Camille Bérubé

critique de Bonaventure " Olivi

Henri De Gand

R S Almagno

ed. C L Harkins

S Piron

OLIVI AND BONAVENTURE

Peter John Olivi's relationship to Bonaventure is an intriguing one. 1 Outwardly they appear as the leading figures of two different trends of Franciscan politics, Olivi usually being qualified as a "radical" inspiring the dissidence of the Spirituals, while Bonaventure represents a central and balanced attitude regarding Franciscan poverty. Likewise, as far as their apocalyptical expectations are concerned, Olivi is certainly an overt and avowed Joachite, whereas Bonaventure supposedly makes a more distanciated use of Joachim of Fiore's works. Recent studies of Olivi's philosophical approaches rather present him as anticipating themes soon to be developed by Duns Scotus than associate him with the Bonaventurian school. 2 As for his pragmatic approach of economics, nothing of the sort can be found in the writings of the Seraphic doctor. In many respects, the two Franciscan theologians do seem to belong to different intellectual and spiritual worlds.

Yet, when turning to the documents, we find a far much more complex situation. Olivi has been a student in Paris during the final years of Bonaventure's generalate (1267-1273).

Although the latter was never his teacher in a formal sense, many of Olivi's writings reflect a deep admiration and respect towards the one that he describes as "the most powerful of my masters" 3 . Such a qualification instantly outshines all theology professors in active duty at the Franciscan studium in Paris during the late 1260's whom Olivi may have been taught by. Some degree of institutional pride shows when he calls Bonaventure "one of the most solemn

[2] masters of this order" or "the greatest doctor of our order and our times". 4 In Olivi's eyes, 1 This presentation summarizes and builds on results already presented in "Le métier de théologien selon Olivi.

Paris in the following years were asking for clarifications on various items censured, which indicates in all likelihood that at least some students were not convinced that the commission had issued a sound judgment. 10 It has not been sufficiently emphasized that Olivi's return to teaching in Florence in 1287 also meant lifting the ban on the circulation his works. Many signs reveal that they were read and copied up to the General chapter held in Lyons in 1299 that explicitly prohibited their diffusion one year after his death. The number of surviving copies of his Lectura super Mattheum produced in the meantime is impressive. 11 As for giving up the illumination theory, Petrus de Trabibus (Piero delle Travi), his successor at Santa Croce in the mid 1290's provides the most telling example, for he changed his mind between the two versions of his Sentences commentary and eventually accepted as compelling a typically olivian argument. 12 Olivi's critique of divine illumination theories in the late 1270's was fuelled by Henry of Ghent's recent attempt to offer an a priori demonstration of God's existence by way of "universal intelligible propositions" in the first part of his Summa, published in Paris in 1276 13 . According to Avicenna, these propositions, regarding the one, the being, the good, are the first things impressed in the human mind. If they are to be identified with the "eternal reasons" that certify all knowledge, which are not different from the eternal truth, they would provide an understanding of God [4] prior to any knowledge of his creatures. Indeed, "according to Augustine, by understanding the being of every being, and the good in absolute of every good, God is understood; therefore, it is possible to understand that God exists from such concepts of universal propositions". 14 For Olivi, this argument is an unbearable sophism that entails many dangers and absurdities. 15 In the first place, it would imply that in some way, God is seen without any mediation in this life on the occasion of any intellectual activity. Secondly, such propositions are in no way "eternal". Their necessity is only "Censures et condamnation de Pierre de Jean Olivi: enquête dans les marges du Vatican", Mélanges de l'Ecole française de Rome. Moyen Âge, 118 (2006): 313-373. 10 Richard of Mediavilla, Quodlibeta, (Brixiae : Sabbius, 1591 ; repr. Frankfurt : Minerva, 1963). The three questions are: Quod. II, art. 2, q. 2: "Utrum quantitas dicat rem aliquam ultra substantiam, cuius est quantitas, loquendo de re absoluta"; Quod. III, q. 1: "Utrum futura sint realiter praesentia aeternitati"; Quod. III, q. 15: "Utrum character dicat aliquid absolutum in anima". conditional since they always presuppose the object they refer to and would simply not exist in the absence of an intellect that conceives them. 16 Besides, they do not grasp any thing real since, according to Olivi, all universal concepts are derived from an initial knowledge of singular objects. 17 Whiteness is just a quality perceived in various white objects and constructed as a universal concept by depriving these objects of all their singularities. Without exploring any further the complex debates brushed upon above, I would like to focus on one specific issue that is crucial to Henry's proof but also central to Bonaventure.

Among the remnants of the first book of Olivi's Summa quaestionum, a long and still unpublished question devoted to the divine foreknowledge and will contains as an appendix a discussion of the exact meaning of divine ideas. 18 Such is the disposition of the texts in two manuscripts now preserved at the Vatican library that were confiscated or produced on the occasion of the 1283 censure. 19 A third manuscript from Gdansk reflects the disposition later adopted in the Summa (edited by Olivi himself around 1295) by presenting the appendix as a full standing question. Unfortunately, those questions appear in a sharply abridged form, being tamped into the final pages of a codex containing an important collection of Ramon Lull's works 20 . The question raised is straightforward: [5] what is the meaning of the "divine exemplar and ideas" (Quid per divinum exemplar et ydeas significentur in Deo)? As is well known, this concept is a legacy of Augustine who took the decision to locate the Platonic ideas in the Word of God as eternally expressing all of his creatures. Henceforth, the notion became traditional in latin theology under the condition that it did not posit any internal diversity within the divine intellect. Olivi proceeds with presenting five opinions without providing any name. According to the first one -which is clearly Aquinas' -the exemplar signifies "the divine essence inasmuch as it can be participated and imitated in different ways by the various creatures" (divinam esssentiam prout est diversimode participabilis et imitabilis a diversis creaturis). The second opinion summarizes Bonaventure's expressionism as presented in his third question De Scientia Christi: "the light of the divine intellect" is eternally expressing the similitude of every single thing created or to be created. A third 16 Ibid, 481-495. 17 C. Bérubé, La connaissance de l'individuel au Moyen Âge (Paris: PUF, 1964). 18 opinion allowing for a real plurality of ideas in God can be traced back to Richard Rufus. 21 It may have been adduced only in order to introduce the symmetric error of those who, trying stupidly to avoid such a difficulty (hanc caripdim volens stulte effugere), fall into the even worse error of negating the reality of any ideas in God. Such was the stance taken by Arnaud Gaillard who has been Olivi's real life opponent in Languedoc for a long time -probably, in a question disputed in Montpellier before 1279, at a time when Olivi was teaching in Narbonne. 22 The fifth and final opinion is the one the author finds more consonant with both faith and reason and it can be assumed that it represents Olivi's personal view. It states that the divine exemplar is simply the actual intelligence that God has of all that can be possibly created while the ideas are his actual intelligence of all single existing beings. In other words, if the concept is maintained, it is devoid of most of its usual contents.

What Olivi wanted to avoid is expressed in the central discussion that is mainly focused on refuting Aquinas. Divine ideas should be not conceived of as a necessary intermediary between God and the world he [6] is creating. It is superfluous to postulate that God should first investigate himself and discover that he can be participated by forming the ideas of his creatures. Instead, for Olivi, the divine intellect has an immediate knowledge of singular creatures he may or may not will to create, as well as an effective knowledge of those that he is willing to create. The notion of "participation" does not belong to his vocabulary while "immediately" is a favorite adverb. This question thus represents one of the many cases where

Olivi is arguing in favor of a radical metaphysical simplification. In the name of both God's transcendence and human freedom, he attempts to get rid of all unnecessary intermediate entities or operations in what I suggested to label a "deplatonizing" program. 23 Such an endeavor should run as much against Bonaventure whose position was very much akin to that of Aquinas. Yet, Olivi adopts here a diplomatic attitude. The formulations chosen can be correctly understood if "the divine light" is taken to mean the actuality and clarity of the divine intelligence, and "his expressions" stands for the actual divine intelligence, as expressing distinctly every object. 24 The metaphysics of light on which Bonaventure was relying does not undergo any serious criticism. Instead, it is simply treated as a metaphorical discourse, the vocabulary of which can be safeguarded. This does not mean that the whole argumentation presented in the questions De Scientia Christi has somehow been preserved.

Olivi has simply managed to pick up one passage providing a solution to the problem of the plurality of ideas that could be acceptable for him. By the same token, he parts ways with Bonaventure who was holding, as was Aquinas, that God has no immediate knowledge of things in their essence. Instead, for both masters, God has to inspect himself and discover he can be imitated through similitudes or eternal reasons that will in turn provide the form of things created.

Therefore, if Olivi spares Bonaventure from a minute criticism, it should be noted that such leniency is not granted to William de la Mare. Among many difficulties, theologians had to account for the divine eternal foreknowledge of contingent [7] futures that may or may not be actualized in historical time. On this topic, Olivi stands together with Aquinas, arguing in favor of an immediate divine knowledge of contingent futures, eternally reaching the time in which they will be in act. It should be emphasized that this is an issue where Aquinas does not refer to the divine ideas that are not really central to his conception of God's knowledge. 25 Soon after March 1277 when the English Franciscan theologian drew a catalogue of Aquinas's errors, his third article was devoted to this topic. For de la Mare, the eternal copresence of God to every instant of time is shocking since it implies that God would have an actual knowledge of contingents which do not actually exists yet. Insisting on his knowledge through ideal reasons, he adds: "it would be otiose to posit them if, of all eternity, all things would be present in their proper nature and so subjected in eternity to the divine vision". 26 Such a consequence is exactly the way in which Olivi conceives the process: divine ideas are indeed otiose. He then devotes many pages to stress the misunderstanding regarding the connection between time and eternity which, according to him, underlies such a position.

Therefore, it should not come as a surprise that one codex annotated by Olivi's censors in 1283 bears the remark in front of such developments: "here he speaks stupidly against friar William de la Mare" and that this topic would stand high in the list of propositions condemned in the Littera septem magistrorum. 27 The divine illumination theory represents the other face of this Christian Platonism that posits ideas in the process of creation. Olivi relinquishes it in the same fashion, as a "solemn and sane position" that could be become "very dangerous" if some precautions are not taken. 28 One should not say that the "eternal reasons" really inform the human intellect or assist it by presenting some visible species. They do not represent to the intellect the intelligibles as first known in such a way that the intellect should see them, at the risk of making God visible to the human mind. They cannot represent in a distinct way, otherwise the whole effort of knowing would be useless. But if they only offer a confuse and general representation of the genus of things, their necessity becomes dubious for the certification of a knowledge that begins by the sensory experience of material singular things. They should not be said to cooperate in the act of knowing as a natural principle, since they immediately cooperate with God whose actions are all voluntary. Nor can they [8] cooperate as a total principle that would render the human intellection a passive operation. Since those eternal reasons can only cooperate in the intellectual process by producing some species within the human mind, if nothing created can certify knowledge in an infallible way it is unclear how such created species would be able to do so. In short, Olivi is exposing all possible doctrines of such an illumination to a ruthless crossfire, between the impossibility of an immediate perception of God through an intellectual act and the uselessness of the assistance of created species 29 . The most telling precaution states that such eternal reasons should assist the intellect in such a way that it would remain "formally as impotent as if they were not assisting it" 30 . In other words, the divine illumination is acceptable only if it is thoroughly useless. The critique remains reverential, yet uncompromising.

A statistical evidence of this intellectual estrangement between Olivi and his master can even be provided. 31 Marston. [START_REF] Menestò | CISAM, 1993) 257-289, shows that Matthew possessed a copy of Hugh's De sacramentis (now cod. Assisi, Bibl. Com., 98) and two copies of the De statu interioris hominis. 34[END_REF] In contrast, Olivi is the first Franciscan theologian for whom, quite unequivocally, Hugh is not anymore a useful intellectual reference. Furthermore, the scarce eight explicit references found in his theological questions and apologetical works are, for the most, critical ones.

A more qualitative assessment can be offered by considering what is left of Bonaventure's

Itinerarium mentis in Deo against such criticism. In a first stage of this journey, the mind discovers God in the mirror of creatures whose manifold perfections prove that they are divine productions ( § I, 14). For Olivi, the mirror of creatures functions in a strictly reverse fashion; creatures do provide an indication of God's existence, not by their perfections but precisely because of their many imperfections indicating that they depend on some higher cause 34 . In a second stage, God is perceived through the remnants (vestigia) he left in the rational creatures. Bonaventure's depiction of a sensorial world entering the human soul through the doors of the senses ( § II, 1-6) is reversed in Olivi's theory of an active knowledge that reaches out and grab its external objects. The symbolism of spiritual species produced in the soul at the end of the process has no place in Olivi's view which rejects all such species [START_REF] Tachau | Vision and Certitude in the Age of Ockham: Optics, Epistemology, and the Foundations of Semantics[END_REF] .

As we have seen, the necessity of the eternal propositions is only conditional ( § II, 9) and the same argument applies to numbers ( § II, 10). In a third stage, the Itinerarium conceives the powers of the souls as God's image. According to Olivi, memory is not a receptacle of innate ideas ( § III, 2) but a reservoir of images produced in the process of intellectual acts. The intellect does not find the certainty it requires in eternal truths ( § III, 3). The will is not in the image of God because, through its operations, it would uncover the divine law ( § III, 4).

Moreover, there is no room in Olivi's thought for the crucial and widespread theme of a psychological trinity within the human soul functioning as an image of the holy Trinity ( § III, 5-6). In his views, all powers of the souls are reduced to the couple of the will and the intellect, memory being relegated to a secondary position. In the same fashion, as we have seen, the metaphysics of light ( § III, 7) stands for him as a mere metaphor. To sum up, in the three first stages of the Itinerarium where Bonaventure could find manifold [10] evidence of the divine in visible earthly realities, Olivi only sees a radical difference between the two realms. The divide is radical enough to call it an "epochal change". No other medieval thinker ever conceived before him such a sharp discontinuity between God and the created world, nor advocated such a strong conception of the human subject defined as the source of his own intellectual and voluntary activity. 36 In light of such a contrast, the proclamations of faithfulness to Bonaventure we have quoted earlier on can only make sense if perceived as the sign of a personal relationship. One Among his arguments was a vile and petty reference to Bonaventure's less than edifying record in his personal practice of the poverty vow. Olivi reacts strongly to this shameful ad hominem attack by drawing a moral portrait of the master: if he was indeed frail regarding his bodily needs and simply human in that respect, as Olivi often heard him humbly confess (ego ipse ab eo sepius audivi), his feelings were nevertheless pure and he always preached the outmost perfection. 37 This apologetic paragraph witnesses a personal acquaintance and frequent contacts between the two during Olivi's studies in a period in which the General Olivi that such was the true cornerstone of his intellectual endeavors. [START_REF] Burr | The Apocalyptic Element in Olivi's Critique of Aristotle[END_REF] The Collationes in Hexaemeron held in 1273 repeated and emphasized even more the task of resisting the philosophical errors, now pervasive in Paris, with tones of a great eschatological emergency.

Although Olivi never says he attended them, many echoes found in various places attest that these lectures made a strong [12] impression on him. [START_REF] Piron | Le métier de théologien[END_REF] The surest sign is probably the fact that when he had in turn his first opportunity occasion to lecture in a major theology school in Based on reconstruction of Olivi's chronology, his earliest preserved texts appears to be extracts from a commentary on the Physics. [START_REF] Piron | Les oeuvres perdues d'Olivi: essai de reconstitution[END_REF] It is very likely that these lessons were produced according to the standard of the Arts' faculty for they do not take any theological authority into account. Yet, they already display some tendency to convey a philosophical critique of Aristotle's views, instead of simply commenting and explaining them. This unusual approach is more widespread and overt in many disputed questions that Olivi produced during the early years of his activity, a number of which may derive more or less directly from this initial lecture on the Physics. Until these questions are properly edited and compared with contemporary products of the Arts faculty, their precise dating will the philosopher's error, but with the weapons of reason alone, on a philosophical battleground. Such is the complex background that allowed the formation of one of the most original [14] intellectual project of the Thirteen Century scholasticism. Among other things, it forms the intellectual foundation to the moral philosophy of economic contracts that Olivi expressed in the last years of his career.

Sylvain Piron EHESS, Paris

  single example may suffice to prove the fact. The treatise De usu paupere is responding to Arnaud Gaillard. Now back from Paris as a formed bachelor in 1280-1281, Gaillard attempted to dismantle in a disputed question held in Montpellier what Olivi had written on this topic.

  [13] remain uncertain. So far, a rough estimate only allows us to situate them back in the first half of the 1270's. I have already proposed elsewhere some suggestions about their meaning. I would like to conclude this presentation by restating this hypothesis, since this may constitute the key to understand Olivi's complex relationship to Bonaventure.Promotion to studies in the Franciscan order was very much left to the appreciation of superiors. Spending a fair share of his time at the Paris convent and arguing against the Philosopher's errors between 1267 and 1273, Bonaventure would have been, as General Minister of the Order, in a position to appoint some younger friar to study more closely the most dangerous texts, out of a sensible "know thy enemy" principle. My guess is that he felt the necessity to engage with the most crucial Aristotelian text, the Physics (that overtly presented a pagan view of an eternal world) deeper than he could do himself, and entrusted the task to the most promising young student he had spotted in the Paris Franciscan studium.This may have happened once Olivi had completed his standard four years of presence at the Paris convent, around 1271, and this could be the reason why he then stayed a little longer than usual. A close reading of Aristotle is evident in his later philosophical works, and the unique way in which he is approaching him among medieval authors may account for a good part of his philosophical freedom and inventiveness. The endeavor entrusted to him had an unexpected effect. Being immersed in the philosophical debates going on at Paris university, Olivi realized that the worst danger did not come from Aristotle himself, but from a wider neo-platonician trend in which the pseudo-Aristotelician and truly Proclusian Liber de Causis was a major reference for the group he himself describes as "Averroists"45 . Olivi's own philosophical fight then took on a different perspective from what Bonaventure could have expected. It lead him into a wider campaign against any hint of Platonism that could be spotted in theological speculations, even within Bonaventure's theology. More tragically perhaps, it also caused him to adopt a radically opposed stance on the relationship between philosophy and theology. Instead of a Reductio artium ad theologiam, Olivi advocated the necessity to study philosophy in its own right, in order to defend the Christian faith against 45 S. Piron, "Olivi et les averroïstes", Freiburger Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Theologie 53 (2006), 251-309.One should remember that the text which inspired the highest number of articles of the 1277 condemnation pronounced by Bishop Tempier was Siger of Brabant's commentary on the Liber de Causis.

  11 Petrus Johannis Olivi, "Lectura super Mattheum, prologus", S. Piron (ed.), Oliviana, 4, 2012, http://oliviana.revues.org/498, § 5. 12 S. Piron, "Le poète et le théologien : une rencontre dans le studium de Santa Croce", in J. Biard/F. Mariani Ziani (eds.

), Ut philosophia poesis. Questions philosophiques dans l'écriture de Dante, Pétrarque, Bocacce (Paris: Vrin, 2008), 73-112. 13 P. Porro, Enrico di Gand. La via delle proposizioni universali, Bari, Levante, 1990. 14 Henry of Ghent, Summa quaestionum ordinarium (Paris : Josse Bade, 1520, reprint St. Bonaventure: The Franciscan Institute, 1953), fol. 134v. The translation is that of William O. Duba, Seeing God. Theology, Beatitude and Cognition in the the Thirteen Century, PhD diss., University of Iowa, 2006, p. 301. 15 Olivi, Summa, vol. 3, 477-478.

  Olivi is denouncing this error, on the report of some present on the occasion of Gaillard's disputation, among the list of accusation he draws against him in 1282. See Impugnatio, art. 24, fol. 49rb: "Dixit etiam, prout per eosdem intellexi, quod rationes attributorum divinorum aut idearum non sunt in Deo aliquo modo realiter". Quite logically, Gaillard accused Olivi of stating that ideas are essentially or really different in God, to

21 Rega Wood, "Distinct Ideas and Perfect Solicitude: Alexander of Hales, Richard Rufus and Odo Rigaldus", Franciscan Studies 53 (1993) : 7-46. 22 which he answered: "Contrarium huius expresse asservi et scripsi, dictum hoc ostendens esse hereticum et prophanum", Peter John Olivi, Epistola ad fratrem R., S. Piron, C. Kilmer, E. Marmursztejn (ed.), Archivum Franciscanum Historicum 1998, p. art. 17. 23 S. Piron, "Deplatonising the Celestial Hierarchy. Peter John Olivi's interpretation of the Pseudo-Dionysius", in I. Iribarren, M. Lenz (eds.), Angels in Medieval Philosophy Inquiry. Their Function and Significance (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008) 29-44.

  Quaestio de ideis, Borgh. 358, f. 158vb: "Secundus autem modus potest sane intelligi si lux divina sumatur pro actualitate et claritate divini intelligere, et si nomine expressionum suarum non aliud intelligatur quam ipsum Dei intelligere, ut est actualis expressio uniuscuiusque obiecti secundum suam propriam rationem, et hoc modo non differt ab ultimo modo." 25 Thomas de Aquino, Summa Theologiae, Ia pars, q. 14, art. 11 and 13.

24

Petrus Johannis

Olivi, 26

Guillelmus de Mara, Correctorium fratris Thomae, in P. GLORIEUX, Les premières polémiques thomistes. Le Correctorium Corruptorii Quare (Le Saulchoir : Revue des sciences philosophiques et théologiques, 1927), 18-20.

  Hugh of Saint-Victor stood for Bonaventure as the epitome and model of what theology should be, encompassing doctrinal and spiritual teaching in one go. A famous page from the De reductione artium ad theologiam draws a genealogy of three branches of , the dogmatic, the moral and the contemplative, respectively connected to Augustine and Anselm, Gregory and Bernard, Denys and Richard of Saint-Victor. Yet, only Hugoencompasses them all (Hugo vero omnia haec).[START_REF] Bonaventura | insudare debet studium doctorum, circa secundum studium praedicatorum, circa tertium studium contemplativorum. Primum maxime docet Augustinus, secundum maxime docet Gregorium, tertium vero docet Dionysius; Anselmus sequitur Augustinum, Bernardus sequitur Gregorium, Richardus sequitur Dionysium, quia Anselmus in ratiocinatione, Bernardus in praedicatione, Richardus in contemplatione[END_REF] Counting up explicit references to Hugo can therefore serve as a fine criteria allowing for a global measure of faithfulness to Bonaventure's theological project. The figures are still quite high in William de la Mare's

	Scriptum in libros Sententiarum (ca. 1265-1267) or in John Pecham's Disputed Questions (ca.
	1269-1271). [9] Such is still the case in later decades with Matthew of Aquasparta and Roger
	27 Vatican, BAV, Borgh 322, f. 159rb: "hic loquitur stulte contra fratrum Guillelmum de Mara". See S. Piron,
	"Censures", 333.
	28 Olivi, Summa, vol. 3, 512-513. "licet praedicta positio in se sit sollemnis et sana, istis tamen non diligenter
	observatis posset esse valde periculosa".
	29 Ibid. 505-512.

30

Ibid. 506: "Et ideo oportet quod, quantumcunque ideae aeternae assistant intellectui nostro, quod propter huiusmodi assistentiam non sit formaliter perfectior neque potentior respectu alicuius habitus vel actus intelligendi, sed ita formaliter impotens sicut si non assisterent ei".

31

I am here summarizing the results of my article, "Franciscains et Victorins. Tableau d'une reception", in D. Poirel (ed.), L'école de Saint-Victor de Paris. Influence et rayonnement du Moyen Age à l'époque moderne (Turnhout : Brepols, 2010) 521-545.

theology

  Master of the Order spent a great amount of his time in Paris. Other occurrences of Olivi mentioning Bonaventure lecturing "in full chapter, in my presence" probably refer to sermons delivered in front of the assembly of friars in the Paris convent38 . His attendance at the more 36 S. Piron, "L'expérience subjective chez Pierre de Jean Olivi", in O. Boulnois (ed.), Généalogies du sujet. De saint Anselme à Malebranche (Paris: Vrin, 2007), 43-54. 37 Olivi, De usu paupere, 138: "Fuit enim interius optimi et piissimi affectus, et in doctrine verbo semper predicans ea que sunt perfecte puritatis […] Fragilis tamen fuit secundum corpus et forte in hoc aliquid humanum sapiens quod et ipse humiliter, sicut ego ipse ab eo sepius audivi, confitebatur". 38 Olivi, De usu paupere, 138 ; Id., Lectura super Apocalipsim, W. Lewis (ed.) (St Bonaventure: Franciscan Institute Publications, 2015) : 308.

  Montpellier in the Fall of 1279, he exposed a whole theological program made up of three complex sermons (principia) which central items begins with a paraphrase and reformulation of the first of the Collationes in Hexaemeron. Reproducing his master's exposition, with some interesting changes, Olivi presents seven ways in which Christ can be said to be the medium of all sciences[START_REF] Olivi | Peter John Olivi on the Bible, 78-84, reformulates Bonaventura, Collationes in Hexaemeron[END_REF] . The implicit reference to Bonaventure was already obvious in the firstPrincipium, where Olivi offers a new table of philosophical categories that could replaceAristotle's mistaken one, directly inspired by the fourth Collatio[START_REF] Olivi | Principium "de causis[END_REF] . By that time, five years after Bonaventure's death, Olivi was re-enacting, on the smaller scene that was afforded to him, most of his late master's project, combining exegetical prowess and philosophical

bravery in a typically Bonaventurian way. Judging by these extraordinary lectures, one could fairly say that Olivi has been the only true follower of Bonaventure among the Franciscan theologians of his generation. Unquestionably, he was the only one able to produce simultaneously brilliant biblical commentaries and innovative philosophical reflections while keeping alive a strong sense of historical emergency. On the doctrinal level, the price to pay was quite high. In order to defend what he was considering as the most crucial part of Bonaventure's legacy, Olivi felt compelled to get rid of many theoretical constructions that retained, in his views, too strong of a platonician flavor.

D. Burr/D. Flood, "Peter Olivi: On property and revenue", Franciscan Studies

(1980), 47 : "sicut enim de ultima frater Bonaventura me audiente optime exposuit", referring to the 8th lecture which was delivered on that date, according to J.-G. Bougerol, Introduction à saint Bonaventure (Paris : Vrin, 1988), 232.

public Collationes de dono Spiritus sancti provides the earliest certain date for his presence in Paris (1 st April 1268). 39 Yet this may not be the first time he was confronted to Bonaventure.

We should be reminded that Olivi entered the order at the age of 12 at the convent of Béziers in 1260 in which year a General Chapter was held in Narbonne and presided over by Bonaventure. Such an event meant that by [11] Mid-Spring, in that year, the lower Languedoc was flooded with friars from all across Europe, some certainly arriving by sea from Italy who may have landed at Sérignan, the harbor village where Olivi had grown up and was still residing at. The coincidence of time and place is too obvious to be neglected. The young boy's decision to devote his life to the Order of Friar Minors has very likely been triggered by the impressive example given by so many religious men and their commitment to a collective project then appearing as the main driving force towards historical change and eschatological expectations. Bonaventure was the very incarnation of this sense of history, and certainly a very attractive public figure for the young boy. It is striking that all references to personal speeches by Bonaventure to be found in Olivi's works refer to his proclamation of Saint Francis and his Order as heralds of a dawning New Age.

Olivi did not consider Bonaventure as a mere theology teacher. As we already saw, he deployed only moderate efforts to defend the master's earlier theological speculations. He rather perceived his General Minister as a charismatic and prophetical figure, showing the Order and indeed the whole Church the path towards the future. Trained in Béziers and Montpellier during the early 1260's, Olivi was exposed to an intellectual milieu whose most brilliant figure, Hugh of Digne, had been among the most devout introducers of Joachim of Fiore's works in the Franciscan world. Olivi was spared the crisis the earlier generation of Joachite had gone through, witnessing Gerardino of Borgo San Doninno's naïve reading of Joachim and his condemnation in 1255, then the failure of 1260 as an apocalyptical date. He was thus in a position to treat Joachim' authentic readings in a more serene fashion than many others, and it is indeed remarkable that he remained faithful to this attitude throughout the course of his entire intellectual career. As a theology student in Paris, Olivi felt attracted to the one major fight that Bonaventure was pointing to. The philosopher's errors that were spreading at the Arts faculty had an apocalyptical meaning. They constituted the most subtle sign that the arrival of the Antichrist was nearing. Such is exactly the quotes that Olivi picked from the 1268 conference. David Burr has remarkably shown in the first articles he devoted to


Juliette Le Hir
email: juliette.lehir@centralesupelec.fr

Anthony Kolar
email: anthony.kolar@centralesupelec.fr

Filipe Vinci
email: filipe.vinci@centralesupelec.fr

Dos Santos

Distributed Mixed-Signal Architecture for Programmable Smart Image Sensors

Keywords: Smart image sensor, vision system on a chip (VSoC), focal-plane array, algorithm-architecture matching, mixed analogdigital electronics. I

Smart vision systems on a chip are promising for embedded applications. Currently, flexibility in the choice of integrated pre-processing tools is obtained at the expense of total silicon area and fill factor, which are otherwise optimized provided that the sensor performs a specific task. We propose a new architecture based on macropixel-level processing to improve the trade-off by using the same processing elements (PEs) for a whole group of pixels. In this paper, we show through functional simulations the feasibility of using macropixel PEs, with analog operative parts to avoid analog to digital converter (ADC) bottlenecks and digital controls, distributed in and out of the matrix of pixels. PEs are designed to be suitable for coefficientreconfigurable spatial filtering as well as temporal difference. Sharing electronics among several pixels and matching existing algorithms to the target architecture allow for such programmability without degrading pixel area nor fill factor.

INTRODUCTION

Smart Vision Systems-on-a-Chip (VSoCs) aim at outputting relevant information on the scene by performing low-and middle-level image processing, sometimes at the expense of image quality. Extracting image features such as edges or motion prior to transmitting it for further analysis can be a gain of speed and power consumption provided that the analog and digital processing units are co-designed and spatially distributed [START_REF] Massari | A CMOS image sensor with programmable pixel-level analog processing[END_REF]. Such integrated imaging systems are becoming attractive for embedded applications such as drone vision thanks to their savings in area, power, weight and communication bandwidth [START_REF] Fossum | CMOS image sensors: electronic camera-on-a-chip[END_REF]. They are also cost-effective, provided they are fabricated in standard (i.e. planar single-chip) CMOS image sensor (CIS) technology.

This paper is dedicated to the proposal and analysis of a new architecture for smart image sensors addressing important issues of smart VSoCs based on standard CIS processes, in particular their poor balance between reconfigurability and pixel optimization. The state of the art of VSoCs presented in section II shows an unavoidable trade-off between versatility and pixel pitch and fill factor. In section III, we propose a new design approach to reach an optimized solution regarding this trade-off, thanks to spatial distribution of processing elements. Section IV details the hardware architecture of a programmable sensor based on this approach, before section V concludes by the future work needed to implement a hardware prototype.

II. VSOCS STATE OF THE ART

During the last decade several smart vision sensors have been designed in standard CIS technology [START_REF] Massari | A CMOS image sensor with programmable pixel-level analog processing[END_REF][START_REF] Dubois | A 10 000 fps CMOS sensor with massively parallel image processing[END_REF][START_REF] Katic | A retina-inspired robust on-focalplane multi-band edge-detection scheme for CMOS image sensors[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Tri-mode smart vision sensor with 11transistors/pixel for wireless sensor networks[END_REF][START_REF] Fernández-Berni | FLIP-Q: a QCIF resolution focal-plane array for low-power image processing[END_REF][START_REF] Li | A novel vision chip architecture for image recognition based on convolutional neural network[END_REF][START_REF] Zhao | A 64x64 CMOS image sensor with on-chip moving object detection and localization[END_REF][START_REF] Massari | A 100dB dynamic-range CMOS vision sensor with programmable image processing and global feature extraction[END_REF][START_REF] Carmona-Galán | Automatic DR and spatial sampling rate sdaptation for secure and privacy-aware ROI tracking based on focal-plane image processing[END_REF][START_REF] Peizerat | A 120dB DR and 5μm pixel pitch imager based on local integration time adaptation[END_REF][START_REF] Martel | Pixel interlacing to trade off the resolution of a cellular processor array against more registers[END_REF][START_REF] Suárez | A 176 × 120 pixel CMOS vision chip for gaussian filtering with massivelly parallel CDS and A/D conversion[END_REF][START_REF] Yin | A 0.5V, 14.28kframes/s, 96.7dB smart image sensor with array-level image signal processing for IoT applications[END_REF][START_REF] Choi | A 3.4-μW object-adaptive CMOS image sensor with embedded feature extraction algorithm for motiontriggered object-of-interest imaging[END_REF]. The increasing resolutions and frame rates result in a large data transfer between the imaging array and the processing unit. In order to avoid this highly energy consuming operation, image processing is moved as close as possible to the focal plane array. The straightforward approach is to implement in-pixel circuitry. Digital processing means that analog to digital converters (ADCs) are required in each pixel, which brings a tradeoff between resolution of conversion and used silicon area. On the other hand, analog processing needs no in-pixel ADC, and would consume less power. Therefore, and considering our application, we focus here on analog implementation of common processing tasks such as edge detection using spatial convolution [START_REF] Massari | A CMOS image sensor with programmable pixel-level analog processing[END_REF][START_REF] Dubois | A 10 000 fps CMOS sensor with massively parallel image processing[END_REF], difference of averaged images [START_REF] Katic | A retina-inspired robust on-focalplane multi-band edge-detection scheme for CMOS image sensors[END_REF] and neighbours comparison [START_REF] Kim | Tri-mode smart vision sensor with 11transistors/pixel for wireless sensor networks[END_REF] ; motion detection using temporal difference [START_REF] Massari | A CMOS image sensor with programmable pixel-level analog processing[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Tri-mode smart vision sensor with 11transistors/pixel for wireless sensor networks[END_REF] ; or image enhancement [START_REF] Massari | A CMOS image sensor with programmable pixel-level analog processing[END_REF][START_REF] Fernández-Berni | FLIP-Q: a QCIF resolution focal-plane array for low-power image processing[END_REF].

In-pixel processing loosens data throughput requirements in exchange for decreased fill factor. Hence a trade-off has to be made with image quality. Moreover, image processing tasks have been proven to benefit from spatial distribution of processing circuits [START_REF] Li | A novel vision chip architecture for image recognition based on convolutional neural network[END_REF]. Therefore an improvement is to also integrate processing circuits once for the whole matrix [START_REF] Zhao | A 64x64 CMOS image sensor with on-chip moving object detection and localization[END_REF] or at the bottom of each column. For example, one can take advantage of the column-wise correlated double sampling circuit to perform temporal difference [START_REF] Massari | A 100dB dynamic-range CMOS vision sensor with programmable image processing and global feature extraction[END_REF].

On top of pixel-wise, column-wise and array-wise processing, one can consider the macropixel approach: blocks of several pixels (e.g. from 3x3 to 32x32 pixels) processed as a whole. Virtual macropixels are used for region-of-interest detection: pixels are processed together as a virtual cluster by out-of-the-matrix electronics or software. For example, this method is applied for spatial averaging [START_REF] Katic | A retina-inspired robust on-focalplane multi-band edge-detection scheme for CMOS image sensors[END_REF][START_REF] Carmona-Galán | Automatic DR and spatial sampling rate sdaptation for secure and privacy-aware ROI tracking based on focal-plane image processing[END_REF], computing of local integration time [START_REF] Peizerat | A 120dB DR and 5μm pixel pitch imager based on local integration time adaptation[END_REF] or memory optimization by pixel interlacing [START_REF] Martel | Pixel interlacing to trade off the resolution of a cellular processor array against more registers[END_REF]. On the other hand, the concept of macropixels can be implemented in hardware by mutualizing in-matrix circuitry for the block of pixels instead of repeating it in every pixel. Suárez et al. [START_REF] Suárez | A 176 × 120 pixel CMOS vision chip for gaussian filtering with massivelly parallel CDS and A/D conversion[END_REF] proposed such a hardware macropixel: 4 photodetectors share an amplifier and an ADC. A solution for Gaussian filtering is also implemented in [START_REF] Suárez | A 176 × 120 pixel CMOS vision chip for gaussian filtering with massivelly parallel CDS and A/D conversion[END_REF], but it relies on a full resolution switched-capacitor network which does not really take advantage of the macropixel concept.

In short, smart vision sensors currently perform one or several simple tasks such as: edge and/or motion detection [START_REF] Kim | Tri-mode smart vision sensor with 11transistors/pixel for wireless sensor networks[END_REF], edge detection, HDR and tracking [START_REF] Yin | A 0.5V, 14.28kframes/s, 96.7dB smart image sensor with array-level image signal processing for IoT applications[END_REF], motion detection or low power imaging by programming pairs of pixels [START_REF] Choi | A 3.4-μW object-adaptive CMOS image sensor with embedded feature extraction algorithm for motiontriggered object-of-interest imaging[END_REF]. However, none of these systems grants real programmability in the choice neither of algorithms nor of the coefficients.

On the other hand, programmable VSoCs have been proposed in [START_REF] Massari | A CMOS image sensor with programmable pixel-level analog processing[END_REF][START_REF] Fernández-Berni | FLIP-Q: a QCIF resolution focal-plane array for low-power image processing[END_REF][START_REF] Carmona-Galán | Automatic DR and spatial sampling rate sdaptation for secure and privacy-aware ROI tracking based on focal-plane image processing[END_REF], but with only in-pixel processing circuits and thus they suffer from very low fill factor (e.g. 5,4% in [START_REF] Carmona-Galán | Automatic DR and spatial sampling rate sdaptation for secure and privacy-aware ROI tracking based on focal-plane image processing[END_REF]).

A key observation is that distributing analog processing in the matrix improves the area/programmability trade-off. Though a few programmable sensors do exist, there seems to be a lack of a tightly integrated solution. Therefore, in section III, we introduce a new design approach, furthering the macropixel concept, for a highly distributed fully configurable smart image sensor.

III. ALGORITHM-ARCHITECTURE MATCHING FOR DISTRIBUTED ELECTRONICS

The goal of this work is to develop a smart image sensor, embedding digitally controlled analog processing allowing for fully programmable image pre-processing tasks in the focal plane. This limits data transfers out of the system and thus energy consumption, by extracting relevant information as close as possible to the source. By distributing processing electronics between different levels -pixel, macropixel(s), column and whole matrix -, embedding more electronics for versatility purpose becomes possible without degrading significantly other characteristics such as fill factor or pixel size, so that smart high resolution sensors can be fabricated at low cost on standard CIS technology.

The idea is to map common image processing operations to processing circuits that are distributed all over the matrix. In particular, we consider moving away from pixel by pixel operations towards macropixel-level processing in both spatial and temporal image analysis tasks. Moreover, globalized programmable processing elements allow for electronic resources reuse for different tasks.

A. Spatial Convolution

Spatial convolution is widely used in pre-processing tasks such as edge detection or filtering, so efficiently implemented coefficient-programmable spatial convolution is of great interest. It has been done at pixel-level [START_REF] Massari | A CMOS image sensor with programmable pixel-level analog processing[END_REF][START_REF] Dubois | A 10 000 fps CMOS sensor with massively parallel image processing[END_REF] but this implies high sensing surface loss in each pixel. Using macropixel-level implementation, another solution is proposed. The idea is to limit the number of processing elements (PEs) and interconnections inside the matrix. Therefore each pixel is linked to only one PE, and one PE manages as many pixels as the size of the mask (i.e. kernel), for ease of use of the control. Each PE is identical and performs the linear combination of the linked pixels weighted by the chosen coefficients of the mask. The result is then a down-sampled convolution since there is no superposition of the kernels (see Fig. 1). Hence drastic data and in-matrix circuitry reduction is obtained (division by the size of the mask) at the cost of quality loss due to downsampling. This theoretical adaptation of convolution has been functionally tested through Matlab simulations. An illustrative result is displayed on Fig. 2.

It has also been applied to the Histogram of Oriented Gradient (HOG) algorithm, which is widely used for pedestrian detection [START_REF] Dalal | Histograms of oriented gradients for human detection[END_REF]. The first step of this algorithm is the gradient computation, which can be done by applying a {-1 0 1} mask or a Sobel mask, or else directly in polar coordinates [START_REF] Bourrasset | FPGA implementations of Histograms of Oriented Gradients in FPGA[END_REF] with

0 s i n 0 cos 0 cos 0 s i n 0 (1),
for in {0°; 20°; 40°; 60°; 80°; 100°;120°; 140°; 160°}.

Results with SVMs (Support Vector Machines) trained by 600 positive images and 600 negative images from INRIA dataset, for each algorithm, are listed in Table I. Tests were conducted on 200 positive and 100 negative images from the INRIA dataset. Optimizing the training of the SVM is out of the scope of this paper. We simply used the same sets of images to qualitatively compare different low-level algorithms. Table I shows that using down-sampled convolution on cartesian or polar gradients gives comparable results to an implementation of classic HOG algorithm for false negative images. The downsampled convolution shows a much higher rate of false positive detections. This can be explained by the fact that during training of positive images, edges can be lost and thus the SVM is considering non-pedestrian edges as pedestrian edges. For most applications, such as military detection of suspect person or pedestrian detection for automotive avoidance, false positive detections are not a critical issue. So for a negligible loss of quality, the proposed method divides by 9 the amount of electronic processing in the matrix for a 3x3 kernel convolution.

Besides, errors in the calculation of the downsampled convolution were simulated through addition of a normal law of chosen standard deviation. Simulations showed that to keep false positive and negative results comparable to those obtained with the ideal HOG algorithms, the standard deviation of the error must be kept below 0.25. Having an adapted algorithm still effective with up to 25% error of cumulated computation suggests that an analog implementation is feasible.

B. Temporal Difference

The same methodology has been applied to temporal difference, which is a common technique for motion and Regions of Interest detection. Downsampling by 3x3 pixels seems to induce too much information loss, but downsampling by 2x2 appears to be a better trade-off between area saving and quality, as shown in Fig. 3.

Concerning spatial convolution, for a similar fill factor and final resolution, one could suggest using classic 3x3 convolution, with a single large pixel instead of a group of 9. This scheme is evaluated through HOG algorithm in the last column of Table I. Results are comparable with other implementations, but a 2x2 temporal difference could not be implemented for instance.

C. Resources Reuse

The presence of a coefficient-programmable processing element allows for reusing it for different tasks. For instance, temporal difference can be computed with the same PE as spatial filtering using the appropriate set of coefficients. Note that if one PE is assigned to 3x3 pixels while temporal difference is to be computed on a 2x2 basis, a certain sequence of operations must be carried out. It takes longer than having a PE devoted to each temporal difference in parallel. But this is acceptable given the versatility gained with few added electronics.

Besides, analog memory of a frame is usually obtained through storing capacitors. An available capacitor linked to a pixel permits high dynamic range (HDR) imaging, since this storing capacitor can receive the charge surplus from the photodiode under high illumination. Therefore, this overflow capacitor allows for complete information of illumination at high light level as well as at low light level [START_REF] Sugawa | A 100dB dynamic range CMOS image sensor using a lateral overflow integration capacitor[END_REF]. Here, using the memory capacitor as an overflow one would result in a downsampled HDR image.

IV. A DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURE

The proposed architecture consists of macropixels of a defined size. Most kernels are 3x3 pixels (e.g. Sobel kernel) so we propose to fit this size to the hardware architecture of PEs. Temporal difference is on a 2x2 basis. Considering both, we define a 6x6-pixel scheme (Fig. 4), which can be easily repeated to build the whole matrix. Note that the middle capacitor of this pattern is to be connected to the bottom right PE so that each PE manages 3 capacitors at the most. This limits the computation time of temporal difference since each PE computes it for one of its dedicated capacitor after another.

Since PEs must be able to perform convolutions, multiply and add operators are required. A parallelized implementation would imply as many multipliers as mask coefficients. The huge area cost takes it out of consideration.

Moreover, it would be wasteful since masks containing zero coefficients would leave several multipliers unused. So we choose to have one multiplier and one accumulator for the sake of area and efficiency, at the cost of some velocity due to the sequential flow of operations. Note that those multiplier and accumulator are implemented in the analog domain, so that there is no ADC, which ensures fast calculation and area savings.

The PEs are digitally controlled, and that can be done from the out-of-matrix digital logic. This would mean numerous control buses crossing the whole matrix. Instead, we propose to distribute digital control over the matrix as well as analog operative circuits, since this implies less buses at the cost of only a few logic elements in each macropixel. This architecture is illustrated in Fig. 5. The exterior digital part controls the pixels (reset_pix and TX for a 4T-pixel) and starts the PE with proc_enable (00 for idle, 01 for classic 3x3 mask, 10 for temporal difference). Then the PE sequentially selects the needed pixels or capacitors (sel_pix), multipliying their output by the corresponding coefficient (coeff) coming from the external digital control. Once the accumulation is done, the macropixel acknowledges (ack) and waits to be selected and read (sel_macro). If macropixels have digital outputs (e.g. simple 1-bit thresholding), they can be read all at once, and thus the system would be much faster.

The architecture has been simulated using functional VHDL-AMS model. The model can be easily modified to also permit classic convolution or 5x5-mask convolution, at the cost of more complex sequences for the control of the analog operative parts. Output rate of the sensor might thus be lowered in those choices, but very few electronics have to be added.

V. CONCLUSION

This paper has described a new approach to designing smart image sensors. To bring versatility while keeping reasonable fill factor and pixel area, the concept of hardware macropixel is used. Thanks to algorithm-architecture matching, spatial filtering and temporal difference are adapted to be computed using digitally controlled analog processing elements distributed in each macropixel. We show through simulations that the loss of quality is inconsequential for a subsequent high-level image processing such as pedestrian detection, whose circuit implementation is out of the scope of this work. An architecture of such a sensor has been presented, using analog multiplier and accumulator along with part of the digital control in the macropixel, and general digital control out of the matrix. Future work will focus on defining the requirements on the analog domain operators, followed by transistor-level design to fabricate a prototype. Our architecture is aimed at focal plane arrays, but would find even greater benefit when used with 3D stacking technology, which are likely to fundamentally transform VSoCs.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Principle of the down-sampled convolution: linear combination of Sobel mask with pixels of the image is done once instead of nine times for a 3x3 kernel.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Results of (a) classic convolution by a Sobel kernel (equivalent to 1 PE per pixel) and (b) down-sampled convolution with same kernel (equivalent to 1 PE per 9 pixels), performed on the classic image of peppers (512x512 pixels result in (b) 170x170 pixels).

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Temporal difference: (a) image from a video of a walking and waving man, (b) following image of the video, and thresholded differences of the two previous images with (c) a 1/(2x2) down-sampling or (d) a 1/(3x3) downsampling. (a) and (b) have a resolution of 240x320 pixels, and so (c) is 120x160 and (d) is 80x107 pixels.

Fig. 4 .Fig. 5 .

 45 Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the 6x6-pixel basic unit of the proposed matrix: 1 PE for 3x3 pixels, and 1 capacitor for 2x2 pixels. This should be replicated as much as necessary to build the whole matrix.

TABLE I .

 I COMPARISON OF IMPLEMENTATIONS OF HOG ALGORITHM

				Type of HOG
		Classic HOG	Down-sampling	Polar gradi ent	Down-sampling of polar gradient	Classic HOG -single large pixel
	False positive images (%)	0	14	0	4	13
	False negative images (%)	6	8	5	8.5	10


Christian Laugier
email: christian.laugier@inria.fr

Procópio Mathias Perrollaz

Silveira Stein

Christopher Tay

Meng Keat

Stephanie Lefevre

Javier-Ibanez Guzman

Amaury Negre

Lukas Rummelhard

Nicolas Turro

Jean-Alix David

Jérôme Lussereau

Tiana Rakotovao

J Machan

Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment

Keywords: Embedded Bayesian Perception  Main challenges  Noisy data, Incompleteness, Dynamicity, Discrete measurements  Strong Embedded Uncertainty, Partial Knowledge, World changes, Human in

Drive Me trials • 100 Test Vehicles in Göteborg, 80 km, 70km/h • No pedestrians & Plenty of separations between lanes Tesla Autopilot based on Radar & Mobileye 3D Lidar & Dense 3D mapping Numerous vehicles & miles covered Robot Taxi testing in Pittsburgh (Uber) & Singapore (nuTonomy

Solving for each cell

Joint Probability decomposition:

P(C A O O -1 V V -1 Z) = P(A) P(O -1 V -1 | A) P(O V | O -1 V -1 ) P(C | A V) P(Z | O C)

•

  Strong involvement of Car Industry & Large media coverage • An expected market of 500 B€ in 2035 • Technologies Validation => Numerous recent & on-going reallife experiments (in addition to simulation & formal methods) Bayesian Perception : Basic idea  Multi-Sensors Observations Lidar, Radar, Stereo camera, IMU …  Probabilistic Environment Model  Sensor Fusion  Occupancy grid integrating uncertainty  Probabilistic representation of Velocities  Prediction models Occupancy & Velocity probabilities Embedded models for Motion Prediction  Main philosophy Reasoning at the grid level as far as possible for both : o Improving efficiency (highly parallel processing) o Avoiding traditional object level processing problems (e.g. detection errors, wrong data association…) -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 7 © Inria. All rights reserved A new framework: Dynamic Probabilistic Grids => A clear distinction between Static & Dynamic & Free components Bayesian Occupancy Filter (BOF) => Patented by Inria & Probayes => Commercialized by Probayes => Robust to sensing errors & occultation  Used by: Toyota, Denso, Probayes, Renault, Easymile, IRT Nanoelec / CEA  Free academic license available Industrial license under negotiation with Toyota, Renault, Easymile[Coué & Laugier IJRR 05] [Laugier et al ITSM 2011] [Laugier, Vasquez, Martinelli Mooc uTOP 2015]

©Software

  occupancy for each cell of the grid P (O | Z ) • Grid update is performed in each cell in parallel (using BOF equations) • Extract Motion Field (using Bayesian filtering & Fused Sensor data) • Reason at the Grid level (i.e. no object segmentation at this reasoning level) Exploiting the Dynamic information for improving Scene Understanding !! © Inria. All rights reserved C. LAUGIER -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 9 © Inria. All rights reserved Experimental Results in dense Urban Environments Ego Vehicle (not visible on the video) scene C. LAUGIER -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 10 © Inria. All rights reserved Recent implementations & Improvements  Hybrid Sampling Bayesian Occupancy Filter (HSBOF, 2014) => Drastic memory size reduction (factor 100) + Increased efficiency (complex scenes) + More accurate Velocity estimation (using Particles & Motion data from ego-vehicle )  Conditional Monte-Carlo Dense Occupancy Tracker (CMCDOT, 2015) => Increased efficiency using "state data" (Static, Dynamic, Empty, Unknown) + Integration of a "Dense Occupancy Tracker" (Object level, Using particles propagation & ID)  CMCDOT + Ground Estimator (under Patenting, 2017) => Ground shape estimation & Improve obstacle detection (avoid false detections on the ground) [Negre et al 14] [Rummelhard et al 14] [Rummelhard et al 15] Several implementations (models & algorithms) more and more adapted to Embedded constraints & Scene complexity to the prediction capability of the BOF technology, the Autonomous Vehicle "anticipates" the behavior of the pedestrian and brakes (even if the pedestrian is temporarily hidden by the parked vehicle) rights reserved C. LAUGIER -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 16 © Inria. All rights reserved Step 1: Short-term collision risk -Main features => Grid level & Conservative motion hypotheses (proximity perception) o Detect "Risky Situations" a few seconds ahead (3-5s) o Risky situations are both localized in Space & Time  Conservative Motion Prediction in the grid (Particles & Occupancy)  Collision checking with Car model (shape & velocity) for every future time steps (horizon h) o Resulting information can be used for choosing Avoidance Maneuvers Proximity perception: d <100m and t <5s d= 0.5 s => Precrash d= 1 s => Collision mitigation d > 1.5s => Warning / Emergency Braking  Collision Risk Estimation: Integration of risk over a time range [t t+d] => Projecting over time the estimated Scene changes (DP-Grid) & Car Model (Shape + Motion) Detect potential upcoming collisions  Reduce drastically false alarms More details in related Interactive Session (presented by Tiana Rakotovao) © Inria. All rights reserved C. LAUGIER -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 19 © Inria. All rights reserved Step 2: Generalized Risk Assessment (Object level) => Increasing time horizon & complexity using context & semantics => Key concept: Understand the current traffic situation & its likely evolution  Evaluate the Risk of future collision by reasoning on traffic participants Behaviors  Takes into account Context & -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 20 © Inria. All rights reserved Behavior-based Collision risk (Object level) => Increased time horizon & complexity + Reasoning on Behaviors  Trajectory prediction & Collision Risk => Patent Inria -Toyota -Probayes 2010  Intention & Expectation => Patents Inria -Renault 2012 & Inria -Berkeley 2013 -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 21 -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 22 © Inria. All rights reserved  Highly parallelizable framework, 27 kernels over cells and particles => Occupancy, speed estimation, re-sampling, sorting, prediction  Real-time implementation (20 Hz), optimized using Nvidia profiling tools Results: Configuration with 8 Lidar layers (2x4)  Grid: 1400 x 600 (840 000 cells) + Velocity samples: 65 536 => Jetson TK1: Grid Fusion 17ms, CMCDOT 70ms => Jetson TX1: Grid Fusion 0.7ms, CMCDOT 17ms

Bayesian Filtering (Grid update at each time step)

© Inria. All rights reserved C. LAUGIER -"Embedded Bayesian Perception and Collision Risk Assessment" IEEE ICRA 2017 WS on Robotics and Vehicular Technologies for Self-driving cars , Singapore, June 2 nd 2017 8 © Inria. All rights

reserved Bayesian Occupancy Filter (BOF) -Main Features Occupancy Probability (P Occ ) + Velocity Probability (P velocity ) Grid update => Bayesian Filter Sensing Occupancy Grid (static part) Sensors data fusion + Bayesian Filtering Motion field (Dynamic part)


Persons and Grammar in Meyor language (Tibeto-Burman).

F. Jacquesson

I will try to describe some features of persons, tense and aspect, and the grammar of "reported speech" in the language of Meyor people, a small group living in easternomost Arunachal Pradesh, India. I will conclude with some thoughts about languages being counter-intuitive and about grandfathers being innovative.

Introduction

There are about 400-500 persons1 speaking three varieties of Meyor language on the Indian side of the border, in Anjo District, Eastern Arunachal Pradesh. These Meyor people live mostly in nine villages between the border with China and the township of Walong. They are found in Musai (15 houses 2 ), Tinai (13 h.), , Dong (10 h.), Kaho (9 h.), Khroti (5h.), Tilam (5 h.), Kundun (4 h.), Mulam Kembring (4 h.). These people do not have the same history, and belong to five groups, called Khordjap-pu, Litsi-pu, Netan-pu, Phitsi-pu and Sunggu-pu. Netan and Sunggu are the names of two Meyor villages on the Chinese side, and lineages of Netan-pu and Sunggu-pu come from these two places. Communication betwwen both sides stopped after 1962. The three other groups apparently are not from specific places, or may have been living in their present location for a longer period. The last well-known batch of people coming from the Chinese side is the family of Tsering Tunduk Zakhring, whom, his people say 3 , British officials convinced in the 1940s to move this side. The varieties of speech that I know of are the Kaho speech (the last village up there before the border), the Walong speech, and the speech of the Netan-pu, reputed for its 'tunes': it is indeed the only one to have tones 4 . The three dialects are more or less inter-understandable, but have differences in prosody, lexicon, and grammar. Some Meyor people (actually Meye or M'ye, because the name Meyor seems to result from a British adaptation) also live in China. The language has many characteristics in common with Miju, the easternmost group of the so-called Mishmi. The examples given here are in Kaho dialect, all from Ajit Meyor, in his thirties, living in Kaho village and at Tezu.

Verb phrases in Meyor are made of a verb root, sometimes with a pre-verb, and a number of suffixes that express both person and tense/aspect. If negation occurs, it is placed before the verb root. The verb phrase is at the end of the sentence; arguments come before it. If definite, patients (O) are marked with -vik; agents (A) with -kui if necessary; word order in such cases is AOV. In glosses, I will use s1, s2, s3, p1, p2, p3 for the six traditional persons. The apostrophe denotes a super short vowel.

(1.1) mik khǝr-m sun is rising sun rise-Pst/s3

(1.2) u m°-tai-mu he does not hear s3

Neg-hear-Hab/s3

(1.3) ko i-vik thir-miŋ I am calling you s1 s2-O call-Pst/s1

(1.4) (ko) phu m'-tsǝt-kiŋ I am not blowing (on something) (s1)

'phu' Neg-blow-PstN/s1

In the last example, with pre-verb, the positive form would be phu tsǝt-miŋ '(I) make phu, I blow' with the Pst/s1 -miŋ ending as in example 3. Negation triggers another ending, here labelled PstN/1s. Since -miŋ and -kiŋ can be used only in s1, the use of ko in the beginning of such sentence indicates focus, or stress. The "i forms" and "tsi forms" serve with verb roots. These i or tsi are often followed by a suffix. In the first example, no andek tso i, 'you eat rice', the 2 nd person suffix is i or i neŋ. In the next examples, i is followed by a suffix, mu or khuk. In the 'you like stories' example, no tampi go-i-mu, i comes before mu or map. These i or tsi only occur with 2 nd persons. In 'you will go to Walong', no Waloŋ ti-i-khuk, the verb 'to go' is ti-, but the final suffix is actually the verb meaning 'to come', khuk-, regular auxiliary verb for future. Among the various suffixes that express person+tense/aspect, only s2 -i comes before the auxiliary, while others, -kiŋ, -ke, -neŋ and ku all come after. If we consider the "tsi forms", 'you have forgotten' no tsak-tsi-ki offers the same conclusion: only 2 nd person tsi comes before the ki auxiliary 'to do', and other suffixes come after. In the other two examples 'you are ill' no ndǝm-tsik and 'you have seen' (the common past tense) no ŋoŋ-tsik, the paradigms only differ in an important detail: active verbs have -ik where stative verbs have -e.

Two kinds of 'you'

I
Verbs khuk-and ki-can be employed with their full meaning, for instance in sentences like:

( There are other possible endings in s3, for instance -lek, but these above will suffice to describe the main lines. The s3 -m form probably is the most common one; it means that you are doing something now or that you are now beginning doing it; it is also a narrative present. The s3 -mu form means you are usually doing that, for instance 'you like apples'. The s3 -khuk form is a future, not an urgent one. The s3 -e form is a stative result, 'you ar now being ill'. The s3 -ik form is a past tense for active verbs.

Finally the s3 -ki form is a recent past, 'you have (just) forgotten'.

Such a chart, were it still more detailled, would not solve all problems, especially when persons are involved. Even within the scope of these charts, we shall remark that s2 -i form is found as a last or last but one element in "i forms" of verbs. It comes last in sentences like no andek tso-i 'you are eating food (rice)', and last but one in no andek tso-i-khuk 'you will eat food'.

A last curious point is to be mentionned here about this i-meaning 'you'. When you adress a number of people one after the other, supposing you give them indications or orders, you will tell i-vik 'you' to the first one, but no-vik to the next ones.

Aspects

One difference between ko tampi tsǝr-miŋ and ko tampi tsǝr-maŋ 'I am telling story'5 is that with tsǝr-miŋ you are actually now telling one, while with tsǝr-maŋ you are just mentionning a habit; tampi tsǝr-maŋ could also be translated as 'I have/had been telling many stories'. Would you use tsǝr-aŋ you would tell 'I was telling stories' (in some more or less remote past), and with tsǝr-kiŋ 'I was just telling a story' (when you came in, for instance).

(3.1) ko raptse simu-vik vale tampi tsǝr-maŋ s1 own daughter-O much story tell-Hab/s1 I have been telling many stories to my daughters Yet, if it is a matter of custom or habit, and not a repeated action, we fall back to -miŋ type. Suppose you are interested to know whether French people eat fish, the question is: (3a) shows the Imperative prefix ts'-at work. Imperative negative would be with prefix he-instead of ts'-. (3b) is for action and is a typical use of the -miŋ paradigm which often indicates something now occuring, about to occur etc. (3c) is for station, and a good opportunity for the -aŋ paradigm (chart 5 n°2), which is a present-past, often a 'perfective' if we mean the description of the present result of a past action.

(3.2) Frans-
Moreover, there is a distinction for 'actual witnessing':

(3.4a) uŋ maiso ndzur-e that girl is pretty (look!) that girl pretty-Ps/s3

(3.4b) uŋ maiso ndzur-tek that girl is pretty

The use of -e in (4a) shows that you are seeing her, whereas -tek in (4b) is a more general indication when talking about girls with friends. In the negative, only -e is possible; the nuance disappears. Persons (in the grammatical sense) of course make a difference in aspect during conversation. Suppose you call a girl or lady who is walking over there; she does not hear you. You may tell a friend:

(3.5) ko u-vik thir-miŋ. U m'-tai-mu s1 s3-O call-Pst/s1 s3 Neg-hear-Hab/s3 I am calling her, she does not hear.

Because the 'calling action' is seen as going on, it triggers the usual present tense. The 'not hearing action' does not go on at all, and is seen as an inability to hear. Suppose you then decide to tell your friend: 'I am not calling her', you could perhaps say ko u-vik m'-thir-kiŋ (the expected negative formiŋ endings) but in this context the sentence is a bit awkward, and a certainly more natural reaction is ko u-vik m'-thir-khuk-kiŋ 'I will not call her (anymore)', with a future tense stressing purpose or vexation.

Meyor language is sensitive to "immediacy": it makes a grammatical difference if things happen at once or not, if the past was just now (-ki past, see chart 5 n°3) or not (-ik past, chart 5 n°2), are to happen right now (-m 'present', see chart 4 n°1) or not (future with khuk, chart 4 n°3). The same is true when actions are to follow. Where English has to use 'as soon as', Meyor uses a specific -lek verb form, here glossed as 'So':

(3.6) i-yak tsaŋ phri-lek dzapma, ko-vik ndzom-wa-i.khuk? s2-G work finish-So after s1-O meet-can-Fut/s2 Right after finishing your work, can you visit me? Note that if, on the contrary, you mean 'before you do something, do something else', you will have, as in French, to use a negative dependant clause:

(3.7) ko tsaŋ m'-thrui toŋgu i-vik ko ndzom-khuk.kiŋ s1 work Neg-work before7 , s2-O s1 meet-Fut/s1 Before I work (my work), I will meet you Je te verrai avant que je ne me mette au travail This sentence also shows a more relaxed word order, a natural way of telling things. The second ko might be dropped altogether.

Telling stories

Most stories, either true or not, need at least three persons: you who listen or tell, the other one who tells or listens, and that other person, the topic of all gossip, a raja, a girl, a frog. However, complications arise when rajas tell about girls or frogs, and you in turn tell what they tell. By far the most common grammatical solution to the problem of reported speech is to report it as it was spoken. If the raja said: 'Laila, my girl, what a godly person you are', it is far more economical to state it as (a) than as (b): (4.1a) "And the raja said: 'Laila, my girl, what a godly person you are' " (4.1b) "And the raja said that Laila, his dear girl, was indeed a godly person." Complicated grammar such as (b) would rapidly throw us in dire embarrassment, were Laila to tell stories about frogs to her raja, and were these same frogs then to tell her stories about me -these embedded frames that story-tellers love. Yet, in a number of languages, techniques have been developped to trace who is speaking. Sometimes, anaphora develops as a sub-department of deixis, and special pronouns are used to indicate which third person is talking about another third person. In Meyor, the solution is different.

First, we should know the difference between sro-, ndo-and tsǝr-. The verb sro means 'speak', like in: (4.2) ko Meyor lai m'-sro-kiŋ I do not speak Meyor language s1 Meyor language Neg-speak-PstN/s1

More important for us, ndo-mai is 'saying' and tsǝr-mai is 'telling'. If you request someone to give you his mobile phone number, while he is busy with something else, he may realize after some time you requested it, and then ask you: This would be, probably, an answer to your question: 'Did he tell it?" -He told it, yes. If you told a story, even mentioning to whom, the tense setting remains 'normal'. Here, each function is marked: agent who told (with -kui) and patient who is told (with -vik). More remarkably, the verb ending is specific: -pu (in Kaho speech, in Walong pronounced -phu) makes it clear that the teller is a 3 rd person. The same -pu would work in sentences like:

(4.
(4.9) laŋ gǝdzom siŋ ko-vik tshar ki-pu Some people made fun of me other person PL s1-O joke do-RS This 'joke' implies telling things. In reported speech, the -pu form naturally occurs. Compare the two following sentences. (4.12) no ko-vik tampi tsǝr-tsu s2 s1-O story tell-RS2 you (will) tell me a story

The previous (11 and 12) examples need a (virtual) hearer to be valid. The point is not only to "tell stories", but to tell them to someone definite. The pattern no ko-vik...-tsu has a possible plural with ni ko-vik...-tsu-neŋ. However, with s1 or sp2 agents, the respective -e and -tsu endings suggest future, and are equivalent to a polite request in (12), and to a promise in (11).

(4.13) ko-vik sabun tat-tsu -ko to tat-e s1-O soap give-RS2 -s1 now give-RS1 Give me soap please.

-I will give (it) now.

It may be that the -tsu suffix is related to the Imperative ts-prefix, or maybe to the "tsi forms" in our chapter 2 but, whatever the link, these three suffixes, -pu, -tsu, -e, do not belong to a formal paradigm: they express distinct positions in speech, are difficult to compare within a convenient common frame, and are apparently not to be considered as variants of a same situation. Although they do not form a paradigm, and are more difficult to pinpoint when the investigation starts from formal questionnaires, they have an interesting role in the grammar of story-telling.

On persons and paradigms

Is there a paradigm for persons in Meyor? The questions is biased by our idea of the three grammatical persons, which is derived from rhetorics or semantics, a dialogue with a topic: someone talks to someone else, and this "else" now takes over and answers; they are talking about somebody or something, the traditionnal 3 rd person. Since we accept this frame as granted, we look for "the 3 persons" in any language -and we usually find them. Linguistic documentation has shown a number of interesting cases about "4 th persons" or switch reference, but this is the domain of reference or 3 rd person, not the scene of dialogue that accomodates the first two ones.

If we look at the Meyor 'new' verbal morphology, the morphology which shows with the auxilliaries khuk-and ki-, we observe its striking dissymetry. 1 st person is marked after the auxiliary, 2 nd person is marked before, and 3 rd person is not marked at all.

aux. aux. s1 V khuk kiŋ V ki ŋ s2 V i khuk V tsi ki s3 V khuk V ki
We are not surprised by the 3 rd person 'zero' marking. Benveniste, more than 60 years ago, has shown the characteristics of the 3 rd person, cross-linguistically, on semantic and morphological grounds. He observed that, most often, this person is not a person at all, but anything ("rain fell, darkness came with melancholy, everything was blurred, light itself seemed dull") and in some cases a person. He remarked that many languages do not trace this false person by any marker; his favorite examples were in Semitic languages, but the remark can be verified in hundreds of cases, Meyor included.

The 3 rd person is not marked because it is the most obvious candidate or default subject for any predicate. Even in a parody of "simple talk", sequences like < bull angry >, < house big >, < text stupid > make sense immediately. It would be less obvious with examples like < John pig watching >, but the ambiguity concerns who watches whom, not the predication itself: marking comes in for disambiguation. Why is it so often different for < me you watch >? It is of course possible to follow the same default pattern, as many languages like Chinese or Garo or Deori do show. Perhaps can I suggest that the pressure for marking persons has semantic grounds: precisely because 'me' or 'you' induce a bias on who acts (we expect that I act, and you are acted upon), it is considered necessary to make clear who does what.

It seems we can observe a pageant of possibilities. The null-marking is common, especially in Eastern Asia, a region where cultural/linguistic habits refrain from showing persons -even if the map of person non-agreement does not completely correspond with the map of polite escape from pronouns. The marking of s1, s2, s3, as in many Indo-european languages, cannot hide the fact that the s3 marking *-t is a demonstrative, while the marks for s1 and s2 are not. The marking of s1 and s2 (not s3) in Semitic languages, which was one major example of Benveniste, is not a uniform pattern because the two groups of morphemes (verb prefixes and noun/verb suffixes) are similar for s2 but not for s1. The problem of the two series of morphemes is also found in Tibeto-Burman, for instance in Kuki languages, often with the same difference between verb and noun forms, sometimes (as with Kamhau in Tiddim, according to Henderson) with stylistic formating. In Meyor, the two series are identical for s1 but not for s2: noun forms (s2 i-) are distinct from verb forms (s2 no). The result is that you use s1 ko whichever the function, while you have to choose which you use for s2, depending on subject (s2 no) or non-subject (s2 i).

This pattern seems all the more significant for being fragile. Analogy would rapidly erase such a morpho-syntactic idiosyncrasy, or awkward point. In Standard Miju, it does not exist in syntax, although it is still clear in morphology: s1 and s2 are both consistently ki and nyo, but the trace of s2 i is still clear in the verb suffix.

(5.1a) ki nyo-wi ŋuŋ-mi I will see (find) you s1 s2-O see-Fut/s1

(5.1b) nyo ki-wi ŋuŋ-yi.maŋ you will see (find) me s2 s1-O see-Fut/s2 I am not saying the Meyor pattern is archaic and precious, while Miju would be on the road to modern mass-treatment; I hope to have evaded such sweeping pseudo-historicism. Moreover, what about the strange usage of marking the s1 object by a suffix in Miju, and only this one?

Yet, it seems only reasonable to admit that small groups of people who speak a specific language at home would more easily either shelter awkward features as typically theirs or produce innovative awkward ones that would seem homely to them. It is more difficult to maintain or evolve dyssymetries when your language is spoken by millions, because so many people have to learn it as a second language, and would tend to minimize its difficulties by analogy -except perhaps if this language has a strong and prestigious literacy. On the whole, the problem is not whether such dyssymetric features are old ("archaic") or new ("innovative") because innovation may of course appear any time, grand-fathers' included.

  (4.5) i-yak tsepni tampi tsǝr-m tha Your brother was telling a story s2-G brother story tell-Pst/s3 Past This is normal past continuous tense in Kaho dialect: the present-past marked with tha. Without tha, the sentence would be interpreted as a present continuous 'He is telling a story'. The short past is also possible

  (4.7) ko moŋor i-vik tampi tsǝr-aŋ tha I have told you a story yesterday s1 yest. s2-O story tell-Ps/s1 Past As soon as three 'roles' are at stake, we shift out of the normal setting: (4.8) i-yak tsepni-kui i-vik tampi tsǝr-pu s2-G brother-A s2-O story tell-RS Your brother has told you a story

  (4.10) dzik-kui tsor sat-ki A tiger has killed a cow tiger-A cow kill-PsI/s3 (4.11) laŋ gǝdzom-kui ko-vik sai-pu dzik-kui tsor sat-ki other person-A s1-O report-RS tiger-A cow kill-PsI/s3 Someone told me that a tiger killed a cow Until now, a 3 rd person told something. I or you also can tell a story to somebody. (4.11) ko i-vik tampi tsǝr-e ko-apa-yak s1 s2-O story tell-RS1 s1-father-G I will tell you a story about my father.

  S1 ko has one form only, be it independant or affixing (here: agent or patient), while s2 is no when independant or subject and i-when affixing -vik. We could say that no is the direct form, i the oblique form.

	I am seeing you	you are seeing me
	Regarding s2/p2 persons, verb paradigms can be classified in 3 groups: the "e forms", the "i forms",
	the "tsi forms". The "e forms" serve for noun predicates like 'You are a Meyor', no Meyor e, or 'you
	are tall' etc. In fact, me in s3 is dispensable. Suffix ku marks plural in p3 predicates.
					I am tall
		s1	ko	khreŋ kiŋ
		s2	no	khreŋ e
		s3	u	khreŋ (me)
		p1	ki	khreŋ ke
		p2	ni	khreŋ neŋ
		p3	vi	khreŋ ku
		Chart 3: noun predicate conjugation
	Personal pronouns in Meyor do not indicate gender. They are:
			1	2	3
		singular	ko	no / i	u
		plural	ki	ni	vi
			Chart 1: Personal pronuns
			subj.	my house
		s1	ko		ko-yak nam
		s2	no		i-yak nam
		s3	u		u-yak nam
		p1	ki		ki-yak nam
		p2	ni		ni-yak nam
		p3	vi		vi-yak nam
			Chart 2: possessive prefixes
	Most importantly, it occurs with vik that marks the definite patient or object:
	(2.1) ko	i-vik suk-miŋ	no	ko-vik suk-i (wo)
	s1	s2-O see-Pst/s1	s2	s1-O see-Pst/s2

The subject pronoun for 'you' is no, and the plural form 'youP' is ni. Yet, in many cases, instead of no, the i-form is used. Basically, the i-form is mostly found with a suffix; exeptions will be examined. It occurs with postpositions like -tshi 'both': i-tshi 'you both'; phai 'with': ko kar-lik i-phai khuk-aŋ 'I came with you in a car' (I-car-in you-with come-Ps/s1); with -yak indicating detrmination or 'possession':

  Instead of considering the 2 nd person, if we start our perusal from the 3 rd one, we can formalize our remarks on the following chart.

	2.2) (u)	khuk-e	he has come
	(s3)	come-Ps/s3
	(2.3) u sek ki-m	what is she doing?
	s3 what do-Pst/s3
	if s3 ends in	then s2 is with	example
	zero		-e	you are tall	no khreŋ e
	-m		-i	you eat rice	no andek tso-i
	-mu		-i-mu	you like stories	no tampi go-i-mu
	-khuk		-i-khuk	you will go	no ti-i-khuk
	-e		-tsik	you are ill	no ndǝm-tsik
	-ik		-tsik	you have seen	no ŋoŋ-tsik
	-ki		-tsi-ki	you have forgotten	no tsak-tsi-ki
			Chart 6: Conjugation patterns

  With 'say' the stress is more on form and sound, with 'tell' rather on meaning. In English as in Meyor, you can ask if you have said (the sound) shglumph, but can hardly say that you 'told' shglumph. You can say that French cocks say kokoriko while German ones say kikiriki, you cannot say they 'tell' it. You say something, but you can tell about something. Here we have come back to the beginning of this chapter.If no hearer is mentioned, you may have sentences like:

	3) ko ndo-aŋ	wo? Did I say (it)?
	s1 say-Ps/s1 Int
	(4.4) no ŋyit-i-mu	wo	ato i-vik sek ndo-aŋ
	s2 know-Hab/s2 Int	now s2-O what say-Ps/s1
	Do you know what I told you (said to you) just now?

  The problem is to wonder if dissymetric features are random or guided by semantics. If they are random, I cannot well see why people like Robbins Burling or me have spent so much time pestering for details these people in North-East India. If they are not, or if randomness is guided by semantics, then the awkward features we discover are what luck and obstinacy bring to us, and among them are features that give us an idea of some of the tendencies that human minds do have.Tezu, Arunachal Pradesh. 2015 Feb 19.

This paper is the result of a new investigation among the Meyor people living in Tezu, in February

I thank my old and dear friend Dr Chhinjo Meyor for having organized my stay there and numerous fruitful contacts, and Ajit Meyor (the son of Chhinjo's elder sister Rosalia), born c. 1980, for his courage and acumen during our long work sessions. The trip was funded by my Research Unit, the LACITO (French CNRS, UMR7107) associated with the Sorbonne Nouvelle University at Paris.22 Approximately. Total would be between 70 and 80 houses. A newly married couple shifts to its own house after one year. A few houses accomodate more than 6-7 people; a few only one person.3 Chhinjo Meyor is one grand-daughter, through her mother Pema Lamu, of Ts. T. Zakhring.4 Partition between groups whose speech has tones, and groups who do not have is a common phenomenon in Arunachal. As far as I know, this happens in the west (close to Bhutan) among Sherdukpens where only three small villages still have tones, among Adi where Padam people are said to have "tunes", among Miju where only some remote villages "have tunes", and among Meyor where tones are the privilege of the Netan-pu. We always think of the influence of Hindi, indeed very considerable in Arunachal, but it may not be the sole reason, since Tibetan dialects also know of this partition.

This translation is 'baby English', in order not to decide which stories are told and how or when.

Verb tham-is used only for meat and fish; otherwise, the average verb is tso-.

Toŋgu does not really mean 'before' but 'earlier, in the past'.