Uthayasankar Sivarajah
email: sankar.sivarajah@brunel.ac.uk

Vishanth Weerakkody
email: vishanth.weerakkody@brunel.ac.uk

Zahir Irani
email: zahir.irani@brunel.ac.uk

Opportunities and Challenges of using Web 2.0 Technologies in Government: A Conceptual Review

Keywords: Web 2.0, Social Media, Opportunities, Challenges, Digital Government

Public administration has endured signification transformation over the last decade enabled largely through Information and Communication Technology. In recent times, second generation web technologies (Web 2.0) such as social media and networking sites are increasingly being used by governments for its digital activities ranging from public relations to knowledge management. However, as Web 2.0 technologies are more interactive than the traditional models of information provision or creation of digital services, these technologies have brought about a new set of opportunities and challenges to those government authorities. This study draws on the extant literature to examine the opportunities that Web 2.0 technologies offer to public authorities and the challenges they may need to overcome when integrating these technologies into their work practices.

Introduction

Governments around the world have placed great emphasis on ensuring they exploit the power of rapidly evolving ICTs to transform both internal operations and the external delivery of its services [START_REF] Bonson | Citizens' engagement on local governments' Facebook sites. An empirical analysis: The impact of different media and content types in Western Europe[END_REF][START_REF] Gov | Social media guidance for civil servants: October 2014 -GOV[END_REF][START_REF]Government ICT Strategy[END_REF]. The use of a broad class of technologies ranging from personal computers to mobile devices has enabled governments to offer convenient and enhanced accessibility to government services and information to citizens, businesses and governmental units [START_REF] Sivarajah | Evaluating the use and impact of Web 2.0 technologies in local government[END_REF]. The internet and the developments around Web in particular has been able to provide a new generation of instruments to facilitate social networking, information sharing and collaborative work [START_REF] Grimmelikhuijsen | Does Twitter increase perceived police legitimacy?[END_REF][START_REF] Mainka | Looking for friends and followers: a global investigation of governmental social media use[END_REF][START_REF] Osimo | Public services 2.0: Web 2.0 from the periphery to the centre of public service delivery[END_REF]. It has opened new sets of possibilities for governments, ranging from the joint production of public services in cooperation with citizens, social organisations and businesses, from the wide distribution and re-use of government information to the introduction of new forms of democratic participation. Governments are aware of these new possibilities and have actively started exploring them. However, the use of ICT in government and public services is about far more than simply introducing new technologies and involves major changes in internal organisational structures as well as the need to convince potential users that digital government is in their interests [START_REF] Irani | Information systems evaluation: A crisis of understanding[END_REF]. Despite spending enormous amounts on web-based initiatives, government agencies often fail to meet users' needs online. Baumgarten and Chui [START_REF] Baumgarten | E-government 2.0[END_REF] posit that this trend can be reversed by employing new governance models and embracing user participation through second generation web based technologies that extend beyond one-to-one digital communication. However, in order to do this, government agencies will need to assess the business case and the requisite organisational and governance changes that a shift to Web 2.0 entails prior to adopting these modern technologies [START_REF] Dovey | Web 2.0: The future of collaborative government[END_REF]. In addition, the internet itself is constantly changing as social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc. gain and lose popularity. This means that public agencies who embrace the second generation web based communication methods are facing a moving target making the decision making process regarding which channels to use challenging [START_REF] Saulles | Social media and local government in England: who is doing what?[END_REF].

This paper provides a conceptual review of the opportunities and challenges that the use of Web 2.0 technologies may have for government authorities. To do so, this paper draws on the extant literature and contributes to the emerging field of Web 2.0 use by government organisations through providing a descriptive account of both opportunities and challenges of using technologies in a governmental context.

2

The Role of Web 2.0 in Government Organisations Web 2.0 tools such as social media and networking sites have empowered government organisations to create, distribute and gather information outside the customary hierarchical information flow. There has been an increasing urge by public sector organisations to deliver services online and pay greater attention to Web 2.0 technologies due to the ever-increasing trend in the use of online environments by citizens and the rise in adult and younger generations involved in social networking and virtual community activities [START_REF] Mainka | Looking for friends and followers: a global investigation of governmental social media use[END_REF][START_REF] Randall | Society, The Office for National Statistics[END_REF]. Nevertheless, this is not the only reason for the growing interest in Web 2.0 technologies by these organisations. Web 2.0 facilitates the public services institutions with a key platform for citizen engagement and collaboration with the community to improve transparency and accountability [START_REF]Web 2.0 and the Next Generation of Public Service[END_REF][START_REF] Johnston | Realizing the Potential of the Connected Republic: Web 2.0 Opportunities in the Public Sector, Cisco Internet Business Solutions Group[END_REF]. This new form of technology-enabled participation is becoming more accustomed as governments are investing in these technologies to enable more effective communication with their stakeholders. In effect, Web 2.0 approaches allow local government to gather feedback from citizens on the priorities and effective organisation of public services.

Governments and officials at every level are leveraging Web 2.0 technologies for various purposes [START_REF] Adams | Changing The Face Of Public Affairs: A Look At How Social Networking Is Impacting The Business Of The Public Sector[END_REF]. The use of Web 2.0 tools in the government organisations can be categorised to two main areas of application; (a) internal use and (b) external use [START_REF] Osimo | Web 2.0 in Government: Why and How?[END_REF][START_REF] Anttiroiko | Innovation in Democratic E-Governance: Benefitting from Web 2.0 Applications in the Public Sector[END_REF]. The internal uses of these technologies facilitate government agencies and its employees to network and share internal organization and work processes using Web 2.0 technologies. Some of the internal uses of Web 2.0 tools are as follows:

Internal Staff and Cross-Agency Collaboration: The use of Web 2.0 technologies such as internal wikis and other collaboration tool for data sharing among their colleagues and storing work materials using sites such as DropBox [START_REF] Chun | Government 2.0: Making connections between citizens, data and government[END_REF]. In addition, Web 2.0 tools is also being used for collaboration between institutional levels, agencies, departments in order to increase efficiency and time-saving.

Knowledge Management: Though traditional knowledge management systems are applied to structured knowledge, Web 2.0 applications (social software, folksonomies, and wiki) are particularly effective in enabling the sharing of informal and tacit knowledge internally, among employees [START_REF] Osimo | Web 2.0 in Government: Why and How?[END_REF].

Facilitating Policymaking: policy makers have launched Web 2.0 applications such as YouTube channels and other applications to communicate with its constituency and facilitate a platform to encourage citizens to participate in policymaking [START_REF] Chun | Government 2.0: Making connections between citizens, data and government[END_REF]. This kind of engagement enhances the government's effectiveness and improves the quality of its decisions [START_REF] Gayo-Avello | Social Media, Democracy, and Democratization[END_REF].

On the other hand, the external uses of Web 2.0 tools by the governments have been to better facilitate better service provision, external governance and stakeholder relations [START_REF] Anttiroiko | Innovation in Democratic E-Governance: Benefitting from Web 2.0 Applications in the Public Sector[END_REF]. Some government organisations are developing a presence on Web 2.0 applications recognising its interactive potential in order to strengthen the relationship with citizens and solicit their feedback [START_REF] Sivarajah | Evaluating the use and impact of Web 2.0 technologies in local government[END_REF]. The following is a list of the external uses of these technologies:

Local Reporting and Problem Solving: government agencies especially local councils facilitating the citizens who want to engage or report issues that affect their neighbourhood, community, region, or county by either adopting or partnering with Web 2.0 integrated websites such as FixMyStreet.com (e.g. road repair, graffiti removal, traffic concerns, etc.) Web 2.0 technologies such as Twitter, Facebook and other similar applications make this possible with unprecedented speed and efficiency [START_REF] Bertot | Crowd-sourcing transparency: ICTs, social media, and government transparency initiatives[END_REF].

Political Participation: the most drastic change in the government organisations occurring is the utilisation of social networking for the purpose of elections. Through the use of applications such as Facebook, YouTube, Blogs and various other tools; Web 2.0 has been actively used for political campaigns and debates especially during the times of elections for all emerging public officials [START_REF] Adams | Changing The Face Of Public Affairs: A Look At How Social Networking Is Impacting The Business Of The Public Sector[END_REF]. In this respect, convincing potential users that note will be taken of electronic interaction in terms of policy formulation is important [START_REF] Ferro | Policy making 2.0: From theory to practice[END_REF] or there is a risk of cynicism undermining any engagement.

Public Relations: the most prevalent Web 2.0 tools adopted by among government agencies have been communication and information sharing tools, such as Twitter and RSS feed which facilitate quick communication or short messaging for keeping the general public constantly informed with its activities [START_REF] Anttiroiko | Innovation in Democratic E-Governance: Benefitting from Web 2.0 Applications in the Public Sector[END_REF].

The list of uses is not comprehensive by any means as Web 2.0 philosophy is far from mature, and its future development and adoption is difficult to envisage [START_REF] Osimo | Web 2.0 in Government: Why and How?[END_REF]. However, they do indicate the key uses of these technologies in government organisations. Nonetheless, it is important to recognise that the success in any online services depends on strategic use of ICT together with an organisation's ability to reorganise its back-office and internal processes effectively [START_REF]eEurope 2005: An Information Society for All, Commission of the European Communities[END_REF]. Therefore, the use of Web 2.0 technologies for public service delivery by the organisations requires not only technological innovation but also organisational, legal and social innovation in order to successfully embrace and reap the benefits from these technologies [START_REF] Dovey | Web 2.0: The future of collaborative government[END_REF]. The aforementioned uses of Web 2.0 technologies in government organisations are illustrated in figure 1.

Web 2.0 in Government Organisations

3

The Significance of Web 2.0 technologies for Government

Organisations

Much government activity is now focused on Web 2.0, and social media has become a central component of digital government context in a very short period of time. In this respect, social media are applications that enable the sharing of information including wikis, blogs and social networks [START_REF] Bonson | Citizens' engagement on local governments' Facebook sites. An empirical analysis: The impact of different media and content types in Western Europe[END_REF]. There are various innovative examples of using Web 2.0 technologies by government organisations. The Web 2.0 initiatives such as NASA's internal social networks and virtual worlds, and the U.S. intelligence community's "intellipedia" are just a few of the recent efforts launched within central government. Table 2 presents these examples in a systematic manner by first highlighting the government organisation and at which level (i.e. central, regional and local) these tools are being utilised within. Secondly, the type of Web 2.0 technologies adopted is mapped against these organisations and finally, an application scenario of a Web 2.0 technology used by the organisation is presented.

    
The council uses YouTube channel to raise awareness of services and shape policy developments [START_REF] Charlton | Public sector use of social media takes off[END_REF] Open Town Hall (US -Regional Government)

  
The Open Town Hall platform gathers public input to help government agencies make better decisions. It encourages widespread and inclusive citizen participation in deliberation.

[

     
Front national Party set up virtual headquarters in Sec-ondLife for promoting their presidential campaigns [START_REF] Osimo | Web 2.0 in Government: Why and How?[END_REF] As illustrated by table 2, the most popular Web 2.0 tools that has been adopted by the government organisations have been social networking sites (i.e. Facebook), Microblogging (i.e. Twitter), online video and photo sharing sites (i.e. YouTube and Flickr) and RSS feeds. Some local government authorities are also leveraging cloud computing services (e.g. Google Apps for business) in an effort to provide public services while using fewer resources, reducing carbon emissions, and thus producing financial savings for the organisations [25]. Although table 2 presents a clear idea of the significant role of Web 2.0 in governments, it is too early to deduce the importance of these technologies by only reviewing the Web 2.0 experiences in the government organisations. Therefore, to fully understand the real value of these technologies for government organisations, it is necessary to evaluate and articulate the implications of Web 2.0 in the digital government context.

Discussion: Opportunities and Challenges of Web 2.0 in Government

In any consideration of adopting new technology, attention must be paid to the opportunities and challenges of such adoption [START_REF] Sivarajah | Application of Web 2.0 Technologies in E-Government: A United Kingdom Case Study[END_REF][START_REF] Freeman | Web 2.0 and e-Government at the municipal level. Privacy, Security, Trust and the Management of e-Business[END_REF].The emergence of Web 2.0 and the rise of social networks have opened up both new perspectives and challenges for the public institutions [START_REF] Sivarajah | Evaluating the use and impact of Web 2.0 technologies in local government[END_REF]. Nevertheless, cutting edge digital communication comes filled with both potential opportunities and risks. As a result, the implications of these new digital frontiers and opportunities are also on the governmental agenda [START_REF] Klischewski | Drift or shift? Propositions for changing roles of administrations in e-Government[END_REF]. The following sections therefore presents a review of the potential opportunities and challenges that the government organisations might face when using Web 2.0 technologies.

4.1

Opportunities of Web 2.0 technologies for Government Organisations One way to evaluate Web 2.0 technologies is to consider them to be a 'disruptive technology' for government, creating 'disruptive innovation' in the digital government as well as augmenting digital government with better services and management [START_REF] Chun | Government 2.0: Making connections between citizens, data and government[END_REF]. Implications of these new technologies and opportunities from the perspective of administrations are now also on the governmental agenda [START_REF] Klischewski | Drift or shift? Propositions for changing roles of administrations in e-Government[END_REF] especially as there is the potential for Web 2.0 tools to create a change in public sector processes. The following is a list of some of the opportunities that Web 2.0 technologies have to offer for government organisations.

Revive Civic Engagement: Web 2.0 tools such as social networking sites and deliberation platforms can be powerful tools that the governments can deploy to help revive civic engagement and harness the wisdom of crowds. The government can especially enlist important niche audiences, leverage their insights for policymaking and improve the citizen-government relationship [START_REF] Huijboom | Public Services 2.0: Impact of Social Computing on Public Services[END_REF].

Enhance External Transparency: Web 2.0 applications can help improve external transparency for government organisations. The integration of online collaboration tools and interactive maps into government websites can enable governments to become more inclusive and responsive to individual citizens throughout the policy life cycle resulting in improved policy outcomes [START_REF] Meijer | Alignment 2.0: Strategic use of new internet technologies in government[END_REF].

Rapid Dissemination of Information:

The viral nature of Web 2.0 tools such as Microblogging and social networking sites can help disseminate information over the internet much faster compared to traditional methods (e.g. postal letters, pamphlets, static websites etc.) of information delivery [START_REF] Buchanan | The electronic village: The digital challenges in communication strategies for sporting organization[END_REF]. This can draw a larger pool of audience and promote awareness of existing government services to the public.

Efficient Gathering of Collective Intelligence:

Gathering intelligence from the citizens for crowdsourcing has revolutionarily changed with the use of some Web 2.0 technologies such as Wikis [START_REF] Nam | Suggesting frameworks of citizen-sourcing via Government 2.0[END_REF]. It has enabled the government organisations efficient and effective collection of geographically dispersed collective intelligence from the citizens with less effort in comparison to traditional crowd-sourcing methods such as public forums and workshops.

Lower IT Costs:

As the model of Web 2.0 at times requires the use of intermediaries especially mashup applications, these intermediaries can enable governments to provide enhanced, customized services to their citizens at much lower costs than the government's centralized provision of service [START_REF] Chang | Leveraging Web 2.0 in Government, IBM Center for The Business of Government[END_REF]. In addition, they provide a means for public service organizations to disseminate information about public services, to educate citizens about matters that affect their quality of life, to solicit people's feedback and to enrol them as co-producers in a timely and cost effective way.

Streamline Internal Operations:

The collaboration tools such as wikis can streamline internal operations within government agencies especially among disparate teams and across agencies enabling individuals to engage in open discussions leading to a potential build-up of knowledgebase [START_REF]Web 2.0 and the Next Generation of Public Service[END_REF].

It seems that the advent of the emerging web technologies creates an unexpected dilemma for governments. On one hand, governments seek to use the new opportunities to deliver services but on the other hand governments have significant problems embracing these emerging web technologies due to many challenges and risks.

Challenges of Web 2.0 Technologies for Government Organisations

Despite the potential opportunities of Web 2.0 not all government agencies have explored the possibilities of these technologies [START_REF] Meijer | Alignment 2.0: Strategic use of new internet technologies in government[END_REF][START_REF] Eggers | Government 2.0: Using Technology to Improve Education, Cut Red Tape, Reduce Gridlock, and Enhance Democracy[END_REF]. Most public services organisations find it difficult to overcome the perception that some Web 2.0 technologies such as social networking sites (e.g. Facebook) have limited business value and are more a distraction to employees than a means to deliver digital government services [START_REF] Sander | Government 2.0: Building Communities with Web 2.0 and Social Networking[END_REF]. Moreover, government models for leveraging internet technologies is rather different from that of commercial enterprises [START_REF] Freeman | Web 2.0 and e-Government at the municipal level. Privacy, Security, Trust and the Management of e-Business[END_REF], especially as government agencies are more cautious and slow in adopting new emerging technologies in comparison to commercial organisations. The following are a list of potential challenges that government organisations could face by adopting Web 2.0 technologies.

Development of New Service Model:

As the Web 2.0 model requires the use of external platforms (e.g. Facebook, YouTube and Twitter), it can prove as a challenge to develop a new service model that integrates these Web 2.0 platforms with existing digital government systems in a manner that is secure and improves the quality of services to citizens [START_REF] Freeman | Web 2.0 and e-Government at the municipal level. Privacy, Security, Trust and the Management of e-Business[END_REF].

Additional Staff: Once Web 2.0 tools such as blogs have been adopted by government organisations, it may require some level of moderation to ensure that comments and contributions do not turn out to be a platform where the public discussions are monopolised by a vocal minority or extremist activists groups. This level of moderation may be costly in terms of time and effort spent by the organisations where additional staff might be required to be moderators of content [START_REF] Freeman | Web 2.0 and e-Government at the municipal level. Privacy, Security, Trust and the Management of e-Business[END_REF].

Loss of Control:

Government organisations can face loss of control due to excessive transparency using Web 2.0 applications such as blogs. For instance, blogging by ministers and civil servants has led to release of sensitive information in an incorrect and sometimes illegal manner [START_REF] Osimo | Public services 2.0: Web 2.0 from the periphery to the centre of public service delivery[END_REF]. In addition, the technique of application mashups and content syndication on to existing government platforms can also be an issue leading to loss of ownership control and authenticity of the final products.

Restricted User Participation: The investment on Web 2.0 applications on the government front can potentially result in restriction to exclusive user participation. Web 2.0 applications are mostly used by well-educated young and adult generation in the developed part of the world which can lead to wider societal divides by giving more voice to those that already have it or use it [START_REF] De Kool | Web 2.0: A New Basis for E-Government?[END_REF]. In addition there is also the risk of older people not likely to participate in Web 2.0 because of the lack of Web 2.0 confidence or because of the lack of technical ability [START_REF] Blank | The Participatory Web[END_REF].

Social Isolation: Though Web 2.0 can stimulate social interactions and communication between different individuals, there is also the risk of people isolating themselves from the real world as they become too addicted the use of internet [START_REF] De Kool | Web 2.0: A New Basis for E-Government?[END_REF].

Risk of Information Overload and Reliability:

There is a risk of information overload and poor quality of content shared by public users when using some Web 2.0 applications such as blogs and wikis, as concerns can be raised against their reliability, accuracy and authority of information [START_REF] Huijboom | Public Services 2.0: Impact of Social Computing on Public Services[END_REF].

Security and Privacy Threat:

The open nature of Web 2.0 presents significant challenges to the traditional enterprise approach to controlling intellectual property over information shared and surety of these applications. The increase in functionality and interactivity has increased the ways in which an application can be attacked successfully by hackers and viruses and therefore proves to be a security concern for organisations. There are also risks when sharing information using social networking sites where it could lead to possible abuse of personal information, hacking and stalking [START_REF] Al-Tameem | A study of AJAX vulnerability in Web 2.0 applications[END_REF].

Threat of Cyber Extremisms: These new, interactive, multimedia-rich forms of communication provide effective means for extremists to promote their ideas, share resources, and communicate among each other [START_REF] Chen | Cyber extremism in Web 2.0: An exploratory study of international Jihadist groups[END_REF].

Critical Reviews: While the advent of Web 2.0 technologies has played an important role in the providing people with useful assessments of products and services, it has also meant that there is now a greater risk of these assessments damaging the image of people and organisations without a fair reason. This is because it is difficult to find out of assessment are fair or the result of the personal resentment [START_REF] De Kool | Web 2.0: A New Basis for E-Government?[END_REF].

In spite of the abovementioned challenges, some government agencies still want to harness the collaborative power of Web 2.0 and many scholars believe the opportunities that the Web 2.0 developments can offer cannot be ignored by the public sector as it can take the evolution of digital government agenda in new directions [START_REF] Mergel | The Transformational Effect of Web 2.0 Technologies on Government[END_REF]. Instead of avoiding these new technologies, governments should develop an overall strategic plan for agencies at all levels to participate in social networks, and develop a coordinated effort to develop and implement these tools. In this context, being clear why Web 2.0 is being introduced is important. This clarity will help ensure that any development meets a stated goal and this will assist in ensuring an effective adoption across the organisation [START_REF] Baxter | Organisational blogs: benefits and challenges of implementation[END_REF]. More importantly, whether governments are initiating small-scale pilot projects or contemplating a larger roll-out of Web 2.0 technologies, it is essential for them to be aware of the impact of these tools in order for successful implementation [START_REF] Chang | Leveraging Web 2.0 in Government, IBM Center for The Business of Government[END_REF].

Conclusions

Based on a conceptual review, this paper has contributed to the existing knowledge of Web 2.0 use by governments by articulating a descriptive account of the opportunities and challenges of Web 2.0 technologies that need to be considered when adopting these tools by governments. Through this review, several salient opportunities were identified that would significantly enhance both internal and external business process in public administration. These ranged from reduced cost of operations and streamlined internal work practices to increased transparency and civic engagement. However, the review also exposed several challenges that need to be considered when implementing Web 2.0, such as, exclusion of certain user groups or communities, security and privacy risks and capacity to deal with large volumes of information. These factors suggest that government authorities already using and/or planning to use Web 2.0 technologies as part of their digital transformation journey need to have in place the necessary strategies to deal with the challenges posed by the technologies while embracing the opportunities they present. This study is of significant relevance to public sector and the IS research community, policy makers, local government authorities and practitioners as it provides them with a deeper better understanding of the factors that encourage and hinder adoption of Web 2.0 technologies in government. In doing so, this conceptual review of the opportunities and challenges offer a foundation for management when taking decisions regarding the adoption of Web 2.0 technologies in government organisations for internal work purposes and external engagement and service delivery to citizens. The next stage of this study will be to contextualise these opportunities and challenges by empirically examining the influence they have on the ICT enabled transformation efforts across both central and local government authorities.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. External and Internal Uses of Web 2.0 in Government Organisations

Table 2 .

 2 Government organisations adopting Web 2.0 Technologies

					Web 2.0 Technologies
	Government Organisation (Domain)	Blogs	Microblogging	Wikis	Social Networking	Social Bookmarking	Video Sharing Sites	Picture Sharing Sites	RSS	Deliberation Platforms	Virtual Worlds	Mashup	SaaS Platforms	Example Web 2.0 Applica-tion Scenario	Reference(s)
	Her Maj-esty's Armed Forces ment) tral Govern-(UK -Cen-	 											British army utilises Face-public. photos, videos etc.) to the book to provide latest news and other information (i.e.	[26]
	Westminster
	City Council
	(UK -Local
	Government)


Bibian Ogbuji
email: bibian.ogbuji@brunel.ac.uk

Anastasia Papazafeiropoulou
email: anastasia.papazafeiropoulou@brunel.ac.uk

Social Media Strategies for Companies: A Comprehensive Framework

Keywords: Social Media, Social Media Strategy, Social Networks, Social Media Platforms 1

Companies when strategizing are looking for innovative ways to have a competitive advantage over their competitors. One way in which they compete is by the adoption of social media. Social media has evolved over the years and as a result, new concepts and applications are developed which promises to provide business value to a company. However, despite the usefulness of social media, many businesses fail to reap its full benefits. The current literature shows evidence of lack of strategically designed process for companies to successfully implement social media. The purpose of this study is to suggest a framework which provides the necessary alignment between social media goals with business objectives. From the literature review, a social media strategy framework was derived to offer an effective step by step approach to the development and implementation of social media goals aligned with a company's business objectives. The contribution to this study is the development of a social media strategy framework that can be used by organisations for business value.

Introduction

Social media are online platforms that aid global collaboration and sharing amongst users. With the rapid growth and availability of network bandwidth and technology, social media has a significant increase in user count. This has also led to the increase in user-generated content [START_REF] Kietzmann | Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media[END_REF]. Hence, it enables users to connect with one another and share information. These platforms are extensively adopted by users of all age group, educational, cultural and economic background [START_REF] Persaud | Social media implementation in small service firms[END_REF].

The inarguable growth of social media has allowed profound changes in the environment. Social media is altering the business while introducing development, new learning skills and communication management processes [START_REF] Schroeder | Social media in business strategy: the learning and development implications. Development and Learning in Organizations[END_REF]. Social media has changed the traditional marketing methods which is a one-way flow of information (for example, television and radio) while encouraging a two-way communication flow. The use of social media allows easy sharing of information to a wider audience while increasing brand awareness and promoting company's products and services. As a result of this exposure, companies strive to maintain a positive image, have an active online presence to communicate with their customers and also satisfy customers' needs. Companies are following the trend of having a presence on social media by creating multiple social media accounts without clear objectives or a strategic approach for its business use. Previous research has shown the implementation of social media is to be done carefully by designing a framework or method to provide the necessary integration between social media and the business goals. Resources such as time, skills, human resource and technology are needed when adopting social media. Therefore, the need to measure return on investment (ROI) arises [START_REF] Schroeder | Social media in business strategy: the learning and development implications. Development and Learning in Organizations[END_REF]. Nonetheless, it is a challenge to measure the efficiency and return on investment on a social media approach that has not been strategically designed.

However, so many companies have adopted the use of social media practice in their business. The gap in the literature shows limited availability of social media strategy framework for the implementation of social media for business use. Despite the advantages, some companies are yet to identify clearly what their social media presence entails [START_REF] Kietzmann | Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media[END_REF]. Recent research has shown that companies do not have a strategy in the selection of a suitable social media platform for their business [START_REF] Persaud | Social media implementation in small service firms[END_REF]. In the absence of a strategic process, a company cannot gain the full benefit that social media provides [START_REF] Jansen | Twitter power: Tweets as electronic word of mouth[END_REF]. Hence, this study aims to address the gap of a lack of a comprehensive social media strategy.

The next section presents the use of social media by companies which leads to the lack of social media strategies in business. Second, we elaborate on existing social media strategies. Third, we discuss the selection process of suitable social media platforms by companies. Fourth, we present a proposed framework. Finally, the conclusion of this study.

Use of social media by Companies

For many businesses, it is important to engage in social media to benefit from the opportunities it provides. According to Harris and Rae [START_REF] Harris | Social networks: the future of marketing for small business[END_REF], companies have recognised the opportunities that lie in the adoption of social media. For example, it helps build trust and commitment with key stakeholders, employees, and customers.

The different social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and YouTube are used to enable online interaction share and collect information about products and services. These platforms can serve as a place where different ideas can be collected from a vast range of population concerning the development of a business or its products.

Previous research has shown that social media adoption has created a high positive impact on businesses that incorporates this technology as an innovative process in comparison to firms that are yet to do so [START_REF] Smith | Semantics-based social media for collaborative open innovation[END_REF]. According to Li & Li [START_REF] Li | Linking social media with open innovation: an intelligent model[END_REF], social media creates a cordial relationship between a company and its customers thereby, influencing various aspects of consumer behaviour which includes purchase behaviour, awareness, information acquisition, post-purchase communication and opinions [START_REF] Paniagua | Business performance and social media: Love or hate?[END_REF]. According to Jiang et al. [START_REF] Jiang | Leading in the digital age: A study of how social media are transforming the work of communication professionals[END_REF] from a business perspective, social media can be used in various ways to improve operations and enhance business profile. The process can be done by improved communication, maintaining a good relationship with existing customers and attracting new customers, intensify word of mouth effect, advertising company's products and services, improving brand awareness and increasing traffic to websites. Businesses are increasingly attempting to adopt and implement social media as an integral part of work life and to enhance competitive advantage [START_REF] Carmichael | How effective is social media advertising? A study of Facebook Social Advertisements[END_REF]. According to Weisgerber & Butler [START_REF] Weisgerber | Social media as a professional development tool: using blogs, microblogs, and social bookmarks to create personal learning networks[END_REF], social media has enabled organisations to gain exposure to the needs, opinions, and desires of a wider audience and also provide an opportunity for connecting with a highly targeted population that could be potential customers to the organisation. From the organisations' perspective, social media creates a better communication process between customers, stakeholders and the organisation itself which leads to the start of an innovative process in the organisation [START_REF] Lehmkuhl | Towards a maturity model for the adoption of social media as a means of organizational innovation[END_REF].

Lack of Social Media Strategy

In the early 2000s, during the inception of social media which brought the launch of platforms like Fotolog, Myspace, hi5, Friendster and del.icio.us, companies have established a presence on these platforms to explore the benefits of social media for business. The early adopters were intrigued by the number of users subscribed to these platforms and its increasing usage among its customer base. Previous research has shown that most companies randomly establish a presence on social media while others avoid these platforms altogether because of unknown business risk and lack of understanding of the social media environment [START_REF] Lardi | Social media strategy[END_REF]. Establishing a presence on several social media platforms without a strategically defined approach does pose some risks to companies. Nevertheless, during the adoption process of social media, companies use up time, human resource, efforts, technology and skills, these parameters need to be put into consideration so the return on investment can be measured accurately. Strategic content planning, resources or undefined job responsibility can lead to the inconstancy of content flow. Therefore, companies will not be able to keep customer's interest for long [START_REF] Oliveira | Benchmarking analysis of social media strategies in the higher education sector[END_REF].

In the excitement of creating a presence on social media platform (for example, Facebook page) to enable customers to join (like), or for the display of adverts especially videos which have the tendency to go viral. The video can expose a company in either a positive or negative way; a positive exposure can generate more revenue while a negative exposure can affect the business and the company's reputation [START_REF] Brodie | Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community: An exploratory analysis[END_REF]. The nature of social media makes it difficult to govern as it is user generated and difficult to control [START_REF] Dijkmans | A stage to engage: Social media use and corporate reputation[END_REF]. However, after a careful study of social media mechanisms companies can foresee social media risks and provide quick response to them. Lardi and Fuchs [START_REF] Lardi | Social media strategy[END_REF] states that the adoption of social media brings an advantage to a company's value when properly incorporated into the company's context. Recent research shows companies are beginning to understand the need to adopt a social media strategy, clearly defining the objectives of the use of having a social media presence for their business, identifying the target audience and the selection of suitable social media platform(s) for specific business needs [START_REF] Lardi | Social media strategy[END_REF].

A strategic business change impacts all the aspects of the company; people, culture, process, technology and also the implementation of social media strategy. Applying social media as a business strategy and not just a platform for marketing allows companies to find an appropriate use for social media with a maximum business value [START_REF] Oliveira | Benchmarking analysis of social media strategies in the higher education sector[END_REF].

Existing Social Media Strategy Framework

Companies are challenged as they face an environment where the adoption rate of social media has massively increased by customers and employees. However, companies face tremendous pressure to create a presence on various platforms as expected by customers [START_REF] Larson | The value of social media: toward measuring social media strategies[END_REF]. For this reason, they are struggling to implement social media strategically in their business for it is not enough to just create a presence but to use it systematically and enjoy its benefits. However, many companies find implementing a successful social media strategy difficult [START_REF] Bottles | Who should manage your social media strategy[END_REF], [START_REF] Kietzmann | Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media[END_REF]. There is a few social media strategy that concentrates on different aspects of social media.

Effing and Spil [START_REF] Effing | The social strategy cone: Towards a framework for evaluating social media strategies[END_REF] framework provides significant key elements and areas of concern for the development of a social media strategy. The seven elements are as follows; (i) Target audience: companies should define what target group they intend to address using social media. (ii) Channel choice: it is important to select the appropriate choice of channel for different target groups. (iii) Goals: to gain business value, social media should be aligned with business goals. (iv) Resources: adequate resources should be allocated to the success of social media strategy. (v) Policies: should be structured to manage the use of social media in the company. (vi) Monitoring: businesses should listen to what is been said about the company\products and services. (vii) Content activities: a clear content post and timeframe are defined to allow regular contribution on the platforms. These elements are derived from the literature review as the components required for a comprehensive social media strategy.

Secondly, Kietzmann et al. [START_REF] Kietzmann | Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media[END_REF] framework which is called "The Honeycomb of social media" consist of seven functional building blocks of social media they are: (i) Presence: refers to the availability of users on the platform. (ii) Relationship: is how users relate to one another, (iii) Reputation: is the degree to which users know each other, (iv) Groups: is when users form communities. (v) Identity: this relates to the level of which users reveal themselves, (vi) Conversation: refers to how users communicate with one another, (vii) Sharing: is the exchange of information among users. Hence, these functional building blocks describe the extent in which users engage with social media.

While Kiralova and Pavliceka [START_REF] Kiralova | Development of Social Media Strategies in Tourism Destination[END_REF] social media strategy is concerned with using social media as a useful tool for marketing. The paper discussed the competitive advantage gained by the alignment of business strategies with social media in the tourism sector. While Oliveira and Figueira [START_REF] Oliveira | Benchmarking analysis of social media strategies in the higher education sector[END_REF] social media strategy concentrated on using social media to develop a functional communication strategy.

The above frameworks do not possess the significant factors needed in a comprehensive social media strategy as they do not contain the necessary requirements for evaluating readiness, development and the implementation of social media in companies.

The Lardi and Fuchs [START_REF] Lardi | Social media strategy[END_REF] social media strategy framework forms the core of this study (Fig. 1). This framework gives a detailed step by step process on the implementation of social media strategy while considering the goals and objectives of the business.

Fig 1. Social Media Strategy Framework [21]

Phase 1 -Development Strategy

This stage is important as it allows a replete assessment of the company's competence regarding readiness, abilities, objectives and capabilities to adopt social media into their business [START_REF] Jiang | Leading in the digital age: A study of how social media are transforming the work of communication professionals[END_REF]. This stage also puts into consideration the organisational structure, people, process carried out, governance, changes social media brings to the business process, technology to be adopted and risk involved.

Phase 2 -Plan & Deliver

Phase 2 has two parts: Enterprise collaboration (Internal) and Business 2.0 (External).

Enterprise Collaboration: This section focuses on the use of social media within the company. The enterprise collaboration gives power to the employees by slowly getting rigid of the traditional corporate structure in a company. The implementation of enterprise 2.0 creates an opportunity for businesses to tap into the creativity of their employees to enhance productivity and daily work activities [START_REF] Husin | Removing the barriers to Enterprise 2.0[END_REF].

In regards to the focus areas (see Fig. 1) connection and interactivity in the enterprise collaboration is a process of exchange of information. The interactive innovation of social media offers two-way communication, which aids in the easy flow of information between employees to achieve effectiveness and productivity [START_REF] Zolkepli | Social media adoption: The role of media needs and innovation characteristics[END_REF]. The continual interaction of employees in enterprise collaboration encourages brainstorming and enhances the chances of the birth of new ideas or innovation.

Enterprise collaboration process is carried out in three stages; (i) Plan implementation: at this stage, companies substantiate the functional requirements, develop a business case that fits the business and employees requirements. Furthermore, they identify a particular business area where social technology can be defined and implemented. Important factors like training for employees, development of unique skills and adoption process are considered critically. (ii) Build and launch: the actual building and launching of the social media platform are done at this point. For example, if the company does not want to use existing third-party applications like Facebook etc. they would develop a platform within the corporation to suit their needs (iii) Continuous management: Monitoring and analysing the adopted or developed platform to measure the quality, usefulness. Ongoing analysis of the platform is required for maintenance and future development [START_REF] Lardi | Social media strategy[END_REF].

Business 2.0: This section handles the external part of the company; customers and stakeholders. This area focuses on using social networking applications in promoting innovative teamwork, interaction with their customers and also collaborating with external stakeholders to produce business innovation [START_REF] Burrus | Social networks in the workplace: the risk and opportunity of business 2.0[END_REF]. Many companies are at risk because they start the implementation process of Business 2.0 by creating a presence on popularly used social media platforms. It is important to define the purpose of Business 2.0 critically in business by considering the advantage(s) to specific business areas like increasing brand awareness, relationship management, innovation, creativity and also increase efficiency and effectiveness.

There are various social media tools company use for this process. Examples are blogs, microblogging, social networking sites, podcast, etc. [START_REF] Chiang | Continuous usage of social networking sites: The effect of innovation and gratification attributes[END_REF], [START_REF] Dioko | Tourist-created content: rethinking destination branding[END_REF], [START_REF] Viégas | Bloggers' expectations of privacy and accountability: An initial survey[END_REF]. However, the focus area of a company may vary depending on the business area which needs improvement. There are processes outlined for the implementation of Business 2.0 such as; (i) Plan: at the planning stage, a clear identification of the target audience or target group(s) and the social media platforms they use are determined. For example, if a company provides services for different target groups, different messages will be sent to these various groups. Hence, sending a clearly defined message relevant for each target groups is an effective communication strategy to reaching out to customers. Furthermore, the most efficient way to benefit from Business 2.0 initiatives is by the selection of suitable social media platforms [START_REF] Kiralova | Development of Social Media Strategies in Tourism Destination[END_REF]. (ii) Innovate: this is where the creative ideas emanate. According to Berman and Hagan [START_REF] Berman | How technology-driven business strategy can spur innovation and growth[END_REF], innovation is changing the basis of competition, rather than competing heads on with other competitors; companies create new ideas to exploit a growing market need in order have an edge over its competitors and also to gain market advantage. (iii) Setup: before the implementation of Business 2.0 a few adjustments are required to accommodate social media activities in the company. Setup stage is the modification of company's policies and development of social media policies to allow the business handle the necessary change the implementation process brings [START_REF] Effing | The social strategy cone: Towards a framework for evaluating social media strategies[END_REF]. Furthermore, social media tools and accounts are setups. The content messages for the target groups and time frame for posting are determined at this point [START_REF] Lardi | Social media strategy[END_REF]. (iv) Launch: The launch stage is the final stage after the above steps are completed. The launch takes place after the platform(s) are developed and ready for the reveal. The platform(s) can are revealed same day or separate days. The launch approach varies amongst companies. (v) Operate: After the platform(s) have been initiated, the effect of how social media activities are influencing and creating traffic to the corporate websites is monitored [START_REF] Effing | The social strategy cone: Towards a framework for evaluating social media strategies[END_REF].

The social media strategy framework is structured in an easy to follow steps. However, it does not include a systemic approach for companies to identify the suitable social media platform to employ for their business.

Selection of Social Media Platform

Social media platforms have a vast advantage for social activities hence it is not just a means of sharing information on day-to-day operations; it is a valuable and cost-effective way for businesses to reach their customers. Regardless, it is not appropriate for companies to create an account on all the social media platforms available. Determining the right social media platform(s) for a company is not to be overlooked [START_REF] Edwards | Determining the right social media networks for your business[END_REF].

Recent studies have shown that companies do not take strategic procedures in selecting suitable social media platform(s) to meet their business values [START_REF] Oliveira | Benchmarking analysis of social media strategies in the higher education sector[END_REF]. This has been identified as a gap in the literature. The study for the process of selecting social media platform has little attention in this research area. However, Tavana et al. [START_REF] Tavana | A mnovel hybrid social media platform selection model using fuzzy ANP and COPRASG[END_REF] derived a network structure of factors to consider in the selection process of a suitable social media platform for business. This structure consist of six elements; content, impression score, cost, look & feel and audience fit. These elements describe the different important factors to consider during the selection process.

Fig 2. Social Media Platform Evaluation [31]

The social media platform evaluation in figure 2 shows the elements and the interconnection between them. A brief description of the items is discussed below.

Content: With the increased growth of social media in the community, the tools and strategies companies use to communicate with customers have changed appreciably. This significant change allows consumers to generate content online with the intent on sharing and educating one another about products, services, experiences and brands [START_REF] Blackshaw | Consumer-generated media (cgm) 101: Word-of-mouth in the age of the web-fortified consumer[END_REF]. According to Tavana et al. [START_REF] Tavana | A mnovel hybrid social media platform selection model using fuzzy ANP and COPRASG[END_REF] the content of a social media platform is used to measure the amount of pertinent information on that platform. Hence, content is significant because it can keep customers interested or customers can lose interest then switch to a different platform. Barnes [START_REF] Barnes | Twitter in special libraries: a distributed social media strategy[END_REF] states that it is important to create a schedule for content updates to ensure frequent participation in the platform(s). Kaplan and Haenlein [START_REF] Kaplan | Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media[END_REF] indicates that social media is about sharing and interacting with the audience, so it is important to ensure an active presence whereby posting new updates and also engaging in discussions with customers and target audience.

Impression Score: According to Kiralova and Pavliceka [START_REF] Kiralova | Development of Social Media Strategies in Tourism Destination[END_REF] research on tourism destination, social media is used as a promotional or marketing tool which has a high number of visitors using social media applications. Therefore in other to monitor these visits impression score is employed. "Impression score is a subjective score used to capture the behaviour of visitors in a site" [START_REF] Tavana | A mnovel hybrid social media platform selection model using fuzzy ANP and COPRASG[END_REF].

Cost: Initially, social media began as a medium for entertainment, then after it became the most common tool for marketing because of the vast advantage it brings to the business area. To create a presence on most social media platforms, this can be done free of charge or at low cost. As a result of it cost-effective nature, it is considered to be the preferred marketing tool in the business environment. Hence, companies have employed social media as an excellent approach and a marketing strategy to reach their customers and potential customers. Companies benefit from cost reduction on marketing by using social media as a marketing strategy [START_REF] Kirtiå | To Be or Not to Be in Social Media Arena as the Most Cost-Efficient Marketing Strategy after the Global Recession[END_REF].

Therefore, multinational companies, small and medium-sized enterprises, non-profitable organisations and even government agencies all implore social media because of it cost effective nature and high level of efficiency [START_REF] Kaplan | Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media[END_REF].

Look and Feel: The look and feel of a site are stated to mean the design and user friendliness of a social media site. Furthermore, it can represent the need for minimal training expense and the simplicity of the tool Tavana et al. [START_REF] Tavana | A mnovel hybrid social media platform selection model using fuzzy ANP and COPRASG[END_REF]. A social media platform with an intuitive and user-friendly interface ensures that customers can engage with the systems without training or difficulty [START_REF] Lardi | Social media strategy[END_REF].

Audience fit: Companies are advised to define what target groups to address using social media platforms. They have to prioritise their customers to identify the degree of the population who use and access social media [START_REF] Effing | The social strategy cone: Towards a framework for evaluating social media strategies[END_REF]. According to Edwards [START_REF] Edwards | Determining the right social media networks for your business[END_REF], the most effectual way for a company to reach its target audience is by identifying its business goals and objectives and the audience suitable for the business. For example, age group, educational level, gender, etc. all of these determines an audience fit. Therefore, if a company is interested in the young audience, a good example of social media platform to concentrate on would be snap chat and Instagram.

Having seen Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, this study has merged both structures to form a comprehensive social media strategy framework.

Proposed Framework

A gap from the literature suggests that there is a lack of focus on the capability and readiness for companies to adopt social media. The literature states a limitation in research on social media strategy frameworks for business use and the evaluation of social media platform. The merging of social media strategy frameworks in Fig. 1 and the social media platform evaluation in Fig. 2 address their independent limitations. As discussed in the social media strategy framework in Fig. 1, the framework considered the readiness of an organisation to adopt social media and how it is used in specific business context. However, it lacks a systemic approach for selection of social media platform(s) that is suitable for its business which Fig. 2 addresses by merging both frameworks. While studying Fig 1 and Fig. 2 independently, it was considered that the frameworks were incomplete because they do not contain the necessary factors needed for the implementing of social media strategy in an organisation. The existing frameworks as discussed in section 3 have some limitations which the comprehensive social media strategy in Fig 3 addresses. For example "The Honeycomb Framework" [START_REF] Kietzmann | Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media[END_REF] is designed to help understand social media and its functionalities, so this does not necessarily focus on social media readiness or how it can be implemented successfully in a company [START_REF] Omosigho | Evaluating readiness of organizations to adopt social media for competitive advantage[END_REF].

Fig 3. A Comprehensive Social Media Strategy Framework

The social media strategy framework (see Fig. 1) gives a detailed illustration on how social media can be implemented by a company effectively. While considering the company's readiness, transparency to employees and customers, the merging between social media and existing business activities and the importance of defining the target audience for social media use [32]. Nonetheless, the social media strategy framework (Fig. 1) lacks a profound process to select a suitable platform for both the Enterprise Collaboration (internal) and Business 2.0 (external) which the framework in Fig. 2 addresses.

The Platform evaluation process (see Fig. 2) shows the key factors necessary for consideration in the evaluation process for selecting a suitable social media platform. The literature shows there is a lack of a framework to determine the right social media platform for businesses. Although Edwards [START_REF] Edwards | Determining the right social media networks for your business[END_REF] suggested ways in selecting the right social media platforms by having a good knowledge of user statistics such as daily active users, monthly active users and overall users of each platform. More so, gave an explanation of how these platforms can be used, however, this is not an efficient way to determine the precise social media platform for it is based on number counts. Different platforms are developed for a different purpose with distinct functionality and separate target audience [32]. For example, LinkedIn is known to be a platform for work professionals.

From Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 forms the comprehensive framework for social media strategy implementation and platform evaluation process. This framework provides the necessary need for adoption and improvement of an existing social media practice and the useful method for the selection of social media platform. The framework was merged and is presented in Fig. 3. We suggest this framework as a comprehensive way for the adoption and implementation of social media in companies.

Conclusion

The continual development of information technology brings both opportunities and challenges in the world. Managers are faced with the technologically progressive environment. Hence, social media networks have become a necessary tool for business. Social media creates a platform for companies through which they can improve their business and customer experience. Social media provide several opportunities but also come with some risks. Companies need to evaluate which social media platform is appropriate for its business. It is important for businesses to select the best few platforms that suit its company's need. Companies need a social media strategy to help adopt and implement social media appropriately to their business. The suggested framework aids in this regard as it presents a mechanism, which various companies such as, the service companies can use to identify what areas of the business need improvement and how best to exploit social media for the business purpose. Thus, intensifying the likelihood of gaining a competitive advantage. The framework is also contributing to the advancing of knowledge in the domain of social media adoption from the company's perspective. As the current literature is not providing any theoretical frameworks in the application of social media strategies by companies our work is offering a practical well as a theoretical tool in this domain.


M J Hattingh
email: marie.hattingh@up.ac.za

M C Matthee

Using Facebook to Find Missing Persons: A Crowd-Sourcing Perspective

Keywords: Crowdsourcing, social media, Facebook, missing people, emotional support

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

"A child goes missing in South Africa every five hours" [START_REF]A child goes missing every five hours in SA -MCSA[END_REF]. This alarming fact is not just restricted to children and also not to just South Africa, but is a world-wide problem. Scoop [2] reported in 2013 that 4,432,880 people have disappeared in the past 20 years worldwide. The ubiquity of technology gives people/ organisations additional tools to assist in the search for missing people. Centralized databases (registers) can be constructed and information can be shared with ease [START_REF]Missing persons: A handbook for Parliamentarians[END_REF]. Previously, this type of information was usually controlled and distributed through formalized organisations such as the law enforcement services. However, with the rise in the uptake of social media, ordinary citizens can now contribute to the search of missing persons through Web 2.0 technologies. In South Africa, the social media platform adoption has changed significantly. The 2014 World Wide Worx and Fuseware report [START_REF]South African Social Media Landscape 2014[END_REF] has indicated that Facebook is the biggest social media platform in South Africa. The report indicated that there are 9.4 million active Facebook users in South Africa in 2014 compared to 6.8 million users in 2013. People use these social media platforms to create social networks. However, these social networks can now be used as a problem solving tool, where a problem is being "outsourced" to the "crowd", this is known as crowdsourcing [START_REF] Howe | The rise of crowdsourcing[END_REF]. Taking the problem solving abilities of networks of people in consideration this study is attempting to answer the following question: How do people use social media platforms, such as Facebook, to aid the search of missing persons? This problem is approached from a crowdsourcing perspective. Crowds usually originates as an undefined network of people that contribute to a particular task [START_REF] Howe | The rise of crowdsourcing[END_REF]. We answer the research question by firstly mapping the interaction of Facebook groups/pages dedicated to finding missing persons in South Africa and secondly using crowdsourcing as analytical lens, to understand how Facebook communities interact in the quest for finding missing persons.

The paper will first provide in section two some background on missing persons which is followed by a brief discussion on the use of social media as a crowdsourcing tool in section three. After this, in section four, data is presented on a snapshot taken from a particular network of Facebook groups.

The snapshot is analysed in section 5 using the four pillars of crowdsourcing. This is followed by the discussion and conclusion of the findings in sections six and seven respectively.

Missing Persons And Social Media

According to the "Missing persons: A handbook for parliamentarians" [START_REF]Missing persons: A handbook for Parliamentarians[END_REF], a missing person is defined as an "individuals of whom their families have no news and/or who, on the basis of reliable information, have been reported missing…" With the advent of technology, one would intuitively assume that the search for missing persons will be made easier. However, that is not always the case. Missing Children SA representative says that "Every year we see our success rate decrease. It's not necessarily because we're finding less people, it's just because more people are hearing about the service that "Missing Children SA" provides" [6].

Missing persons is a societal problem that extends beyond finding the missing person. Support to the families of the missing person is also important.

According to Wayland [START_REF] Wayland | Supporting those who are left behind[END_REF] the police and non-police search agencies are the primary support mechanisms for the family members as the "the initial focus is on the physical location and return of the missing person and the emotional needs of the family are often set aside while these practical issues are dealt with". Social media can extend support to families of missing person by rendering emotional support. Johnson et al [START_REF] Johnson | Expatriate social ties: Personality antecedents and consequences for adjustment[END_REF] state that when people are embedded in a caring network, such as a Facebook community dedicated to the search of finding missing people, they are able to obtain social resources, such as instrumental and emotional support, to cope with daily stress or uncertainty. This is extended by Wang and Nayir [START_REF] Wang | How and when is social networking important? Comparing European expatriate adjustment in China and Turkey[END_REF] that stated informal and formal social networks, such as Facebook communities, offer access to resources, to social and emotional support and to practical help for coping with personal, economic and social problems.

Crowdsourcing

Hosseini et al [START_REF] Hosseini | The four pillars of crowdsourcing: A reference model[END_REF] identify four parts (or pillars) of crowdsourcing that describes the entire operation: (1) The crowd: describing the diversity of the people who take part in the crowdsourcing activity, whether they are known to the crowdsource or each other, whether they are enough to fulfil the task without being overloaded, how they were involved to take part and whether they are willing and able to take part, (2) The Crowdsourcer: the person or organisation that needs the help of the crowd to solve a problem The crowdsourcer might rely on intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, extending the call to participate to the general public in an ethical way. (3) The Crowd-sourced task: This recognises the traditional way the task would have been completed if crowdsourcing did not occur as well as the complexity, solvability, ability to automate, the role of the crowd and the type of contribution made by the crowd. (4) The Crowdsourcing Platform: This refers to the interaction between the crowd and the platform such as social media, the interaction between the crowdsourcer and the platform, the functionalities provided by the platform.

There are a number of existing crowdsourcing tools that use social media to reach the crowd. One such an example is Ushahidi, an open source crises map platform, which was used for disaster relief during the earthquake in Haiti [START_REF] Gao | Harnessing the Crowdsourcing Power of Social Media for Disaster Relief[END_REF]. Rahwan et al [START_REF] Rahwan | Global Manhunt Pushes the Limits of Social Mobilization[END_REF] explain how they used social media to crowdsource rapid information gathering in order to find five wanted per-sons during a manhunt challenge. Their biggest challenge was to mobilize participants to share messages. Gao [11:12] found that during disaster relief, social media as crowdsourcing mechanism provides "aggregate situational awareness, important and new communications pathways, and some opportunities for assistance on an individual level."

Method

On the 7th of March 2016, the lead researcher typed in "Missing people" in Facebook search engine. The first public South African Facebook group dedicated to locating missing people, was identified as "Missing People in Centurion" (MPC). The lead researcher then considered every post of the MPC Facebook group between 7 March 2016 and 1 October 2015, giving her approximately 6 months' posts to analyse. Table 1 below illustrates the data captured during the first search iteration. For every Facebook community with its accompanying posts, she captured the following information in an MS Excel spreadsheet, (as illustrated by Table 1 above, which represents the data captured for the first Facebook community reviewed): (1) The group the post originated from (column B). An acronym was assigned to each group in column A.

(2) Each post that was distributed by each of the groups (column C). Distinction was made between posts depending on whether it was an adult or child that was missing or found or deceased. The following codes were used: a missing child (MC), a missing adult (MA), child found (FC), found adult (FA). In a few instances the post reported that a child was found deceased (FCD) or an adult was found de-ceased (FAD). All duplicate posts from the same group were ignored. Finally, the lead researcher then repeated the above steps for the six dedicated "missing people" or community support Facebook groups that were listed in the first group (Table 1, column B), excluding newspapers and private pages, until saturation was reached (no new communities emerged).

Data Analysis

Table 2 below illustrates the data that was obtained from the Facebook review. Seven Facebook communities dedicated to finding missing people or community support communities were found, linked directly or indirectly to the first Facebook group. In total, 392 posts were reviewed within the given 6 month timeframe. These Facebook communities were connected to a total of 38 other communities (45 communities in total). Table 2 above summarises all the communities reviewed where the size of the community is indicated by both the number of members/likes of the community, and the types and number of posts distributed by each of these communities. The connectivity between the different Facebook communities is illustrated by Figures 1 and2 which represents the connections (and thereby the reach) of the Facebook crowd. In Figure 1 each Facebook community is represented by a node whereas each line represents a one-directional information flow between two Facebook communities. The arrow points to the community that shares the posts of the connected Facebook community. For example, the Pink Ladies is dedicated to finding missing persons and can therefore be seen as the originator of the posts. Indeed, Figure 1 shows that the Pink Ladies (PL) has the most references (shared posts) by other communities, followed by the Missing Children SA (MCSA) group who is also dedicated to finding missing persons. The third most-shared posts originate from private people (PVT) reporting missing people. This is indicated by the sizes of the nodes. The maps provided in Figures 1 and2 show the 'enlarging of the search party' across diverse geographic areas and thousands of people. It also shows differentiated roles of the communities: some communities act mainly as originators of the messages whereas others act more as distributors or end points of the messages. The following sections will analyse the above Facebook communities according to the four pillars of crowdsourcing as defined by [START_REF] Hosseini | The four pillars of crowdsourcing: A reference model[END_REF].

Pillar One: The Crowd

In this paper the crowd refers to the Facebook community members sharing the posts of various Facebook communities (illustrated in Figure 2). Their features are as follows: Diversity: The diversity needed in this crowd is from a geographical perspective. This was indeed reached since the initial group reviewed by the researchers is situated in Gauteng, South Africa, but posts as far as Kraaifontein in the Western Cape Province some 1000km from Gauteng, were identified. Unknownness: Due to the nature of Facebook, the crowd will inevitably know about one another as anyone can have at least limited access to anyone's profile. However, the aim of this exercise is not anonymity but is in support of the crowdsourcer's task. In the majority of instances the missing person post/update was made by the specific Facebook community, as illustrated in Figure 1 above, only 10% of all the posts under consideration (26 of 393 posts) were private posts. Largeness: The largeness of the networked Facebook communities, is what makes the Facebook platform so successful in finding missing people. Table 2 above illustrates, that between the communities under consideration, there is a crowd of 163 813 Facebook users that would be able to assist in the quest to find missing people. Undefined-ness: The vast amount of Facebook users is an illustration of the undefined-ness of the Facebook social network. All of the groups, bar the private posts, were public groups which allowed anyone access to their postings. Suitability: The Facebook communities referenced in this study all voluntarily participated in solving the "missing people" problem by posting the "missing people" information, or share the posted information. The number of communities referenced by particular communities is an illustration of their ability to collaborate with other communities and individuals. The Facebook communities' motivations are all intrinsic as no incentive, bar the possibility of locating the missing person is provided.

Pillar Two: The Crowdsourcer

In this paper the crowdsourcer refers to the Facebook communities and community members (in terms of private posts) who provide the posts of missing persons (illustrated in Figure 1). A missing person post usually includes personal details with a photo as well as contact details of the authorities and a contact number of the missing persons community representative.

The features of the crowdsourcer in this context are as follows: Incentive provision: There was no need for the crowdsourcers (the different communities listed in Table 2 or the private posts) to provide any incentives for "the crowd" to participate in posting or sharing missing people information. Open Call: As all the groups were public groups, it was open for any member of the public to participate in the posting or sharing of missing people. Ethicality provision: At any stage can a member of "the crowd" choose not to participate, or even "opt-out" of the Facebook group by unfollowing the page or removing themselves from the group. Furthermore, the crowdsourcer is ethically bound to provide feedback to "the crowd". From Table 2 it is seen that updates were made where available. Privacy provision: Due to the nature of Facebook it is near impossible for "the crowd" not to be aware of one another. However, it is possible for the crowd to private message the crowdsourcer, which the crowdsource is not allowed to disclose to others.

Pillar Three: The Crowdsourced Task

In this paper the crowdsourced task refers to the activity of locating missing people. There features are as follows: Traditional operation: The missing people's communities work in conjunction with the authorities to locate the missing persons. In most cases, if the missing person's notice is released through a missing person's community (such as MCSA or PL) a police docket number is included (if available)). This allows for the traditional operations to continue parallel with the community's crowdsourcing initiative. Modularity: Although a number of posts can be posted daily regarding missing people, it is done one by one. Therefore, "the crowd" can choose the post which they would like to share. Complexity: Task of sharing a Facebook post is quite straightforward and the community was quick to assist if someone had trouble sharing a post. Solvability: Unfortunately, the act of sharing a post does not necessarily result in solving the missing person problem. However, a secondary activity of the ability to support the crowdsourcer emotionally (especially if it is a private post) can be seen as solving the emotional isolation problem. An example of this is a message posted on MPC (Missing Persons in Centurion): "Morning all, my brother has been missing for 2 weeks now. I ask that we all pray for his safe return where ever he might be, also if anyone knows or have seen him please contact me at this number" on which MPC replied: "Hi, why don't we all just re-share this and ask our contacts to share so the word spreads more and more". Automation Characteristics: The nature of Facebook allows for a measure of automation. Once a Facebook user "follows" a group he/she will automatically receive the post from the group (the crowdsourcer), however, the act of further sharing it is not automated. Furthermore, this is an inexpensive method of automation. User-driven: The particular problem that is attempted to be solved through "the crowd" is creating awareness and finding missing people. This is problem solving activity but also an example of an innovative way of using technology. Contribution Type: The Facebook communities allow for both an individual and collaborative contribution. Collectively the various communities are working together to find missing people. However, on an individual level, a communi-ty member renders support to the crowdsourcer (in the event of an individual/private post).

Pillar Four: The Crowdsourcing Platform

In this paper the crowdsourcing platform refers to Facebook. Its features are as follows: Crowd-related Interactions: Facebook as the chosen crowdsourcing platform in this instance provides clear mechanisms for enrolment and authentication (as far as user profiles are legitimate). In certain instances, especially when it's a private post, the community members were asked to share the missing person's details, however, in formal missing person's posts, the communities spontaneously shared posts without being "tasked" to do it. Crowdsourcer-related Interactions: The crowdsourcer in this study took two forms: dedicated missing people group administrators who generate and co-ordinate posts regarding missing people as illustrated in Figure 1 above and secondly, individuals sharing private posts (usually about someone close to them) being missing. In both these instances, Facebook has clear rules in place regarding privileges of users and administrators. Task-related Facilities: The communities provided no restriction on the sharing of posts regarding missing people. Furthermore, the crowdsourcers (not in the case of private posts) usually work closely with the authorities in order to ensure the authentication of the "task". Platform-related Facilities: The online platform provided by Facebook is governed by the Facebook terms and conditions. Furthermore, the nature of Facebook allows the crowd to easily interact with the crowdsourcer.

Discussion

The discussion above illustrates the value of the concept "crowdsourcing" in reaching an understanding of the way in which Facebook is used to find missing persons. Certain members and Facebook communities in the network act as the "crowd" (Figure 2) whereas others act as the crowdsourcers (Figure 1) who have a specific task -finding missing people. The crowdsourcing platform is Facebook. Using crowdsourcing as analytical lens also shows the shortfall of using Facebook in the quest to find missing persons. Gao et al [START_REF] Gao | Harnessing the Crowdsourcing Power of Social Media for Disaster Relief[END_REF] believe that social media as crowdsourcing tool lacks inherent coordination capabilities when used for disaster relief. Although the phenomenon of missing persons cannot be considered a disaster, there are similarities in the processes needed to react to the disaster and to find missing persons: there is a need to not only share but also coordinate information among different groups and organisations. We have found evidence of close cooperation between the missing persons groups and the police in some of the posts. This means that Facebook is used not only as a way of mobilising crowds (sharing messages) in this context. We therefore believe that if authorities use social media in a more focused and coordinated way, or combine it with existing crowdsourcing tools, the "power of the crowd" can truly be realised in the search for missing persons. Despite the fact that "the crowd" might not literally result in the locating of a missing person (only two posts made reference to the locating of a missing person through the actions of the "the crowd"), the crowd seems to be effective in other ways. It renders emotional support to the crowdsourcer. Technological advances, such as the Internet, have created new opportunities for social interaction and support among community members [START_REF] Sarason | Social support: Mapping the construct[END_REF]. The Internet supplements the traditional operations of locating a missing person -through the processes of authorities and at the same time extend emotional support to the crowdsourcers individually and collaboratively.

Conclusion

This research paper aims to understand how Facebook is used in the quest of locating missing persons. Crowdsourcing is used as analytical lens and explains the interaction between communities indicated in the graphs as those of the crowdsourcer (Figure 1) and those of the crowd (Figure 2). It further illustrates the "powerful propagation capability" [START_REF] Gao | Harnessing the Crowdsourcing Power of Social Media for Disaster Relief[END_REF] of Facebook as crowdsourcing platform. It also points towards the necessity of a more coordinated effort in order to realise the benefit of Facebook as crowdsourcing platform. This might imply an expansion of the traditional search processes by authorities to officially include social media. In addition, it is argued that this network of communities act not only as a massive search party but also as a source of emotional support. This study can be seen as exploratory in the sense that it included data from a short time period. More research is needed to apply current research on crowd-sourcing to such systems to understand and improve its effectiveness.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Originators of postsFigure2illustrates a different kind of information flow. The lines of the graph and size of the nodes now refers to the number of posts shared by that specific community of other communities. It further shows in Figure2that even though PL's posts were shared the most among different communities, PL did not share any posts associated with other communities (within the research period). Similarly, the posts of MCSA were widely shared, but MCSA did not share any other communities' posts on their page. Both these communities' nodes are therefore very small. However, the first Facebook group reviewed by the researchers, MPC, shares a lot of posts of other communities as indicated by the size of the node. The second and third biggest sharer of posts of other communities are PLC and BCPF. MPC is a community dedi-

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Distributors of posts

Table 1 .

 1 Data captured from first Facebook community

Table 2 .

 2 Summary of Facebook Communities identified

	Facebook Group/Page name	Members	Connec-	FA	FC	MA	MC	FCD	FAD
		/likes	tions
	1. Missing people in Centurion	689	15	18	11	17	19	2	0
	(MPC)	members
	2. Minors missing -the Pink	28030	0	5	7	95	31	0	0
	Ladies org for missing children	likes
	(PL)
	3. Hi5 Kids Recovery (Hi5K)	9193 likes	3	2	7	3	1	1	0
	4. Missing Children SA (MCSA)	62621	0	19	28	32	17	0	3
		likes
	5. Vulnerable Citizens Support	7468	11	1	11	11	8	2*	3
	Initiative:Benoni CPF: Gauteng	members
	Community Alerts (BCPF)
	6. People who live in Centurion	31556	11	1	3	6	2	2*	0
	(PLC)	members
	7. Centurion Concerned Citi-	24256	5	13	7	3	0	1	0
	zens (CCC)	likes