of the author as erasure of all traces of author intentionality from the author's narratives. Harry, who is experimenting on his own disappearance, makes a brief attempt at nouveau roman writing in chapter 8, with its "unadjectived, unadverbed" (Frame 2013, 81) narrative, reminiscent of the formulaic writing of authors such as Nathalie Sarraute, Michel Butor and Alain Robbe-Grillet. By submitting himself to a rule, the writer aims to let go of an allpowerful stance with regard to his/her own writing, and to expose and dissipate the illusion of author intentionality. Similarly, the writer must, for Frame, retreat to within and disappear within his/her writing, and remain a nonentity, an empty vessel, in order to welcome his/her characters into the empty space that is carved out for them: that is, the empty space inside the writer. The marginality of the author is not heroic but literal: eventually, his/her self needs to be pushed to the sidelines:

Have you sensed the nothingness of my nature, that I am as empty as the carriages of the trains that pass, dusty, used, in the morning sun? A novelist must be that way, I think, and not complain of it, otherwise how shall the characters accommodate themselves in his mind? To this you reply that it is he who must enter the minds of his characters? Certainly, but where shall he house them while he enters their minds, but in those empty used trains that pass and pass forever before his gaze? (Frame 2013, 116) The image of the empty passing train is another figure of the dissolution of identity which is always on the horizon in Frame's novels, yet never fully achieved. Frame's ideal writer must also be erased in that he/she must escape the constraints of literary celebrity that will turn his/ her life story into a myth and relegate their work to a background detail.

! 18

It would be an oversimplification to believe that Harry Gill is a straightforward autobiographical representation of and a mouthpiece for the author Janet Frame, and the other writer figures in the narrative, mere counterexamples of the ideal artist. Harry Gill, Margaret Rose Hurndell, and Michael Watercress can be read as different modalities of being a writer and as illustrations of the different conundra with which writers can be faced in their careers, caught as they are between the necessities of baring their soul to the demands of fiction while running the risk of becoming their own subject, or even their own memorial. I also believe that this novel, much like Frame's other novels, should not be read as a demonstration of or plea for one conception of the writer over another, but as a stage for the dialectical confrontation of different representations of the author figure. Harry is neither the ethereal 6 Romantic poet wishing to do away with the mundane altogether, nor the national hero who will expose every aspect of his private life to literary scrutiny for the sake of his country's pride. By letting himself be erased, Harry manages to escape the culturally hegemonic representations of the artist which are the by-products of the cult of literary celebrity. The staged marginality common to the different mainstream representations of the artist in the novel is defeated because it is literalized by Frame, who experiments with the possible removal of the artist's voice within his/her own writing. This experimentation could be deemed paradoxical in the work of a writer who has used so much of her own personal life as material for her writing and who has written three volumes of autobiography. Yet one should not study the works of Janet Frame with a particular agenda in mind, as she is always more interested in asking questions than in answering them. The same focus on extinction is present at the end of the autobiography, as the author pleads to go on writing, but eventually agrees to retreat from the writing of her life story and move back into the world of fiction which is where she really belongs. of immortality through his writing, which was represented as closely related to his ego, a unique production of unique self. With writers like Flaubert, Proust or Kafka, whose lives were undermined by their activity as writers, emerged the figure of the artist sacrificing himself for his writing, letting it dissolve his ego. One may only think of Proust, and the representation of his latter years as he was literally consumed by the writing of his masterpiece.

Jan Cronin analyses Harry's disappearance in similar terms: "One staging is simply replaced by another. As to 6 what exactly is being staged, there is no stable and developed position here; and this is a reminder of the exploratory nature of Frame's fiction" (Cronin 2014, 11).

! 23

  he, like Mavis in Living in the Maniototo and her avatars Violet Pansy Proudlock and Alice Thumb is clearly another diffraction of the artist figure within the fiction. In a similar fashion, the figure of the writer in In the Memorial Room is diffused through different characters in the novel: Harry of course, but also the national heritage writer Margaret Rose Hurndell, as well as Michael Watercress, the bearded, Hemingwayesque would-be literary prodigy. Indeed, although Harry is at the centre of the novel's preoccupation with the role of the artist, Margaret Rose Hurndell and Michael Watercress interact with him as dialectical counterpoints. Another theme explored in In the Memorial Room is that of literary celebrity. Within this context, Margaret Rose Hurndell is a figure of the past, as the myth surrounding her presides over Harry's experience in Menton. Michael Watercress, as the new, up-and-coming ! 4

  a lecturer in English at the university Paris Ouest Nanterre la Défense. She has written her PhD on the work of Janet Frame under the supervision of Claire Bazin, and is currently working on autobiographical texts by female writers, such as Keri Hulme, Jeanette Winterson, and Doris Lessing. She has recently published an article about Janet Frame's Living in the Maniototo in Commonwealth Essays and Studies and about Keri Hulme's the bone people in the LISA e-review. Dr. Alice Braun UFR SSA -Bureau D109 Université Paris Ouest Nanterre la Défense 200, avenue de la République 92001 Nanterre CEDEX France Works cited Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. 2003. The Empire Writes back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. London: Routledge. Barthes, Roland. 1984. "La mort de l'auteur" [The death of the author]. In Le bruissement de la langue [The rustling of language], 61-67. Paris: Seuil. Benjamin, Walter. (1936) 2008. The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction. Translated by J.A. Underwood. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Bernadet, Arnaud. 2001. "Historicité de l'auteur : une catégorie problématique" [The historicity of the author : a problematic category]. In Une histoire de la "fonction-! 20

public life and limited her interaction with the media as much as possible, she was ! 8


Marion Hay
email: marion.hay@ifsttar.fr

Nicolas Adam

Daniel Ndiaye

Bertrand Richard

Marie-Laure Bocca

Catherine Gabaude

A cost-effectiveness analysis of cognitive training programs for older drivers misestimating their cognitive abilities

Keywords: Cognitive training activity, driver training, driving simulator, older driver, self-assessment, selfregulation

Depending on the self-assessment of their cognitive abilities, some older people might stop driving prematurely (under-estimators, UE) and others could expose themselves at risky situations (over-estimators, OE). Our hypothesis is that a cognitive training can help drivers to better estimate their cognitive abilities and consequently to better self-regulate their driving behavior. The aim of the study is to compare the effectiveness of two training programs intended for older drivers presenting a cognitive self-assessment bias. One hundred and twenty drivers (70 years and more) are included and assigned among six groups: two cognitive training groups associated or not with a driving simulator experience and a control group, each one containing as many OE as UE. Both training programs last 36 hours spread out over 3 months. Training is expected to improve cognitive self-assessment, and driving simulator experience could improve the driving self-regulation (transfer effect). Global benefits are estimated on driving performance and well-being. The cost-effectiveness analysis is conducted comparing the training costs and a quality of life measure.

Résumé

En raison d'un biais d'auto-estimation, certains conducteurs âgés peuvent arrêter de conduire prématurément (sous-estimateurs, SsE) et d'autres s'exposer à des situations à risque (sur-estimateurs, SE). Notre étude repose sur l'hypothèse qu'un entrainement cognitif peut aider les conducteurs à mieux estimer leurs capacités cognitives et ainsi mieux autoréguler leurs comportements de conduite. Notre objectif est de comparer l'efficacité de deux programmes d'entraînement adressés aux conducteurs seniors présentant un biais d'auto-estimation cognitive. Cent vingt conducteurs âgés de plus de 70 ans sont répartis en six groupes : deux suivant un entraînement cognitif associé ou non à une immersion sur simulateur de conduite et un groupe contrôle, comprenant chacun autant de SE que de SsE. La durée des programmes est de 36h, réparties sur trois mois. Suite à l'entraînement, les conducteurs devraient estimer correctement leurs capacités cognitives et grâce à l'immersion sur simulateur, ils devraient mieux autoréguler leur activité de conduite. De plus, une analyse coût-efficacité comparera les coûts des deux entraînements, rapportés aux bénéfices sur la qualité de vie.

Mot-clés : Entraînement cognitive, Simulateur de conduite, conducteurs seniors, auto-estimation, autorégulation

Introduction

Many demographic events have conducted to a continued augmentation of elderly in developed countries since about half-century. According to the OECD, one quarter of the population of its members will be aged 65 and more by 2050 (OCDE, 2012). Normal ageing is related to a decrease in visual, psychomotor and cognitive abilities, which could interfere with activities of daily living. Driving is a complex task requiring visual, psychomotor and cognitive functions. The age-related declines can make this activity more difficult, and consequently affect drivers' safety [START_REF] Anstey | Cognitive, sensory and physical factors enabling driving safety in older adults[END_REF]. Indeed, driving requires being attentive to relevant information and ignoring other one in a visually complex scene. Hence, changes in visual attention components (such as selective attention, divided attention or alertness) can harm hazard perception in the driver' field of view. Moreover, processing speed and executive functions are crucial to integrate information, correctly anticipate risks, and finally plan an appropriate answer to the driving situation [START_REF] Anstey | Cognitive, sensory and physical factors enabling driving safety in older adults[END_REF]. Older drivers are physically more fragile and vulnerable than younger ones, and present a major risk of injury during a road accident [START_REF] Lafont | Vieillissement et gravité des atteintes lésionnelles des victimes d'accident de la circulation routière[END_REF]. Thus, understand the aftereffect of cognitive declines on driving skills is an important issue to limit accident risk for this population.

Driving self-regulation consists in the driver's behavioral adaptation to maintain a safe driving despite the agerelated functional decline [START_REF] Donorfio | A qualitative exploration of self-regulation behaviors among older drivers[END_REF]. By ageing, some drivers use compensatory strategies consisting in the avoidance of difficult situations (e.g. driving at night, in bad weather, or during rush hours), or consisting in an individual adaptation (e.g. by increasing safety distances or reducing speed; [START_REF] Ball | Driving avoidance and functional impairment in older drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Donorfio | To drive or not to drive, that isn't the question-the meaning of self-regulation among older drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Gabaude | Self-regulatory driving behaviour in the elderly: relationship with aberrant driving behaviours and perceived abilities[END_REF][START_REF] Holland | People's Awareness of their Age-related Sensory and Cognitive Deficits and the Implications for Road Safety[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | The relationship between self-regulation and driving-related abilities in older drivers: an exploratory study[END_REF]. The main component between age-related functional decline and self-regulation is self-awareness of this decline. Indeed, behavior depends on abilities perception and driving adaptation to a specific situation depends on the selfawareness of abilities [START_REF] Anstey | Cognitive, sensory and physical factors enabling driving safety in older adults[END_REF]. Thus, promoting this awareness is important to help older drivers to avoid driving situations judged too difficult and maintain their safe driving. Self-assessment and self-screening questionnaires have been used to improve self-awareness among older drivers [START_REF] Eby | Improving older driver knowledge and self-awareness through self-assessment: The driving decisions workbook[END_REF][START_REF] Holland | People's Awareness of their Age-related Sensory and Cognitive Deficits and the Implications for Road Safety[END_REF][START_REF] Levasseur | Outil de Sensibilisation des conducteurs âgés aux capacités requises pour une Conduite Automobile sécuritaire et Responsable (OSCAR)[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Increasing self-awareness among older drivers: the role of self-screening[END_REF]. These questionnaires are useful to reveal drivingrelated difficulties encountered by older drivers. Moreover, these tools can initiate discussion with family and relatives about keep driving or stop it. However, these methods seem effective to improve self-awareness, but older drivers had to use the self-regulation strategies, because there is a difference between a declared selfregulation and an effective self-regulation. These formations focused on the improvement of driving selfregulation did not prove any reduction in crash risk [START_REF] Ker | Post-licence driver education for the prevention of road traffic crashes: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials[END_REF][START_REF] Nasvadi | Crash risk of older drivers after attending a mature driver education program[END_REF]. Nevertheless, an intervention aiming to improve the self-regulation abilities could lead to the opposite effect: the impairment of self-regulation patterns and prevent driver in correctly self-regulate their driving [START_REF] Moták | L'apport des théories métacognitives à l'étude d'autorégulation chez les conducteurs âgés[END_REF].

In parallel with the improvement of self-awareness, several studies have attempted to assess training programs benefits on driving abilities among older drivers. Training physical abilities through aerobics, fitness or stretching improves driving skills and on-road driving performance [START_REF] Caragata | Fit to Drive: A Pilot Study to Improve the Physical Fitness of Older Drivers[END_REF], Marottoli, et al., 2007). Indeed, these exercises improve neck, shoulders, and back flexibility leading to better vehicle handling, visual scanning, and more mirrors controls [START_REF] Caragata | Fit to Drive: A Pilot Study to Improve the Physical Fitness of Older Drivers[END_REF], Marottoli, et al., 2007). In addition, cognitive training of attention, memory or executive function improves driving performance evaluated on a simulator [START_REF] Cassavaugh | Transfer of computer-based training to simulated driving in older adults[END_REF][START_REF] Marmeleira | The effects of an exercise program on several abilities associated with driving performance in older adults[END_REF]. The processing speed and visuospatial abilities training reduced the number of dangerous maneuvers on a driving simulator and allows seniors to keep driving longer [START_REF] Edwards | Cognitive speed of processing training delays driving cessation[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | The longitudinal impact of cognitive speed of processing training on driving mobility[END_REF]. During theoretical or educational training dedicated to older drivers, an occupational therapist reminds about the driving rules; gives recommendations for a safer driving and information age-related difficulties. These educational sessions were also coupled with onroad driving abilities training, where a driving instructor gave feedbacks to participants on their driving performance [START_REF] Bedard | Evaluation of a re-training program for older drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Bedard | The combination of two training approaches to improve older adults' driving safety[END_REF][START_REF] Lavalliere | Active training and driving-specific feedback improve older drivers' visual search prior to lane changes[END_REF][START_REF] Marchal-Crespo | The effect of haptic guidance, aging, and initial skill level on motor learning of a steering task[END_REF][START_REF] Marottoli | Enhancement of driving performance in older drivers[END_REF], Marottoli, et al., 2007[START_REF] Romoser | The effect of active versus passive training strategies on improving older drivers' scanning in intersections[END_REF][START_REF] Rosenbloom | Risk perception of driving as a function of advanced training aimed at recognizing and handling risks in demanding driving situations[END_REF]. Training benefits were evaluated either on driving simulator or directly on-road. Moreover, surveys assessing these programs' benefits report that participants have better driving knowledge (regarding traffic rules and road safety) and better knowledge on the self-regulation strategies to use in order to counterbalance aging effects. However these surveys do not all show on-road driving performance improvement nor a crash rate reduction [START_REF] Korner-Bitensky | Older driver retraining: an updated systematic review of evidence of effectiveness[END_REF], Korner-Bitensky, et al., 2010, Korner-Bitensky, et al., 2010[START_REF] Kua | Older driver retraining: a systematic review of evidence of effectiveness[END_REF].

Discrepancies observed between studies on training benefits are probably related to the fact that all older drivers do not have the same awareness of their capabilities. Hence, these programs seem appropriate and effective for people whom correctly assess their cognitive and/or driving abilities. However, these programs would not be appropriate for people whom do not properly assess their abilities. Our study is based on the hypothesis that senior drivers training needs are not the same depending on their cognitive status and how they self-regulate their driving activity. Indeed, a correct cognitive abilities self-assessment would lead to a correct driving selfregulation. Thus, an intervention aiming to improve drivers' awareness of their cognitive abilities could allow over-estimators to reduce their exposure to risk of injury, and under-estimators to regain self-confidence and keeping them to drive whereas they thought they were unable. Therefore, this intervention attempts seniors to keep driving in safe conditions. The purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of a cognitive training program alone and a cognitive training program coupled with a driving simulator immersion, on the driving selfregulation improvement. These programs are dedicated to older drivers overestimating or under-estimating their cognitive abilities.

Methods

Participants

One hundred and twenty drivers aged 70 and over have been included in our study. The inclusion criteria were: drive at least three thousand kilometers per year, have a computer connected to Internet (essential to complete the cognitive training), do not be susceptible to motion sickness or have vertigo or Meniere's disease (in order to restrict the number of participants sick on the driving simulator), and have a visual acuity higher than 5/10ème at the Monoyer's test.

Participants included in our study came from the Safe Move cohort of 1200 older drivers aged at least 70 years. These participants completed questionnaires related to their health status, driving habits, and cognitive abilities self-assessment. Additionally, participants completed two cognitive tests (the Wechsler Digit Symbol Substitution Test and the Trail Making Test parts A and B) chosen because they are predictable of driving risk [START_REF] Lafont | The Wechsler Digit Symbol Substitution Test as the best indicator of the risk of impaired driving in Alzheimer disease and normal aging[END_REF][START_REF] Stutts | Cognitive test performance and crash risk in an older driver population[END_REF]. The comparison between cognitive tests results and normative data (from performance of people having the same age and the same educational level) gives objective data about the cognitive performances of participants. By crossing these objective data with the subjective ones collected, with the self-assessment questionnaire, three profiles of drivers emerged: under-estimators (UE, 15% of the cohort, or 180 conductors), correct estimators (42% of the cohort, or 502 drivers), and over-estimators (OE, 43% of the cohort, or 508 drivers).

As the aim of our study is to allow participants to estimate correctly their cognitive abilities, we included sixty under-estimators and sixty over-estimators. The experimental design of the study is based on two factors: the "training" factor comprising three conditions (i.e. "cognitive training", "cognitive training coupled with driving simulator immersion", "control activity: press clipping reading) and the "cognitive profile of self-assessment" factor, including two conditions (i.e. "OE" and "UE"). Six groups are constituted: 20 OE (i) and 20 UE (ii) performing a computerized cognitive training (36h); 20 OE (iii) and 20 UE (iv) performing a computerized cognitive training (33h) associated with a driving simulator immersion (3h); 20 OE (v) and 20UE (vi) performing a control activity (33h of reading) associated with a driving simulator immersion (3h).

Procedures

The protocol involved a battery of cognitive and perceptive tests, intending to evaluate the abilities suitable to safe driving. Two evaluation sessions were planned at baseline and after 12 weeks of training. These sessions lasted approximately a half day, in which each participant completed cognitive tests, on-road driving evaluation, driving simulator based evaluation and questionnaires. During the first visit in the laboratory, the study was presented to participants and they signed consent form. The day began with questionnaires' completion (10 min), followed by the cognitive evaluation (1 hour), the on-road driving evaluation (45 min), and ended with the simulator driving evaluation (15 min). In order to limit fatigue effect due to the cognitive mobilization, each of these steps were followed by 15min-breaks and other ones could be added if participants needed it. Few days after this evaluation, participants came back to the lab for their first supervised session, in 6-to10-persons groups (week 1). During this first supervised session, the experimenter presented the cognitive training program or the control activity and the web platform. Then, participants began their computerized cognitive training or control activity at home, during 3 hours per week for twelve weeks. Two other supervised sessions (in week 4 and week 7) were proposed to participants and consisted in the presentation of normal ageing and cognitive functioning (presentation of attention, executive functions, visuo-spatial abilities and memory). Moreover, participants exchanged with each other on what they liked or disliked in the program, and exposed the difficulties they have encountered. Finally, five weeks after the last supervised session (week 12), the post-training evaluation took place. This half-day session was the same at the first evaluation. Participants completed the cognitive evaluation, the on-road driving evaluation and the simulator driving evaluation and answered to questionnaires.

Cognitive evaluation 1.3.1. Objective assessment

Cognitive processes are objectively evaluated via a neuropsychological tests battery comprising paper and pencil and computerized tests. The latter took place on a computer provided with a 17" screen. Participant used even keyboard or mouse or both of them to complete exercises. We focused on the cognitive functions required while driving, such as divided attention, selective attention, visuo-spatial abilities, memory, and executive functions.

Trail Making Test (TMT):

This paper and pencil test consists of two parts. In the TMT part A (TMT-A), the participant has to link as fast as possible the numbers in the croissant order from 1 to 25. In the TMT part B (TMT-B), the participant has to link as fast as possible the numbers in the croissant order (from 1 to 13) and the letters in the alphabetic order (from A to L) with respect to the alternation number/letter. This test assesses the speed-of-processing and visual search strategies. The part B gives more information about mental flexibility, attentional switching, and working memory [START_REF] Hagen | Activation during the Trail Making Test measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy in healthy elderly subjects[END_REF]. As a significant correlation exists between performances at this test and driving abilities, the TMT is commonly used to appraise driving skills [START_REF] Stutts | Cognitive test performance and crash risk in an older driver population[END_REF]. Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST): This paper and pencil test is a component of the Wechsler Adult Intelligent Scale [START_REF] Wechsler | The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence[END_REF]. In this test, the participant has to associate a maximum of digits (from 1 to 9) to symbols, during 90 seconds, in respect with a model. This task involves the short term memory. Authors found a correlation between low performances at the DSST and high risk during driving [START_REF] Lafont | The Wechsler Digit Symbol Substitution Test as the best indicator of the risk of impaired driving in Alzheimer disease and normal aging[END_REF]. Stroop test: This paper and pencil test has three parts, the first part consists to name colors, the second parts consists to read words of colors written in black ink; the last part is the interference condition, in which the participant has to name the color of the ink of colors names, without reading the words. This test involves the function of inhibition and the selective attention [START_REF] Anstey | Cognitive, sensory and physical factors enabling driving safety in older adults[END_REF]. Useful Field of View (UFOV ® ): This is a computerized test of visual attention including three subtests, assessing the processing speed, the divided attention, and the selective attention. The useful field of view is defined as the visual field that can be treated during a short glance [START_REF] Sanders | Some aspects of the selective process in the functional visual field[END_REF]. This test appears to be a good indicator of vehicle crashes among older drivers [START_REF] Ball | Visual attention problems as a predictor of vehicle crashes in older drivers[END_REF].

Phasic alertness task:

The phasic alertness task is a computerized test consisting of the signal detection. The participant has to press the space bar as soon as he sees a target (cross) on the screen. Two conditions are presented, with and without distractor (a beep that preceded the cross apparition). Some authors showed the importance of the assessment of speed of processing for measuring driving performances among older drivers [START_REF] Owsley | Vision impairment and driving[END_REF][START_REF] Ferreira | Cognitive and psychomotor tests as predictors of on-road driving ability in older primary care patients[END_REF].

Digit span test (forward and backward):

The digit span test assessed the memory span by answering the participant to repeat digit items forward (from three to nine items) and backward (from two to eight items). This test implies both working memory and short term memory, which are functions involve in driving activity [START_REF] Wagner | Cognition and driving in older persons[END_REF]. Dual-task walking test: This test estimates the costs of the simultaneous realization of a simple task coupled with an attentional task, and how a participant manages his/her attentional resources [START_REF] Bessot | Interference between walking and a cognitive task is increased in patients with bilateral vestibular loss[END_REF]. Firstly, the participant has to walk through a distance of 10 m at a self-selected speed. Then, he/she has to count forward by three from a two-digit number at the speed of his/her choice in the standing position. Finally, the dual-task is performed twice: counting while walking. Results from these both trials used to give the average performance. Interference of this dual-task is observed in terms of performance (number of items correctly reported per second) and time (gait velocity higher in the dual-task condition than in the simple task).

Subjective assessment

Cognitive functions are also evaluated subjectively, with a self-assessment questionnaire composed by five questions. The participants has to rate his/her own cognitive abilities on Likert scales, compared to same-aged people. For example, a question about focused attention is "Compared to the same-aged people, is it more or less difficult to concentrate?". The participant has to answer in a five-point scale from "Less difficult" to "More difficult". A self-assessment score is calculated by adding the responses obtained to the different questions.

Driving evaluation 1.4.1. On-road driving objective assessment

Driving performance is objectively evaluated both on-road and on a driving simulator. The on-road driving evaluation is conducted by a driving instructor seated at the right of the driver, in an instrumented vehicle. This car is a 5 speed manual transmission 307 Peugeot, fitted with dual controls and dual rear-view mirrors. Sensors are placed on pedals to record driver's actions. Other sensors record steering wheel angle, car speed, distance travelled, indicators use, and GPS position. These data are recorded on an onboard computer. These records are used to retrospectively analyze driver behavior (e.g. sudden braking, inappropriate speed, etc.) throughout the trip. The experimental vehicle is also equipped with video cameras to collect information about the driver's behavior in real driving condition (front view: traffic and infrastructure, rear view: traffic, driver view: visual activity and verbalizations, driver and driving instructor view: overall driver behavior and actions of the instructor). The road trip lasts about 40 minutes for 28 km traveled. During the first ten minutes, the participant drives to familiarize with the vehicle. The route combines: urban circuit (13 km), suburb and rural circuits (5 km) and a section of ring road / highway (10 km). During this course, the participant experiences different infrastructure types: more than twenty-five intersections (eight-turn left), six roundabouts, four insertions or ringroad exits, eight lane changes, two automatic and educational radars. The driving instructor gives the direction to the driver throughout the trip. Sometimes, the driver has to find the route by him/herself depending on the indication given by the instructor (e.g. "Follow the direction of Bron").

Two grids are used to assess the driving performance; one is completed by the driving instructor and the other by the experimenter. The driving instructor and the experimenter are blind to the cognitive profile of the participant. The first grid is an adapted French version of Test Ride for Investigating Practical fitness to drive (TRIP) [START_REF] Withaar | Fitness to drive in older drivers with cognitive impairment[END_REF]. This grid assesses eleven dimensions of driving: vehicle position on the road, vehicle tracking, speed, visual behavior, road signs, overtaking, anticipatory reactions, communication with other road users, confrontation to specific situations (such as left-turn or dual carriageway), vehicle handling, general impressions of the instructor. Each of these dimensions is evaluated as: insufficient, doubtful, sufficient, good or not applicable. The driving instructor completes this grid at the end of the course which leads to a global score on 100 points. The second grid is completed in real time during the trip by the experimenter seated behind the driver. This pre-established observational grid consists in a description of the encountered situations and a list of the potential driving behaviors, gathered into broader categories to ease coding: visual attention, traffic rules compliance, planning, vehicle position, speed adaptation, vehicle handling. This detailed list limit the subjectivity of coding [START_REF] Dobbs | A comparative approach to identify unsafe older drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Lafont | The Wechsler Digit Symbol Substitution Test as the best indicator of the risk of impaired driving in Alzheimer disease and normal aging[END_REF]. In addition, the experimenter can mention any unplanned event affecting the driver's behavior, or any action make by the instructor. The completion of this grid can then be finalized with the video recording. This grid is used to calculate a penalty score based on the driver's behavior. Penalties are weighted according to the error type, its severity, and the situation inherent to performed behavior. Hence, forget the indicator will be penalized less severely than the non-compliance with a traffic light for example, depending on the effect of this behavior on the road users' safety.

Driving simulator objective assessment

In this study, a Peugeot 308 fixed-base simulator was used. This simulator is surrounded by screens and speakers in order to recreate a visual and sound driving environment. Five screens, which provide about 280° visual field horizontally and 40° vertically, completely immerse the driver in the simulation. In addition, screens placed along the vehicle allow realistic use of mirrors. Driving simulation is managed through five interconnected computers. The simulator is also equipped with cameras (front view: traffic and infrastructure, driver view: visual activity and verbalizations, driver and environment view: overall behavior of the driver and pedals use. This visual information is transmitted to the control room allowing the experimenter to encode in real time the driving episode. Microphones allow interaction between the driver and the experimenter and permit to the experimenter to give instructions during the simulation.

Two driving scenarios were developed: i) when they first come to the laboratory, participants drive in a 8-minute urban scenario in order to familiarize with the virtual environment and vehicle handling; ii) and after that, an evaluation scenario, lasting about 8 minutes, is performed by each participant. This episode of urban and suburban driving is used to assess the participant's behavior throughout the course. It consists in five specific driving situations (pedestrian crossing, intersection with traffic lights, vehicle following, left-turn, and overtaking on a highway). As for the on-road driving evaluation, the experimenter completes a grid in real time, by watching driver's from the control room. This grid describes each situations encountered by the participant and a list of the driving behaviors. This grid is used to calculate a score based on the driver's behavior.

Subjective assessment

After each of these driving evaluations (on-road or on driving simulator), the participant completes a selfassessment questionnaire regarding his/her driving ability on-road and in driving simulator. As for the cognitive self-assessment questionnaire, the participant has to compare him/herself with same-aged people. Both questionnaires consisted in twelve questions whose nine are five-point Likert scale. To keep a link between the three self-assessment questionnaires, questions are all related to the same cognitive functions. For example, the question about focused attention is: "Compared to the same-aged people, is it more or less difficult to concentrate while driving?". This question is adjusted for the driving simulator immersion: "Compared to the same-aged people, was it more or less difficult to concentrate while driving during this episode?". The participant has to answer in a five-point scale from "Less difficult" to "More difficult". A self-assessment score is calculated by adding the responses obtained to the different questions.

Well-being and quality of life

A questionnaire is used to evaluate the quality of life of our participants. The WHOQOL-BREF (World Health Organization Quality Of Life) is a shorter version of the original WHOQOL. Its interest is to distinguish several aspects of the well-being. Indeed, this questionnaire is composed by 26 items which measure the physical health, the psychological health, the social relationships, and environment. Hence, the programs' impact can be observed on the different aspects of participants' quality of life. This quick and easy-to-complete questionnaire has been translate in several languages and is adapted to older people.

Cognitive training

We conducted collaboration with a company specialized in cognitive training (named SBT: Scientific Brain Training) which designed a training program called Happyneuron®. The effectiveness of this training method has been proven among seniors exempt of pathology [START_REF] Croisile | La stimulation de la mémoire[END_REF]. The training program proposed in our study contains twenty exercises from the Happyneuron® program. These exercises are specifically focused on functions required while driving as attention (8 exercises), memory (4 exercises), executives functions such as updating, flexibility, or planning (4 exercises), or visuo-spatial abilities (4 exercises) [START_REF] Wagner | Cognition and driving in older persons[END_REF]. Another collaboration has been involved with a e-learning company Symetrix, which contributed to provide the technologic support for the study's realization. From this mutual work came up a learning management system (LMS) leading to propose cognitive training exercises to our participants. Hence, each participant has his own personal account in which he can log in and complete his daily activity (reading or training) and can get information about his last performances and his progression on this program. Regarding the cognitive training, the choice of the exercise is made by a virtual coach, whom also chooses the difficulty level following a progression rule: if the participant completes perfectly the exercise (100% success), he passes to next level, if the participant has a score between 70 and 99%, he stays at the same level, and if the participant failed below 70% three times in a raw, he goes down to the last level. Each exercise has fifteen difficulty levels. After completing one exercise, the participant gets information about his performance: the percent of good answer and the speed of processing. Moreover, this feedback is accompanied by a sentence that encourages the trainee to continue. Each week, the experimenter can ensure the participant's compliance in the training via the access to personal data of each user. Thus, the experimenter can verify the participants' attendance thanks to their play time and performances. Participants have to train three hours per week during twelve weeks. This training duration of thirty-six hours allowed a benefic contribution to the speed of processing and visual attention, and a transfer in driving abilities in a previous study combining a cognitive tasks (e.g. dual tasks, attention, executive functioning, working memory or processing speed) with physical exercise (such as walking). For example, the authors showed the improvement of 10% in the response time during simple task, 13% in the response time during dual task, and 66% of the visual speed processing for participants assigned in the experimental group [START_REF] Marmeleira | The effects of an exercise program on several abilities associated with driving performance in older adults[END_REF].

Driving simulator session

The same driving simulator as described above is used for the three-hour immersion on driving simulation. Five training scenarios are performed during each driving simulator session: pedestrian crossing, intersection with traffic lights, vehicle following, left-turn, and overtaking on a highway. Three difficulty levels are available for each trained situation. These are chosen after a literature review on the situations perceived as complex, or avoided by older drivers or those with a high crash risk. During the immersion on driving simulation sessions, the participant is confronted with these five situations. Each participant begins the training at the easiest level. Thanks to an algorithm we developed assigning penalty points depending on the driver's behavior, a performance score between 0 and 100 is calculated for each situation. When the score is equal or less than 50/100, the participant remains at the same level and retries an equivalent situation during the next driving session. When the score is higher than 50/100, a higher difficulty level situation is unlocked and presented to the participant during the next driving session. This technical feat is achieved through the connection made between the simulator and the SAFE MOVE platform. A feedback is given to the participant after each driving situation through a screen placed inside the vehicle. If the score is less than 50/100, the feedback consists in the educational goals waited to reach the next level. Conversely, if the participant successfully completes the exercise, the feedback congratulates him and indicates the progression to a higher difficulty level. To avoid the test-retest effect, alternative learning situations have been developed. Hence, the participant will not face twice to the same situation (i.e. there are three variants of the easy situation, two variants of the medium situation and one variant of the most difficult situation).

Active control activity

The control group follows an activity inspired by the work of Smith and colleagues to observe an involvement in the program during thirty-six hours of computer activity [START_REF] Smith | A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: results from the Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training (IMPACT) study[END_REF]. The principle is to replicate as much as possible the experimental conditions of the experimental groups, through the type of activity, its support and duration. The control group has to read articles posted on the SAFE MOVE platform and associated with simple quiz. A varied themes choice is proposed to satisfy tastes and interests of each driver. Feedbacks in terms of play-time and correct answers to quiz allow us to ensure that the activity is correctly performed by participants. Moreover, as for the cognitive training, players receive feedbacks on their quiz performance.

Participant can read only once the article to avoid storing content between each reading. This activity should not contribute to the improvement of cognitive functions solicited while driving because only focused attention and short-term memory are involved in this exercise.

Perspectives

By comparing cognitive and driving evaluations from the different groups, we could determine the effectiveness of cognitive training program on the awareness of cognitive abilities and the development of self-regulatory strategies. Thanks to groups performing the simulator immersion, we could conclude on the role of this tool in the transfer of benefits on real-world driving, generated by the training. Indeed, we could see the potential benefits of a virtual confrontation with complex or difficult driving situations. Finally, we will look at whether there is a difference in awareness and self-regulation among drivers who overestimate and those who underestimate their cognitive abilities.

The interest of both groups achieving the driving simulator immersion (the cognitive training group coupled to simulator experience and the activity control group coupled to simulator experience) is to determine the usefulness of the cognitive training. Unlike participants who make the press review (control activity), those who follow the computerized cognitive training should improve their cognitive abilities on neuropsychological tests. As the trained cognitive functions are those requiring while driving, if we observe an improvement of the driving performance for the group following the cognitive training associated with the simulator immersion, we could conclude on the transfer effect of the cognitive benefits in the driving activity.

Regarding the awareness and secondary benefits, the cognitive training is expected to enable all drivers to become correct estimators of their cognitive abilities. Indeed, thanks to the feedbacks obtained for each exercise, the participant will be able to identify more precisely his/her own abilities. More specifically, the OE could become aware of the difficulties encountered when performing certain cognitive tasks, thanks to the progression in the program (difficulty levels), and the UE could regain self-confidence, thanks to through progression and feedback received after each exercise. The awareness' improvement of driving skills via the driving simulator immersion could lead the OE to reduce their driving risks by directly confronting them to critical situations, and the UE to regain self-confidence and develop better behavioral adjustments as their driving becomes consistent with their skills.

A cost-effectiveness analysis will be conduct. The cognitive training costs less to implement and remain functional than the driving simulator experience. Indeed, the driving simulator results in high operating and maintenance costs. In the end, this study will allow us to determine which intervention is the most effective to improve driving performance evaluate with the TRIP.

Acknowledgement

This research is financially supported by IFSTTAR, ANR (SAFE MOVE-ANR-11-VPTT-001) and ARC2 "quality of life and aging" ("Entrain-Conduite" project). This work is the subject of a thesis which began in October 2012.