Edgar Kuhimbisa
email: edgarkuhimbisa@gmail.com

Rehema Baguma
email: rehema.baguma@gmail.com

Agnes Nakakawa
email: agnesnakakawa@gmail.com

A Model for Developing Usable Integrated Case Management Information Systems

Keywords: Usability, Integrated Information Systems, Case Management, E-Justice

The increased adoption of technology in government-driven processes and services over the years has led to the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) as mechanisms and platforms for citizens to access justice services and participate in the judicial process. In Uganda, there are current and ongoing efforts, through e-justice initiatives in the Justice, Law and Order Sector, to integrate case management information systems in criminal justice institutions as a means of improving worker productivity, facilitating information sharing, collaboration, better information access by the general public, citizen engagement and satisfaction with public services. The focus for this study was to devise a model that provides guidance on how to develop integrated information systems that are usable -by supporting improved human-driven legal processes, increased citizen engagement and facilitation of interaction between justice agencies and the general public. Based on the requirements for usable integrated information systems obtained from the review of literature and a survey, a model for guiding development of usable integrated case management information systems known as the Architecture-driven Usability Process Model (AdUPRO) was created.

INTRODUCTION

Uganda's Justice, Law and Order Sector (JLOS) is a collection of government institutions with shared and closely linked mandates of administering justice, maintaining law and order and human rights. Whereas JLOS program reforms are credited with improved access to justice, there still exist systemic challenges in ensuring access to justice for all Ugandans especially for the poor and marginalized persons [START_REF]The Justice, Law and Order Sector[END_REF]. The lack of well designed, effective and efficient case management information systems has been identified as one of the bottlenecks in the delivery of justice in Uganda characterized by challenges in reporting crimes by the public, tracking cases, citizen participation in court processes, management of suspects and allocation of human and financial resources [START_REF]The Justice, Law and Order Sector[END_REF]. Where information systems exist in Uganda's criminal justice system, these (systems) were originally designed to function within individual institutional contexts with minimal or no interface with systems in other institutions. Furthermore, most of these systems were acquired off-the-shelf and they are mainly used for data capture with little or no support for dissemination of information and user interaction. This lack of effective mechanisms for interaction and engagement disempowers members of the public who are participants in the justice process as victims of crime, accused parties, court litigants, private counsel and members of the jury.

Systems integration in the justice sector can be viewed as a step towards "ICT4D 2.0" where new e-governance realities are created through more information intensive processes, information sharing, collaboration, increased user engagement and participation in the justice due process. This e-governance paradigm facilitated by integration of information spaces leads to "i-governance" -which according to Heeks [START_REF] Heeks | Understanding e-Governance for Development, I-Government Working Paper Series[END_REF] integrates people, processes, information and technology in the service of achieving governance objectives. However, the systems integration process results into a union of different processes, end users, corporate cultures and diverse information behaviors [START_REF] Bradley | Information Systems Success in the Context of Different Corporate Cultural Types: an Empirical Investigation[END_REF]. This environment of diversity presents a critical usability challenge that may ultimately contribute to the failure e-governance projects. The recommendation therefore, is that technology implementations should not undermine but rather accommodate this diversity [START_REF] Pitula | Making Technology Fit: Designing an Information Management System for Monitoring Social Protection Programmes in St[END_REF].

ISO defines usability as "the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context of use" [11]. Therefore for the integrated information system for Uganda's Justice, Law and Order Sector to achieve its intended objectives, it must be usable -designed to consider various usability aspects such as users of the system (considering their behavioral characteristics, cognitive abilities and conative tendencies), tasks and roles, business processes, goals of the users and an understanding of the dynamic contexts in which the (integrated) information system will be used [START_REF] Gabbard | Usability Engineering for Complex Interactive Systems Development[END_REF][START_REF] Gould | Designing for Usability: Key Principles and What Designers Think[END_REF].

However, there is still lack of an appropriate approach for analyzing and incorporating the dynamic and often complex usability aspects in the design of integrated information systems. Existing models do not provide adequate guidance on how to achieve usability in the development of integrated information systems. Hence, there is need for more research about how usability issues of integrated information systems can be addressed. This study examines how the usability aspects of integrated information systems can be addressed in the process of developing integrated information systems that are a must have in certain settings such as the Justice, Law and Order sector in Uganda. The next section presents the methodology that was used to address the objectives of this study.

METHODOLOGY

To achieve the objectives of this study i.e. to collect requirements for usable integrated information systems; and to design a model for developing usable integrated criminal case management information systems, the following methodology was followed: For the first objective, the study used review of related literature from journals, book chapters, conference proceedings and a survey to establish usability requirements for integrated information systems. The aim of literature review was to establish what related research studies have given as usability requirements for integrated information systems. On the other hand, the survey was aimed at establishing the usability needs for an integrated case management information system in Uganda and ways such needs can be met from public officials in the four JLOS institutions studied i.e. the Uganda Police, Directorate of Public Prosecutions (DPP), the Judiciary and the Uganda Prisons Services. These institutions are representative of the case management process in the criminal justice system in the country.

Other respondents in this survey were drawn from members of the general public and practicing private lawyers. Members of the general public that participated in the survey were those that regularly interact with the Police, DPP, Judiciary and the Uganda Prisons Services through requests for information and services.

Selection of respondents was based on participants' level of knowledge and insight into how the justice system operates based on previous verified experience. This sampling technique was vital in order to obtain first hand information about the usability needs, information collected, stored and used in the Justice, Law and Order Sector.

Eighty Fifteen [START_REF] Pyla | Towards a Modelbased Framework for Integrating Usability and Software Engineering Life Cycles[END_REF] members of the public -seven males and eight females, with a history of interaction with the criminal justice system were selected to participate in the survey. Ten [START_REF]The Justice, Law and Order Sector[END_REF] private lawyers that interact with the criminal justice system through legal representation of members of the general public during the litigation process were selected to also participate in the study.

A self-administered questionnaire was chosen as an appropriate data collection tool for public officials because it facilitated gathering of a significant number of responses from a large sample of respondents in a relatively short period of time. An interview guide was deemed suitable for gathering responses from the general public and private legal practitioners due to its ability to gather detailed responses (opinions and perceptions).

Requirements gathered from the questionnaire, interviews and review of related literature were used to design a model known as the Architecture-driven Usability Process Model (AdUPRO) that provides guidance on how to design usable integrated information systems. The next section presents findings from the study.

FINDINGS

This section presents usability requirements for integrated information systems gathered from the review of related literature, and the survey.

Information presentation is critical for decision-making.

Information presentation is the use of computer-supported interactive visual representation of abstract data to amplify cognition [START_REF] Card | Readings in Information Visualization, using vision to think[END_REF]. According to Dykes et al [START_REF]Exploring Geovisualization[END_REF], information presentation aims at providing graphical presentations and user interfaces for interactively manipulating information items. Integrated information systems should therefore be able to provide a mechanism for providing appropriate presentation of processed data from the various institutions into well-aggregated facts for users to derive meaning and use as a basis for decision-making.

Early focus on users is a critical design success factor.

Understanding user needs is a necessary condition for designing a system that users can integrate into their work and which reflects their worldview [START_REF] Pitula | Making Technology Fit: Designing an Information Management System for Monitoring Social Protection Programmes in St[END_REF]. Participation of the public (citizens) in e-government processes is identified as a critical success factor where public decisions are responsive to citizen's views or needs [START_REF] Heeks | Understanding e-Governance for Development, I-Government Working Paper Series[END_REF]. Therefore, involving the public in the systems design process ensures that their views and perspectives on the usability of technology (integrated information systems in case management) are taken seriously and adhered to as critical.

Iterative Design

Iterative design relates to being able to continuously modify a system as per the testable behavioral goals and available user feedback till the system is deemed usable. However, iterations to design are often ignored because they make the entire process of systems development a long and expensive venture [12]. According to Gould and Lewis [START_REF] Gould | Designing for Usability: Key Principles and What Designers Think[END_REF], iterative design should not be viewed as a luxury tuning method that puts finishing touches on a design but rather as a way of confronting the design actuality of unpredictable user needs and behaviors that can lead to sweeping and fundamental changes in the design.

Information Systems currently used by JLOS Institutions.

The four (4) institutions surveyed use different types of information systems each tailored to the agency's mandate and information needs. The Crime Records Management System (CRMS) in the Uganda Police supports the day-to-day transactions of crime records management at police stations; the Prosecutions Case Management System (PROCAMS) in the office of the DPP provides overall management of case files management by the prosecutions offices; the Court Case Management System (CCAS) in the Judiciary is customized software for managing case records-with both civil and criminal case management modules; and the Prisons Information Management System (PIMS) manages prisons data on inmates and prison facilities across the country. Although all JLOS institutions currently have information systems in some form, they are still stand-alone. Therefore, there is a need for an integrated information system that the four (4) institutions can jointly use and leverage for collaboration, information sharing and engagement with the public in the provision of services.

Levels of Proficiency with Information Communication Technology.

Respondents were asked about their level of proficiency in use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Among state actors, 33% rated their ICT proficiency as sufficient; 57% as basic; and 10% insufficient. For private lawyers, 85% of private lawyers rated themselves as sufficiently IT proficient while 15% rated their proficiency with ICTs as basic. None of the private lawyers surveyed rated themselves insufficient in the use of ICTs. A big section of respondents from the public (85%) said their knowledge of ICTs was insufficient, 5% sufficient and 10% basic.

Information Management Practices.

Ninety two (92%) of state actors; 80% of members of the general public; and 90% of private lawyers viewed information sharing between institutions involved in case management as vital. State actors viewed information sharing as vital to increasing the rate of case completion leading to better service delivery (through improved collaboration and coordination). Members of the general public and private lawyers viewed information sharing as critical in improving the quality of investigations (between the Police and DPP); and an avenue for resolving cases faster (in the Judiciary). Therefore, there is need for a uniform information organization scheme for the JLOS institutions that will form the basis for information integration and sharing.

The next section presents requirements for developing usable integrated case management information systems.

REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPING USABLE INTEGRATED INFORMATION SYSTEMS

This section presents requirements for developing usable integrated information systems based on the findings from the review of related literature and the survey.

4.1

Information aggregation and presentation requirements.

Integrated case management information systems should be able to provide a mechanism for providing appropriate presentation of processed data from various sources into well-aggregated facts for users to derive meaning and use as a basis for decision-making. Process managers and policy makers at the JLOS Secretariat (program coordination office) and in other management structures at institutional level require tools and interfaces to be able to access and manipulate the vast amounts of interconnected case data and visualize the outcome as a basis for decision making, formulation of policy direction, planning and strategy development.

4.2

User diversity (cognitive ability, physical capacity and technical proficiency) requirements.

Unique characteristics of the diverse end-users in JLOS that impact on the overall usability of integrated information systems should be taken into account during the design process. These characteristics relate to user's cognitive ability (general appreciation and comprehension of subject matter, knowledge of the application domain and knowledge of the interface syntax/semantics); ICT proficiency; and physical state of the users. For example 33% of state actors rated their ICT proficiency as sufficient; 57% as basic; and 10% as insufficient. Eighty five (85) % of private lawyers rated themselves as sufficiently IT proficient while 15% rated their knowledge of ICTs as basic. Additionally, the majority of those surveyed (90%) viewed issues of physical disability as vital considerations during design and development of information systems (ergonomics).

Information Organization Requirements.

Information organization is the process of providing structure to information and definition of relationships between information items and groups [START_REF] Morville | Information Architecture for the World Wide Web, 3 rd Edition[END_REF]. An average of 81% of respondents (65% in the Police; 85% in the DPP; 90% in the Judiciary; and 84% in the Prisons) said their institutions had some form of scheme for logically organizing information. However, only 18.5% of these respondents believed their inhouse schemes for structuring information are satisfactory and aligned to case management business processes. Lack of a uniform case identification scheme used by all the four institutions for processing cases in the criminal justice system was identified as a major information organization challenge. Therefore, there is need to provide useful and creative ways of sorting and organizing (structuring) information through an enterprise information architecture.

4.4

Information Sharing Requirements.

Information sharing is the process of exchanging of information assets between people and agencies. Ninety two (92%) of state actors, 80% of members of the general public, and 90 % of private counsels viewed information sharing between institutions involved in case management as vital. State actors associated information sharing to increasing the rate of completion of the case management process leading to better service delivery (through improved collaboration and coordination). Members of the general public and private counsel viewed information sharing as critical in improving the quality of investigations (between the Police and DPP); and as an avenue for resolving cases faster (in the Judiciary). Therefore, the model should support the discovery of information and collaboration between users in the different JLOS institutions through information sharing.

4.5

Need to cater for the evolving nature of Information Systems.

Seventy-five (75%) of state actors surveyed during the survey identified the chang-ing nature of information systems in the Sector as a major challenge to sustainable usability. Changes in user needs, introduction of new processes (and business rules), introduction of new technologies et cetera often call for re-engineering of the existing systems. This creates challenges of balancing usability and functionality -with the former being often sacrificed at the expense of the latter. The requirement to address this scenario is to ensure that usability of the systems is synchronized with the changing nature of the business environment and technology. That is there should be proper integration of usability aspects in the overall design process during changes in business vision and transitions.

Harmonize technologies used.

The four (4) institutions surveyed operate and maintain different types of case management information systems each tailored to the agency's mandate and information needs. Additionally, this problem is also faced in some individual institutions such as judiciary that has different versions of the Court Case Management System running in different courts. The diverse nature of different (and in some instances legacy) technology platforms currently in use presents interoperability challenges in the integration effort. There is therefore need to harmonize hardware and software platforms across the JLOS institutions involved in criminal justice case management.

4.7

Process efficiency requirements.

The primary interest of case management is how information on file is leveraged in solving the case at hand. State actors were asked to rate the service turn around for their respective case management systems. Process completion rates in the Uganda Police were rated at an average of two to three (2-3) days; two (2) days for the DPP; three (3) days for Judiciary, and one (1) day for the Uganda Prisons. Ninety (90%) of public officials attributed the slow case management process to poorly designed business processes; and 10% attributed this challenge to entrenched institutional bureaucratic tendencies. There is therefore need to reengineer case management processes in the criminal justice system through a comprehensive business process review that ensures that only relevant tasks and procedures are maintained and supported by technology.

In summary, the requirements for developing usable integrated information systems as established from the review of related literature and a survey are: Information aggregation and presentation requirements; User diversity (cognitive ability, physical capacity and technical proficiency) requirements; Information Organization Requirements; Information Sharing Requirements; Need to cater for the evolving nature of Information Systems; Standardizing technologies used; and Process efficiency requirements.

The next section, discusses a model for developing usable integrated case management information systems. Introduction

The model for developing usable integrated case management information systems is composed of a combination of design aspects derived from three (3) models that meet the requirements for the development of usable integrated information systems. The Architecture Development Method (ADM) provides a step-by-step guideline for architecture development and is, to considerable extent designed to deal with most system and organizational requirements from a functionality and usability point of view [START_REF]The Open Group Architecture Framework Version 9[END_REF]. LUCID/Star* Model provides the core building blocks for user centered design that are represented in four stages of analyze, design, implement and evaluate [9]. The Model-based Framework for the Integration of Usability and Software Engineering Lifecycles provides development infrastructure in which the usability engineering and software engineering life cycles co-exist in complimentary roles [START_REF] Pyla | Towards a Modelbased Framework for Integrating Usability and Software Engineering Life Cycles[END_REF].

Description of the Model

This section discusses a model for the design of usable integrated information systems known as the Architecture-driven Usability Process Model (AdUPRO) based on the requirements for developing usable integrated information systems discussed in Section Four (4). AdUPRO is composed of three modules: the enterprise architecture module, the interaction module and the Module Alignment Process (MAPs).

The "enterprise architecture module" provides a shared and enterprise approach to design, a common language for the realization of the shared design, a framework for requirements gathering and creation of a mutual understanding between how users, business and technology should integrate and mutually evolve over the course of time.

The "interaction module" provides an approach to user-centered design and incorporation of various usability aspects in the systems design process. The interaction design module is based on the LUCID/Star* process model.

The Module Alignment Process (MAPs) links the architecture and interaction modules into mutually existent, complimentary and integrated (but independent) components.

Figure 1 is a detailed illustration of the three modules of the architecture-driven usability process model -the architecture module, the interaction module and the module alignment process -as well as the illustration of each module's components, subcomponents and activities.

The enterprise architecture module (components 1.1 -1.4) represents a systematic involvement of stakeholders in the design process of integrated case management information systems by providing a coordinated vision of the enterprise's strategic direction, business practices, information flows and structure, and technology resources. The "architecture" of a typical information system is further a blueprint for the business process (business architecture), data structures (data architecture), busi-ness applications (applications architecture) and the interrelationships between these layers [START_REF] Arnold | Effects of an Architecture Approach to the Implementation of Shared Service Centres[END_REF]. Activities under the architecture module provide the basis for understanding the "big picture" of the integrated case management information system and fulfilling requirements related to information sharing, information discovery, information organization, process reengineering, standardization of technology platforms and data formats. These requirements are fulfilled through: a critical appreciation of the enterprise architecture scope and definition of the design roadmap (Foundations architecture); a comprehensive understanding of users and the information environment and business context that they operate in (business architecture); an understanding of the user applications for processing and presenting business data (IS architecture) and proper alignment of technology to end user needs and requirements to enhance the user experience (technology architecture). The goal of the interaction module (components 2.1 -2.5) is to develop an interactive integrated information system that is aligned to the user's unique environment, contexts and way of work [START_REF] Benyon | Designing Interactive Systems: People, Activities, Contexts, Technologies[END_REF] and responsive to how people (users) connect/interact with others to perform collaborative tasks and exchange (share) information [START_REF] Saffer | Designing for Interaction: Creating Innovative Applications and Devices (2nd Edition) (Voices That Matter)[END_REF][START_REF] Sharp | Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction[END_REF]. To enhance the user experience with the integrated information systems, the interaction module supports intuitive navigation and content search mechanisms at the user interface (UI) level thereby enhancing users' ability to find information. This attribute contributes to fulfillment of information sharing requirements that address challenges experienced by users to find information that spans organizational boundaries, as is the case in the Justice, Law and Order Sector.

The Module Alignment Process (MAPs) illustrates sharing/coordination of activities, iterations, timelines, techniques, artifacts and mappings between the enterprise architecture and interaction modules. According to Pyla et al [START_REF] Pyla | Towards a Modelbased Framework for Integrating Usability and Software Engineering Life Cycles[END_REF], this referred to as "module activity awareness". MAPs, further illustrated in Figure 2 supports coordination of schedules and specification of activities and components in the interaction and enterprise architecture modules that have commonalities. For such activities, MAPs is able to indicate where and when those activities should be performed, who the involved stakeholders are, and communicates this information to both the architects and interaction designers. MAPs therefore provides a synchronized mapping of activities in the enterprise architecture and interaction modules through a link (alignment process) that ensures proper conceptualization of the integrated information environment and representation of usability aspects in integrated information systems. The "evolution drifts" represent the evolving nature of the integrated information system. These changes to both the architecture and interaction modules are illustrated by the architecture and interaction evolution drifts respectively. During the design process, the architectural models tend to appear too high level and too simple to adequately be aligned with certain design realities such as new and emerging user requirements. Secondly, changes in the enterprise (business, technology and user environment) are likely to trigger changes in the overall architecture of the integrated information system. This implies that a dynamic organizational environment requires a dynamic architecture that evolves and aligns itself to new and emerging parameters of the users (usability requirements), business and technology. The Architecture Development Method (ADM) supports this required flexibility. Relatedly, the interaction design activities should be synchronized with the changes in the architecture to reflect the most current shared vision and concept of the integrated information system. A communication, coordination and synchronization layer provides connectivity between the modules to implement this "alignment" process.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

This study was an attempt to develop a model that significantly incorporates human factors in the development of integrated case management information systems. The study was further focused on addressing design-reality gaps represented by usability dimensions in integrated e-justice projects in Uganda's Justice, Law and Order Sector -specifically in criminal justice institutions. These design reality gaps relate to the usability dimensions of information, technology, processes, objectives and values, skills and knowledge, management systems and structures, and other resources. Review of literature and a research survey were conducted to provide information on the extent of the problem and other usability issues encountered in integrated information systems. Findings from this survey provided the basis for the development of requirements and design decisions to address the identified issues, problems and usability gaps. To fulfill these requirements and design decisions, an artifact known as AdUPRO (Architecture-driven Usability Process Model) was developed to guide the development of a usable integrated information system.

AdUPRO to a great extent addresses the core problem of this study -how to develop usable integrated case management information systems. The model shows how requirements for usable integrated case management information systems can be achieved in the development of integrated information systems through its three modules. However, the model is still at the theoretical stage. Our next steps will be to validate the extent the model can effectively guide development of usable integrated information systems through development of a prototype integrated case management information system used by the Police, DPP, Judiciary and Uganda Prisons Service.

For purposes of future research, the recommendation is that the model should systematically and specifically address psychodynamic factors (unconscious aspects of human behavior) and their implications on the usability of integrated information systems.

7

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Architecture-driven usability engineering process model

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Illustration of the Module Alignment Process (MAPs)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Justice, Law and Order Sector (JLOS) Secretariat (Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs, Government of Uganda) and all participants in the study from the general public, legal fraternity (Uganda Law Society), the Judiciary, Uganda Police, the Directorate of Public Prosecutions and the Uganda Prisons Service.


Robert M Davison
email: isrobert@cityu.edu.hk

Facilitating Social Harmony through ICTs

Social Harmony involves the peaceful interaction of people in a social setting. In this keynote address I briefly examine the historical antecedents of social harmony and identify some of the salient barriers to its realisations, before selecting examples of ways in which ICT can contribute to social harmony, with particular attention to the Asian region. I conclude by looking ahead to future research opportunities.

Introduction

Normatively, I would hope that social harmony is the kind of concept that we can easily understand. For me, social harmony refers to the peaceful interaction of people in a social group, and thus conveys a very positive message. However, social harmony has been misappropriated in contemporary China, where the government has coopted it into the "Socialist Harmonious Society" slogan used as a form of propaganda that promotes social stability, yet is also associated with the crack down on protests and the arrests of journalists and opinion leaders on social media. In Chinese Internet slang, "to harmonize" now means "to censor", as occurs when social media content or news content is removed if it touches on sensitive topics. Unfortunately, even social harmony has been co-opted to the dark side.

Indeed, notwithstanding the Chinese context, the positive sense of social harmony does not get much attention in the news and media these days. Quite the opposite as most news media revel in gory depictions of violence, accidents, unhappiness, victimisation, fake news, malicious rumours and gossip, indeed anything but social harmony. As a species, we have a huge capacity for mutual intolerance, hate and a litany of inhumane behaviours that we seem to take delight in wreaking on each other. While the underlying motives for this behaviour lie in the realm of psychology, ICT applications often play an instrumental role in the conveyance of this intolerance, as encountered in the nauseous behaviour of online trolls and the 'shock jocks' of extreme opinion, very often through social media channels. It is tempting to imagine that this tendency for intolerance and hate is genetically hardwired in a survival mechanism of which we are entirely unaware (cf. [START_REF] Eres | Why do people pirate? A neuroimaging investigation[END_REF]). But this seems to be too easy an excuse and diminishes any claim we have to being a higher species, equipped with wisdom (homo sapiens), if we unthinkingly use that wisdom in such unpleasant ways.

Nevertheless, I was delighted when I learned that the IFIP WG 9.4 conference chairs had selected as a theme 'Facilitating Social Harmony through ICTs'. I felt that this would be an opportunity for us to celebrate the social positives of ICT, to demon-strate that ICT can indeed facilitate social harmony in different ways. I greatly look forward to listening to the presentations in the conference theme track. I felt even more honoured to be invited as a keynote speaker, for this provided me with the opportunity to select this important conference theme as my topic.

However, my initial enthusiasm for the topic waned a little when I started to collect my thoughts and write this paper. It is one thing to agree that ICT-facilitated social harmony is a good thing, but quite another to talk about it for an hour with wit and erudition. There are certainly many inspiring examples of ICT-driven community development (as well as digital enablement at the bottom of the pyramid) that undoubtedly bring significant benefits at the bottom of the pyramid, alleviating the worst cases of poverty. For instance, the Free Lunch for Children project in China [START_REF] Zheng | Affordances of Social Media in Collective Action: The Case for Free Lunch for Children in China[END_REF] and the Ceibal project to bring laptops to children in Uruguay [START_REF] Winocur | Scope and Limitations in the Evaluation of Programs for Digital Teaching in Latin America: A Paradigmatic Case: The 'Plan Ceibal[END_REF]. Another example is the www.colab.re project in Brazil, designed to bring citizens and local governments closer together by locating common interests and solving problems. However, these examples are not quite the same thing as ICT-facilitated social harmony, even though they are closely related and social harmony may be an unintended consequence.

Let me reassure you that I have found good examples of ICTs facilitating social harmony. Indeed, one example that I hope to visit when I am in Yogyakarta is just a few kilometres from our conference site and I have found several others in the South East Asian region, as well as around the world, but before I get to the examples, I need to delve into the historical and cultural context of social harmony.

Historical and Cultural Context

In order to position social harmony in its historical context, I would like to consider some ancient traditions. In China, the origins of social harmony are often attributed to the teachings of Confucius (551-479 BC), who encouraged discussions of qin, one of the earliest forms of music in China. Qin music embodied the concept of harmony as it sought to balance the yin and yang associated with different aspects of the music, as well as the different weather conditions associated with the four seasons when the music might be played. This qin music was not written solely to please the ears, but instead to encourage people to moderate their likes and dislikes and help them achieve a 'correct direction' in life, achieving a balance between humans, society and the natural environment. Thus, in Confucian terms, just as qin music combining different instruments, tones, notes, speeds, keys, etc. could combine harmoniously, so human society could also, with its blend of different temperaments, personalities, preferences and tastes, combine in a harmonious social fashion with the peaceful interactions of multiple individuals who are transformed and civilised.

Harmony remains a key component of many musical traditions, where consonance and dissonance are resolved. For instance, the traditional Javanese musical instrument known as the Angklung also explains the philosophy of harmony. In order to play the angklung effectively, a number of players must cooperate and coordinate their movements. This is believed to enhance teamwork, mutual respect and social harmony, since each member of the team has a specific role to play. The overall message is that to ensure social harmony, people must be patient and work together with others.

A second historical tradition I wish to bring in to this discussion is Greek, whence the English word harmony is derived (via French and Latin) from ἁρµονία (harmonía), meaning "agreement or concord", which in turn is cognate with the verb ἁρµόζω (harmozo), "to fit together, to join". This brief etymological analysis indicates how harmony is associated with joining things (people, music, nature) together in a smooth fashion. I will return to nature later, but when we are dealing with people, clearly social harmony is a collective notion, involving multiple people or other objects. It is bound up with ideas of togetherness, relationships and a shared sense of belonging. A related concept is social capital, which is associated with social networks and the transactions between people that are characterised by reciprocity, trust and cooperation, all hallmarks of social harmony. Hanifan [START_REF] Hanifan | The Rural School Community Center[END_REF] notes that when there is "goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy and social intercourse among a group of individuals and families … there will be an accumulation of social capital, … which may bear a social potentiality sufficient to the substantial improvement of living conditions in the whole community". Social capital is thus something to be encouraged as it can lead to a social state where social harmony is more likely to emerge.

I suggest that a harmonious society will be one that is governed by mutual respect between members and a sense of reciprocity, with people altruistically helping one another. For social harmony in a real or virtual society to be effective, collective efficacy is important, for all the members of the society must work well together with tolerance and respect if that state of harmony is to be achieved and sustained.

Social harmony is a state that is not only peaceful but also founded on cooperation and collaboration, not conflict and dissonance. This does not exclude an economic element, but economic drivers often favour the bold, risk takers with a 'who dares, wins' mentality. As the Greek soldier and historian Thucydides (460-400 BC) is supposed to have remarked "τοῖς τολµῶσιν ἡ τύχη ξύµφορος", i.e. "fortune favours the bold". Such an attitude can induce individualistic competitiveness and exclusiveness, with a slippery slope that leads to conflict and a diminishment of harmony if inequalities emerge. Collective economic benefits can be realised in a socially harmonious way if it is the entire community that benefits, not the individual. I will explore this in more detail below.

In the Chinese context, key cultural elements in the traditional social harmony pantheon are guānxi (關係), héxié (和諧), rénqing (人情) and miànzi (面子). Guanxi, broadly, refers to situation where two or more individuals enjoy a "close and pervasive interpersonal relationship [that] is based on high quality social interactions and the reciprocal exchange of mutual benefits (renqing)" [START_REF] Ou | Swift Guanxi in Online Marketplaces: The Role of Computer-Mediated-Communication Technologies[END_REF]. People who share guanxi target the formation of a state of harmony (héxié) between each other and also protect each other's face (miànzi). Guanxi is ubiquitous in China and is often seen as an essential survival mechanism: without guanxi, it is very hard to do anything related to work or social interaction. The social harmony that is a key component of guanxi is not only a face-to-face phenomenon, but also one that is firmly rooted in online communications. Social media technologies like WeChat and QQ are often used to build and maintain online relationships (guanxi) where interlocutors aim to achieve a state of harmony (hexie) as they interact. Although the desire for a harmonious interaction is a cultural one, the technology effectively supports this interaction by embedding tools central to such communication, as well as more special functions, such as WeChat's 'donating to charity' app.

Barriers to the Adoption of ICT

While social media technology may seem ubiquitous, there are in fact many barriers to the access and use of ICTs that may impede the development of ICT-facilitated social harmony. The research unit of the Chinese global telecommunications equipment manufacturer Huawei [START_REF] Huawei | Connecting the Future: Digital Enablement: Bridging the Digital Divide to Connect People and Society[END_REF] suggested four key barriers, viz.: availability, affordability, appetite and ability, to digital enablement in developing countries. These barriers equally apply to ICT-driven social harmony. Availability has two key components. Firstly it relates to the access to the technology, including networks and devices, electrical power supply and high speed infrastructure. Secondly, it relates to the need for local content that meets local needs in local languages. Affordability is a very familiar problem. It not only refers to the purchasing power of the intended users, but also to the value that can be obtained through the use of the technology. Appetite and Ability tap into a different set of issues. Appetite refers to the motivation to use the technology, prompted by questions like "Why do I need it?" and "How will it benefit me?" Appetite can also be related to technophobia: the fear of technology. Finally, and very critically, ability refers to computer literacy and the whole issue of "How can I use the technology?". This is premised on the need for appropriate education.

Examples of ICT-Facilitated Social Harmony

In the northern highlands of the island of Borneo, straddling the border between Indonesian Kalimantan and Malaysian Sabah/Sarawak, there are a number of communities that illustrate ideas central to ICT-facilitated social harmony. Two key projects are the eBario village and the eBorneo knowledge fair. eBario (www.ebario.org) is a project that, starting in 1998, has brought the Internet to remote Kelabit communities in the highlands of northern Sarawak [START_REF] Harris | Tourism in Bario, Sarawak, Malaysia: A Case Study of Pro-Poor Community Based Tourism Integrated into Community Development[END_REF][START_REF] Harris | Information and Communication Technologies for Cultural Transmission among Indigenous Peoples[END_REF]. The project has from the start been premised on close interaction between members of the community in their natural environment and the various researchers and agencies who have supported the project. These interactions give priority to the problems and opportunities that the community itself identifies. Thus the eBario community radio station, which broadcasts in the rapidly disappearing Kelabit language, is operated by the community for the community and features information of relevance to the community. The project includes a telecentre, established to provide access for the community to resources on the Internet including e-health and telemedicine, but also enabling the community to attract tourists who can supplement village income in their community-based tourism project. In these projects, it is the community as a whole which benefits, hence the link to social harmony. The community sells its indigenous Bario rice over the Internet and hopes to attract tourists keen to trek in the surrounding jungle, activities that ensure economic benefits for a disparate range of Bario villagers. The eBario project is donor funded and addresses all four barriers identified by Huawei. The technology itself was provided by donors, who also installed solar panels and a diesel generator to provide a reliable electricity supply. The content is generated locally, in the local Kelabit language. While the initial costs of the project were covered, locals need to generate income from use of the technology. In the Bario school, computers were provided to ensure that school children would learn how to use them as part of the curriculum, thereby addressing the issue of appetite and ability. The views of the Bario villagers who have benefitted from the eBario development are recorded by Tarawe and Harris [START_REF] Tarawe | Stories from eBario[END_REF].

Closely linked to eBario is the eBorneo knowledge fair (www.ebkf.org). The knowledge fair is designed to showcase how the use of ICTs can benefit the development of isolated rural communities. Such fairs are designed to allow all participants to learn from and interact with each other in an innovative and dynamic way in order to facilitate the transfer of knowledge. The knowledge fair is designed as a nonhierarchical community event that champions social harmony across the communities.

A few kilometres from our conference location, there is a very local example of a socially harmonious community: Kampung Cyber. http://www.rt36kampoengcyber. com/. As the website mentions: "Sebuah kampung yang penuh potensi dan ingin selalu berkembang. Utamanya berkembang melalui teknologi informasi.", which I loosely translate as "This is a village that always wants to develop, which it will do primarily through IT". Although the village is old, the cyberification of the village, which led to Kampung Cyber, was started in 2008 by Mas Koko, a village resident and graduate from the local Universitas Gadjah Mada. As he explained to me by email, Mas Koko had the objective of bringing not only free Internet to each house in the village, but also, and more importantly, educational programmes that help citizens to build their capacity to leverage the Internet effectively. The project started with just five villagers, who drew on their own savings to buy the necessary equipment but who also shared that equipment with their neighbours, who subsequently became interested in the project. Atmajaya University provided basic computer training for free. In early 2015, they received their first outside funding from a private company which has enabled them to improve the speed of their connections. Currently, many of the villagers are informally employed, seeking to sell their various products, e.g. batik, fishing equipment, T-shirt painting, food, snacks and traditional crafts via the Internet. As a result, the standards of living in the village have improved for the individuals as well as the village as a whole. Facebook is used as a village communication channel for sharing ideas, invitations and meeting minutes. The overall effect is for Kampung Cyber to be a harmonious location for the villagers who live there.

In southern Mexico, Ricardo Gomez is working with an indigenous Tzeltal community in Chiapas state [START_REF] Gomez | Indigenous Information System in Chiapas, Mexico: Integrating Community Radio, Library and Impact Assessment for Community Development[END_REF] on a multi-year initiative that will involve an indigenous community library, indigenous community radio and what he terms fotohistorias [START_REF] Gomez | Notions of Home and Sense of Belonging in the Context of Migration in a Journey through Participatory Photography[END_REF], the use of photography to capture the salient elements of the culture. The common thread for the various activities is the local, indigenous notion of "likil cuxlejalil" which translates roughly as "The Good Life". In the Tzeltal indigenous tradition, The Good Life is defined by harmony. Harmony between heart, stomach, and spirit, harmony between individual, family, and community, and harmony in relation to Mother Earth or the environment. This project is therefore very much about social and community harmony and the way it can be enhanced through development programmes.

In Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, Raihani [START_REF] Raihani | Creating a Culture of Religious Tolerance in an Indonesian School[END_REF] draws on the indigenous Dayak rumah betang or long house as "a cultural symbol of harmony amongst different religions and ethnicities". The whole extended family or community would live in a rumah betang, with little privacy and the need for much respect of differences. In similar vein, Raihani [START_REF] Raihani | Creating a Culture of Religious Tolerance in an Indonesian School[END_REF] documents how school children are brought up and educated to respect religious differences, just as they would have to in the rumah betang, in line with Indonesia's Pancasila philosophy. As "another feature of the harmonious interreligious relations" these children described how they sent "short messages via mobile phones" and wrote "on friends' Facebook walls to express greetings" during religious celebrations and festivities such as Eid al-Fitr and Christmas.

In Liberia, Smyth et al. [START_REF] Smyth | Moses: Exploring New Ground in Media and Post-Conflict Reconciliation[END_REF] developed a mobile information kiosk as part of the country's post-civil war truth and reconciliation process. The kiosk is called Moses and consists of "an interactive computer system which allows users to browse, watch, create and share video messages". It is thus a means for sharing of stories across the country with the objective of enhancing social harmony, despite very poor levels of Internet infrastructure, power supply and information or computer literacy. Smyth et al. [START_REF] Smyth | Moses: Exploring New Ground in Media and Post-Conflict Reconciliation[END_REF] report that the over 900 people who recorded videos with Moses and the several thousand more who watched these videos across the country from 2008-2009 "saw Moses as giving them a voice and connecting them to other Liberians throughout the country". The system itself was often associated with group usage, with a throng of people gathered excitedly around the kiosk, helping each other to use the system, sharing their stories and looking towards a brighter future. Here, social harmony is being achieved as part of the reconciliation process.

Closing Thoughts and Future Directions

Social harmony needs intensive maintenance if it is to persist. From an ICT perspective, this means that there is an intensive need for the sharing of ideas, knowledge and best practices; thus communication is critical. Such communication, if online, is likely to involve some form of social media, assuming that Internet access is available. Facebook is very popular is many of these communities, but others include WeChat and Twitter. Email is also reported as being popular for more formal communications. In less well resourced communities, such as parts of West Africa where Internet accessibility is very weak and literacy is low, reliance on more indigenous applications is likely. All stakeholders, especially those in the local community, need to participate in a culture that nurtures the interests of the community as a whole. While ICTfacilitated community development projects are common, these seldom report on any social harmony that results. One might conclude that the lack of evidence suggests the absence of the phenomenon but I am more optimistic: I am certain that social harmo-ny does exist, indeed it is abundant, but we need to find and report on it, sharing our stories. Gomez's use of fotohistorias provides us with a unique new tool that is well adapted to recording social harmony in practice.

Acknowledgements

I very much appreciate reflections and suggestions from Julian Bass, Ricardo Gomez, Alexandre Graeml, Roger Harris, Safirotu Khoir, Shirin Madon, Antonius Sasongko WK (Koko Mas) and Yingqin Zheng.


Rasha F Elgazzar

Rania F El-Gazzar
email: rania.el-gazzar@usn.no

Mohamed A El-Gohary
email: melgohary@alexu.edu.eg

Understanding the Dilemma of the Municipal Solid Waste Management System in Alexandria, Egypt: Could ICT Improve the System?

Keywords: Municipal solid waste management, ICT, environment, sustainable development, developing countries, Alexandria city, waste management problems

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Research Problem

The density of population in developing countries has undesirable implications on many aspects, particularly the environmental sustainable development [START_REF]UN: Towards sustainable cities: World Economic and Social Survey[END_REF]. One of the key operations to drive the wheel of environmental sustainable development is the Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) [START_REF] Bithas | Environmentally Sustainable Cities. Critical Review and Operational Conditions[END_REF]. MSWM in developing countries is lacking availability of the data in an integrated and timely manner to capture the MSWM system's problems or informal activities and make better decisions [START_REF]UNEP: Municipal Solid Waste: Is it Garbage or Gold?[END_REF]. MSWM in developing countries is unsatisfactory [START_REF] Schübeler | Conceptual Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Countries[END_REF]; up to 60% of all the urban solid waste in developing countries is uncollected, less than 50% of the population is served, and most developing countries use the least preferred waste management methods, such as open dumping and open burning [START_REF] Wilson | Integrated Sustainable Waste Management in Developing Countries[END_REF]. Developing countries generate organic waste far more than the developed countries, which can be turned into 'gold' only if effective waste management programs exist [START_REF]UNEP: Municipal Solid Waste: Is it Garbage or Gold?[END_REF].

In Egypt, MSWM has been and will be a constant challenge. The recent estimate of population in Egypt is 91.854.596 according to the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) [6]. Egypt generates 21 million tons of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) yearly [START_REF] Zaki | Country Report on the Solid Waste Management in Egypt[END_REF], of which 46% is uncollected and 43% is covered by formal collection, while 11% is covered by informal collection [START_REF] Mehlhart | Greenhouse Gas Emissions from MSW Management in Egypt[END_REF]. The uncollected MSW is dumped into the river, canals, and streets posing a major threat to the environment (i.e., pollution) and public health (i.e., spread of diseases) [START_REF] Al-Akkad | Egypt's Garbage Problem[END_REF]. The MSWM system in Egypt is inefficient; one side of this dilemma relates to the improper handling of the MSW and other legal, institutional, financial, and cultural factors. The other side of the dilemma is that there is no adequate data to support the assessment of MSWM sector and inform decision-making regarding the improvement of the MSWM system [START_REF] Zaki | Annual Report for Solid Waste Management in Egypt[END_REF]. The same dilemma applies to Alexandria city, the second largest city in Egypt.

Alexandria city was voted the cleanest city of the Arab world in 2003, a winner of a prize in the environment category in 2005, and awarded the Habitat Scroll of Honour from the United Nations (UN) in 2006. However, several factors (i.e., social, urban, technical, and cultural) and institutional actors (i.e., public, private, and informal sector) contributed to the previously flourished MSWM era and the currently problematic MSW situation. We commenced the study with the following Research Questions (RQs) to understand the MSW problems in Alexandria and the constituents of such problems, and explore opportunities for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to improve the MSWM system in Alexandria: "RQ1: What are the problems in the MSWM system in Alexandria?" and "RQ2: How can ICT help improving those problems?"

We attempt to define the research problem in relation to the literature and the social context. Literature on MSWM in Egypt mainly focused on exploring techniques for treating organic MSW [START_REF] Elfeki | Treatment of municipal organic solid waste in Egypt[END_REF], suggesting a sustainable strategy for MSWM based on successful international models, which is not actualized yet [START_REF] Ibrahim | Towards Sustainable Management of Solid Waste in Egypt[END_REF], assessing MSWM in Egypt and the role of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in that process [START_REF] Milik | Assessment of Solid Waste Management in Egypt During the Last Decade in Light of the Partnership Between the Egyptian Government and the Private Sector[END_REF], proposing a MSWM quality assurance program that unfortunately lacks in Egypt [START_REF] Rahman | Planning for a Solid Waste Management Quality Assurance Program in Egypt[END_REF], highlighting the importance of raising the environmental awareness of SWM in the Egyptian education System [START_REF] Kandil | Incorporating Environmental Awareness of Solid Waste Management within the Education System: (A Case from Egypt)[END_REF], and proposing standard codes of practice for MSWM in Egypt [START_REF] Ghosh | Codes for Solid Waste Management for Developing Countries: India and Egypt[END_REF]. However, the power of ICT in improving MSWM system in the Egyptian context has not been explicitly appreciated yet. Very few studies contributed to identifying problems and suggesting solutions for MSWM in three Egyptian governorates, namely, Cairo [START_REF]World Bank: Project Information Document (Concept Stage) -Cairo Municipal Solid Waste Management Project[END_REF], Port Said [START_REF] Badran | Optimization of municipal solid waste management in Port Said-Egypt[END_REF], and El-Beheira [START_REF] El-Salam | Municipal Solid Waste Management in El-Beheira Governorate, Egypt: a case study in Damanhour City[END_REF]. However, MSWM problems in Alexandria city have not been explored and addressed properly yet given the city is equally important in size and location, and it has been through ups and downs in the process of MSWM that ended in a worse MSW situation.

The approximate population of Alexandria governorate is five million [6], and eight million in the summer due to the massive summer visitors [START_REF] Crawford | Public private partnership in the European Union[END_REF]. The MSW generation in Alexandria governorate is 4200 tons per day and 1.53 million tons per year according to a recent report on the state of environment in Egypt 2014 [START_REF]EEAA: Egypt State of the Environment Report[END_REF]. Alexandria had an experience of unsustainable MSWM system throughout the time. We describe three key periods, each period witnessed differences in processes, actors, and issues in the MSWM system in particular and unsustainable MSW situation in Alexandria city in general.

The first period of "manual labor" covers the years before 2000 and witnessed poor MSWM operations that involved manual labor, namely, informal sector (i.e., Zabbaleen who are individual garbage collecting people). It should be noted that the General Authority for Cleanness & Beautification, that was part of Alexandria governorate, was and is still responsible for the MSWM, but has no active role to mention in Alexandria City. Furthermore, each district had a cleanness unit with its own equipment that still operates until now, but does not have the proper capacity to cover all MSWM responsibilities solely. In addition, waste collection and sweeping activities were not regular causing being scattered by stray animals, which results in a disastrous scene in Alexandria city's streets. Furthermore, waste disposal and treatment activities were unorganized.

The second period of "Veolia/Onyx Company" covers 2001 -2011 witnessed a flourished era of cleanliness for the city, labor training, and appropriate management of MSW using modern equipment and techniques according to international standards. Veolia is specialized in environmental services including water, waste management, energy, and transportation. Veolia has signed a contract with the governorate of Alexandria in 2000 to commence operations of the waste management system in Alexandria city for the period of 15 years (2001 -2015). The contract was the first Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in waste management sector in Egypt, and it included operations of waste collection and transfer, street cleaning, treatment of waste, and rehabilitation of two old dump sites. However, the contract was terminated in 2011 earlier than the agreed termination year in the contract 2015. Several problems caused early termination of the contract, such as the instability after the Egyptian uprising posed a threat for the company as an investor, delayed financial dues by the governorate for paying wages of the company's labor, and people used to steal garbage cans for storage purposes, which did cost the company buying new garbage cans.

The third period of "Egypt renaissance or Nahdet Misr Company" covers 2011-2016, the company is established by "Arab Contractors or El-Mokawloon El-Arab Company" that is a public-sector construction and contracting company. Nahdet Misr started officially its waste management duties in December 2011 in collaboration with "Falcon Group Company" specialized in security services, after Veolia's early contract termination in October 2011. Nahdet Misr took over the waste management operations in a critical time at the year of Egyptian uprising in 2011; hence, the company faced major problems. The company did not have enough experience in MSWM, thus, the company hired subcontractor (scavengers) to collect the waste from particular.

Methodological Approach

In this study, we conducted an interpretive case study method, that is suitable for studying a phenomenon within its social context [START_REF] Walsham | Interpretive Case Studies in IS Research: Nature and Method[END_REF], to investigate the problems that surfaced in the current MSWM system (see Table 1).

Findings and Discussion

Our key contributions from this study are: (1) the pressing problems in the current MSWM system at the time of Nahdet Misr company have been identified (See Table 2), and (2) the current ICT initiatives have been identified along with their limitations.

Table 2. MSWM problems in Alexandria

Problems

Description Political

Regulations are neither strict nor clearly defined Institutional -Quantity of waste exceeded the agreed quantity in the contract -Waste management responsibilities are beyond the capacity of the company -Delayed financial dues by the governorate to the company for paying the wages of its labor Social -The workers of Nahdet Misr used to strike for not having their wages paid regularly, which caused mountains of waste to appear in the streets -Shortage of labor to be engaged in waste collection and transfer activities -People do not adhere to MWM-related laws and waste collection times -People do random burning of waste causing air pollution -People used to steal garbage bins for storage purposes, which did cost the company buying new garbage cans -Random behavior of scavengers causes garbage being scattered in the streets and makes it difficult for the company to collect the waste -The increased population density as a result of the illegal high rise residential buildings caused an increase in the amount of generated waste than before Financial -Bearing extra costs of buying new garbage bins instead of the stolen ones -The company lacked financial resources to buy extra equipment and collaborated with subcontractors to collect the waste -The company had financial dues to those subcontractors -Penalties on the company from the environmental monitoring authority (which is part of Alexandria governorate) for the delay in lifting the waste and random disposal methods Economic -The random behavior of scavengers caused the company not benefiting from the economic value of the recyclable waste -Problems in the urban infrastructure, such as the narrow streets in the majority of the city's districts, which are difficult to reach by regular waste collection trucks * Environmental category is not among the strategic issues listed in the MSWM framework [START_REF] Schübeler | Conceptual Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Countries[END_REF], but emerged from the findings.

There is a number of scattered initiatives of using ICT in the current MSWM system in Alexandria by different actors. The use of ICT is limited to WhatsApp, Facebook, and Web portal, which had some implications, yet, not actualized impacts on addressing the problems of MSWM in Alexandria: (1) Spreading awareness: this manifested in the effort by Alexandria governorate to use Facebook to launch awareness campaigns through light comics targeting households to separate recyclable waste from the organic waste. (2) Coordinating and monitoring waste collection activities: in Nahdet Misr, the use of WhatsApp is intended to keep communication between the company and the subcontractors and workers who collect the waste from the streets and send them to locations where more labor is needed to collect the waste. In addition, the waste collectors are asked to take photos for the spots they collected the waste from and send the photos via WhatsApp to confirm that they have cleaned up the spot. However, there are still more opportunities for ICT to solve governance problems concerning the phenomenon of scavengers who scavenge the waste after collecting it and before reaching the intermediate stations. (3) Reporting waste-related problems: on the Web portal of Alexandria governorate, there is a section dedicated for the environmental monitoring authority to receive waste related complaints from citizens either through phone numbers or a Web form enabling citizens to upload files/photos about waste-related problems; thus, leveraging citizen involvement.

The use of ICT as is in the current MSWM system in Alexandria is lacking integration of MSWM activities and involved actors. ICT proved to (1) improve route planning and scheduling of waste collection and transportation using GIS applications [START_REF] Rada | Web-GIS oriented systems viability for municipal solid waste selective collection optimization in developed and transient economies[END_REF] incorporated with Big Data analytics [START_REF] Shahrokni | Big Data GIS Analytics Towards Efficient Waste Management in Stockholm[END_REF], which can reduce costs of such tedious activities, as they heavily depend on various behavioral patterns of people, (2) automate waste segregation using scanning spectroscopy technology [START_REF] Durgekar | Towards Sustainable Waste Management Through Technological Innovations, Effective Policy, Supply Chain Integration & Participation[END_REF], and (3) have the most relevant and direct effect on MSWM through enabling intelligent recycling systems [START_REF] Hilty | The relevance of information and communication technologies for environmental sustainability-a prospective simulation study[END_REF]. Advanced ICT solutions (i.e., Big Data, GPS, and GIS database) could improve the current MSWM system in Alexandria and help the Nahdet Misr manage its limited resources efficiently. This study has reported on MSWM problems in Alexandria, and it is part of an ongoing research effort that seeks to propose an integrated solution for some of the identified problems, taking into account social mechanisms of the problems and opportunities for exploiting ICT.

Table 1 .

 1 Overview on MethodologyOnline news articles, posts on online communities (e.g., Facebook), statistical reports by CAPMAS, status reports by the Ministry of environment and Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, documents published by Veolia Environment Service Company, and reports by other external agencies (i.e., SWEEP-Net) Data analysis Data analysis involved applying open coding of the themes that emerged from the data. Through the framework for MSWM in developing countries[START_REF] Schübeler | Conceptual Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Countries[END_REF], we looked in the data at the political, institutional, social, financial, economic, and technical problems caused by various actors and led to degrade MSWM processes at present.

	Data collection/analysis	Description
	Primary		Seven interviews with duration of 15 minutes to three hours and 30 minutes with
	data		citizens, labors in Nahdet Misr, Alexandria governate consultants and service direc-
	sources		tors
			One of the authors is a consultant for Alexandria governorate projects and has hands
			on experience regarding MSWM problems and solutions
			Observations by the reserachers in diffrent areas of the Alexandria city
			Recorded videos by the researchers
			Captured photos by the researchers
	Secondary
	data
	sources


Sojen Pradhan
email: sojendra.pradhan@uts.edu.au

Analysis of impact sourcing by infusing social innovation in outsourcing for Nepal

Keywords: Business processes outsourcing (BPO), impact sourcing, social enterprise, social innovation

Outsourcing is a popular term in the business world for last several decades. Information Technology Outsourcing (ITO) and Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) have been dominating the outsourcing jobs to developing countries. Recently, a new shift of outsourcing to impact sourcing have emerged through which digitally-enabled jobs are given to marginalized individuals so that their conditions would be improved. However, only limited studies have been done to explore the recruiting process of marginalized communities and the impacts to the workers and their families.

Cloud Factory, as one of the pioneer impact sourcing service providers in Nepal, is targeted to conduct further research. Initial investigation has shown that flexibility to work from any place such as their own home or internet cafes on flexible hours have attracted college students to this impact sourcing model in Nepal. In the future, further analysis on improvement on employees' lives by impact sourcing will be conducted.

Introduction

The philosophy of 'social enterprise' and 'corporate social responsibility (CSR)' of organizations have been promoted in outsourcing and referred as 'impact sourcing'. This concept introduced a significant positive impact to the marginalized individuals of communities by providing them with gainful employments so that their living standard would be improved [START_REF] Burgess | Getting impact sourcing right[END_REF]. To promote this concept with an objective to improve the lives of the poor and vulnerable worldwide [START_REF] Accenture | Exploring the value proposition for impact sourcing, The buyer's perspectives[END_REF], Rockefeller Foundation, one of the biggest private charitable foundations, endorsed and supported 'impact sourcing' as they have similar goals in their initiatives like Poverty Reduction through Information and Digital Employment (PRIDE). Possible outcomes from impact sourcing have inspired this foundation and have committed to support by providing funding to some African projects [START_REF] Troup | The financial and social value of impact sourcing[END_REF], such as $100 million to Digital Jobs Africa Initiatives. Since impact sourcing is relatively new concept, not much research has been done, except few researchers [START_REF] Burgess | Getting impact sourcing right[END_REF][START_REF] Sandeep | Social innovations in outsourcing: An empirical investigation of impact sourcing companies in India[END_REF][START_REF] Carmel | The impact of impact sourcing: Framing a research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Heeks | Emerging Markets, Information Technology Impact Sourcing[END_REF][START_REF] Lacity | Robust practices from two decades of ITO and BPO research[END_REF] who mainly focused on the providers of impact sourcing. In this study, however, Cloud Factory in Nepal, is taken as a case study to examine the effect of impact sourcing. Our research goal is to analyze socio-economical profile of employees and the changes that impact sourcing model has made in their lives. Initially, we have analyzed the publicly available information. The current employment situation of the country is analyzed, where majority of youth strive to go foreign countries. This paper continues by describing how the emergence of impact sourcing concept developed by exploring types of social value it creates and types of values it proposes to outsourcing clients. It is followed by critiques around impact sourcing and classified ISSPs as per their business goals, capital investment provider, and targeted marginalized communities. Conclusion is drawn with future research directions to evaluate the impacts in the communities.

Emergence of Impact Sourcing

Information Technology outsourcing (ITOs) and Business Processes Outsourcing (BPOs) are main two categories of outsourcing work. ITOs are focused on work related to information systems such as systems administration, database administration, mainframe, help desk, network management, website development, content development, data conversion etc. and BPOs are usually non-IT related work such as call centers, data entry, transcribing, HR administration, finance, accounting and so on [START_REF] Sen | Southeast Asia in the global wave of outsourcing: Trends, opportunities, and challenges[END_REF]. Due to the greater advancement in technology and robust IT enabled services (ITES), BPOs have been one of the fastest growing sectors and has now spread to more countries in the world [START_REF] Ocra | The BPO country competency model (CCM)[END_REF]. Impact sourcing distributes services offered by traditional BPOs plus social value creation to disadvantaged communities in developing countries by providing work and necessary training to marginalized individuals. However, massive growth of BPO to the country like India, has instigated some human resource challenges [START_REF] Kuruvilla | Globalisation and outsourcing: confronting new human resource challenges in India's business process outsourcing industry[END_REF]. Most common challenges are: managing new generation of employees (college graduates), supply of skilled labor, retaining employees, job hopping etc. Alternative solution to this rising problem, in conjunction with possible social impacts to poor and vulnerable, the outsourcing moved to rural area of the country in some cases. Thus, a company called Ruralshores began in 2008, which expanded the concept of impact sourcing to rural, vulnerable and marginalized communities. It has been noticed that people in rural areas are more reliable [START_REF] Burgess | Getting impact sourcing right[END_REF] and do not necessarily face the same human resource challenges as urban areas. Level of skills is the main issue but when simple tasks are considered, people in rural area outperformed. Thus, impact sourcing claims to provide 'win-win strategy for both clients and communities [START_REF] Malik | Assessing the social development potential of impact sourcing[END_REF].

The concept of impact sourcing has been gradually gaining popularity due to its practice of employing socioeconomically disadvantaged people, and thus creating social value in those communities [START_REF] Sandeep | Social innovations in outsourcing: An empirical investigation of impact sourcing companies in India[END_REF][START_REF] Heeks | Emerging Markets, Information Technology Impact Sourcing[END_REF]. The concept and practice evolved as several social enterprises got involved in ITOs and BPOs to reduce poverty by engaging, training and creating jobs for disadvantaged people [START_REF] Madon | Social IT outsourcing and development: theorising the linkage[END_REF]. Within the paradigm of impact sourcing, Sandeep and Ravishankar [START_REF] Sandeep | Social innovations in outsourcing: An empirical investigation of impact sourcing companies in India[END_REF] investigated individual and organizational level social entrepreneurship and advocated that social innovation in outsourcing has emerged. The positive impacts to people in developing countries from ITOs and BPOs are re-iterated. For example, one of the impact sourcing service providers, Digital Divide Data (DDD) is operating from countries such as Cambodia, Laos and Kenya and provided work experience to several hundreds of disadvantaged young people from poor families in those countries. The company not only provides necessary training and education to make them ready to work in BPO, but also offers scholarship to enroll in university for upskilling in the process of reducing poverty in the region [START_REF] Madon | Social IT outsourcing and development: theorising the linkage[END_REF].

Critique of impact sourcing

Generally, one of the primary goals of for-profit organizations is to increase profit and decrease cost of operating the business. Outsourcing has been an effective strategy to save cost by contracting out services and activities [13 -15] and to remain competitive in the market [START_REF] Antonucci | The pros and cons of IT outsourcing[END_REF]. Malik et al. [START_REF] Malik | Assessing the social development potential of impact sourcing[END_REF] reiterated that relationship between business and society is only economic and criticized the concept of impact sourcing as it emerged to save cost and reduce employee turnover symptom outsourcing company faced, rather than impacting marginalized individuals and communities. Some other researchers also criticized that CSR is used as marketing tool for public relations and as corporate mask to legitimate business activities [START_REF] Malik | Assessing the social development potential of impact sourcing[END_REF]. It is further intensified by viewing the impact sourcing as 'exploitation' of people in marginalized communities of developing countries rather than creating social value. However, these critics ignore the challenges faced by organizations to take work to those communities such as lack of infrastructure, information security, data confidentiality and lower technical and other desired skills in those communities in rural areas.

Research Method

A literature review of related articles in impact sourcing is conducted to show how it emerged from traditional outsourcing domain. Criticism of impact sourcing has also been scrutinized. A case study of the company 'Cloud Factory' in Nepal has been initiated to examine the impacts to the impact workers. At this stage, publicly available information about the company is presented in this paper. In the future, however, thorough analysis of this company is planned by interviewing several employees, different managerial levels, including the founder. This study is planned to conduct a longitudinal study outlining the effect to impact workers' families and eventually to the societies.

Impact sourcing service providers (ISSPs)

Based on structures and intentions of ISSPs, Malik et al. [START_REF] Malik | Assessing the social development potential of impact sourcing[END_REF] grouped and described the impact sourcing service providers into the four categories. They have also divided the 4 groups of ISSPs into 2 categories broadly first as shown in Table 1 below.  Non-profit social outsourcing organizations have primary objective to create social value and community development. They are funded by donations from both commercial and charity organizations. Profit and revenue generation are not the aim of these organizations but they pride themselves by giving opportunities and creating employment to disadvantaged individuals. DDD and Samasource are examples.  For-profit social outsourcing organizations are driven by market opportunities to create social value but their focus is also to run as commercial companies. State government in Kerala, India supported an initiative, Kudambasbree which helps poor rural women to establish social ICT enterprises. *Cloud Factory is another company which is privately founded to help people in Nepal and Kenya.  Socially responsible outsourcing organizations -are founded with the CSR view in mind by commercial outsourcing service providers. Although the motive is in social development in communities, they would also account for profit.  Dual value outsourcing organizations -focus at setting up outsourcing centers in rural areas to stay competitive in the market, thus they have dual goals to create business and social value. Initial investment for these organizations are provided usually by individual investor and hence needs to generate profit to sustain in the market. Ruralshores opened several rural BPO centers in remote villages in India to reduce the migration of rural people to urban areas. They trained and employed poor and disabled people in those areas, thus contributing to the local economy in villages by empowering local people through ICT trainings.

Impact sourcing in Nepal -Cloud Factory

Nepal is sandwiched in between two top countries, India and China, in terms of attracting the highest number of BPO services to. Although it is a small country, there is a big potential impact sourcing to change socio-economic status of rural communities and sustain local economic development. A significant number of Nepalese youth [START_REF] Accenture | Exploring the value proposition for impact sourcing, The buyer's perspectives[END_REF]226,152 between 2008/09 and 2013/14) goes to foreign countries such as Middle Eastern countries, Israel, Malaysia, Korea etc. for basic employment [START_REF]Labour migration for Employment[END_REF]. They are departing for foreign jobs because there is no employment available in the local areas for them. Cloud Factory has been operating as a successful ISSP since 2012. This company is founded by Mark Sears as he was impressed by skills of local people in Nepal. Core focus of this company is not to make profit only but to grow the company and make social impact by giving more opportunities to talented people who will otherwise not have opportunities. Cloud Factory has so far employed 6,738 members of community in developing countries like Kenya and Nepal. Types of jobs carried on by Cloud Factory are; transcribing bills, restaurant menus, categorize images, tag images, face detection, virtual assistant training, ChaBot training etc. [START_REF]Cloud Factory Available[END_REF]. It has published that 59% of the employees are currently enrolled in college and working part time. 47% of its employees gained new management skills and 30% leadership skills. It has clearly demonstrated that majority of earnings (62%) is spent for their personal expenses and 22% were used to support their families. The most important figure is happy index. 92% of the employees agreed that they are happier because what they learnt there. The company is operating from the capital of the country, Kathmandu.

Conclusion and future direction

The new trend of impact sourcing in the space of outsourcing has been gradually evolving and creating social values to the disadvantaged communities. With the increased awareness of social responsibilities and inclusive business attitudes, businesses are more likely to use the service provided by impact sourcing service provider than traditional outsourcers. In the context of Nepal where growing youth departing the country to find basic employment in foreign countries, expanding impact sourcing to reach rural parts of the country is pragmatic. In the future, this study will be expanded to analyze and compare the 'before and after' condition of the employees. Lack of infrastructure and higher illiteracy rate are main challenges to implement impact sourcing in rural areas, but these issues can be reduced by partnering with NGOs, microfinances and government bodies. We strongly believe and recommend that the concept of impact sourcing will be more effective in rural areas of Nepal to utilize skills of local rural youth and establishing impact sourcing organizations successfully.

Table 1 .

 1 Groups of ISSPs with targeted individuals and locations (source:[START_REF] Lacity | Robust practices from two decades of ITO and BPO research[END_REF][START_REF] Malik | Assessing the social development potential of impact sourcing[END_REF]

	Groups	ISSPs	Targeted individuals	Location / Country
		Digital Divide	Unemployed high school	Cambodia, Laos,
		Data (DDD)	graduates	Kenya
	Non-profit	Samasource	Poor and disadvantaged	India, Kenya, Uganda,
				Ghana
	Social IT Out-
	sourcing	KGVK	Poor youth	India (Jharkhand)
		Kudumbasree	Poor rural women	India (Kerala)
	For-profit	Cloud	Poor and Unemployed people Nepal and Kenya
		Factory*
	Socially re-	Tata Rural	Poor and disadvantaged rural	India (Maharashtra)
	sponsible	Wipro Rural	Poor and disadvantaged rural	India (Tamil Nadu)
	Socio-commer-
	cial IT Out-	Ruralshores	Disadvantaged and disabled	India
	sourcing
	Dual-value	Harva	Rural women	India
		eGramIT	Rural youth	India (AndhraPradesh)