Jaana Holvikivi
email: jaana.holvikivi@metropolia.fi

Enhancing Innovation Potential through Local Capacity Building in Education

Keywords: capacity building, ICTs, developing countries, education, mobile technologies, innovations

Global technology education is largely dominated by Western universities. Students from developing countries face an enormous challenge when moving from their local education system into the competitive international education market. Their local knowledge gets lost in a foreign education system where the students are required to acquire a new set of skills. This paper presents a survey among international technology students that highlights the differences. Moreover, the paper explores the situation from the developing country perspective, and brings forth a proposal for strengthening the education capacities in the developing countries particularly in the fields of ICTs and mobile technologies. Strengthening local knowledge building would allow innovations based on local needs and potentials.

Introduction

International education has grown to a large and ever changing market of services. A growing number of students seek a place to study outside their home country in order to find best education in information technology and engineering [START_REF] Ejee | Special Issue: Globalization and its impact on engineering education and research[END_REF], [START_REF] Leask | Special issue on Internationalization of the Curriculum and the Disciplines[END_REF]. On the other hand, many countries and universities have an explicit internationalization policy, actively inviting overseas students to their degree programs. Internationalization is considered as a positive trend in industrialized countries, as well as a novel source of revenues. However, it also brings challenges to institutions that may not have a long experience in educating foreigners.

The worlds' most prominent universities are in an advantageous position in the global competition. Their good reputation, top position in global rankings, and recently, their ability to offer high profile MOOC's (massive open online courses) attracts top students. In a situation where they can choose the best talent and most suitable students, they do not need to adjust to a heterogeneous student body. The background of students has been screened to fit the institutions' practices. Even when these universities set up subsidiaries in other countries such as China or India, their educational offering largely remains the same. However, other universities face a more challenging situation: they need to work to obtain good quality applicants, they need to be able to screen among the great variety of them, and they have more pressure to adjust to student needs. Simultaneously, they need to produce competent professionals efficiently, in order to be profitable. These challenges have evoked much research and discussion among universities nationally and worldwide, generating a substantial literature on these issues. The main research approach has centered on a few questions: how to recruit efficiently, how to generate income, how to help students adapt to the new environment, and how to provide supporting studies. Only few universities have attempted to modify their core curricula to accommodate a diverse student population [START_REF] Leask | Special issue on Internationalization of the Curriculum and the Disciplines[END_REF].

This paper aims at scrutinizing the need for more fundamental changes in internationalization of higher education, and technology education in particular. First, the extraordinary character of Western academic culture is discussed, focusing on the specific cognitive requirements of technology studies. Moreover, the dominance of Western science tradition is briefly compared with alternative approaches. Second, the state of education in developing countries is outlined by examples from Africa and South Asia. In the research section, the consequences of the educational disparity in international engineering education are presented through results of a survey. Finally, solutions to improve the current unsatisfactory situation are discussed. A shift of emphasis in development efforts is proposed: a move of focus from Western institutions to the research centers, universities and students in developing countries. The proposal addresses the need to enhance global innovation potential in less advantageous areas.

Eurocentrism in Science

Notwithstanding the knowledge that human cultures vary greatly, the academic world has functioned on the assumption of universality of Western science. The journal Behavioral and Brain Sciences published in 2010 a paper titled "The weirdest people in the world?" that invited much discussion from scientists in various fields. By "weird" people Henrich and his co-authors [START_REF] Henrich | The weirdest people in the world?[END_REF] referred to Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic people who had been subjects in behavioral research in the last century. The paper discussed the ethnocentric way human nature has been studied, and the implications of using a narrow sample of subjects in the study of human psychological functioning and cognition. Most of the research that has been published in psychology journals has been conducted by Western researchers (96%), using university students as test subjects (in 67% of the cases in American samples). Henrich et al [START_REF] Henrich | The weirdest people in the world?[END_REF] argued that this kind of sample is severely biased, and in some cases could be considered as outlier of the global population. They gave examples of comparative studies that indicated very different behavioral patterns in other populations, particularly in Asian and small societies.

In particular, the Western sample of study subjects has been shown to deviate from other cultural samples in certain cognitive skills such as spatial reasoning and thinking styles, especially analytical thinking. Moreover, there are pronounced differences in performance of language related tasks. English and other Indo-European languages differ from most other languages in their grammatical structures, which influences the way thoughts are manipulated in the brain [START_REF] Majid | WEIRD languages have misled us, too[END_REF]. Similarly, brain studies [START_REF] Cheon | The weirdest brains in the world[END_REF] have been conducted mainly in rich Western countries because of the high cost of the equipment and the high skill level needed. Otherwise only in Japan, Korea and China the technology has been advanced enough to conduct brain scans on the local population [START_REF] Hansen | The Neural Bases of Reading[END_REF]. Nevertheless, the inclusion of Eastern populations has revealed interesting results such as the brain differences in reading: the use of Chinese characters employs brain areas differently from using alphabetic characters [START_REF] Chen | Cultural neurolinguistics[END_REF].

The problems of Eurocentrism in research have earlier been raised in humanities and social sciences most notably by Said [START_REF] Said | Orientalism[END_REF] and Bernal [START_REF] Bernal | Black Athena[END_REF], and Asante has advocated Afrocentrism for research that concerns Africa [START_REF]Transcultural realities. Interdisciplinary perspectives on cross-cultural relations[END_REF]. On the other hand, ICT has its roots in Angloamerican world, and the dominance of English language and culture in internet has been discussed by Diaz Andrade and Urquhart [START_REF] Diaz Andrade | ICTs as a tool for cultural dominance: Prospects for a two-way street[END_REF].

Universities and Research

Asides from the traditional internationalization option where students travel to the host university, other alternatives have emerged. There are partnerships or subsidiaries of Western institutions in growing economies such as Arab countries, India, China, Brazil, and Russia [START_REF] Aydarova | If Not "the Best of the West," Then "Look East": Imported Teacher Education Curricula in the Arabian Gulf[END_REF]. The aim of these units is to educate global professionals; obviously people who are working in Western style. The subsidiaries of Western universities educate local students and, in addition, they look for business partnerships and provide opportunities for their home staff to work in other countries. Western universities also enlarge their student pool by distance education and on-line courses, with the same offerings everywhere. The Journal of Studies in International Education published a special issue on Internationalization of the Curriculum and the Disciplines in May 2013 (17:2) [START_REF] Leask | Special issue on Internationalization of the Curriculum and the Disciplines[END_REF], which indicated that the matter is very new as regards to the needs to adjust the content of the curriculum.

The top ranking universities in the world are still mainly located in the US and UK, or other European or English-speaking countries. Western science tradition dominates the research to the extent that other science traditions are considered ethnic or cultural curiosities. There have been very few attempts to challenge this attitude. Medicine is a major exception, as Chinese and Eastern medical sciences are studied in local universities. There have also been attempts to create a Chinese cultural value system [START_REF] Fan | A classification of Chinese culture[END_REF], native psychological models in Taiwan, and an African personality model [START_REF] Lee | Personality and Person Perception Across Cultures[END_REF].

Accordingly, leading journals accept only studies that follow strictly Western standards and traditions. Other research traditions have little room for development or expansion outside national circles. Davidson [START_REF] Davidson | Retrospect and prospect: information systems in the last and next 25 years: response and extension[END_REF] argues for more open editorial policies and for courage to publish intellectually challenging studies from various cultural contexts, such as China and India, in the field of information systems research. The unique features of local organizations are not truly appreciated or studied when Western standards are followed strictly, and potentially new interesting theoretical viewpoints are missed.

Educational Policies in Developing Countries

The global goal of United Nations to expand education to cover all children has been reached in theory, but the practice falls short of the goal in developing countries [START_REF] Watkins | Too Little Access, Not Enough Learning: Africa's Twin Deficit in Education[END_REF] .

The Africa learning barometer shows that only 76% of children in Sub-Saharan Africa attend primary school, and the secondary school enrolment is as low as 28%. Moreover, more than half of students in Grades 4 and 5 in countries such as Ethiopia, Nigeria and Zambia are below the minimum learning thresholds. Even more alarming is the finding that many teachers have difficulties in scoring acceptably in the same tests. As teacher salaries tend to be very low in African countries, competent teachers often seek better paid employment opportunities.

Nevertheless, some African countries have engaged in overly ambitious educational reforms. In Ethiopia, secondary school education is conducted in English, and in Rwanda, the school language was changed from French into English [START_REF]Rwanda to switch from French to English in schools[END_REF]. Obviously, lack of educational materials in native languages makes it attractive to choose English, and there might be additional political reasons for the choice. Many African countries have two official languages, one being the dominant local language such as Swahili, the other one the language of the former colonial master, English, French or Portuguese. Additionally, most citizens speak a local language as their mother tongue. When children enter school, they usually start studying in their second or third language.

Kenya and Rwanda

The Kenyan government has a Vision 2030 Economic Stimulus Programme, which has equipped 1050 secondary schools with computers: 11 PCs, 1 laptop, 1 video projector and one printer for each school. The aim of the initiative is that teachers would be able to integrate ICT into curriculum. However, there can be as many as 80 to 120 students in one class, which makes it impossible to let all students to work with computers. Moreover, school administrators are sometimes preventing teachers to access the computers, so that they are not able to prepare for the classes [START_REF] Ang'ondi | Teachers Attitudes and perceptions on the use of ICT in teaching and learning as observed by ICT champions[END_REF]. The main teaching method in the crowded classrooms is lecturing and repeating teacher's words. Because of the shortage of materials such as textbooks or notebooks, students have to learn the material by heart. Furthermore, they are not able to practice writing sufficiently.

In June 2013, teachers were striking for more than 3 weeks for a pay raise, but the government insisted that they could not afford paying higher salaries, which had been promised already in 1997 [START_REF]Kenyan teachers end school strike[END_REF]. Obviously the policy on ICT education is not realistic under current economic pressures.

The Rwandan government decided to switch the country's entire education system from French to English in one of the most dramatic steps to date in its move away from Francophone influence [START_REF]Rwanda to switch from French to English in schools[END_REF]. Primary education in first three years is conducted in local Kinyarwanda, and after that in English. Just 8 percent of Rwandans speak French, and 4 percent speak English, according to the government, but teachers have previously been educated in French. In 2009, out of Rwanda's 31 000 primary school teachers, only 4 700 were trained in English, and out of Rwanda's 12 000 secondary school teachers, only 600 were trained in English. To alleviate the situation, about 300 Ugandan teachers were employed to teach in English. It is not hard to imagine what confusion this policy has caused.

The curricula in African schools are based on western models, as well as most books and materials. The content of textbooks might be very remote from the everyday experience of students, adding an extra level of abstraction to the content to be learned. Therefore, students need to operate from two worldviews and often have two or more cultures to contend with. The education has very weak connections to the practical life of students, resulting in rote learning without reaching a decontextualization of knowledge.

India and Bangladesh

The multiplicity of languages in the Indian subcontinent poses an enormous challenge for the early education system, as well. In addition to nationwide languages English and Hindu, there are dominant local languages and hundreds of minor language spoken in the country. 47 languages are used as media of instruction in schools. There have been some regional projects to teach children from indigenous tribes in their first language and stepwise shift to the dominant language of the area. However, the target populations in these projects have been marginal, in Bangladesh less than 70 000 [START_REF] Singh | Globalization and Multilingualism: Case Studies of Indigenous Culturebased Education from the Indian Sub-continent and Their Implications[END_REF]. Likewise, in July 2007, a project was started in the Indian state Orissa. Under that project, in 200 schools, indigenous (tribal) children from 10 language groups were being taught through their mother tongues in the first grades, with materials collected from children, parents and teachers. Later 16 more languages were added in 2008.

Language Question in Primary and Secondary Education

The studies in bilingualism and multilingualism have revealed a number of positive cognitive outcomes, including increased attentional control, working memory, metalinguistic awareness, and abstract and symbolic representation skills [START_REF] Adesope | A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Cognitive Correlates of Bilingualism[END_REF]. Bilingualism can greatly benefit intellectual development of the child, which extend to late adulthood [START_REF] Bialystok | Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain[END_REF]. Nevertheless, the benefits are lost if the child is not able to acquire fluency in her school language. For the development of abstract and scientific thought, mastery of the language is required [START_REF] Haag | Second language learners' performance in mathematics: Disentangling the effects of academic language features[END_REF]. Even mathematical skills are influenced by the language of instruction, as was shown by Saalbach and his collaborators [START_REF] Saalbach | When language of instruction and language of application differ: Cognitive costs of bilingual mathematics learning[END_REF]. According to their study, when language of instruction and language of application differed, the performance in arithmetic tests deteriorated. There was a significant cognitive cost involved even in this case where the subjects of the study came from a privileged Swiss German and French school system.

The above presented country cases illustrate the situation in poor developing countries. Good quality education is scare; moreover, the development policies are not well-informed or sufficiently resourced. Students who come from these countries to Western universities have already overcome many hardships: a student who is only gifted in mathematics, technology and science, has a very meagre chance to proceed through the system. The current situation excludes these students early in their studies. Naturally, there are also students who are fortunate to attend the best schools and who are multitalented, and finally capable to enter any university of their choice.

Research Methods

The Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences has educated international students in English in bachelor degree programs since 1994. The experience has revealed many kinds of challenges that students with developing country background confront when entering the Western engineering education system. Recently, one beginning study group consisting of 56 students answered an online questionnaire of their study experiences and previous practices. The survey included questions on the experience of computer use, earlier use of computers in studies, familiar study methods, and cognitive preferences.

The survey was given as an optional task in a study module, however, all students decided to participate. Moreover, they answered nearly all questions though none was indicated as compulsory. The ages of participants were between 18 and 34, average 23 years. 9 of the respondents were women. They came from many regions of the world: 8 from Africa (Af), 9 from Eastern Europe (EE), 9 from Western Europe (WE), 15 from South Asia (mainly Nepal, SA), 10 from East Asia (Vietnam, etc., EA), and 5 from Middle Eastern (ME) countries. They reported speaking altogether 26 different languages.

The survey consisted of multiple choice questions on technology use and understanding, questions on study modes and use of technology in the studies, questions on career aspirations and cognitive practices, and some open questions on the current studies. Respondents were given a link to the online form, which could be filled in any time. There was an identity check in order to eliminate duplicate submissions.

Results

The background diversity was reflected strongly in the usage of computers before studies. About one third of the respondents had been familiar with computers already when younger than 10, 24% started using computers at age 11-15, 28 % at age 15-20, and 16% were older than 20 when they started using computers regularly. The distribution of responses by nationality is shown in Fig 1 . As could be expected, Africans had shorter exposure to computers than the other nationalities, whereas Western students had been using computers already in primary school age or before. The students were also asked if they ever participated in assembling a computer. To this question, Eastern Europeans gave most positive answers (67%), and Africans least (25%). According to this survey, East European students had the most traditional study experience and less exposure to varied study methods such as team work, research report writing or giving presentations. The results are presented in Fig 2 . In fact, Africans and West Europeans had nearly similar profiles in these modes of study. However, the implementations of methods could vary. East European students had an average 2,5 with team work familiarity and giving presentations, where 1 was "not at all familiar with" and 5 "very familiar with". On the other hand, there were no significant differences between exposure to laboratory work in physics or chemistry between groups, whereas there were striking differences between individual students: nearly half of them had no experience on chemistry laboratories, and about a third only little experience in physics labs.

Student interviews and self-reports relate of the cultural shock that they encounter when they move from developing country education to the western university system. A theoretical approach and difficulties to adapt theory into practice have been revealed in laboratory assignments that require hands-on work with the equipment, accurate measurements, or program coding. According to a study by Agiobu-Kemmer in 1984, Nigerian Yoruba children spent more time with human beings than with physical objects. The reverse was true with Scottish children who spent more time with physical objects than with human beings. This comparative study indicated that cultural factors have a strong impact on how the early upbringing introduces the physical world [START_REF] Lee | Personality and Person Perception Across Cultures[END_REF]. Moreover, earlier study results have indicated that tasks, which demanded logical reasoning, were particularly difficult to many international students. Separate tests to confirm this finding were given to students, and indeed they performed less well in different types of reasoning tasks [START_REF] Holvikivi | Culture and cognition in information technology education[END_REF]. As Henrich et al [START_REF] Henrich | The weirdest people in the world?[END_REF] in their paper showed, this finding is in accordance with general cultural cognitive differences. Analytical thinking and formal reasoning are typically skills that are produced by the western educational system and science studies [START_REF] Norenzayan | Cultural variation in reasoning[END_REF].

Globalization Solutions through Capacity Building

Goal to Enhance Global Innovation Potential

The spread of mobile phone use in developing countries has been phenomenal. There are many areas in Africa where telephone cables were never installed and the mobile phone has been the first two-way communications devise that people have been able to use. This has created applications for mobile phones that are specific to developing areas such as phone banking applications, bush nurse services, and local market information distribution. There is a huge innovation potential in mobile applications due to lack of solid infrastructure. These innovations cannot be made in Western research centers where the local conditions and problems are unheard of. Moreover, the ways people prefer to operate their gadgets depend on culture, environment, education level, and context. For example, in rural areas in India, voice based interface is preferable because of illiteracy [START_REF] Ruohonen | E-Inclusion Innovation for rural India: mobile voice and tablet based educational services[END_REF]. Therefore, strengthening research It is of course possible that students from developing countries create solutions for their home market when they work in western universities. Indeed, there are some examples of such innovations. A Muslim student founded a social networking web site for the Islamic community called Muxlim when he was working in Finland. The site gained popularity and international fame but finally failed to generate sufficient earnings and had to close four years later in 2008 [START_REF] Finpro | Tekla, REACHLaw and Muxlim community receive Internationalization Awards[END_REF]. Had the operation base been somewhere closer to large Islamic populations, the story might have ended differently.

Bringing in local capacities

UNESCO issued an extensive report "Engineering: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for Development" in 2010 where needs for change in engineering practice and education were discussed, and issues that are similar to this paper's arguments were raised [START_REF]Engineering: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for Development[END_REF]. The report called for technical capacity-building in developing countries, stressing needs for local energy solutions, participatory urban planning and infrastructure projects for sustainable development. One example came from South Sudan where sustainable construction for using appropriate technology has been developed. For engineering education, a demand for holistic and integrated systems approaches was presented, and a call was issued to share pedagogical approaches and develop curricula in this context. Sharing is particularly important for universities in developing countries who face serious constraints regarding human, financial and institutional resources to develop such curricula, learning and teaching methods. Moreover, Gaillard argued [START_REF]Engineering: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for Development[END_REF] that developing countries cannot rely on their substantial diaspora of experts but efforts should focus on strengthening national engineering and scientific capacity particularly through training, recruiting and retaining the next generation of scientists.

Furthermore, according to Davidson [START_REF] Davidson | Retrospect and prospect: information systems in the last and next 25 years: response and extension[END_REF], information systems research would gain both depth and breadth, if researchers were willing to set their work firmly in the local cultural context. Arguably, the same requirement could be extended to all information technology research as well as industrial engineering and organizations research and education. Engineering and management practices have to adjust to local conditions and environment, and therefore, local knowledge is invaluable. Additionally, the research needs to be informed not only on local technologies but by anthropology and sociology.

Scientific traditions that developed outside Western academia have a potential to enhance global understanding if they were incorporated in local research practices. Medicine has strong local practices also on university level in East Asia, but it is only part of the vast Chinese science that has developed its own course during millennia [START_REF] Needham | Science and Civilisation in China, 7 volumes[END_REF]. Other less well known or advanced traditions have influenced western science but could still benefit scientific work in other areas, as well. To name some:  Knowledge of potatoes in Peruvian countryside far exceeds the Western cultivation traditions. Peruvian farmers may have over 80 varieties on their field, each with different resistance against humidity, draught, cold, or diseases [START_REF] Harrison | Signs, songs, and memory in the Andes. Translating Quechua language and culture[END_REF].



The extensive native knowledge on medicinal herbs and nature's poisons has already been harnessed by multinational pharmaceutical companies, but how much has is benefitted local knowledge and science?  Sustainable agriculture turns more and more to local traditions. In Madagascar local peasants can assess the productivity of a plot of land simply by looking at it, based on their experience [START_REF] Bloch | How we think they think[END_REF]. The role that indigenous knowledge can play in truly participatory approaches to sustainable development should be acknowledged.



There are numerous ancient building traditions that have partially been abandoned. Recently, it was realized that the concrete built by Romans two millennia ago was much stronger and more long-lasting than modern concrete. The composition of that concrete is again being applied in modern construction [START_REF] Moore | The riddle of ancient roman concrete[END_REF].



There has been important hydraulic engineering in many tropical areas such as Sri Lanka and Mesoamerica [START_REF] Demarest | Ancient Maya. The rise and fall of a rainforest civilization[END_REF]. Advanced irrigation systems allowed the feeding of a large population base in areas that are currently tropical rainforests.

Proposed Measures for Universities

Universities in developing countries struggle with resource constraints. Local teaching capacities are in need of strengthening, particularly in Africa [START_REF]Engineering: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for Development[END_REF]. Programs to incorporate local knowledge and working styles into the curriculum and ways of doing research would offer an opportunity to lift the profile of universities, and at the same time, offer viable alternatives to the student diaspora. Recently, capacity building has become a popular approach in development projects, and it is definitely needed in engineering education, as well. Developing countries cannot act in such a demanding effort alone, as it will be long lasting and requires substantial resources.

Strong partnerships and long-term commitments with Western institutions are indispensable.

Outline of the program would include measures such as: 1.

Curriculum review to suit local needs: school background analyzed and taken as starting point for education. Job market needs to be understood and met.

2.

Teacher training requires a collaborative effort with international professionals, local staff and consulting anthropologists or sociologist.

3. Development of teaching methods that best suit the students and increase their professional abilities. Emphasis needs to be on areas that are not supported by the primary and secondary education. [START_REF] Majid | WEIRD languages have misled us, too[END_REF].

Creation of research programs to study native engineering science and related knowledge.

Creation of local innovation centers close to universities in developing countries.

This overview has highlighted the need to enhance current trends in international education towards stronger emphasis in developing areas. University partnerships that are largely based on western model, can become balanced, bidirectional exchanges, if universities in developing countries are given support in their capacity-building efforts. Innovations and research are diversified through fresh inputs and utilization of local traditional knowledge. The growing market potential in developing countries can be better exploited from inside than from importing ideas from industrialized world. The novel solutions would probably suit local conditions better, moreover, they could undoubtedly be applied in many other areas as well, and thus enrich global knowledge.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Starting age of regular computer use by nationality.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Familiarity with study modes by nationality (scale 1 to 5).

  , Latin American and Asian universities would diversify innovations in global scale.


Laurence Masclet

Philippe Goujon

Parameters to Achieve Responsibility: Strengths and Limits

Keywords: Innovation, economy, society, ethics, responsibility

établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The concept of innovation is nowadays coming back to fashion with the prefix "responsible" attached to it, to form the phrase "Responsible Innovation" or "Responsible Research Innovation" (RRI) [START_REF]Council Decision establishing the Specific Programme implementing Horizon 2020 -The Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014-2015[END_REF][START_REF]Work Programme[END_REF]. The addition of the specification "responsible" is interesting in many respects. First, it emphasizes that innovation is not, by itself, responsiblehence the need for the specificationand secondly, it seems like the manifestation of a will to broaden the sphere of the analysis of innovation. Indeed, innovation has been the object of economics and the science of business and growth since the 18th century. This paper will try to test the legitimacy of the attempt to open the concept of innovation to other sources of meaning and to other concerns than those of economics.

The meaning of the concept of responsibility is the object of a vast area of literature, especially in philosophy. We take it here as a broader concept than just legal accountability, as a moral concept [START_REF] Verley | La révolution industrielle[END_REF][START_REF] Ricoeur | Oneself as Another[END_REF]. We will focus here on the "innovation" side of the concept of "responsible innovation", and on the presuppositions that are disclosed by the very use of that expression. The concept of innovation in its broad definition is used in many fields. It is not unusual to talk for example about innovation in art, innovation in teaching, innovation in governance, innovation in war making or car driving. In various fields the term is very often used as a weaker version of the term 'invention', meaning anything bringing something new to a field. It seems to be most frequently attached to technological changes occurring in different fields, but not always.

In the academic world, the term has been one of the main object of economy since the emergence of the field. Schumpeter in 1934 described innovation as "New Combinations" [START_REF] Schlanger | L'Invention intellectuelle[END_REF][START_REF] Schumpeter | Business Cycles, A Theoritical, Historical and Statistical Analysis of the Capitalist Process[END_REF], and the core of his analyses and framing of the definition of an innovation are still very much unchanged [11] [23].

In this paper, we will give a brief reconstruction of the history of the philosophical concept of innovation, focusing mainly on the major shift in the perception, the field and the use of the concept, in order to try to broaden its limits. Indeed, history shows that this concept is far from univocal, and has been the object of many changes of perception. This tends to validate the idea of trying to open the concept to other meanings than those drawn from economics and technology. Once we have established the freedom to manipulate the concept, we will have to see where the restriction to economics occurs, and what the legitimacy of this restriction is. By doing this, we will made apparent some limits to the idea of another shift of the concept to reach responsible innovation, and we will have to find compromises between the intrinsic economic bias of the concept and the need to open it to other preoccupations.

History of the Concept

The first occurrences of the notion of innovation are very different from current usage. Indeed, innovation, from it first use until the 18 th century was used as a strongly derogatory term.

"Innovation", from the Latin innovare, innovation, should signify renewal, rejuvenation from inside, rather than novelty, which is its modern meaning in both English and French. Judging from the examples in the Oxford English Dictionary and the Littré, the word came into widespread use only in the 16th century and, until the 18th century, its connotations are almost uniformly unfavorable." [START_REF] Girard | Innovation and Repetition[END_REF] This negative bias is a result of innovation's original connection to theology. An innovation from a theological dogma is never considered to be progress. On the contrary, being innovative in the context of religion is regarded has a direct way to heresy.

The negative sense of the word innovation also occurs in political sciences, in which it is linked to rebellion and revolution, and is shared even among thinkers who we would call innovators today. The paradox is that even reformers like Calvin saw innovation as a bad thing, because the aim of the reformation was not to create something new, but to come back to the original ideal of Christianity. And the Humanists, after the Protestants, despised innovation as well, advocating a return to the ideas and models of classical antiquity [START_REF] Girard | Innovation and Repetition[END_REF]. Despite Girard's interpretation of what innovation "should" signifyi.e. "renewal, rejuvenation from inside" [START_REF] Girard | Innovation and Repetition[END_REF]this is not really how it has been interpreted, otherwise the Reformation would have been branded as an innovation for example, which it wasn't. It is only during the 18 th century that the notion started to take on a more positive meaning, corresponding to a shift in society. The word was increasingly detached from theology and was instead attached to technological development and economic growth. In the 18 th century and later during the 19 th century and the industrial revolution [START_REF] Veugelers | How to Turn on the Innovation Growth Machine in Europe[END_REF], the notion of innovation became used to mean the imitation and improvement of an invention in a field. Indeed, in the commercial and industrial fields it has never been enough to invent something new (new methods, new products, etc.): improvements always immediately connected to commercialization. And innovation seems to be associated with this commercial aspect of an invention, and its imitation and improvement by the competition, creating a chain of development that can revolutionize a field without needing properly new products or methods, but rather through improvements of ideas from one industry to the next, in a mechanism economists call "incremental innovation".

Invention in itself seems to be already connected to commercialization in most cases, so it is difficult to argue that innovation is only the commercial side of invention. It is much more significant to say that innovation distinguishes itself from invention by its incremental characteristics. 1 We have briefly sketched the history of innovation as a concept, and seen that this history was marked by a major switch that corresponds to a major change of focus in society 2 from theology to economics. However, we have seen that nowadays, the concept of innovation is also used in other fields and has become part of vernacular language and popular culture. It is also more and more linked with the adjective "responsible" [19] [8] in an attempt to include other considerations (ethical, social, political) than those of economics3 . But is this extension possible and legitimate?

1 How then can we talk about "radical" innovation is another research question that we will have to develop in further researches.

2

Although, of course, this change of focus in society did not happened over night, and there are a lot of discussions to be made on when and where (or indeed whether) this change happened.

3 Opening the Sphere of Meaning (and Limits)

Innovation as "New Combinations"

Joseph Schumpeter (1883Schumpeter ( -1950) ) was the first theorist to make the distinction between the concept of innovation and the concept of invention, and to define innovation as a first commercial transaction successfully achieved [START_REF] Akrich | A quoi tient le succès des innovations?[END_REF]. By this definition, Schumpeter links in the collective consciousness the notions of innovation, of commercialization and of technical objects. Schumpeter's framework is still being discussed today, and, although of course challenged on many points [START_REF] Cromer | A study of Schumpterian (radical) vs. Kirznerian (incremental) innovations in knowledge intensive industries[END_REF], it is still a general reference point for anybody who wants to tackle the subject of innovation or entrepreneurship [START_REF] Stahl | Responsible research and innovation in information systems[END_REF] 4 . Schumpeter defined innovation as "the setting up of a new production function" or "New Combinations", which relate to incremental innovation we referred to above.

"We will now define innovation more rigorously by means of the production function previously introduced. This function describes the way in which quantity of product varies if quantities of factors vary. If, instead of quantities of factors, we vary the form of the function, we have an innovation. But this not only limits us, at first blush at least, to the case in which the innovation consists in producing the same kind of product that had been produced before by the same kind of means of production that had been used before, but also raises more delicate questions. Therefore, we will simply define innovation as the setting up of a new production function. This covers the case of a new commodity, as well as those of a new form of organization such as a merger, of the opening up of new markets, and so on. Recalling that production in the economic sense is nothing but combining productive services, we may express the same thing by saying that innovation combines factors in a new way, or that it consists in carrying out New Combinations, although, taken literally, the latter phrases would also include what we do not now mean to include -namely, those current adaptations of the coefficients of production which are part and parcel of the most ordinary run of economic routine within given production functions." [START_REF] Schlanger | L'Invention intellectuelle[END_REF]. This very economical way of defining innovation has been very influential but is in fact the heir of the 18 th century's conception of innovation and its primary link to technological invention, commercialization, industrial concurrence and general growth. This way of looking at innovation as "setting up of new production functions" seems to be very narrowly economic, and, as a side effect, seems to put aside any consideration other than the need for growth and novelty for its own (economic) sake. The combination between the increasingly ubiquitous nature of the concept of innovation nowadays, and its bias towards economics is problematic in the sense that it spreads its unquestioned presuppositions and strengthens the domination of economic thinking in society 5 . So there is a benefit in opening the concept of innovation, as the pursuit of innovation has massive impacts on society as a whole. If legislators act as innovators, it seems reasonable to demand that they seek ways to make innovations more responsible, more ethical and socially and environmentally aware, as well as to stifle innovations that have unethical impact on society 6 . Many theories of governance and research projects have investigated ways of opening the framework of innovation to include more contextual parameters into the conception of an innovation and more generally, into decisions to start to research a potential innovation (VOICES 7 , PROGRESS [START_REF] Owen | Responsible Innovation, Managing the Responsible Emergence of Science and Innovation in Society[END_REF], ETICA 8 , Responsibility 9 , GREAT 10 , to quote a few, which are all funded either on the 7 th framework Programme (FP7) or Horizon 2020 from the European Commission).

However, we are trying to find out here if the concept of innovation is ready to be opened to other spheres of meaning. Regarding the history of the concept, we can see that it is very much open to shifts in both meaning and fields of application, even though it is always connected throughout history with two features :the first is the notion of novelty (whether this is considered as a good thing or not) and secondly, it is always interpreted in relation to the most powerful and influential field in society (theological when theology was the most powerful force shaping society, and economic when economics was defining the aims of society).

The stakes are high because succeeding in transforming the mechanisms of innovation in order to make it more ethical would imply a shift towards a more ethical society. But this reasoning is of course bad logic, because the opposite is more probable: only a shift in society towards more responsible behaviour will change innovation.

The history of the concept of innovation also shows us the potential for inclusion that this notion entails. Indeed, if we take Schumpeter's definition of innovation as "New Combinations", it is very open to all sorts of spheres and material for combinations. Schumpeter reduces it to economics, but the reduction is not in the material of innovation but in its aims. Innovation's material (the things being reassembled into new combinations) is open to anything as long as they are being 5 The dominance of some economic ways of thinking cannot be reduced to the increasing use of the term innovation of course. The causal relation is probably reversed: it is the dominance of economic jargon that enhance the general use of the term innovation. But even if that is true, it is still an ethical and social worry to find economic terms carrier of so many economic presuppositions being used for daily conversation. The same can be said about many economic words that have invaded the public and private spheres.

6

For more on this question on the ways to achieve responsible innovation, see for example the ongoing « Governance for Responsible Innovation" (GREAT) Project. http://www.greatproject.eu/

commercialized and contribute to economic development.

Does the opening to ethics and responsibility imply that we have to leave out the economic aims of innovation or that we have to make new combinations with other parameters than the ones usually used? It seems that it is the commercial aims that are at stake if we want to achieve responsible innovation, maybe not by removing completely its commercial side, but certainly by adding new aims, like constructing a more ethical and safe society. The limitation of thinking of innovation as New Combinations and opening its aims to other goals, is the danger that it becomes meaningless by including everything in it. Indeed, if we are talking about new combinations of any material (as Schumpeter's definition allows) without the restriction of economic aims, we could argue that any thought, any action is an innovation, as it is a new combination of existing elements [START_REF] Pestre | A contre-science, Politiques et savoirs des sociétés contemporaines[END_REF] [START_REF] Schlanger | Penser la bouche pleine[END_REF]. Language is the perfect example of new combinations. From a limited stock of words, human beings is able to produce unlimited texts, conversation, ideas and stories. Yet, we cannot consider any text or any conversation or any thought to be an innovation. There seems to be something more to it, otherwise it loses all meaning. If innovation material is open to anything, the restriction needed seems to be in the economic impact expected from it 11 .

We could argue that random conversation or though can potentially be exploited economically, but the point is that it is only then, when economic exploitation is sought, that ideas become innovation. Before commercial aims, an idea cannot be considered yet an innovation.

Consequences of the Inherent Link between Innovation and Economics

We talked about the political and social will to make innovation more responsible and thus, opened it to new spheres of meaning and other concerns than mere economics and growth. But the definition of the concept of economics, as we argue, ask for an economical restriction to the concept, which is defined by its commercial goal.

So, if we want to open innovation to new spheres of meaning, new parameters and new aims, we have to retain a sufficiently determinate framing in order for the concept to stay meaningful. It does not seem plausible to achieve responsible innovation by situating it outside of economic discourse altogether. However, there are many ways of doing economics, and many economists in the 20th and 21st centuries are making efforts and developing new ways to include other concerns and aims -social fairness, redistribution, ethics, political stability, etc.-than mere economic growth 12 [START_REF] Jonas | The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age[END_REF][START_REF] Latouche | Survivre au développement, De la décolonisation de l'imaginaire économique à la construction d'une société alternative[END_REF][START_REF] Sen | On economics inequality[END_REF][START_REF] Okan | Innovation Capability for Development: An attempt to apply Amartya Sen's Capability Approach to Innovation Studies[END_REF][START_REF] Arnsperger | Critique de l'existence capitaliste : Pour une éthique existentielle de l'économie[END_REF]. Alternative economic framings exist that take into account contextual and ethical parameters within their conception, and responsible innovation seems to fit into this way of thinking. The task for philosophers remains to evaluate whether in those theories the economic framing that seems to be impossible to remove does not contaminate and reinterpret other concerns so much that they become themselves economic. This idea of contamination can be seen for example in the dynamic of trying to « sell » ethics as a « good commercial move » for companies (in term of image, long-term benefits, or saving by pre-empting potential social rejection 13 ), or in the way of promoting art subventions as investments and potentiality to create growth, rather than for art itself, etc.

To achieve the challenge of putting responsibility into innovation, we cannot impose a new framing on the concept of innovation and impose a change of field. We cannot open it to the extent it becomes meaningless, but should find, within the conception of the notion itself, the openings that can be reached without reducing alternative aims to another economic framing.

The Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) field is an important sector of innovation and has been also the object of ethical concerns over the years [START_REF] Schutte | The Development of Open Innovation Models to Assist the Innovation Process[END_REF]. The technological angle in innovation is as powerful as the economic angle, and is therefore responsible for restriction within the concept of innovation, which is not completely in phase with the will to open the concept. However, the same conclusion could be made for technology as it has been made for economics: it seems impossible to leave out the technological understanding of innovation. However, it does not mean that innovation is restricted to technological innovation, and moreover, that technological innovation are only technology. What the concept of responsible innovation tends to achieve is on the contrary to drive technical innovation toward other field of concerns outside mere technology or economy.

Even if the field of ICT is particular in many respects (treating which such a peculiar and ubiquitous object that is information [START_REF]and Innovation, Europe's ability to respond to societal challenges[END_REF]), the idea of opening the sphere of meaning of innovation has an identical application. In order to impose responsibility into innovation in ICT, one should not need to evacuate the economical bias implanted within the notion of innovation -basically innovation as a necessity for business to survive among competitors and for society to raise growth. On the contrary, the economic bias has to be thought of and evaluate for what it is, both what is driving innovation and the criterion by which it is judge. To add another principle, the principle of responsibility, to assess a technology, we have to be prepare to change our perspectives on economic benefits and on the type of economy we want for society.

Conclusion

Our brief reconstruction of some of the steps of the history of the meaning of innovation has shown us that this concept is both a carrier of huge presuppositions (attachment to economics, to economic growth, to technological development, and so on), and still very open to new meanings and very flexible. The only thing that seems to not be detachable from this concept without it losing all meaning is the very thing 13 Which is not to say that there is no good argument for ethics as a sustainable investment for companies, but making it the only argument seems to miss the real meaning of ethical concern, and would imply that, in absence of commercial potential, ethics would not be worth pursuing. It is the dynamic behind the argument that is criticized here. that has to be carefully managed if we take upon the task of making innovation "responsible": its attachment to economics. Indeed, without an economic connotation, the concept loses signification, and with it, it carries the risk of being blind to any other aspects of society and human life.

But the task of reaching for responsible innovation is not impossible, even from within the field of Economics. Indeed, there are a lot of "alternative" economic theories that aim exactly at this. In fact, the case might be made that most economic theories are aiming towards ethical and social progress and balance, and that some of the blindness in economics are more of a drift from the main aim of economics than an inherent feature of the field. The conceptual linkage between innovation, technology and economy is strong and the challenge of Responsible Innovation, taking responsibility in its full ethical sense and trying to inject it into innovation, has to face the history of its object and address in a fully reflexive way the presuppositions that are embedded in it.

7 (

 7 Views, Opinions and Ideas of Citizens in Europe on Science http://www.voicesforinnovation.eu/). 8 ETICA : Ethical Issues of Emerging ICT Applications, project funded under FP7. 9 Global Model and Observatory for International Responsible Research and Innovation Coordination http://responsibility-rri.eu/ 10 Governance for Responsible Innovation. http://www.great-project.eu/. GREAT develop an empirically based and theoretically sound model of the role of responsible research and innovation governance and is funded under Horizon 2020.

The question of the meaning and legitimacy of adding such a qualifier -thus implying that innovation is not/cannot be responsible per sewill also be the object of further researches and cannot be developed here.

For example : "Of all the theories of entrepreneurship that exist, his theory is still, to my mind, the most fascinating as well as the most promising theory of entrepreneurship that we have. Let me clarify. I do not argue that Schumpeter's theory, as it is understood today, can supply the key to the mystery of entrepreneurship. What I would like to suggest, however, and also devote this paper to, is the argument that it may well constitute the point of departure for the development of the theory of entrepreneurship."[START_REF] Stahl | Responsible research and innovation in information systems[END_REF]

Whether or not these commercial aims are met is not relevant to qualify an innovation as such. The commercial aims themselves (added to the novelty of the combination) seems to be sufficient as a criterion for innovation.

For example Amartya Sen, or on another level the current school of degrowth, like the The Club of Rome, Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Serge Latouche in France, Christian Arnsperger and Philippe Van Parijs in Belgium or even Marxist theorists.


Marketta Niemelä

Veikko Ikonen

Jaana Leikas

Kristiina Kantola

Minna Kulju

Antti Tammela

Mari Ylikauppila

Human-Driven Design: A Human-Driven Approach to the Design of Technology

Keywords: human-driven design, human-technology interaction, human values and needs, emerging ICTs

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

It has become increasingly important in the field of human-computer interaction (HCI) to understand the demands and opportunities that societal changes bring to technology development and interaction design. The grand challenges, such as climate change, an ageing population and the economic crisis, demand participation by and contributions from everyone, and HCI, combined with technology development and its vigorous expansion into our everyday lives, plays a key role. To deal with this, the intersection(s) between people, technology and design in HCI need(s) to be rethought and the human-centred practices need more human values put into them (e.g. [START_REF] Bannon | Reimagining HCI: toward a more human-centered perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Friedland | Reflexive design thinking: putting more human in humancentered practices[END_REF]; see also [START_REF] Steen | The fragility of human-centred design[END_REF]). Human values and needs should be better integrated into design to obtain solutions that are sustainable in all senses of the term.

There are a variety of approaches or frameworks that specifically emphasise a human perspective in design, such as participatory design and value-sensitive design, to mention a couple. In this paper, we review five of these frameworks and formulate this understanding for a more generic human-driven approach (or strategy) to design -Human-Driven Design (HDD). As shown later in the text, this approach is based on emphasising human and social values, seeking true collaboration and empowerment with various stakeholders in the design process, and being reflective in terms of responsibility and ethics in design.

As a term, human-driven design has been introduced before by Braund and Schwittay [START_REF] Braund | The Missing Piece: Human Driven Design and Research in ICT and Development[END_REF] (we present their perspective in Section 2.2) and Ikonen [START_REF] Ikonen | Towards empowering design practices[END_REF]. Ikonen presents HDD as an approach to the design of future smart environments and emerging ICT and describes HDD as an "approach which broadens the perspective from focused product or service development process model to the more holistic design perspective". Ikonen also describes stakeholder-based design that "furthermore broadens the scope and role of involved participant groups in the actual design process". Ikonen further calls for ethical assessments that should continue through the design process. Ikonen calls this resulting combination empowering design.

Based on our review, we agree that HDD should integrate the three perspectives endorsed in [START_REF] Ikonen | Towards empowering design practices[END_REF]: it should be holistic, strive for collaboration with different stakeholder groups and be ethically reflective. The present paper elaborates on our understanding of what human-driven design is in more detail for each perspective.

We characterise HDD as follows:

1. HDD takes a human and social view of users of technology as individuals and members of human social groups, such as family, organisation or community, and as consumers. The starting point of the design is the human being and her or his needs, goals and desires. The design is based on a deep understanding of the users' values and circumstances. 2. HDD is participatory in terms of promoting collaborative and co-design methods to empower users and other stakeholders in design and to ensure successful design outcomes. 3. HDD is responsible in terms of being aware of human, societal and ethical values related to a particular design and reflecting them in the design in order to make the technology support the wellbeing and activities of people as well as sustainability (social, environmental and economic).

Similarly to [START_REF] Ikonen | Towards empowering design practices[END_REF], we find the human-driven approach especially relevant in the context of emerging technologies and their future impacts. As technologies embed and intertwine in our everyday lives, they will also shape it and society: technology is increasingly something "we live with, not simply something we use" [START_REF] Bannon | Reimagining HCI: toward a more human-centered perspective[END_REF]. In some sense, to design technology is to design our future lives. Therefore, the design of technology should be formulated with an insight into human and societal phenomena and problems, sustainable development and business demands.

From this perspective, the design target of HDD would not just be humancomputer interaction but broader Human-Technology Interaction (HTI) that emphasises the importance of research and design considerations that extend beyond the 'normal' user-computer combination. HTI addresses the interaction between users, technology and the physical and social environment [START_REF] Norros | Human-Technology Interaction Research and Design[END_REF]. In HTI, there is particular interest in the way technologies mediate the interaction between human actors and the environment, and in how to develop artefacts for the human-environment interaction. The holistic perspective of HTI is important when the purpose is to design solutions for human or societal problems (for example, to improve quality of life; see, e.g., [START_REF] Leikas | Life-Based Design -A holistic approach to designing human-technology interaction[END_REF]) and not just solutions for and within a certain technology. In practice, our current thinking about HDD is mostly based on developing ICT and emerging ICT (e.g. applications and services based on ambient intelligence). Therefore, with 'design' or 'technology design' we mainly refer to the design of the interaction between humans and computer systems, especially emerging information and communication technologies and systems.

With this paper, we hope to open discussions with other HCI/HTI researchers or designers who feel they could benefit from having a more holistic, human-driven approach to apply to design.

We proceed as follows. First, we position HDD in the field of HCI/HTI research by discussing some influential frameworks and research that form its basis: Human-Centred Design, Participatory Design, Value Sensitive Design, Human-Driven Design and Research, and Life-Based Design. Next, we elaborate on HDD by examining its three principles. Finally, we discuss what is still needed to develop HDD as a useful alternative to designing emerging (information) technologies.

2

Related frameworks

Human-Centred Design

Human-Centred Design (HCD) is the prevailing general human-perspective framework for the design of interactive products, services and systems [START_REF]ISO: Ergonomics of human-system interaction. Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems[END_REF]. The aim of HCD is to make systems usable and useful by focusing on the users, their needs and requirements. The ISO standard for HCD defines both 'usability' and 'usefulness' broadly: for instance, usability may include aspects of use that are typically associated with user experience, such as emotional pleasure. Applying HCD to design should show, for example, increased productivity, improved ease of use, and user experience or reduced discomfort and stress. HCD emphasises understanding the users and contexts of direct use, and it recommends the involvement of users throughout the design and development, including long-term monitoring of the product. HCD also addresses the impacts on stakeholders other than direct users.

The HCD standard also includes a perspective on sustainability [START_REF]ISO: Ergonomics of human-system interaction. Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems[END_REF]. Economic sustainability is supported as HCD provides cost-effective solutions and reduces the risk that the designed product will be wasteful or rejected. As the application of HCD results in products that are better for the health, well-being and involvement of their users, it supports social sustainability. HCD indirectly contributes to environmental sustainability as it encourages consideration of the long-term implications of systems.

The HCD framework provides several important principles for HDD: the human perspective itself, as well as a broad understanding of the users and their context, and the stakeholders. However, HDD should apply ethical and responsibility reflections more prominently in design. One reason for this is that emerging technologies often raise ethical considerations. For example, in the case of ubiquitous computing, ethical concerns have been raised, especially from the point of view of privacy, confidentiality, integrity, availability, trust, control and autonomy (e.g. [START_REF] Bohn | Living in a World of Smart Everyday Objects -Social, Economic, and Ethical Implications[END_REF]). Another issue that we have found to be underemphasised in HCD is justification and meaning of technology to users.

Participatory Design

Participatory Design (PD) is another well-established human-centred approach that emphasises active involvement by the users and all the stakeholders in design. PD involves or proposes: 1) mutual learning between users and designers about their respective fields, 2) the use of tools in the design process that are familiar to the users, 3) envisionment of future work situations to allow the users to experience how emerging technologies may affect the work practice, and 4) the importance of starting the design process in practice for the users [START_REF] Greenbaum | Design at work: Cooperative design of computer systems[END_REF] (referred to in [START_REF] Holone | Three Tensions in Participatory Design for Inclusion[END_REF]).

The original purpose of PD was emancipatory, to empower workers by involving them in the development of new systems for the workplace. Since then, PD has been applied to the development of systems outside the work context, such as leisure activities, entertainment and social service provision [START_REF] Holone | Three Tensions in Participatory Design for Inclusion[END_REF]. As the design focus of PD has evolved, the understanding of what PD is may also have changed. Nowadays, PD can be understood as a "practice of collective creativity" and it is rather called co-design or co-creation [START_REF] Sanders | Co-creation and the new landscapes of design[END_REF] (p. 7).

A major impact of participatory design or co-design concerns the roles of the stakeholders, namely the user, researcher and designer [START_REF] Sanders | Co-creation and the new landscapes of design[END_REF]. The users become codesigners, and active and creative participants, to some extent at least. The researcher changes from a translator of information between the users and the designer to a facilitator who encourages and allows people's expressions of creativity at all levels. And, even if the user is a co-designer, there is a specific place for the professional designer, whose expertise on design thinking and contextual issues (technologies, production processes, business) is needed even more than before in order to solve global, systemic problems.

Sanders and Stappers [START_REF] Sanders | Co-creation and the new landscapes of design[END_REF] note that today, co-design is very market-oriented and even an elite project with the focus on the "lead users". The original idea of PD, of emancipation and empowering the user to influence her or his living and working environment, has been somewhat blurred under such design ideas as open innovation or user-driven innovation with direct business aims. Co-design of products and services is a positive trend in production and business, but PD and empowering the user also have greater potential to help people to understand large-scale sociotechnological changes and their expected impacts, and, in particular, to influence them.

Value Sensitive Design

Value Sensitive Design (VSD) is a widely known method for ethical design of technology [START_REF] Friedman | Human values, ethics, and design[END_REF][START_REF] Friedman | Value Sensitive Design and information systems[END_REF]. VSD provides a framework into which to integrate human values with ethical imports to design systematically and from different perspectives. 'Value' is broadly defined as something that a person or group considers important in life [START_REF] Friedman | Value Sensitive Design and information systems[END_REF]. However, VSD states that certain values are universally held, although they may manifest themselves in various forms in different cultures and times. The iterative methodology provided by VSD includes conceptual, empirical and technical research and evaluation work. The process starts with the conceptual phase, the purpose of which is to identify the design stakeholders and their values, in addition to those stakeholders that interact with the designed technology directly or indirectly. The central values are also conceptually defined; for instance, what is meant by trust, on what does trust depend and how can trust be operationalised as concretely as possible? Next, the empirical phase concentrates on identifying and evaluating how the central values are implemented in practice in activities and interactions with people and systems. Finally, in the technical phase, the properties and background mechanisms of technology are studied to understand how they either support or hinder the implementation of certain values. This phase also includes anticipative, technical design that supports the integration of the central values into the design results.

Value lists can be used to support and guide design in a heuristic manner [START_REF] Friedman | Value Sensitive Design and information systems[END_REF]. Typical values include human wellbeing, freedom of bias with regard to technical or social issues, accountability for one's own actions and thoughtfulness. Several of the values named by Friedman and her colleagues relate to privacy and data handling.

The original idea of VSD that certain values are universal has raised discussion among researchers. For instance, Borning and Muller [START_REF] Borning | Next steps for value sensitive design[END_REF] argue that this statement impedes adopting VSD by researchers and designers. They suggest that VSD should accept the idea of pluralism, i.e. the simultaneous existence of several alternative values. VSD should endeavour to contextualise the expressions of values in different ways, for instance when using value lists as a tool or writing research reports.

VSD may also be difficult to apply in practice because the methods of VSD do not provide concrete guidance for how to integrate ethics in design. Huldtgren [START_REF] Huldtgren | Addendum: Practical Considerations of Value Sensitive Design[END_REF] asks whether a "design team need[s] to include a social scientist or someone trained in the [VSD] methods above to be able to carry out VSD" (p. 87). Expertise on ethics is not always easily acquired in industry, and the role of "value advocates" may be difficult [START_REF] Manders-Huits | Values and Pragmatic Action: The Challenges of Introducing Ethical Intelligence in Technical Design Communities[END_REF]. To support overcoming this problem, Huldtgren helpfully provides some practical questions to be considered when using VSD in practice, such as "Which values are important in a given design case?", "Whose values are they?" and "Which methods are suited to discover, elicit and define values?" [START_REF] Huldtgren | Addendum: Practical Considerations of Value Sensitive Design[END_REF] (p. 88).

Human-Driven Design and Research

The framework for Human-Driven Design and Research (HDDR) [START_REF] Braund | The Missing Piece: Human Driven Design and Research in ICT and Development[END_REF] has been formulated in the context of ICT development projects for developing countries. Here, one important question is how to balance the pull exerted by local wants and aspirations with the push from global institutional and technological forces. Braund and Schwittay [START_REF] Braund | The Missing Piece: Human Driven Design and Research in ICT and Development[END_REF] argue for focusing on real human needs when using ICT and point out that there must be "room for possibility that for certain groups ICT is not (at least at the moment) an appropriate solution to their problems". The response by HDDR to this call is that it is being driven by in-depth knowledge about local conditions gained from long-term human-centred research and a participatory community design process. HDDR recognises that the success of ICT development needs understanding and action in all four dimensions: local practices, a participatory design process, socio-cultural contexts and political conditions. For instance, attempts to involve the community in development projects (participatory action) may fail because the necessary preconditions for the involvement to take place are not created (e.g., local practices, political conditions).

HDDR sees the importance of technology in improving the conditions of human life but simultaneously recognises that technology can become just "another tool of political, economic and social exclusion". To prevent this, HDDR promotes multidimensional collaboration and listening to all the stakeholders in the development.

HDDR and HDD seem to grow from the same ground; only the context of design is different. In developing countries, HDDR probably needs to deal with much stronger conflicts between Western economic culture, and local needs and culture. Otherwise, both share the concern of how to make local people heard and empowered by the design process and result. Furthermore, both focus on the question of how to integrate ICT into people's lives so that it makes a meaningful difference.

Life-Based Design

The responsibility of design, the justification for technology and the question of 'good technology' are essential aspects of HDD thinking for which we draw theoretical strength from Life-Based Design (LBD). This is a multi-dimensional and holistic approach to the design of technology and the information society developed in [START_REF] Leikas | Life-Based Design -A holistic approach to designing human-technology interaction[END_REF] and [START_REF] Leikas | Life-based design to combat loneliness among older people[END_REF][START_REF] Leikas | A Methodological Model for Life-Based Design[END_REF][START_REF] Saariluoma | Life-Based Designan approach to design for life[END_REF]. LBD calls for understanding the true value of technology as a means to the ultimate target of improving the quality of human life: what technology could really offer people and in what forms and on what terms it would be welcomed and adopted.

LBD emphasises a holistic understanding of human life as the foundation of the design: life is conceptualised and analysed from different perspectives (biological, psychological, socio-cultural) as Forms of Life that technology should support and advance in order to enhance quality of life. Forms of Life analysis paves the way for concept design (e.g. by practicing HCD).

Concepts are further exposed to Fit-for-Life analysis that examines the ethicality of the design solutions and the benefit and meaningfulness that users can receive from the solutions that are developed and how these can be improved for better quality of life. Finally, the phase of innovation design defines a procedure for creating usage cultures and exporting the outcome for general use.

In short, LBD is an approach that involves the concepts of human life sciences through the span of the design of technology and the information society in general: from (e.g. ethically reflected) ideas to (collaboratively designed) concepts to technology use and its impacts on quality of life and usage cultures [START_REF] Leikas | Life-Based Design -A holistic approach to designing human-technology interaction[END_REF]. For HDD, LBD offers the ground framework with holistic research paradigms for organising design thinking and carrying out research and design activities.

2.6

Summary

We have used the five frameworks described above -Human-Centred Design, Participatory Design, Value Sensitive Design, Human-Driven Design and Research, and Life-Based Designto build our understanding of what Human-Driven Design is, in particular, what the central principles of the approach are (Table 1). First of all, HDD takes a perspective of the human and her or his values, the living and working environment, and other conditions of human life as a starting point in the design. Second, the users and other stakeholders are not just identified and recognised in the design process but involved as active participants in the design to the extent that the presupposed roles of the researcher and designer change, and all the participants are empowered. Finally, HDD goes beyond designing 'just' a product, service or system. HDD includes a larger, perhaps societal, point of view. We call this characteristic 'responsibility'. It expresses itself in different ways as promoting social and economic sustainability, and ethical and moral values.

Reflecting Human-Driven Design

We now elaborate on the three principles of HDD: the human and social perspective on design, participation and responsibility. We also illustrate these principles with some practical experiences and methods. The purpose of this chapter is to help other practitioners in the HCI/HTI field to recognise and reflect on how they can apply (parts of) HDD to their own work, either in the design of emerging technologies for the future society or in other contexts.

Human and social view

HDD promotes a human perspective on technology design in a profound way: technology should make a meaningful difference, and the justification for technology should be to improve quality of life. A true ICT society should be examined and developed through human dimensions and the concept of quality of life. In current HTI design, usage situations are too often the main area of concentration, while ignoring the real needs that arise out of people's needs. Access to and usability of technology

do not yet imply use, however, and use does not necessarily imply meaningful use. A successful solution creation process needs to look at technology as one possible enabler and not as the default tool [START_REF] Datye | Life-Based Design for Technical Solutions in Social and Voluntary Work[END_REF]. HDD thus applies methods to understanding social and cultural settings for the development of emerging technologies and how to assess the meaningfulness of technology for the user. These refer to values, expectations, beliefs and practices that also influence the way individuals interpret the world and technology. They have significant influence on the individual's involvement in technology and on the way a community is able to make use of technology (see, e.g., [START_REF] Pinkett | Bridging the Digital Divide: Sociocultural Constructionism and an Asset-Based Approach to Community Technology and Community Building[END_REF]).

The Fit-for-Life design [START_REF] Leikas | A Methodological Model for Life-Based Design[END_REF], for example, is a method (under development) to test the meaningfulness of a technology conceptits fit in the lives of future users to ensure that it will enhance the quality of life. The method should be applied after the concept design phase, before proceeding to the implementation. The Fit-for-Life analysis refers to re-checking the concept against the human requirements defined in earlier design phases (e.g., through the holistic Form-of-Life analysis). At the same time, the requirements should be reflected for the needs of the implementation phase. If there is a mismatch between the concept and the requirements, the concept should be refined.

Participation

HDD seeks users' active, co-creative involvement throughout the design span. The other stakeholders such as technology developers and service providers are of equal importance. HDD could be described in the words of Marc Steen [START_REF] Steen | The fragility of human-centred design[END_REF]: with all stakeholders, HDD aims to "engage in a dialogue in which we can learn from each other, and jointly explore and articulate ideas about needs we can try to solve", and moreover "create a setting in which different people contribute their skills and ideas so that we can jointly explore, envision and evaluate ideas, concepts and new products" (p. 15).

To illustrate the participatory aspect of HDD, we present four example co-design approaches developed or applied by us as a HCI/HTI research team. Our aim has been to develop human-driven methodology in which participation in design occurs close to the real use context and as intertwined with everyday life, similarly to Ikonen et al. [START_REF] Kaasinen | Three approaches to co-creating services with users[END_REF]. Human-driven methods set a low threshold for participation but aim to bring value for all stakeholders. The methods seek to provide optional ways to contribute and encourage creativity and informal interaction, and enable agile gathering and analysing of data as well as support for iterative development.

IHME -an open, public showroom and co-design environment.

In 2010, we designed and implemented an open, public technology showroom and co-design environment in small commercial premises in a shopping centre [START_REF] Ikonen | IHME = Miracle -Make, Imagine and Research Applications for Computerised Living Environments[END_REF]. The purpose of the showroom was to demonstrate an open, low-threshold co-design environment in which different stakeholders of technology design could meet and learn from each other. The place opened its doors to attract shoppers and other passers-by to pop into the premises to familiarise themselves with the latest advancements in ICT (namely, 3D television, augmented reality, virtual travelling, etc.) and to participate in user studies. Two employees worked at the premises full time to show visitors around, interview them and organise questionnaire studies. The showroom was open for two months in the summer of 2010, during which time it had approximately 2500 visitors. The feedback from the visitors was positive: the environment was considered fun, informative, interesting and easy to approach.

Owelaa social media platform for co-design. Another method that we have developed and systematically apply for easy involvement in design is the online platform 'Owela' (Open Web Lab), built on social media-type interaction, which thus enables user participation regardless of time and place [START_REF] Näkki | Online tools for co-design: user involvement through the innovation process[END_REF]. This platform provides tools and methods (discussion, polls, voting, online chatting, etc.) for understanding users' needs and experiences as well as innovating and designing new products and services together. The platform enables different levels of participation based on the users' own interests and provides scoring tools to reward and motivate the participants. The advantage of online co-design is that all the developers have real time access to user feedback without intermediates. The developers have an easy option to ask questions directly to the users. This supports reciprocal understanding between the users and developers.

Visual IHMEa visual online platform for co-designing places. The aforementioned method, Owela, has been further developed towards a more visual co-design platform that utilises realistic images of places. This platform provides a photo-based, interactive spherical panorama environment with a set of easy-to-use co-design interaction tools such as discussion boards, questionnaires and polls on the screen (on the panorama image). All user-created content can be pinned to specific spatial spots on the image. The platform can be used for HDD purposes to study and co-design indoor and outdoor places, i.e. for understanding, co-creating and sharing meanings bound to or growing from specific locations. In this sense, the platform can be used, for instance, to promote sustainable behaviour [START_REF] Niemelä | Visual IHME: co-designing meaningful places for sustainability[END_REF][START_REF] Niemelä | Visual IHME: co-designing meaningful places for sustainability[END_REF].

Living Lab. Other 'human-driven' methods are those in which participation is embedded in the routines and practices of the user in a long-term mannerso-called Living Labs. Our most recent Living Lab case focused on the development of future postal services. The Living Lab was based on a small village, and the participant households (approximately half of the village) committed to the iterative co-design and development process for several months. A variety of methods from household and individual interviews and questionnaires to co-design sessions with group dialogical methods and Owela were utilised. The Living Lab community seemingly benefited from the social agenda and the technical platforms set by the Living Lab, as the participants were encouraged to meet each other and collaborate for the common goals of the Living Lab.

Responsibility

HDD goes beyond the design of products and systems to the wellbeing of people and sustainability. In this sense, HDD can be part of the emerging activity of responsible innovation (RRI, Responsible Research and Innovation). RRI refers to "a transparent, interactive process by which societal actors and innovators become mutually responsive to each other with a view on the (ethical) acceptability, sustainability and societal desirability of the innovation process and its marketable products" [START_REF]Towards Responsible Research and Innovation in the Information and Communication Technologies and Security Technologies Fields[END_REF]. We suggest by design thinking here, in order to promote responsibility in design outcomes, e.g. "Ethics by design" is a model to integrate consideration of ethical issues deeply into the technology development process from the early phase so that ethics is not an external part of a development project but rather an ongoing dialogue throughout the development span [START_REF]Guardian Angels: FET Flagship pilot[END_REF].

Ethics by design. During the last decade, we have participated as HCI/HTI researchers in research focusing on the ethics of emerging ICTs and, for instance, developed ethical guidelines for mobile-centric ambient intelligence [START_REF] Ikonen | Defining Ethical Guidelines for Ambient Intelligence Applications on a Mobile Phone[END_REF]. With regard to emerging ICTs, we have noticed a need for thinking and practices aimed at a positive ethical contribution in system design [cf. 29]. Ethical principles and questions should work as sources of innovation for designing ethically sound concepts. This thinking can be called ethics by design, extending from Marc van Lieshout and colleagues' model of privacy by design [START_REF] Lieshout | Privacy by Design: an alternative to existing practice in safeguarding privacy[END_REF].

In ethics by design, ethical considerations are involved from the very beginning of the development process and embedded through the process. All stakeholders including technology developers, direct users and indirect users are involved in ethical deliberation through representatives, e.g. in focus groups. In addition, to ensure sufficiently deep understanding of ethical issues, ethical experts can work for the project, either as internal project workers or as an external expert board. Ethics is also included at the user end so that the user experience of ethicality of design outcomes is considered.

Sustainability by design.

Here, sustainability is defined with regard to sustainable development "that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" [START_REF]World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (Brundtland Report)[END_REF]. A common view is to consider sustainability along three dimensions that focus on environmental, social and economic long-term consequences.

Within HCI, research related to environmental sustainability, in particular, has expanded in recent years. In 2007, Jennifer Mankoff and colleagues introduced several pathways for HCI to contribute to the well-being of the environment [START_REF] Mankoff | Environmental sustainability and interaction[END_REF]. Once again, we have paid special attention to the sustainability by (through) design perspective. This view considers ways to support sustainable lifestyles and decision-making through the design of technology. Sustainability by design sees technology as a "channel for intervention in the everyday decisions and mindsets" [START_REF] Mankoff | Environmental sustainability and interaction[END_REF] that, partly, underlies environmental problems. In line with this, we have developed a visual, online co-design tool to provide easy ways to co-create and share meanings in regard to physical environments and, in this way, encourage shifting the users' practices toward sustainability (see Section 3.2 and [START_REF] Niemelä | Visual IHME: co-designing meaningful places for sustainability[END_REF]).

Discussion

This paper presents an attempt to collect and elaborate on principles for a humandriven approach to technology and interaction design. Based on the well-known frameworks of design such as Human-Centred Design, Participatory Design and Value Sensitive Design, Human-Driven Design takes human and social values profoundly into account and aims to take real human needs as a starting point of the design. HDD endorses participation and empowering of users and other stakeholders by developing and applying co-design methods, of which we have provided examples. The general aim of HDD should be to involve people in the design of emerging technologies and human-technology interaction concepts so that their needs and values become articulated in the design process. At the same time, the process should include reflection on ethical and sustainability terms. HDD also promotes responsible research and innovation, e.g., in the forms of ethics by design and sustainability by design. In fact, HDD can be seen as an attempt to take the framework of responsible research and innovation (e.g. [START_REF]Towards Responsible Research and Innovation in the Information and Communication Technologies and Security Technologies Fields[END_REF]) in practice.

We have developed HDD thinking in the context of designing emerging technologies, that is, technologies that are currently being developed and that hold realistic potential to become widely adopted within the next 10 to 20 years [START_REF] Stahl | Issues, Concepts and Methods Relating to the Identification of the Ethics of Emerging ICTs[END_REF]. This includes concepts like ambient intelligence, ubiquitous computing, autonomous systems, emotional computing, service robotics and convergence of ICT with other technologies, e.g. nanotechnology or human implants. In addition to the human and social view, participation and responsibility, HDD should try to understand the future contexts in which certain technology would be embedded. Arguably, HCI has capitalised very little on systematic methods of futures thinking, although this could "prepare us for problems that have not yet arrived, enable the 'invention' of a better future, or increase the long-term impact of our work" [35, p. 1629]. Our next step is to study relevant methods to gain an insight into the future, especially in terms of human and social behaviour and societal trends, i.e. to study human-driven foresight. This step is necessary for us to be able to formulate HDD as a useful alternative design approach to emerging ICTs that is deeply based on respecting human values and needs as well as sustainability.

Table 1 .

 1 Principles of HDD design based on the five influential frameworks

	Design	Principles of human-driven approach
	approach	Human and social	Participation	Responsibility
		view
	Human-	Human perspective on	Participatory approach	Direct support for
	Centred	iterative design	to involve users and	social and economic
	Design		other stakeholders in	sustainability
			the design
	Participatory	Empowering users (as	Involving users	Advances democracy
	Design	workers, co-creators	throughout all the	and equality between
		and co-designers)	phases of the design	people
	Value Sensi-	Integrates human	All stakeholders'	Promotes values with
	tive Design	values into design	values are identified	ethical and moral
			and recognised	import
	Human-	ICT as a tool to make	Emphasis on local	Awareness of conflicts
	Driven De-	a meaningful differ-	practices and empow-	of interests between
	sign and	ence	ering people	stakeholders in devel-
	Research			opment
	Life-Based	Justification for tech-	Concept design is	Reflections of real
	Design	nology: to improve	based on the analysis	human needs. Analysis
		quality of life. Under-	of a form of life, sup-	of fit for life and long-
		standing of human life	plemented by ideation,	term impacts. Value
		as the foundation of	reflection and elabora-	and ethicality of de-
		the design	tion of solutions with	sign solutions
			users

Acknowledgements. We would like to thank the reviewers for their helpful comments. This work has been funded by the GREAT project (EU FP7/grant agreement no. 321480) and supported by the VTT Design for Life innovation program.