Swaleha Peeroo
email: speeroo@udm.ac.mu

Martin Samy
email: m.a.samy@leedsbeckett.ac.uk

Brian Jones
email: b.t.jones@leedsbeckett.ac.uk

Generating Customer Engagement and Customer Enragement on Facebook Pages of Tesco and Walmart

Keywords: social media, customer engagement, relationship marketing, customer empowerment, grocery stores, Facebook

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The social media revolution has impacted the business world, pushing companies to adapt to a new social order [START_REF] Arnaboldi | Social media and business[END_REF]. Social media have empowered customers by giving them a voice to spread their opinions on products and services to a very wide audience and at an incredible speed [START_REF] Constantinides | Social Media: A New Frontier for Retailers[END_REF]. The potential benefits of adopting social media platforms have appealed to businesses of all sizes across several industries [START_REF] Valerio Ureña | Purposes of the communication between companies and their Facebook followers[END_REF]. Dreading to lose the social media battle, managers have hastily integrated social media within their business strategies [START_REF] Schultz | Social media's slippery slope: challenges, opportunities and future research directions[END_REF]. However, many managers are still uncertain of the opportunities and threats relating to social networks owing to the lack of knowledge of their structure and operation [START_REF] Kaplan | Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media[END_REF].

Extant literature covers the field of social media as a marketing tool to build relationship with customers, however there is a dearth of research on the use of social media in the grocery sector, though practitioners in this field are increasingly incorporating social media in their marketing strategy [START_REF] Tarnowski | Social Studies[END_REF]. Following the calls for research for understanding the expectations and motivations of customers to interact with businesses on social media [START_REF] Tsimonis | Brand strategies in social media[END_REF][START_REF] Anderson | Influence of hedonic and utilitarian motivations on retailer loyalty and purchase intention: a Facebook perspective[END_REF], this paper aims to uncover the reasons customers engage with grocery stores on social media and to show how customer interactions on social media can be both a blessing and a curse. In this article, we provide a brief literature of social media, and customer engagement. We outline the netnographic method and present a model based on the findings of the study focusing on the challenges and opportunities that these phenomena present to retailers of the grocery sector. We then conclude, present the limitations and suggest future research directions.

Literature Review

Social Media

Social media are a collection of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 [START_REF] Kaplan | Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media[END_REF] and mobile technology [START_REF] Kietzmann | Social Media? Get Serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media[END_REF] and they allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content (UGC). Social media are bringing about a societal revolution, as they are an open platform enabling multiway communication, they are fast and affordable [START_REF] Arnaboldi | Social media and business[END_REF]. Social media empower customers and virtual communities to send and broadcast information to a global audience cheaply and instantaneously on the net [START_REF] Arnaboldi | Social media and business[END_REF].

Individuals leverage social networks and blogs to create, recommend and share information hence outspreading the reach of marketing influence [START_REF] Hanna | We're all connected: The power of the social media ecosystem[END_REF]. Consumers in the digital age use the Internet and social media platforms to find information about products and services, to engage with the businesses they purchase from, and to connect with other customers who may provide valuable insights [START_REF] Hanna | We're all connected: The power of the social media ecosystem[END_REF].

Traditional management methods can no longer be used with consumers on social media as they expect firms to listen to them, engage and respond accordingly [START_REF] Kietzmann | Social Media? Get Serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media[END_REF]. Social networking sites are increasingly being used by businesses to establish their marketing network, since social media platforms facilitate the establishment of communication and ongoing real time conversations [START_REF] Coulter | Like it or not": Consumer responses to word-of-mouth communication in on-line social networks[END_REF].

Research has identified that large companies use their Facebook pages to (1) promote their products and services such as launching new products and announcing sales promotions; (2) promote sponsored events for e.g. donations or sponsoring sports activities; (3) carry out surveys to get feedback from their fans; (4) make informational announcements for e.g. new opening hours or new business locations; and (5) post fun messages usually in a question style linked to a recent or forthcoming event [START_REF] Dekay | How large companies react to negative Facebook comments[END_REF].

Customers connect to a Facebook brand page because (1) they consume the products and services of the company, (2) they hope to get discounts and promotions, (3) they want to show to others that they like a particular brand, (4) they want to get information about the brand before others do, and (5) they wish to have access to exclusive content [START_REF] Pereira | Say yes to Facebook and get your customers involved! Relationships in a world of social networks[END_REF]. Four benefits that customers gain from using social networks are:

(1) social benefits by interacting with other members of the community, (2) informa-tional benefits by accessing information about the products and services of the company, (3) hedonic benefits by enjoying and having fun on the social network for e.g. games, and finally (4) economic benefits by obtaining promotional deals. These benefits encourage community members to continue visiting and being active on social networking sites, therefore offering opportunities to firms to strengthen relationships with their customers [START_REF] Park | The role of social network websites in the consumer-brand relationship[END_REF]. Research has been carried out to understand motivations of customers for interacting with businesses in the apparel sector [START_REF] Anderson | Influence of hedonic and utilitarian motivations on retailer loyalty and purchase intention: a Facebook perspective[END_REF] where customers are highly involved in the purchase. These authors suggested that further research is required to understand motivations of customers to connect with retailers in various sectors. This paper therefore aims to fill this gap by analysing the motivations of customers to interact with grocery stores, which sell mostly low involvement products by analysing responses of customers to customer and company initiated messages.

When brands and consumers co-create brand stories, brand owners do not have full control of their brands [START_REF] Mangold | Social media: The new hybrid element of the promotion mix[END_REF] as consumer-generated brand contents can spread as quickly as those created by companies [START_REF] Yan | Social media in branding: Fulfilling a need[END_REF]. In this social media era, marketers find themselves at the mercy of customers who can post comments about their brands. As this new marketing paradigm evolves, there is genuine excitement about the potential of social media to add value for businesses, but also apprehension about the difficulty of seizing the full promise of this new medium [START_REF] Lipsman | The Power of "Like" How Brands Reach (and Influence) Fans Through Social-Media Marketing[END_REF].

Co-creation is one of the virtues of the new age marketing enabled by social media. However, for marketers who need to manage their brands, UGC and social media do not only provide opportunities but also threats [START_REF] Vanden Bergh | The multidimensional nature and brand impact of user-generated ad parodies in social media[END_REF]. Social media and UGC are a potential threat to the efforts of organisations to build, manage and protect their brands because such content is outside their immediate control [START_REF] Mangold | Social media: The new hybrid element of the promotion mix[END_REF], [START_REF] Vanden Bergh | The multidimensional nature and brand impact of user-generated ad parodies in social media[END_REF][START_REF] Fournier | The uninvited brand[END_REF]. Interestingly, technologies and tools of Web 2.0 seem to ease the co-creation of value by the company and the customer [START_REF] Harrison | Wielding new media in Web 2.0: exploring the history of engagement with the collaborative construction of media products[END_REF][START_REF] Thackeray | Enhancing promotional strategies within social marketing programs: use of Web 2.0 social media[END_REF].

The open-comment platform of Facebook and the anonymity offered by the Internet produce the ideal conditions for public outrage to be vented on corporate walls [START_REF] Champoux | Corporate Facebook pages: when "fans" attack[END_REF]. Furthermore, social media have empowered customers and the public by giving them a voice and weakened the position of companies by rendering them vulnerable to customer attacks, negative publicity and corporate reputation damage [START_REF] Horn | Business Reputation and Social Media -A Primer on Threats and Responses[END_REF]. The voice of the customer in brand communities may be a threat to the organisation if it carries a negative content [START_REF] Lee | Gift or threat? An examination of voice of the customer: The case of MyStarbucksIdea[END_REF]. Social media users can generate huge waves of outrage within a short period of time when reacting to a questionable activity or statement of an organisation [START_REF] Pfeffer | Understanding online firestorms: Negative wordof-mouth dynamics in social media networks[END_REF]. Such a phenomenon is qualified as an online firestorm, which is "the sudden discharge of large quantities of messages containing negative word of mouth and complaint behaviour against a person, company, or group in social media networks" [START_REF] Pfeffer | Understanding online firestorms: Negative wordof-mouth dynamics in social media networks[END_REF].

Despite the threats posed by the democratisation of communication, marketers are increasingly using social media to connect and engage with their customers. Customer engagement is believed to be the key outcome of social media campaigns [START_REF] Malhotra | Defining Purpose and Meaning in Social Media[END_REF].

Customer Engagement

Social media channels such as mobiles and online videos provide new opportunities to engage customers [START_REF] De Valck | Virtual communities: A marketing perspective[END_REF]. By giving access to online content and communication through virtual tools, social media enable and facilitate consumer experiences, which may generate customer engagement with specific brands [START_REF] Vivek | Customer Engagement: Exploring Customer Relationships Beyond Purchase[END_REF]. Though customer engagement has various interpretations, it is often viewed as a motivational concept, with varying intensity. It encompasses an object (i.e. a brand) and a subject (i.e. the customer) [START_REF] Dessart | Consumer engagement in online brand communities: A social media perspective[END_REF], and has either a positive or negative valence [START_REF] Brodie | Customer Engagement: Conceptual Domain, Fundamental Propositions, and Implications for[END_REF][START_REF] Hollebeek | Exploring positively-versus negatively-valenced brand engagement: a conceptual model[END_REF].

Customer engagement encompasses the connection that users form with businesses, following their experiences with the products, services and activities of the business [START_REF] Hollebeek | Demystifying customer brand engagement: Exploring the loyalty nexus[END_REF]. Hollebeek defines customer brand engagement as "the level of a customer's motivational, brand-related and context dependent state of mind characterized by specific levels of cognitive, emotional and behavioural activity in direct brand interactions" [32, p. 790]. In this definition of customer engagement, there are the three dimensions that have been extensively cited in the literature, namely the cognitive, emotional and behavioural perspectives [START_REF] Brodie | Customer Engagement: Conceptual Domain, Fundamental Propositions, and Implications for[END_REF], [START_REF] Hollebeek | The customer engagement/value interface: An exploratory investigation[END_REF]. From a cognitive standpoint, engagement is a positive state of mind that is represented by high commitment, energy, and loyalty towards a firm [START_REF] Porter | How to foster and sustain engagement in virtual communities[END_REF], for e.g. the person's level of concentration or engrossment in the brand [START_REF] Hollebeek | Demystifying customer brand engagement: Exploring the loyalty nexus[END_REF]. From a behavioural viewpoint, engagement refers to actions toward a firm that go beyond transactions [START_REF] Porter | How to foster and sustain engagement in virtual communities[END_REF], for e.g. participation, vigour and interaction with the focal brand [START_REF] Hollebeek | The customer engagement/value interface: An exploratory investigation[END_REF]. From an emotional perspective, customer engagement may be characterised by feelings of an individual towards a brand [START_REF] Vivek | Customer Engagement: Exploring Customer Relationships Beyond Purchase[END_REF], for e.g. a customer's level of brand-related inspiration and/or pride [START_REF] Hollebeek | Demystifying customer brand engagement: Exploring the loyalty nexus[END_REF].

Unlike authors who have used multidimensional perspectives, van Doorn et al. focus only on the behavioural dimension of customer engagement [START_REF] Van Doorn | Customer Engagement Behavior: Theoretical Foundations and Research Directions[END_REF]. According to these scholars, customer engagement consists of behaviours, which go beyond transactions [START_REF] Van Doorn | Customer Engagement Behavior: Theoretical Foundations and Research Directions[END_REF]. Customers engage in several behaviours that boost their relationship with the brand. Behavioural manifestations do not only mean purchases, but also include other activities of the customer such as word of mouth, customer co-creation and complaining behaviour [START_REF] Bijmolt | Analytics for Customer Engagement[END_REF], recommendations, helping other customers, blogging, writing reviews and even engaging in legal actions [START_REF] Van Doorn | Customer Engagement Behavior: Theoretical Foundations and Research Directions[END_REF]. By moving along the customer engagement cycle, value is generated both for the customer and the company. However, when organisations fail to engage customers, they have to face the potential threat of customer enragement [START_REF] Leeflang | Challenges and solutions for marketing in a digital era[END_REF], a situation where customers can easily become value destroyers instead of value creators for companies [START_REF] Verhoef | Understand the Perils of Co-Creation[END_REF][START_REF] Verhoef | Customer Engagement as a New Perspective in Customer Management[END_REF]. This forces businesses to be increasingly reactive, or even pro-active, to avoid negative brand image consequences which in turn may lead to increased value co-destruction.

Methodology

A netnographic study was undertaken to observe reactions of customers to company posts on Facebook pages of grocery stores. Netnography is a participant-observation method used for data collection to research the consumer behaviour of online communities and cultures present on the Internet [START_REF] Kozinets | The field behind the screen: using netnography for marketing research in online communities[END_REF]. The aim of this netnographic research was to analyse the reactions of customers of grocery stores to messages posted by the grocery stores on their official Facebook pages. The researchers have observed interactions on the official Facebook pages of Tesco and Walmart. For a rigorous and reliable research approach, the researchers have adhered to the five stages and recommended procedures: (1) making entrée, (2) data collection and analysis, (3) providing trustworthy interpretation, (4) research ethics, and finally (5) member checks. [START_REF] Kozinets | The field behind the screen: using netnography for marketing research in online communities[END_REF].

For the entrée, the researchers have chosen Tesco and Walmart, the leading grocery stores in the world according to the March 2013 Global Food Retail report. These two grocery stores have been selected as they have both implemented an international strategy and have stores in several countries. Additionally there are high traffic of postings and a large number of discrete posters on both Facebook pages.

For data collection, the researchers downloaded conversations occurring on the official Facebook pages of Tesco and Walmart during a one-month period during which saturation of data occurred [START_REF] Kozinets | The field behind the screen: using netnography for marketing research in online communities[END_REF]. The data were saved in word documents, the data added up to 8008 pages of texts using Arial font size 11. The data were analysed through the qualitative software, NVivo.

The third step of netnography is to provide trustworthy interpretation [START_REF] Kozinets | The field behind the screen: using netnography for marketing research in online communities[END_REF]. Research is reckoned to be reasonable and trustworthy when conventional procedures of netnography are followed while collecting and analysing data [START_REF] Kozinets | The field behind the screen: using netnography for marketing research in online communities[END_REF]. Triangulation of data was used to enhance credibility of the study. Triangulation is achieved through the use of a large number of customers who have posted comments [START_REF] Lincoln | Naturalistic Inquiry[END_REF]. Additionally site triangulation has been achieved through the participation of customers from two different grocery stores (Tesco and Walmart) in order to lessen the effect on the research of particular local factors belonging to one specific grocery store.

The ethical procedure recommended by Langer and Beckman has been adopted in this research [START_REF] Langer | Sensitive research topics: netnography revisited[END_REF]. Comments posted by customers of Tesco and Walmart on the official Facebook page are considered to be publicly available data as they are not password restricted. Therefore the researchers did not need to obtain permission before using these data. However, anonymity and privacy of the participants have been respected.

Finally, the fifth step is carrying out member checks [START_REF] Kozinets | The field behind the screen: using netnography for marketing research in online communities[END_REF]. Member check is a technique whereby part or all of the research findings are given to the participants of the research in order to seek their comments [START_REF] Lincoln | Naturalistic Inquiry[END_REF]. However, the researchers did not carry out member checks since this research is conducted entirely unobtrusively, and Langer and Beckman argue that in such conditions, it is unnecessary to present the findings back to members of the community who participated [START_REF] Langer | Sensitive research topics: netnography revisited[END_REF].

Findings and Discussions

When customers respond to company posts or initiate conversations on the Facebook pages of Tesco and Walmart, they provide insights into the reasons why they engage with businesses on social media. This study reveals that social media have empowered customers, have influenced the relationships customers have with the grocery stores and have generated customer engagement.

Empowered customers within the grocery sector

While interacting with Tesco and Walmart on their official Facebook page, customers perceive that they have been empowered since they can voice out their opinions to the virtual brand community and they can also add or destroy value for the business. Co-creation of products and modification of products are not areas in which customers can add value in the grocery sector, since grocery stores do not manufacture products but only source products from their suppliers to sell to final customers. However, this study reveals that customers of Tesco and Walmart add value to the relationship by suggesting products that they would like to have, by informing the grocery stores of their needs and wants, by recommending products to their peers, and by giving advice to other customers as illustrated by the following quote:

"Let's all go to tescos [sic] where allegra [sic] gets her best cloths [sic] their [sic] all half price she thinks that's nice"

Additionally, the researcher has observed that Facebook has given a voice to the customer, which extends far beyond the circle of relatives, friends and colleagues known to the customer. By giving a voice to the customer, Facebook has empowered customers since it is easier for customers to post complaints on the page, to criticise actions of the company, than to call the company or write a letter of complaint as illustrated below. "I will never buy food at Walmart and risk my life. Walmart, please improve your quality..............dont [sic] go down to any level to lower your prices. Do not risk the lives of people to save a few cents"

Relationship building within the grocery sector

As the modern food retail industry is booming worldwide and competition in this sector is rife, grocery retailers aim to provide superior customer value to gain customer satisfaction. To improve the satisfaction levels of customers, retailers are increasingly using social media to enrich their shopping experience [START_REF] Pookulangara | Cultural influence on consumers' usage of social networks and its' impact on online purchase intentions[END_REF]. Tesco and Walmart have set up their official Facebook pages to communicate, interact and engage their customers to strengthen the relationship with them.

In this study, the researcher found that customers have commented on the relationship they have with grocery stores by posting comments in which they have expressed satisfaction and loyalty towards Tesco and Walmart. This study reveals that customers tend to post positive comments in which they inform the company and other customers about the product or service that they have bought and how satisfied they are with the purchase as illustrated in the following quote:

"Walmart the best store in the whole world, everything that I need is there, yeah [sic] because after looking in the other stores website comparing prices at end Walmart is the my favourite and I finished my day in Walmart."

Emotional bonding is a prerequisite to strong brand relationships [START_REF] Fournier | The uninvited brand[END_REF]. Customers of Tesco and Walmart have demonstrated their emotional commitment to the firm by posting comments in which they express their affection and attachment to the firm for e.g. by using the word 'love'. These emotional bonds therefore provide a sustainable competitive advantage [START_REF] Harridge-March | Virtual snakes and ladders: social networks and the relationship marketing loyalty ladder[END_REF].

However, this study has also revealed numerous cases of dissatisfied customers who have either complained about a product or service or criticised an action of the organisation and who have vouched that they are terminating the relationship with the grocery stores as illustrated by the following quote:

"Why am I being plastered with ads from this miserable store? I hate wmart [sic]!!!!!

When retailers fail to meet expectations of customers, the relationship is broken and customers turn to competitors [START_REF] Zeithaml | The Behavioral Consequences of Service Quality[END_REF]. However, engaging with customers on Facebook, Tesco and Walmart can help build and maintain relationships with them.

Customer Engagement within the grocery sector

Tesco and Walmart aim to engage customers on their official Facebook pages. This study reveals that the three most extensively cited dimensions of customer engagement occur on the Facebook page of Tesco and Walmart: cognitive, emotional and behavioural. Cognitive engagement occurs at Tesco and Walmart, whenever customers post comments in which they provide information and help to other customers, or when they give advice to other customers. Another form of cognitive engagement is when customers post comments about their loyalty towards the stores as illustrated below:

"Love tescos [sic] have shopped there for the last 29yrs [sic] since I had my first son. £1 delivery slots will definitely make me shop on line!! [sic]"

Emotional engagement also occurs whenever customers post comments about their feelings and emotions. Four main emotions have been expressed on the Facebook pages of Tesco and Walmart: enthusiasm, humour, sarcasm and scepticism. Enthusiasm and humour bring positive value to the online community, while sarcasm and scepticism destroy value and even damage the image of the store. Emotional engagement influences the nature of the relationship between the customer and the business [START_REF] Brodie | Customer Engagement: Conceptual Domain, Fundamental Propositions, and Implications for[END_REF], [START_REF] Harridge-March | Virtual snakes and ladders: social networks and the relationship marketing loyalty ladder[END_REF].

Behavioural engagement occurs when customers request for more information, entertainment, additional incentives and when they participate by responding to posts of the stores. This study reveals that customers converse with other customers on Facebook, share advertisement, give advice to other customers, get or provide feedback to other customers, criticise other customers, help other customers, make themselves or someone else known to other customers and also provide support and encouragement to other customers.

When customers are engaged, the levels of utilitarian and hedonic value that they perceive to experience increase [START_REF] Hollebeek | The customer engagement/value interface: An exploratory investigation[END_REF]. However, findings have revealed that engaged customers also post negative comments, which may harm the organisation. When this occurs, instead of engaging customers, retailers generate customer enragement [START_REF] Leeflang | Challenges and solutions for marketing in a digital era[END_REF]. This study reveals that customers destroy value when they post comments to complain, to criticise, to provide information about competitors, to warn customers against a product/service, and to boycott a store. When UGC contains negative brand information, it may damage a brand [START_REF] Cheong | Consumers' Reliance on Product Information and Recommendations Found in UGC[END_REF].

Influence of Social Media on the Grocery Sector

From the findings of this study, it can be concluded that the four main constructs of the study are interconnected: social media, relationship marketing, customer empowerment, and customer engagement. In the retail sector, more specifically the grocery sector, Facebook generates online customer engagement which influences the relationships customers have with Tesco and Walmart. Empowered customers use Facebook to convey their satisfaction or dissatisfaction to Tesco and Walmart as well as to the members of the community by posting comments. The interconnectedness of the constructs is depicted in Figure 1.

The model depicts the reactions of customers to messages posted on the Facebook pages of Tesco and Walmart. Tesco and Walmart use Facebook to engage their customers. This study shows that customers interact with the grocery stores by 'liking', 'sharing' and 'commenting' posts on the Facebook page. This study has revealed that online customer engagement can either create value or destroy value. Positive online customer engagement results in co-creation of value, which leads to a stronger relationship between the grocery stores and their customers. While negative online customer engagement also known as online customer enragement leads to co-destruction of value, which weakens the relationship between the parties. In this social media era, whether the customer is satisfied or dissatisfied with the products and services of the grocery stores, the customer feels empowered as Facebook and social media offer a voice to the customer. When the customer has a positive customer experience, he/she wants to share this experience with the other members of the virtual community. Therefore, the happy and satisfied customer goes back to the Facebook page and posts a positive message, which may eventually positively influence the members of the online community. Conversely, when the customer experiences a negative outcome resulting in online customer enragement, he/she wants to share his/her experience with the other members of the virtual community. Hence, the disgruntled and angry customer posts a negative comment on the Facebook page. This customer backlash may damage the image of the grocery stores and negatively influence the other members of the online community.

Conclusion

The aim of this paper was to analyse the reactions of customers on Facebook pages of Tesco and Walmart. This paper shows the various ways customers engage with grocery stores. When customers engage positively with the grocery store, value is created and the relationship is enhanced. However, when customer enragement occurs, customers destroy value by taking actions, which harm the business such as posting complaints and criticisms or asking customers to boycott the store, thus endangering the relationships with customers. Social media have empowered customers who use Facebook to express their satisfactions or dissatisfactions on the official pages of Tesco and Walmart. This paper contributes to the literature by showing the interconnectedness of social media, relationship marketing, customer empowerment and customer engagement in the grocery sector. It has also identified ways customers co-create and co-destroy value.

This paper has brought to light several implications for retailers. Customers perceive the official Facebook page of Tesco and Walmart as a customer service channel. Therefore retailers should attend to the queries and complaints of customers efficiently on Facebook, so that unsatisfied customers can be turned into loyal customers. Additionally, retailers should encourage customer co-creation on their Facebook page and should also harness CRM 2.0 by using all the information provided by customers in their comments to personalise the communication with them.

The limitation of the paper is related to the nature of the netnography method, which constrained the analysis to those customers who have commented on Facebook, therefore neglecting other sources such as offline customer feedback. Future research might offer a comparative analysis of the use of Facebook by grocery stores and might analyse the social media strategies adopted by these firms. Another avenue for future research could be to focus on one grocery store operating in several countries to identify differences and similarities between social media communication in different country contexts. This will provide the opportunity to look at how communication is customised to specific locations i.e. the influence of place and culture.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Customer reactions to messages posted on Facebook pages of Tesco and Walmart.(Source: developed by the authors)


Rakhi Tripathi
email: rakhi@fsm.ac.in

'Unofficial' Presence of Higher Education Institutions in India on Social Media: Good or Bad?

Keywords: Website, Higher Education, Social Networking Site, Interaction

The objective of this paper is to analyze the unofficial presence of Universities in India on Social Media with a focus on Facebook and Twitter. Content analysis was used in terms of quantitative approach. A checklist was developed as the main research instrument based on other checklists and questionnaires. It was observed that all the selected institutions have online presence, however, some are very active online and some have static presence. One third of the institutions are on social media and surprisingly one-fourth has unofficial accounts on social media. Government institutions as compared to Private have larger unofficial presence on social media. Unofficial presence on Social Media can be a concern for higher education institutions in terms of security and branding.

Introduction

Online presence has never been as crucial for higher education as it is now. The projection of providing information is now been shifted to engaging students and other stakeholders online. The social media revolution has certainly entered education, carrying with it the notion that users add value through its participation [START_REF] Mason | E-learning and social networking handbook: Resources for higher education[END_REF]. The importance of social media in academics can be clearly observed in institutions in US and UK. By 2011 all the top institutions in US came on social media, Facebook and Twitter being prominent.

Digital presence is becoming an integral part of higher education in India too. Being a developing nation, India has approximately 700 higher education institutions (HEI). Though majority of the Universities have web presence in terms of website but limited universities are present on Social Media. Like in developed nations, Facebook and Twitter too are the leaders among the other social networking sites when it comes for higher education institutions in India. It has been observed that unofficial accounts on Social Networking Sites of many Universities have been created and University administration has no control over these accounts.

With an objective of analyzing the unofficial presence of Universities in India on social media this paper focuses on the research question of 'Why do the Universities have unofficial accounts on social media and what are the concerns related to it?'

Reader may not get confused with this piece of research with role of social media for higher education. This paper is an attempt to understand concerns and issues Universities might have to face because of unofficial presence.

2

Related Work

Online presence of higher education institutions is on rise as it enhances learning, communication and engagement. Institutions are paying attention to their website and presence on social media. Every digital platform is different in terms of nature, features and projection [START_REF] Kim | How does industry use social networking sites? An analysis of corporate dialogic uses of Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and LinkedIn by industry type[END_REF]. Hence, it becomes important for higher education institutions to focus on all these platforms differently.

In past one decade there have been a number of studies on digital presence of higher education institutions from different directions. Majority of the papers from India and overseas are focusing on how academicians and students are employing social media and website [START_REF] Al-Mukhaini | Adoption of Social Networking in Education: A Study of The Use Of Social Networks By Higher Education Students In Oman[END_REF] [START_REF] Cheung | Online social networks: Why do students use Facebook?[END_REF]. [START_REF] Chauhan | Role of content strategy in social media brand communities: a case of higher education institutes in India[END_REF] have come to a conclusion that for Higher education institution's branding, social media plays a key role. The branding of HEI helps them in building their identity and image among their key stakeholdersstudents, parents, institution partners and society at large. The uprising competition for students and program recognition as well as demand for financial support tools prompt the higher education institutes to use strategic and planned PR and to allocate more efforts for communication in the internet [START_REF] Zailskaite˙ | Internet based communication with target audiences: case study of higher education institutes[END_REF]. In a longitudinal study for three years on "rules of engagement in the online world" it was found that colleges and universities in USA continue to embrace social media [START_REF] Barnes | Social media soars as Higher-Ed experiments and re-evaluates its use of new communications tools[END_REF]. The higher education institutes attract and connect to their various stakeholders: students current and prospective, alumni, recruiters, Industry collaborators, International collaborators etc. through their brand communities on various social networking sites like Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, Blogging and Podcasting. It has also been identified through research that the communities which do not facilitate interaction and engagement tend to lose their audience. Study by [START_REF] Barnes | Social media soars as Higher-Ed experiments and re-evaluates its use of new communications tools[END_REF] shows in a national sample of 456 of four-year accredited U.S. institutions that 100% report using some form of social media, with Facebook (used by 98%) and Twitter (used by 84%) being the most prominent.

Social media is considered to be an essential part of Web 2.0 technologies. Use of social networking sites for education has been a popular topic. Some [START_REF] Park | Differences among university students and faculties in social networking site perception and use: Implications for academic library services[END_REF] studied the use of social networking sites by undergraduates, graduates, and faculty members at Yonsei Institution in Seoul, South Korea and [START_REF] Mikami | Adolescent peer relationships and behavior problems predict young adults' communication on social networking websites[END_REF] found that the youths at age group of 13-14 years based on gender, ethnicity and parental income, were using social networking sites more than at age group of 20-23 years. There have been studies on social media in higher education in different countries like in Oman [START_REF] Al-Mukhaini | Adoption of Social Networking in Education: A Study of The Use Of Social Networks By Higher Education Students In Oman[END_REF], Dublin [START_REF] Tapia | An exploratory Case Study on the effectiveness of Social Network sites: The Case of Facebook and Twitter in an educational organization[END_REF], USA [START_REF] Boateng | Web 2.0 applications' usage and trends in top US academic libraries[END_REF].

This study made use of content analysis methodology for the quantitative method. India has approximately 700 higher education institutions (including Government and private). 300 plus academic institutions for the present study were selected by combining the data from three reliable data sources: economics times (http://articles.economictimes), outlook (http://www.outlookindia.com) and India today (http://indiatoday). No ranks were given to the institutions. The following steps listed were carried out:

 Browsed through the 320 institutions websites to check the level of website and presence of social media.  Social networking sites were independently searched to see the number of unofficial accounts of the institutions. By unofficial it is meant that these accounts/pages on social media of the institutions are not created and maintained by the intuition but by someone else and hence, institution has no control over its content. Unofficial presence on social media of Universities in India was noted during the period of January 2016 through March 2016. The data was entered into an Excel spreadsheet, data was compiled and results reported.

Results

Total 320 websites of Universities in India were studied, out of which 300 were valid (approx 96%). Websites which were either not opening or were redirected to other websites were considered invalid. Out of these 300 Universities 71 have unofficial accounts on social media.

After analyzing the unofficial accounts and pages further, it was found that most of accounts on social media are created by alumni or the present students of the institute. Digging deeper, data reveals that more than 90 per cent of unofficial accounts are of Government institutions (64 out of 71) and rest of Private institutions. Therefore it is eccentric to see that government institutions have more presence on social media unofficially as compared to officially.

The websites of these 71 universities were visited to check their online presence. Websites were analyzed to see at what stage they currently are at: Information stage where website provides basic information. The second stage Interaction provides a web site with some form of interaction with its stakeholders. Transaction stage provides monetary transactions available to its stakeholders. It was found that only two university websites are at Information level which includes one Government and one private university. Majority of the universities are at interaction level. More than 90 per cent of Government university websites are interactive. These institutions are interacting with its stakeholders in some way. These shows the universities are engaging its stakeholders through website but are still not present on social media. 3 out of 71 university websites are at the transaction level. These institutions, along with interaction, provide transactions, primarily student fee submission.

Visiting Unofficial Social Networking Sites of HEI

As already stated above 71of 300 universities have unofficial accounts on social media. More than 95% of these accounts/ pages are either on Facebook or Twitter only. 69 Universities out of 71 have unofficial Facebook pages (Table 1) where 62 are Government and only 7 are private universities. These pages are formed after 2010. 50% of them have more than 10, 000 likes which implies people are aware about the account and are following it. These accounts are also very active in updating status. Mostly the news is related to the institution only which might include alumni achievements. Moreover, these accounts engage its followers. Some statuses have 'comments' and 'likes' both. Two out of 69 Websites share same information with Facebook page (news updates only). Both these Websites are Government websites. As compared to Facebook, only 18 universities are present on Twitter unofficially. Same as in Facebook, majority of the unofficial presence on Twitter is of Government HEI. It must be also noted that 26 of these universities Facebook pages and 11 of twitter accounts are not functional (24 of Government and 2 private). Except one all the HIE that have unofficial twitter accounts also have unofficial Facebook pages. It has also been noticed here that the accounts with more followers/likes have regular updates and vice versa.

Discussion

This section confers some useful insights from the above results.

A large number of universities that are present on social media unofficially have interactive websites. These universities are engaging its stakeholders in some way. Unofficially too these universities are active on social media. Therefore, it would be better to have an official presence on social media and synchronize the content with its website. This will strengthen the online presence of the University.

It has also been noticed that there are Government universities that are at a higher level of website i.e. Transaction level and still are not on Social media. Digging deeper it was found that there are two primary reasons behind it. First, in Government Universities it is a long process to get approval [START_REF] Sym | Using Social Media in a Crisis: A Snapshot[END_REF]. Second, in these universities social media presence is not on their strategic goals.

There are Universities having more than one unofficial page. When searched for the University on social media several pages appear and it becomes difficult to find the authentic one. If the unofficial page on social media is made by alumni of the University then this shows high level of loyalty and eagerness to be connected online. This also shows that apart from administration of the University, others are also promoting the University. Any positive comment or news will improve the image of the University. According to [START_REF] Nord | Using social technologies for competitive advantage: Impact on organizations and Higher Education[END_REF] through social networking sites not only organizations can engage its stakeholders but also gain competitive advantage by marketing and creating awareness on social media.

On the contrary, unofficial presence on social media can be a matter of concern. As the university has no control over the content, any incorrect information can go against the image of the University [START_REF] Narayanaswamy | A Holistic study of privacy in social networking sites[END_REF]. The unauthorized administrator of the unofficial social media account can upload negative comments, news or images about the institution [START_REF] Xu | Factors affecting privacy disclosure on social network sites: an integrated model[END_REF]. The result being aspirants and other stakeholders might be misguided.

Conclusion and Future Research

This is one of the first studies which explore the unofficial presence on social media of higher education institutions in India. The results from this exploratory study indicate one fourth of the surveyed top 300 higher education institutions in India have unofficial social media presence, Facebook being the leader. Previous studies have shown how Web 2.0 technologies are being used by institutions. This paper analyses and highlights pros and cons of being on social media unofficially.

As seen in this study majority of the universities are at interaction level and have unofficial social media presence. It is important for these universities to engage their stakeholders online not only through website but through social media. For future research, a framework on digital strategy for higher education can be a useful research topic where all the departments of an institution are related and integrated and move towards online presence.

Table 1 :

 1 Details of Unofficial Pages and Accounts on Facebook and Twitter

	Unofficial Page/ Account	Facebook	Twitter
	Total number of Institutions	69	18
	Government (Govt.)	62	17
	Private (Pvt.)	7	1
	More than 10, 000 likes	35 (Govt. = 32; Pvt.=3)	-
	More than 1000 followers	-	8 (All Govt. HEI)
	Date of formation	after 2010	2009-2011
	Regular updates	43 (Govt. = 38; Pvt. = 5)	7 (All Govt. HEI)
	Not functional	26	11


Harri Jalonen
email: harri.jalonen@turkuamk.fi

Jari Jussila

Developing a conceptual model for the relationship between social media behavior, negative consumer emotions and brand disloyalty

Keywords: social media, negative emotions, brand disloyalty

Companies have been facing the dark side of social media. Particularly, the odds of customer complaints and brand insults have increased tremendously. Social media has given a voice to disappointed consumers. They use the voice when they feel negative emotions, for example, due to product failures, service problems or unethical behavior. It seems reasonable to expect that the more ubiquitous social media becomes, the more it persuades people to share also their negative experiences. However, although social media raises new challenges for companies, it also gives them new opportunities. Social media enables companies to trace disappointed customers, evaluate their impressiveness and communicate with them. The conceptual paper aims to develop a model for the relationship between social media behavior, negative consumer emotions and brand disloyalty. The argument of this paper is that although social media gives consumers more power which is manifested in sharing negative emotions related to the company, the effect this has on brand disloyalty depends on the company's behavior.

Introduction

A great deal of social media content is emotionally loaded. People express the highs and lows of their everyday life, establish new friendships and break up old ones, share holiday and party pictures, praise and complain about brands, idolize the achievements of their descendants and pets through different social media sites -behavior which is strongly affected by emotion. Emotions can be expressed through words, pictures, emoticons and videos.

Social media has transformed the ways companies and customers interact. Metaphorically, social media has punctured holes into companies' walls and made them transparent in an unforeseen way. Social media has intensified the development in which the competition is based more on brands' ability to inspire emotional experiences, than on technical details of products. Consequently, companies are nowadays obliged to encounter their customers and other stakeholders more openly. Many companies have witnessed that social media has given customers a powerful medium to voice their negative emotions related, for example, to product failures, service problems or unethical behavior.

For some companies, social media provides new opportunities, whereas many others just face problems. Presumably, the distinction lies in whether or not the company is able to trace disappointed customers, evaluate their impressiveness and communicate with them. Be it fair or not, social media forces companies to deal with emotionally rationalized criticism and complaints.

Many studies have touched upon negative consumer emotions shared in social media -particularly studies that have been based on electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) approach. These studies have, for example, identified various motivations for sharing negative information in social media [START_REF] Verhagen | Negative online word-ofmouth: Behavioral indicator or emotional release?[END_REF]. Studies have also found out the stronger impact of negative eWOM (NWOM) compared to positive eWOM [START_REF] Hennig-Thurau | Electronic word-of-mouth via consumer-opinion platforms: What motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the Internet[END_REF]. Despite of existing research, at least four research gaps can be identified. Firstly, previous studies have not explored the social media behavior of people as an antecedent to sharing negative emotions raised by negative experiences. Secondly, the relationship between disclosing negative emotions in social media behavior and brand disloyalty have received scant attention in the literature to date. Due to the lack of research it is not known whether disclosing negative emotions can contaminate brands and make customers disloyal. Thirdly, there is lack of research related to the mobile use of social media. Of particular interest should be whether mobile social media will increase the odds that negative experiences are expressed and shared. Fourthly, although companies cannot manage the ways their brands are discussed in social media, they are not unarmed. Social media has enabled companies to interact directly with their customers. However, there is lack of research with a focus on companies' customer retention tactics and their consequence on brand loyalty in the case of negative eWOM. The paper presumes that the methods of creating loyal customers in the age of social media may have been oversimplified. In order to increase customer loyalty, it is suggested that it is useful to look at the hidden side -i.e. the relationship between negative consumer emotions and disloyalty.

This conceptual paper aims to introduce a theoretically sound model for the relationship between social media behavior, negative consumer emotions and brand disloyalty. The argument of this paper is that although social media gives consumers more power, which is manifested in sharing negative emotions related to the company, the effect this has on brand disloyalty depends on the company's behavior.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 shortly reviews the key literature and presents the theoretical foundation for the paper. Section 3 introduces the conceptual model. In Section 4 the paper concludes with short managerial implications, including limitations and venues for future research.

Literature review and theoretical foundation

Emotion refers to an emotional state involving thoughts, physiological changes, and an outward expression or behavior. Emotions are expressed in facial reactions, gestures or postures and they are intuitively or intentionally directed toward a certain target. [START_REF] Cacioppo | Emotion[END_REF] Psychological literature typically classifies emotions into two axes that describe their valence and arousal. Valence indicates whether the affect related to an emotion is positive or negative, and arousal indicates the personal activity induced by that emotion [START_REF] Russell | A circumplex model of affect[END_REF].

The relationship between negative emotions and social media has been addressed from various perspectives. The following will give a short overview of studies which have focused or at least touched upon the question of how negative emotions manifest themselves in social media. Firstly, psychologically oriented studies have found out that negative emotions can be so popular in social media because people who suffer psychosocial problems appreciate the ability to stay connected with others without face-to-face communication. According to these studies disorganised, anxious and lonely people use social media sites as they provide a context for holding relationships at a psychological arm's distance and modulating negative emotions associated with these problems [START_REF] Nitzburg | Putting up emotional (Facebook) walls? Attachment status and emerging adults' experiences of social networking sites[END_REF]. Secondly, consumer behaviour studies have identified several motivations for negative online wordof-mouth (WOM). These include sharing dissatisfaction in order to get a solution, disclosing unfavorable experiences to prevent others from enduring similar bad experiences, and ventilating feelings on a bad experience to give the company a chance to improve its practices [START_REF] Verhagen | Negative online word-ofmouth: Behavioral indicator or emotional release?[END_REF]. Thirdly, sociologically inspired studies have focused on cultural and demographic differences in social media behaviour. These studies indicate that age and gender affect emotional behaviour in social media [START_REF] Shen | Gender differences in intentional social action: we-intention to engage in social networkfacilitated team collaboration[END_REF][START_REF] Przybylski | Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out[END_REF]. Studies have also shown cultural differences in emotional behaviour in social media [START_REF] Koh | Do online reviews reflect a prod-uct´s true perceived quality? An investigation of online movie reviews across cultures[END_REF]. Fourthly, some studies have addressed social media sites which are dedicated to allowing people to vent. Rant-sites, as they are called, provide people a forum to rant, for example, about firms and their products and services. Rant-sites particularly attract people who feel anger [START_REF] Martin | Anger on the Internet: The perceived value of rant-sites[END_REF].

As this paper focuses on emotions which have negative valence and positive arousal, the psychological approach falls out of the paper's scope. Recognizing the existence of socio-demographically oriented studies, this paper is not aiming to study age, gender or cultural factors that may influence on NWOM. Ranting sites are left out, in turn, because they represent, albeit interesting, extremely negative emotions and marginalised behaviour. The majority of social media users do not commit cyber trolling or bullying.

By concentrating on moderate ways of expressing disagreements in social media, this paper leans on consumer behavior studies [START_REF] Laros | Emotions in consumer behavior: a hierarchical approach[END_REF]. These studies have shown that instead of rational decisions based on utilitarian product attributes and benefits, consumers' decisions are "biased" by emotions. Negative consumer emotions can result from various sources. A dysfunctional product, impolite customer service or insulting ads, to name a few, typically cause frustration, discontentment and other negative emotions. Negative consumer emotions pose a threat to companies for two main reasons. Firstly, negative emotions elicited from bad experiences may decrease customer loyalty, and secondly negative emotions can be spread through eWOM to a large audience. Negative consumer emotions do no good for the brand.

The importance of brand has been known for several decades. Studies have found out that consumers are willing to pay more for a brand because they perceive some unique value in the brand compared to a generic product [START_REF] Keller | Conceptualizing, Measuring and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity[END_REF]. Companies invest in building loyal customer relationships because of numerous benefits such as premium price [START_REF] Doyle | Building successful brands: the strategic options[END_REF], long lasting customer retention [START_REF] Reichheld | Zero defects: quality comes to services[END_REF], lower price sensitivity by customers [START_REF] Krishamurthi | An empirical analysis of the relationship between brand loyalty and consumer price elasticity[END_REF], higher profitability [START_REF] Hallowell | The relationship of customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and profitability: an empirical study[END_REF] and greater market share [START_REF] Assael | Consumer Behavior and Marketing Action[END_REF]. Oliver [17, p. 34] defines brand loyalty as "a deeply held commitment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or same brand-set purchasing, despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behavior". Oliver's definition includes two aspects of brand loyalty -behavioral and attitudinal [START_REF] Chaudhuri | The chain of effects from brand trust and brand affect to brand performance: the role of brand loyalty[END_REF]. Behavioral loyalty consists of repeated purchases of the brand, whereas attitudinal loyalty refers to emotional ties with the brand.

Intuitively thinking, it seems that brand disloyalty is just opposite to brand loyalty. However, it is worthwhile to notice that as satisfied customers are not necessarily loyal, dissatisfied customers are not always disloyal [START_REF] Rowley | Disloyalty: a closer look at non-loyals[END_REF]. Although a company can effectively handle unpleasant issues in a way which reduces dissatisfaction, the result is not necessarily satisfaction. On the other hand, while the company can behave badly and cause negative affect, the customer may keep purchasing the brand. A bit paradoxically, satisfied customers can defect, while dissatisfied customers remain faithful. Apparently due to this paradox, Söderlund [START_REF] Söderlund | Customer satisfaction and its consequence on customer behaviour revisited[END_REF] has suggested that satisfaction and dissatisfaction may, in fact, be two orthogonal axes rather than a bipolar measurement.

The paper defines brand disloyalty as a deeply held negative attitude and emotionally motivated rejection to buy a certain brand in the future, despite customer retention efforts by the company responsible for the brand. Brand disloyalty can take various forms. Adapting Dick & Basu [START_REF] Dick | Customer loyalty: toward an integrated conceptual framework[END_REF], Rowley & Dawes [START_REF] Rowley | Disloyalty: a closer look at non-loyals[END_REF] have identified four different manifestations of brand disloyalty: disengaged, disturbed, disenchanted and disruptive. Disengaged customers have typically no intention to purchase, nor direct experience of the brand. Disturbed customers have purchased the brand, but whether they buy in the future is uncertain because of recent dissatisfied experience. Disenchanted customers have purchased previously but are not likely to buy in the future because of many negative experiences. Disruptive customers have so many negative experiences that they have no intention to purchase in the future. In addition, disruptors actively discourage their peers to consider the brand

A conceptual model -a nexus between social media behavior, negative consumer emotions and brand disloyalty

Social media refers herein to a constellation of Internet-based applications that derive their value from the participation of users through directly creating original content, modifying existing material, contributing to a community dialogue and integrating various media together to create something unique [START_REF] Kaplan | Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media[END_REF]. Consumer-generated content (CGC) is obviously a double-edged sword that can cause both positive and negative outcomes. Sometimes CGC can help companies, for example, with identifying hidden customer needs and cultivating brand communities [START_REF] Muñiz | How to inspire value-laden collaborative consumer-generated content[END_REF][START_REF] Noble | Let them talk! Managing primary and extended online brand communities for success[END_REF], while in other occasions CGC insults companies and damages brands [START_REF] Noble | Let them talk! Managing primary and extended online brand communities for success[END_REF][START_REF] Kucuk | Negative Double Jeopardy: The role of anti-brand sites on the internet[END_REF]. Electronic WOM is a particular form of CGC. By definition, it means any positive or negative statement made by potential, actual, or former customers about a product or company, which is made available to a multitude of people and institutions via the Internet [START_REF] Hennig-Thurau | Electronic word-of-mouth via consumer-opinion platforms: What motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the Internet[END_REF]. Social media has notably lowered the threshold of eWOM. Nowadays anyone can post her or his opinions about brands.

Studies indicate that negative eWOM may have very strong effects on companies' performance. Wangeheim [START_REF] Wangenheim | Postswitching negative word of mouth[END_REF], Chevalier & Mayzlin [START_REF] Chevalier | The effect of word of mouth on sales: Online book reviews[END_REF] and Park & Lee [START_REF] Park | Information direction, website reputation and eWOM effect: A moderating role of product type[END_REF], among others, have identified that negative evaluations of products and services have a stronger effect than positive ones. Negative eWOM affects brand image negatively [START_REF] Jansen | Twitter power: Tweets as electronic word of mouth[END_REF], consumers' preferences [START_REF] Khare | The assimilative and contrastive effects of Word-of-mouth volume: An experimental examination of online consumer ratings[END_REF] and purchase decisions [START_REF] Fagerstrom | On the motivating impact of price and online recommendations at the point of online purchase[END_REF]. Consumers share negative experiences mainly for three reasons [START_REF] Verhagen | Negative online word-ofmouth: Behavioral indicator or emotional release?[END_REF]. Firstly, sharing negative experiences can serve to lessen the frustration and reduce the anxiety associated with the event. Secondly, negative experiences are shared for warning and preventing others from enduring similar events. Thirdly, consumers can share their negative experiences in order to help companies improve their practices. All in all, eWOM is more often negative than positive [START_REF] Anderson | The formation of market-level expectations and its covariates[END_REF]. Social media has empowered consumers to voice negative experiences and opinions about brands with reduced physical and psychological costs [START_REF] Van Noort | Online damage control: the effects of proactive versus reactive webcare interventions in consumer-generated and brand-generated platforms[END_REF]. Therefore, the paper presumes that negative disclosures are particular forms of CGC. Furthermore, it is argued that how these negative social posts influence brand disloyalty depends on companies' own behavior. Fig. 1 illustrates the factors which are discussed in more detail in the following sections.

Fig. 1. A conceptual model of the relationship between social media behavior, negative consumer emotions and brand disloyalty

Social media usage activity and negative eWOM

The social media era has significant implications for the spread of negative eWOM. Negative opinions about brands are formed and spread by thousands or millions of people within hours via social media [START_REF] Pfeffer | Understanding online firestorms: negative word-of-mouth dynamics in social media networks[END_REF]. In recent years the adoption of social media has surged. As an indicator of this development, 73% of Fortune 500 companies had a Twitter account and 66% a corporate Facebook page in the year 2012 [START_REF] Barnes | Social media surge by the 2012 Fortune 500: Increase use of blogs, Facebook, Twitter and more[END_REF]. In the year 2015, 78% of Fortune 500 companies have a Twitter account and 74% a corporate Facebook Page, and only 2% companies do not use any social media [START_REF] Barnes | The 2015 Fortune 500 and Social Media: Instagram Gains, Blogs Lose[END_REF]. The amount of time consumers spend online and on social networking has also kept increasing. Time spent online via PCs, laptops, mobiles and tablets has increased from 5.55 hours in 2012 to 6.15 hours in 2014, and the time spent on social networks has climbed from a daily average of 1.61 to 1.72 hours in the same time period [START_REF] Mander | Daily time spent on social networks rises to 1.72 hours[END_REF].

As more and more companies are adopting social media, and consumers are spending more time online and on social networks, the more rapid can also be the spread of negative eWOM. Thus, the paper formulates the following proposition.

P1: Social media usage activity positively influences negative eWOM.

Mobile use of social media and negative eWOM

Mobile phones and devices have become increasingly popular. For instance, 90% of Americans own a mobile phone, and most people rely so heavily on their mobile phones that they wouldn't dare to leave home without them [START_REF] Kaplan | If you love something, let it go mobile: Mobile marketing and mobile social media 4x4[END_REF]. Nearly two-thirds (64%) of mobile phones owned by Americans are smartphones [START_REF] Smith | U.S. Smartphone Use in[END_REF] that make it possible to have all the social media applications (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, etc.) at the disposal of consumers all the time. Mobile social media has also introduced new characteristics for social media use, such as time-sensitivity and location-sensitivity [START_REF] Kaplan | If you love something, let it go mobile: Mobile marketing and mobile social media 4x4[END_REF]. The transfer of traditional social media applications to mobile devices has increased the immediacy of feedback [START_REF] Kaplan | If you love something, let it go mobile: Mobile marketing and mobile social media 4x4[END_REF], [START_REF] Jussila | Social Media in Business-to-Business Companies[END_REF] and thus made the use of social media applications more time-sensitive. For example, traditionally you would have to log in to Twitter with your computer in order to determine whether you have received any new messages or if there are any discussions that mention you. Whereas, using a mobile device, you get an immediate notification whenever someone posts a message or mentions you in a post (e.g. on Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn and other applications). Exchange of messages with relevance for one specific location at one specific point of time [START_REF] Kaplan | If you love something, let it go mobile: Mobile marketing and mobile social media 4x4[END_REF], with mobile applications such as Foursquare and Facebook Places, has introduced a new dimension of interacting with consumers and businesses. For instance, consumers receive discounts to shops or restaurants based on their location information. Location-based services revenues are forecasted to increase from €10.3 billion in 2014 at an annual growth rate of 22.5% to €34.8 billion in 2020 according to a recent market report [START_REF]Mobile Location-Based Services[END_REF]. With such growth rates in location-based services it is likely that the mobile use of social media will impact the spread of negative eWOM as well. It has been noted that a mobile device is a 'telephone', the primary objective of which is message transmission, while a PC is a 'processor', with the primary objective of data transmission [START_REF] Okazaki | Social influence model and electronic word of mouth -PC versus mobile internet[END_REF]. Presumably the differences between the objectives affect the behavior. Thus, the paper formulates the following proposition.

P2: Mobile use of social media positively influences negative eWOM.

Perceived usefulness of negative information and negative eWOM

Social media has enabled consumers an easy way to post their experiences of products and services. These experiences are based not only on facts (what has actually happened) but also on consumers' subjective opinions. Unsurprisingly, brands are forced to face fair and unfair negative eWOM. Social networking sites and online review sites, among others, have considerably increased the probability that peer information is taken in to consideration when consumers make judgements about brands. The importance of negative peer information and eWOM can be addressed from two complementary perspectives.

Firstly, information seeking theories suggest that people perceive negative information, in general, to be more persuasive than positive information [START_REF] Fiske | Attention and weight in person perception: the impact of negative and extreme behaviour[END_REF][START_REF] Crowley | An integrative framework for understanding two-sided persuasion[END_REF]. Based on the accessibility-diagnosticity model [START_REF] Herr | Effects of word-of-mouth and product attribute information on persuasion: an accessibility diagnosticity perspective[END_REF], Anderson and Salisbury [START_REF] Anderson | The formation of market-level expectations and its covariates[END_REF] and Yang & Mai [START_REF] Yang | Experiental goods with network externalities effects: An empirical study of online rating system[END_REF] have found out that negative information is more diagnostic and persuasive than positive. For example, information about a product that does not work as it should is more diagnostic than information about a product that does work as it should. In case of product failure, negative information is given more weight because it differs from the expectations. It can be said that negative framing is more effective than positive framing [START_REF] Maheswaran | The influence of message framing and issue involvement[END_REF]. Ahluwalia [START_REF] Ahluwalia | How prevalent is the negativity affect in consumer environments[END_REF] has described this "negativity affect" arguing that negative product attributes are believed to be more characteristic of a poor quality product, than positive attributes are for a high quality product [START_REF] Van Noort | Online damage control: the effects of proactive versus reactive webcare interventions in consumer-generated and brand-generated platforms[END_REF].

Secondly, eWOM is considered a relatively credible and trustworthy source of information and therefore is more influential than advertising and other marketing information provided by the companies [START_REF] Brown | Word of mouth communication within online communities: conceptualizing the online social network[END_REF]. The credibility of negative eWOM is dependent on the perceived competence of the source providing the information and on the emotional relationship between the information provider and its receiver. If the information source is ranked as an expert (i.e. she/he possesses greater awareness and knowledge about a market and products within it or by virtue of his/her occupation, social training or experience), the knowledge he/she provides is more useful and persuasive than information provided by a non-expert [START_REF] Brown | Word of mouth communication within online communities: conceptualizing the online social network[END_REF][START_REF] Gotlieb | Comparative advertising effectiveness: the role of involvement and source credibility[END_REF][START_REF] Schiffman | Consumer Behavior, 9 th Ed[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchell | The assessment of alternative measures of consumer expertise[END_REF]. In addition to competence, the emotional relationship between the information provider and its receiver influences the credibility of messages. Pan & Chiou [START_REF] Pan | How much can you trust online information? Cues from perceived trustworthiness of consumer-generated online information[END_REF], for example, have shown that negative online messages were perceived credible when the messages were posted by those perceived to have close social relationships.

The more diagnostic and credible the given information is, the more probable it is that information will be retrieved as an input to judgement about brand. Thus, the paper formulates the following proposition.

P3: Perceived usefulness of negative information positively influences negative eWOM.

Company's behavior and negative eWOM

Negative eWOM can damage a company's brand. However, it can be expected that the amount of damage depends on the company's behavior. Recent experiences clearly show that no response is not an option [e.g. [START_REF] Pfeffer | Understanding online firestorms: negative word-of-mouth dynamics in social media networks[END_REF][START_REF] Hemsley | Knowledge and knowledge management in the social media age[END_REF]. Instead, companies are encouraged to put an effort on handing negative eWOM. There is no shortage of studies which point out that competent complaint management is an effective means of reducing the impact of negative WOM (traditional and online) on brand and purchase intention [START_REF] Noble | Let them talk! Managing primary and extended online brand communities for success[END_REF], [START_REF] Fornell | Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management: a theoretical analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Tax | Customer evaluations of service complaint experiences: implication for relationship marketing[END_REF][START_REF] Blodgett | A Bayesian network model of the consumer complaint process[END_REF][START_REF] Der Heyde | The antecedents of the consumer complaining behavior (CCB)[END_REF][START_REF] Sandes | Electronic word-of-mouth impacts on consumer behaviour: exploratory and experimental studies[END_REF].

Two aspects seem of particular importance in attenuating negative eWOM. Firstly, because individual negative experiences easily escalate into online firestorms [START_REF] Pfeffer | Understanding online firestorms: negative word-of-mouth dynamics in social media networks[END_REF] and digital groundswells [START_REF] Li | Groundswell -Winning in a World Transformed by Social Technologies[END_REF], it is important to act timely. A timely response to online complaints offer two potential benefits as it not only resolves the issue with the complainant and prevents follow-up attacks from the consumers who exposed themselves to the original complaint, but can also decrease consumer disloyalty [START_REF] Noble | Let them talk! Managing primary and extended online brand communities for success[END_REF], [START_REF] Van Noort | Online damage control: the effects of proactive versus reactive webcare interventions in consumer-generated and brand-generated platforms[END_REF], [START_REF] Lee | An empirical investigation of electronic word-ofmouth: informational motive and corporate response strategy[END_REF]. Secondly, the tone of response should be considered carefully. In the worst case, the company's response can engender a spiral of negative effect undermining its intended goals [START_REF] Noble | Let them talk! Managing primary and extended online brand communities for success[END_REF], [START_REF] Lee | An empirical investigation of electronic word-ofmouth: informational motive and corporate response strategy[END_REF]. In order to avoid the backfire, Kelleher [START_REF] Kelleher | Conversational voice, communicated commitment, and public relations outcomes in interactive online communication[END_REF] and van Noort & Willemsen [START_REF] Van Noort | Online damage control: the effects of proactive versus reactive webcare interventions in consumer-generated and brand-generated platforms[END_REF], among others, have emphasized the conversational human voice approach. Kelleher [START_REF] Kelleher | Conversational voice, communicated commitment, and public relations outcomes in interactive online communication[END_REF] defines the conversational human voice as "an engaging and natural style of organizational communication as perceived by an organization's publics based on interactions between individuals in the organization and individuals in publics". Contrary to corporate voice, which is profitdriven and persuasive [START_REF] Locke | The Cluetrain Manifesto: The End of Business as Usual[END_REF], human voice invites individuals to communicate in a nonpersuasive manner [START_REF] Van Noort | Online damage control: the effects of proactive versus reactive webcare interventions in consumer-generated and brand-generated platforms[END_REF]. The more quickly and the more emphatically the company responses to online complaints the more probable it is that the damage of eWOM can be limited. Thus, the paper formulates the following proposition.

P4: Company's response to negative eWOM negatively influences negative eWOM.

Negative eWOM and brand disloyalty

As described earlier, brand disloyalty is not just opposite to brand loyalty. This means that customers can be loyal to certain brands even if they are dissatisfied, whereas satisfied customers can defect. Instead of disloyalty, the latter behavior represents no loyalty [START_REF] Dick | Customer loyalty: toward an integrated conceptual framework[END_REF]. Disloyalty differs from no loyalty in that it includes a negative attitude toward the brand [START_REF] Rowley | Disloyalty: a closer look at non-loyals[END_REF]. Disloyalty is an emotionally motivated rejection to buy a certain brand in the future, despite customer retention efforts by the company responsible for the brand.

Brand disloyalty, as distinct from brand loyalty, in the social media context has received scant attention in previous research. However, based on the studies which examined the relationship between eWOM and brand loyalty, there are reasons to suspect that negative eWOM impacts brand disloyalty. Several studies have identified that negative eWOM has a significant power that affects brand loyalty and purchase decisions [START_REF] Chiou | Should a company have message boards on its web sites[END_REF][START_REF] Gruen | eWOM: the impact of customer-to-customer online know-how exchange on customer value and loyalty[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Integrating experience, advertising, and electronic word of mouth[END_REF][START_REF] Khammans | Arrivederci CIAO.com, Buongiorno Bing.com' -Electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM), antecedents and consequences[END_REF][START_REF] Bambaeur-Sachse | Brand equity dilution through negative online word-of-mouth communication[END_REF].

In spite of lack of studies on eWOM and disloyalty, one important remark can however be introduced. Because of the diagnosticity of negative information [START_REF] Herr | Effects of word-of-mouth and product attribute information on persuasion: an accessibility diagnosticity perspective[END_REF], it can be argued that a negative review on a brand is a valuable information source for consumers. Consumers can use negative eWOM for avoiding frustration, dissatisfaction and other negative emotions elicited by buying certain goods or services [START_REF] Bambaeur-Sachse | Brand equity dilution through negative online word-of-mouth communication[END_REF].

In other words, negative eWOM may increase emotional rejection toward a brand. Thus, the paper formulates the following proposition.

P5: Negative eWOM positively influence brand disloyalty.

Conclusions

Advancing the current understanding on the relationship between social media behavior and NWOM on brand disloyalty the conceptual model claims that social media usage and mobile use of social media are antecedents that increase the odds that negative events, such as bad customer experiences, are disclosed in social media. Similarly, the model argues that negative information about something, for example about product usability, is perceived as more useful than positive or neutral information about the same something. The value of negative information is based on its diagnosticity. It is worth noting that companies can influence the audibility of negative eWOM. Through quick and empathetic responses it may be possible to prevent the worst from happening. If, however, eWOM takes place, the result is brand disloyalty -a negative attitude and emotionally motivated rejection to buy a certain brand.

Obviously the conceptual model has its limitations. As antecedents of sharing negative emotions in social media and the relationship between sharing negative emotions in social media and brand disloyalty have received little attention in the literature, this paper has induced the need for empirical research. The authors will conduct a study to validate the proposed model. It will be carried out as follows: i) a socio-demographically representative consumer population will be recruited, ii) the data will be gathered through questionnaire survey with Likert-scale components, iii) the structural equation modeling using partial least squares (SEM-PLS) estimation will be employed to test hypothesized relationships among constructs. This approach will be favored over single regression analyses because it allows testing the conceptual model as a whole [START_REF] Henseler | On the convergence of the partial least squares path modeling algorithm[END_REF]. It is expected that empirical research will contribute to the development of understanding of the antecedents and consequences of negative consumer emotions expressed in social media