Pierre Bricage
email: pierre.bricage@univ-pau.fr

Teaching and Learning Systems Thinking: What, Why, When, Where, Who, What For, How?

Keywords: curriculum, holistic behaviour, innovation, mind opening, skills, systems thinking, trans-disciplinarity

Currently everybody needs to be educated for lifelong time, so we have to be careful what we put in the education programs, and when, in order to create a systems thinking acquired culture and an ethical holistic behaviour.

Introduction

In England, most of the 2 million higher education students are on degree courses in universities. The UK government invests in higher education for its key contribution to creating a skilled, educated economy and society. In 2017, the public funding for higher education, in the form of grants and tuition fee loans, is over £9 billion a year. In recent years, the UK government has increasingly delivered higher education using market mechanisms. But it often needs to intervene to correct market failures. Public service users often need significant support to make useful choices. Higher education is a complex market. It is difficult to choose a course before experiencing it! Most students attend higher education once and cannot learn from experience. So, outcomes are uncertain and depend on the ability and commitment of each student as well as the quality of the providers [START_REF] Callanan | The higher education market[END_REF]. In France also, making an informed choice on whether to enter higher education, and what and where to study, is critical given the lifelong impact of this decision [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF] and the costs for parents or students [START_REF] Collective | Investing in higher education: benefits, challenges, and the state of student's debt[END_REF]. Everywhere in Europe, the proportion of young people from disadvantaged backgrounds entering higher education has increased, but participation remains much lower than for those from more advantaged backgrounds. Unfortunately globalisation increases inequality [START_REF] Van Der Wende | Opening up: higher education systems in global perspective[END_REF]. A 'systemic solution to this systemic crisis' [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF] is first in 'what, and why to teach' in primary school, and how [START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF]. The first world greatest challenge is not health but education [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF]!

What basic education and which accompaniment for which training?

Everybody needs not only to get the right information at the right time to behave societally and environmentally responsibly but first to be able to understand information, to detect lies particularly in using internet sources [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF]. Everywhere, what was once a challenge of quantity in undergraduate education, of enrolling as many students as possible, is now a challenge of educational quality, of making sure that all students receive the education they need to succeed, that they are able to complete the studies they begin, and that they can do all of this affordably [START_REF] Ferguson | The Future of Undergraduate Education. The Future of America[END_REF]. The economic, societal and natural crises result from a dangerous one-sidedness, which lacks holistic approach and social responsibility's interdependence [START_REF] Mulej | Informal Systems Thinking or Systems Theory[END_REF] in both human values and knowledge. Everybody educates for lifelong time, thus we have to be careful what we put in the education programs for youngsters [START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF] to develop an effective and ethical scientific culture [START_REF] Bertrand | PISA 2012 Technical Report[END_REF], an ethical behaviour, with respect for rules [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF], and innovate a more socially responsible society. Everybody needs not only to get the right information at the right time to behave responsibly but first to be able to understand that information and to detect lies in communication, like the lack of accountability and lack of transparency, and to develop influences over and factors of innovation, in the respect for international norms of behaviour and respect for human rights! Sciences have built a universal multidisciplinary language using the knowledge and tools of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, Informatics and Communication Technology [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF] to build models and make simulations [START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF]:"Knowledge comes by taking things apart. But wisdom comes by putting things together." (John A. Morrison).

Very young children are able to ensure their learning in letters, sciences and arts through biology centred activities [START_REF] Sattler | Bio-Philosophy. Analytic and Holistic Perspectives[END_REF] and "creative in common" responsibilities [6]: table 1. Systems thinking is a keystone ability for natural sciences knowledge [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF] but also in any cognitive way because of the interrelationship between human knowledges and activities [START_REF] Ison | Methodological challenges of transdisciplinary research: some systemic reflections[END_REF][START_REF] Ison | Governing in the Anthropocene: What Future Systems Thinking in Practice?[END_REF], whatever we are, in technology, arts, philosophy, or sociology [START_REF] Geyer | The Challenge of Sociocybernetics[END_REF]. 2. WHAT FOR?, WHAT?, and HOW?: 'cyber-systemics', towards a multi-disciplinary and holistic systemic behaviour [START_REF] Sattler | Bio-Philosophy. Analytic and Holistic Perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Ison | Designing and developing a reflexive learning system for managing systemic change[END_REF][START_REF] Mulej | Introduction to Systems Thinking with Application to Invention and Innovation Management[END_REF].

The objective of the education systems is to prepare young people to successfully face the challenges of society and derive benefit from the opportunities it provides. In psychological terms it means that the objective of the education system is to support the development of personality, which is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment; and higher is the level of education higher are the emergent adaptive non-cognitive characteristics of mind [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF][START_REF] Toomela | Noncognitive correlates of education[END_REF]. Cybernetics is a way of thinking. It involves concepts like control, self-regulation, autonomy and communication. Forming them, and relating them to each other, must figure as central terms in an holistic way of learning [START_REF] Glasersfeld | Declaration of the American Society for Cybernetics[END_REF] . There are various definitions of Systems Science and Cybernetics [START_REF] Ch | International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics[END_REF]. There are many local and international organizations covering their various application, e.g. IASCYS [START_REF] Bricage | The International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences[END_REF]. But there is not much literature about an explicit application of Systems Science and Cybernetics in the area of education. But every system management, including teaching is a cybernetic process and has to follow systemic principles [START_REF] Donnadieu | La systémique. Penser et agir dans la complexité[END_REF]. Only a systemic behavior (holism based on inter-disciplinary cooperation, synergies, not only sums result) is the essence of a systemic-cybernetic approach, to make bridges between the traditional sciences [START_REF] Ison | Methodological challenges of transdisciplinary research: some systemic reflections[END_REF][START_REF] Ison | Editorial: Applying systems thinking to higher education[END_REF] to struggle against 'oneminded over-specialization' [START_REF] Mulej | Introduction to Systems Thinking with Application to Invention and Innovation Management[END_REF][START_REF] Mulej | Social Responsibility Beyond Neoliberalism and Charity[END_REF]. 'Systems theory fights the exaggerated specialization, because the latter causes too many oversights and put the humankind in danger' (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, 1968).

It is easy in biology with the very various objects of study: a plant, an animal, a landscape, a part of an ecosystem, an experimental device in animal, plant or human physiology, a model of a molecular structure, bacterial cultures..., all the levels of organization and functioning of the alive are available! [START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF]. Practical workshops, either managed by a teacher, or a team of teachers from different disciplines, or independently (without teacher, only with pupils, alone or in groups), will allow each pupil (or student) to observe, experiment and make writings, with drawings, data and graphs, and at her/his/their own rate [START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF]. The oral and written expression through the use of mathematical and graphical languages and the application of knowledge and tools from mathematics, physics, chemistry and computing allow a better acquisition of new biological concepts and reciprocally [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF]: table 1. Role-playing games may allow the pupil/student to better find her/his working place within her/his workgroup and allow her/him to choose the best way she/he can acquire knowledge by a motivated discovery [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF][START_REF] Collectif | Une éducation et une formation efficaces et innovantes pour investir dans les aptitudes[END_REF].

"A place for each one according to her/his skills. Each one on the place she/he deserves considering her/his skills" [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF].

What pedagogy to adopt to optimize the pupils' success [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF]? What governance and which structures to set up to support this pedagogy [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF]? Experimentations showed that only a driving behavior of the teachers through a very active, local and global coaching of the students [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF], with a very strong workload of training for both and a total, but supervised semi-autonomy of the students, allows to optimize the success of each one. Only the implementation of a continuous assessment and o f " a quality control approach", both internal (of the actors: the students, the teachers) and external (of the whole: the curriculum learning and results), allow to optimize the success of all the partners, with the most raised percentage of global success [START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Quel enseignement supérieur et quel accompagnement pour quelles formations en sciences et technologies ?[END_REF].

Students must spend enough time learning! [START_REF] Echazarra | Do students spend enough time learning?[END_REF] WHAT: KNOWLEDGE of HUMAN CULTURES KNOWLEDGE of THE NATURAL WORLD HOW: -through study of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biological sciences and social sciences, humanities, histories, languages, and arts, in an interdisciplinary way -but focusing by engagement with big questions/ideas, both contemporary and enduring.

WHY: To increase and develop INTELLECTUAL and PRACTICAL SKILLS

-inquiry and analysis, -critical and creative thinking, -written and oral communication, -quantitative literacy, -information literacy, -individual and team work for solving problems HOW: in a HOLISTIC SYSTEMS THINKING WAY (a), and practiced extensively, across the curriculum, in the context of progressively more challenging problems, projects, and standards for performance.

WHAT FOR: for to exert PERSONAL, SOCIETAL and ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY (b) -local and global civic knowledge and engagement, -ethical reasoning and action, -foundations and skills for lifelong learning, -intercultural knowledge and competence HOW: anchored through active involvement

with diverse communities and real-world challenges.

WITH: an INTEGRATIVE and APPLIED LEARNING

-synthesis and advanced accomplishment across general and specialized studies -demonstrated through the application of knowledge, skills, and responsibilities to new settings, for resolution of complex problems and innovation -development of partnerships (c) (a) Holistic approach, which prevents one-sidedness [START_REF] Mulej | Informal Systems Thinking or Systems Theory[END_REF][START_REF] Ison | Designing and developing a reflexive learning system for managing systemic change[END_REF]. (b) Each responsibility is everyone's responsibility [START_REF] Mulej | Informal Systems Thinking or Systems Theory[END_REF] for his/her/their influences on society, on humans and nature. (c) Interdependence: a human, biological and social reality [START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF], 'no independence' is crucial from the legal viewpoint to prohibit abuse of the subordinate layers to the benefit of the upper ones. [START_REF] Collectif | Une éducation et une formation efficaces et innovantes pour investir dans les aptitudes[END_REF], -Social Responsibility. Methods, Dilemmas and Hopes [START_REF] Mulej | Social Responsibility Beyond Neoliberalism and Charity[END_REF].

Adapted from: -The Future of Undergraduate Education [9], -Une éducation et une formation efficaces et innovantes pour investir dans les aptitudes

With the use of internet data children/students can make some parts of the courses themselves. They can write collaborative parts of the teacher's lessons [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Quel enseignement supérieur et quel accompagnement pour quelles formations en sciences et technologies ?[END_REF] and sign collaborative contracts, partnerships of teaching and learning, with clear objectives of competencies acquisition [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Quel enseignement supérieur et quel accompagnement pour quelles formations en sciences et technologies ?[END_REF] for competing for a real job [START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF].

Nothing is obtained without big mutual (global) and reciprocal (local) efforts. "

The student has the teachers whom she/he deserves and the teacher has the students whom she/he deserves, too" [START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF].

3. WHY? and HOW?: educate for sustainability, for societal and environmental responsibility [START_REF] Mulej | Social Responsibility Beyond Neoliberalism and Charity[END_REF][START_REF] Ison | Sustainable catchment managing in a climate changing world: new integrative modalities for connecting policy makers, scientists and other stakeholders[END_REF].

PISA, the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment which takes place every 3 years was designed to collect information about 15-year-old students in participating countries. PISA examines how well students are prepared to meet the challenges of the future, rather than how well they master particular curricula [START_REF] Bertrand | PISA 2012 Technical Report[END_REF]. And results are dropping off in European Countries. Why?

Living within an ecosystem with finite resources, among other living beings, each of us is an actor within a world society: everything and everyone are interconnected and every action sends ripple effects throughout the whole system [START_REF] Bricage | Win-Win not a solution... but a problem! What next?[END_REF]. Global warming [START_REF] Ison | Sustainable catchment managing in a climate changing world: new integrative modalities for connecting policy makers, scientists and other stakeholders[END_REF], global financial crises [START_REF] Bricage | Living and banking systems comparison. Prisoners' dilemma win-win is not the solution[END_REF], world epidemics [START_REF] Bricage | Living Networks of Networks: The Societal and Environmental Responsibility of Humanity in the Fight between Humans and the Wild[END_REF], and local wars are catastrophic disasters catalyzed by our interconnectedness. A lot of us are not lucky enough to reap the benefits of that integrated whole: the comfort of enough to eat, a vast availability of products through a global supply chain, access to a global information and communication networks, personal safety and security, freedom to travel, and access to a real job market. The arrival of the today economic, social and natural crisis was anticipated 30 years ago [START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF] by people who had an holistic way of thinking [START_REF] Bricage | Living Networks of Networks: The Societal and Environmental Responsibility of Humanity in the Fight between Humans and the Wild[END_REF]! But nothing was done.

Only in 2013, and for the first time, the World Economic Forum's Global Agenda Council was speaking about our hyper-connected world in terms of complex systems and in holistic way [START_REF] Bricage | Living and banking systems comparison. Prisoners' dilemma win-win is not the solution[END_REF]. But "You can go with your horse to the watering place but you cannot oblige it to drink." Man is at first a biological being, inserted into an ecological context (with other species which are competing between them and Man for their survivals) and a social (human) context. So Man has an Environmental and Societal Responsibility (table 1) face to himself and for the whole Earth [START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF]. It is easier for youngsters to be interested with biology [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF]. It is easier to have responsibility when you are educated in such a way [START_REF] Sattler | Bio-Philosophy. Analytic and Holistic Perspectives[END_REF]. But complexity is a problem..., thus only a transdisciplinary systemic approach allows to think and to act in the complexity [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF]. This is the only way to allow to transfer concepts into applications, towards solutions of governance, in economy, ecology and sociology [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF]. But to get pupils involved in Societal and Environmental Responsibility we need first to have teachers trained in systemic behaviour and at a long term story [START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | The International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Quel enseignement supérieur et quel accompagnement pour quelles formations en sciences et technologies ?[END_REF]. [START_REF] Van Der Wende | Opening up: higher education systems in global perspective[END_REF]. WHEN?, WHY?: "interaction is construction and construction is interaction" [START_REF] Bricage | L'exploitation des procédés d'enseignement et des techniques éducatives en sciences naturelles. II. Les travaux pratiques, dirigés ou indépendants[END_REF].

The open-minded state that people are in when they are innovating, allowing to construct and rearrange knowledge, is essential for learning [START_REF] Bricage | Conduite d'actions de formation continue en activité d'éveil scientifique. 2. Outil d'évaluation par et pour les formateurs et les formés[END_REF]. A system thinking approach has evidenced a critical phase of apprenticeship: sooner children will develop the spirit of experimental design, better they will be able to use a systemic approach [START_REF] Donnadieu | La systémique. Penser et agir dans la complexité[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Préparation aux concours d'entrée des écoles paramédicales[END_REF] and express a holistic behaviour to respect natural and ethical laws [START_REF] Bricage | An Approach of Organizations and Management: Systemic Ethics, Democracy and Sustainability[END_REF]. When? Progressively but as young as possible because for being able to read, write and design in sciences [START_REF] Bricage | Préparation aux concours d'entrée des écoles paramédicales[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Un accompagnement pour une formation tout au long de la vie : le réseau des formations de l'enseignement supérieur[END_REF] there is a critical period of learning [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF]. If the habit of using the cybersystemic language is not acquired early enough, the student cannot avoid the risk of never be able to use it: after the time, this is no more the time. Learning is an interactive process [START_REF] Bricage | L'exploitation des procédés d'enseignement et des techniques éducatives en sciences naturelles. II. Les travaux pratiques, dirigés ou indépendants[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Techniques des Objectifs Pédagogiques : une formation individualisée, finalisée et contractualisée, modulaire[END_REF]: interaction is construction, construction is interaction. With the communication technology, we are now living in the time of immediacy, simultaneity and short term stories... [START_REF] Bricage | Living and banking systems comparison. Prisoners' dilemma win-win is not the solution[END_REF]. We know that 2 ways of reading, direct and phonological, coexist in the brain. They are simultaneously activated and support themselves each other: "the whole is always both more and less than the sum of its parts". During biological evolution, selection of "thinking" neurones networks was made on the function and not on the structure or location of the network. A dynamic modularity, by juxtapositions, embedments and fittings, is a usual characteristic of these networks [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF]. The brain imaging shows that all people, everywhere, in all languages, to read, use the same neuronal circuit and, if this circuit is not activated, not set up, or destroyed, the capacity of reading is absent or lost.

It is an emergent capacity which is auto-organised by re-allocation of neuronal populations (percolation) in a network of re-entries, through systems feedbacks [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF].

The psychomotor development is established by links which become established between neurones during the neurological, sensory, intellectual and psychological development. The reading and scientific writing for systems thinking learning or the intellectualisation of the experimental approach are similar processes, requiring for acquisition and expression, an appropriate stimulation of a neuronal territory, the pre-existent properties of which make it more capable of this task, but which is not initially allocated to it. As for any physiological answer, whatever is the level of organisation, there is a minimal intensity (a threshold) for the release, a latent period for its implementation [START_REF] Yeatman | Development of white matter and reading skills[END_REF], and requests need to be repeated for the internalisation. It is only because the "operations" of networking are automated by years of learning and take place in parallel, outside our consciousness, that we could naively believe that, as for the reading, the process is immediate and global! The appropriate stimuli must be "worn" at first at the right time: there is a critical temporal window before which and after which nothing is possible [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF]. What governs our choices?: The feelings (table 1

)! So, teach functional studies and link to strategic principles: table 2.

There is a system of neurones working as mirrors in the sight of the actions executed by other people. The same networks of neurones of the pre-driving cortex are activated as well when we make an action that when we see somebody else making the same action. Everything thus seems to take place as if the perception of the actions of others reflects ours, and vice versa. But "we do not learn to swim only by watching the others swimming, even if it can help, but by trying to swim ourselves." The role of the teacher is not only to show what can be made "virtually", but especially, to be there, to make and to make estimate how is made what is "really" made [START_REF] Bricage | Préparation aux concours d'entrée des écoles paramédicales[END_REF].

WHEN?, WHERE?, WHO? AND HOW?

Is not the learning of the scientific approach at the time of the multimedia a prerequisite for the reasonable and reasoned expression of the citizenship? Let us expose as soon as possible our children to the use of the experimental approach. At the primary school games for scientific awakening [START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF] should be a prerequisite for the learning of reading, writing and calculation. As a huntergatherer Man was at first an observer-experimenter. Our neuronal potential is thus a priori more adaptable towards the use of experimental approach of systems science than towards reading. If this exaptation does not take place, this brain potential is lost because it is recycled towards other purposes.

Even if a scientific training (table 1) is not useful for the self-fulfilment of each one (table 2), it becomes necessary for every one in an advanced hyper-connected technological society because the societal governance must be able to take into account the advantages and the inconveniences of technology (e.g. bio-technologies) and sciences (e.g. nuclear-energy engineering). The respect of the accommodation facilities of our environment of survival implies the knowledge and the control of our capacity to be welcomed here.

What sort of governance will be able to respect and develop our societal and environmental diversity? [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF] What pedagogy to operate for that? Is not curiosity the first motor and respect the first skill? [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF] In school systems where students spend more time in regular science lessons, average science scores are higher [START_REF] Bertrand | PISA 2012 Technical Report[END_REF]. When students spend more time studying science after school, average science scores are lower [START_REF] Echazarra | Do students spend enough time learning?[END_REF]. Currently, in primary and secondary schools, teachers' knowledge of systems thinking is usually poor. However, this is not a barrier to integrate systems thinking in these schools. Of course, easy-to-access supporting material and motivational factors such as self-efficacy and selfdetermination are proved to be important. However, above all, the attribution of significance by teachers is the most promising leverage to foster the adoption of systems thinking in classrooms [START_REF] Kunz | Factors Influencing the Adoption of Systems Thinking in Primary and Secondary Schools in Switzerland[END_REF]. What?, Why?, What for?, and How?

6. WHAT FOR?, HOW?: Not only for higher education, not only in applied sciences [START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Ison | Editorial: Applying systems thinking to higher education[END_REF].

The 'playful state of mind' is the state of mind that people are in when they are innovating or learning from their experiences. Completely open-minded and able to construct and rearrange knowledge, both in Humanities, Arts and Sciences, this state is essential for children learning. The essence of innovation is a break in our perception. When it has emerged, it becomes so obvious that it is difficult to imagine that it did not exist before. However, before the break, the issue at focus is a complex problem in the sense that the relationship between cause and effect can only be perceived in retrospect but not in advance. Sooner children have developed the spirit of experimental design [START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | L'exploitation des procédés d'enseignement et des techniques éducatives en sciences naturelles. II. Les travaux pratiques, dirigés ou indépendants[END_REF], better they will be able to experiment, compete, collaborate and innovate [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Préparation aux concours d'entrée des écoles paramédicales[END_REF]. An overcrowded and fragmented science curriculum was recognized as one of several factors in students' Principle 1. Teach th e functional study of cerebral (biology), mental (anthropology, information science) and cultural (sociology) characteristics of the human knowledge, its processes and modes (artificial intelligence), and the psyche (psychology), and cultural disposition to allow the risk of error or illusion. Consider the broadest range of competences (knowledge, skills and attitudes) in a multi-dimensional context [START_REF] Bricage | L'exploitation des procédés d'enseignement et des techniques éducatives en sciences naturelles. II. Les travaux pratiques, dirigés ou indépendants[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Techniques des Objectifs Pédagogiques : une formation individualisée, finalisée et contractualisée, modulaire[END_REF].

Principle 2. Teach to think about global and fundamental problems, and big ideas, in order to instil the partial and local knowledge, and reciprocally: "The whole is always both more and less than the sum of its parts." The significant knowledge principles within the local context are also within the global one (systemic constructal law [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF]), and they are multi-dimensional and complex (percolation [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF]). Point to interconnection and systemic changes as key points in programme curriculum.

Principle 3. Teach the human condition: every human being is a physical (chemistry, physics), biological (physiology, medicine), psychological, cultural (anthropology, sociology), societal (systems engineering, big data applied computing), and historical (information theory) living system of systems.

Be intentional about responsibility for sustainability. Principle 4. Teach the whole Earth's identity: teach the history of the planet's eras and of all the life forms that are sharing a common environment of survival [eco-exo-tope (http://armsada.eu)] and their fate. Be intentional about societal and environmental responsibility for development and change [START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF].

Principle 5. Face the uncertainties: teach strategic principles that allow to deal with the un-expected and to modify future development according to recently acquired information.

Fulfill each one self-determination and self-fulfillment [START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF]. Principle 6. Teach to tolerate in order to teach for peace, against racism, xenophobia and disrespect. Support girls to 'read' context, gender, and power.

Principle 7. Teach towards humankind ethics. Ethics must be formed in the minds from the consciousness that human beings are, at the same time, individuals, a part of a society, a part of a species, a part of ecosystems and through democracy to conceive of humanity as a planetary community [START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Living Networks of Networks: The Societal and Environmental Responsibility of Humanity in the Fight between Humans and the Wild[END_REF]. Be intentional about human responsibility for human development and change [START_REF] Bricage | An Approach of Organizations and Management: Systemic Ethics, Democracy and Sustainability[END_REF].

Adapted from: -Sustainability in Mexican Higher Education: towards a new academic and professional culture [START_REF] Juarez-Najera | Sustainability in Mexican Higher Education: towards a new academic and professional culture[END_REF], -Translating Competencies to Empowered Action. A Framework for Linking Girls' Life Skills Education to Social Change [START_REF] Kwauk | Translating competencies to empowered action. A framework for linking girls' life skills education to social change[END_REF], -Les sept savoirs nécessaires à l'éducation du futur [START_REF] Morin | Introducción al Pensamiento Complejo[END_REF][START_REF] Morin | Les sept savoirs nécessaires à l'éducation du futur[END_REF].

perception that science was a disconnected series of facts of very little wider meaning. Part of the solution to this problem was to conceive the goals of science education, not in terms of the knowledge of a body of facts and theories, but as a progression towards understanding key ideas of relevance to students' lives during and beyond school [START_REF] Harlen | Working with Big Ideas of Science Education[END_REF]: tables 1, 2. Education, like health [START_REF] Folkers | Programme de travail 2016-2019[END_REF], can not be satisfied by ready-to-think or ready-to-heal [START_REF] Backes-Gellner | Research, innovation and technological performance in Germany[END_REF]. Many people are not satisfied with the ready-to-wear, like MOOCs [START_REF] Laurillard | The potential of MOOCs for learning at scale in the Global South[END_REF]. But the "standard" people have not the money to pay for better individual-made solutions. Maybe ready-made solutions are necessary for a lot of people but they are neither factors of progress nor of success. Progress is always at the margins, and in the "do-it-yourself". Any teacher is primarily a craftsman. Nature itself creates new life forms from a "crafty embedding" of previous ones, but respecting mandatory rules: -there are never any rights without duties,nothing is got without effort. [START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Mulej | Introduction to Systems Thinking with Application to Invention and Innovation Management[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Quel enseignement supérieur et quel accompagnement pour quelles formations en sciences et technologies ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Un accompagnement pour une formation tout au long de la vie : le réseau des formations de l'enseignement supérieur[END_REF][START_REF] Backes-Gellner | Research, innovation and technological performance in Germany[END_REF].

We need first a new way of formation for "systemic thinking" teachers of teachers

Undergraduate landscape good teaching is generally undervalued. Faculty are rarely trained, selected, and assessed as teachers, and their effectiveness as instructors is rarely recognized or rewarded [START_REF] Ferguson | The Future of Undergraduate Education. The Future of America[END_REF]. it is critical for the quality of undergraduate education that effective teachers should be able to build successful professional lives! Currently everybody needs to be educated for lifelong time [START_REF] Bricage | Quel enseignement supérieur et quel accompagnement pour quelles formations en sciences et technologies ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Un accompagnement pour une formation tout au long de la vie : le réseau des formations de l'enseignement supérieur[END_REF], so we have to be careful what we put in education programs to create a systemic acquired culture and an ethical holistic behavior. Dangers are in lacks of transparency and accountability. Cybersystemics can help to develop everyone capacity of influences and factors of innovation [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF] in the respect for international norms of behavior and for human rights [START_REF] Bricage | An Approach of Organizations and Management: Systemic Ethics, Democracy and Sustainability[END_REF]. Digital technology can enhance learning and enable learning on the large scale at a lower cost. Digital technology can support teachers supporting learners. Access to digital technology and to online courses enhances the potential for equity through learning at scale [4 9 ] . A global community needs global knowledge, and the research and innovation activity that allows its advancement [START_REF] Mulej | Informal Systems Thinking or Systems Theory[END_REF][START_REF] Mulej | Introduction to Systems Thinking with Application to Invention and Innovation Management[END_REF] has to develop in a way that is fully conscious of community needs and expectations, at both local and global levels [START_REF] Grau | Towards a Socially Responsible University: Balancing the Global with the Local[END_REF].

Teaching systems sciences and cybernetics is a way to support research and innovation originality and creativity. The important point is not to be led by administrative capacities, and to add value. Not to replicate national educational systems, but to put in place the foundations for a programme that incentivises interdisciplinarity and inter-nationalism [START_REF] Bammer | Disciplining Interdisciplinarity[END_REF][START_REF] Bell | Developing a Vision for Framework Programme 9[END_REF]. We must focus on human, societal and ethical aspects [START_REF] Bricage | An Approach of Organizations and Management: Systemic Ethics, Democracy and Sustainability[END_REF] not just economic or industrial benefits, and impact for the long-term [START_REF] Bell | Developing a Vision for Framework Programme 9[END_REF]. Cyber-systemics recognises fully the value and importance of the humanities and social sciences, and ensures these diverse disciplines have a central role.

The supply and demand for graduates is changing in Europe. The proportion of the population with tertiary qualifications is increasing everywhere. The supply of graduates will continue to rise, bu the future for graduate jobs is especially uncertain [START_REF] Green | Graduates and 'graduate jobs' in Europe: a picture of growth and diversification[END_REF]. So only new skills will allow new jobs to sprout. Think with systems thinking if you want to acquire both new skills (table 2) and a wider professional competency (table 1) [START_REF] Bricage | Techniques des Objectifs Pédagogiques : une formation individualisée, finalisée et contractualisée, modulaire[END_REF].

Conclusion

Living systems are complex, adaptive controlled and controlling systems of systems, engaged in network interactions, both inside (between their functional structures within their body: their endo-physio-tope [START_REF] Bricage | Living Networks of Networks: The Societal and Environmental Responsibility of Humanity in the Fight between Humans and the Wild[END_REF]) and outside (between other systems sharing the same environment: within the same eco-exo-tope [START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Living Networks of Networks: The Societal and Environmental Responsibility of Humanity in the Fight between Humans and the Wild[END_REF]): systemic constructal law [START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF].

Deep problems as the nature of life, mind, and society, are naturally driving to questions of philosophy and epistemology [START_REF] Sattler | Bio-Philosophy. Analytic and Holistic Perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Heylighen | Cybernetics and Second-Order Cybernetics[END_REF]. Cybernetics as a science studies the principles of organization in complex systems. System thinking is concerned not only with what systems consist of, but how they function and survive. Being inherently trans-disciplinary, cyber-systemic reasoning can be applied to understand, model and design systems of any kind: physical, technological, biological, ecological, psychological, societal (tables 1, 2), or any of their combination [START_REF] Geyer | The Challenge of Sociocybernetics[END_REF]. Second-order cybernetics in particular studies the role of the human observer in the construction of models of systems and other observers (table 2).

We need an holistic cyber-systemic education for students because the improvement of the quality of higher education and the improvement of conditions for researchers at universities are linked together and they are the prerequisite for innovation and corporate research [START_REF] Mitterlehner | Austrian Research and Technology Report[END_REF]. We need an holistic cyber-systemic education for managers because the civilian science, technology and industrial development plans are linked together [START_REF] Folkers | Programme de travail 2016-2019[END_REF][START_REF] Cheung | Planning for Innovation. Understanding China's Plans for Technological, Energy, Industrial, and Defense Development[END_REF]. [START_REF] Bammer | Disciplining Interdisciplinarity[END_REF]. A fruitful education system needs to remain dynamic if the quality of education is the main concern, making it a complex system. For example space technology is an interdisciplinary science, which is costly and developing at a fast rate [START_REF] Hooman | Applying the system engineering approach to devise a master's degree program in space technology in developing countries[END_REF]. So every curriculum, towards a transdisciplinary, holistic way of behaviour and through a life long learning way, must be engineered the same manner [START_REF] Bricage | Quelle pédagogie pour quelle formation ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Guide pour l'Enseignement de la Biologie dans les Ecoles Africaines[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | La démarche scientifique expérimentale, un langage systémique[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Engineering Health and Social Sciences Curriculum. Towards a Holistic Behaviour of Teachers and Learners[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Quel enseignement supérieur et quel accompagnement pour quelles formations en sciences et technologies ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | L'exploitation des procédés d'enseignement et des techniques éducatives en sciences naturelles. II. Les travaux pratiques, dirigés ou indépendants[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Conduite d'actions de formation continue en activité d'éveil scientifique. 2. Outil d'évaluation par et pour les formateurs et les formés[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Un accompagnement pour une formation tout au long de la vie : le réseau des formations de l'enseignement supérieur[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Techniques des Objectifs Pédagogiques : une formation individualisée, finalisée et contractualisée, modulaire[END_REF].

An inter-disciplinary curriculum is needed to focus on understanding and development of cognition

Personalized Learning appears to be promising for improving student achievement. But, its full effects vary in different school contexts and may take some time to emerge [START_REF] Yeatman | Development of white matter and reading skills[END_REF]. Higher education is one of the most important investments individuals can make for themselves and for their Country. Many students access student loans to help finance their education [START_REF] Collective | Investing in higher education: benefits, challenges, and the state of student's debt[END_REF]. The International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences (IASCYS http://iascys.org) is a not-for-profit society [START_REF] Bricage | The International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences[END_REF]. It was created as an honor society by the International Federation for Systems Research (IFSR, Vienna Austria, http://ifsr.org) which is an umbrella society of smaller, usually national, academic societies in the field of systems and cybernetics. IASCYS would like to do more than simply honor outstanding contributors so it is expanding the number of international associations it works with (e.g. IRDO, ISSS, SESGE, UES-EUS, WOSC, X-SHS) and it is engaged in offering short courses in systems and cybernetics in various Countries, like China, India or Japan, encouraging academicians to offer open courses and valuable degree programs elsewhere, not only at their home universities. Social learning, for the sustainable management [START_REF] Bricage | The Social and Environmental Responsibility of Mankind. 1. About Man Interventions in the Living Networks: Modelling with a Qualitative Animated Semiological Holistic Point of View, a Systemic Approach, in an Holistic Way of Education[END_REF], use and re-use of finite resources [START_REF] Bricage | Living Networks of Networks: The Societal and Environmental Responsibility of Humanity in the Fight between Humans and the Wild[END_REF], like water [START_REF] Ison | Challenges to science and society in the sustainable management and use of water: investigating the role of social learning[END_REF], is a keystone in environmental policy [START_REF] Ison | Institutionalising social learning: Towards systemic and adaptive governance[END_REF]. Not only technological, but also social innovations can help solve societal challenges. And the most widespread obstacles to innovation are excessive innovation costs and economic risks [START_REF] Collective | Investing in higher education: benefits, challenges, and the state of student's debt[END_REF][START_REF] Backes-Gellner | Research, innovation and technological performance in Germany[END_REF]. Better mutual understanding of the diverse m e n t a l m o d e l s , d e e p u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e interconnectedness between possible actions in order to develop efficient and cost-effective management strategies are keystones for continuous co-learning and refinement of management strategies, particularly in developing countries [START_REF] Bosch | Managing Complex Issues through Evolutionary Learning Laboratories[END_REF], not only in higher education and not only for boys. Promotion of girls' life skills education is the best way for social changes [START_REF] Kwauk | Translating competencies to empowered action. A framework for linking girls' life skills education to social change[END_REF]. We need special worldwide educative structures to struggle against disruptive economical and societal changes [START_REF] Folkers | Programme de travail 2016-2019[END_REF][START_REF] King | Motivating knowledge sharing through a knowledge management system[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | Quality management in higher education: Developments and drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Čančer | Capability of New Systems Theories to Help Escape the Crisis[END_REF] and to promote youngsters' success [START_REF] Alexander | Forum sur l'Investissement dans les Jeunes Enfants à l'échelle Mondiale: Synthèse de neuf ateliers mondiaux Exploration fondée sur les faits des investissements stratégiques dans les jeunes enfants[END_REF]. "We cannot make the world without you, it will be better only if we could do it with you" [START_REF] Coccia | Trend of the intensity of international collaborations by scientific fields[END_REF]. "Be intentional about prerequisite variety" [START_REF] Bricage | Systémique et accompagnement : pédagogie de la gouvernance et gouvernance de la pédagogie (Governance in Education and Teaching of Governance)[END_REF][START_REF] Bricage | Thinking and teaching systemics: bio-systemics in higher education[END_REF].

"L'éducation est l'arme la plus puissante qu'on puisse utiliser pour changer le monde." Nelson Mandela

Table 1 .

 1 What?, Why?, What for?, and How?: Knowledge, skills and holistic behavior.

Table 2 .

 2 Governance of principles, principles of governance.


Elodie Bordat-Chauvin

Néstor Kirchner

Cultural Policies and Change Cultural Policies and Change: Mexico and Argentina after the Neoliberal Turn (1983-2012)

Keywords: institutional change, public policies, cultural policies, Mexico, Argentina

This article examines the changes that neoliberalism brought to the Mexican and Argentine cultural policies. Did the neoliberal turn of the 1980s and the deepening of the reforms in the 1990s have the same effects in both countries? The findings of this article show that neoliberalism had a greater effect on cultural policy in Mexico because, since the Miguel de La Madrid administration in 1982, all governments have deepened neoliberal policies. On the other hand, in Argentina, where cultural policy is less institutionalized and more dependent on politics, neoliberalism had a major influence in the 1990s but less so since 2003 and

Introduction

A comparison of Mexico and Argentina provides an interesting case for understanding the changes that neoliberalism has brought to culture. These two countries have in common the Cultural Policies and Change implementation in the 1990s of the most-drastic and orthodox monetarist reforms in Latin America, and were considered to be the two best pupils of International Monetary Fund (IMF). They also share a common a history (both were Spanish colonies that became independent in 1810), and political and economic features (both are federal republics and presidential regimes and have bicameral congresses). They are members of the Group of Twenty (G-20), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and regional free-trade zones (the North American Free Trade Agreement-NAFTA-, and the Southern Common Market-Mercosur). Finally, they share territorial characteristics, as they are the biggest countries in Latin America after Brazil. They also have differences that make the comparison heuristic.

Mexico has a large indigenous population (6%, according to INEGI, 2014); and in Argentina the indigenous represent only 1% (INDEC, 2014), yet the country received 6 million foreigners between the end of the 19 th and the beginning of the 20 th centuries (Rouquié, 1978, p. 24). After the 2001 socioeconomic crisis, the Argentines elected on three occasions leftwing governments that distanced themselves from the neoliberal policies implemented in the 2000s. By contrast, in Mexico the governments of the National Action Party (PAN) deepened neoliberal reforms after they replaced the Institutional Revolution Party (PRI) in 2000.

A cultural policy can be defined as, "the actions that a state […] take(s) that affect the cultural life of its citizens" (Mulcahy, 2006, p. 267), and also "a moment of convergence and coherence between, on the one hand, representations of the role the state may allot to art and 'culture' with regard to society and, on the other, the organization of a public action" (Urfalino, 2004, p. 13). Mexican and Argentine cultural policies share several characteristics. 1. Administrative level. Historically, the department dedicated to support culture has the same administrative-level secretariat of state, the Secretariat of Culture of the Nation in Argentina, and the National Council for Culture and Arts in Mexico. i Cultural Policies and Change 2. Institutional framework. Both constitutions guarantee the right to culture; there are cinema, heritage, book, and reading laws.

3. Policy Instruments. There are national funds for arts (FNA in Argentina) and culture (FONCA in Mexico).

These policies also have some differences.

1. Administrative belonging. The cultural sector was attached to education from 1921 to 2015 in Mexico. In Argentina, culture was attached to the presidency, education, and justice and linked to communication, sport, or tourism-depending on the government in power-until 2014.

2. Budget. The budgets have been historically higher in Mexico than in Argentina, as the article will show. This article argues that neoliberalism has brought changes to the Mexican and Argentine cultural policies. Neoliberalism is understood as the sum of theories that have renewed liberal economic thinking since the end of the 1930s. These theories criticize state interventionism, which tends to limit the market and individual freedom and to cause a slowdown in economic development (Nay, 2011). Neoliberalism is at once a dominant economic theory, a political ideology, a public-policy philosophy, and a set of beliefs and mental representations [START_REF] Hall | Social resilience in the neoliberal era[END_REF]. It is "A vague idea, a belief in the efficacy of the market, which reincarnates itself in different ways according to the political processes and the public policy sector analyzed" [START_REF] Crespy | Les avatars du néo-libéralisme dans la fabrique des politiques européennes[END_REF]. If neoliberalism has brought change to the cultural policies studied here, can it be said that the scope of these changes is similar? This article will show that neoliberalism had a greater effect on cultural policy in Mexico because, since the de La Madrid administration in 1982, all governments have deepened neoliberal policies. On the other hand, in Argentina, as cultural policy is less institutionalized ii and more dependent on Cultural Policies and Change politics, neoliberalism had major influence during the Menem administration (1989-99) but less so during the Alfonsín (1983-89) and Kirchner (2003-12) administrations.

Mexico and Argentina's governments reduced the scope of their cultural administration and transferred competencies to the private sector through public-private partnerships. These changes led to transformations in the cultural policies' main objectives, or "philosophy of action" [START_REF] Urfalino | L'invention de la politique culturelle[END_REF], but in Mexico cultural policy has known more drastic changes.

NAFTA induced deeper transformations in the Mexican cultural sector than did Mercosur in Argentina. Also, decentralization policies in Mexico have gone further, and the philosophy of action of "culture as an economic resource" has been dominant since the 1990s. This article shows that in Argentina a new philosophy of action appeared during Néstor Kirchner's government in 2003.

Accounting for Change in Public and Cultural Policies

Instead of explaining their transformation, scholars who study cultural policies are more inclined to describe models or trajectories [START_REF] Hillman-Chartrand | The Arm's Length Principle and the Arts: An International Perspective -Past, Present and Future[END_REF], to analyze institutionalization processes [START_REF] Dubois | L'institutionnalisation des politiques culturelles en Europe du Sud : éléments pour une approche comparée[END_REF], or to describe current cultural policies through their genesis [START_REF] Dubois | La politique culturelle : genèse d'une catégorie d'intervention publique[END_REF]. The few works dealing with the phenomena of change in cultural policy [START_REF] Mulcahy | Public Culture and Political Culture: La Politique Culturelle du Québec[END_REF][START_REF] Paquette | Arts Management and Cultural Policy Research[END_REF][START_REF] Gray | The Politics of the Arts in Britain[END_REF] do not use the literature on public-policy change or are based on sectoral cultural policies, such as [START_REF] Surel | L'Etat et le livre: Les politiques publiques du livre en France (1957-1993[END_REF], on the book policy in France; [START_REF] Parker | Multi-level order, friction and contradiction: the evolution of Australian film industry policy[END_REF], on the cinema policy in Australia; and [START_REF] Shockley | A Seismic Shift in U.S. Federal Arts Policy: A Tale of Organizational Challenge and Controversy in the 1990s[END_REF], on the art policy in the United States. Even though recent works attempt to fill this gap in the literature [START_REF] Bordat-Chauvin | Retour sur les transformations contemporaines des politiques culturelles[END_REF][START_REF] Barbieri | Légitimité et changement des politiques culturelles: de la transition culturelle à la " désétatisation[END_REF], cultural policies are still unmapped territories for scholars working on public-policy changes. [START_REF] Gattinger | The "Neoliberal Turn" in Provincial Cultural Policy and Administration in Québec and Ontario: The Emergence of 'Quasi-Neoliberal' Approaches[END_REF] The literature on public-policy change shows that political scientists have studied the mechanisms of inertia and path dependence [START_REF] Pierson | Politics in time, History, Institutions, and Social Analysis[END_REF]) more than the transformation processes [START_REF] Capano | Introduction. The Determinants of Policy Change: Advancing the Debate[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Zimmer | The subsidized muse: Government and the arts in Western Europe and the United States[END_REF], cultural policies are particularly marked by inertia. Learning costs are very high in this sector, so changes are rare and are often considered marginal accidents that result from exogenous shocks, such as economic crises [START_REF] Baumgartner | Agenda Dynamics and Policy Subsystems[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Thelen | Comment les institutions évoluent, perspectives de l'analyse comparée Cultural Policies and Change historique[END_REF], elements of inertia are mixed with elements of change that allow institutions to be compatible with the changing economic, political, and social contexts. If exogenous shocks can explain changes to public policies, little endogenous changes matter too. Even if they seem marginal or invisible, they can lead to important transformations by effect of accumulation [START_REF] Mahoney | Explaining Institutional Change: Ambiguity, Agency, and Power[END_REF]. This article argues that institutional change can be understood only by taking socioeconomic and political context and its characteristics into account, and that the degree of institutionalization of policies explains the permeability of the policy to major or minor political changes.

Similar Changes that Neoliberalism Has Brought to the Cultural Policies

In the neoliberal ideology, government should be small, and the private sector and civil society should have a greater involvement in programs. Mexican and Argentine governments reduced the scope of the cultural public sector and transferred competences to the private sector. These kinds of changes have contributed to transform the "philosophies of action" iii of both cultural policies.

Reducing Administration and Budget in Culture Cultural Policies and Change

In both countries, New Public Management methods were implemented that induced budgetary rationalizations and suppressions of administrative structures and of public positions. These managerial discourses were coupled with the discourse of "good governance." In this perspective, reducing administrative burden allows for more-efficient and less-expensive policies and proximity with users. In Argentina, the cultural administrations were reduced from the 1990s to the mid-2000s. The Secretariat for Culture, which includes Communication since 1987, became an Under-Secretariat for Culture in 1993.

On several occasions, the organization lost under-secretariats, going from three (for culture, communication, and coordination), to one (1999), or two (2001). Several national directions were suppressed or merged. National institutions, such as the National Commission for Museum, Monuments and Historic Places, became administrative delegations, functioning with the administrative autarchy principle, which implies that they depend on the Secretariat for Culture but have their own estate (made up of donations, legacies, and public funds).

Other institutions-such as the Cervantes National Theatre, the National Library, and the Commission for the Protection of Popular Libraries-increased their managerial and financial autonomy, which, as Secretary of Culture Pacho O'Donnell explained, enabled them "to have freedom in managing resources, giving them the possibility of signing partnership agreements and raising funds" (P. O'Donnell, personal communication, July 6, 2010). As neoliberal policies were deepened or economic crises arose, the cultural administration was reduced.

In Mexico, since the creation of the National Council for Culture and Art (CONACULTA) in 1988, during Carlos Salinas' government, there has been a multiplication of departments and cultural organizations. This president looked for the support of the artists and intellectuals, since his election led to questions about his legitimacy in power [START_REF] Bordat | Institutionalization and change in cultural policy: CONACULTA and cultural policy in Mexico (1988-2006)[END_REF]. From 2000, and especially from 2006 to 2012, PAN governments suppressed several cultural services. For instance, during Vicente Fox's government (2000-06), five departments were suppressed, iv Cultural Policies and Change and others lost their level in the hierarchy. v During Felipe Calderón's government , 12 departments and coordinations passed to a lower administrative level, vi as the analysis of the documents of the Federal Regulatory Improvement Commission (COFEMER) shows (COFEMER, n.d.). As with the administration, the budgets were reduced in the 1990s.

Between 1989 and 2009, Argentina assigned between 0.20 and 0.31% of the state budget to this sector. In 2001, budgets were reduced by 90%. In Mexico, cultural budgets were higher.

The part of the national budget fluctuated between 0.48 and 0.88% during the same period and reached its lowest in 1994, vii during the "tequila effect" crisis. Budget cuts led to a decrease of state-funded activities. To continue their actions, public organizations turned to the private sector to fund projects or infrastructure works.

Public-private Partnership in Culture

The injunction to downsize the state and its attributions is based on the belief that action is more rational, efficient, and effective in the private sector. For this reason, since the early 1990s, Mexican and Argentine governments called for more participation from companies, foundations, and associations to fund cultural policy, especially in the cultural heritage sector.

Mark [START_REF] Schuster | Deconstructing a Tower of Babel: privatization, decentralization and devolution as ideas in good currency in cultural policy[END_REF] warns against hasty generalizations about the meaning of the term "privatization" in the cultural sector, in particular concerning public-private partnerships. He asserts that the public-private dichotomy has blurred boundaries. That is why, in the realm of implementation and funding, it is often a question of mixed systems. Partnerships with companies are not always synonymous with privatization. For example, museums may delegate rubbish collection to firms subcontracted by the state. Moreover, even in museums that need no public funding the state intervenes in its role of guarantor of the law to ensure that contracts are fulfilled and consumer and workers' rights respected, or to regulate the activities of non-profit-making organizations. Cultural Policies and Change

The Mexican governments encouraged private-sector participation in the development of tourism, based on the importance of the participation of civil society in heritage administration and the need to reduce public expenditure. Through "public policy instruments" (Lascoumes & Le Galès, 2007) such as concessions, private companies are now in charge of the regional development of culture and tourism. For instance, the administration and tourism development of Xcaret, an ecological and archeological site in the state of Quintana Roo, has been given to a private company. The agreement set in 1994 states that land where there are vestiges and exits to public roads remains under CONACULTA authority, and the company will deposit a low percentage of tickets sales for the next 25 years.

In Argentina, public funds for museums were so low in the 1990s and 2000s that represented only enough to pay salaries (A. Castilla, Museum and Heritage Director, personal communication, June 2, 2010). Museum directors had to settle agreements with companies and trade private visits of museums or loans of paintings to pay for renovations.

The application of neoliberal policies led to public budget cuts and the development of new strategies and instruments to gather non-public funds, and to the inclusion of private actors in the cultural policy making. These changes also induced modifications in the main objectives of the policies.

From "Democratization of Culture" to "Culture as an Economic Resource"

The documents published by cultural institutions (plans, reports, and discourses), viii public statements, and interviews with secretaries of culture allow for evaluations of the transformations in the cognitive framework, the objectives and definitions of the cultural policy. In both countries, the "democratization of culture" philosophy-that is to bring high culture, art, and artists to individuals who are not used to it-was the main philosophy during the Alfonsín administration and at the beginning of the Salinas government. When neoliberal policies deepened, a new philosophy appeared, "culture as an economic resource." In this new Cultural Policies and Change philosophy, investments in culture have to generate employment and currencies and participate in the economic development.

According to the main objectives and missions of the Argentine cultural policy during the Alfonsín government, the philosophy of action was "cultural democratization" (see Table 1).

With the support of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Secretary Marcos Aguinis (1986-87) implemented a program called National Program for the Democratization of Culture (PRONDEC). Its objective was to fight against authoritarianism in Argentina's society through culture. When Carlos Menem was President (1989-99), "democratization of culture" was no longer the only philosophy of action. "Culture as an economic resource" became increasingly dominant. The notions of "culture" and "economy" were closely linked, as this quote from the Federal Plan for Culture, published in 1990, shows. "[Culture] is a sort of web that connect economic, political and social domains" (Secretaría de Cultura, 1990). Culture is understood as creation, production, and merchandise. Art is no longer considered solely as carrying meaning; it is also a production, in the sense that culture creates and puts goods into circulation. The authors of the Plan underlined that, "culture should not passively wait for economic development […] in order to benefit from it. [Culture] must participate in order to meet the market demands" (Secretaría de Cultura, 1990, p. 22). According to Secretary O'Donnell, ix the free and massive outdoor concerts that he often organized in Buenos Aires contributed to "strengthen the social link" and democratize the access of culture, because "it includes everybody" (personal communication, June 7, 2010, Buenos Aires). All of the Secretariat for Culture's communication was oriented toward the consumption of culture. In an institutional advertising campaign, Argentines were invited to read and therefore buy books, to see art exhibitions and then buy art pieces, and so on. The role of culture as a symbolic creator was left aside for its entertaining and economic role. Secretary Pacho O'Donnell (personal Cultural Policies and Change communication, July 6, 2010) underlined that cultural public organizations must sign partnerships with the private sector and make the Argentines pay for cultural services to maintain their activities and overcome the economic crisis. "Culture, he declared, should learn lobbying and stop complaining, and learn to negotiate" (Clarín, 1997).

In Mexico, when V. Flores Olea was at the head of CONACULTA (1988-92), the "objectives" of the cultural policy were clearly linked to the democratization of culture philosophy, as is shown in Table 2. When V. Flores Olea was evicted in 1992 and replaced by Rafael Tovar y de Teresa, the philosophy of action continued to be the democratization of culture, as several programs dedicated to the diffusion of heritage, art, and popular or indigenous culture show (CONACULTA, 1990[START_REF] Conaculta | Programa Nacional de Cultura 1995-2000[END_REF], but a new philosophy progressively appeared, "culture as an economic resource." It did not replace the democratization of culture but rather the two coexisted. In 1992, R. Tovar highlighted the fact that touristic promotion of heritage was important and that the archeological zones needed to be reinforced as generators of resources.

He stressed that, to achieve this, the participation of the private sector and local government in its defense and preservation was decisive (Proceso, 1992;[START_REF] Tovar Y De Teresa | Modernización y política cultural[END_REF]. A replacement of a political leader can be seen as a marginal factor of change, but change in decision makers can induce important transformations in public policy because the administration takes part in decisions and has leeway in their implementation [START_REF] Geddes | Politician's dilemma: building state capacity in Latin America[END_REF].

This situation is even stronger in Mexico and Argentina, where there is a pyramidal "system of patronage" [START_REF] Grindle | Jobs for the Boys, Patronage and the State in Comparative Perspective[END_REF] in public administrations that allows decision makers to ensure their subordinates' loyalty, as they can dismiss them at any moment. These changes have even more consequences when the organization's missions are not strongly and clearly defined [START_REF] Selznick | Leadership in administration: a sociological interpretation[END_REF]. Furthermore, these actors are part of the definition and construction of the organizations' identities, thanks to their capacity to appoint their teams. Replacing Cultural Policies and Change administrative managers means replacing the agents authorized to talk about cultural policy and the way of talking about it. With President Zedillo (1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000), the "culture as an economic resource" philosophy became more important. In his Development Plan he stated that it was necessary to "encourage the contribution of the private sector" in support of the creation and diffusion of cultural products. Thanks to "the updating of cultural institutions' legal framework, social participation in the funding, planning and carrying out of projects for the conservation, promotion and diffusion of culture will be strengthened" (Presidencia de la República, 1995).

Mexico and Argentina's cultural policies have seen similar changes-a decrease in cultural budgets, suppressions of organizations, and an increasing participation of the private sector.

These changes induce the emergence of a new philosophy of action-culture as an economic resource-that challenges the preexisting one, the democratization of culture. Exogenous factors have induced these changes (i.e. macroeconomic policies), but so have small endogenous changes (the appointment of new decision makers to head the cultural policies).

Intermittent Changes in Argentina, Deeper Changes in Mexico

Despite the political alternation in 2000, there has been no shift in the Mexican economic policy. Rather the two right-wing governments of the PAN (2000-12) deepened neoliberal policies. Culture as an economic resource started to replace democratization of culture as the main philosophy of action. In Argentina on the contrary, the election of a left-wing government in 2003 led to the replacement of this philosophy for one of "social inclusion and citizenship." In addition to these differences, the instruments used to implement the objective of decentralization are different, and so are the consequences of regional free-trade agreements.

Consequences of NAFTA and Mercosur for Cinema and Heritage Cultural Policies and Change

Exogenous factors of change do not always induce important policy transformations in all sectors and contexts. NAFTA led to significant changes in the Mexican cultural policy, especially in the cinema sector. In contrast, as the Mercosur agreement tolerates measures such as broadcasting quotas, the cinema policy did not suffer major changes. The changes in the Argentine cultural policy are to be found in the heritage sector, most affected by free-trade agreements.

One consequence of NAFTA is that Mexico has to take into account the institutional framework of the agreement and negotiate with multiple new actors, especially transnational actors, as it implements its public policies. During the negotiations with Canada and the United States, Mexico amended its legislation to prevent norms considered as protectionist by its partners from impeding the signature. This fact is visible particularly in the cinema sector.

In the cinema law adopted in 1992, the quota for the transmission of national productions was reduced from 50% to 10%. When NAFTA came into effect, the original measure could not be respected, as it violated the principle of free competition, the agreement's cornerstone. From then on, Mexican film production has decreased significantly. There were 104 productions in 1990, 14 in 1995, and only 9 in 1997. Approximately 90% of the movies broadcast in Mexico come from the United States (García Canclini & Piedras Feria, 2006, p. 28). To face this crisis, the Mexican movie industry began mobilizing and lobbying to encourage Congress to adopt a new instrument that could support the production and distribution of Mexican films.

In 2002, a fund was created, financed by taxes on movie tickets (1 peso on each ticket, approximately 2% of the ticket price). It is known as "peso en taquilla" [peso in shop window]. Considering the earning foregone, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), which includes the most-influential actors of the movie industry, demanded the annulment of this measure, considered protectionist, in January 2003. The MPAA's representative for Latin America advocated to the Mexican Supreme Court that this measure Cultural Policies and Change was unconstitutional, as it went against free trade. The Supreme Court repealed the peso en taquilla measure in 2004. This example shows that NAFTA has widely reduced the Mexican state's leeway to regulate this sector and that the socioeconomic context matters to explain policy changes.

Implementing Decentralization

Decentralization is an objective in both cultural policies, but it has not been implemented with the same kind of instruments xvii . Decentralization has become one of the main goals in the cultural policy objectives and missions of both countries since the 1990s because even though they are federations, Mexico and Argentina are countries where power is highly centralized, Cultural Policies and Change and sub-national governments have no formal competencies in culture. Furthermore, decentralization is one of the recipes that neoliberalism promotes to downsize the state.

Finally, UNESCO recommends decentralizing cultural policy to deepen democracy at a local level. In Mexico, decentralization is considered an instrument that provides cultural goods and services for the whole country (CONACULTA, 1994, p. 17). Secretary R. Tovar y de Teresa (1994) underlines that the state has "to preserve the mosaic of regional and local creation" thanks to decentralization policies (p. 75). During Vicente Fox's government , decentralization became a synonym of citizen participation. In Argentina, decentralization is understood as reparation. According to the Federal Plan of Culture of 1990, Buenos Aires and other big cities would have captured Argentina's economic resources and imposed a way of life and development on the rest of the country (Secretaría de Cultura, 1990, p. 19).

Decentralization allowed them to reverse this situation. It could be possible if every national institution of culture had a representative from each province. As in Mexico, Argentina's decentralization has been operationalized through changes in the relationship between actors and the adoption of new instruments.

Since the early 1990s, Mexico's public authorities have created institutions to transfer resources from the federation to the states and encourage coordination between both levels of government; these are the regional units of culture. Furthermore, CONACULTA supports regional cultural infrastructures co-managed and co-funded by state governments, artists, and artistic associations of states called mixed funds. It is what P. Moulinier calls a "civic decentralization," that is "the gift of cultural and social responsibilities to people involved" (2002, p. 14) to give minorities the right to express themselves. In the 2000s, "municipal funds for culture" were created that are "economic, conventional and incentive instruments," as they rely on mechanisms of participative democracy and aim at deepening participation at every level of government (Lascoumes & Le Galès, 2011, p. 101). Each fund includes a Cultural Policies and Change 'Citizens' Community' that includes representatives from each sector of civil society and the local cultural community (CONACULTA, 1995, p. 38) to "collaborate" in the planning of the national cultural policy.

In Argentina, there are no economic or financial instruments like those observed in Mexico.

National budgets are much lower and cannot allow for these kinds of funding. The objective of decentralization is implemented through the creation of several institutions at which national and federal authorities are invited to discuss. The first consultation of provinces about culture happened shortly after the return of democracy, in 1984, as artists, playwrights, and writers, named at the head of the Secretariat of Culture, wanted their proposals for the cultural policy to reach a consensus. Other spaces of participation and dialogue were created in the 2000s. The De La Rúa government (1999[START_REF] Conaculta | Programa Nacional de Cultura 2001-2006[END_REF]) created a "federal consultative committee" to gather regional representatives of culture, appointed by peers. During Cristina Fernández de Kichner's mandate , the federal committee of Culture created in 1979 was put into operation. Since 2006, the Argentine Congress of Culture is organized every two years and brings together many actors from the cultural sector to share experiences and express demands regarding the cultural policy. The creation of these institutions, spaces of dialogue, and representations of provinces allowed relationships between federal and provincial institutions of cultural policy to change.

Despite an increasing number of instruments and spaces of participation for Argentine provinces and Mexican states, one cannot talk about "political and administrative cultural decentralization" [START_REF] Moulinier | Politique culturelle et décentralisation[END_REF], as CONACULTA and the Secretariat of Culture delegate only a few competencies to sub-national cultural institutions. Funds were created in Mexico, and new spaces of dialogue were created in Argentina. The same objective, decentralization, was not implemented with the same instruments. Cultural Policies and Change

A New Philosophy of Action

Political alternations and small endogenous changes led to changes in the philosophies of action. In Mexico, "culture as an economic resource" became progressively dominant. In Argentina, after the political alternation of 2003, "social inclusion and citizenship" replaced it.

During Secretary Sari Bermúdez's time in office , there was tension between the democratization-of-culture and culture-as-an-economic-resource philosophies of action, as the "principles" of the cultural policy in Table 3 show.

The equal access to cultural goods and services and "balanced cultural development" clearly refers to the democratization of culture principles. The latter notion is explained in Vicente Fox's Cultural program; "art and culture are part of everyone's full development" (CONACULTA, 2001, p. 1), and "The government will support culture because of its intrinsic value as a privileged form to succeed to a development that includes political, economic and social freedom, to equal opportunities to education" (CONACULTA 2001, p 22). As for the "citizenization" [ciudadanización] of public institutions, it is an expression from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) jargon and refers to the inclusion of citizens in public administrations.

During Felipe Calderón 's government (2006-12), one single "principle" was presented, "balanced human development," which meant "that all Mexicans have access to the participation and enjoyment of art and cultural heritage in this country as a part of their human development" (CONACULTA, 2007, p. 22). The transformation in the names and objectives in heritage departments shows that culture as an economic resource progressively When he arrived to the presidency, Néstor Kirchner made major changes to Argentina's macroeconomic policy and took a large step back from neoliberal institutions, especially the IMF. Secretary Torcuato Di Tella (2003-04) conducted a cultural policy that aimed to develop the "social role of art" so that "deprived groups" had cultural activities. For instance, in the Palais des Glaces, an elite cultural venue, he organized an exhibition of piquetero and cartonero art. xviii Culture was no longer considered an economic resource but a way of reconstructing social cohesion. Even the touristic-cultural policies were oriented toward the social use of heritage [START_REF] Di Tella | Plan Nacional quiquenal para una revolución cultural en la Argentina[END_REF]. He resigned in 2004 and was replaced by another sociologist, José Nún. Whereas Torcuato Di Tella stressed the importance of the industrial and productive nature of culture, José Nún believed there was a need to "consolidate national identity" and "give new value to the sense of belonging to the nation" (Jefatura de Gabinete, 2007, p. 343), and that "the construction of citizenship" was a major issue. A new philosophy of action appeared, "social inclusion and citizenship." Culture was then an "expediency" [START_REF] Yúdice | The expediency of culture: Uses of culture in the global era[END_REF] to reconstruct a broken social fabric. This philosophy gave meaning and coherence to such diverse objectives as financing cultural projects of worker-controlled Cultural Policies and Change factories [empresas recuperadas], booking distributions to social housing inhabitants, and promoting heritage protection or programs for indigenous populations aimed at modernizing and developing craft production. Art should help social inclusion, such as in the "community development program" that participated in the financing of cultural projects that "reinforce local identity, participation and regional work" (Jefatura de Gabinete, 2007 p. 354), or the Culture Nation Coffee program that allowed for dialogue and citizen debates and repaired the damaged social fabric (Jefatura de Gabinete, 2005, pp 35, 37). These different programs seek to link culture and identity with a socioeconomic activity, with work, and therefore with social inclusion. In Argentina, the political alternation led to a transformation of the philosophy of action because the policy was less institutionalized xix and therefore more dependent on politics, but also because there had been a change in macroeconomic policies.

In Mexico, as the general orientation of the policies continued to be neoliberal, there were no changes in the cultural policy philosophy of action.

Conclusion

Most Western countries have adopted similar main objectives influenced by the UNESCO reports-democratization of culture, growth of cultural industries, and professionalization of the cultural sector-and have given a growing role to the private sector, local governments, and international organizations. The philosophies of actions of Mexico and Argentina's cultural policies are similar, and this article has underlined that they have also created new ones, "culture as an economic resource" and "social inclusion and citizenship." The Kirchner administrations have taken a step back in the implementation of neoliberal policies, whereas the PAN governments in Mexico deepened these policies, so the consequences on cultural policies were different. In the 1990s, cultural budgets were low, several cultural institutions had to shut down, and cultural investments had to generate return on investments. In Mexico, Cultural Policies and Change neoliberalism had broad changes since the 1990s, especially in cinema and heritage, because all four governments studied here implemented the same economic policy. The socioeconomic and political contexts are thus major factors in explaining cultural policy changes. This article has also underlined that changes that can be perceived as small, such as the dismissal of a leader in the administration, can have consequences when the organization's missions are not strongly and clearly defined. In both countries, the arrival of new decision makers has led to a transformation in the philosophy of action of the cultural policies. broadcasting services and telecommunications services; Paraguay, which excluded press, radio, and TV broadcasting medias; and Uruguay, which excluded telecommunications, radio, press, and audiovisual medias [START_REF] Mercosur | Protocole de Colonia pour la promotion et la protection réciproque des investissements dans le MERCOSUR[END_REF]. xi The legislation regulating cinematographic industry is one of the most proactive on the continent in terms of incentives for production and diffusion, spectators for national films, and the number of awards received for movies at international festivals. xii Thanks to a satellite account, it evaluates the weight of culture in the economies of the continent and gathers information on member countries' cultural sectors. xiii It finances creation, circulation, and promotion of cultural goods and services in the region. xiv It promotes the exchange of products of cultural industries. Cultural Policies and Change xv It gathered members of the commissions of culture to create regional institutional frameworks allowing free circulation of cultural goods and services in the region and to organize legislators' work. xvi It is a network of 23,000 paths crossing Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Argentina. For the first time, countries jointly asked for the UNESCO cultural heritage of all mankind status. xvii For elements on the trajectories of decentralization processes and their outcomes in Argentina and Mexico see [START_REF] Falleti | Decentralization and subnational politics in Latin America[END_REF].

About the Author

xviii Piqueteros comes from piquete (picket), to protest by standing or walking; these movements appeared during Carlos Menem's first government. Cartoneros are kinds of rag-and-bone men who collected cardboard products to sell to firms for recycling. xix Even though budgets increased, a planning of the action was carried out, and an organization dedicated culture existed, Argentine cultural policy was less institutionalized than in Mexico, which had a consolidated clientele around cultural organizations, a higher budget, and more political support during PRI administrations [START_REF] Bordat-Chauvin | When Cultural Policies Change. Comparing Mexico and Argentina[END_REF].

  explore the consequences of the neoliberal turn in Canada by comparing two provincial cultural policies Cultural Policies and Change and conclude that Ontario and Quebec have "progressively grafted economic market-based objectives into their existing policy frameworks." This article will show that the Mexican and Argentine policies present similar factors.

  Mercosur has not led to this kind of change in Argentine cultural policy, first because the liberalization of some cultural sectors and the opening to foreign investments predate the signature of the Asunción treaty. x In this case few endogenous changes (progressive liberalization of several sectors) led by accumulation to more-important policy changes.Second, Mercosur allows countries to adopt measures that NAFTA forbids, such as quotas for broadcasting national productions or funds for the movie industry financed by a tax on movie tickets. xi Still, Mercosur led to other types of changes with the creation of new instruments, the "cultural Mercosur" label, which facilitates the circulation of cultural goods; Cultural Information System of Mercosur (SICSUR); xii the fund of cultural, Mercosur, xiii and recently, the Cultural Industries Market of the South (MICSUR).xiv Mercosur also promotes the emergence of new actors, such as the Cultural Parliament of Mercosur (PARCUM).xv Mercosur fosters the formulation of new objectives (circulation of artistic works and artists, cooperation agreements in cultural sectors) and new programs, such as the Inca Trail (Qhapac Ñán). xvi Thus, Mercour has had several effects on cultural policy, new public instruments, actors, and cognitive frameworks, even if at first glance they seem less visible than in the case of Mexico and NAFTA.

  became the main philosophy of action during the PAN governments. During the PRI governments, the first cultural program was "Preservation and Diffusion of National cultural Heritage." S. Bermudez kept this program and created a new one, "Heritage and Tourism Cultural Policies and Change development." With Secretary Sergio Vela (2006-09), the mention of "preservation" of the first program was replaced by "Heritage and Cultural Diversity," and the second became "Culture and Tourism." Then the Heritage department started to include tourism. The representation of heritage changed from being a factor of identity to a factor of economic development. Finally, several programs were cancelled during Felipe Calderón's government, diffusion of popular (indigenous) culture, decentralization and social link, and popular participation to cultural policy. The only direction created was for cultural industries. Minor changes, which might have seemed invisible, led to the consolidation of a change in the cultural policy philosophy; democratization of culture was progressively left aside, and culture as an economic resource became the only philosophy of action.

Elodie Bordat -

 Bordat Chauvin holds a PhD in political science and an undergraduate degree in ethnology. She published the book When Cultural Policy Change. Comparing Mexico and Argentina with Peter Lang in 2015. She currently teaches comparative politics and cultural policies at the Institut d'Etudes Politiques d'Aix-en-Provence and in Aix-Marseille Université (France), and she is a researcher at the CHERPA research center.