Elena Sánchez-Nielsen

Francisco Chávez-Gutiérrez

Towards Effective and Efficient Open Government in Parliaments with Situational Awareness-based Information Services

Open Government poses broad challenges to contemporary parliaments with its emphasis not just on openness and transparency but also on participation and collaboration. The situational awareness obtained from citizen-sourcing and the advances in information and communications technology are key enablers for effective and efficient Open Government in parliamentary institutions. Citizensourcing, on one hand, may help parliaments be more sensible and effective because citizens are able to improve parliaments' situational awareness and then influence direction and outcomes for policy making process. On the other hand, exploiting the opportunities created by the emerging ICT paradigms allows parliaments to put Open Government into practice in an efficient way. This paper presents a situational awareness process model to support effective decision-making with citizens' insights. Based on this model, an architecture for situational awareness-based information services is presented. This architecture makes use of the opportunities that cloud computing paradigm, social media applications and semantic enrichment offer to provide an efficient implementation of Open Government in parliaments. A motivating scenario of the proposed architecture is illustrated to show a use case of a situational awareness-based information service, which has the potential to function as a new mechanism of relationship between a parliament and its citizens to enable collective knowledge in order to enhance the passage of a draft bill.

Introduction

The Open Government (OG) action plan commitments provide a new space for openness, transparency, participation and collaboration between parliaments and their citizens. Before the emergent OG movement, parliaments have traditionally provided a one-way interaction: from parliaments to citizens. As a representative example of this interaction is the way to pass a bill as a proposal for a new law. It is based basically on introducing the bill for a first reading by Members of the Parliament (MPs), debating the main principles and purposes of the bill by MPs, consideration of amendments and, a final debate on the bill. However, driven by policy impacts from the OG Directive [START_REF] House | Memorandum on transparency and open government[END_REF], parliaments' roles have shifted [START_REF] Linders | From e-government to we-government: Defining a typology for citizen coproduction in the age of social media[END_REF], allowing parliaments to become consumers to whom citizens provide information via the citizen-sourcing mechanism [START_REF] Nam | Suggesting frameworks of citizen-sourcing via Government 2.0[END_REF]. This mechanism allows the design and configuration of a new relationship between a parliament and its citizens to enable collective knowledge and expertise of the public in order to improve the policy making process. Therefore, the importance of incorporating citizens performing role of partners rather than customers, together advances in information and communications technology (ICT) are our premises to deploy OG in parliaments in an effective and efficient way. Citizen-sourcing, on one hand, may help parliaments be more sensible and effective because citizens are able to improve parliaments' situational awareness (SA) and then influence direction and outcomes for policy making process. On the other hand, exploiting the opportunities created by the emerging ICT paradigms allows parliaments to put OG into practice in an efficient way.

Citizen-sourcing as a new mode of parliaments' operation in the OG movement faces two significant challenges. Firstly, identifying the process model to support SA from citizen-sourcing for OG. Secondly, defining what technologies and emerging ICT paradigms are available to implement OG information services that integrate SA from citizen-sourcing with linked parliamentary information. With these challenges in mind, the contributions of this paper are:

• The development of a conceptual map of OG for parliaments with an emphasis on citizen-sourcing. • The development of a SA process model to make sense of how the parliaments' perspective on the public can be changed from an understanding of citizens as "users and choosers" of legislative deliberations to "makers and shapers" of laws under consideration. • The development of a layered-architecture to provide useful information through delivered services for OG. The architecture combines analysis and visualization of SA achieved from citizen-sourcing with linked parliamentary information. Social analysis (e.g. sentiment analysis) and semantic enrichment (e.g. ontology-based data models) are used to perform information integration. To provide an efficient technological approach, the architecture exploits the potential that cloud-based ICT paradigm and social media applications offer. • A user scenario that shows the benefits of incorporating SA from citizen-sourcing for the deployment of OG information services.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the background and state of the art of OG in parliaments, the SA concept, and the technologies that are necessary in the development of the work presented in this paper. Section 3 describes our conceptual model to support OG in parliaments. Section 4 introduces our SA process model to address citizen-sourcing. Section 5 presents our architecture to support OG services for parliaments that integrates SA from citizen-sourcing with linked parliamentary information. Section 6 shows a user scenario for the architecture presented in previous section, illustrating how the integration of SA from citizen-sourcing and parliamentary data is transformed into useful information delivered through cloud-based services. Section 7 highlights the conclusions and future work.

Background and Related Work

1 Open Government in Parliaments

The Open Government movement in parliaments was initiated in 2012, when the parliamentary monitoring organizations (PMOs) issued a Declaration on Parliamentary Openness to ensure making parliamentary information more accessible to citizens, strengthening the capacity of citizens to participate in parliamentary processes, and improving parliamentary accountability [START_REF]Declaration on Parliamentary Openness[END_REF]. Further, a Legislative Openness Working Group was created by the Open Government Partnership (OGP) Steering Committee with the intention of deepening the exchange of knowledge across governments, parliaments, civil society and international institutions on the opportunities and challenges associated with opening the legislative process [5]. The crucial challenges that permeate the OG concept in the scope of the parliamentary context are:

• Promote a culture of openness.

• Making parliamentary information transparent.

• Easing access to parliamentary information.

• Enabling electronic communication of parliamentary information to facilitate participation and collaboration, as opportunities to influence the political dialogue and policy making process.

To date, the current trends in OG using ICT for parliaments have been essentially focused on opening legislative data and some e-participation initiatives [START_REF] Linders | From e-government to we-government: Defining a typology for citizen coproduction in the age of social media[END_REF][START_REF] Sánchez-Nielsen | Engaging Citizens in Policy Issues: Multidimensional Approach, Evidences and Lessons Learned[END_REF].

2 Situational Awareness (SA)

SA is the understanding of the environment critical to decision-makers in complex and critical areas. This awareness is usually defined in terms of what information is important for a particular goal or job [START_REF] Endsley Mica | Designing for situation awareness: an approach to usercentric design[END_REF]. Although, diverse frameworks have been widely used and validated in different domains (e.g. surveillance services, software development, and collaborative platforms in science), little is known about the research and application to the OG domain in the parliamentary context to fulfil policy-making on input from public.

Different theoretical models have been proposed for SA. Of these models, Endsley's model [START_REF] Endsley Mica | Designing for situation awareness: an approach to usercentric design[END_REF][START_REF] Endsley | Design and evaluation for situation awareness enhancement[END_REF] is the most relevant one for our research issue of achieving SA from citizensourcing for OG. This model involves being aware of what is happening in the vicinity to understand how information, events, and one's own actions will impact goals and objectives, both immediately and in the near future. SA is achieved in three progressive stages as a chain of activities and outputs that occur in the context of decision-making and action. In Level 1 SA (perception), relevant information is perceived about the environment (or "situation"), given information requirements for the proposed goals. When Level 2 SA (comprehension) is achieved, the incoming information's intrinsic meaning is understood. Level 3 SA (projection) occurs when the implications of things perceived within the environment can be extrapolated to predict what will happen.

3 Social Media Applications

Social media applications have become useful information and communication channels in governments in the last years [START_REF] Mergel | Social media adoption and resulting tactics in the U.S federal government[END_REF][START_REF] Mergel | A framework for interpreting social media interactions in the public sector[END_REF]. They are operated outside the information and communication infrastructure of government on third-party platforms. Twitter is currently the most popular microblogging service used to communicate with parliaments [START_REF] Bertot | Using ICTs to create a culture of transparency: E-government and social media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies[END_REF]. This tool has been traditionally used in one-way from parliaments to citizens [11]. Little attention and research has been paid to create meaningful citizen-parliament participation and collaboration through Twitter in order to exploit the potential capabilities that this tool offers such as instant information gathering and sharing, potential for networking, knowledge co-creation, and interactivity [START_REF] Bryer | Social media and public administration[END_REF]. To date, government adopters have not taken the full advantages of the potential that this tool facilitates and thus meaningful citizen participation and engagement has not been achieved successfully [START_REF] Zavattaro | A critical examination of social media adoption in government: Introducing omnipresence[END_REF][START_REF] Brainard | Electronic commons, community policing and communication: On-line police -citizen discussion groups in Washington D.C[END_REF]. The emerging research has used sentiment analysis techniques to evaluate how the polarity of Twitter posts (positive, neutral or negative) from local government influences citizen involvement on Twitter [START_REF] Zavattaro | A sentiment analysis of U.S. local government tweets: The connection between tone and citizen involvement[END_REF].

4 Cloud Computing

The cloud computing paradigm offer a model for enabling ubiquitous and on-demand access to shared and configurable computing resources (e.g. servers, networks, storage, applications and services) with cost saving [START_REF] Mell | The NIST definition of cloud computing[END_REF]. This cloud model promotes three delivery models. In SaaS model, Cloud Service Providers (CSP) run and maintain computing resources, operating system and applications software. While in PaaS model, CSP is responsible for providing, running and maintaining system software and computing resources. Finally, in IaaS model, CSP provides a set of virtualized computing resources to the customer who runs and maintains the operating system and the software applications using the virtual resources. All these services can be deployed through one of the four different deployment models: public, private, hybrid and/or community model.

Since 2009, the cloud computing paradigm has been investigated in the context of egovernment [START_REF] Mohammed | Models of Adopting Cloud Computing in the E-Government Context: A review[END_REF]. Most of these studies have been focused on reviewing the e-government challenges, and benefits and barriers of e-government on the cloud; however, little is known about conceptual frameworks, architectures and implementation scenarios for the development and implementation of OG.

5 Semantics: Providing Machine "Understandable" Information

The semantic web technologies allow semantic enrichment by means of the use of ontologies to accurately describe contents in a machine-readable way. Ontologies define common, shareable and reusable views of a domain, and they give meaning to information structures that are exchanged by information systems [START_REF] Studer | Knowledge engineering: Principles and methods[END_REF]. The World Wide Web Consortium offers different standards to support semantics: the Resource Description Framework (RDF) [START_REF]Activity Resource Description Framework 1.1[END_REF] for representing data about resources. The RDF Vocabulary Description Language, also called RDF Schema (RDFS) [START_REF]W3C W3C Semantic Web activity[END_REF], and the Web Ontology Language (OWL) [START_REF]W3C Web Ontology Language[END_REF] are used to describe the terms, classes, properties and relationships used in a RDF model. An RDF store can be queried via the SPARQL Query Language for RDF datasets [START_REF]SPARQL query language for RDF[END_REF] through a SPARQL endpoint.

Conceptual Model of Open Government

In this section, a conceptual map of OG is introduced to identify the issues related to the different dimensions of OG in the parliamentary context in order to provide, on one hand, the support for the development of a SA process model to address citizen-sourcing and; on the other hand, a layered-architecture to supply SA-based information services for OG's dimensions. Figure 2 illustrates the conceptual model built on the dimensions of transparency, participation and collaboration.

Transparency is classified into three levels. The first level, reactive transparency, refers to the public right of access to public information generated by parliamentary institutions, and that lets the knowledge of parliament's affairs, public oversight and accountability. Accessible mechanisms and channels to request available information must be provided by parliaments to theirs citizens; the second level, proactive transparency means that information on parliament's operations, procedures and tasks such as parliament's roles, members of parliament, parliamentary agenda, draft legislation, records of plenary proceedings must be published in a proactive way, which means publishing the information without the need to be previously requested and; the third level, collaborative transparency, under this model the problem is not on the access to parliamentary Participation aims including citizens to help parliaments to be more responsive and effective. Parliaments hold primary responsibility, but citizens influence direction and outcomes, and improve the parliament's SA for draft legislation and deliberative dialogue.

Collaboration is aimed at more responsive decision-making based on the collaborative work to achieve specific tasks and outcomes. Collaboration enables involvement of all stakeholders in parliament operations and decision-making. There are different types of collaboration in parliaments: external collaboration between parliaments and the citizens (P2C -parliament to citizens), internal collaboration within the parliaments (P2Pparliament to parliament), and intra-collaboration between parliaments and non-profit organizations and the private sector (P2B -parliament to business).

Situational Awareness Process Model

The motivation behind developing a SA process model for OG in the parliamentary context is to enable policy-making on input from public. Citizens are increasingly aware of what happening in the vicinity, what are the facts and issues related to draft legislation, what are the needs and, how the goals and objectives of draft bills would be able to impact their lives. This collective knowledge and experience may help decision-makers to influence the direction and outcomes of draft legislation and legislative deliberations.

Endsley's SA model [START_REF] Endsley Mica | Designing for situation awareness: an approach to usercentric design[END_REF][START_REF] Endsley | Design and evaluation for situation awareness enhancement[END_REF] provides a sound foundation for the understanding of the environment critical to decision-makers. We adapt this model and extend it to support the SA from citizens as a new mode for policy-making. The model is extended, on one hand, by including SA acquisition from citizens not just as individuals, but as whole. On the other hand, by incorporating decision-makers as customers who apply the SA acquired from public. As a result, citizen-sourcing is related to SA making prior to decision-making while decision-makers are linked to SA application. A representative example is the passage of a draft bill, where citizens with their awareness are able to increase the quality of the final policy, decisions or documents. Figure 2 shows the SA process model for OG in parliaments as a chain of ten different outputs, where stages 1 and 6, 2 and 7, and; 3 and 8 correspond respectively to Level 1 (perception), 2 (comprehension) and 3 (projection) of the SA Endsley's model. The goals and objectives of decision-makers determine the initial requirements. These requirements guide data collection and analysis. They are transformed to specific questions to citizens in order to collect innovative ideas and data on topics that are addressed within the draft period of a bill. The goals and objectives provide the context by which situational elements are requested -determining what needs and facts should be perceived by public. The progressive stages for SA acquisition on the citizens' side are:

• Collect and aggregate information from public: during the collection stage, situational element state data are gathered according to the requirements established by the goals and objectives on draft legislation and/or legislative topics for policy-making. In this stage, citizens are able to provide their knowledge and expertise about facts and issues related to the draft legislation and/or specific topics related to legislative deliberations. The use of an appreciative inquiry model to build appreciative inquiries [START_REF] Sánchez-Nielsen | Engaging Citizens in Policy Issues: Multidimensional Approach, Evidences and Lessons Learned[END_REF] is essential to foster and vitalize the active engagement of citizens in this stage. • Analysis and findings: data gathered in the previous stage are processed and analysed using science data methods in order to achieve situation comprehension. The analysis stage is also expected to be able to anticipate the implications of a situation's current status, and its likely future state. • Production: findings achieved in the previous stage are combined with linked parliamentary information to obtain citizens' insights together related parliamentary information. • Action: the outcomes obtained in the previous stage is provided as useful information through delivered services for OG (e.g. e-transparency, eparticipation and e-collaboration services).

The stages of the SA process model for SA application on the decision-makers' side are:

• Consumption: decision-makers acquire the findings achieved from the collective knowledge and expertise of citizens on specific topics related to draft legislation and/or legislative deliberations. • Assessment: decision-makers evaluate the findings provided by citizens to gain insights on how to proceed in draft legislation and legislative initiatives. The findings achieved allow decision-makers be able to detect events, signals in a timely manner, to react to them properly, as well as, innovative ideas that can be incorporated in the policy making process. • Implications of findings: decision-makers, in this stage, project to the future on the possible effects on incorporating citizens' insights in draft legislation and/or legislative initiatives. • Decision: once implications of findings have been achieved, decision-makers decide on how to incorporate citizens' insights. • Action: decision-makers inform about their decision. The two action lines are:

(1) inform about the decisions adopted on citizens' contributions and (2) feedback request in terms of new inquiries to citizens if it is necessary.

Architecture for Situational Awareness-based Services

A cloud-based layered architecture that integrates the SA process model (Section 4) is developed to provide information services for the different dimensions of OG (transparency, participation and collaboration). The adoption of a cloud infrastructure provides available, reliable and high-quality services with cost-saving to citizens, parliaments, government and business. Figure 3 shows the architecture and it consists of five horizontal and two vertical layers.

1 Infrastructure Layer

This layer includes communication networks and IT infrastructures like servers and storage.

It is based on a hybrid and community cloud environment. Public cloud is used for the services delivered on a network that is open for public use while private cloud is allocated for the parliamentary organization. The community cloud shares resources and services between parliaments and government with similar concerns and requirements.

2 Data Acquisition and Analysis Layer

This layer corresponds to stages 1 and 2 on the citizens' side of the SA process model. Therefore, this layer is first devoted to the generation of SA from citizens and, further the computation of social data analysis to obtain initial findings. The generation of SA about a given topic proposed by decision-makers is based on content created by citizens through social media applications. Twitter is adopted as candidate application for bi-directional interaction and active networking with the public given Twitter is the communication tool most used between parliaments and citizens. Specifically, facilitating individual twitter posts on appreciative inquiries (provided by decision-makers) about draft legislation enable citizens to communicate personal opinions, concerns, preferences, facts and situational data on the topics that are addressed during the draft period of a bill. The initial findings can be processed using sentiment analysis techniques [START_REF] Zavattaro | A sentiment analysis of U.S. local government tweets: The connection between tone and citizen involvement[END_REF] on twitter posts and mapping georeferenced micro-posts. The results of sentiment analysis application help decision-makers and citizens to know if the polarity of posts tends towards positive, negative or neutral. On the other hand, mapping geo-referenced micro-posts gives a geographical image to allow decision-makers and citizens to obtain an overview of target sources of twitter posts.

3 Semantic Enrichment and Integration Layer

This layer corresponds to stage 4 on the citizens' side and stage 9 on the decision-makers' side of the SA process model. This layer is devoted to integrate SA obtained from citizens and initial findings with linked parliamentary information (e.g. polarity of public posts on a draft bill combined with type of bill, proponent, current status, procedural actions undertaken to date, related initiatives and decision-making adopted to date). To address the integration layer challenge, an ontology that models the different entities and relationships that exists for the parliamentary activity domain related to: members of the parliament, structure of legislative initiatives and, activity taking place in plenary sessions need to be developed in order to annotate all the content. In the SA context, the content related to the parliamentary activity in plenary sessions involves not only to annotate decision-makers' decisions, but also the annotation of public opinion as twitters posts and the results of its analysis to achieve initial findings. Furthermore, to provide transparent information services which offer public opinion related to specific video fragments on the draft bill being debated, the ontology must be able to relate each separate activity to precise parliamentary video fragments. According to W3C standards, data on public opinion, social data analysis, legislative initiatives and related parliamentary information have to be available as RDF standard. Having available data into RDF standard enable them to be queried through a SPARQL query engine. The Virtuoso universal server 1 is the tool that can be used as RDF storage while Wowza2 can be used as streaming server on-demand.

4 Application Service Layer

This layer corresponds to stage 5 on the citizens' side and stage 10 on the decision-makers' side of the SA process model. Public opinion and initial findings, combined with related parliamentary information and, decision-makers' feedback is transformed to explicit information services. Three different services are proposed: (1) E-transp, this service provides information according to the three levels of transparency: reactive, proactive and collaborative;

(2) E-part, this service enables citizen participation through content on twitter posts and; (3) E-colab, this service enables citizens and stakeholders to collaborate to produce specific outcomes for parliaments. This service corresponds to P2C service described in Section 3; while P2P and P2B corresponds respectively to collaboration between parliaments and government and, parliaments and business to produce specific outcomes.

5 Presentation Layer

This layer corresponds to the user interface and it visualizes the information services corresponding to the application layer according to users' information needs. Different visualizations are provided depending on requested services.

• E-Transp service: this layer visualizes information according to three information levels of this service. Reactive level provides access to public information generated by parliamentary institutions by means of online forms. Proactive level publishes information on parliament's operations, procedures and tasks. This information can be searched via search mechanisms. Collaborative level provides information via open data portals. • E-Part service: this service distinguishes two different sides. On one hand, participation side, by which users give their contributions as twitter posts to topics addressed during the draft period of a bill. On the other hand, visualization side, by which users are able to visualize all users' contributions combined with social data analysis and linked parliamentary information. • E-Colab service: like E-Part service, this service differentiates two different sides:

collaboration and visualization side. The collaboration side involves users to provide specific data on explicit issues for the passage of a bill draft (e.g. a request on the number of assistance dogs that public have seen in their neighborhood in the last year in order to pass a draft bill on assistance dogs for people with disabilities); visualization side provides users all users' contributions and social analysis linked with the related parliamentary information on the draft bill such as the MPs who present the bill.

6 Security and Management Layer

The security layer ensures the necessary authentication and authorization for the use of data and services by legitimate users. P2P and P2B services are supported on a community cloud while remaining services are supported on a public cloud. The management layer addresses users' profiles, provides service alerts, and supplies a single point access to all information services.

In this section we present a motivating-scenario for the provision of situational-awareness based information services. Our premise rests on the importance of considering citizens not as mere consumers of draft bills but we highlight their inclusive role by acting as "makers and influencers" of laws under consideration. We show how our SA process model (see Section 4) and a layered cloud infrastructure (see Section 5) to support it is well placed to address the provision of situational-awareness based information services. To present our user scenario we consider a bill draft on "Assistance Dogs for People with Disabilities" (9L/PPL-0001) 3 published in the parliamentary session of The Canary Islands Parliament, Spain, and held on 10 th November, 2015. The aim of this draft bill is the regulation of the rights and obligations of persons with disabilities who require an assistance dog. In the following, for our user scenario, we describe the different functionalities provided from each layer of the proposed architecture in order to show: (1) how SA is obtained from citizen-sourcing, (2) how it is applied by decision-makers and, (3) a specific example on how it can be deployed as an E-Part service.

Data acquisition and analysis layer: through the presentation layer of the E-Part service, users are informed about the aim of the draft bill. Decision-makers formulate the questions on the different topics that are addressed within the draft period of the bill under consideration (initial stage of the SA process model) before decision-making. Examples of questions that can be formulated by decision-makers to citizens on the essential topics addressed in the draft bill are: (1) Would you like to promote assistance dogs in working places?, (2) Would you like to coexist with assistance dogs in a public space?, (3) Would you like to increase the access of assistance dogs in any public or private place?, (4) Would you like to increase the simultaneous number of assistance dogs?, ( 5) What situations do you think should be included for obtaining the recognition of assistance dogs?, (6) Is there any dog that should not get the recognition as assistance dog? and, (7) Would you increase the economic sanctions devoted to infractions? Twitter is adopted as social media platform to formulate these questions. Subsequently, citizens' answers are processed with social media analysis techniques, and initial findings are produced. These findings (e.g. 75% of users think that assistance dogs should be promoted in working places and 70% of users would like to coexist with assistance dogs in a public state) are acquired by decision-makers to help them to increase the quality of final decisions in the draft bill. Annotation and integration layer: this layer annotates semantically all the content: initial findings and parliamentary activity. This layer also annotates the implications of findings corresponding to public SA, once these implications have been evaluated by decisionmakers, and they have decided how to incorporate these insights in the draft bill and, if new feedback is required through the formulation of new questions. The semantic annotation of all the content allows delivering through the presentation layer of the E-part service specific information on the draft bill according users' information needs. Application service layer: the services at this layer build upon the data and annotated content in the lower layers. Services related to transparency, participation and collaboration are delivered through this layer.

Presentation layer: this layer corresponds to the user interface. It includes a single point access to all services for citizens (E-Transp, E-Part and E-Colab services) and, a parliament internal point access for other parliaments, government and business (P2P and P2B services). For E-Part service, this interface allows users to post their contributions to questions formulated by decision-makers and, to access to all the citizens' contributions and linked parliamentary information. Customized visualization of content delivery can be provided as video fragments on demand about the debate of the specific draft bill in the parliamentary session with public SA and, accurate and well-timed parliamentary information. An example of the content that can be provided by the E-part service is the request by users on the exact parliamentary video fragment (e.g. a five-minute fragment within a four-hour video) which displays the public opinion from twitter posts related to the draft bill; initial findings expressed as the percentage of twitter posts whose polarity tends to be positive, negative or neutral; public opinion geolocalization; procedural actions undertaken to date related to SA obtained from citizens; background information related to the proponent of the draft bill being debated in the video fragment; current status of the draft bill, voting related information and, transcription documents. Manager layer: through this layer users give their profiles and they are able to receive alert services about the processing of the draft bill (e.g. an amendment related to economic sanctions has been incorporated given public SA feedback agrees with it).

Conclusions and Future Work

This paper addresses how to deploy an effective and efficient OG in parliaments. Citizensourcing, on one hand, allows parliaments to enable citizens to engage more effectively in the policy making process by providing their SA. On the other hand, the emerging ICT paradigms are able to provide essential tools and support to foster a bi-directional interaction between citizens and parliaments. To that end, a SA process model is developed as a chain of different stages and outcomes to acquire SA making from citizens related to the topics that are addressed within the draft period of a bill prior decision-making, by further allowing decision-makers apply this knowledge to decision-making. The SA data presents useful information from citizens to decision-makers based on situational evidences about draft legislation, such as, what facts and issues are related to the context of the draft bill, what are the needs for this draft bill and, the benefits and concerns on how this draft bill would be able to influence daily life. In order to support the SA process model, a cloud based situational-awareness services architecture has been proposed. This architecture has the potential to provide the necessary infrastructure and storage to parliaments and rapid high-quality information services to citizens, business and, other parliaments and government institutions with cost-saving. The layers of this architecture enable to acquire and analyze SA making from citizens and, integrate and visualize it with linked parliamentary content, after all the content has been previously annotated in a semantic way. This architecture provides specific information services related to transparency, participation and collaboration to visualize the information corresponding to each OG dimension. A user scenario related to the passage of a specific draft bill describes how the SA making from citizens may help decision-makers in the policy making process and how citizens can see their feedback has contributed to policy-making. Our future work aims to incorporate contextual information to strength the SA process model and apply it through the development of participatory and collaborative e-services using smart phones.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Open Government for Parliaments information. The challenge is how to process, analyse, transform, and innovate in the use of the information. It can be deployed by open data portals and civic apps.Participation aims including citizens to help parliaments to be more responsive and effective. Parliaments hold primary responsibility, but citizens influence direction and outcomes, and improve the parliament's SA for draft legislation and deliberative dialogue.Collaboration is aimed at more responsive decision-making based on the collaborative work to achieve specific tasks and outcomes. Collaboration enables involvement of all stakeholders in parliament operations and decision-making. There are different types of collaboration in parliaments: external collaboration between parliaments and the citizens (P2C -parliament to citizens), internal collaboration within the parliaments (P2Pparliament to parliament), and intra-collaboration between parliaments and non-profit organizations and the private sector (P2B -parliament to business).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Situational Awareness Process Model for Open Government in Parliaments

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Architecture for Situational-Awareness Open Government Information Services

https://www.semantic-web.at/virtuoso-universal-server

https://www.wowza.com/products/streaming-engine

http://www.parcan.es/iniciativas/tramites.py?id_iniciativa=9L/PPL-0001

Acknowledgement

The work has been funded in part by the Spanish Government by project TIN 2011-24598.


Alex Ingrams
email: alex.ingrams@rutgers.edu

An Analytic Framework for Open Government Policy Design Processes

Keywords: Open government, e-government, policy design, ICT, structuration

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The research developed here is an investigation of OG policy design. It addresses the research question of what design processes support the achievement of open government policies. OG is a broad descriptive label that encompasses a range of governmental policies and processes associated with the use of information and communications technology (ICT) to improve democracy, create transparency, accountability, and foster synergies between governmental and non-governmental actors [START_REF] Jaeger | Transparency and technological change: Ensuring equal and sustained public access to government information[END_REF], [START_REF] Linders | What is Open Government? One Year after the Directive[END_REF]. This range of policies includes, but is not limited to, transparency, freedom of information, public participation, and the pro-active publication and archiving of government data. While there is a nascent OG research agenda in public administration, scholars frequently highlight the normative and practical limitations of existing theory (e.g., [START_REF] Meijer | Open Government: Connecting Vision and Voice[END_REF], [START_REF] Trivellato | Design and Implementation of Open-Government Initiatives at the Sub-National Level: Lessons from Italian Cases[END_REF]). The research in this paper probes two main puzzles in the theory of OG in particular. The first puzzle in OG theory is related to the coherency of the collection of practices that are conventionally grouped in the category of OG such as transparency, freedom of information, and citizen participation. OG is not synonymous with any one of these practices, but rather is interdependent with them as they are weaved together in open government reforms. However, it is unclear what OG and its sub-categories are and whether they have robust conceptual validity and coherency. The second puzzle, which is an extension of the first puzzle, is that it is unclear what exactly the policy design features of openness are that are common across these different sub-categories of OG practice. Without such a unified approach it becomes difficult to know how the policy design features of openness can be used for more effective OG policies.

If scholars of public administration and technology do not address the conceptual ambiguity and breadth of the term "open government" the concept becomes liable to be used as a rhetorical device in politics or to be offered as a panacea for an unrealistic range of political problems [START_REF] Grimmelikhuijsen | A good man but a bad wizard. About the limits and future of transparency of democratic governments[END_REF], [START_REF] Yu | The New Ambiguity of 'Open Government[END_REF]. Open government is a relatively new field of scholarship and it needs to have a clearer idea of its conceptual parameters and its best practices and methods for public administration. It remains to be shown that OG is a meaningful and distinctive perspective of public policy that can be approached and implemented within a coherent framework for organizational and administrative design processes.

Therefore, in seeking to advance an analytic framework for a policy design theory of OG and to address the aforementioned puzzles of OG, respectively, the following two research questions will be investigated: [START_REF] Jaeger | Transparency and technological change: Ensuring equal and sustained public access to government information[END_REF] what are the component sub-categories of OG policies? And [START_REF] Linders | What is Open Government? One Year after the Directive[END_REF] what policymaking processes support the design of open government across these sub-categories? The research steps used in the paper involve a systematic OG literature review and deductive content analysis to address the first question, and a broader literature review of OG, structuration theory, and policy design theory to address the second question. The themes developed to answer the second question are used to construct a conceptual model. The model is analyzed and explained using a hypothetical OG policy design example before the paper concludes with suggestions for future use of the model

2

Literature review and definition of open government

In previous research, OG has been defined as a collection of governmental practices relating to transparency, public participation, collaboration, and use of ICT technology [START_REF] Linders | What is Open Government? One Year after the Directive[END_REF], [START_REF] Mcdermott | Building open government[END_REF]. However, in order to verify and more clearly define OG, I conducted a systematic survey of scholarly literature (Table 1) and OG initiatives in practice (Table 2) to identify sub-categories of open government. Table 1 shows the frequency results of a keyword search of "open government" in titles and abstracts of articles in the Web of Science Library for the years 1980 to 2015. A total of 275 articles and conference papers were identified. Each article was then categorized according to its main topic. A total of 11 topics were identified, but there are five most frequently studied topics that are clearly dominant: open data (41%), general open government (15%), transparency (14%), citizen participation (11%), and access to information (9%). In order to make sure that these topics were cross-referenced with actual practice in the open government field, the 11 topics were used deductively to perform a frequency analysis of the OG initiatives in the largest known database of OG initiatives from the OGP national action plans1 . There were 433 individual OG initiatives in the database across a two year period (2011-2013) in 33 countries. Table 2 shows the results of the OGP database frequency analysis. The most frequently used policy topics of open government are 1) open data; 2) transparency; 3) citizen participation; and 4) access to information. Apart from the general topic of 'open government' (which is removed because it would obviously be tautological to include as a sub-category of open government) these four topics match precisely with the four in Table 1. This match answers the first puzzle and demonstrates a strong set of core sub-categories within the study and practice of OG. The systematic review of the main sub-categories of OG gives better definition and finds empirical support for the OG typologies already used by scholars (e.g., [START_REF] Linders | What is Open Government? One Year after the Directive[END_REF], [START_REF] Mcdermott | Building open government[END_REF]). If these sub-categories are all part of OG reforms they must be related in the policy design process. However, the policy design characteristics that link the sub-categories under the umbrella of OG have not been set out by public administration scholars. This point addresses the second theoretical puzzle discussed above, and will be the focus of the remaining sections of the paper.

Already, some prior work has begun to take OG theory to a more fundamental level of organizational practice. In one conceptual framework for the related OG topic of transparency, Meijer [START_REF] Meijer | Understanding the Complex Dynamics of Transparency[END_REF] proposed three core interpretative lenses for understanding the practice of transparency: cognitive, strategic, and institutional. Dawes, Vidiasova, and Parkhimovich [START_REF] Dawes | Planning and designing open government data programs: an ecosystem approach[END_REF] have proposed an ecosystem model of open government data (OGD) that can accommodate the complex range of strategies and barriers. In approaching the theory of OG policy design it is necessary to understand these complex factors that underlie the policy processes within OG reforms across the four sub-categories.

Theoretical framework and conceptual model of OG policy design

Policy design theory is a core topic in public administration scholarship. Previous scholars have studied design because government policies have important outcomes for democratic performance and public values such as health, education, public safety, and social equity [START_REF] Bouckaert | Performance Measurement and Management: The Achilles' Heel in Administrative Modernization[END_REF].

The definition of design processes adopted here is the one used by Davenport [START_REF] Davenport | Process innovation: reengineering work through information technology[END_REF] to describe approaches to organizational process using IT: "a structured, measured set of activities designed to produce a specific output" (p.5). Davenport's is a basic definition of process and is especially relevant to OG policies that often rely on process involving ICT innovations.

A structurational approach to OG policy design processes

Policy design theorists, such as Beierle and Konisky [START_REF] Beierle | Values, conflict, and trust in participatory environmental planning[END_REF], frequently describe a policy design process in terms of two main ingredients: a context and a process. The former comprises the fixed social and institutional variables, which can also be referred to as the structure of the organization. On the other hand, the process includes the design and participant variables that are controlled during the design development, which can also be referred to as the agency of the organization.

According to Giddens' [START_REF] Giddens | The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration[END_REF] original formulation of structuration theory, organizational structures are continually enacted by the actions of members of organizations and the characteristics of their institutions. Structuration theory can be used as a microfoundation for policy design approaches in combination with macro-level institutional processes [START_REF] Cooney | Fields, Organizations, and Agency Toward a Multilevel Theory of Institutionalization in Action[END_REF]. Orlikowski [START_REF] Orlikowski | Using technology and constituting structures: A practice lens for studying technology in organizations[END_REF] says that "[d]rawing on the ideas of social shaping and inscription, structurational models have posited that technology is developed through a social political process which results in structures (rules and resources) being embedded within the technology" (p.405). This concept of decision-making has been adapted in Figure 1 with 'open government policy' taking the place of the 'technology' outcome in Orlikowski's original formulation of a structuration process. In the following theoretical framework, I examine the agentic and structural factors that contribute to OG program processes and use them to propose a unified conceptual model of OG design. To select the literature on policy design for the framework, I used the core sub-categories of OG derived from the frequency analysis of OG literature (open data, access to information, citizen participation, and transparency) as keywords in conjunction with the keywords "policy design" and "organizational design". In order to supplement my literature review, I also expanded on this initial set of results to draw on important works on policy design theory from outside of OG research. I grouped the findings into five themes (managerial skills, institutions, technology, environment, and organizational ambiguity) and then corroborated and developed these themes using related conceptual models in section 4.

Managerial skills and strategies. Previous literature has addressed the role of managerial skills in the micro-level design factors and leadership planning of government programs [START_REF] May | Collaborative Service Arrangements: Patterns, Bases, and Perceived Consequences[END_REF], [START_REF] Sørensen | Making Governance Networks Effective and Democratic through Metagovernance[END_REF]. For example, the micro-level design of effective program objectives should involve a coherent strategy with clear goals and specific and measurable outcomes [START_REF] De Lancer Julnes | Promoting the Utilization of Performance Measures in Public Organizations: An Empirical Study of Factors Affecting Adoption and Implementation[END_REF], accountable leadership [START_REF] Brudney | Reinventing Government in the American States: Measuring and Explaining Administrative Reform[END_REF], and, in the context of OG, management of a culture of publicizing open data, inter-organizational collaboration, and focusing on the impact of policies [START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Open Data Policies, Their Implementation and Impact: A Framework for Comparison[END_REF].

In the area of open data, previous literature also finds that an incremental and experimental approach by managers of open data is better than just releasing data for its own sake [START_REF] Conradie | On the Barriers for Local Government Releasing Open Data[END_REF]. Open data usually fails in the goal of informing citizens of how they can make objective and intelligent decisions about policy if it does not have a mechanism for conveying context as well as content of data [START_REF] Zhang | Creating Public Value through Open Government: Perspectives, Experiences and Applications[END_REF]. Bertot, McDermott, and Smith [START_REF] Bertot | Measurement of open government: Metrics and process[END_REF] say that managerial measurement of open government initiatives must include knowledge of wider impacts as well as understanding of the route to compliance. Similarly, the level of professionalism of managers, their perception of the political environment, and their attitude towards citizen input strongly shapes the use of citizen participation in budgeting processes [START_REF] Zhang | Citizen Participation in the Budget Process: The Effect of City Managers[END_REF].

Decision-makers

Open government policy

Organizational context

Institutions. The role of institutional environments in terms of governance structures, policies, and legal approaches need to be understood for effective use of ICT for egovernance [START_REF] Lee | Testing the Development and Diffusion of Egovernment and E-democracy: A Global Perspective[END_REF], [START_REF] Nasi | Online Service Provision: Are Municipalities Really Innovative? The Case of Larger Municipalities in Italy[END_REF].

Institutions underpin collaboration that is necessary for OG. A strong institutional integration agenda is important in successful interactive e-government initiatives so that design challenges and tensions can be managed [START_REF] Sun | An Implementation Framework for E-Government 2.0[END_REF]. Such collaboration effectiveness is determined by "process, structural and governance components, constraints and contingencies, outcomes, and accountability issues" [START_REF] Bryson | The Design and Implementation of Cross-Sector Collaborations: Propositions from the Literature[END_REF].

But institutional processes can have differential impacts on different areas of OG. For the OG sub-categories of access to information and citizen participation, political institutions are important. Berliner [START_REF] Berliner | The political origins of transparency[END_REF] carried out multivariate analysis of antecedents of access to information laws and found that competition within political institutions was the strongest correlate. Zhang and Liao [START_REF] Zhang | Participatory budgeting in local government: Evidence from New Jersey Municipalities[END_REF] found that political competition increased the likelihood of adopting participative and interactive forms of e-government tools, while institutions that mandate citizen participation have better performance of citizen participation initiatives [START_REF] Martins | Size of Municipalities, Efficiency, and Citizen Participation: a Cross-European Perspective[END_REF].

Technology. Open government policies rely heavily on ICT, but empirical research

shows numerous examples that contextual variables of trust, self-efficacy, and level of digital literacy are key determinants of digital government performance (e.g., [START_REF] Bailard | Democracy's Double-edged Sword: How Internet Use Changes Citizens' Views of Their Government[END_REF], [START_REF] West | Digital Government: Technology and Public Sector Performance[END_REF]). Bailard [START_REF] Bailard | Democracy's Double-edged Sword: How Internet Use Changes Citizens' Views of Their Government[END_REF] in a multi-country study of e-governance, civic engagement, and trust found that higher levels of internet use increased frustration with e-government in undemocratic countries but increased satisfaction with e-government in democratic countries. In understanding these structural components of technology, Meijer [START_REF] Meijer | E-governance Innovation: Barriers and Strategies[END_REF] says that there are three areas of barriers in e-government performance: government, citizen, and structural-cultural.

From the perspective of structuration theory, technologies are not fixed parts of the organizational environment but are enacted through agentic and structural processes [START_REF] Fountain | Building the Virtual State: Information Technology and Institutional Change[END_REF], [START_REF] Orlikowski | Using technology and constituting structures: A practice lens for studying technology in organizations[END_REF]. The theory of technology enactment thus has special relevance to the policy design process of OG, where both environmental shifts in ICT capacity and the specific tools of ICT in individual OG policies and programs are vital.

Environmental factors.

Environmental factors in terms of social, political, geopolitical, and economic forces have been found to play a strong role in shaping effectiveness of policymaking in the OG arena. Freedom of information reforms, for example, have repeatedly been found to be driven by improved information flow resulting from gradual social, political, and economic changes [START_REF] Xiao | Freedom of information reform in China: Information flow analysis[END_REF].

Policy reform such as OG is an essentially tension-and conflict-laden organizational process because new policy fashions threaten the stability of existing policy communities [START_REF] Richardson | Government, Interest Groups and Policy Change[END_REF], [START_REF] Schaffers | Smart Cities and the Future Internet: Towards Cooperation Frameworks for Open Innovation[END_REF]. The political leadership involved in OG is important because, as von Furstenberg [START_REF] Furstenberg | Hopes and Delusions of Transparency[END_REF] says, "without a change in power and political will, externally imposed transparency codes and standards will forever be chasing an elusive target" (p. 115). The leadership of Barack Obama was a primary motivation behind open government initiatives in the United States [START_REF] Jaeger | Transparency and technological change: Ensuring equal and sustained public access to government information[END_REF].

Finally, research on OG and related areas such as ICT use and e-government has firmly established that the citizen environment is indispensable to policy design. Citizen demands for e-government strongly determine e-government level [START_REF] Ahn | Adoption of E-communication Applications in US Municipalities: The Role of Political Environment, Bureaucratic Structure, and the Nature of Applications[END_REF], [START_REF] Li | Adoption of Electronic Technologies in Local US Governments Distinguishing Between E-services and Communication Technologies[END_REF]. Larger population, higher growth, lower unemployment, and larger population density is associated with higher e-government adoption [START_REF] Nelson | The Roles of Local Government Managers in Theory and Practice: A Centennial Perspective[END_REF].

Organizational ambiguity. The theory of organizational ambiguity was originally developed by James March and Johan Olsen [START_REF] March | Ambiguity and Choice in Organisations[END_REF], but, for the present work, even more pertinent research on the topic of OG can be found in the work of Nils Brunsson [START_REF] Brunsson | The Organization of Hypocrisy: Talk, Decisions and Actions in Organizations[END_REF], who understood well that the public character of government increases political-administrative tension. This tension inevitably leads to organizational de-coupling and hypocrisy, a natural state of organizations that is heightened in OG.

According to Brunsson [START_REF] Brunsson | The Organization of Hypocrisy: Talk, Decisions and Actions in Organizations[END_REF] public organizations are meta-organizations. Metaorganizations are characterized by significant collaboration challenges and points of conflict, which are proliferated by OG processes that spread policy-making processes widely over a range of organizations and organizational environments. Scholars of OG have begun to elucidate the specific forms of ambiguity that are created by open, metaorganized forms of policy design. Yu and Robinson [START_REF] Yu | The New Ambiguity of 'Open Government[END_REF] refer to a kind of ambiguity where openness of data is conflated with transparency of government operations. There are also the trade-offs in OG between transparency and national security interests [START_REF] Roberts | Blacked out: Government secrecy in the information age[END_REF], accountability [START_REF] Fox | The uncertain relationship between transparency and accountability[END_REF], and participation [START_REF] Fountain | Building the Virtual State: Information Technology and Institutional Change[END_REF].

Another common area of open government ambiguity is the conflation of collaborative ICT platforms such as social media or wikis with open government [START_REF] Lourenço | Public Accountability ICT Support: A Detailed Account of Public Accountability Process and Tasks[END_REF]. Many government open data and transparency initiatives ostensibly enable governments to be more participative and responsive with citizens, but are ambiguously operating mainly as one-way information pathways [START_REF] Layne | Developing Fully Functional E-government: A Four Stage Model[END_REF].

Policy process design and open government: a conceptual model

At this point in the paper, I have validated the concept of OG and its four sub-categories, addressed the literature on the three theoretical perspectives of this paperopen government, structuration theory, and policy design theoryand presented five themes for a theoretical framework of the supporting factors of OG policy design. In this section a conceptual model of open government processes is first proposed starting with a corroboration of the themes (factors) proposed in section 3. Secondly, the conceptual model is tested using e-participation as a hypothetical example of an OG policy.

A conceptual model of open government policy design processes

Prior literature on the role of public administrators in design of open government-related program areas has started to propose similar conceptual models (e.g., [START_REF] Dawes | Planning and designing open government data programs: an ecosystem approach[END_REF], [START_REF] Gil-García | E-government Success Factors: Mapping Practical Tools to Theoretical Foundations[END_REF], [START_REF] Gonzalez-Zapata | The Multiple Meanings of Open Government Data: Understanding Different Stakeholders and Their Perspectives[END_REF]) and have identified a similar range of factors such as managerial, bureaucratic, technological, and political, but none of these has addressed OG as a common area of policy design processes in organizational theory. Therefore, the themes are likely to have overlap but not to be identical. Gonzalez-Zapata and Heeks [START_REF] Gonzalez-Zapata | The Multiple Meanings of Open Government Data: Understanding Different Stakeholders and Their Perspectives[END_REF] found that OGD takes on four main stakeholder processes; bureaucratic, political, technological, and economic.

In another of the existing conceptual models, by Gil-Garcia and Pardo [START_REF] Gil-García | E-government Success Factors: Mapping Practical Tools to Theoretical Foundations[END_REF], the processes involved in successful e-government programs can be categorized as environmental or institutional, legal and regulatory, organizational and managerial, information technology, and information and data. Gil-Garcia and Pardo [START_REF] Gil-García | E-government Success Factors: Mapping Practical Tools to Theoretical Foundations[END_REF] address both the environmental (external) processes and the managerial and technology (internal) processes that contribute to the context of complex governance.

The conceptual model here also has a dualistic approach in keeping with structuration theory. In Figure 2 the institution factors sit directly at the intersection of the agentic enactment process of management strategy and technology, while environment, which is a broader socio-political structurational factor, is less directly involved. On the agency side, the factors are technology and management skills. The arrows joining the agentic components of the structuration process from t1 to t2 represent a structuration enactment process connecting to the structural variables of environment and institution. However, as discussed above the organizational environment is an area of organizational ambiguity and so the structuration process encounters ambiguity during the process of change between t1 and t2 (the shaded area).

Analysis of the conceptual model using a hypothetical example of e-participation

The management skills and the technology factors play similar roles in the structurational process. These agentic aspects interact with the institutional factors and are on the same circular plane moving from t1 to t2 in Figure 2. For example, in the design of an e-participation platform, structural enactment takes place in the decision to attain a certain level of citizen accessibility (management skill) and the enactment of the technological knowledge and resources in the organization from previous e-participation efforts or new technology hardware or software (technology). Both these things interact with the structure of rules, regulations, and culture of the organization (institutional factors), which in the example of e-participation, pertain to legal disclosure and data privacy standards, competition with other jurisdictions, policy mandates, and organizational attitudes around the value of citizen participation.

Organizational ambiguity shown in Figure 2 in the space inside the structuration process of management, technology, and institutional factors is not continuous within any of the structuration planes. However, it is bounded by the institutional plane symbolizing that ambiguity is a unique product of the particular organization. Note that the institutional plane also divides organizational ambiguity and the environment because, while neither are structurally continuous, they are, respectively, undetermined internal and external properties impacting the organization. In e-participation policy, a broad array of environmental factors have an impact such as economic level, stability of the political situation, and public services infrastructure. These determine how many and what kinds of people participate as well as the quality of their interaction. Organizational ambiguity relates to the clarity (or lack thereof) of purpose for which the participation takes place such budgetary outcomes, legislation decision-making, or mere process participation with no target outcome. Organizational ambiguity could also pertain to the level of accountability or authority given to participants such as whether it is informative, consultative, delegative, etc.

Conclusion

This paper initially empirically derived a typology of OG and its core sub-categories using a systematic literature review and a multicountry categorization of OG policies. Secondly, a theoretical framework organized previous empirical findings regarding the policy design processes associated with the growing body of research on the design of OG initiatives and its sub-categories. The work of Nils Brunsson was used to frame organizational ambiguities associated with OG. It was argued that the multidimensional characteristic of OG calls for a model that combines agency and structural components of policy design in a structuration process. A conceptual model was developed along these theoretical lines and it was tested using a hypothetical example of e-participation. The conceptual model of OG policy design process can be empirically tested in future research by operationalizing the relationships as measurable hypotheses. It can also be used as an analytic framework for evaluating the effectiveness of OG policy design processes. This paper has focused on the 'process' side of policy design and says very little about the 'outcomes' or 'impacts' side, which are also important. I expect that the conceptual model will help identify and analyze heightened effects of organizational ambiguity within OG policy design outcomes as well as ambiguities in the processes. OG 'success', referred to only in passing here, should be unpacked and studied in order to establish exactly how the OG design process relates to different kinds of outcomes for society. A related area for further research is to see if these relationships between processes and outcomes are different among the sub-categories of OG.

The objective of this paper was to address two puzzles of OG: firstly, relating to its conceptual coherency and, secondly, to the unified character of the design processes that enables public administrators to address more effective management and technological approaches. The paper shows that research on OG does suggest unique kinds of design processes and barriers in the form of ambiguities. Further understanding the OG specific design processes and barriers will be necessary to aid policymakers and public administrators in designing OG policies and programs that are likely to be more effective in meeting their goals.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Strategic choice model. Adapted from Orlikowski[START_REF] Orlikowski | The duality of technology: Rethinking the concept of technology in organizations[END_REF]

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Conceptual model of the open government policy design process

Table 1 .

 1 Topics of open government in scholarly literature(1980 -2015)

	Open government topic	Frequency	Percentage
	Open Data	115	41
	General open government	42	15
	Transparency	38	14

Table 2 .

 2 Topics of open government in national action plans(2011)(2012)(2013)

	Open government topic	Frequency	Percentage
	Open data	106	11
	Transparency	93	10
	Citizen participation	86	9
	Access to information	57	6
	Budget openness	54	6
	General open government	12	1
	Intergovernmental collaboration	7	0.7
	Open innovation	6	0.6
	Open education	4	0.4
	Open science	3	0.3
	Geographic information systems	1	0.1
	Total	433	100

Open Government Partnership. "OGP IRM Database". Last accessed on 06/05/2016 from www.opengovernmentpartnership.org/irm/ogp-irm-database-12