Thierry Ménissier

In this article we examine the relationship between Machiavelli's thought and the notion of corruption, starting from the multiple meanings thereof. It appears in the first instance that the Florentine Secretary proposes a definition rather "civic" than "deontological" of corruption; in this respect he is in tune with the tradition of republican thought and more precisely he argues using a paradigm of neo-Roman civic virtue. Yet far from sticking to this type of analysis, Machiavelli also seems responsive to the games of the underlying interests of politics, and especially in his The Florentine History; and if he calls for the citizens' vigilance, he invites his reader to understand the ongoing role of charismatic influence. These two dimensions blur the usual lines and lead to qualify his doctrine of "heterodox republicanism." *** If the definition of the concept of corruption is in itself a delicate thing, because of the polysemous nature of the term, to envisage it in the work of the Florentine Secretary appears even more difficult. Certainly, there is a form of spontaneous familiarity between this notion and the Machiavellian thought: Machiavelli discusses the corruption of regimes and customs, and he undertakes to redefine civic virtue. One might even say that because of his intention to reconsider the "modes" and "orders" of the republic, the Machiavellian work engenders in the reader, in terms of analysis of corruption, a sort of expectation. However, it is difficult to know more, at least for the time being. Indeed, as it is generally understood in the political field, corruption points to the illicit transactions between private interests and public welfare (whether a service or important information). But from this moment onward things get complicated: Machiavelli is reputed to have produced an analysis of political action that denies any form of autonomy of the public sphere vis-à-vis private interests. Indeed, on the

one hand, the Secretary regards the "desire to acquire" as the apparent motivation of the actors; on the other hand, even if Machiavelli pertains to the Republican current of thinking, the referent of Florentine society, constantly present in the spirit of the author, does not allow for a "pure" representation of the Republican doctrine. Sensitive to the play of social forces and to their insurmountable conflictuality, Machiavelli conceived political life as intimately linked to the endless games of passions and interestsis this to say that it is not capable of issuing a normative idea of corruption? And if such is the case, what can his work bring us today?

Polysemy of Corruption

In order to better understand the relationship between the work of Machiavelli and the notion of corruption, it is necessary to deepen a little the meaning of the latter. It generally designates illegal transactions between private interests and public welfare, but there is no denying that this is a polysemous term, and it seems therefore necessary to examine briefly the variety of its meanings. According to Littré, it means at the same time: (1) alteration, (2) putrid decomposition, (3) depravity (of manners), (4) means employed to win someone and determine him to act against his duty and in a manner contrary to what is lawful. The first meaning is generic insofar as it aims to describe the state of degradation of a body. The passage from the first two to the last two meanings suggests that the term has evolved towards a moral evaluation. It has acquired a sense both active and pejorative, and its significance rests on an assessment of what we are talking about, estimated by reference to a standard or ideal state. It is according to this implicit, yet structural assessment, that the notion of corruption is a privileged object of political philosophy, since the latter is not only a description of the collective action by means of appropriate categories, but it also undertakes to judge it.

Starting from this first semantic benchmark, three distinct problem areas open to political philosophy:

(a) Reflection on the corruption of regimes, that is to say, on their transformation of a model into another one. In the Western world, this approach was taken from the very beginnings of political philosophy, for Littré reported it since the receipt of the canonical texts of Aristotle, in the fourteenth century, and Oresme, in his commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics, uses this term of "corruption" to reflect the alteration of regimes. The broadest interest of this orientation (meanings 1 and 2) is to understand the logic of human social and political relations apprehended under their constitutional dimension by referring it to that of nature. In this way are developed the terms of "physics of politics" whose assumptions are repeated by Machiavelli in his Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy 1 .

(b) The moral degradation. It may be understood in two different ways: on the one hand, by characterising morals, in the most general manner, it suggests a weakening of social and civic behaviour. Thus in political theory, with Machiavelli, before Montesquieu, we can talk about a deterioration of that particular virtue which is attached to the Republicrepublican manners are the true incentive of this kind of human association. On the other hand, by characterising the moral tendency of man, it denotes a propensity to vice or perversion.

Hence, "corruption" is a term with theological connotations, which becomes meaningful in the West in the tradition of Christian thought, which has forged a representation of man as a sinful creature, representation doomed to have an extraordinary posterity. However, this meaning is not strictly theological, since from Greek Antiquity, philosophers have explored man's tendency to be evil, whereof the notion of corruption is likely to account for.

Research on corruption thus runs into moral philosophy, in that it necessarily leads to axiology and reflection on moral rules.

(c) Finally, the last meaning is the one which prevails in legal thinking. In this field, corruption is simultaneously the action of corrupting and its result. It refers, on the one hand, to the "occult exchange" whereby, in return for money or various advantages, a private person is trying to get from an agent of the government (central administration of the State or a private agent of a territorial or local community) certain services or information, these being either denied access or subject to certain rules of access 2 . On the other hand, it refers to the offense characterised as the outcome of this exchange.

Machiavelli :a Conception on Corruption rather Civic than Deontological

1 Cf. Machiavelli, Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy, I, 2, namely the idea that political bodies like all natural things have an end (our references are made from the edition of C. Bec, Paris, Robert Laffont, 1996). 2 See Della Porta (Donatella), Lo scambio occulto. Casi di corruzione politica in Italia, Bologne, Il Mulino, 1992. That said, we can state that with a sharp awareness, Machiavelli's work unfolds in times of corruption which it denounces, and does that in several different ways.

On the one hand, the Florentine asserts on several occasions and with great expressive power that he has the impression of living a time of corrupt political morality. To take just two passages of his work, but particularly iconic and vibrant with emotion, one can read in this sense "the exhortation to seize Italy and deliver it from the barbarians", which constitutes the last chapter of The Prince and the Foreword to Book II of the Discourses. One could say that the work of Machiavelli bears witness to the decadence of modern manners as compared to Antiquity's customs. The veritable attacks, in the Discourses on Livy against the Christian faith, become here increasingly virulent: the promoters of a moral which consisted in "disarming the sky and making the world effeminate" are denounced in terms of the European civilization, as the instigators of an irreversible degradation of virtue3 . On the other hand, in

The Florentine History, the Secretary engages in a thorough investigation of how, in Florence, the public good has been diverted to the profit of personal and clan interests, and how public authority has been diminished with the rise of private wealth. Throughout the narrative of its history, the ancient and venerable home of the vivere politico is confronted with the reality of the rise of modern commerce, promoted by great Florentine families (including the Medici, who, back to power, have commissioned Machiavelli his book on the history of the city).

All this suggests that corruption, in the work of a Machiavelli Florentine patriot, is neither a legal nor a deontological concept, but rather a political one. A political concept defined by both an institutional connotation (corruption of Florentine institutions) and a moral one (that of republican manners). And the diagnosis is overwhelming regarding both orders (ordini) and modes (modi).

We may add that this approach to corruption corresponds closely to a representation of virtue as civic engagement, or that it is the outright reverse of this representation. If apprehended superficially, and especially as a result of its descriptive character or due to its historical dimension, one might think that the work of the Florentine Secretary will issue no normative view on corruption; or this is true and false at the same time. It is true because despite the presence of the "language of the law" in Machiavelli 4 , the latter does not envisage political life through the prism of legal categories. And it is false because his work is a thorough reflection on the adequacy of policies pursued in times perceived as highly unstable.

This appropriateness is itself conditioned by the spur that political passions constitute. And in this context the dimension of the conflicts of interest (important criterion for a legal approach to corruption) tends to fade before that of love of the motherland (this cardinal passion for a political approach). The importance of virtues and passions in the Machiavellian theory can in fact nourish the distinction between a civic approach to the concept of corruption and a deontological approach, the first appearing typical of republicanism, and the latter specific to liberalism5 .

In the world of Machiavelli, the antidote against civic corruption resides indeed in the powerful fuel that is patriotism, the immoderate love for his country. So, if there is no direct deontological approach to corruption in Machiavelli, this does not preclude a strong axiological approach to be found in him. The example of the virtue of the Ancients, often idealised by the Florentine, is the preferred expedient for a renewal of ethical categories that allow the appreciation of political life.

It seems also relevant to underline that Machiavelli develops a deontological rather than civic conception of corruption, since corruption as alteration of modi and ordini determines corruption as occult exchange. If there are special transactions that can weaken or even destroy the city, it is indeed because the institutions are no longer strong enough to teach the manners and because individual and collective energy (the virtù of individuals and social groups) is no longer channelled towards fostering the city.

So in a very typical way of his republicanism, the Florentine can write that "It is not the individual good, but the general good that makes the greatness of cities (non il bene particulare ma il bene comune è quello che fa grandi le città). The general good is certainly observed only in republics" 6 . And it must be said, it is in accordance with a paradigm of neo-Roman civic virtue that such assertions multiply and become justified in the work of our Secretary. This paradigm, obviously very present in the Discourses on the First Decade of Livy, is to be understood as an attempt to discipline individual behaviours, and Machiavelli's teaching viewed under this angle rests on an art of guiding these behaviours according to the public good. Thus, Machiavelli discusses the issue of "well-ordered republics" in terms of their ability to grant rewards and apply punishments to their citizens with the suitable appropriateness. 7 Such a treatment of the righteousness of behaviours entails the rather abyssal problem of moral retribution of civic conducts (as well as, more particularly, that of the relationship between rewards and punishments). But as abyssal as it might be, this issue is not less cardinal for republicanism. Indeed, if this issue seems crucial, the reason is that it is here that the very possibility of political civility is somehow at stake, whereof Machiavelli had a conscience quite clear, as can be read in the passage below:

A well-ordered republic has never erased the faults of its citizens on grounds of their merits. Having foreseen rewards for good deeds and punishments for the evil ones, and having rewarded a man for doing the right thing, if thereafter he acts badly, it must punish him without any regard for his good deeds. When these measures are well observed a city lives long in freedom: otherwise it collapses promptly. Indeed, if a citizen who has accomplished something good for his city he adds to the reputation it brings him the boldness and confidence to be able to commit an evil act without fear, then he will soon become so insolent that any civic life will disappear [diventerà in brieve tempo tanto insolente che si risolverà ogni civiltà]. 8 Any form of civil life, writes Machiavelli in this text by using a hyperbolic formula, is doomed to disappear if in the city reigns a spirit of impunity such as great men benefit by virtue of this very reason from a right allowing them to commit evil deeds. The confusion between licit and illicit, amplified by the reputation of excellence that conceals vice, appears therefore likely to produce disasters in terms of civilization. In other words, if the theme of corruption is important for the Machiavellian work, it is because along with it, as long as it refers to the system of balance between the civic merits of individuals and their reprehensible actions, it is the very possibility of ethical regulation of morals that is challenged. Inasmuch as for the thus described republicanism, corruption appears less as a social disorder than as a form of barbarism.

Passions and Interests: a Dynamic Conception of Corruption

7 Ibidem, I, 24: "Well-ordered republics award rewards and punishments to their citizens and never compensate the ones by the others".

8 Ibid., p. 236.

Or the Machiavellian concept of civic virtue proves all the more remarkable as it unfolds within a representation of man scarcely compatible with anthropology, which usually constitutes the foundation of republican doctrines. On the one hand, indeed, man is for Machiavelli governed essentially by an appetite that merges in him with the vital impulse: the permanent tendency of a Prince to engage in conquests betrays the desire to acquire which, says he, is "quite natural and ordinary" 9 , and that happens in the heart of every man. On the other hand, the human being is also animated by a desire for recognition utterly unquenchable: men are driven by an impulse fatally disappointed resting on the asymmetry between the desire to own (unlimitedly) and the capacity to be satisfied with what they possess (which is very limited) 10 . The weight of what Machiavelli calls "ambition" appears here fundamental, a real "bad seed" that is the cause of the evil endured by man in history, to use the words of Capitolo dell'Ambizione 11 . With this theme of ambition, Machiavelli points out that there is naturally in the heart of man a power contrary to the public good.

Hence, in the eyes of the author of The Prince every man is potentially corruptible. As explained in the Discourses, I, 42 (entitled "How Men Can Be Easily Corrupted"), even if they are good and well educated, people can be easily corrupted and this is what certifies in Rome's history, as reported by Titus Livy, the episode of the Decemvirs. 12 Despite a willingness to act in favour of the popular cause, the actors of this important episode in Roman history in fact adopted unfavourable conducts to the public good, aiming ultimately to satisfy their personal ambitions, an issue that, believes the Florentine, "should encourage legislators of republics or monarchies to curb the appetites of men and do away with all hope of sinning with impunity" 13 . This unfortunate tendency, or even better, this fatal slope to corruption, is even more discernible in that more than paradoxical episode of the Land Act 14 . This law, promoted by the Gracchus brothers, seemed to allow the people to appropriate a portion of the public land, to which they aspired legitimately, given the subjection in which they were kept by the patrician system of rents and debt. Or, explains Machiavelli, the social evolution permitted or even just made thinkable by the Land Act (to anachronistically use 9 See The Prince, III, p. 116: « è cosa veramente molto naturale e ordinaria desiderare di acquistare ».

10 See Discourses, I, 37, and II, foreword, the passages related to malacontentezza.

11 Capitolo dell'Ambizione, trad. Bec, op. cit., p. 1072.

12 Cf. Titus Livy, The History of Early Rome (Ab Urbe condita), III, 35 ; Machiavelli, Discourses I, 40 sq. 13 Machiavelli, Discourses, I, 42, op. cit. p. 263. 14 Cf. Titus Livy, III, 1; Machiavelli, Discourses, I, 37. contemporary terms) was for the greatness of Rome the commencement of the end. We see with the Machiavellian comment on this historic turn of events how, despite the commitment of Machiavelli to the cause of "the people" as opposed to "the great", the natural desire of men is for him an instigator of corruptionand it is so to a point where it is necessary, if we want to save the republican spirit, to curb the desire of the people.

We can further note that one of the strong points of the Machiavellian approach to the corruption of republican virtue lies in the fact that it is the frustration (malacontentezza) and not the lure of direct gain that pushes to the subversion of the civic spirit or to the undue capture of the public good. Despite the strength and the pervasiveness of the "desire to acquire" we should look elsewhere for the hidden reasons of the spirit of fraud which characterises corruption. The Machiavellian analysis suggests that the actor of the latter does not aim at a personal enrichment, but rather at the capture of a statute; and if there really is such an "occult exchange", it is ultimately less conceivable in mercantile and financially assessable terms than in terms of exchange of social signs and symbols of power. This is why the "great", greedy as they are of such signs or symbols, are more likely than the people to attempt to corrupt the public spiritthey are greedier, but also more frustrated, and are incessantly hatching plots hoping to compensate for their frustration 15 .

Faced with the conjugated danger of the temptation to enrich oneself and the public welfare under the double impact of the desire to acquire and this active frustration which destroys the civic spirit, Machiavelli responds by promoting a classic theme of republicanism: stimulating the desire for glory 16 . Aristotle and Cicero in particular had developed this theme.

However, in an extremely corrupt city, this kind of moral incentive proves to be unusable, 15 See Discourses, III, 6, as regards conjurations, p. 382: if he wants to avoid that the frustrated greed of the great does not completely destabilise the power structure he has put in place, the Republican leader must imperatively create situations in which the possible conspirators be able to invest their desire by interposing between them and him "something to be desired" [« e che vi sia in mezzo qualche cosa da desiderare », ed.

Inglese, Milan, Rizzoli, BUR, p. 475]. Such transitional objects (awards, rewarding assignments, material possessions of quality) are intended to occupy the desire of the great and thus dissuade him from aiming at the supreme power. 16 See for instance the observations made in Discourses, I, 53: "Those who fight for their own glory are good and loyal soldiers", see also the invitations made in The Prince to the Duke of Urbino to adopt a measurable behaviour in terms of "glory", especially in the final chapter (Chapter XXI, pp. 176-178).

because it finds itself distorted by the effect of bad laws. 17 . The neo-Roman logic implemented by Machiavelli finds here its limit, and this limit seems quite conscious in the mind of the Florentine: he explains that civic virtue may be insufficient to such an extent that the only attitude for the responsible prince is to seize the power and exert it in a monarchical mannerwhen the path of "normal" change becomes impracticable, it is necessary to have recourse to the "extraordinary" 18 . Obviously, the despisers of the Florentine will undoubtedly accuse him of the contradiction in terms which consists in claiming to "save freedom" by monopolising power; his zealots, more rare, might wish to credit him of having assumed one of the most impressive paradoxes of the logic of the political world. Besides, who does not know, in medicine, that remedies are also poisons? In any case, Machiavelli has the merit of raising this issue with an incredible frankness: when the public spirit is totally corrupted, how to act politically? The "extraordinary" resolution which undertakes to put an end to ordinary corruption, does it represent or not the Supreme corruption of the civic spirit? Maybe such is the case, but also here is at stake the paradox of a political virtue incomprehensible to most people, which pursues the path of what is "ordinarily" regarded as a vice. And thus is outlined the reversal between corruption and probity: what seems corruption to the largest number is salvation of the state, and what seems to be probity, when the crisis has come, puts the state in great danger.

The only solution that Machiavelli seems to bring to the widespread degradation of virtue is the recourse to the "extraordinary", in other words, he suggests to temporarily entrust the power to a saving tyranny. But alongside this model, it is important to emphasise that his work also includes a further evaluation of the same phenomenon. We see it in the "second crossing" of the problems raised by the Republic, namely that which is produced in The Florentine History. The "political" paradigm of the ancient Roman virtue explored in the Discourses is now replaced by a "historical" paradigm of contemporary Florentine social life which turns out to be significantly different, because it incorporates the interplay of 17 This case is considered in the important Chapter XVIII of Book I of the Discourses, entitled "How to Maintain in Corrupt Cities a Free System, if Found there, or if not Found, how to Establish It."

18 "From all the things written above, arises the difficulty or impossibility of maintaining a Republic in a City that has become corrupted, or to establish it there anew. And even if it should have to be created or maintained, it would be necessary to reduce it more to a Royal State (Monarchy) [lo stato regio] than to a Popular State (Republic) [lo stato popolare], so that those men who because of their insolence cannot be controlled by laws, should be restrained by a Power almost Regal [una podestà quasi regia]", Ibidem.

conflicting interests as an insurmountable datum of political activity. Thus, The Florentine History takes even more explicitly into consideration an unorthodox form of republicanism.

Everything happens as if in the Machiavellian thought there were two different logics at work -yet does it consequently produce two irreducible messages to each other? Despite appearances, this is not exactly the case. It is indeed tempting to say that The Florentine History resumes and assumes to the end one of the strongest theses developed in the Discourses. This thesis is that of disunity which creates freedom 19 . As we have tried to set up elsewhere The Florentine History pushes to completion the recognition of the contradictory vitality of the social and restores thereby an original meaning to the theme of freedom of turbulent republics, as it was first stated in the Discourses on the First Decade of Livy20 . In fact, this recognition allows us to imagine how the dissensus, quite extraneous to the irenic representation of an appeased "public space", is conducive to the quality of the civic spirit -although such a situation, desirable in itself, does not occur unless certain conditions are met. This is the subject of meditation that the author gives to his reader in the first chapter of Book VII21 . Machiavelli explains that certain divisions are useful to the city, and others are detrimental; the first are those which are done "without parties or supporters", the latter being those which engender both parties and supporters. The sagacious founder of a republic, if he cannot avoid the occurrence of enmities, can at least ensure that factions are not born therein.

To achieve this, says Machiavelli, it should be understood through what channels a citizen acquires reputation -therefore the question is to know how an individual captures the attention of his fellow citizens thanks to a charismatic influence, knowing that in this captation occurs a misuse of the public spirit unfavourable to the freedom of all. Such a man, builder of his own reputation, can achieve his goals in two manners: by public or by private ways. Through the first way ("winning a battle, conquering a place, achieving an embassy with care and intelligence, advising wisely and fortunately the Republic"), his achievements contribute to the good health of his country; the second ways ("promoting such and such citizen, defending him against the magistrates, succouring him financially, pushing him in 19 Cf. Discourses, I, 4: "That Disunion of the Plebs and the Roman Senate Made That Republic Free and Powerful". undeserved offices and offering the populace shows and donations") foment parties and weaken the country, because they are based on actions through which partisans are personally attached to him. In the first case, concludes the Florentine, such triumphs, because they give rise to the envy and jealousy of the fellow citizens, create a virtuous social dynamics:

Although we cannot prevent there being strong hatreds among such citizens, however, having no partisans to follow them by personal interest, they are not harmful to the republic. Moreover, they are useful to it, because to win, they strive to the glory of the republic and respect each other, so as not to exceed the limits of the law. 22 It is remarkable that the taking into account of the dynamics of self-interest is in this way included in a political theory that can be called "civic holism". Everything happens as if Machiavelli took note of the plurality and variety of specific activities that animate the space of the city and give it its radiation. Without making for that matter of Machiavelli the forerunner of "value pluralism" typical of our contemporary democracies, it is noteworthy that in its analysis he belies the possibility of a unique public morality. Therefore, as far as he is concerned, we can speak of a paradoxical republicanism (as compared to standard continental republican conceptions), a republicanism which integrates the liberal impetus of personal interest.

Conclusion

Can political activity correct the corruption of morals? On this point, opinions generally differ depending on the cleavage, structuring modern political thought between liberalism and republicanism. The first current replies in the negative by proposing a more ethical approach of values than a civic one and by conferring primacy in terms of education of individuals to other compartments than those which can be mobilised by the State (i.e. family morality or religious education); the second current -most immediate expression of the modern project of secularization -responds affirmatively, by entrusting to the State the mission of making the individuals more aware of their responsibilities. There is a middle way, 22 The Florentine History, VII, 1, p. 918. and it is precisely the one anticipated by Machiavelli and continued in the tradition of Western political thought and in various forms, by Hannah Arendt, Jürgen Habermas and Claude Lefort. These authors present the peculiarity of having developed a doctrine of republican fibre, but able to integrate typical liberal elements, such as the irreducibility of individual freedom of conscience to all forms of dogmatism (whether religious or political) and the claim of the democratic plurality of values. To this perspective, the work of political theory has the ambition to educate and empower people politically, and this is precisely what Machiavelli succeeds by analysing corruption in a complex and non-reductive manner.

In this context is elucidated the strange relationship that exists between Machiavelli's assertion of the neo-Roman paradigm of civic virtue and the "liberal" enhancement of the desire to acquire (or the recognition of self-interest). Somehow within the tension between these two terms is played out the attempt of redefining through the Secretary's heterodox republicanism the meaning of cardinal terms such as "public good" and "general interest".

More complex is the other problem that we have inherited at the end of this analysis: which are the indicators enabling us to evaluate civic virtue and by which to judge whether it is or is not corrupt? It is noticeable that Machiavelli proposes a kind of double entry system.

For the policy maker, "prince" or leader of a republic, the criterion of virtue lies in his ability to mantenere lo stato, or his ability to "keep his state (or his State)"; and since all natural things are doomed to degrade, the corruption indicator consists in the duration of the respective preservation. At grassroots level, despite the uniqueness of their natural greed, the degree of civic corruption is visible in their attentiveness to their city, in other words it is discernible in the care with which they surround the political society of which they are members, and better yet, in the commitment they display in favour of the community. The first factor of corruption of the city lies in people's indifference towards the public good, and the whole question, in order to avoid corruption, is to know how to counteract this dangerous trend. How to ceaselessly revive the attention to public affairs in the heart of greedy men? The public society cannot last without the active consent of the people. Hence the corruption of the city can be prevented thanks to the manifest exemplarity of the responsible for public affairs -although the appearance of the exhibited political virtue is perforce an ambiguous thing: gli peccati de'popoli nascono dai principi 23 . 23 Discourses, III, 29.

Cf. Discourses, op. cit., II, 2, p. 299.

Cf. Quaglioni (Diego), «Machiavelli e la lingua della giurisprudenza», Il pensiero politico,XXXII, 1999, pp. 171-185.

We would refer in this context to our study: Ménissier (Thierry), « L'usage civique de la notion de corruption selon le républicanisme ancien et moderne », Anabases. Traditions et réception de l'Antiquité, n°6- 2007, p. 83-98.

6 Discourses,II, 2, op. cit., p. 297.

We would refer the reader to our study: Ménissier (Thierry), «Ordini et tumulti selon Machiavel: la république dans l'histoire», Archives dePhilosophie, avril-juin 1999, tome 62-2, pp. 221-239.

"But I shall first, as usual, offer some food for thought and say that those who hope that a republic can be united are greatly mistaken", The Florentine History, VII, 1, trad. cit. p. 917.


Michael Gasser

-some of ETH Library's steps beyond digitisation

Keywords: partnerships, user participation, extended outreach

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Mass digitisation and the freely accessible online presentation of publications, archival material, photographs, images and objects with public domain or creative commons licences have become ongoing tasks for commemorative institutions. These days, numerous largescale GLAM institutions, but also many smaller ones run digitisation centres and a steadily growing number of platforms to render their digital contents globally accessible for research and the interested public. ETH Library, ETH Zurich's main library, is a driver and part of this digital transformation. With its shift in strategic focus towards the "digital library" shortly after the turn of the millennium, on the one hand it geared itself towards providing licensed digital information resources within the university. On the other hand, the strategy also included (retro) digitisation from the outset. 1 A highly efficient DigiCentre andpartly in cooperation with other Swiss librariespresentation platforms for digitised journals (eperiodica.ch), image materials (E-Pics), old books (e-rara.ch) or archival material (emanuscripta.ch) were established.

The major, mounting interest in these online services is evident in their ever-increasing usage figures. 2 Consequently, the Strategy 2015-2020 approved by ETH Zurich's Executive Committee for the university's collections and archives includes pressing ahead intensively with indexing and digitisation campaigns, and expanding them to include objects of scientific collections. 3 Although these collections are curated directly by biologists, entomologists, mycologists or other experts in the respective departments, ETH Library plays a central coordinating role in the evaluation and implementation of a digital infrastructure for them. 4 The extension of digitisation to other collections and object types is merely part of the ongoing developments. In terms of the online services already established, other questions are also becoming increasingly more central: how can the abundance of great potential and synergies that already exist in the digital copies already available and the established online platforms be exploited further for research and the interested public? How can the use and reuse of digital content be encouraged even further? How can users be involved directly in enhancing content? How can new user groups be addressed and reached? Which new and innovative services can be developed based on existing digital copies and established processes and platforms?

Naturally, there are no clear and simple answers to these questions. The dependence on key influential factors such as the content and quantity of the existing subject matter, available functionalities of platforms or the personal and financial resources on hand is too great. In this sense, the ETH Library initiatives and projects outlined below are merely intended as examples. The three topic areas into which these examples can be divided, however, reveal the general directions in which commemorative institutions can realise potential and expand services that go beyond pure digitisation: intensified partnerships with researchers, direct user participation and outreach intensification.

Research partnerships

Currently, of all the research branches, the digital humanities particularly offer excellent opportunities to generate added value from digitised content in collaboration between academia and commemorative institutions. ETH Library is heading in this direction on a cooperative project with the University of Zurich's Institute of Computational Linguistics, for instance. The basis for the project is the millions of retrodigitised and OCR-recognised pages of journals that ETH Library provides via e-periodica.ch, its freely accessible online portal for Swiss journals. Optimised for human usage, pages or entire articles are presented and issued in the form of PDFs on this portal. The OCR-recognised text is embedded in these PDFs.

Based on a sample of two architecture journals totalling around 380,000 pages the goal of this cooperative project is to verify the extent to which computer-linguistic methods can be used to both optimise OCR results and enhance the content of the text corpus. In doing so, the library is in charge of preparing and supplying the OCR text files, while the Institute of Computational Linguistics focuses on the subsequent data processing. On the one hand, the sample serves to improve the existing correction of OCR errors. On the other hand, the method used to recognise and link named entitiesi.e. people and placescan be refined.

The result should yield a machine-readable text corpus of the two journals where the OCR errors have largely been rectified and, where possible, the named entities have been identified and linked. The advantages of this kind of text enhancement are obvious: not only do they facilitate searches within the text corpus; in particular, they also enable linkages with other data pools or retrieval systems.

The cooperative project Thomas Mann Personal Library between the Chair for Literary and Cultural Studies at ETH Zurich and ETH Library's Thomas Mann Archives is heading in a different direction. Thomas Mann's erstwhile personal library is one of the archives' most important holdings, containing numerous books with notes and markings made by the author's own hand. These marginalia are crucial to understand Thomas Mann's work. Funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation, the project's objective is therefore to digitise and transcribe all the handwritten traces left in his personal library and provide a state-of-the-art way for researchers to search for them.

The pure digitisation of the roughly 1,500 annotated books and brochures is a painstaking but established process. The academic requirements for recording and presenting the annotations and marginalia are what pose the actual challenges for the library. A core synergy arises with the platform e-periodica.ch. Individual system components of this platform are being expanded in such a way as to meet the specific project requirements. An editor facilitates the exact description of the annotations and side notes, and a custom web application will ensure the online presentation of the digitised texts with all their markings, handwritten annotations and the transcriptions produced until the completion of the project in the spring of 2019.

Interesting possibilities for generating direct added value from digitisation via research partnerships also arise outside the digital humanities. Seismologists and astronomers, for instance, are interested in comprehensive, older, analogue series of measurements kept in the ETH Zurich University Archives, which belong to ETH Library. The Swiss Seismological Service located at ETH Zurich is concentrating on a series of seismological records from 1927 to 1955. Within the scope of the project, medium-strength earthquakes from this period are rerecorded using modern methods based on digitised seismograms. Once transformed, the historical series of measurements is channelled into the Seismological Service's modern data pool. A similar project co-initiated by the Solar Influences Data Center Analysis in Brussels involves re-recording solar activity according to modern standards based on over 22,000 digitised sunspot and protuberance records predominantly compiled at ETH Zurich between

User participation

Digitised content not only creates added value and new possibilities in the field of research collaborations; the same also goes for modern forms of direct user participation. The most prominent example of this is crowdsourcing. This form of user participation, as e.g. Ridge demonstrated, is used highly successfully by a wide variety of institutions all over the world to enhance digital collections and raise their profile. 5 At ETH Library, crowdsourcing has especially established itself as a key instrument in the Image Archive, which first used the model between 2009 and 2013. 6 In the first crowdsourcing project, former members of Swissair's staff volunteered to help index a selection of around 40,000 images from Swissair's photographic holdings. A small group of retired pilots and members of the ground and cabin crews were given their own login for the image database E-Pics BildarchivOnline (ba.e-pics.ethz.ch) and supplemented any missing or incomplete information on the aircraft types, places or people depicted.

In order to exploit the full range of specialist knowledge available via crowdsourcing, a freely accessible, easy-to-use feedback function was set up on the image database in late 2015 and advertised in various places under the banner of Do you know more? An article on the image database and its crowdsourcing function published in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung in January triggered an unimaginable response from the public and in the media. 7 In the space of a few days, hundreds of pointers on previously unidentified images came flooding in. Additional reports in the media, on the radio and on television increased the interest even further. By the end of September 2016 alone, the descriptions of almost 5,000 images could be improved thanks to nearly 7,000 pointers received -priceless added value that the Image Archive's seven-strong team could never have accomplished by themselves. The Image Archive's Community Management, which meanwhile is up and running, ensures that the crowd of volunteers remains dedicated for the long haul. Needless to say, this also includes thanking them for the pointers received and processing them swiftly. However, the weblog Crowdsourcing at ETH Library: News and Experiences from the Community (blogs.ethz.ch/crowdsourcing) launched in May 2016 is also important for communicating with the crowd. In about two posts per week, images that could not be classified geographically and/or dated are presented as an appeal, and images that have already been 5 Ridge (2014) 6 Graf (2016) 7 Kälin (2016) identified successfully thanks to the crowd are presented in more detail. Moreover, monthly statistics updates and lists of the top-ten volunteers are published on the weblog, and a small series of videos on the Image Archive's crowdsourcing and its most prolific volunteers is also distributed via this channel.

In the Image Archive's experience, active community management is important for the longterm success of a crowdsourcing campaign. Naming the person who provides the information and offering free access to the digitised images wherever possible have emerged as additional success factors. For most volunteers, seeing their name in the comments field on the Image Database containing the additional information from the crowd is an incentive. The fact that the majority of the roughly 400,000 currently digitised images are under a public domain mark or a CC BY-SA licence and can be downloaded freely and in the highest resolution caters for a mutual give and take. With its ongoing digitisation endeavours, the Image Archive is making an ever-increasing number of image sources freely accessible online. The growing amount of metadata improved through crowdsourcing also benefits all users.

The web-based integration of expert knowledge in the metadata for digital copies is not just restricted to the Image Archive at ETH Library, however. Over 1,100 historical maps were georeferenced in the space of a few weeks during a crowdsourcing project launched by the Map Collection, for example. 8 These digitised map sheets, which were already available on the platform e-rara.ch, were also rendered available for this purpose via www.oldmapsonline.org, the major international portal for historic maps, and linked to the tool Georeferencer (www.georeferencer.com), which enables volunteers to align historic maps with their modern counterparts by placing reference points. Thanks to this georeferencing, the digitised historic maps can be incorporated into modern geoinformation systems and re-used academically.

An entirely different input is expected from volunteers in the current project e-manuscripta Volltext, the aim of which is to expand the cooperative presentation platform e-manuscripta.ch to include a transcription module for handwritten sources. The project is headed by Zentralbibliothek Zurich and ETH Library is involved with regard to content and as a platform operator. The additional module should be available from the beginning of 2018 and facilitate simple transcriptions of letters, notebooks and other types of sources for registered users. In future, not only will the indexing information be used exclusively for searches on emanuscripta.ch, but also a growing number of full texts produced by users. decline in user queries that needed to be processed manually. Instead of complex image orders, valuable indexing information from the population could now be processed.

What are the next steps? Further expansion is scheduled in all three areas. Combined with the research collaborations, the aim is to develop services and tools that expand ETH Library's portfolio for the long term via current and additional projectswhether this be in the form of enhanced text corpora, new web applications or selected additional measurement data from longstanding series of analogue measurements. As far as user participation is concerned, the Image Archive's crowdsourcing is to be expanded further. The next objective is to georeference oblique aerial photographs of Swiss landscapes. By the beginning of 2018, around 180,000 digitised aerial and landscape photographs will have been incorporated into the collaborative crowdsourcing platform sMapshot (smapshot.heig-vd.ch), where volunteers can position the images precisely on a virtual globe. This enables geocoordinates of the area depicted to be calculated. Not only is the project expected to generate valuable metadata; it should also boost the publicity and use of these image holdings even further.

Additional outreach is also facilitated in general by the increasing standardisation of the use of digital copies and their metadata across platforms. In the space of a few years, the International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF) has significantly grown in importance.

Accordingly, ETH Library is also working on enabling content-sharing for its presentation platforms via IIIFas an additional but by no means last step towards optimising the use of its digital copies. The full potential certainly has not been exhausted.

1

  Mumenthaler and Voegeli (2005) 67 2 ETH-Bibliothek (2016) 70-71 3 ETH Zurich (2014) 4 ETH Library (2017a)

Outreach

The example of georeferenced maps has already pointed to the further potential that digitised content harbours: the increased use of digital copies thanks to dissemination via various platforms. Thanks to the additional incorporation of historical maps in the major specialist portal oldmapsonline.org, the map sheets are where the specialist international audience is most likely to look for them.

The strategy of supplying digitised content via various channels and thus offering it where most users are plays a considerable role in drawing the attention of new customer groups to the institution and its holdings. This is particularly evident in the impressive example of the mass uploading of sub-collections from the image database E-Pics BildarchivOnline onto Wikimedia Commons. ETH Library decided on this parallel publication of image holdings at the end of 2015. The organisational and technical processes for batch uploads were subsequently implemented in a cooperative project with Wikimedia CH. The first productive uploading of 350 photographs with metadata onto Wikimedia Commons took place in mid-June 2016. By June 2017, around 37,500 digital copies had been uploaded. 9 An everincreasing number of these images from Wikimedia Commons are being integrated in Wikipedia articles and reaching a global audience of millions via this route. Overall, more than 5.7 million page views were registered for all Wikipedia articles containing integrated images from ETH Library between May 2016 and May 2017 (spread among various language versions of the online encyclopaedia). For instance, photographs of the numerous foreign expeditions conducted by Swiss aviation pioneer Walter Mittelholzer (1894-1937) to the Middle East and Africa are found on pages of the English, German, French, Spanish and Arabic Wikipedia. 10 It is not just the propagation of digitised content via several channels, but also novel ways of presenting digitised content that are ideal for addressing broader or even new user groups. This is where Explora (www.explora.ethz.ch/en), ETH Library's new storytelling platform, comes in. It presents topics in the form of stories in a compelling and visually attractive manner. If historical holdings play a central role, such as in the story Mallow, iris, orchid. Scientific plant images over the centuries, naturally a rich selection of existing digital copies 9 Direct access to all the images uploaded to Wikimedia Commons by ETH Library via commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Media_contributed_by_the_ETH-Bibliothek. 10 For the latest overview and statistics on Wikipedia articles with integrated Wikimedia Commons media files that have been uploaded by ETH Library, see tools.wmflabs.org/glamtools/baglama2/index.html. is integrated in Explora. 11 In addition, however, supplementary multimedia content is also produced for the stories. Explora uses animations and video interviews with experts to bridge the gap to the present day and current research issues. Thanks to this strong visual focus, Explora also creates attractive added value for users of mobile devices and, not least, invites users to browse ETH Library's various presentation platforms.

Challenges and outlook

Digital humanities projects, crowdsourcing, storytelling: the possibilities, the potential in using digital copies, digitisation processes and online presentation platforms that have been created and established in recent years to the advantage of users and institutions, seem virtually inexhaustible. However, this wealth of possibilities is not without its fair share of challenges. From the institution's point of view, this does not just include defining the strategic spheres of activity, prioritising new projects and services, and providing the corresponding resources; the willingness to acquire new knowhow and respond flexibly to dynamic developments is also crucial.

With an eye toward the three areas outlined above, research partnerships probably demand the highest standards in the development of competence and knowhow. If researchers approach the library, their specialist concerns and research interests do not just have to be understood; it is far more a question of translating this input into specific process and application requirements. If the library seeks research partners for individual projects of its own accord, corresponding descriptions of the respective terminology need to be adapted. Key input for the preparation of the project with computer linguists, for instance, is owed to a member of ETH Library's staff who completed her degree in this field. In the start-up phase for Explora, on the other hand, storytelling workshops were conducted with external experts based on story canvases and other tools. The results of these workshops will form the basis for the next contributions to appear on this platform.

Responding swiftly to dynamic developments wasand still isa central challenge for the Image Archive's crowdsourcing activities. Due to the surprisingly large response, answering and processing the wealth of pointers received as quickly as possible has become a key aspect of the day-to-day business for the Image Archive. Due in no small part to the Image Archive's consistent open-data strategy, corresponding resources could be provided: the possibility of downloading the majority of the digital copies freely and in high resolution led to a major