Michel Christine
email: christine.michel@insa-lyon.fr

Garrot Elise
email: elise.garrot@insa-lyon.fr

George Sébastien
email: sebastien.george@insa-lyon.fr

Instrumented Collective Learning Situations (ICLS): the gap between theoretical research and observed practices

According to socio-constructivism approach, collective situations are promoted to favor learning in classroom, at a distance or in a blended educational context. So, many Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are provided to teachers but there are no clear studies about the way they are used and perceived. Our research is based on the hypothesis that practices of educational actors (instructional designers and tutors) are far away from theoretical results of research in education technologies. In this paper, we consider a precise kind of situation: Instrumented Collective Learning Situations (ICLS). By a survey on 13 fields in higher education in France, Switzerland and Canada, we present how ICLS are designed and how teachers used them. Conclusions give an indication on the gap between the way information technologies are prescribed and the way they are actually used and perceived by teachers.

Introduction

Numerous educational platforms exist to support distance or blended education. Most of them clearly announce the desire to favour collective learning. In this sense, these platforms provide several communication tools like discussion forum, chat or wiki. Nevertheless, to only provide communication tools is not always sufficient to create interactions between learners and to favour the construction of collective knowledge. The setting-up of a collective learning activity is the central point to support a socio-constructivist approach [START_REF] Doise | The Social Development of the Intellect[END_REF]. To simply offer technical possibilities for communication would appear to be insufficient to ensure collective learning. Although the learners are offered a possibility to communicate, there is no reason for them to do so if there is no common interest bringing them together.

First works on educational platforms have focused on resources to give to learners. Since, research works have moved towards the support of modelling and designing collaborative learning activities. As a result, the definition of an Educational Modelling Language EML [START_REF] Koper | From change to renewal: Educational technology foundations of electronic learning environments[END_REF] leads to the standard IMS-LD (2003), in which more and more platforms are compliant with. However, we think that currently an important gap remains between researches and realities in the field of education that used computing technologies. In practice, teachers who want to set up collaborative activities between students often use a pragmatic approach. Even if some specific universities are specialized in distance education, for instance the Open University and the Tele-University of Quebec, most universities try to add distance programs or instrumented activities to face to face teaching. Teachers implied in this kind of experience are often few trained and they adopt a very pragmatic attitude, far away from research works.

The work presented in this article, done in the context of the ACTORS TICE project, concerns the observation and analysis of Instrumented Collective Learning Situations (ICLS) in higher education. We define an ICLS as an educational situation with a learning goal (of knowledge or competencies), involving identified actors during a specified period and with an assessment of learners. This situation takes the shape of a scripted learning unit in which the expected production is bound to a collective activity instrumented by computer artefacts. Main goals of ICLS observation and analysis are : 1) to observe the reality in order to evaluate the gap between research and practices, 2) to provide guidelines basing on a bottom-up approach (defining best practices). In this paper we present results about a survey where instructional designer and tutors are asked about there ICLS e-learning experiment.

Context of research

Educational institutions tend to provide diversified learning activities for students, like project-based learning, business games or case studies. This kind of activities has already proved to be useful. According to the socio-constructivist approach, interactions between learners play a dynamic role in individual learning [START_REF] Dillenbourg | What do you mean by 'collaborative learning[END_REF]. Nowadays, collective learning activities are more and more instrumented, in particular in order to be carried out by students at a distance, with the monitoring of tutors. Students and tutors need at least communication tools like forum or chat. Instrumentation of these activities allows passing from presence to distance and gives new possibilities like individualization and flexibility in terms of space and time. Institutions can so get a new public, like persons with disabilities and working people. Furthermore, teachers use more and more ICT due to instructional reasons or extern pressures (academic, economic, social).

Realizing the prominent part played by ICT, and their use in collective learning activities, we decide to study some ICLS in higher education context. The term 'collective' in ICLS includes both concepts of 'collaborative' and 'cooperative' [START_REF] George | Project-Based Learning as a Basis for a CSCL Environment: An Example in Educational Robotics[END_REF]). An ICLS can have various levels of granularity, it can thus be a session, a sequence or a learning unit, since it is bounded by the characteristics expressed in the definition we give in the introduction (duration, learning objective, individual or collective production). A production is any observable result of an activity, for example: an individual or collective synthesis, texts recorded from communication tools (e.g. forum, e-mail, and chat), connection tracks… ICLS description criterions are very precise. It allows qualifying, analyzing and comparing specific fields of experiment. We distinguish ICLS from CSCL (Computer Support for Collaborative Learning) [START_REF] Bannon | Issues in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning[END_REF]. CSCL refers to a research field related to learning through collaborative activity and to the exploration of how such learning might be augmented through technology (ISLS 2006). So CSCL works often aim to design collaborative environments which exercise an active control over the collaborative interactions [START_REF] Jermann | From mirroring to guiding: A review of state of the art technology for supporting collaborative learning[END_REF], that is not necessarily a condition in what we name ICLS.

Our research considers two different roles for teachers: instructional designers of situations (scenarios, activities, contents), and tutors who monitor learners to help them to build knowledge and competencies and to assess them. Indeed, the use of ICT in education involved a new definition of teacher roles, even if up to now these are rather badly defined and vary from one educational institution to the other (Garrot 2006). For the course to be effective, Mc Pherson & Nunes (2004) insist on the importance of both tutors and instructional designers' roles: "the focus is frequently placed on design and developing information and communication technology (ICT) based environments and insufficient attention is given to the delivery process." One of the most important points of our study is to determine in which proportion ICLS really exists in higher education and how ICT are used. It is not because the activity is instrumented that actors are effectively going to use tools. For example, according to [START_REF] Casey | Prospects for using learning objects and learning design as staff development tools in higher education[END_REF], tutors try to adapt given scripted courses to their students without help, building their own experiences. That is why we are interested in studying the effective use of every tools offered to support the design and the progress of CLS.

Research issues

Our research is based on the hypothesis that educational actors' practices (designers and tutors) are far away from research in education technologies. Concerning instructional designers, many current researches are centred on the characterization and the standardization of learning activities (like IMS LD) in order to develop educational software to assist the design of scenarios. These tools aim at helping designers in the setting-up and adaptation of learning scenarios (for example to create an activity from a generic model) or at improving the scenario by visualizing uses tracks. But in practice, designers do not strictly formalize scenarios and most of them do not use developed educational software. Furthermore, ICT companies provide learning platforms which offer more and more possibilities for tutors and learners with several tools: communication tools (chat, email, forum, videoconferencing, audioconferencing), sharing/production tools (application sharing, whiteboard, shared text editor, wiki, blog, portfolio) and collaborative work management tools (planning, documents management). But learners and tutors, in their day-to-day practice, do not use all technologies that are offered to them.

In this study, we make the hypothesis that there is a considerable difference between what is prescribed and what is used. We distinguish designers' practices and those of tutors and learners because there are two kinds of prescription. On the one hand, we can ask if designers have adequate platforms to design collective learning activities according to instructional specialists' prescriptions. On the other hand, we would like to know if tutors and learners have adapted tools to carry out CLS and if they use them in the way prescribed by the designer or not [START_REF] Rabardel | Les Hommes et les technologies[END_REF]. This study tends to evaluate the gap between research and software, which provide actors with many guidelines, and the reality of actors' practices. According to our hypothesis, we make an investigation in several fields in higher education which design and use ICLS. This investigation is supported by a questionnaire that we develop in the next part.

Methodology

A survey was elaborated starting from a list of 69 criterion defined in the ACTORS TICE project by a group of 8 researchers [START_REF] Bourriquen | Caractérisation des Situations d'Apprentissage Collectives et Instrumentées dans le supérieur. 8ème Biennale de l'éducation et de la formation[END_REF]). 207 questions have been defined to identify practices of three actors' types: instructional designers, tutors and learners. When it is pertinent, distinction is always made between what have been prescribed (in terms of tools and scenarios for example) and what have been effectively done. We collect in particular variation of practices concerning communication tools, sharing/production tools and collective work management tools. The questionnaire used in the survey is composed with a part of common queries and a part of specific questions depending on actors' types. Common questions relate to global context description and learning tools (context of execution, teaching objectives, number of instructional designers, tutors and learners participating, tools provided and used, kind of collaboration, resources available, exchanges control and learning assessment). Addressing these questions to several actors makes it possible to reinforce answers validity and identify possible perceptions variations. That also allows identifying variations of practices as we will specify further. Specific questions, reserved to each actors, relates to their perception of tools that they have to use. They are asked for example about (1) tools which are used in a wrong or in another way that the one initially defined, (2) helps and constraints felt by using the learning tools, (3) waiting and evolution proposals. In the ACTORS TICE project, various experimentation fields, located in France, Switzerland and Canada (Québec), have been studied: distance campus FORSE, Did@ctic and VCIEL; TECFA University (UTICEF/MALTT), University of Lyon 1 (E-Miage and FISAD), INSA of Lyon (Business games), Savoy University (English formation), Central school of Lyon (EAT), Teluq-UQAM (IAO formation). They dispense distance, presence or blended courses. Disciplines concerned are variable (language sciences, education sciences, data processing, management…). There did not exist as many ICLS as initially supposed on the survey because most of teaching education models are based on individual rather than collective tasks.

Results presented here concern 18 ICLS observations composed of instructional designers and tutors answers. Answers have been analysed as follow. Closed questions were processed according to simple statistical analysis (counting, average, frequencies) to have a global view of the context and technical learning tools (provided and used) in ICLS and cross together to see how they are used. Open questions have not been considered at this step of analyse.

Results

Activities types

Among the collective activities types offered to learners, we find information retrieval, debate, collective reading/writing, working in project, case studies and problem solving (see table 1). We do not observe prominent trend, all activities types are offered in a distributed way.

Cooperative versus collaborative

The proportion of collective activities prescribed by the instructional designer is high (64,38%, the balance being individual activities which participate to the collective work). It is massively follows because we find 60,71% of collective activities in practice. The answers mention that collective work is rather cooperative (50,00% in prescription and 59,64% in practice) than collaborative. These results are to be considered with caution because the notion of cooperative-collaborative is not clearly spread or not formalized among the actors questioned in our survey (even if a definition was given).

Synchronous and asynchronous activities

Table 2 presents the percentage of synchronous and asynchronous activities carried out by tutors and learners, as they were prescribed by the instructional designer or not. In a synthetic way, we can say that both types of activities are often prescribed, although synchronous are more prescribed than asynchronous ones for learners (87,5% vs. 68,75%) and for tutors (100% vs. 64,29%). But we can see that, when they are prescribed, asynchronous activities are used while synchronous activities are rather often little used (approximately one third of prescribed synchronous activities is little used).

Learners' activities

Tools provided and used by tutors and learners

In the following 3 tables, we present percentage of tools prescribed and used by learner and tutor. In the learner case the prescription is made by tutor. In the tutor case the prescription is made by instructional designer.

Table 3 shows that the massively provided communication tools are e-mail (68,75% for learners and 76,47% for tutors) and forum (68,75% for learners and 64,7% for tutors) and chat (56,25% for learners and 58,82% for tutors) (cf. table 3). When these tools are provided, they are mostly used. We said that synchronous activities are very often prescribed but they are electronically supported only by chat, which is rather little used. This can explain why provided synchronous activities are rather little used. Learners use instant messaging tools which are not provided on the learning environment (like MSN Messenger). For asynchronous activities, learners use more forum than e-mail while tutors prefer e-mail.

Phone solution is rarely offered to learners (12,50%) and even if it is often offered to tutors (47,05%) they only use it a little. Few platforms provide audio or visio conferencing tools and when they are provided they are little used. Face to face communication is possible in 40% of ICLS for learners and 57,14% for tutors. By observing table 4 ,we can see that most of time, observed ICLS did not provide sharing/production tools even for tutor and learners (more than 80% of ICLS did not provided application sharing, whiteboard, shared text editor, wiki, blog and portfolio). Except for application sharing, sharing/production tools are not used when they are not provided by instructional designers. When wiki and blog are provided they are never used. Shared text editor is rather used by learners (25% of ICLS provided it and they are often used, 6,25% provide it and they are not used), and by tutors (12,5+6,25=18,75% provide it to tutors and they used it little or often). Whiteboard is rather (little or very often) used: 25% by learners and 14,44% by tutors. Application sharing is a little used when it is provided: 6,25% by learners and 12,5% by tutors.

Learners and tutors use rather consciously synchronised sharing/production tools (application, text and whiteboard) so we can suppose that it is because they are prescribed by instructional designer and so the use is made during specific activities. They do not use these tools when they are not prescribed, they do not need to use these tools alone, to organise themselves.

Collective work management tools observations are reporting in table 5. Theses tools are most of time not provided and not used by learners and tutors. In learners cases, proportions of ICLS providing management tools are 43,75% for document management, 30,76% for specific tools, 26,67% for scheduling tools, and 13,34% for awareness. When they are provided to learners, scheduling tools are very often used whereas other tools are half used and half not. In tutors cases, ICLS providing management tools are 33,33% for document management, 28,54% for specific tools, 25% for scheduling tools, and 15,38% for awareness. Most of tools are used except specific tools. Paradoxically specific tools are used (7,14%) even if they are not provided, same remark for awareness tools. We can suppose that initial uses of awareness and specific tools are turned away or adapted by tutors to serve specific needs not covered by the system (for instance to evaluate which student is present and active, which groups are collaborating and how they have collaborate).

ICLS provide other resources: 42% of them provide paper resources which are often used, 64% provide online resources very often used and 20% provide interactive resources which are very often used.

Conclusion

In this paper we have defined an ICLS (Instrumented Collective Learning Situations) as an educational situation with a learning goal (of knowledge or competencies), involving identified actors during a specified period of time and with an assessment of learners. We have observed, by the way of a survey, how ICLS are used in various e-learning contexts in France, Switzerland and Canada.

First results show that ICLS are not as common as initially supposed. Indeed, teaching educational models are based on learners' communication during individual tasks rather than on real collective tasks between learners. We can see that there is a gap between pedagogical researcher's recommendation (clearly mentioning collaboration need in e-learning activities) and practical e-learning set up.

When ICLS are used, a variety of collective activities are proposed to learners but cooperative vs. collaborative notions are not clearly differentiated. Activities are generally correctly achieved by learners and tutors. In terms of communication tools, (1) asynchronous ones are often used (forum, e-mail), (2) synchronous ones are, for one part of them (chat) often little used even if they are very often provided, and for another part (phone) often used (only between tutors). Concerning chat, it's important to note that chat tool itself is not prohibited because of the existence of external chat or instant messaging tools. It let us suppose that (1) learners want there communications to be private or (2) pedagogical activities using chat are not clearly expressed in scenarios. In more than 80% of observed ICLS sharing/production tools (especially blog, wiki and portfolio) are not provided for tutor and learners. When sharing/production tools are proposed (shared text editor, whiteboard or application sharing) that is to support a specific pedagogical activity; not to help actors to do there work. Collective work management tools are rather provided and used by learners and tutors and we have observed, in some cases, some uses appear whereas tools are not prescribed. We suppose that actors turn away or adapt theses tools for other uses (for instance to evaluate a learner's activity in a group).

In conclusion, we can say that collaboration is not really used and formalized in e-learning contexts. When there is collaboration, it is more communication between actors than a real collaborative work. Our future analyses will try to determine if instructional objectives are linked to specific tools and if they are really used. Our aim is to provide guidelines to instructional designers and tutors, helping them in their practices.

Table 1 :

 1 Type of activities offered to learners (in % of observed ICLS).

	%	Information retrieval	Debate	Reading/Writing	Project	Case studies	Problem solving
	No or rather no	50	38,9	33,3	44,4	44,4	50
	Yes or rather yes	50	61,1	66,7	55,6	55,6	50

Table 2 :

 2 Synchronous and asynchronous activities for learners and tutors (in % of observed ICLS)

		Prescribed and	Prescribed and a	Prescribed and	Not prescribed and	Not prescribed and	Not prescribed and
		not used	little used	often used	not used	a little used	often used
	Synchronous activities	0	31,25	56,25	0	12,50	0
	Asynchronous activities	0	6,25	62,50	31,25	0	0
	Tutors' activities	Prescribed and	Prescribed and a	Prescribed and	Not prescribed and	Not prescribed and	Not prescribed and
		not used	little used	often used	not used	a little used	often used
	Synchronous activities	0	33,33	66,67	0	0	0
	Asynchronous activities	0	0	64,29	35,71	0	0

uses Provided and not used Provided and a little used Provided and often used Not provided and not used Not provided and a little used Not provided and often used

	Learners' uses	Provided and not	Provided and a	Provided and often	Not provided and	Not provided and a	Not provided and often
		used	little used	used	not used	little used	used
	e-mail	0	37,50	31,25	31,25	0	0
	forum	0	18,75	50,00	31,25	0	0
	Chat	0	31,25	25,00	31,25	12,50	0
	Visio conferencing	0	12,50	0	81,25	0	6,25
	Audio conferencing	0	0	0	100	0	0
	Phone	0	12,50	0	81,25	6,25	0
	Mail	6,25	6,25	0	81,25	6,25	0
	Face-to-face	0	6,67	33,33	60,00	0	0
	Tutors' e-mail	0	35,29	41,18	23,53	0	0
	forum	5,88	23,53	35,29	35,29	0	0
	Chat	5,88	29,41	23,53	29,41	11,76	0
	Visio conferencing	0	17,65	0	76,47	5,88	0
	Audio conferencing	0	11,76	0	88,24	0	0
	Phone	0	35,29	11,76	52,94	0	0
	Mail	11,76	5,88	0	76,47	5,88	0
	Face-to-face	0	21,43	35,71	42,86	0	0

Table 3 :

 3 Communication tools (in % of observed ICLS).

Table 4 :

 4 Sharing/production tools (in % of observed ICLS)

	Learners' uses	Provided and not	Provided and a	Provided and often	Not provided and	Not provided and a	Not provided and often
		used	little used	used	not used	little used	used
	Scheduling tool	0	0	26,67	73,33	0	0
	Document management	18,75	12,5	12,5	56,25	0	0
	Awareness	6,67	0	6,67	86,66	0	0
	Specific tools	15,38	0	15,38	69,24	0	0
	Tutors' uses	Provided and not	Provided and a	Provided and often	Not provided and	Not provided and a	Not provided and often
		used	little used	used	not used	little used	used
	Scheduling tool	0	0	25	75	0	0
	Document management	0	20	13,33	66,67	0	0
	Awareness	0	7,69	7,69	76,92	7,69	0
	Specific tools	7,14	7,14	7,14	71,43	7,14	0

Table 5 :

 5 Collective work management tools (in % of observed ICLS)

Acknowledgements

This work has been done in the context of ACTORS TICE Project financed by French Ministry of National Education and Research (action « Fields, technologies and theories », 2005-2007).


Ramón Martĺ Solano

TOWARDS A TYPOLOGY OF VARIANT FORMS IN SPANISH PROVERBS FROM A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE

Keywords: Hernán Núñez, Spanish proverbs, diachronic variant forms, truncation, lexico-grammatical changes

Some proverbs with a parallel structure and/or with a symmetrical pattern in Spanish have evolved from the 16 th century if their syntactic structure and lexis are to be compared with their counterparts as they are known and used today. A study of variant forms has been carried out with a sample of proverbs from the 16 th -century Refranes y proverbios by Hernán Núñez by contrasting them with the synchronic canonical forms as found in the Refranero Multilingüe (RM) from the Centro Virtual Cervantes and in Mil y un refranes españoles (Sevilla Muñoz & Cantera Ortiz de Urbina 2008). The general trend is towards reduction, shortening or truncation as in A mal hecho, ruego y pecho > A lo hecho, pecho, although counterexamples are also possible, although extremely scarce (El que parte, toma la mejor parte > El que parte y reparte se queda con la mejor parte). Three main phenomena have been observed, firstly the truncation of a whole part of bipartite or tripartite proverbs, originally oppositional, that have evolved mainly into non-oppositional with a single descriptive element. Secondly, a series of lexico-grammatical changes, usually in the second part of bipartite proverbs and thirdly, instances of variation by substitution of one of the nominal or adjectival constituents for a synonymous term-a semantic-related one or even another term bearing little or no semantic relation whatsoever.

This paper is based on a collection of proverbs written by one of the most renowned Spanish paremiographers of all times, Hernán Núñez de Guzmán, who worked at the University of Salamanca in the first half of the 16 th century. He was an eminent scholar and a professor of rhetoric and Greek. As a paremiographer, he compiled the collection of proverbs Refranes o Proverbios en romance, first published posthumously in 1555. Although most of the proverbs are in Spanish, he also recorded proverbs in Italian, Portuguese, French, Catalan and Galician and even in other less-known Romance varieties such as Asturian or Aragonese. The present paper is a diachronic study that covers roughly a 460-year time span. For the purposes of this study I have used the critical edition by Combet et al. (see references), which only includes the proverbs in Spanish.

I perused over 6,000 Spanish proverbs in order to detect and examine variant forms. It is interesting to note that most of the proverbs where variant forms were identified, when compared with their modern counterparts, fall into the category of proverbs with parallel structure or symmetrical pattern. This is, therefore, a study of variant forms concerning mainly the syntactic structure of proverbs as well as their lexis. The main objective is to present a piece of research conducive to a preliminary typology of variant forms of Spanish proverbs from a diachronic perspective. For contrastive methodological reasons, a unique synchronic canonical form was found for each of the 16 th century proverbs using the following sources: first, the Refranero Multilingüe (RM) from the Centro Virtual Cervantes. This online database is not just a dictionary of proverbs but an immense paremiological work of scholarship including synonyms, variant forms, origin, semantic features and other bibliographical and philological information. Second, the multilingual dictionary of proverbs Mil y un refranes españoles (One thousand and one Spanish proverbs). And third, the Oxford Spanish-English bilingual dictionary. These sources were also used in the same order to look up the English equivalent of each of the Spanish proverbs. In the very few cases in which no equivalent was found, the literal translation has been provided.

Diachronic paremiology

When one looks at a quantitatively important number of 16 th -century Spanish proverbs and compares them with their modern counterparts, one can observe that there is a general trend that comes to the surface: current forms tend to be shorter than older proverbs.

(1) A mal hecho, ruego y pecho. > A lo hecho, pecho. (There's no use crying over spilt milk.) 1

(2) Quien guarda, halla: y guardaua 2 la cazcarria. > Quien guarda, halla. (Those who hide can find.) This is merely part of language change at large-at least for Western languages-that involves different sorts of reduction, shortening or truncation. In (1) the adverb mal (badly), in the first half of the proverb, is no longer used as its meaning becomes implicit in the current form. This process of implicitness goes hand in hand with the general process of reduction and affects a large number of proverbs according to my results. In the second half of the proverb, the binomial ruego y pecho (prayer and courage) has also been shortened to pecho so that the internal rhyme of the proverb be kept.

In example (2), the entire second half of the 16 th century proverb disappears in its current form. This type of coordinative proverb can be analysed from a topic-comment perspective: the first half, Quien guarda, halla, would be the topic whereas the second half, y guardaua la cazcarria, would be the comment whose literal translation is 'and he used to keep the dirt'. It is this sort of superfluous or unnecessary comment, usually humorous or hyperbolic, that clearly falls out of use with the passing of time.

(3) El que parte, toma la mejor parte. > El que parte y reparte se queda con la mejor parte. (He who cuts the cake takes the biggest slice.) I have found very few counter-examples, in fact just one, to this general rule in which the modern form is longer than the older one, as can be seen in example (3). In the current version, the form reparte (hands round) has been added mainly by reason of internal rhyme, although the consequential addition (slicing a cake, for example, and then handing slices round) is also semantically pertinent.

Typology of proverb variant forms

I shall not take into consideration, as regards typology, the normal language changes concerning obsolete spelling, morphology, syntax or lexical forms. These are minor morphological or grammatical changes as can be observed in examples from (4) to ( 7). Example (4) involves a word form (do > donde), a verb tense (haras > haz) and syntax (como > lo que). As for (5), the only change concerns grammatical number, that is singular constituents becoming plural (entra mosca > entran moscas). In example (6) word order and different spellings of a word (mas ay dias > hay más días) are combined in the same phrase, and finally number (7), which involves a combination of spelling and grammatical number (corvo > cuervos; el hojo > los ojos) with different word order and verb forms (sacar te ha > te sacarán).

The typology that follows is made up of five major types, namely truncation, downgrading, rewording and rephrasing, lexical substitution, and a mixed type and then two minor types, namely lexical insertion, and inverted parallelism or chiasmus.

Truncation

When attempting a typology of proverb variant forms, the commonest and most recurrent mechanism is the truncation of a whole part of a bipartite proverb. It is normally the second half of the proverb that is truncated, although (8) is the exception that proves the rule. It should be noted that even in this case it is the comment that is truncated and not the topic, as can be observed in the English translation provided by the RM where the truncated part (how dirty soever it be) is placed at the end.

(8) Por turbia que este, no digas de esta agua no beuere. > Nunca digas 'De esta agua no beberé'.

(Don't say I'll never drink of this water, how dirty soever it be.)

Other cases of truncation of the first half of a bipartite proverb will be discussed further down in the section 'Mixed types of variant forms' as they combine truncation and lexical substitution.

Examples from (9) to ( 12) follow the pattern "first half (topic) / second half (comment)" and in all of them it is the second half that is truncated in contemporary Spanish. (Things never seem so bad after a good meal.) (11) El corcobado no vee su corcoba, y vee la de su compañon. > Ningún jorobado ve su joroba.

(The hunchback does not see his own hump, but sees his companion's.) (12) En Abril aguas mill, en Mayo tres o quatro. > Abril, aguas mil. (April weather, rain and sunshine, both together.)

There is an important difference between the second half in (9), y el hogar al caballero (and home begets the gentleman), and the second part in examples ( 10) and ( 11). The second half in the 16 th -century proverb in (9) complements semantically the first half whereas in (10) and in (11) the second half is oppositional: in the case of (10) it is emphasized that after having eaten and drunk-bread and wine are used metonymically for food and drink-anyone can bear a long walk and not only or especially a strong young man. As for (11), although the proverb is apparently coordinative, in reality the conjunction y (and) is used adversatively to mark an opposition between the first and the second half-A hunchback cannot see his hump but can see his companion's.

Finally, ( 12) is an instance of juxtaposed nominal sentences bearing a coordinative link between each half. This calendar saying (literally 'In April a thousand waters, in May three or four') follows the topic / comment pattern in which the main and most significant part simply states that April is a very rainy month.

It has to be noted that an important number of truncated proverbs have become fossilized, and thus institutionalized, in modern Spanish. These reduced forms can also be seen as ellipsis but, in any case, they represent a shortened and fully-contained version of the earliest traditional proverbs.

Downgrading

The second type of variant form can be described as downgrading. This term has been taken from Rosamund [START_REF] Moon | Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English. A Corpus-Based Approach[END_REF] where it is defined as "traditional proverbs and sayings [are] downgraded from their canonical or earliest forms to lower-level grammatical units: a compound sentence to a single clause, or a clause to a group". The main difference with the first type, truncation, is that with downgrading a former proverb such as the one in (13), Quando la rana tuuiere pelo, is no longer a proverb in its current form, but an idiom, as it can be observed when one considers the status of its English equivalent, when pigs fly. The same principle can be applied to examples from ( 14), ( 15) and ( 16).

(13) Quando la rana tuuiere pelo, seres vos bueno. > cuando las ranas críen pelo 5 (when pigs fly) ( 14) No pidas al olmo la pera, pues no la lleua. > pedir peras al olmo (to ask the impossible) (15) Leuãtar la liebre, para que otro medre. > levantar la liebre (to let the cat out of the bag) ( 16) Buscays cinco pies al gato y el no tiene sino quatro. > buscarle cinco pies al gato (to complicate matters, to make life difficult) This tendency for proverbs to turn into phrases has been pointed out by [START_REF] Arnaud | Fréquence et emploi des proverbes anglais et français[END_REF] and [START_REF] Moon | Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English. A Corpus-Based Approach[END_REF], among others.

Proverbs are frequently truncated or reduced to verbal groups and complementation, thus contextualizing something that is essentially or diachronically a statement of a universal truth or deontic. Such downgradings may become institutionalized as variations, or effectively supersede the proverbial form. 6 (Moon 1998: 115) Contextualization, as explained in the quotation above, is a key word or mechanism in the field of diachronic proverb variant forms. Traditional proverbs and sayings are extremely scarce in corpora and when they occur they tend to be used in their citation form, either syntactically detached from the other elements of the sentence or followed by introductory phrases such as "as my grandmother used to say", "as the (old) saying goes", "as they say" [START_REF] Mieder | Proverbs: A Handbook[END_REF]). Not all traditional proverbs lend themselves to downgrading-negative imperative sentences, used either as prohibitions or as pieces of advice can easily be transformed into predicate idioms as illustrated in ( 14).

Rewording and rephrasing

This third main type concerns lexico-grammatical changes, usually in the second part of bipartite proverbs as in examples from ( 17) to ( 21). The formal symmetry or parallelism of the older version in (17), a buen entendedor, breve hablador, is lost in the current proverb where the second half pocas palabras bastan, shows no phonemic, lexical or syntactic resemblance with the first half. Other changes can be observed in examples from (18) to ( 21) which account for the dynamics of proverbs and sayings but also for their oral nature and transmission. ( 19) is an example of non-metaphorical proverb in which an obsolete word combination todas dueñas (all housewives) gives way to a more general statement without reference to any specific subject. As with types 1 and 2, that is truncation and downgrading, one can also find counter-examples: in (22) it is not the second part of the proverb that changes but the first although in both cases the internal rhyme is kept (ventura/sepultura; figura/sepultura). Examples ( 23), ( 24) and ( 25) show rewording and rephrasing also in the first half of the proverb. This type of transformation, either in the first or the second half of the proverb, seems to be the most widespread among the examples analysed as proverbs are passed from generation to generation mainly by oral transmission and this has an enormous impact in the evolution of their lexico-grammatical structure. As a general rule, proverbs that have gone through a process of rewording and rephrasing tend to be more prosaic, or rather less carefully worded, in their current form than in their earliest versions. They also tend to sacrifice internal rhyme for the sake of brevity or style as can be observed in examples ( 23) and ( 25). The latter is an interesting example of diachronic evolution: the first half of the proverb is reworded and the second half is rephrased. The rewording represents a slight change with no incidence whatsoever on the sense of the clause whereas the rephrasing of the second half illustrates the passage from a specific description-speaking of a large earthenware pitcher used by women in the past for collecting and carrying water from the village fountain to their house, 'either the handle or the front breaks' that simply gives in its modern form 'it breaks'.

Lexical substitution

The fourth main type is variation by lexical substitution. As proverbs have travelled the centuries orally, they have been eroded by time and tongue and this is reflected in the changes when looking at lexis. As can be observed in examples from ( 26) to (32), adjectives, nouns and verbs are replaced by others, synonymous or not, when compared with their synchronic counterparts. It has to be noted that some of the lexical substitutions that can be observed are but a variant form already used in the 16 th century as with, for instance Año de nieues, año de bienes and Año de nieues, año de miesses. Only the former is used in contemporary Spanish.

Mixed type

Finally, there is a mixed type where rewording, rephrasing, substitution and addition can coexist as found in examples from ( 33) and ( 38).

Minor types of variant forms

I have found two minor types of variant forms. The first one is lexical insertion (or addition) which I presume rather infrequent, as it goes against the general trend, in which a lexical item is added in the synchronic as with the addition of buen (god) in example ( 39).

(39) A hambre, no ay mal pan. / A buen hambre, no hay pan duro. (Hunger never saw bad bread.)

The following minor type is inverted parallelism or chiasmus in which a criss-cross pattern can be observed between the older and the current form. This can be seen in the first half of the proverb in example ( 40) where the verbs rascar and comer (scratching and eating) are reversed in the current proverb. As a consequence, the second half is also altered so as to maintain the internal rhyme (comer and menester versus rascar and empezar) (43) Dichoso el varō, que escarmiēta en cabeça agena, y en la suya nō. / Escarmentar en cabeça agena. > Escarmentar en cabeza ajena. (to learn from someone else's mistakes)

In the three examples above, the second and shorter 16 th century variant form coincides with the contemporary form although some morphological and orthographical differences can be observed. The existence of coeval forms already in the 16 th century is clear evidence of the fact that the shortened versions of proverbs or even proverbs downgraded to verbal idioms are not necessarily a synchronic phenomenon.

Conclusions and perspectives

Very few proverbs have come to us in the exact form they had in the 16 th century mainly because they have passed down from generation to generation through spoken language but also because of the normal evolution of the language. Shortening or reduction seems to be the norm when looking at variant forms from a diachronic perspective. A typology of variant forms from a diachronic perspective is entirely and perfectly possible. Changes seem to operate in bipartite, parallel or coordinative proverbs rather than in equational or non-oppositional proverbs. Although this cannot be applied to all the cases analysed, a considerable number of the contemporary proverbs or idioms have lost their original internal rhyme and tend to be more stylistically prosaic than the earliest versions or fuller forms.

As regards perspectives, I believe that it would be interesting to further develop this typology by taking into account other collections of proverbs from the 16 th century. A contrastive study with other Romance languages and especially with Portuguese proverb variant forms should be put into place for the same time span with the aim of finding similarities across languages.

Endnotes

1.

For the numbered examples, and from left to right, first is the proverb in its 16 th -century form, then its current canonical form, and finally, and between brackets, its English equivalent. So, as can be observed in example (1) there is the 16 th -century A mal hecho, ruego y pecho, then the shortened current canonical form A lo hecho, pecho and finally There's no use crying over spilt milk, the equivalent proverb in English.

2.

The original spelling, accents (usually their absence), and punctuation have been kept and consequently not altered to conform with the prescriptive rules of the modern Spanish language. Therefore, the 16 th -century form guardaua corresponds to modern Spanish guardaba.

3.

The literal translation of this proverb is "There are more days than there are sausages".

4.

Even though this is the exact form of the proverb as recorded in the RM, the absence of the definite article before dinero appears rather awkward to a number of native speakers that would prefer another variant, grammatical but not lexical, El dinero llama al dinero.

5.

The first word of the modern Spanish equivalents in examples from ( 14) to ( 18) are not printed in capitals and the phrase does not end with a full stop, as is the case with the rest of the examples, as these are considered idioms and not proverbs in Spanish today.

6

Moon exemplifies her argument with several examples from English. Here is a selection: 'a drowning man will clutch at a straw', 'make hay while the sun shines' and 'don't put the cart before the horse' downgraded respectively to the predicates 'to clutch at straws', 'to make hay' and 'to put the cart before the horse' 7

The Refranero Multilingüe and Mil y un refranes españoles sometimes differ in the current canonical or citation form in English. The latter registers the following variant form: For a flying enemy make a golden/silver bridge.

8

There is a misprint in the English equivalent of this Spanish proverb in Mil y un refranes españoles: web should in fact be well. No por mucho madrugar amanece más temprano.

Time will take its course.

32 Gato escaldado, del agua fría ha miedo.

Gato escaldado, del agua fría huye.

Scalded cats fear even cold water.

dias gana de perdon.

Quien roba a un ladrón, tiene cien años de perdón.

The devil laughs when one thief robs another.

( 4 )

 4 Do fueres, haras como vieres. > Donde fueres, haz lo que vieres. (When in Rome do as the Romans do.) (5) En boca cerrada no entra mosca. > En boca cerrada no entran moscas. (A shut mouth catches no flies.) (6) Mas ay dias que, longanizas. > Hay más días que longanizas. 3 (There is always plenty of time.) (7) Cria coruo, y sacar te ha el hojo. > Cría cuervos y te sacarán los ojos. (I gave you stick to break my own head with.)

( 9 )

 9 El dinero va al dinero, y el hogar al cauallero. > Dinero llama dinero. 4 (Money begets money.) (10) Pan y vino, andan camino, que no moço garrido. > Con pan y vino se anda el camino.

  (17) A buen entendedor, breue hablador. > A buen entendedor, pocas palabras bastan. (A word to the wise is enough.) (18) Mal de muchos, gozo es. > Mal de muchos, consuelo de tontos. (Two in distress make sorrow less.) (19) Casa con dos puertas, no la guardan todas dueñas. > Casa con dos puertas, mala es de guardar. (A house with two doors is difficult to protect.) (20) Quiē peces quiere, mojar se tiene. > El que quiera peces que se moje el culo. (He that would have eggs must endure the cackling of hens.) (21) El perro del hortelano, ni come las verças, ni las dexa comer al estraño. > El perro del hortelano, que ni come ni deja comer. (The dog in the manger won't eat the oats or let anyone else eat them.)

( 22 )

 22 Rodar ventura, hasta la sepultura. > Genio y figura, hasta la sepultura. (The leopard cannot change his spots.) (23) Quien lengua ha, a Roma va. > Preguntando se va a Roma. (Better to ask tan to go astray.) (24) Al enemigo, si buelue la espalda, la puente de plata. > A enemigo que huye, puente de plata. (It is good to make a bridge of gold to a flying enemy.) 7 (25) Cātarillo que muchas vezes va a la fuente, o dexa el asa, o la frente. > Tanto va el cántaro a la fuente que al final se rompe. (The pitcher goes so often to the web [sic], that it is broken at last.) 8

( 26 )

 26 A palabras locas, orejas sordas. > A palabras necias, oídos sordos. (For mad words, deaf ears.) (27) Suelas y vino, andan camino. > Con pan y vino se anda el camino. (Things never seem so bad after a good meal.) (28) Mas vale paxaro en mano, que bueytre bolando. > Más vale pájaro en mano que ciento volando. (A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.) (29) Ojos que no veen, coraçon que no quiebra. > Ojos que no ven, corazón que no siente. (Out of sight, out of mind.) (30) De tal leña, tal morceña. > De tal palo tal astilla. (Like father, like son.) (31) Por mucho madrugar, no amanece, mas ayna. > No por mucho madrugar amanece más temprano. (Time will take its course.) (32) Gato escaldado, del agua fría ha miedo. > Gato escaldado, del agua fría huye. (Scalded cats fear even cold water.)

( 33 )

 33 Quien burla al burlador, cien dias gana de perdon. > Quien roba a un ladrón, tiene cien años de perdón. (The devil laughs when one thief robs another.) (34) Arde verde por seco, y pagan justos por peccadores. > pagar justos por pecadores (The innocent pay for the sins of the guilty.) (35) Cobdicia mala, saco rompe. > La avaricia rompe el saco. (Grasp all, lose all.) (36) En burlas ni en veras, con tu señor no partas peras. > partir peras con alguien (to fall out with somebody) (37) En consejas, las paredes han orejas. > Las paredes oyen. (Walls have ears.) (38) Si tal fuesse lo roto como lo descosido, no auria nada perdido. > Nunca falta un roto para un descosido. (You can always find a companion in misfortune.)

( 40 )

 40 Rascar y comer, comienço han menester. > El comer y el rascar, todo es empezar. (Eating and scratching, it's all in the beginning.) Diachronic variant forms Different proverb variant forms were already in use in 16 th century Spain if one compares Hernán Núñez's compilation with the same proverbs as registered by other Spanish paremiographers such as Sebastián de Covarrubias and Gonzalo Correas. One should consider the fact that a compilation of proverbs, however complete it may be, is never a comprehensive account of all the different variant forms that existed at the time. Even though inside Refranes y Proverbios variant forms do not abound some examples have been detected. (41) El carnero encantado, que fue por lana y boluio tresquilado / Ires por lana, y vernes tresquilada. > Ir por lana y volver trasquilado. (to get more than you bargained for). (42) Ni vn dedo haze mano, ni vna golondrina verano / Vna golōdrina, no haze verano. > Una golondrina no hace verano. (One swallow doesn't make a summer).

  En boca cerrada no entra mosca. En boca cerrada no entran

						cuando las ranas críen pelo	when pigs fly
		seres vos bueno.
	14 No pidas al olmo la pera, pues	pedir peras al olmo	to ask the impossible
		no la lleua.
	15 Leuãtar la liebre, para que otro	levantar la liebre	to let the cat out of the bag
		medre.
	16 Buscays cinco pies al gato y el	buscarle cinco pies al gato	To complicate matters, to make
		no tiene sino quatro.				life difficult
	17 A buen entendedor, breue	A buen entendedor, pocas	A word to the wise is enough.
		hablador.				palabras bastan.
	18 Mal de muchos, gozo es.		Mal de muchos, consuelo de	Two in distress make sorrow
						tontos.	less.
	19 Casa con dos puertas, no la	Casa con dos puertas, mala es de	A house with two doors is
		guardan todas dueñas.		guardar.	difficult to protect.
	20 Quiē peces quiere, mojar se	El que quiera peces que se moje el	He that would have eggs must
		tiene.				culo.	endure the cackling of hens.
	21 El perro del hortelano, ni come	El perro del hortelano, que ni	The dog in the manger won't eat
		las verças, ni las dexa comer al	come ni deja comer.	the oats or let anyone else eat
		estraño.					them.
	22 Rodar	ventura,	hasta	la	Genio y figura, hasta la sepultura. The leopard cannot change his
		sepultura.					spots.
	23 Quien lengua ha, a Roma va.		Preguntando se va a Roma.	Better to ask than to go astray.
	24 Al enemigo, si buelue la	A enemigo que huye, puente de	It is good to make a bridge of
		espalda, la puente de plata.		plata.	gold to a flying enemy.
	25 Cātarillo que muchas vezes va a	Tanto va el cántaro a la fuente que	A shut mouth catches no flies. The pitcher goes so often to the
		la fuente, o dexa el asa, o la	moscas. al final se rompe.	well, that it is broken at last.
	6	Mas ay dias que, longanizas. frente.		Hay más días que longanizas.	There is always plenty of time.
	7 26 A palabras locas, orejas sordas. Cria coruo, y sacar te ha el hojo. Cría cuervos y te sacarán los ojos. I gave you stick to break my A palabras necias, oídos sordos. For mad words, deaf ears.
	27 Suelas y vino, andan camino.		own head with. Con pan y vino se anda el camino. Things never seem so bad after
	8	Por turbia que este, no digas de	Nunca digas 'De esta agua no	Don't say I'll never drink of this a good meal.
	esta agua no beuere. 28 Mas vale paxaro en mano, que	beberé'. Más vale pájaro en mano que	water, how dirty soever it be. A bird in the hand is worth two
	9	El dinero va al dinero, y el bueytre bolando.	Dinero llama dinero. ciento volando.	Money begets money. in the bush.
	hogar al cauallero. 29 Ojos que no veen, coraçon que	Ojos que no ven, corazón que no	Out of sight, out of mind.
	10 Pan y vino, andan camino, que no quiebra.	Con pan y vino se anda el camino. Things never seem so bad after siente.
	no moço garrido. 30 De tal leña, tal morceña.		De tal palo tal astilla.	a good meal. Like father, like son.
	11 El corcobado no vee su corcoba, 31 Por mucho madrugar, no	Ningún jorobado ve su joroba.	The hunchback does not see his
		y vee la de su compañon. amanece, mas ayna.			own hump, but sees his
							companion's.
	12 En Abril aguas mill, en Mayo	Abril, aguas mil.	April	weather,	rain	and
		tres o quatro.				sunshine, both together.

Table 1 ,

 1 Selection of 16th-century proverbs, their current version, and English equivalents. ramon.marti-solano@unilim.fr Ramón Martí Solano is a lecturer at the Department of English, University of Limoges, France. He read Spanish and English at the University of Seville, Spain, and did an MA in Anglo-Germanic Philology in the same institution. He worked as a Spanish exchange teacher at the University of Harvard, USA, and at Joseph Chamberlain College in Birmingham, UK. He has also been a lecturer in Spanish at the Paris School of Political Sciences and a lecturer in English at the University of Poitiers, France. His main field of research is phraseology and his doctoral thesis deals with variation and innovation of phraseological units in the British press. Other

	34 Arde verde por seco, y pagan	pagar justos por pecadores	The innocent pay for the sins of
	justos por peccadores		the guilty.
	35 Cobdicia mala, saco rompe.	La avaricia rompe el saco.	Grasp all, lose all.
	36 En burlas ni en veras, con tu	partir peras con alguien	fall out with somebody
	señor no partas peras.
	37 En consejas, las paredes han	Las paredes oyen.	Walls have ears.
	orejas.
	38 Si tal fuesse lo roto como lo	Nunca falta un roto para un	You can always find a
	descosido, no auria nada	descosido.	companion in misfortune.
	perdido.
	39 A hambre, no ay mal pan.	A buen hambre, no hay pan duro.	Hunger never saw bad bread.
	40 Rascar y comer, comienço han	El comer y el rascar, todo es	Eating and scratching, it's all in
	menester.	empezar.	the beginning.
	41 El carnero encantado, que fue	Ir por lana y volver trasquilado.	to get more than you bargained
	por lana y boluio tresquilado /		for
	Ires por lana, y vernes
	tresquilada.
	42 Ni vn dedo haze mano, ni vna	Una golondrina no hace verano.	One swallow doesn't make a
	golondrina verano / Vna		summer.
	golōdrina, no haze verano.
	43 Dichoso el varō, que escarmiēta	escarmentar en cabeza ajena	to learn from somebody else's
	en cabeça agena, y en la suya		mistakes
	nō. / Escarmentar en cabeça
	agena.
	Curriculum Vitae
	Ramón Martí Solano
	Email:

Do fueres, haras como vieres. Donde fueres, haz lo que vieres. When in Rome do as the Romans do.


Ulrich Brandstätter
email: ulrich.brandstaetter@ufg.at

Christa Sommerer
email: christa.sommerer@ufg.at

Productive gaming

Keywords: Serious games, media production, video games, play

Video games can be appropriated for productive purposes. Commercial games and game engines are often used for video productions, and game development companies provide development kits and modding environments to gaming communities and independent developers. With gamification, game principles are deployed in non-game contexts for benefits beyond pure entertainment. Most approaches are more focused on using games and their design elements rather than the process of playing. We propose a video game category wherein productivity is achieved by playing video games, and present a forthcoming productive game as an example.

Introduction

We propose a new video game category for video games that yield productive results by being played: productive gaming transforms playing activities into creative processes, facilitating creations with validity beyond game virtualities. In the language of McLuhan and Nevitt, who conceived the concept for electronic technology in 1972, we allow gamers to become Prosumers [START_REF] Mcluhan | Take Today: The Executive As Dropout[END_REF], i.e., consumers turned into producers.

The proposed video game category increases the value propositions1 of video games. Implicitly, "all games express and embody human values" [START_REF] Flanagan | Values at Play in Digital Games[END_REF]. However, with the exception of serious games [START_REF] Laamarti | An overview of serious games[END_REF], the explicit gain of playing video games beyond pure recreation is disputable: as Malaby points out, play dissociates from everyday life by being consequence free and pleasurable and, especially, dissociates from work by staying within a magic circle [START_REF] Thomas | Beyond play: A new approach to games[END_REF]. Caillois divides play and productivity, and implies that game play must not become productive or be conducted in pursuit of profit, otherwise it becomes corrupted [START_REF] Caillois | Man, Play, and Games[END_REF]. Consequently, the conjunction of play and productivity makes the introduction of specific framework conditions necessary. These are described as a set of attributes that apply to video games that enable productive gaming. However, we refrain from giving an ultimate definition to describe productive gaming. The reasoning behind this approach is given by Wittgenstein, who argues that "elements of games, such as play, rules, and competition, all fail to adequately define what games are" [START_REF] Wittgenstein | Philosophical Investigations[END_REF], and by Sutton-Smith, who considers the description and definition of play and games in non-paradoxical terms almost impracticable [START_REF] Kampmann | Playing and gaming reflections and classifications[END_REF]. Games facilitating productive gaming are serious games with additional characteristics:

productivity is a subject matter of the game, not to be enforced as game goals, but enabled as goals of the meta game. -Consistently, productivity is not reflected in victory conditions, creational objectives are set and determined before or during play sessions by the players themselves, who retain unrestrained artistic freedom. -Creation processes are aligned towards (and do not break) the game flow.

-Gameplay results are perceivable without the game and, ideally, even without knowledge of the game.

These nominal characteristics describe a non-exclusive video game category with emphasis on the game-play. Consistently, productive gaming requires games that provide mechanisms to start and realize creative processes, but also constructiveminded players.

In this paper, we describe related work with a concise disambiguation in section 2. In section 3, we provide a more detailed introduction to productive gaming. We then present Forever loops (section 4), an ongoing project that facilitates productive gaming for the creation of audio-visual compositions. In section 5, we discuss our findings and conclusions and present suggestions for future work.

Related work

We differentiate from similar concepts using the previously introduced productive gaming characteristics. A related concept can be found in the industrial use of construction games, e.g. the utilization of Lego [9] for architectural prototypes, or using Minecraft [START_REF] Persson | Minecraft[END_REF] (in creative mode) as a 3D modeling environment. In both cases, productivity is a subject matter. The main distinction originates from the objectives. The industrial use of construction games typically involves predefined ambitions given by constituents, whereas in productive gaming the players themselves determine creational objectives before or during play. Another approach can be found in human-based computation games, or games with a purpose, where "people playing computer games could, without consciously doing so, simultaneously solve large-scale problems" [START_REF] Luis Von Ahn | Games with a purpose[END_REF]. Here, human game interaction is used to acquire labeling data for specific meta game goals, such as the analysis of gene sequences in Play to Cure: Genes in Space [START_REF] Cancerresearchuk | Play to cure: Genes in space[END_REF]. By being played, results with validity beyond the game virtuality are achieved. However, the creational goals usually are fixed by the developers and cannot be influenced by the players. A different, yet very popular concept is the utilization of game engines and modifications for media productions, e.g. Machinima communities using suitable computer games for video productions. Here, results typically are perceivable without the game and yield audio-visual makings. Nevertheless, productivity is achieved by using games rather than playing games. Finally, we dissociate productive gaming from gamification (i.e., the use of game design elements in non-game contexts [START_REF] Deterding | Gamification: Toward a definition[END_REF]) because the latter usually aims at goal-oriented play: "Finally, academic as well as industry critiques of gamified applications have repeatedly emphasized that these focus almost exclusively on design elements for rule-bound, goal-oriented play (i.e., ludus), with little space for open, exploratory, free-form play (i.e., paidia)" [START_REF] Deterding | From game design elements to gamefulness: Defining "gamification[END_REF] 3 Productive gaming A game example facilitating productive gaming can be found in Sim Tunes [START_REF] Iwai | [END_REF]. It resembles a drawing game in which players populate a canvas with up to four virtual bugs of different color. These AI-controlled bugs traverse the displayed virtual space and trigger music playback. Specific pixel colors represent different musical notes that are played by the instrument according to what is assigned to the bug. In terms of our proposed characteristics, Sim Tunes does not employ victory conditions, i.e., players set their own objectives and produce audio-visual creations by playing the game. In general, productive gaming is closer to free form (paidia) than to more structured (ludus) playing and takes advantage of the games also being simulations: "[.

. . ] Espen Aarseth has argued that [. . . ] simulation is what drives most"serious games" [. . . ]. In simulations, and I quote, "knowledge and experience is created by the player's actions and strategies". Aarseth calls for recognition of simulation as "a major new hermeneutic discourse mode, coinciding with the rise of computer technology, and with roots in games and playing." [16]

The proximity to simulations makes a clear distinction from productivity software necessary. Barr describes the main differences as follows: "First, the motivations for playing video games differ from productivity application use. Specifically, players play games for their own sake, while they generally use productivity applications to achieve some other task. Second, video game interfaces are not neutral, presenting carefully designed narratives and complex graphics to the player. Third, video games frequently dictate goals to players, while productivity applications generally facilitate user goals. Finally, video game designs purposefully involve conflict and constraints on the player, while productivity applications are designed to minimize them." [START_REF] Barr | Video Game Values Play as Human-Computer Interaction[END_REF] Juul and Norton consider game obstacles and challenges as the distinguishing features of games as opposed to usability for productivity software [START_REF] Juul | Easy to use and incredibly difficult: On the mythical border between interface and gameplay[END_REF]. For our purposes, the capability of seducing users into a lusory attitude [START_REF] Sommerer | Aesthetics of interactive art: Art-game interfaces[END_REF] is the distinctive feature, i.e., play requires a proper mindset and engagement, which is established upon and complements game rules [START_REF] Salen | Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals[END_REF]. Concerning both the level of engagement and the level of game structure, productive gaming involves substantial oscillation effects on the paidialudus continuum [START_REF] Graham | Making sense of play in video games: Ludus, paidia, and possibility spaces[END_REF] and play structure flexibility. During play sessions, users experiment and play with the simulations without pre-defined goals, and then apply their discoveries and new techniques to their performances.

In this context, the notion of serious storytelling must be contemplated, as well as its relation between serious games and productive games. Serious storytelling refers to "storytelling outside the entertainment context, where the narration as artefact is impressive in quality and relates to a matter of importance and seriousness." [START_REF] Suhonen | Serious storytelling -serious digital story telling[END_REF] A narrative, i.e. the "[. . . ] chain of events related by cause and effect occurring in time and space and involving some agency" [START_REF] Wilkens | The role of narrative in understanding digital video: An exploratory analysis[END_REF], is important for both serious storytelling and productive gaming. Serious storytelling constitutes a broader concept with several application scenarios, including serious games, but also eLearning, qualitative journalism, virtual training environments, or forensics. Productive gaming on the other hand builds upon serious games and at the same time concerns only a subset.

Forever loops

Forever loops by Marlene and Ulrich Brandstätter is a productive gaming project that produces audio-visual compositions. The underlying simulation involves an interface that primarily comprises graphical gears, as shown in Figure 1. Relevant mechanisms are based on real-world gears and their machinery, which is well known and understood by most people. Users begin with a fundamental understanding of the system mechanics, which quickly evolves into impressive skills regarding (musical) composition and performance. Concerning productivity, the virtual gears can be interfaced with audio-visual material, including sounds, images, and videos. Playback of the media goes hand in hand with playfully arranging gears and gear trains with their respective programming. Game play results include musical compositions, video remixes, slide shows, VJ acts, and even performances. In contrast to other productivity games, including the aforementioned Sim Tunes, players can import and are encouraged to use personal media material. On top of this, satisfactory results can be exported as a video file at user request, which can than be viewed without the game and even without knowledge of the game. Users are encouraged to experiment with the underlying physics of the gear simulation, and to use their findings to produce new compositions at their own pace. A central aspect of our approach is the rejection of the notions of winning or losing. From a design perspective, it is common for video games to blur the borders between interface and game play [START_REF] Juul | Easy to use and incredibly difficult: On the mythical border between interface and gameplay[END_REF]. Here the gear wheels and their mechanics become the central interface, and are tightly interwoven with the game-play.

Conclusion

To some extent, video games are already used for productive purposes, e.g., supporting the modification of existing games, asset export and import capability, or video capture support, which are popular game features that facilitate usage scenarios beyond pure entertainment. Specific video game genres, such as active games, educational games, and art games, attempt to offer additional benefits. The proposed new video game category specifically describes video games that facilitate productivity by being played. Productive games as described in this paper are biased towards free-form play and can be considered as a specialization of serious games. Another approach towards productive gaming is the segregation of victory conditions and productivity, i.e., results correlate with and are affected by game progression, as they can actively be influenced by the player. Creative freedom is more limited, whereas the underlying game genre can be chosen more arbitrarily.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Forever loops screen-shot. A gear train comprising multiple interconnected gears is playfully arranged and programmed by a user. The canvas in the upper left corner gives a visual representation of the audio-visual composition. The window to the right is required for media selection.

"[. . . ] a game's value proposition is in how it might make its player think and feel and fun is the ultimate emotional state that they expect to experience as a consequence of playing."[START_REF] Ermi | Fundamental components of the gameplay experience: Analysing immersion[END_REF]


Günter Wallner
email: guenter.wallner@uni-ak.ac.at

Lauri Galbreath
email: lauri.galbreath@nyu.edu

Simone Kriglstein
email: simone.kriglstein@tuwien.ac.at

Metry Mouse Missions: An Interactive, Geometric Obstacle Course of Daredevil Proportions

Keywords: Game-based learning, Collaborative learning, Geometry

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

While educational games have established themselves as a promising complement to traditional education methods there still exists only a limited number of educational games to date which include a collaborative dimension (cf. [START_REF] Wendel | Designing collaborative multiplayer serious games[END_REF]). While empirical studies have shown that collaborative learning can be a very effective form of learning (see, e.g., [START_REF] Kyndt | A metaanalysis of the effects of face-to-face cooperative learning. do recent studies falsify or verify earlier findings[END_REF]), designing collaborative educational games is not a straightforward endeavor as it has been shown that the effectiveness of collaborative learning depends upon a variety of factors (cf. [START_REF] Dillenbourg | Over-scripting CSCL: The risks of blending collaborative learning with instructional design. Three worlds of CSCL[END_REF]) such as group composition and the quality of the interactions between the collaborators.

In this paper we describe Metry Mouse Missions, an educational game currently in development and intended to convey geometric concepts to young people aged 8 to 11 years. The goal of the game is to successfully maneuver a stunt mouse across obstacle courses composed of varied terrain, fire, and piranhas. For that purpose, players must unlock shapes and construct obstacle tacklers by correctly answering geometry-related questions about each desired game component. Metry Mouse Missions encourages students to work in pairs and promotes sustained collaborative problem solving. Friendly competition is encouraged.

Related Work

Given the vast amount of literature on game-based learning and collaborative learning environments a comprehensive review of related work is beyond the scope of this paper. We will thus limit our discussion to a few educational games concerned with teaching concepts of geometry. Examples in this area include the work of Ketamo [START_REF] Ketamo | An adaptive geometry game for handheld devices[END_REF] who described an adaptive geometry game for handheld devices. Sedig [START_REF] Sedig | From play to thoughtful learning: A design strategy to engage children with mathematical representations[END_REF], in turn, introduced a game-based learning environment called Super Tangrams which helps children to understand transformation geometry, a topic which has also been addressed by DOGeometry [START_REF] Wallner | Design and evaluation of the educational game DOGeometry: A case study[END_REF]. Also worth mentioning is the work of Kiili and Ketamo [START_REF] Kiili | Exploring the learning mechanism in educational games[END_REF] who developed a game where children learn by teaching an octopus about geometrical shapes. The latter also has a collaborative element which gives players the possibility to have their octopus compete against those trained by other players. However, each player has to train the octopus individually while in Metry Mouse Missions players have to work together to master an obstacle course.

Theoretical Framework

Metry Mouse Missions is developed with an eye towards inclusivity and constructivist learning principles. Central to a constructivist learning environment is that learners are able to choose and develop their own learning goals, and that the environment can be adapted to the uses learners put to it. The role of declarative knowledge, like facts and figures, and other forms of cognitive content, are used to help construct new worlds that reflect diverse perspectives; they are not the end in themselves, as an instructionist learning environment would have it.

Particularly useful in conceptualizing the flow of cognition in this learning game is Perkins' [START_REF] Perkins | Person-plus: A distributed view of thinking and learning[END_REF] conception of the access characteristics of knowledge, which looks at four categories of relevant knowledge (viz., knowledge, representation, retrieval, construction). Users must learn to utilize the tools of the system through physical and mental means, and construct something completely unique within it. Immediate feedback, active questioning, and interactivity increase mindfulness and intrinsic motivation [START_REF] Malone | Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning[END_REF]. Generative processing is facilitated in the game through multimedia, personalization, guided activity, feedback, and reflection [START_REF] Moreno | Techniques that increase generative processing in multimedia learning: Open questions for cognitive load research[END_REF]. The intention is to create an interactive environment that helps users develop more complicated schemata around geometry. Rewards (e.g., animations of the mouse running the obstacle course, cool things to make, racing other users) are designed into the system to keep users motivated and excited to see what comes next.

Game Design

The game consists of a collaborative two-player mode and a single player mode which is meant as a tutorial and preparation for the two-player mode. In both modes the player is challenged through a number of racetrack obstacle courses in need of various user-built contraptions (e.g., ramps, bridges) to help a stuntmouse overcome obstacles like holes, fire-pits, water holes, or hills (see Figure 1). These contraptions have to be built in an editor -called the Obstacle Tackler -by arranging basic geometric shapes -that is squares, right-sided triangles, and quadrants -in a proper way. Once the obstacle tacklers are successfully built the users may personalize their contraptions by spray painting with patterns and various color combinations. However, to place the tackler on the race track the player must unlock it first, by answering three questions about the geometric relationships involved in the construction (e.g., determining the area and circumference of a shape; recognizing the number of right angles in a shape, etc.). Each level in the game requires new tacklers to be built in order for Metry Mouse to successfully complete the race and reach the cheese located at the end of the race track.

In the single-player mode the user is aided in this process by a book, which collects all the built tacklers and gives information about the geometric relationships and equations. The two-player mode is different to the single-player mode in the sense that it limits the time available to build tacklers and answer questions. This has been done to ensure a fluent game experience for both players. Secondly, to provide incentive for both players to actively take part in the game, players can collect stars for building tacklers (the faster a tackler is built the more stars it is worth) and answering questions. In the latter case, a correct answer is worth a certain amount of stars, depending on the difficulty of the question. A wrong answer will reduce the amount by one and the players can try again, until all stars are used up in which case the level has been lost. Stars also influence the current status of the player, reaching from Boss Clown to Dare Devil. Beside the number of stars, the game keeps track of various statistics for each player (e.g., number of tacklers built, number of correct answers given, mostly played level) which can be viewed before challenging another player. Figure 1 shows screenshots of the game from the single-player and the two-player mode.

Conclusion

This paper provided a short overview of the game design of Metry Mouse Missions and the theoretical foundations on which its design is based. Future work will need to determine the effectiveness of the game in reaching the learning objectives by conducting user studies with young learners.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Left: A tackler has been placed in front of the water hole to allow Metry Mouse to safely jump over it (single-player mode). Middle: The tackler for this fire obstacle is currently build by the other player and is therefore locked (two-player mode). Right: A player attempts to solve a question regarding the number of sides of the shape. The circle in the middle displays the amount of time left (two-player mode).


Shuo Xiong
email: xiongshuo@jaist.ac.jp

Parth Pankaj Tiwary
email: parthpankajtiwary@gmail.com

Hiroyuki Iida
email: iida@jaist.ac.jp

Solving the Sophistication-Population Paradox of Game Refinement Theory

Keywords: Game refinement theory, physical model in game, attractiveness of board like games

A mathematical model of game refinement was proposed based on uncertainty of game outcome. This model has been shown to be useful in measuring the entertainment element in the domains such as boardgames and sport games. However, game refinement theory has not been able to explain the correlation between the popularity of a game and the game refinement value. This paper introduces another aspect in the study of game entertainment, the concept of "attractiveness" to reasonably explain the sophistication-population paradox of game refinement theory.

Introduction

The dynamics of decision options in the decision space has been investigated and we observed that this dynamics was a key factor in gauging game entertainment. Then Iida et al. [START_REF] Iida | A metric for entertainment of boardgames: Its implication for evolution of chess variants[END_REF] proposed the measure of the refinement in games. The outcome of interesting games is always uncertain until the very end of the game. Thus, the variation in available options stays nearly constant throughout the game. In contrast to this, one player quickly dominates over the other in uninteresting games. Here options are likely to be diminishing quickly from the decision space. Therefore, the refined games are more likely to be seesaw games. We then recall the principle of seesaw games [START_REF] Cincotti | Refinement and Complexity in the Evolution of Chess[END_REF].

Based on the principle of seesaw games, Iida et al. [START_REF] Iida | An application of game-refinement theory to Mah Jong[END_REF] proposed a logistic model of game uncertainty. From the players' viewpoint, the information on the game result is an increasing function of time (the number of moves) t . We further define the information on the game result as the amount of solved uncertainty x(t). Game information progress presents how certain is the result of the game in a certain time or steps. Let B and D be the average branching factor and the average number of the depth of game, respectively. If one knows the game information progress, for example after the game, the game progress x(t) will be given as a linear function of time t with 0 ≤ t ≤ B and 0 ≤ x(t) ≤ B, as shown in Equation [START_REF] Iida | A metric for entertainment of boardgames: Its implication for evolution of chess variants[END_REF].

x(t) = B D t (1)
However, the game information progress given by Equation ( 1) is usually unknown during the in-game period. Hence, the game information progress is reasonably assumed to be exponential. This is because the game outcome is uncertain until the very end of game in many games. Hence, a realistic model of game information progress is given by Equation (2).

x(t) = B( t D ) n (2)
Here n stands for a constant parameter which is given based on the perspective of an observer in the game considered. Then acceleration of game information progress is obtained by deriving Equation ( 2) twice. Solving it at t = T , the equation becomes:

x (T ) = Bn(n -1) D n t n-2 = B D 2 n(n -1).
It is assumed in the current model that the game information progress in any type of games is happening in our minds. We do not know yet about the physics in our minds, but it is likely and we propose that the acceleration of information progress is related to the force in mind. Hence, it is reasonable to expect that the larger the value B D 2 is, the more the game becomes exciting due to the uncertainty of game outcome. Thus, we use its root square, √ B D , as a game refinement measure for the game considered [START_REF] Iida | An application of game-refinement theory to Mah Jong[END_REF]. We show, in Table 1, a comparison of game refinement measures for traditional board games [START_REF] Iida | An application of game-refinement theory to Mah Jong[END_REF].

Attractiveness in Board Like Games

One of the limitations of the game refinement value is that it fails in explaining the disparity in the population of fans and players of some of the games with equal or higher game refinement value. For example, GO has a higher game refinement value than soccer, but soccer still attracts a far greater population of fans and players than GO. We define this limitation of game refinement theory as the sophistication-population paradox that we will address in the course of this paper. Therefore, this section draws upon the limits of game refinement theory and then proposes a notion of attractiveness in game playing. A mathematical model of attractiveness for board like games is proposed.

Game refinement theory has expressed the relationship between uncertainty of outcome and game progress, a game outcome can be considered based on two factors: skill and chance. In the balanced game, the game outcome is decided by players' skill and chance which incorporates some stochastic events, events which cannot be controlled or predicted. For chess, in the ideal situation, the top player or AI can always select the best moves at any time in the game, and all of players choices or branching factor are decided by players consideration, while we calculate game refinement value by the formula R = √ B D . Similar to the branching factor, we introduce a new concept known as "attractiveness branching factor". If there is an element in the game which can neither be controlled or predicted by audience as well as the players, we refer to that element as the element of attractiveness. Generally, there are three situations which will develop the game uncertainty.

Physical Model of Attractiveness in Board Like Games

We take in consideration the human thinking process in the traditional board games, intelligent players would follow such a process as shown in Figure 1. For Fig. 1. A model of thinking process in traditional board games example in chess, the average branching factor (say B) is about 35 [START_REF] Matsubara | Chess, Shogi, Go, natural developments in game research[END_REF], but out of these choices, many moves are not reasonable to playe. After filtering out some of the existing options based on players' skill, we will be left with a smaller set of plausible moves which we define as "b". Generally, a player is not always aware of the best choice available in b where b ≥ 2, so he takes a chance, which as a result introduces a chance element in the game. By plausible consideration of available moves depending on the skill of the player and taking some chance, a player decides his final move [START_REF] Allis | Which Games Will Survive? Heuristic Programming in Artificial Intel ligence 2: the second computer olympiad[END_REF] [START_REF] De Groot | Thought and Choice in Chess, later published from Amsterdam Academic Archive[END_REF].

Almost all traditional board games fall in the category of strategic games, and a pre-dominant way of approaching or playing these games is using the concept of Convergence. It is a very integral aspect of human thinking process, everyday humans are faced with situations where they have a lot of possible options which can be pursued, but somehow these options are narrowed down to a smaller set based on the existing laws and morality because not all options are plausible. Board games are the same, in order to win the game players need thought to filter their strategy, this thought process is a typical convergence process [START_REF] De Groot | Thought and Choice in Chess, later published from Amsterdam Academic Archive[END_REF]. Therefore we refer to the thought process as the resistance force in game process and we redefine the formula for force as follows [START_REF] Tait | Newton's Laws of Motion[END_REF].

F -f = ma (3)
In Equation ( 3),

F = m × R 2 , a = r 0 2 = ( 1 D ) 2 .
Consider chance element and skill element, while B = b in Figure 1, we have a b = r 2 = ( b D ) 2 . By substituting all the values in Equation ( 3), separately for skill and chance we obtain the set of Equation [START_REF] Iida | An application of game-refinement theory to Mah Jong[END_REF].

f s = F s -m × r 2 = m × R 2 -m × r 2 f c = F c -m × r 0 2 = m × r 2 -m × r 0 2 (4)
Therefore, the total resistance force will be the sum of equations in Equation ( 4), which is described as

f = F -m × a = f c + f s .
By the theorem of impulse, we have the following formula.

J = t2 t1 f dt = f ∆t = mv
For game refinement theory we have v = f ∆t m , while the F is replaced by F s (the force by skill) and F c (the force by chance), the formula will be changed as follows.

f ∆t = (f s + f c )∆t = mv

In anytime for one deterministic game, "mass" will not be changed, therefore in any time duration ∆t, we have

v = (f s + f c )∆t m = f s ∆t m + f c ∆t m = v s + v c
Then according to Figure 2, for the v c part, the "attractiveness theory" will be obtained. In game refinement theory, the v is B D ; while v replaced by v c + v s , the refinement theory will be B D = Bc+Bs D = Bc D + Bs D . B c means the branching factor which was controlled by chance element in game and B s means the branching factor which was controlled by player's skill. Then we call the B c as a new parameter character B + 1, which changes the "branching factor" into "the branching factor which players cannot control or predict", "1" means the final determined movement. Then we can apply the likeness game refinement theory as shown in Equation [START_REF] Sutiono | A mathematical model of game refinement[END_REF]. In Equation ( 5), B means "attractive branching factor", D means "Depth" of game. We consider three situations: the traditional board games; the games in which information cannot be observed in-game time (non-stochastic incomplete information game); the games in which only stochastic events occur (stochastic complete information game), then we choose Shogi (Japanese Chess) and StarCraft II HOS version as the benchmark for our mathematical model.

A = √ B D = √ B c -1 D = √ b -1 D (5)
From the master's point of view, there are only a few plausible candidates to play at each position in chess [START_REF] De Groot | Thought and Choice in Chess, later published from Amsterdam Academic Archive[END_REF]. In this study we assume that it may be equal to log The attractiveness scaling factor of any game is given by Equation [START_REF] Tait | Newton's Laws of Motion[END_REF].

P asf = Game attractiveness value Game ref inement value (6)
So, the attractiveness scaling factor of Shogi is 19.3%. Similarly, we can calculate the attractiveness value for StarCraft II HOS version as shown in Table 2 [START_REF] Xiong | Attractiveness of Real Time Strategy Games[END_REF]. The higher the attractiveness value of the game, the larger the population of fans and players the game will attract. In this paper, according to the Newton's classical mechanics we have found the meaning of Mass and Force in games. Then based on the theorem of impulse, we educed the property, concept and value of "attractiveness" to explain the sophistication-population paradox put forth by the game refinement value. We introduced the concept of "attractiveness scaling factor", which can be used to show whether a game is compatible for a novice or a weaker player or not. Higher the attractiveness scaling factor more chance a weaker player will have of winning the game. The lower attractiveness factor means the game will shift towards a more skill based game outcome and hence there will be less chance for novice or weaker player to win the game. Usually a high attractiveness scaling factor of a game will attract more fans and players population. This as a result explains as to why Shogi and Go even after having a really high game refinement value and sophistication still attract a much smaller fans and player population when compared to the more popular games of similar game refinement value such as soccer.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. The speed of attractiveness

3 B

 3 in the sophisticated boardgames such Shogi and Go. Using this assumption we have the following conclusion. In Shogi the game attractiveness value equals to A = 015, whereas the game refinement value is 0.078.

Table 1 .

 1 Measures of game refinement for traditional board games

		B D	√ B D
	Chess 35 80 0.074
	Go	250 208 0.076
	Shogi 80 115 0.078

Table 2 .

 2 The three properties of different game

	Game	R value	A value	P asf
	Shogi	0.078	0.015	19.3%
	StarCtaft II 0.0695 0.0266 ∼ 0.0423 38.27% ∼ 60.86%

Acknowledgments

This work is funded by a grant from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), in the framework of the Grant-in-Aid for Challenging Exploratory Research (grant number 26540189) and Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellow.