More Ickson
email: moreikson@gmail.com

Towards "smart governance" through a multidisciplinary approach to e-government integration, interoperability and information sharing: A case of the LMIP project in South Africa

Keywords: Smart government, smart governance, integration, interoperability, institutional theory, e-government

The integration and interoperability of e-government systems, and information sharing is essential in transforming governments to "smart governments" that deliver services to enhance the socio-economic inclusion and the quality of life of its citizens. The aim of this doctoral study is to understand institutional barriers to e-government integration, interoperability and information sharing preventing governments from transforming to smart governments. The study is an interpretive case study, using South Africa as a unique case of a developing country which has adopted the "smart" agenda. Findings will contribute to theory through advancing knowledge in the new research area of smart government as well as contributing to practice through generating applicable knowledge on digital transformation in the public sector.

Introduction

E-government integration, interoperability and effective information sharing is one of the key priorities governments worldwide are implementing to increase efficiency in service delivery and to improve synergies across government agencies [START_REF] Pardo | E-Government interoperability interaction of policy, management, and technology dimensions[END_REF]. This is increasingly becoming important as governments are pressured to respond to the needs of the so called "smart society" though "smart governance'' [START_REF] Manda | Towards a "Smart Society" Through a Connected and Smart Citizenry in South Africa: A Review of the National Broadband Strategy and Policy[END_REF]. Smart societies leverage the power of technology for socio-economic development and other purposes [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Towards a smart State? Inter-agency collaboration, information integration, and beyond[END_REF][START_REF] Jimenez | E-government interoperability: Linking open and smart government[END_REF]. 'Smart governments' thus leverage the power of technology, knowledge and innovation in governing and service delivery. Information sharing, interoperability and integration of e-government are key in transforming governments to "smart governments" [START_REF] Jimenez | E-government interoperability: Linking open and smart government[END_REF]. South Africa is one of the few countries in Africa that have adopted the 'smart' agenda in its bid to improve the lives of its citizens [START_REF] Manda | Towards a "Smart Society" Through a Connected and Smart Citizenry in South Africa: A Review of the National Broadband Strategy and Policy[END_REF]. The lack of interoperability and integration has been identified by the government as one of the barriers in transforming the public service [START_REF]National Integrated ICT policy discussion paper[END_REF]. The absence of 'integrated information systems' for skills supply and demand across government for example, has com-promised the ability of government agencies to effectively collaborate in addressing developmental issues such as skills for inclusive growth [START_REF]LMIP launch Minister's speech[END_REF].

South Africa has come up with measures aimed at improving integration, interoperability and information sharing. A significant example is the Labour Market Intelligence Partnership (LMIP) project launched in 2012 to build integrated systems for reliable collection, collation, analysis and sharing of reliable labour market intelligence to support evidence based decision making. The LMIP project thus presented an opportunity to conduct a study to understand the barriers governments face in integrating and interoperating their systems in their bid to transform to smart governments that are innovative, efficient, accountable, transparent and inclusive.

This study contributes to theory and knowledge in the discipline of e-government by using an institutional based view and multidisciplinary approach in understanding e-government integration and interoperability. Various disciplinary perspectives (information systems, information science and public administration) are used to understand the complex social, political, economic, technical and regulative issues surrounding e-government. The use of multidisciplinary studies in e-government is supported by [START_REF] Scholl | Government integration and interoperability: Framing the research agenda[END_REF] who cited the fragmentation of literature in e-government as part of the problem in understanding complex issues such as integration and interoperability. The practical contribution would be to generate applicable knowledge on egovernment integration and interoperability to promote digital transformation in the public sector.

Problem statement and purpose

The interoperability and integration of e-government systems, and information sharing has captured the attention of governments due to increased pressure to improve governance, service delivery and quality of life of citizens through offering 'smart' services. Integration and interoperability enable faster, efficient, effective and more comprehensive service delivery to citizens, business and collaboration among government agencies [START_REF] Scholl | Government integration and interoperability: Framing the research agenda[END_REF]. Governments are however still experiencing blockages in transforming to "smart government" due to challenges with the integration and interoperability of e-government systems [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Towards a smart State? Inter-agency collaboration, information integration, and beyond[END_REF][START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Being smart: Emerging technologies and innovation in the public sector[END_REF][START_REF] Pardo | E-Government interoperability interaction of policy, management, and technology dimensions[END_REF][START_REF] Scholl | Government integration and interoperability: Framing the research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Scholl | Process integration, information sharing, and system interoperation in government: A comparative case analysis[END_REF].

The purpose of the study is to understand e-government integration and interoperability barriers so as to improve systems integration and interoperability for promoting collaboration and a seamless flow of information, knowledge and innovation across government for improving governance. In understanding the barriers, I use an institutional perspective and multidisciplinary approach.

Research question

To address the problem highlighted above, the main question posed in this study is:

How can e-government integration and interoperability be improved using a multidisciplinary approach and institutional perspective to help transform governments into "smart governments" given its complexity?

The following research sub-questions are posed:

1. What is the extent of e-government integration, interoperability and cross boundary information sharing in South Africa? 2. What institutional barriers is the South African government facing in its bid to improve information sharing, integration and interoperability of its systems for strengthening smart governance? 3. How has the South African government responded to institutional barriers to egovernment information sharing, integration and interoperability?

Related work

Interoperation and integration of e-government systems, information, processes, institutions, and physical infrastructure to provide better services and create an enabling environment is an enabler of smart governance [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Towards a smart State? Inter-agency collaboration, information integration, and beyond[END_REF]. Governments, both developed and developing, are thus embarking on initiatives to transform to smart governments that deliver better services and quality of life to their citizens. According to [START_REF] Pardo | E-Government interoperability interaction of policy, management, and technology dimensions[END_REF], integration and interoperability is however "not an end in itself but an enabler for helping government use technology to improve government services and operations. Citizens do not demand interoperability; rather, systems must be interoperable to effectively meet citizens' demands". Interoperability also plays a major role in improving government efficiency through enhancing government communication, administrative efficiency and streamlining processes which improves the quality of public service delivery [START_REF] Zheng | E-government adoption in public administration organizations: integrating institutional theory perspective and resource-based view[END_REF]. Information sharing, interoperability and integration of e-government systems increase Government to Government (G2G) efficiency. G2G efficiency has an impact on the performance of other e-government services, such as Government to Citizen (G2C) and Government to Business (G2B) [START_REF] Presidency | Report of the Presidential Review Commission on the Reform and Transformation of the Public Service in South Africa[END_REF].

Previous studies (mostly from developed countries) in e-government integration, interoperability and information sharing such as [START_REF] Dawes | Interagency information sharing: Expected benefits, manageable risks[END_REF][START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Towards a smart State? Inter-agency collaboration, information integration, and beyond[END_REF][START_REF] Pardo | E-Government interoperability interaction of policy, management, and technology dimensions[END_REF][START_REF] Scholl | Government integration and interoperability: Framing the research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Scholl | Process integration, information sharing, and system interoperation in government: A comparative case analysis[END_REF] identified constraints such as policy, legislation, resourcing, leadership, structures and technology etc. Few such studies from developing countries exist and this presented an opportunity to contribute to literature by attempting to understand some of these barriers using a multidisciplinary approach and institutional perspective. The socio-historic, socioeconomic and political contexts, which are important in understanding developmental issues such as e-government, are some of the key focal areas in this study.

Key definitions

Smart government and related concepts are still fairly new and scholars have not agreed on what it entails [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Being smart: Emerging technologies and innovation in the public sector[END_REF][START_REF] Scholl | Creating Smart Governance: The key to radical ICT overhaul at the City of Munich[END_REF]. It has been characterized as the use of technologies in the provision of services, [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Being smart: Emerging technologies and innovation in the public sector[END_REF] for example, argues that a smart government "integrates information sources of multiple departments and multiple business system functions on a large scale, and then provides the on-demand dynamic portfolio smart services". It has also been defined as a government that "uses sophisticated informa-tion technologies to interconnect and integrate information, processes, institutions, and physical infrastructure to better serve citizens and communities" [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Towards a smart State? Inter-agency collaboration, information integration, and beyond[END_REF]. Scholl and AlAwadhi [START_REF] Scholl | Creating Smart Governance: The key to radical ICT overhaul at the City of Munich[END_REF] adopted a technological neutral definition. They define smart government as "the intelligent and adaptive office, authority, or function of governing" and smart governance as "the capacity of employing intelligent and adaptive acts and activities of looking after and making decisions about something". Keeping in line with a technological neutral definition emphasising Holland's [START_REF] Hollands | Will the real Smart City please stand up? Intelligent, progressive or entrepreneurial[END_REF] call for social inclusion in smart agendas, I define smart government as: An accountable and transparent government that is digitally transformed, innovative, uses knowledge, social, economic and political systems, and other tools for effective internal functioning, governance and service provision, in the pursuit of inclusive growth.

Integration, interoperability and information sharing are also interrelated terms which have been confused by some scholars [START_REF] Scholl | Process integration, information sharing, and system interoperation in government: A comparative case analysis[END_REF]. I adopt the following definitions: E-government Integration is "the forming of a larger unit of government entities, temporary or permanent, for the purpose of merging processes and/or sharing information" [START_REF] Scholl | Government integration and interoperability: Framing the research agenda[END_REF].

Interoperability "represents a set of multidimensional, complementary, and dynamic capabilities needed among these networks of organizations in order to achieve successful information sharing" [START_REF] Pardo | E-Government interoperability interaction of policy, management, and technology dimensions[END_REF].

Inter-agency information sharing is the exchanging of information between government agencies or giving agencies in the same network access to information [START_REF] Dawes | Interagency information sharing: Expected benefits, manageable risks[END_REF].

Scholl et al [START_REF] Scholl | Process integration, information sharing, and system interoperation in government: A comparative case analysis[END_REF] concluded that integration, interoperability and information sharing are "intertwined and inextricably interrelated". They proposed the use of the compound acronym of INT-IS-IOP as a term for integration (INT), information sharing (IS), and interoperation/interoperability (IOP). This approach is adopted in this study.

Theoretical framing

Institutional theory, a multidisciplinary theory with roots in sociology, political science and economics underpins this study. It is "one of these more integrative approaches that recognize the importance of the context in which ICT are embedded and help to understand the influences of various factors on their selection, design, implementation, and use" [START_REF] Marchington | Analysing the influence of institutional, organizational and interpersonal forces in shaping inter-organizational relations[END_REF] . The "IS field's practical interest in the development, use, and management of information systems may have diverted analysts to lower levels of analysis and hence, away from studying how regulative processes, normative systems, and cultural frameworks shape the development of e-government systems…" [START_REF] Orlikowski | Studying information technology in organizations: Research approaches and assumptions[END_REF]. However, developments in technology have led to an emphasis on information systems research that seeks to understand its impact on institutions and their immediate environments [START_REF] Orlikowski | Studying information technology in organizations: Research approaches and assumptions[END_REF]. In this study I explore how the three pillars of institutions (regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive) identified by [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and Organizations[END_REF] influence digital transformation. Institutional theory is based on the belief that organisations, and the individuals who populate them, are shaped by rules, norms, values, beliefs, and taken-for-granted assumptions that are partly of their own design become established as authoritative guidelines for social behavior [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and Organizations[END_REF].

Institutional isorphomism is also used to understand institutional barriers to integration and interoperability and how pressure to achieve legitimacy influences institutional transformation. Legitimacy is defined as, "a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions" [START_REF] Suchman | Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches[END_REF].

Methodology

In social sciences, the choice of methodology is influenced by the nature of the phenomena or problem [START_REF] Noor | Case study: A strategic research methodology[END_REF]. The methodological choices made in this study were as a result of their appropriateness in addressing the research problem through the research question and sub-questions highlighted in section 2 and sub-section 2.1.

Research philosophy

This study assumes an interpretevist qualitative paradigm as it seeks to generate an understanding of the social, political, technological, and economic context inherent in e-government. This is key in gaining insights into the complex issues surrounding egovernment integration and interoperability. The role of the researcher in interpretevist research is to interpret his or her own understanding of phenomena hence the principle of objectivity common in positivist research will not be applied in this study.

Research design

An interpretive case study research design is adopted in this study. The case study method has gained popularity due to a shift of information systems research from a technical perspective towards an organisational and social perspective where the emphasis is the study of social and organisational issues such as culture, behaviour and structure in relation to technology [START_REF] Benbasat | The case research strategy in studies of information systems[END_REF]. The complexity of the e-government information sharing, integration and interoperability problem being investigated in this study justifies the use of this approach. One of the primary outcomes of this study is to contribute towards building theory in e-government which is still in its developmental stages. This also justifies the use of a case study method which is appropriate in theory building where theory is absent or is still in formative stages [START_REF] Benbasat | The case research strategy in studies of information systems[END_REF].Theory building in e-government has largely been influenced by research originating from developed countries. An opportunity is being missed for researchers from developing countries to share their knowledge and experiences in contributing to the body of knowledge especially in social sciences where the social context influences how we view the world.

5.3

Data collection

For the purposes of collecting data, documents, semi-structured interviews and a review of literature are used in this study. Purposive sampling was used to select the participants (a minimum of 10 senior officials) responsible for policy and ICT from across six national departments. Additional participants will be selected through snowball sampling. More than one approach in collecting data (triangulation) was used so as to minimise the exclusion of any relevant evidence taking into account the complexity of the problem. Moreover, no single source of data could adequately provide required data to answer the questions posed in this study, hence prompting the use of multi-sources of data. The data collection methods used each have their own strengths and play a complementary role in addressing the weaknesses in each.

Data analysis

Qualitative analysis, whose role is to understand and make sense of phenomena and to uncover emerging themes, patterns, and insight rather than predicting or explaining, was done simultaneously with data collection so as to identify gaps in the data as recommended by Bhattacherjee [START_REF] Bhattacherjee | Social science research: principles, methods, and practices[END_REF]. The role of qualitative data analysis is to understand and make sense of phenomena and to uncover emerging themes, patterns, and insight rather than predicting or explaining [START_REF] Bhattacherjee | Social science research: principles, methods, and practices[END_REF].

Thematic analysis was used in analysing data. Coding was conducted in interview and documentary data so that evidence could be put into a limited number of categories appropriate to the research problem for easy analysis. A combination of open (inductive) and closed (deductive) coding was used. Closed coding was used to select themes identified from literature and theory while open coding was used to identify new themes that emerged during the data collection and analysis process.

Discussion of preliminary results

In this section, I discuss the preliminary results from evidence gathered from documents and interviews conducted so far. Although it's still too early to draw conclusions, some of the findings so far point to institutional leadership, collaboration and coordination, information and communication infrastructure, policy and legislation as some of the contentious issues in South Africa's digital transformation efforts. Institutional leadership: In the transformation to smart government, leadership plays an important role in providing strategic direction, putting in place coercive mechanisms such as regulations, structures and norms that help shape desired behavior in institutions. Leadership also influences the transformation of cultural-cognitive elements such as practices, beliefs and shared values. Despite some of the notable achievements such as the development of supportive policies, leadership remains one of the most significant challenges in digital transformation in South Africa. This ranges from lack of clarity of roles between the various key departments driving the smart agenda resulting in lack of accountability, government department 'turf wars' and dysfunctional structures. The institutional leadership challenge in the smart gov-ernment agenda in South Africa has compromised transformation due to poor coordination and direction of resources and institutional activities and collaboration.

Collaboration, coordination and integration of services: The government of South Africa has recognised the role of collaboration in realising its vision of a digitally transformed and smart government. Inter-organisational collaboration defined by [START_REF] Phillips | Inter-organizational collaboration and the dynamics of institutional fields[END_REF] as involving "sets of negotiations that are demanded by the lack of predefined institutional roles that accompany market and authority based relationships", is a key enabler of integrated government. The clustering of government departments is one strategy that has been used to foster collaboration, coordination and integration. Preliminary findings show that inter-governmental collaboration and integration are more pronounced within departments in the same cluster e.g. security cluster. Collaboration and integration is likely to happen when institutions share a common mandate. Trusting relations are thus more likely to be reinforced and reproduced when there are strong institutional forces promoting common obligations on both parties [START_REF] Marchington | Analysing the influence of institutional, organizational and interpersonal forces in shaping inter-organizational relations[END_REF].

Social and political cohesion was also found to influence collaboration and integration as it cements trust in inter-organisational relations [START_REF] Huddy | Group identity and political cohesion[END_REF]. The lack of social and political cohesion is one of the significant barriers in policy development and implementation. Government sometimes finds itself at odds with citizens, private business, civil society and other social partners due to lack of cohesion. This suggests that full institutionalization of 'smart governance' which is characterized by social cohesion, trust, established structures, norms and practices is far from being reached.

An analysis of the interview data conducted so far further revealed that power and politics in institutions play a significant role in the success of integration initiatives in government. An understanding of the interplay between power, politics, collaboration, trust and institutionalisation of new structures, systems, norms and value systems has the potential to contribute to institutional theory and will be investigated further.

Information and communication infrastructure: Preliminary findings pointed to the poor state of communication and information infrastructure such as broadband in South Africa as a cause for concern. Broadband connectivity is a key technology for digital connectivity, without which interoperability and integration of systems is compromised. This has also been a threat to "inclusive government", a key dimension of smart government identified by Gil-Garcia et al [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Conceptualizing smartness in government: An integrative and multi-dimensional view[END_REF]. The poor state of ICT infrastructure including electricity in rural areas where 40% of South Africa's population lives, is a threat to government vision of being a smart government that governs a smart, connected and digitally inclusive society by 2030 [22].Smart government is about inclusivity and creation of a smart and connected citizenry [START_REF] Manda | Towards a "Smart Society" Through a Connected and Smart Citizenry in South Africa: A Review of the National Broadband Strategy and Policy[END_REF]. The current state of affairs is likely to exclude the already marginalized citizenry and increase the connectivity divide. A smart, connected and engaged citizenry promotes participative government, a key outcome of smart government identified by [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Conceptualizing smartness in government: An integrative and multi-dimensional view[END_REF]. Citizen participation and engagement is also important in legitimising governments and their institutions whose existence is primarily to serve the interests of its citizens.

Innovative policy and legislative framework: Legislative reforms and innovative policies are important regulative institutional mechanisms for supporting the smart agenda. Legislation and policies allow governments to put in place resources and governance mechanism (smart governance) in response to challenges brought by the smart society. The journey to smart governance in South Africa began in 1998 after the Presidential Review Commission on the performance of the public sector identified the governance of information resources and ICT in the public sector as key in its transformation [START_REF] Presidency | Report of the Presidential Review Commission on the Reform and Transformation of the Public Service in South Africa[END_REF]. South Africa has developed a comprehensive e-government policy and legislative framework which address crucial issues such as the integration of services and systems, interoperability, cyber-security, personal privacy and infrastructure development. What remains a significant challenge is the implementation of policy and legislation as witnessed by delays in implementation of key policies and legislation such as the Protection of Personal Information Act (2013), Integrated ICT Policy initiated in 2013, Cybercrimes bill promulgated in 2015. Issues of trust, privacy and security thus remain an 'Achilles heel' in the current framework due to delays in implementation. This is worsened by poor policy and legislation harmonization as new policies and legislation are developed. This ultimately compromises the effectiveness of policy and legislation as mechanisms for effecting transformation.

Mimetic pressures in the setting of development agenda, including ICT policy direction have been evidenced. South Africa's adoption of the digital migration policy and strategy (a key strategy for broadband penetration) derives from the 2006 International Telecommunications Union resolution where member states were given a June 2015 deadline to migrate. South Africa's failure to meet the deadline points to poor policy implementation especially where policy direction is influenced by external forces without sufficient resourcing. Governments especially in developing countries, often have to choose between international standards and best practices, and domestic priorities such as poverty reduction and reducing inequalities etc. This conflict is likely going to lead to governments failing to effectively implement policies as they often aim to please both. Domestic priorities are essential as governments use social obligation as a basis for legitimacy. Externally, governments are coerced to comply with international regulations for legitimising themselves in the global context.


Soumaya Ben Dhaou
email: bendhaou@unu.edu

TOWARDS A REPOSITORY OF E-GOVERNMENT CAPABILITIES

Keywords: E-government, Organizational capabilities, Dynamic capabilities, Repository, Case study

The paper aims to contribute to the development of an egovernment capabilities repository. The purpose of this repository is to increase the level of success of the e-government projects and initiatives. The results are based on an examination of a multidisciplinary body of knowledge, an iterative structured methodology and a comparative in-depth case study performed in two Canadian public administrations. We analyzed the data to identify the presence or absence of the capabilities, the evolution of these capabilities and their interrelationship. We proposed a preliminary knowledge repository of e-government capabilities composed of 4 interdependent categories: the strategic capabilities, the project capabilities, the business capabilities and the technological capabilities.

Introduction

The goal of this paper is to present a work-in-progress towards the development of an e-government capabilities repository. The aim of this repository is to support Government and public administration (PA) in the development, deployment and/or renewal of their e-government transformation strategy. This repository can be presented as a reference guide to the required capabilities for the successful deployment of an e-government initiative or project. It can help governments, particularly from developing countries, to increase the level of success and avoid risk in undertaking any types of e-government initiatives and organizational change. In other words, this repository may be utilized as a tool for PA, ministries and public agencies, firstly for identifying the needed capabilities prior to starting any egovernment initiatives related to electronic service delivery; when they develop their e-government project/strategy or when they face challenges and difficulties during the e-government development process. Secondly, it will also serve as a diagnostic tool for defining what are the existing capabilities that can be leveraged for the egovernment deployment and evaluating the strength and weaknesses of these capabilities. Thirdly, this repository will help clearly define the gap between the required capabilities and the existing one in the PA and facilitate the organizational change.

This preliminary version of the repository is developed based on in-depth case studies realized in two different Canadian PA. The e-government transformation is studied here using a strategic management and capabilities perspective. This perspective provided a rich and in-depth observation of the phenomenon studied.

This paper starts by introducing a brief description of the theoretical framework. Then, the methodology is described, followed by the comparison between the studied cases. Finally, in the results section, the first version of the e-government capabilities repository is presented.

Theoretical background

The goal of this section is to introduce the theoretical framework of organizational capabilities proposed in the literature that serve as starting point for our research. The organizational capability concept was intensively studied in the strategic Management field. Several researches were dedicated to define and simplify the understanding of the organizational capabilities concept [START_REF] Amit | Strategic Assets and Organisational Rent[END_REF][START_REF] Collis | Research Note: How valuable are Organizational Capabilities[END_REF]Grant, 1991;[START_REF] Zollo | Deliberate Learning and the Evolution of Dynamic Capabilities[END_REF]. Based on the synthesis of these definitions, an E-government capability is defined for this research as the leveraging, the combination and the coordination of resources, competencies and knowledge through different processes to set up e-government project (or initiative).

The presence of organizational capability is firstly based on the identification or the existence in the organization or availability outside of the organization of resources, competencies and knowledge. Secondly, it is through specific processes and at a certain point in time that the organizational capabilities are effectively materialized.

This definition implies that any strategic initiatives or project is based on the existence in the organization of capabilities [START_REF] Renard | Proposition d'un modèle de management stratégique de l'entreprise par les capacités organisationnelles[END_REF][START_REF] Renard | Proposition d'un modèle de management stratégique de l'entreprise par les capacités organisationnelles[END_REF]. When an organization is planning to set up and/or deploy its strategy, it should previously identify and assess its available organizational capabilities. Depending on the situation and the strategic objectives the organization wants to achieve, they will determine which organizational capabilities are required to be mobilized at which level and which capabilities will need to be created, acquired or developed. Referring to an organizational capabilities knowledge repository can facilitate this activity. This repository will play the role of diagnostic tool for the organization where we can retrieve a classification of needed organizational capabilities for a specific strategy.

St-Amant and [START_REF] St--Amant | Premier référentiel de connaissances associées aux capacités organisationnelles de l'administration électronique[END_REF] proposed a first body of knowledge (BoK) for egovernment service delivery. This BoK is composed of two broad groups of capabilities, the capabilities of progression (1) and the capabilities of context (2). These two groups of capabilities are composed of different categories and management domain.

The capabilities of progression (1) refer to the capabilities that support the realization of the e-government project. This group of capabilities contributes directly to the creation and/or development of the other type of capabilities. The capabilities of progression are divided in two categories. Firstly, the change management capabilities are adopting an organizational behaviour approach that emphasizes more the human and organizational aspects of the progression. These capabilities are facilitating issues such as human resource management, personal and organizational development. Secondly, the management by project is more techno-economic oriented analysis of the progression. This category focuses on the management of deliverables: how to plan, organize, coordinate and assess deliverables. It is targeting one specific e-government initiative and cannot be generalized to the whole egovernment project. The project approach of e-government is adopting a production perspective that require to fully understand and assess the needs to determine among others a precise budget and scheduling to realize deliverables that answer to clear and known functional specifications.

The capabilities of context (2) are the existing capabilities in the organization. They exist through the service delivery processes already available to the citizens. This group of capabilities is divided in three classes: Information and Business Governance capabilities, Business capabilities and Information resources management capabilities.

The Information and Business Governance capabilities are composed firstly of the organizational capabilities required for the coordination between the top management and stakeholders of different business, specific to each PA on one side and its related information on the other side. Secondly, the business capabilities are composed of the set of capabilities that allows organizing, planning, directing and assessing of all the business resources allocated to E-government projects. Thirdly, the information management capabilities define the capabilities the organizing, planning, directing and assessment of all the information resources allocated to E-government projects. This set of capabilities may be under the responsibility of internal or/and external experts and specialists.

Methodology

The research project is to present the preliminary stages in the development of a repository of e-government capabilities based on St-Amant and Renard ( 2004) body of knowledge for e-government service delivery as theoretical framework to realize our empirical study and propose a more accurate and updated repository of egovernment capabilities. This research is using an exploratory design combining different qualitative methods to reach the objective. Firstly, a document analysis synthesizing scientific and practical knowledge in the field strategic management, information system management and e-government was realized. We reviewed and codified explicit knowledge available such as books, academic papers, research reports, white papers, body of knowledge and repositories in various disciplines. Secondly, a comparative in-depth case studies methodology for gathering evidence was used. The case studies methodology had the purpose to operationalize the e-government capabilities and to test the framework. This first test remains exploratory in nature and needs to be examined within a broader context. This study required a detailed description of the environment, which allows the exploration of unforeseen elements and relationships to offer better insights into the organizational dimensions.

The case studies were conducted in two Canadian administrations named GOP and MINR 1 . The research design was developed based on Caroll and Swatman's (2000) "structured case study" model based on a pre-defined research cycle and Yin's ( 2003) "embedded case study sampling strategy".. The data collection methods include the analyses of multiple documents and archival records, participation in meetings and workshops and individual semi-structured interviews. It provided richness, depth and validity of information. Such triangulation reduces bias and it is recommended in case research [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research Design and Methods[END_REF]. Atlas/ti content analysis software was used to codify the qualitative data. Given the exploratory nature of the research, different analysis techniques were used including narrative strategy, explanation building, temporal bracketing, and pattern matching. With respect to the various sources of information, the researchers were able to develop a qualitative in-depth compilation of data within study's environment, as well as a storytelling of events and activities focused specifically on developmental issues.

St-Amant and [START_REF] St--Amant | Premier référentiel de connaissances associées aux capacités organisationnelles de l'administration électronique[END_REF] BoK for e-government service delivery served as a starting point for collecting, coding and analysing the data. This framework was progressively reviewed throughout the different analysis iterations as described by figure 1. We have defined different management domain that documents the categories of capabilities as presented. Each field of management was described by a grid combining a set of indicators that help us identify the capabilities, if they exist or not; if it was available if yes, at which level of maturity (emerging, moderate or advanced) and the level of strength. Finally, we noticed that the interrelationship between these capabilities is also an important factor to study that leads us to define the integration of the capabilities.

Analysis and findings

The GOP and MINR are the pioneers in the implementation of e-government in Canada. The GOP is an autonomous PA created in 1965 to manage pension plan annuities. It is directed by a board that votes, allocates budgets, takes decisions and authorizes major initiatives. A cabinet shuffle in early 2000 marked a turning point in the type of management and led to the adoption of a new e-government vision. The GOP's e-government development is presented as a broad transformation called "Service delivery renewal" to meet the challenges of a growing demands (given the reversed pyramid of age) and the pressures of efficiency.

The MINR is the largest, the most strategic ministry, as well as the most complex one. It is creating 85% of the revenue for the government. Since its creation in 1961, the MINR knew several important organizational transformations with a solid history of in successful project management and Information system development.

In both PA, the e-government development process started at the beginning of the 2000's. We have examined this development process through 3 strategic plans of 4 years. In the following paragraphs we will describe the capabilities identified in both organization during the 12 years.

GOP E-government development process (2000-2012)

The GOP has invested to build, acquire and develop four types of capabilities throughout the 3 strategic plans that are different from what have been defined by St-Amant and [START_REF] St--Amant | Premier référentiel de connaissances associées aux capacités organisationnelles de l'administration électronique[END_REF]. In the following table we summarize the domain of management composing the categories of capabilities identified by period at the GOP (Table 1). As described in figure 2, the GOP has invested to build, acquire, consolidate and develop four types of capabilities throughout the 3 strategic plans. These capabilities are different from what have been defined in by St-Amant and [START_REF] St--Amant | Premier référentiel de connaissances associées aux capacités organisationnelles de l'administration électronique[END_REF]. The strategic capability was created in the first period. This category of capability played a critical role in the success of the e-government development. The business, technological and project capabilities were present in the organization but they were inconsistent with the e-government development objectives. Consequently, the GOP either was abandoned or changed these capabilities. Then, during the second period, the GOP invested in developing the project capabilities that played an important role for linking and integrating all the capabilities. Also, they consolidated the technological and business capabilities. Efforts were invested for jointly developing the business and the technological elements of the e-government. This collaboration was a source of innovation at different level. These innovations became new projects adopts and enhanced all capabilities.

MINR E-government development process (2000-2012)

The MINR's e-government development followed a different journey. They focus mainly on the internal strength during the two first strategic plans: The technology and the project management. In the middle of the third strategic plan, the e-government development process was aborted for a lack of performance, low level of registration and use of the system, overbudget and implementation delays. Even if it is publicly described as a technological success, It was considered as an important organizational and project failure. In 2008 they officially admit the failure of the the project and progressively retracted. The MINR leveraged the existing knowledge, skills and resources in term of project and technological capabilities. These two types of capabilities were developed and consolidated prior to the e--government project. It was considered as reference in terms of know--how, methods, project and change management in the government. The MINR had a long history of success in IS and IT projects.

The MINR was able to easily adapt to the Internet platform technologies and infrastructure. It was the first one to develop complex technologies, such as online authentication and identification. They strengthened the technological capability by developing their knowledge through training and seminars, they increaseed the resources by partnering with external firms and hire IT experts and consultant. We observed the development and maturity of the technological capabilities through 3 strategic plans. During the first period, the MINR decided not to leverage neither develop the business capabilities and develop the e--government separately from the organization. The project capabilities were leveraged but the organization did not invest until they were progressively absorbed and strengthened the technological instead of developing a dynamic project capability (figure 5). The technological capabilities, with the number of online service developed and the technological project undertaken, was consolidated and strengthened very fast. The MINR became a reference for all the PA (Figure 4 and 5). However the project was led by an IT team that concentrates all the efforts on the IT aspects and loose track of all the project management dimensions such as budget management, schedule and planing management and performance management. Also, the lack of communication and collaboration with the business resources and the lack of knowledge and consultation of the business during the first period led to serious difficulties in the e--government development process and impacted in the quality of online service developed. It also explain the very low registration and adoption of the online service. The investment was made mainly on the technological resources, competencies and knowledge. It became the predominant e-government capability. They have failed to develop or aquire any other type of capabilities .

Discussion and Conclusion

The GOP and MINR cases confirmed the need of a combination of interrelated capabilities to develop the e-government. To identify this capabilities we use as starting point St-Amant et [START_REF] St--Amant | Premier référentiel de connaissances associées aux capacités organisationnelles de l'administration électronique[END_REF] theoretical framework that we progressively reviewed and enriched using a triangulation between the data collection, the analysis techniques, and the litterature review.

Firstly, one of the main difficulty we faced using St-Amant and Renard's Framework is that the strategy formulation is supposed to be predetermined confirming that the strategy is already defined. Our results show that it is not the case, at least in the Canadian PA. The strategy is not always defined, neither is clear. Both organizations did not have any strategic capabilities when they started the e-government project. The development of this type of capabilities played a major role in the success of the GOP throughout the strategic plans, while the absence of the strategic capabilities was one of the most important causes behind the failure of the e-government project for the MINR after more than 7 years of e-government development.

Secondly, the project capabilities were added and redefined as dynamic capabilities that have a transformative potential for PA and impacted on the capabilities of context that are already available in the organization. Thirdly, what emerges from the data is that e-government is not predetermined but evolves throughout projects. Each new initiative launched created change and required constant adaptation. In other words, the e-government is not a goal or finality, but rather a continuous change that requires constantly revision of the stock of available capabilities. Finally, we have proposed a revisited framework of capabilities based on 4 interrelated and integrated categories.

We have operationalized the capabilities based on the iteration strategy reviewing constantly the data and the literature. We have identify the need of a combination of four types of capabilities to the development to support the continuous change: Strategic, project, business and technological. Acquiring these capabilities is important, but it is not enough. It is as important to adapt, develop and renew these capabilities in order to avoid rigidities.

In conclusion we propose a revisited repository of E-government capabilities (figure 6). The repository is based on a set of premises. The first premise states that government and PA requires the presence of capabilities (dynamic and/or organizational) that they will have or that they will need in order to realize successfully the e-government transformation and overcome the challenges of egovernment service delivery adoption and implementation (they are facing today or in the future). The second premise is that the repository is composed of different idealtype of capabilities needed that means it can differ or require adaptation depending on the context. Last premise specifies that the absence of one of these capabilities could be critical for the success of an e-government service delivery implementation.

Figure 6. E--government capabilities repository

The identification of the e-government capabilities is challenging. Firstly, the capabilities can be determined through the produced outcomes. According to [START_REF] Croom | The Development of Strategic Capabilities : An Interaction View[END_REF], capabilities are revealed through time. They are observed in actions [START_REF] Renard | Proposition d'un modèle de management stratégique de l'entreprise par les capacités organisationnelles[END_REF]. Data were here coded and analysed by examining the activities of the e-government development process and highlighting the capabilities that were leveraged if existing or developed within the process. Secondly, the organizational capabilities show the organizational know-how. And given the tacit nature of some capabilities, the interpretation, the perceptions and the understanding of the interviewed constitute the foundation to explore the nature and maturity of the identified capabilities.

Finally, the e-government capabilities are described specifically to their context. It is important to explore and develop control criteria for social interactions ( [START_REF] Nonaka | A theory of organizational knowledge creation[END_REF] . These processes helped identifying the capabilities, their absence or presence, and helped interpreting as well. This repository is a first stage that requires to be consolidated and constantly updated based and adapted based on new case studies.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. E--government capabilities analysis process

  Leveraging of the strategic capabilities: Continuous strategic brainstorming, strategy deployment management, resource allocation and value creation, Business and IT Governance, external value creation and partnership management. Redefinition of Project capabilities: communication management, quality management, risk management, project management, change management, support management, creation of new performance unit, management and organization by project Enhancement of the Business capabilities: Learning the management of a new chanel, management of new roles and new jobs in the PA and create customer relationahip management. Leveraging the aquired technology capabilities: exploitation of the newly aquired capabilities into new project, new partnership between IS/Business

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. E--government capabilities development at the GOP

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. GOP 's architecture of e--government capabilities

  of the technological capabilities: Enterprise architecture, web technology skills and knowledge acquisition, application management, infrastructure management, Consolidation of the project capabilities: The IT department took the leadership from the project management resources. it was totally absorded and more and more isolated from the organizational to an independent office dedicated with a strong IT expertise 2008relaunch of the e-government development Development of the technology capabilities: Security knowledge and skills acquisition, Internet and Web technology consolidation, Identification and authentication, software development.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. E--government capabilities development at MINR

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. MINR's E--government capabilities architecture

Table 1 . Identified E--government capabilities at the GOP

 1 Learning and adapting new technologies, knowledge aquisition and creation in web-based technology. Leveraging business capabilities: secure the success of change management, skills development in customer needs analysis and data collection.

	E-government phases	E-Government capabilities
	1998-2004:		Creation of a strategic capabilities : strategic thinking, management of the
	"Service	Renewal	deployment of e-government project, resources allocation, Business and IT
	strategy	project":	Governance Management, creation of internal and external value, Partnership
	infrastructure	management.
	implementation and	Enhancement of Project capabilities: communication management, quality
	the development of	management, risk management, project management , change management,
	the first e-services	support management .
	(online	presence,	Business capabilities leveraging: service delivery management, management
	interactive	pdfs	of the relationship with partners, management of IT impact, information

Acknowledgment

This paper is a result of the project "SmartEGOV: Harnessing EGOV for Smart Governance (Foundations, methods, Tools) / NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000037", supported by Norte Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020), under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (EFDR).


Ralf Klischewski
email: ralf.klischewski@guc.edu.eg

Yomn Elmistikawy

Designing Information Marketplaces for Disaster Management

Keywords: disaster management, information sharing, information marketplace, localized information sharing kit, design science research

Disaster management always needs to strike a balance between preparedness and flexibility. The challenges of industrial crisis information management are manifold, out of which we address the question: How to create the best possible information sharing solution for a given environment and crisis situation? This ongoing design science research has identified essential components to be assembled in an 'information sharing kit', including description of informational needs, data model, categorization of ICT components, and guidelines for kit usage. All of these can and should be further developed towards a localized crisis information sharing kit, on the basis of which specific information sharing solutions can be set up in order to create information marketplaces for response and recovery whenever crises occur. Insights from this research are expected to inform disaster preparation in practice, especially in ICT empowered community settings such as smart cities, and to identify more clearly the (research) needs for standardization in disaster-related information management and integration.

Introduction

Industrial disasters often cause loss of human life and damage to the environment. The disastrous impacts even increase when information sharing during crisis management does not succeed to orient and empower the stakeholders involved towards appropriate action. While the advancements in information and communication technology (ICT) entail new opportunities for information sharing, disaster management is challenged by the growing availability of potential relevant information sources as well as by the complexity of managing the collection, processing and sharing of data through multiple channels with those who have urgent, but mostly specific informational needs. For adequate reaction, disaster management always needs to strike a balance between preparedness and flexibility. But how to reach this balance on the level of computer-supported information sharing is still unclear. Therefore our research question is: How can the stakeholders in charge create a suitable ICT infrastructure for information sharing during specific crisis response and recovery? We propose using an information marketplace as guidance for implementation information sharing solutions for disaster management. Essential components can be assembled into a localized 'information sharing kit' during disaster preparation, and based on such readiness a specific information marketplace can be set up ad hoc whenever a crisis occurs.

The next section briefly characterizes the unique attributes of industrial disasters, crises management and related challenges of information sharing. Section 3 conceptualizes the idea of information marketplaces for disaster management as an open ensemble of accessible structured data supplies and explicit use-case based informational demands to be matched through dedicated algorithms. Section 4 reports about the ongoing design science research to provide a proof-of-concept for this approach. The conclusion signifies the contribution to the field and points to future research.

Informational challenges in industrial disaster management

A crisis is an unfamiliar event that has a low probability of occurring while causing high-risk consequences if not managed properly. Industrial crises are classified as accidental crises, when caused by technical errors that are equipment related, or as intentional crises, when the cause is human error from poor performance. These accidents are stem from factories such as nuclear power stations, energy factories, toxic material using factories or normal factories that could catch fire. Situated mostly in urban areas, industrial crises are especially difficult to manage because of the number and diversity of actors involved, the variety (and often volatility) of needed data and information to be processed and communicated, and the complexity and vulnerability of the ICT infrastructure in place.

An industrial crisis involves internal stakeholders (e.g. employees and managers) and external stakeholders (e.g. media, civilians) [START_REF] Seeger | Communication, Organization, and Crisis[END_REF] as well as disaster management organizations (DMOs), including public safety personnel, healthcare, transportation, the government, and sometimes even the army [START_REF] Bharosa | Challenges and obstacles in sharing and coordinating information during multi-agency disaster response: Propositions from field exercises[END_REF]. These stakeholders are expected to make sense of the situation while there is shortage of information as well as shorttime for response [START_REF] Ley | Information and expertise sharing in inter-organizational crisis management[END_REF].

The negative impact of industrial crises often increases due to information management problems among these stakeholders during the management of the crisis. The process of managing an industrial crisis is divided into different phases, each with different information management challenges. Most authors agree to the basic classification into pre-crisis, crisis and post-crisis phases, albeit with variations regarding pre-crisis activities. Here we adopt the approach of Hilliard et al. [START_REF] Hilliard | Elements that Influence the Implementation of Crisis Preparedness Measures by Meeting Planners[END_REF] to differentiate only two pre-crisis phases, preparedness and mitigation, followed by the remaining phases response (during the crisis) and recovery (post-crisis).

During pre-crisis phases data is collected to evaluate the organization's performance, i.e. to assess the preparedness for a crisis, including role awareness, prerequisites for crisis response, and actions for crisis prevention [START_REF] Van De Walle | Decision Support for Emergency Situations[END_REF]. Another stream of data sourcing regarding previous crisis triggers, abnormal factory performance measure-ments and environmental data is used to detect anomalies [START_REF] Beinat | A Review of Emerging Technologies for Crisis Management -Social Media, Internet of Things and Big Data[END_REF], predict crises [START_REF] Peng | An incident information management framework based on data integration, data mining, and multi-criteria decision making[END_REF], generate vulnerability maps, identify crisis management requirements [START_REF] Ashgar | Categorization of Disaster Decision Support Needs for the Development of an Integrated Model for DMSS[END_REF], and assess risks and vulnerabilities [START_REF] Highfield | Mitigation planning. Why hazard exposure, structural vulnerability, and social vulnerability matter[END_REF][START_REF] Berke | Planning for resiliency: Evaluation of state hazard mitigation plans under the disaster mitigation act[END_REF].

All the stakeholders involved in the crisis should be kept up-to-date with each other's performance evaluation and early warning signals in order to ensure preparation alignment and to avoid role duplication, missing requirements or preparing plans that do not match the crisis requirements [START_REF] Van De Walle | Decision Support for Emergency Situations[END_REF]. However, a lack of common ground in terms of terminology and means of communication [START_REF] Reddy | Challenges to effective crisis management: Using information and communication technologies to coordinate emergency medical services and emergency department teams[END_REF] as well as each entity focusing on its own needs may hinder this information sharing and coordination [START_REF] Bharosa | Challenges and obstacles in sharing and coordinating information during multi-agency disaster response: Propositions from field exercises[END_REF].

During crisis response the events are monitored and immediate response is offered accordingly including rescue, evacuation, issuing warnings, and updating the public with ongoing events [START_REF] Hale | Crisis Response Communication Challenges Building Theory From Qualitative Data[END_REF][START_REF] Ashgar | Categorization of Disaster Decision Support Needs for the Development of an Integrated Model for DMSS[END_REF]. As poor response might lead to an even more severe disaster than the crisis itself, the right information must reach the right person at the right time to carry out timely response. However, the information sharing in this phase is challenged by the low cohesiveness of the crisis management teams; e.g. due to role duplication across different organizations [START_REF] Van De Walle | Decision Support for Emergency Situations[END_REF], the shortage of time available for the teams that often had not worked together before to nurture ties and build trust in each other, and/or the lack of common ground between these teams where each team has its own processes to handle a crisis, its own terminologies used during communication, and its own ICT support. Accordingly, it is difficult to access and filter the right information to be shared and to identify appropriate channels for information sharing. Furthermore, crisis information overload, along with the limited availability of communication channels, often lead to bottlenecks in information flow, causing communication failure and delays in data collection and processing; possible implications include inefficient filtering of information and the information getting outdated due to the continuous change in circumstances [START_REF] Pan | Crisis response information networks[END_REF][START_REF] Hale | Crisis Response Communication Challenges Building Theory From Qualitative Data[END_REF].

Any delay in data collection would lead to going blind into the interpretation phase [START_REF] Seeger | Communication, Organization, and Crisis[END_REF], resulting into either incomplete or conflicting interpretation of the crisis events. For interpretation, the inconsistent/irrelevant data is removed and the remaining data is analyzed to reach an understanding about the crisis [START_REF] Van De Walle | Decision Support for Emergency Situations[END_REF][START_REF] Hale | Crisis Response Communication Challenges Building Theory From Qualitative Data[END_REF]. The information sharing itself then is often impaired by reduction of available communication channels, emergence of new uncontrolled communication channels (e.g. social media), poor communication filters to prioritize information and to distinguish between crucial and safe-to-ignore information [START_REF] Pan | Crisis response information networks[END_REF][START_REF] Hale | Crisis Response Communication Challenges Building Theory From Qualitative Data[END_REF][START_REF] Reddy | Challenges to effective crisis management: Using information and communication technologies to coordinate emergency medical services and emergency department teams[END_REF], and low vertical and horizontal interaction inside and across DMOs [START_REF] Kapucu | Collaborative emergency management and national emergency management network[END_REF].

Day et al. [START_REF] Day | Information flow impediments in disaster relief supply chains[END_REF] summarized the challenges in data collection as inadequate stream of information, data inaccessibility, data inconsistency, low information priority, source identification difficulty, storage media alignment, and unreliability. These challenges include inadequate data collection methods, time pressure and limited resources for decision-making, as well as conflicting crisis interpretation and data processing [START_REF] Ley | Information and expertise sharing in inter-organizational crisis management[END_REF]. Scholl et al. [START_REF] Scholl | Informational Challenges in Early Disaster Response: The Massive Oso/SR530 Landslide 2014 as Case in Point[END_REF] found that hazard-related planning is not sufficient to support systematic information collection and sharing and that standardized information sharing procedures and information integration practices are lacking; from the technical perspective they call for more research on common information architecture and information system platforms. Challenges are also faced in designing audience-specific messages [START_REF] Hale | Crisis Response Communication Challenges Building Theory From Qualitative Data[END_REF], and often no attention given to sharing crisis information with citizens affected by the crisis [START_REF] Pan | Crisis response information networks[END_REF].

In principle, an abundance of ICT is available to handle the information management and communication during an industrial crisis. For example, DMOs often use Disaster Management Decision Support Systems to collect and analyze data for supporting crisis response [START_REF] Ashgar | Categorization of Disaster Decision Support Needs for the Development of an Integrated Model for DMSS[END_REF]. However, a crisis experiment implemented by Bharosa et al. [START_REF] Bharosa | Challenges and obstacles in sharing and coordinating information during multi-agency disaster response: Propositions from field exercises[END_REF] showed that even though 72% of participants see ICT as valuable, 74.7% are not satisfied with existing ICT solutions.

With the advancements in public infrastructure, especially in smart cities, and an ever increasing range of data from IoT-related sensors and smart cards [START_REF] Kyriazis | Sustainable smart city IoT applications: Heat and electricity management & Eco-conscious cruise control for public transportation[END_REF] new options for improving data sourcing and processing in various phases of disaster management need to be explored. Opportunities for information sharing according to the users' needs nowadays include more dedicated channels and platforms such as smart phones, internet, social networks, online-mapping and cloud computing [START_REF] Roche | GeoWeb and crisis management: Issues and perspectives of volunteered geographic information[END_REF], and the public infrastructure should be linked with applications, social learning and governance to build knowledge bases for citizens and enable collaboration [START_REF] Hollands | Will the real smart city please stand up? Intelligent, progressive or entrepreneurial[END_REF][START_REF] Nam | Conceptualizing smart city with dimensions of technology, people, and institutions[END_REF].

Thus, the public infrastructure offers an opportunity to overcome the information management challenges in crisis management by utilizing its technological solutions during response and recovery: sharing the crisis details, and the response and precautions to be taken to the affected citizens; sharing up-to-date information between the DMOs needed for crisis management; ICT solutions offering a balance between flexibility and preparedness in the communication during crisis. Scholl and Patin [START_REF] Scholl | Informational Challenges in Early Disaster Response: The Massive Oso/SR530 Landslide 2014 as Case in Point[END_REF] emphasize that actionable information requires "resilient information infrastructures" that should be "redundant and resourceful", i.e. combining ICT with social, organizational, and knowledge assets.

Information marketplaces for disaster management

Given the array of potentially valuable data sources and the challenge to manage comprehensive information sharing in very short time, new option for automating the information sharing have to be explored. Numerous research papers have pointed out the challenges, but solutions have been rarely proposed. Accordingly, our research question is: How to design a suitable ICT infrastructure for information sharing during crisis response and recovery? The vision is that stakeholders in charge may implement a situated information marketplace based on a kit of publicly available and/or prefabricated components. Information marketplaces have been mainly studied from the economic perspective and also have been used to conceptualize the 'smart city' [START_REF] Cosgrave | Living Labs, Innovation Districts and Information Marketplaces: A Systems Approach for Smart Cities[END_REF]. The core idea is that 'raw data' is transformed and/or perceived as a valuable information product to be consumed by those in need for this information (and who are willing to pay a premium for it). In disaster management, multiple stakeholders are in need of comprehensive and diverse information, most of which is predictable in principle, but not specifically. The types of stakeholders and their communications channels also can be largely foreseen (depending on the type of crisis) but again not the specific persons or groups. However, the preparation of disaster management includes multiple scenarios of crisis analysis and response through which informational needs and available data and its accessibility can be identified in advance, at least in principle, allowing for preparing the information sharing based on a standardization presenting potentially relevant data as an informational product to be consumed. If we aim also for automating the match between informational demands and supplies, then also the informational needs have to be described in a standardized way, i.e. through generally known attributes, to enable a matching algorithm to present relevant data to the right informational users through the available channels. To some extent Saleem et al. [START_REF] Saleem | Towards a Business Continuity Information Network for Rapid Disaster Recovery[END_REF] had prototyped this idea in terms of a "Business Continuity Information Network"; for this purpose they had identified (a) the necessary informational components as disaster management dataspace, disaster recovery resources identification, situation awareness, dynamic contact management, and intelligent decision support, as well as (b) algorithms for retrieving and presenting relevant information to users.

In our approach, we take the idea of an information marketplace to the next level of abstraction so that the elements of the information flow realization become visible and each of these elements can be supported by selected kit components. Hence, the information marketplace is conceptualized as an open ensemble of accessible structured data supplies and explicit use-case based informational demands, both matched through algorithms that may follow different types of market regulations (see fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Conceptualizing an information marketplace for disaster management

While every community may prepare for such market in its own fashion, the mechanism of any electronic marketplace requires similar components and preparations:

1. Available data: Turning data into useful information can only happen when  information users know about its existence (presentation to users is to be organized by the matching)  users have the right to access the data  users are able to manage the communication channel for accessing the data  the data can be processed based on the known syntax (e.g. XML, streaming data, VoIP)  the meaning of the data (semantics) is known and can be related to the users' needs How to define the semantics can follow different paths. Existing ontologies should be reused as much as possible, and given communities can identify their own categories of meaning. For example, Pan et al. [START_REF] Pan | Crisis response information networks[END_REF] have identified and described four types of crisis response information: personnel status, infrastructure, crisis management and notification, area access. Standardized descriptions in each of these areas could be used to describe informational needs in various use cases and to define and annotate metadata for the available datasets (see [START_REF] Liu | Ontologies for crisis management: a review of state of the art in ontology design and usability[END_REF] for review of available ontologies). In any case, it needs a standardized description and architecture of what Scholl et al. [START_REF] Scholl | Informational Challenges in Early Disaster Response: The Massive Oso/SR530 Landslide 2014 as Case in Point[END_REF] call "essential elements of information." 2. Use cases: Turning data into useful information happens only when users can meaningfully interpret the data for improving their action. For matching the available data with the information demand, the different cases of information use have to be described for automatic analysis:

 Roles: types of actors and their usual responsibilities and activities  Situations: circumstances of role implementation (e.g. weather conditions, available transportation)  Informational needs: type of information specified by actors involved All of the above may not be fully described, or only through full text descriptions. The more the use case description is based on shared ontologies, the more options exist for automatically matching informational needs and supplies.

Matching algorithm:

In order to manage the complexity of serving informational needs with available data, the matching should be automated. However, presenting available information to users has to balance precision and recall in terms of relevance of the information to the use case at hand. Besides, for organizational reasons the information sharing might need to be well regulated, e.g. one agency wants/must control who receives which information or seeks to apply certain filter mechanism to control for data quality (e.g. reliability) and to enable a more efficient information consumption. Hence, the market can be set up according to predefined types, each supported by dedicated matching algorithms, for example:  Free market: all participants can see, access and consume all available data  Central Agency: the visibility of data, all matchmaking, and all information consumption is controlled by one central agency in charge  Demand pull: a given description of a use case is automatically analyzed and available data is constantly provided based on predefined rules.  Supply push: whenever new data is available potential users are notified; users may define certain subscriptions (feeding filters)

The DMOs and the community at large should agree on the type(s) of market to prepare for. However, during crisis the applicable type might even change due to situated analysis of the information demand and supply.

Designing an information sharing kit for crisis management

This ongoing research has adopted a design science approach, which is the process of creating new and innovative artifacts to address a certain problems. It explores the opportunity of using existing ICT components to prepare a "crisis management information sharing kit" (i.e. not a ready-made solution) that can be flexibly used to set up an information market for specific crisis incidents in a given environment (e.g. a smart city). In this section we discuss the approach to and the results of the design science phases as structured by Peffers et al. [START_REF] Peffers | A design science research methodology for information systems research[END_REF].

Beyond literature review problem understanding and identification was achieved through interviews with personnel from DMOs, followed by assessing different crisis scenarios. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the sheriff's deputy of a police station and a lieutenant-colonel in fire department located in a very large city. The interview questions asked for crisis notification (how? when?), exchange of crisis incident information in real-time with other DMOs (what information is shared and how?), information to be shared with citizens (what information and how?), problems of information sharing, informational needs related to types of industrial accident (what information from which source?). Interview results revealed marginal use of ICT for data sourcing and information sharing processes as well as a lack of clear instructions on information to be shared between DMOs and between police officers/ fire fighters and affected citizens during industrial crisis. Furthermore, available crisis documentation was used for problem confirmation and objectives identifications. Governmental and news reports have been analyzed regarding crises that occurred during the last ten years in industrial facilities facing a fire, a leak, an explosion and/or building collapse (Fukushima 2011, Kaohsiung 2014, Savar/Rana Plaza 2013, Ludwigshafen/BASF 2016, Waco/West Fertilizer 2013, Port Wentworth/Georgia Sugar Refinery 2008). In line with previous literature it was found that, even though some information sharing happened, multiple challenges still hindered timely information sharing especially among DMOs and between DMOs and citizens and that appropriate ICT solutions have usually not been in place.

The basic design objective is to enable key stakeholders to set up and/or adapt ICT solutions for providing the needed information during response and recovery of the industrial crisis in focus. The core objective is to design artifacts for supporting a strategic approach that identifies and creates components as far as possible during crisis preparation in order to swiftly and flexibly realize a situated ICT-powered information market when needed during crisis response and recovery.

The artifact design includes so far:  Informational demands are categorized into person/organization account, situation assessment, rescue alert, relief claim, volunteer request, supply request, evacuation/routes, medical care, specific roles (e.g. fire fighters, police officers) and DMO monitoring, exemplified by 70 user stories (i.e. intended/planned activities that require specific information)  Entity relationship diagram with several hundred entities, relationships and attributes as a possible blueprint for stakeholders to identify and model relevant data  Categorization of typical ICT infrastructure components for channel management, including hardware, software (in particular the market place mechanics), operating system, data management and storage, telecommunication, internet platform, standards (e.g. ontologies), and even consultants or other IT services  Guidelines to assist kit users in (a) preparing their localized information sharing kit (including analysis of past/expected local crises, identifying users and their informational needs, preparing access to available data, developing information sharing mechanisms and test solutions) as well as (b) transforming the localized kit (including crisis analysis, specifying users' information needs and communication channels, choosing and combining existing components, making adjustments) into an actual information sharing solutions for crisis management (e.g. mobile apps, information portals, multi-layered maps, news feeds, billboards; see figure 2)

Fig. 2. Transformation of the information sharing kit into ready-to-use solutions

The artifact demonstration aims to involve numerous and diverse members of DMOs trying to use the kit components during a simulation of crisis preparation and management. The artifact evaluation then focuses on the usability of the kit and its effectiveness in terms of creating suitable localized 'markets' for crisis-related information sharing. Data collection for evaluation includes observation during simulation as well interviews of participants after simulation.

Conclusion

Previous research has found that information sharing during disaster management is not adequately supported by ICT solutions. As standardized data management and information integration procedures and practices are still in its infancy, disaster management has difficulties in striking a balance between preparedness and flexibility. In order to support responsible stakeholders we propose using an information marketplace as guidance for the implementation of specific information sharing solutions for disaster management. The ongoing design science research has identified essential components to be assembled in an 'information sharing kit', including description and categorization of informational needs, data model, categorization of ICT components, and guidelines for kit usage. These can and should be specified and further developed towards a localized crisis information sharing kit. On the basis of the localized kit specific information sharing solutions can be set up in order to create information marketplaces for response and recovery whenever crises occur. This research is expected to contribute to our understanding how to design situated information sharing solutions for industrial crisis management. However, it tackles only one facet of the complexity inherent in industrial crisis management which is the approach towards creating the best possible solution for a given environment and crisis situation. Other aspects such as data accessibility, system interoperability, cloud-based components, information integration, semantic standardization are essential for implementing solutions, but the development and/or improvement of these is outside the scope of this research. Rather we seek to test to what extent stakeholders in charge (who are not ICT experts) find the vision of an information marketplace and the components of the 'information sharing kit' (including guidelines) helpful to create information sharing solutions that serve their needs. Insights from this research are expected to inform disaster preparation in practice, especially in ICT empowered community settings such as smart cities, and to identify more clearly the (research) needs for standardization in disaster-related information management and integration.