Teresa Salaz

Priya Macgregor

Thomas

Petr Balog

Ljiljana Siber

Eric Jennings

Hans Kishel

Bryan S Vogh

Angie Stombaugh

Danica Dolničar

Bojana Boh Podgornik

Irena Sajovic

Andrej Šorgo

Tomaž Bartol

Lili Luo

Marie Kennedy

Kristine Brancolini

Huyen Thi Ngo

Geoffrey Lee Walton

Alison Jane Pickard

Alenka Šauperl

Zdenka Semlič Rajh

Lyn Robinson

David Bawden

Fatima Baji

Carole Haeusler

Zahed Bigdeli

Abdullah Parsa

Diane Mizrachi

Joumana Boustany

Serap Kurbanoğlu

Güleda Doğan

Raphaëlle Bats
email: raphaelle.bats@enssib.fr

Information Literacy, Participatory Projects and the Development of Political Roles for Librarians

Keywords: participation, public libraries, political culture, expertise, librarianship

This paper reports on information retrieved by a team of librarians of the public library of Lyon as part of their preparation for their involvement in a participatory project . I based the quantitative and qualitative analyses on a theoretical framework built on philosophy and information science concepts. My results shows that taking part in political action seems to be in conflict with some traditional values of libraries like neutrality, democratization, and emancipation through culture rather than through action. Finally my study lets us drawn the portrait of a new generation of librarians who accept their political role.

Raphaëlle Bats, ECIL

Résumé en français : En 2015, la Bibliothèque municipale de Lyon a commencé la préparation d'un programme d'événement appelé « Démocratie : rêver, penser et agir ensemble ». Ce programme offrira entre novembre 2016 et mars 2017 près de 80 événements de toute nature, dont plus de la moitié sont participatifs. Pendant l'année de préparation, le comité de pilotage de ce programme a mis en place une veille autour de la participation pour se former et pour informer et former les équipes de la bibliothèque. Cet article est l'analyse de cette veille aussi bien en termes de sources, de médias que de contenus et d'auteurs. En m'appuyant sur la définition de la culture informationnelle telle que donnée par Olivier Le Deuff, j'ai étudié cette veille en trois temps. D'abord, j'ai cherché à voir si cette veille laissait apparaître une certaine définition de la participation que les bibliothécaires auraient retenue comme pertinente. Cette veille étant collaborative, elle s'appuyait sur des veilles individuelles mises en commun. J'ai cherché ensuite à déterminer la part des valeurs bibliothéconomiques dans la sélection qui était menée par des individus bibliothécaires. Et enfin, j'ai cherché à voir dans quelle mesure cette veille et ses modalités de diffusion créait des injonctions à l'action participative pour ses récepteurs.

Au terme de cette recherche, il semble que dans un projet comme celui mené par la BML, la recherche d'information menée par l'équipe organisatrice est révélatrice d'une nouvelle approche du rôle politique des bibliothèques. Elle dresse le portrait d'une nouvelle génération de bibliothécaires qui assume son rôle politique avec un sens élevé de la responsabilité des employés du service public culturel. Néanmoins, cette volonté de prendre part à l'action politique semble entrer en conflit avec un autre aspect de l'institution culturelle, qui est celui des valeurs qu'elle entend défendre et en premier lieu la notion de neutralité. Cette ambivalence très perceptible dans la veille qui est menée,

Introduction

For more than 20 years, in France, the public has regularly experimented in participating in urban renewal projects. For the past five years, cultural policies have expressed interest in in similar efforts. Libraries in particular have begun to embrace this new dynamic on their own initiative, on the initiative of elected officials, or, in rarer cases, on the initiative of associations. Municipal and national libraires have been especially eager to launched participatory projects in many fields such as acquisitions, heritage, event organization, and records correction. While participation seems to be legitimate in libraries, both philosophically and politically [START_REF] Bats | Les enjeux et les limites de la participation : le rôle des bibliothèques[END_REF], librarians still are learing to view their services as new approaches in political action and agency. They are still beginning to consider their role as an emancipatory service in a public space,. The first reason is that participatory projects1 required equality between the public and the institution. Libraries are more used to an approach where they provide guidance in support of a top down education. The second reason is that participatory projects are an opportunity to practicedemocracy. This would require libraries to adopt a critical approach to the actual democracy, a critical position that is not in the habits of cultural institutions that claim neutrality.

The Bibliothèque Municipale de Lyon (BML) is the second largest public library in France after the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. It employs a staff of 500 and serves 14 branches and one central library. As early as 2014, the BML was envisioning a large cultural project on democracy. After the terrorist attacks in January 2015, the project took a more participatory dimension. In Spring 2015, the "Démocratie 2017" project was officially launched and I joined it in Fall 2015 as a PhD student invited to the steering committee of this cultural project, which will take place from November 2016 to March 2017. During this project we experienced that participatory projects are particularly demanding in terms of knowledge and skills. It required that we gain knowledge in participative animation's tools and in the political stakes of participation.

Librarians took part to acquire new skills and worked on information retrieval using the bookmark tools Diigo. Information retrieval led by librarians seemed to be perfect situation to observe how librarians trained themselves to acquire new knowledge., This project will serve as my thesis which will focus on the link between knowledge and political action.

I make the hypothesis that, when studying the information retrieval process of librarians engaged in such projects, it will be possible to observe their information literacy as well as its impact on the participatory project of a public cultural establishment. To validate these assumptions, I used a theorical framework, built on philosophy and information sciences including the "archéologie des savoirs" de Foucault [START_REF] Foucault | L'archéologie des savoirs[END_REF], the concept of information literacy of Pawley [START_REF] Pawley | Information Literacy: a contradictory coupling?[END_REF], and the concept of "information culture" of Le Deuff [START_REF] Deuff | La culture de l'information : Quelles « littératies » pour quelles conceptions de l[END_REF], to analyze the statistical treatment of information retrieval made by employees of the BML. Prior to detailing the methodology and the results of this study, it is essential to conduct a literature review, beginning with the matter of knowledge in participatory projects and then exploring the matter of librarians' informational skills. I will end the article with a discussion on the political role of libraries and the engagement of librarians in a public service for which neutrality is a central value [START_REF] Bats | Post Charlie Hebdo: The French libraries between freedom of expression and neutrality of the cultural institutions[END_REF].

Literature Review

Participatory projects have a multifaceted relationship with knowledge. Participation is often approached as a citizens / elected officials / technicians triothat, although it shows some shortcomings [START_REF] Mazeaud | Citoyen/Élu/Technicien[END_REF]), in particular due to excessive categorization, still allows to distinguish between various forms of knowledge gathered by the participants. Because of the entanglement of the roles between citizens and technician [START_REF] Nez | Savoir d'usage[END_REF] [START_REF] Leclerc | Dictionnaire critique et interdisciplinaire de la participation[END_REF], participatory projects also result in the development of new knowledge related to the context, to the territory, or to participation itself, both in theoretical and practical terms. We can even expect to see a professionalization of this participation [START_REF] Mazeaud | Dictionnaire critique et interdisciplinaire de la participation[END_REF] that might drive it away from the field of engagement [START_REF] Blondiaux | Un bilan des recherches sur la participation du public en démocratie : beaucoup de bruit pour rien ?[END_REF]. So, while citizens and technicians assemble knowledge, they also generate new ones. But there is no research done on the conditions of these learnings. In this article I will attempt to fill this void by studying the specific case of librarians.

There is an abundant literature analyzing the training dispensed by librarians to their publics to achieve information literacy and political literacy. Henri Maitles [START_REF] Maitles | Teaching Political Literacy[END_REF] noted that if political education has no conclusive effects, the political literacy provided by librarians should focus on skills to participation to politics and to political knowledge, more than on the working of political institution, to be more effective. For Elmborg [START_REF] Elmborg | Critical Information Literacy: Implications for Instructional Practice[END_REF], librarians had to focus not on transfer of information but on acquiring a critical conscience. For Smith [START_REF] Smith | Critical Information Literacy instruction for the development of political agency[END_REF], the critical literacy lead to a political agency in moving from individual point of view to a social one, and in requiring a assumed responsibility. Political action seems to required a political look on information. In this paper I will try to observe it.

On rarer occasions, that literature offered analyses on librarianship trainings aimed at teaching instructing skills [START_REF] White | Promoting Reflexivity and Inclusivity in Archival Education, Research, and Practice[END_REF]. Yet there is surprisingly sparse literature on how librarians wield their own information literacy while engaged in their professional activities. Education and information sciences focus on the training of students and children but rarely on the proficiency of the teachers and librarians themselves [START_REF] Martins | Information literacy in areas of cognitive science and information science[END_REF]. I would like to fill this silence in the literature is something with this study.

Methodology

Theoretical framework

Myresearch relied first on a philosophical approach to determine the type of political discourse of French libraries. The « archéologie des savoirs » of Michel Foucault [START_REF] Foucault | L'archéologie des savoirs[END_REF], gave us a framework to study the sources that inform the political action of librarians, which include: key texts of French libraries including a Manifesto and classical texts; the orientation plan of the public library of Lyon; and, finally the information retrieval of librarians involved in the "Démocratie 2017" project. I will just focus on this last point ior this paper,. Second, my research stood on two political approaches of information literacy (IL): the critics of IL from Pawley [START_REF] Pawley | Information Literacy: a contradictory coupling?[END_REF], and the concept of culture of information of Le Deuff [START_REF] Deuff | La culture de l'information : Quelles « littératies » pour quelles conceptions de l[END_REF]. I used these approaches to build a theoretical framework for this specific case.

1. According to Le Deuff, culture of information is eminently political and civic [START_REF] Deuff | Penser la conception citoyenne de la culture de l'information[END_REF]. It "takes into account the necessity for the citizen to have pertinent resources available, so that they can form an opinion." [4, p105]. For Pawley, information literacy requires the ability to put information on a political context. I wanted to measure inthis information retrieval study whether librarians had a political agenda and/or librarianship agenda.

2. According to Le Deuff, "[communicational culture] is closer to critical literacy and requires resistance capacities. There is a political and philosophical dimension centered more on the individual than on the citizen." [4, p 106]. Each individual gathers knowledge that allowed them to form an individual and critical analysis of the information they found. For Pawley, information literacy lead everyone to engage himself or herself [START_REF] Pawley | Information Literacy: a contradictory coupling?[END_REF]. Information looked for, selected, and absorbedreflected choices and values. Myinformation retrieval analysis will show if the tastes and interests of the individual take precedence over the collective values of the librarians as criteria for evaluation of information.

3. The phrase "culture of information" was inspired by the work of Major R. Owens and how he linkrf the matter of responsibility to information literacy. According to him, information retrieval committed us to act. Christine Pawley also used this notion of action around the concept of consumers-producers [START_REF] Pawley | Information Literacy: a contradictory coupling?[END_REF]. The trainer should not perceive the one intended to acquire information literacy as passive, but as able to create their own information. Both these theories of information literacy gave an important place to action made possible by information. I therefore, tried to find out to what extent the information retrieval done by the group revealed an active dimension.

Statistical study

The steering committee of the "Démocratie 2017" project conducted information retrieval work on the topic of the event. My article looks precisely into this information retrieval process, which is stored and compiled in a Diigo project The Diigo project is freely accessible. It is also diffused weekly via a Scoop-it. Mystudy relied on a statistical treatment of the Diigo project to identify: • Quantitatively: items, sources, type of sources, and form of items • Qualitatively: topics related to the project, intellectual ou academic field of authors, and topics of the items. I knew that this research had a bias inducted by the thema of the project itself. The action of librarians working on participatory projects and new democratic forms as well as the information they seek related to these projects wasnecessarily very political and very closed to some alternatives movements.

Results and Discussion

The Diigo of the Démocratie 2017 project added 125 items in eleven months. I studied the content of this information retrieval process from June 2015 to April 2016. Twelve participants contributed to the Diigo, including the eleven persons of the steering committee and myself. I published 4 out of the 125 items. Two members of the steering committee did not sign up. Three of the participants did not entereditems, six participantsentered fewer than the. The three agents who initiated the project entered 20 items, 30 items, and almost 60 items respectively. Those three agents began their data gathering work in in June 2015 while all the others began during fall. However, the time they started their participation was not the only explanation for their higher participation. These three agents worked in the "Society and Civilizations" department of the central library and political matters were at the core of their daily activities, as opposed to other members of the group who might have been working on more distant topics.

Objective based approach

Instead of showing a desire to prepare as a librarian, the Diigo data reveals that librarians involved in the project? desired to develop a unique view of the topic extending beyond the framework of the library.

Examining the 125 items by subject fields showed only 5 items from Library and Information Sciences (LIS). Three addressed new topics in librarianship: the common good of knowledge. Two others talked about political questions in libraries: burned libraries in the first example and participatory projects for the second. LIS seemed to be considered as another academic field, like the performing arts, medias studies, psychology, and anthropology. LIS is a potential source for this project, but not the main source.

•

Fig. 1. Items by fields

The main field of the items was, in fact, journalism (31 items or 25 percent out of 125). By journalism, I mean that the author of the item was a journalist who wrote with a journalistic orientation. There were 88 (90 percent) items in all other academic fields.

The final six items were about associative activism or texts written to serve or present the activist project of an association. In the 88 items written with academic orientations, 19 (15 percent) were in philosophy, 20 (16 percent) were in political sciences, and 16 (13 percent) were in social sciences. The two last fields were not surprising since the political and social sciences were related to the topic of the project and to the libary acquisitions areas of the leaders of the project. At first, the presence

Items by fields

of itemsin philosophy could be seen as strange, but those items were essentially in political philosophy.

The 125 items come from 79 different sources. Sixty-three (80 pecent) of these sources were mentioned only once but 15 (12 pecent) were mentioned more than once, in particular France Culture (17 items) and Médiapart (8 items). The other sources were mentioned fewer than four times with the exception of the the catalogue of BML, whose use is described in the paragraph below. France Culture is a very high-level national public radio station where a lot of academics speak. This radio station leans more towards intellectuals than culture even though the latter is still largely represented. Médiapart is an online independent journal that aims to revive the tradition of journalistic investigation, calls for participation among its readers, and frequently organizes debates.

These data show that LIS and/or technical questions were not central in this information retrieval. The main use of this information retrieval was to train collaborators on this topic so that they can grasp the concepts in a more general sense and not solely in the context of libraries. Six items used the catalogue of the BML as their source which pointed out that some of the useful documents were already in the collection. It process also allowed the team to identify potential participants. The list of lecturerd invited to talk during the future events (November 2016 to March 2017) was the same than the list of authors identified? in the information retrieval. Some are mentioned? numerous time such as Rancière and Fraser in philosophy, Wahnich and Rosenvallon in history, and Coriat in economy.

This lead me to think that, for the librarians doing this information retrieval, the point was not to find data allowing them to simply do their job but to do their work differently. Likewise, they did not simply question today's democracy; they also questioned the potential for an emerging democracy. As such, the Diigo project showed a civic rather than a technical informational culture. In fact, if the project called into question what libraries usually stand for, then the information retrieval process largely went beyond a technical objective. It allowed librarians to question their role in society, facing social and civic practices they were not familiar with. It revealed the possible emergence of a new kind of librarian. French librarians have long been accused of being "Télérama", that is to say that, despite being left-leaning they had an elitist discourse on the democratization of culture. In other words, it was OK to watch TV but only if you watched good movies. Entertainment was only acceptable as long as you picked and chose. This type of discourse had long been relayed by librarians in the way they selected documents they deemed good and of appropriate cultural level for their public [START_REF] Calenge | Entre le lecteur et la lecture, quelle bibliothèque ? | Bertrand Calenge : carnet de notes[END_REF]. Yet there is a complete absence of any reference to Télérama on the Diigo platform. In fact, Télérama may have been replaced by France Culture as a new cultural reference served as an indicator to the importance of the academic fields we observed. While the objective for librarians here was not to develop their librarianship skills, they clearly tried to identify experts in democracy and participation that were almost exclusively academics. It showed a certain position of humility with librarians clearly stating that they were not experts as opposed to the Télérama librarians. In opposition, if they are not experts, they had the keys to contextualize, to point out the stakes, and to build and help to build a political discourse. This was a first step to moving a cultural action into a political action.

Value-Based Approach

The items in the Diigo project leaned heavily on the left or sometimes far left side of the political spectrum. As it allowed, on one hand, the training of agents and, on the other end, the creation of a list of potential participants, the whole project was characterized by this left-leaning tendency. Most of the items were critical of democracy and representation and called for an increased participation in the political field and for more empowerment for each and every person from a collective point of view. These were signs of a drifting away from the usual political parties as well as an interest for radical democracy. Facing the difficulty of distinguishing between the nuances of the left, I focused on the identification of items from the right or neutral. I considered the institutions as neutral if they offered services by the state. If they did not, I assigned them to the political party in power at the time of creation of the content or to the stance of the participants taking part. So, a radio show on France Culture could not be considered as neutral when only left or far left academics took part. While I was able to find four neutral items, I could not find one expressing a right-wing stance. As I said earlier, this result was not very surprising due to the thema of the project. However, this result was not in complete opposition with the generally left-leaning tendencies of French libraries and with the values of librarians. In an article of the activism of librarians, Camille Hubert expressed a real difficulty in identifying right-leaning librarians and the only person who accepted her invitation to talk to her asked to do so anonymously [START_REF] Hubert | Bibliothécaires et militantisme: neutralité et pratiques professionnelles[END_REF].

To go further in the analysis of the content of the items, I looked at how they fit or did not fit in the four majors topics of the project as defined by the steering committee: democracy, participation, empowerment, and commons. There was an almost perfect equality between three topics: democracy, empowerment, and participation. The topic of Commons was weaker compared to the others but the specialization of this topic, its novelty, and the low number of people working on this explained it. What was really surprising was that 13 percent of items did not fit into one of the major topics. All these items were related to political questions and,specifecally, to critics of today politics including critics of political parties, governmentality, and use of algorithms in politics. This 13 percent of items showsed that this information retrieval was also a place for more activist positions and global thoughts about the society.

The items by type of sources also showed a ambivalent place for institutions. Only seven items had a cultural or political institution, , such as a museum, governemental website, or governemental agency, as a source. I also could have considered academic journals and research centers are institutions because universities are public in France and the national radio France Culture, could be considered a national institution. If these sources are included, then 47 percent of the items were cultural or political institutions.

• Fig. 3. Items by type of sources.

Yet, most of the researchers and well as those affiliated withFrance Culture, independant media, and even major media were more apt to express a critical and political thought than an institutional speech. I could say that the tradition of involvement of intellectuals who speak publicly has been to call others to concrete actions and participate with activists in the field. Adding to this, 32 percent of the items clearly sources clearly identified as activist sources such as associations, independant media, and militant journals. The militant position was far away central to this information retrieval.

Items by type of sources

This reflects the problem of neutrality in French institution workers, including librarians [START_REF] Bats | Libraries after Charlie: from Neutrality to Action[END_REF]. Civil servants are not supposed to let the politicians dominate? aloud the political discourse. This does not mean that libraries' actions do not have a political influence or stance but this has not to be presented as political. Despite this, the study of the types of sources shows an emphasis on clear stands. In other words, while the selection shows a drifting away from the value of neutrality, it shows maybe a closer proximity to some other collective value for French librarians. The first collective value could be the rejection of right and far-right opinions. More interesting is another collective value related to the role of libraries in the society. If in 2005, D. Lahary [START_REF] Lahary | Le fossé des générations[END_REF] defined that the new generation of librarians were de-politized, maybe this generation is only approaching the political role of libraries from another angle that we still have to define. The neutrality of the library does not have to be a principle but the consequence of its assumed political role [START_REF] Jaeger | neutrality, and value demonstration in the age of austerity[END_REF]. In the end, the information retrieval process revealed a critical approach through a questioning of the notion of neutrality, preferring a refocusing on the missions of libraries and their responsibilities.

Action-Based Approach

As we saw earlier, studying the sources of items by type also showed the importance of the academic environment; 27 items were research centers and academic journals: 27 items. I also studied the content of these items depending on their form. Unsurprisingly considering the previous results, I noticed a strong predominance of academic papers and podcasts. This result could even be increased, if we considered that 90 percent of the participants in the radio shows were academics. Librarians seemed to be hiding their actions behind those of academics.

Items by form

By proclaiming their non-specialist status, librarians remained behind the scened of political action and, in doing so, partly withdrew from it. Indeed, political actors put themselves forward and take responsibility [START_REF] Tassin | Ce que l'action fait à l'acteur[END_REF].

On the other hand, the information gathered with Diigo was transformed in several ways: (1) into a Scoop.it; (2) into potential participants; and, (3) into information sheets on the topics, for the agents but also later for the public, in particular through the work done with schools and teachers. In this regard, I could say that the steering committee was a consumer-producer [START_REF] Pawley | Information Literacy: a contradictory coupling?[END_REF]. Likewise, some of the selected tools and practices showed the librarians' desired to try different relations with the public and to question the library's capacity for being truly participatory. Facets of the work got close to the way John Dewey analyzed democratic renewal through participation [START_REF] Dewey | Le public et ses problèmes[END_REF]. I saw this in the notion of experimentation, the projection into a future that librarians will be part of, and in the criteria for the selection of the items.. I could note a desire "to be situated in the political action and not solely focused on the transmission of knowledge" [START_REF] Bertrand | Les bibliothèques sont filles des Lumières[END_REF].

Topics like emancipation or empowerment were very present in the information gathered, so it was important not to dismiss them as anecdotal. Indeed, although French libraries lacked any law clearly defining their missions, they agreed to say that their function was to contribute to the emancipation of citizens. Democratization was key in this emancipation, but is largely being questioned nowadays [START_REF] Cousin-Rossignol | Les bibliothèques face à « l'échec de la démocratisation culturelle[END_REF]. This information retrieval traced the contours of a different reflection on emancipation, less top-down and more experimental. Librarians seemed to embrace their role not as pillars of democracy, but as active agents. This action toos different forms:

• having new democratic forms experienced through participation emancipation inspired by John Dewey [START_REF] Dewey | Le public et ses problèmes[END_REF]; • convincing the public of their ability to act through equality in the intellectual debate through a definition of emancipation closer to the one thought by Jacques Rancière [START_REF] Rancière | Le maître ignorant: cinq leçons sur l'émancipation intellectuelle[END_REF]) • offering a new way to think about goods as common goods, thus a emancipation more based on digital citizenship and texts by philosophers Dardot and Laval [START_REF] Dardot | Commun: essai sur la révolution au XXIe siècle[END_REF].

The agents of the BML regretted not being part of a true debate event and saw the Démocratie 2017 project as a way to fill this void. The point was not just to propose debates but to embrace the intensity or even the possible conflicts of the debates.

Accepting this agitation was one of the new orientations that the information retrieval performedby the group seems to be showing, hence the choice of items, strongly oriented towards change, reform, and a renewal of democracy. The knowledge assembled was revelatory of a desire for action, of a will to think the library as a political actor in its capacity to offer places for debate. In other words, to be a true Habermasian public space [START_REF] Habermas | L'espace public: archéologie de la publicité comme dimension constitutive de la société bourgeoise[END_REF].

Conclusion

In a project such as the one undertaken by the BML, the information retrieval done by the organizing team revealed a new approach to the political role of libraries. It showed us the portrait of a new generation of librarians who accepted their political role as civil servants / citizens, moving further away from librarianship techniques, but moving closer than ever to the assertion of a responsibility towards society. However, this desire to take part in political action seemed to be in conflict with the values of libraries that correspond to another way of thinking the role of public cultural institutions: neutrality, democratization and emancipation through culture rather than through action. This difficult convergence between two representations of libraries does not seem to result from a lack of training of the librarians in terms of informational skills, but rather from a lack of political culture. By this I mean that librarians nowadays had trouble identifying French librarianship thinkers, to position themselves in a tendency, a history, to feel at one with it, while being able to make it their own and criticize it, and adapt it to their current problems, and in a way rekindle their vocation. The tendency in Anglo-Saxon countries toward the development of a critical library science lets us see promising possibilities in the domain of the political action of librarians.

• Fig. 2 .

 2 Items by topics.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Items by form

  Integrating the Personal Information Culture Concept and the Idea of Media and Information Literacy Offered in the UNESCO Curriculum for Teachers: Experiences of Russia and Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natalia Gendina Information Literacy Instruction: An Overview of Research and Professional Development in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kanwal Ameen and Midrar Ullah Public Policies for Information Literacy in Portugal: An Agenda in the Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tatiana Sanches Action Plan for Improving the Learning Practices and Motivation of LIS Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tania Todorova, Elena Ignatova, and Irena Peteva Academic Libraries Intervening Conditions Inside and Outside Libraries in Order to Build Collaboration Between Teaching Faculty and Librarians in Education: Based on a Case Study of Earlham College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tayo Nagasawa Information Literacy as a Key to Academic Success: Results from a Longitudinal Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anne-Kathrin Mayer and Günter Krampen

I define a participatory project as a project where the patrons are actors and not only passive or consumers. We can measure participatory projects using Sherry Arnstein's[START_REF] Arstein | A Ladder of Citizen Participation[END_REF] spectrum from non-participation, tokenism, and citizen control.


Stéphanie Muller
email: s.muller@brgm.fr-

Frédéric Lai

Antoine Beylot

Baptiste Boitier

Jacques Villeneuve

No mining activities, no environmental impacts? Assessing the carbon footprint of metal requirements induced by the consumption of a country with almost no mines

Keywords: Carbon footprint, multiregional input-output analysis, metal production, domestic final demand, consumption, EXIOBASE 3 Highlights

published or not. The documents may come     No mining activities, no environmental impacts? Assessing the carbon footprint of metal requirements induced by the consumption of a country with almost no mines

Introduction 1.Global warming and carbon footprint

The link between greenhouse gases (GHG) anthropogenic emissions and global warming is well established [START_REF] Ipcc | Summary for Polymakers[END_REF]. The Paris climate agreement, signed and approved during the 21 st conference of parties, aims at limiting the global warming by 2°C above pre-industrial levels. To prove their determination in reaching this ambitious objective, a large majority of countries published their intended nationally determined contributions (INDC) in which they described, in particular, their targets in terms of GHG emissions mitigation [START_REF] Rogelj | Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2°C[END_REF]. The scope of these goals is, mainly, national; in other words, only domestic emissions are considered (UNFCCC, 2016). However, in a context of globalization, where for example, OECD countries generated 30% to 50% of foreign emissions as a consequence of their final demand in 2011 [START_REF] Wiebe | Estimating CO2 Emissions Embodied in Final Demand and Trade Using the OECD ICIO 2015[END_REF], one may raise the question of responsibility regarding GHG emissions. Should the producers or the consumers of goods and services be considered responsible for these emissions and their associated environmental impacts? [START_REF] Arto | COMPARING THE GTAP-MRIO AND WIOD DATABASES FOR CARBON FOOTPRINT ANALYSIS[END_REF] The INDC of France follows the one submitted by the European Union (EU) and targets a 40% domestic reduction in terms of GHG emissions by 2030compared to 1997(European Commission, 2015). However, in the "energetic transition for green growth" act adopted in August 17 th 2015, France defined a low carbon strategy that states, in particular, that the national effort to limit GHG emissions must not have an impact on emissions embodied within the imports (Légifrance, 2015). To assess these emissions, the French government defined a carbon footprint indicator that considers all GHG emissions induced along their supply chains by the products, goods and services consumed in France through the final domestic demand (i.e. the private and public final consumptions and investmentsgross fixed capital formation -, the changes in inventories and the direct emissions from households [START_REF] Kleiber | Les indicateurs de la stratégie nationale de transition écologique vers un développement durable. Etat des lieux[END_REF]). The French administration uses environmentally-extended input-output analysis (EE-IOA) to implement the calculations of this indicator, considering three GHGs: CO2, CH4 and N2O (for more information on EE-IOA with environmental extensions see [START_REF] Baude | L'empreinte carbone -Note préalable à l'élaboration du troisième rapport gouvernmental annuel au titre de la loi dite 'SAS' du 13 avril 2015[END_REF]. Domestic production and production-based emissions are drawn from national statistics; emissions associated to French imports are calculated using EE-IOA with data representative of the EU and adjusted for different world regions [START_REF] Baude | L'empreinte carbone -Note préalable à l'élaboration du troisième rapport gouvernmental annuel au titre de la loi dite 'SAS' du 13 avril 2015[END_REF]. The European statistics organization, EUROSTAT, also determines the carbon footprint induced by the European consumption by applying another EE-IOA framework based on European data. In this framework, the assumption of "domestic technology" is applied on imports: it assumes that the imported products are produced with similar production technologies to those implemented in the EU (Eurostat, 2018b). To overcome the long-made "domestic technology" assumption, many research projects worked on the extension of the EE-IOA framework to several regions and developed environmentally extended multi-regional input output (EE-MRIO) frameworks. Based on this framework, numerous papers and works have aimed at assessing the carbon footprint such as [START_REF] Boitier | CO2 emissions production-based accounting vs. consumption -Insigths from the WIOD databases[END_REF]Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, 2012;[START_REF] Arto | COMPARING THE GTAP-MRIO AND WIOD DATABASES FOR CARBON FOOTPRINT ANALYSIS[END_REF][START_REF] Moran | CONVERGENCE BETWEEN THE EORA, WIOD, EXIOBASE, AND OPENEU[END_REF][START_REF] Wiebe | Estimating CO2 Emissions Embodied in Final Demand and Trade Using the OECD ICIO 2015[END_REF][START_REF] Ivanova | Mapping the carbon footprint of EU regions[END_REF].

The contribution of the metal sector to GHG emissions

The world consumption is, today, relatively dependent on metals. These latter are consumed in most sectors from housing to transportation as well as communication or energy production. According to the International Resource Panel (IRP), the quantity of materials (including metals) used in the economy has tripled from 1970 to 2017 (IRP, 2017). The IRP prospects that the extraction of metal ores will increase at a yearly average of 1.7% from 2015 to 2060 if historical trends of consumption continue (IRP, 2019). Similar tendencies have been observed in studies dedicated to some specific metals, such as iron (whose projected demand has been calculated as three to four times higher in 2050 compared to 2010) or copper [START_REF] Schipper | Estimating global copper demand until 2100 with regression and stock dynamics[END_REF]. In particular, one potential cause of this increasing consumption could be the worldwide energetic transition requiring the development of renewable energy technologies [START_REF] Vidal | Metals for a low-carbon society[END_REF]World Bank Group and EGPS, 2017;[START_REF] Månberger | Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development[END_REF]. Overall, economic growth leads to an even more important growth in metal footprint (Burke, 2018).

The production of metals is an energy-intensive industrial sector that, accordingly, contributes to the global emissions of GHG. In 2010, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that the metal sector (including ferrous and non-ferrous metals) was responsible for about 20% of the worldwide emissions [START_REF] Fischedick | Industry[END_REF]. These emissions are primarily due to the energy consumption necessary to process the ores into metals. Moreover, the energy consumed by the metal industry (e.g. aluminum and steel) is sometimes coal-based, therefore generating important GHG emissions. By 2050, the GHG emissions driven by the metal demand are prospected to rise by a factor of 1.2 to 1.5 [START_REF] Van Der Voet | Environmental Implications of Future Demand Scenarios for Metals: Methodology and Application to the Case of Seven Major Metals[END_REF].

Since the beginning of the 1990's, metal extractive industries are on hold in the French metropolitan territory (BRGM, 2007b(BRGM, , 2007a)). Therefore, France now has to import all primary metal concentrates needed for its consumption as well as a part of finished and semi-finished products containing metals. Consequently, France also imports the GHG emissions associated to metals extraction and processing activities implemented in other countries.

Objectives of this study

This context of globalized trade leads to the outsourcing of part of the environmental impacts induced by the domestic consumption. Some studies already focused on the carbon footprint induced by French consumption, with a focus on impacts embodied in products and services consumed [START_REF] Hertwich | Carbon Footprint of Nations: A Global, Trade-Linked Analysis[END_REF] and on transportation required to fulfill French consumption [START_REF] Hawkins | Greenhouse Gas Emissions Driven by the Transportation of Goods Associated with French Consumption[END_REF]. Such a kinf of assessment is also performed and updated regularly at the French scale by the French administration [START_REF] Pasquier | The carbon footprint of French consumption: evolution between 1990 and[END_REF]. This paper contributes to better understand the origin of GHG emissions drivers, where originis are coming from French consumption. More specifically, the assessment of those drivers us made by focusing on the metal sector and on the climate change impacts of metal production induced by French final demand. The goal of this assessment is to provide informative inputs to policy makers to help them to enhance the design of climate change mitigation policies. In order to give an overall overview of these impacts, the study aims at answering the following questions using MRIO approaches, as a support to the definition and prioritization of actions to reduce GHG emissions.

-What is the contribution of the metals sector to the French carbon footprint, i.e. to the global emissions induced by the French final demand? -What activities, relative to metals, are the greatest contributors to this footprint (considering extraction, production and recycling activities)? -Which metal has the greatest contribution to the French carbon footprint? -Which categories of products and services carry the burden associated with metal production? -In which countries does the French consumption induce GHG emissions from metal production activities?

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Choice of the EE-MRIO databases relevant for the study 2.1.1. Overall considerations on EE-MRIO databases MRIO databases are developed to take into account industries interdependencies within the regional economy but also within the inter-regional economy. In this respect, for a given year, a MRIO database contains a table describing the intermediary consumption of each economic activity taking into account inter-sectorial and inter-regional economic exchanges expressed either in monetary or hybrid (that is, including both monetary and physical) units, as well as tables representing the domestic final demand. Finally, an EE-MRIO database also contains a table of direct emissions and extraction broken down per economic activities as well as a table representing the direct emissions and extractions of resources associated with the final demand (e.g. CO2 emissions generated by the consumption of fossil fuels by households for heating and transportation).

The existing MRIO databases were developed at different geographical scales: regional scale such as for China [START_REF] Mi | Chinese CO2 emission flows have reversed since the global financial crisis[END_REF]), or Brazil (Munoz Castillo et al., 2019); continental level, e.g. Europe (through EUROSTAT and the FIGARO project (Eurostat, 2018a)); worldwide level e.g. WIOD [START_REF] Timmer | An Illustrated User Guide to the World Input-Output Database: the Case of Global Automotive Production[END_REF], EORA [START_REF] Lenzen | Mapping the Structure of the World Economy[END_REF][START_REF] Lenzen | BUILDING EORA: A GLOBAL MULTI-REGION INPUT-OUTPUT DATABASE AT HIGH COUNTRY AND SECTOR RESOLUTION[END_REF], GTAP [START_REF] Hertel | Global trade analysis -Modeling and applications[END_REF][START_REF] Aguiar | The GTAP database: Version 10[END_REF], EXIOBASE [START_REF] Tukker | EXIOPOL -DEVELOPMENT AND ILLUSTRATIVE ANALYSES OF A DETAILED GLOBAL MR EE SUT/IOT[END_REF][START_REF] Wood | Global Sustainability Accounting-Developing EXIOBASE for Multi-Regional Footprint Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Stadler | EXIOBASE 3: Developing a Time Series of Detailed Environmentally Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output Tables[END_REF] or TiVA (OECD, 2019). These worldwide MRIO databases are also EE-MRIO (except for TiVA) that are continuously updated and upgraded (for example the third version of EXIOBASE was released in 2018 and the tenth version of GTAP in summer 2019). Nevertheless, these databases differ in some aspects such as the temporal, geographic or technological coverages. Moreover, the main data sources and the main assumptions considered for building the tables are also specific to each database. Table 1 gives a summary overview of these differences for five MRIO databases, a more complete assessment is available in the supplementary information. Many authors had an interest in databases comparison; see for example [START_REF] Arto | COMPARING THE GTAP-MRIO AND WIOD DATABASES FOR CARBON FOOTPRINT ANALYSIS[END_REF], [START_REF] Moran | CONVERGENCE BETWEEN THE EORA, WIOD, EXIOBASE, AND OPENEU[END_REF], or [START_REF] Owen | Techniques for evaluating the differences in consumption-based accounts -A comparative evaluation of Eora, GTAP and WIOD[END_REF] who provide an overview of the effects these differences have on results.

Representation of metals in MRIO databases

As each EE-MRIO database differs in its technological coverage, the level of aggregation of economic activity branches also differs depending on the database. Given the goal of this paper, a special attention is here paid to the aggregation of the activities related to the metal branch (from mining to production and recycling). When looking at industrial classifications used in EE-MRIO such as ISIC (International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities) or NACE (Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community), metals activities are included in both "mining and quarrying" and "manufacturing" categories when considering the first level of aggregation. At the second level, considered in some EE-MRIO databases as shown in Table 1, metal activities are included in both "mining and quarrying" and "basic metal manufacturing" activities. The first one encompasses the activities related to the extraction of non-energetic mineral resources (e.g. metallic, non-metallic ores etc.) as well as energetic fossil resources (e.g. coal, natural gas etc.), and also the activities that process raw materials prior to their selling (crushing, grinding, washing, drying, sorting, ore beneficiation, natural gas liquefaction or solid fuels conglomeration). At this level of aggregation, metals cannot be clearly identified. Conversely, the "basic metals manufacturing" activity exclusively focuses on metallurgical activities taking into account all physico-chemical transformations applied to produce new products (including recycling) e.g. smelting and refining of ferrous and nonferrous metals, alloys and super alloys production and rolling, drawing and extruding activities.

Therefore, at this level of aggregation, production specificities related to each metal cannot be assessed. Given its goal of "Developing an optimal set of indicators to monitor European progress towards resource efficiency" [START_REF] Eisenmenger | DESIRE D4.2 Final report on indicator framework[END_REF], EXIOBASE v3 proposes a disaggregation of the "mining and quarrying" and of the "manufacturing of basic metals" activities so as to distinguish seven categories of metals as well as recycling activities (see Table 1). EXIOBASE v3.3.11 (in the following referred to as EXIOBASE V3) is therefore chosen for this study, in particular considering the hybrid version (industry by industry) for the year 2011 [START_REF] Merciai | Methodology for the Construction of Global Multi-Regional Hybrid Supply and Use Tables for the EXIOBASE v3 Database[END_REF].

EE-MRIO databases manipulation

EXIOBASE V3 contains the information described in section 2.1.2. These tables are the inputs to the Leontiev's equations [START_REF] Leontief | Environmental Repercussions and the Economic Structure: An Input-Output Approach[END_REF] applied to IO frameworks standing that the total output is the sum between intermediate consumptions and final demands. As mentioned by severeal authors, this equality is also valid for MRIO framework (see for example [START_REF] Peters | From production-based to consumption-based national emission inventories[END_REF][START_REF] Cadarso | Emissions burden shifting in global value chains -winners and losers under multi-regional versus bilateral accounting[END_REF][START_REF] Beylot | Assessing the environmental impacts of EU consumption at macro-scale[END_REF] leading to Equation 1:

x = A.x + y Equation 1
Where x is the total output required to satisfy the final demand y : the "sum of the final consumption, investment and stock building expenditures by the private and general government sectors" (OECD, 2018a); When looking specifically at French final demand yFR, Equation 1 can be rewritten as:

A
xW,FR = A. xW,FR + yFR Equation 2
Where xW,FR is the world total output required to satisfy yFR. To calculate the global emissions induced by the French final demand, Equation 2 can be derived to:

xW,FR = (I-A) -1 .yFR Equation 3 And to gFR = B. (I-A) -1 .yFR + eFR = B. xW,FR + eFR Equation 4
Where gFR is the vector of total GHG emissions induced by the French final demand yFR; eFR is the vector of French direct GHG emissions, directly generated by the French final demand;

B is the matrix of environmental interventions (E) expressed by unit of production (B.,i = E.,i / xi for i in[1; n*m]).

To answer the questions listed in section 1.3, Equation 4 can be modified to express the emissions either by sectors (Equation 5) or by products and services of the final demand (Equation 6).

gFR = B.< xW,FR > + eFR

Equation 5 <.> stands for the algebraical operator transforming a vector into a diagonal matrix gFR = B. (I-A) -1 .<yFR> + eFR Equation 6

In other words, Equation 5 expresses the GHG emissions of each sector regardless of their position within the value chains of products and services of the by French final demand; Equation 6 expresses the total emissions (direct and indirect) of each category of products consumed by the French final demand and so allocated to the "consumer" in opposition to Equation 5 in which they are associated to the "producer" (see [START_REF] Peters | From production-based to consumption-based national emission inventories[END_REF].

Moreover, to specifically assess the categories of products and services that carry the burdens associated with metal production, in Equation 6, all elements of B, except the ones associated to the metal sector (as listed in Table 1), are set to 0. Finally, to express the emissions of gFR into a carbon footprint, characterization factors are applied to the three GHGs. The employed characterization factors are drawn from the ILCD 2011 Midpoint method (European Commision -Joint Research Center -Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2011). All the matrix calculations are performed using R software (R Core Team, 2018).

Results and discussion

3.1. The metal sector within the French carbon footprint

By applying Equation 4, the total French carbon footprint in 2011 amounts to 639 Mtonnes of CO2eq.

In this calculated carbon footprint, 127 Mtonnes (about 20%) are induced by direct emissions of the French final demand (such as emissions from transport and heating) that are represented by the term eFR in Equations 4 to 6. Other main contributors to this footprint are consumption from households (about 45%) and gross fixed capital formation (about 20%). This footprint is mainly induced by the CO2 emissions (about 76%), followed by CH4 emissions, both fossil and biogenic (about 19%) and N2O emissions (about 5%).

In order to assess the contribution of economic activities to the French carbon footprint, Equation 5 is applied. For a better representation of the results, it is chosen to aggregate the 163 sectors of EXIOBASE into 36 economic activities (using the "intermediate ISIC aggregation" categories). Figure 1 shows the contribution of the aggregated economic activities to the French carbon footprint, as well as the contributions per type of GHG1 . The contribution of the activity "Basic metals and fabricated metals" is mainly due to CO2 emissions. As for the "Mining and quarrying" sector, the main contributor is CH4 fossil primarily induced by the "extraction of crude petroleum and services related to crude oil extraction" and from the activity "Mining of coal and lignite" (about 23%). In the extraction of crude petroleum, CH4 emissions are, in particular, due to operations such as gas venting that lead to direct releases (see [START_REF] Masnadi | Global carbon intensity of crude oil production[END_REF] for a review). In the coal mining sector, these emissions can be explained by the CH4 stored within coal that is subsequently released during mining operations (Climate Technology Centre and Network, 2010). Finally, the CH4fossil emissions occurring in the "Manufacturing and Recycling" sector are mainly due to the fugitive emissions induced by waste landfilling.

Figure 1 also shows that the activity "Basic metals and fabricated metals" is the third most contributing activity in terms of GHG emissions along with the activities "Electricity, Gas and Water Supply" and "Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and Fishing". The "Basic metals and fabricated metals" sector contributes to 13% of the GHG emissions induced by the French consumption, including all production and retreatment processes of the metals sector. It is, for instance, three times higher than the contribution of "Air transport". The contribution of metals mining is aggregated within the "Mining and quarrying" sector (8% of the total GHG emissions) in which the contribution of metallic ores mining only represents 2%, thus showing that most GHG emissions attributed to the metal sector are rather generated during the production stages.

Contribution analysis per metals and activities

When solely focusing on emissions resulting from the metals sector induced by the French final demand, the contribution of the different metal activities can be broken down as:

-1.6% for the metallic ore mining; -98.4% for the metals and alloys production; -0.01% for the metal re-treatment.

Processing of concentrates into metals and alloys are by far the activities that contribute the most to the "metal carbon footprint". This slightly differs when assessing these contributions by type of metals (see Figure 2). Regarding iron and steel, the production stages outweigh by far the other activities in terms of carbon emissions. Similarly, production activities are also the main contributors to carbon emissions related to copper, other non-ferrous metals and aluminum. Concerning precious metals and the category lead/zinc/tin, the mining and production activities have similar orders of magnitude in terms of emissions. On the other hand, re-treatment activities (i.e. recycling) only contribute in a relatively low extent to carbon emissions of each metal, in comparison with mining and production activities. Concerning the aluminum production specifically, a high demand of electricity is needed, as the IEA reports 14.7MWh/tonne of aluminum produced in a global perspective (IEA, 2019). This electricity is either internalized in the aluminum production activity or supplied from the network. Following the MRIO approach applied here, electricity consumption whose emissions are not internalized within the aluminum activity are not considered in the results. In other words, part of the contribution of the "Electricity, Gas and Water Supply" sector to the total French carbon footprint (in Figure 1) is induced by the "Basic Metals and Fabricated Metals" and the "Mining and Quarrying sectors". Figure 2 shows the family of metals and alloys that contribute the most to GHGs emissions induced by the French final demand. Production of iron and steel contribute to about 95% of GHGs emissions of the metal sector and to about 12% of the French carbon footprint. Iron and steel production is followed by other non-ferrous metals (1.6%), precious metals (1.4%) and aluminum (1.0%) production. The contribution of these activities is either driven by their contribution to the total output vector (xFR) shown in Table 2 or by their carbon intensity (i.e. the amount of GHGs emitted by tonne of production stored in the B matrix; Figure 3). Iron and steel activities contribute to about 90% of the metal sector activities of xW,FR (that is, 90% of the French metal footprint is made of iron and steel). This explains the high contribution to the French carbon footprint, while the carbon intensity of the iron and steel activities (especially production) has the same order of magnitude than that of aluminum and other non-ferrous metals productions. Figure 3 shows in particular a difference of almost three orders of magnitude between the carbon intensity of precious metals production and the other metals production, in line with observations from other studies focusing on the environmental impacts of metal production (e.g. [START_REF] Nuss | Life Cycle Assessment of Metals: A Scientific Synthesis[END_REF]). However, the mass of precious metals induced by the French final demand is five orders of magnitude lower than that of iron and steel, explaining their very limited contribution to the French carbon footprint.

Contribution analysis per country

EE-MRIO assessment also enables identifying the countries where GHGs induced by the French final demand are emitted. For the different families of metals, results are presented in Table 3. Emissions occurring domestically in France are mainly due to the iron and steel as well as aluminum production.

Production and re-treatment activities generating GHGs emissions are mainly located in France and China, while emissions due to extraction activities mainly occur in Africa, China and Asia. As iron and steel production has the highest contribution (among the metal sector) to the French carbon footprint, France, China and Germany are globally the three countries with the highest share of emissions induced by the metal sector. This share respectively amounts to 21.0%, 17.4% and 12.2% for France, China and Germany. When looking at emissions occurring in the EU, the latter represents 55% of the GHG emissions from the metal sectors induced by the French consumption while 45% of these emissions occur outside of the EU. In total, France outsources 79% of the emissions related to the metal sectors and induced by its consumption.

Metal carbon content of elements of the French final demand

To assess which category of products and services carry the burden associated with the "metal carbon footprint", Equation 6 is applied by modifying the B matrix so as to only consider emissions resulting from the metal sector (see section 2.2). Elements of the French final demand with the highest metallic carbon content are displayed in Figure 4 using the full EXIOBASE v3 nomenclature. "Construction" "Manufacture or motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers" products have the highest metallic carbon content (that is, the GHG emissions associated with metal production along the supply chain of these consumed products and services). These two sectors have both a relatively medium contribution to the French final consumption but their direct requirements in terms of "fabricated metals products" and "basic iron, steel and ferroalloys products" are important, explaining their high contributions to the metallic carbon content. For example, the French "Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers" activity directly requires 45 tons of "fabricated metals products" and "basic iron, steel and ferroalloys products" per million euro of vehicles produced. "Construction" and "Manufacture or motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers" products also carry the largest share of the burden associated with the total French carbon footprint.

In the list displayed in Figure 4, mainly products with metals as main constituents are found, in addition to two service activities "Public administration and defense, compulsory social service" and "Health and social work" which require metals along their supply chains (for infrastructure for example). This contribution can be explained by their important contribution to the French final consumption and especially to the final consumption by government while final consumption by households is primarly driven by "Real estate" and "Hotels and restaurants" activities.

About 38% of the metallic carbon content is embodied in imported manufactured products, especially from the following sectors: "Manufacture of machinery of equipment", "Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus" and "Manufacture of radio, television and communication equipment and apparatus". These imported products are mainly coming from France major trade partners such as the EU and China.

Results comparison with WIOD database

A similar assessment was made using the WIOD database and its temporal series (from 1995 to 2009). Given that the WIOD database is more aggregated than EXIOBASE v3 in terms of sectors (see section 2.1.2), the same level of interpretation cannot be reached here. Nevertheless, this assessment gives results that can be compared to those obtained with EXIOBASE v3. In a first place, the metal sector in WIOD only considers the "Basic metals and metal products" activity. So, neither the mining nor the retreatment activity are considered here. The contribution of the metals sector to the global French carbon footprint varies from 5.4% to 6.6% between 1995 and 2009 with the highest peak reached in 2007. If the contribution is slighter than the one calculated in EXIOBASE v3 (13% as shown in Figure 1); it shows a relative stability through the years. These differences can be explained by various factors such as data sources for emissions and trade or models used in both databases.

When looking at the country contribution to these GHG emissions from the metals sector induced by the French final demand, similar conclusions to those observed with EXIOBASE v3 can be drawn. The assessment with the WIOD database shows that between 1995 and 2009, emissions occurring in France dropped from about 30% to 20% when considering metal production only, while emissions occurring in China increased from 6% to 16%. In the meantime, the overall contribution of the metal sector remained relatively stable in the French carbon footprint. This rise of emissions occurring in China can be explained by the increase of their share in the global iron and steel market from 15% to about 45% between 1995[START_REF] Hertwich | Carbon Footprint of Nations: A Global, Trade-Linked Analysis[END_REF](International Iron and Steel Institute, 2000, 2010).

Conclusions and perspectives

The main findings of this study that aimed at assessing the contribution of the metals sector to the French carbon footprint in 2011 are the following:

-The metal sector (including mining, metal production and retreatment activities) contributes to 13% of the French carbon footprint; primarily due to the activity "Iron, steel and ferro alloys production"; -Activities related to metals and alloys production have a much larger contribution to the French carbon footprint than mining and re-treatment; -GHGs emissions of the metals sector induced by the French final demand mainly occur in France, China and Germany. Overall, 79% of these emissions occur out of the French territory, despite being associated to the French consumption; -Products that carry the burden associated to metal production are products that are mainly made of metals, and most of all of steel and iron.

Such results can lead to actions for reducing the carbon footprint of a nation induced by a specific sector. Here for example the economical activity "Production of iron, steel and ferro alloys" has the greatest contribution. Reducing the amount of products containing steel in the final demand (provided that substitution products do not have a larger carbon footprint that steel containing products), GHGsaving technological improvements in production processes or increasing the fraction of recycled steel in the products needed to fulfill French final demand are three options that may help reduce the carbon footprint linked to the metal sector. Furthermore, such results also show that such solutions should be globalized, as emissions are not only occurring on the national territory. French carbon footprint is also dependent on national climate policies that are implemented in other countries. For example, if China follows its INDC that aims at reducing by 2030 its CO2 emissions per capita by 60 to 65% comparing to 2005, it will have a direct incidence on the French carbon footprint. EE-MRIO approaches can accordingly help national and international policies to answer environmental challenges linked to consumption and globalization of trade. This assessment focused on French final demand but, similar conclusions could be drawn with respect to other countries such as Germany, Luxembourg or Switzerland with also almost no mining activities on their territory, some metals production activity (especially steel mills) and an economy strongly driven by the service sector. Moreover, when considering resources productivity indicators assessing a country's materials consumption and materials footprint, countries such as Japan or South Korea have also a profile similar to France with economies that heavily rely on metal ores imports (UNEP International Resource Panel, 2016), and one may imagine similar trends and results to the French case.

However, in this study, only the carbon footprint is considered therefore not taking into considerations the whole range of environmental impacts associated with the production and consumption of metals.

When considering other impacts such as ecotoxicity, human toxicity or mineral resource use, the contribution of metals to French environmental footprints might be greater than the ones obtained for carbon footprint. For example, [START_REF] Beylot | Assessing the environmental impacts of EU consumption at macro-scale[END_REF] show that, for the European final consumption, metal containing products carry the highest burdens related to ecotoxicity, toxicity and mineral resource use and Ottelin et al. and Wiedmann et al. show that the construction sector contributes also highly to material footprint (i.e. to the total mineral resource use) of nations [START_REF] Wiedmann | The material footprint of nations[END_REF][START_REF] Ottelin | Carbon and material footprints of a welfare state: Why and how governments should enhance green investments[END_REF].

EE-MRIO databases contain aggregate information related to metals that may lead to uncertainties while interpretating results:

1. If the base metal sectors are well represented in databases such as EXIOBASE, there are, for example fewer information regarding technological metals (strategic metals necessary for the digital and energy transitions -lithium, rare earths, gallium for example). When available, the lattery are aggregated within the "precious metals" or the "other non ferrous metals" sectors.

Even if the volume of production and subsequently of consumption of these technological metals is relatively low, the question of their contribution to the carbon footprint of a nation is not without interest as they expect to play a major role in the energy transition policies needed to decarbonize our societies. 2. If countries from the EU or some from the OECD are well represented, it is not the case for some main actors of the metal markets. Regarding copper for example, Chile and Peru respectively represented 27.5% and 11.6% of worldwide copper ore extraction in 2016. Moreover, in the same year, Chile was producing 11.2% of worldwide refined copper (BRGM, 2018). Both of these countries are aggregated in the region Rest of the World -America in EXIOBASE and so cannot be distinguished with this database.

Disaggregating metal specific sectors and Rest of the World regions might improve the evaluation of metals stocks, flows and associated environmental impacts using EE-MRIO databases. Dissaggregation is however a data intensive task that relies on the quality of data inputs. Substance flows analysis (SFA), that quantifies flows and stocks of a substance in a given economy, can be for example a source of data to disaggregate EE-MRIO databases alongside specific databases on product compositions and stocks (such as life cycle inventory databases or stand-alone databases). Besides gathering data, MRIO disaggregation imples balancing procedures that ensure for example that the total output of each sector equals the sector's inputs (see Geschke et al., for a review (2019)). Implementing these balancing procedures and reconciliation algorithms also implies assumptions and uncertainties.

Improving the evaluation of metals using EE-MRIO databases is also linked to a better modelling of environmental extensions associated to the metal sectors, not only affecting the robustness of the carbon footprint as analysed in this study but also of footprints and impacts beyond carbon (e.g. toxicity or mineral resource use). For example, in EXIOBASE, air emissions are quantified using models rather than measured emissions [START_REF] Stadler | EXIOBASE 3: Developing a Time Series of Detailed Environmentally Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output Tables[END_REF] while a very limited number of emissions of metals to water and soil are accounted for (e.g. metals emissions to groundwater resulting from tailings management on mine site are not taken into account in EXIOBASE). Again, refining environmental extensions is a data intensive task that relies on the quality of the data inputs. Gathering and transforming reliable data to enhance EE-MRIO databases can be achieved by close collaboration between database creators and the different stakeholders of metals value chains.

However, such MRIO assessments allow having a clear understanding of the direct impacts a sector has on carbon footprint (or other environmental or socio-economical footprints) induced by a specific final demand. By using time series (EXIOBASE v3 contains time series from 1995 to 2011), evolutions of the results can also be assessed having in mind the limits related to the last year available in MRIO databases. Nevertheless, such assessment do not consider the whole supply chain of these specific sectors. Methods recently developed to consider the supply chains of economic activities (for example to consider the electrical production needed for the "Aluminum production" activity), as proposed for example by [START_REF] Cabernard | A new method for analyzing sustainability performance of global supply chains and its application to material resources[END_REF] and [START_REF] Dente | Effects of a new supply chain decomposition framework on the material life cycle greenhouse gas emissions-the Japanese case[END_REF] appear particularly promising in view of further refining the assessment made in this study.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1 : Contribution by economic activities and by type of GHG to the French carbon footprint in 2011.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2 : GHG emissions induced by the activities related to the metals sector and needed to fulfill the French final demand, for the different metals considered in EXIOBASE v3 -expressed in logarithmic scale

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3 : Carbon intensity distributed among countries for each activity of the metal sector, log scale. Fe -activities related to the iron and steel sector, Non ferrous -activities related to the other non ferrous sector, Precious -activities related to the precious metal sector

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4 : Repartition of the metallic carbon content of activities consumed by the French final demand

Table 1 :

 1 Comparison assessment between five EE-MRIO databases -A summary

	GENERAL INFORMATION

  is the matrix of technical coefficients obtained by dividing the intermediate consumption (MRIO) by the total output (A.,i = MRIO.,i / xi for i in [1; n*m] where n is the number of sectors represented in the database -163 in EXIOBASE v3 -and m the numer of regions represented in the database -48 in EXIOBASE v3).

Table 2 :

 2 Amount of the activities related to the metal sector in the total output vector xW,FR -expressed in ktonnes

	CO2eq	1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05
	ktonnes of	1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02
	in	1.00E-01
	emissions	1.00E-04 1.00E-03 1.00E-02
	Carbon	1.00E-06 1.00E-05	Iron and	Copper	Nickel	Aluminium Precious	Lead, zinc	Other non
			steel				metal	and tin	ferrous
				Mining	Production	Re-treatment
				Mining			Production	Re-treatment

Table 3 :

 3 Break down by countries and by type of metals of the metal sectors GHG emissions induced by the French final demand (RoW: Rest of the World region)

	Metals and alloys	Country	Countries contribution to the emissions related to each metal	Contribution of metals and alloys to the total French carbon footprint
		France	21.6 %
	Iron and steel	China	17.8 %	12.6%
		Germany	12.8 %
		Others	47.8%
		China	12.1 %
	Copper	RoW : Asia and Pacific Row : Latin America	9.0 % 8.2 %	0.01%
		Others	70.7%
		South Africa	43.1 %
	Nickel (only considering mining)	RoW : Asia and Pacific RoW: Africa Others	30.6 % 10.6 % 15.7%	0.02%
		France	22.4 %
	Aluminum	China RoW : Middle East	15.0 % 11.3 %	0.13%
		Others	51.3%
		RoW : Africa	35.4 %
	Precious metals	RoW : Latin America Poland	23.5 % 9.1 %	0.19%
		Others	32.0%
		RoW : Africa	24.1 %
	Lead, zinc, tin	France Indonesia	13.1 % 10.3 %	0.06%
		Others	52.5%
		RoW : Africa	21.9 %
	Other non ferrous	RoW : Asia and Pacific South Africa	21.5 % 13.0 %	0.22%
		Others	43.6%

Results for the 163 economic activities in EXIOBASE v3 and the concordance table can be found in the supplementary information

Acknowledgment: This study was partly funded by the French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME) in the framework of the IODA project (contract number: 1610C0003). The authors thank Manuel Baude, Jean-Louis Pasquier (CGDD/SOeS) and Gaël Callonnec (ADEME) for their helpful comments during the study as well as three anonymous reviewers that helped the paper gains in clarity.


D Tournier
email: tournier@cnm.es

Ph Godignon

J Montserrat

D Planson

C Raynaud

J P Chante

F Sarrus

C Bonhomme

J F De

Palma Ferraz

A 4H-SiC High Power Density VJFET as Controlled Current Limiter

Keywords: Current limiter, JFET, serial protection device, high voltage, command integration

, the voltage and current capabilities (V BR =100 V, I max =10 mA), do not allow to use them in power systems. This paper presents both simulation study and experimental results of a bi-directional current limiter structure based on a vertical SiC VJFET. This device was designed for serial protection in order to limit I²t value. Finiteelement simulations were performed with ISE-TCAD [4] to design the device and evaluate static electrical characteristics of the VJFET. Then, dynamic simulations were performed to underline current reduction ability and power losses adjustment by gate resistance value optimization. Finally, electrical characterization for an unidirectional and a bi-directional devices have been done up to 400 V. The measured specific resistance is in the range of 176 mΩ⋅cm². Limiting capabilities have also been measured for a bi-directional device made of two unidirectional device connected head to tail. Highest breakdown voltage value in "current limiting state" were measured to be around to 811 V, corresponding to a high power density of 140 kW/cm².

I. INTRODUCTION

SiC semiconductor based devices are suitable for high current and high voltage applications [START_REF] Sugawara | 12 19kV 4H-SiC pin Diodes with Low Power Loss[END_REF][START_REF] Matsunami | Progress in Wide Bandgap Semiconductor SiC for Power Devices[END_REF]. A promising application of SiC-based devices is current limitation for power system protection [START_REF] Sze | Physics of semiconductors[END_REF][START_REF]Current Regulative Diode Distributor[END_REF], which benefits from its high thermal conductivity and wide band gap. Most of silicon components realized in SiC, Schottky diode, MOSFET, MESFET, show good electrical and thermal characteristics [START_REF] Matsunami | Progress in Wide Bandgap Semiconductor SiC for Power Devices[END_REF]. Few SiC-current limiter were presented [START_REF] Siemens Corp | Current limiter circuit[END_REF][START_REF] Nallet | Electrical and Electrothermal 2D simulation of a 4H-SiC High Voltage Current limiting Device for serial protection application[END_REF]. This work is targeting the design, manufacturing and characterization of a new VJFET [START_REF] Lades | Modeling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Devices : 4H/6H-SiC[END_REF] (fig. 1), which implement both gate and source in buried layers. In the steady state, the voltage drop across the component must be as low as possible. In the active state, (limiting phase), the current limiter must sustain a high current, under high voltage bias. The resulting high power density must not cause component failure. We will describe the structure, the behavior of the component and the adjustable parameters. Then, dynamic simulations are discussed. Finally experimental electrical characteristics of both unidirectional and bi-directional are presented.

II. SIC VJFET CONTROLLED CURRENT LIMITER

A. Structure description

The novelty of this device consists in the design of the gate, which is formed by a buried layer. Fig. 1 shows the cross section of the α-SiC VJFET. This device has a channel divided in two parts: a vertical one and a lateral one. The source is grounded and current flows from drain to source. Pburied layers are designed so that the VJFET is a normally-on and presents a low specific resistance. When the drain voltage rises, the current saturates at a voltage corresponding to the pinch-off of both vertical and horizontal channels. In the saturation mode, the device presents an important on resistance (R ON ), resulting from the serial resistance of both Fig. 2. VJFET parameters to be optimized. parts of the channel and the drift resistance of the epitaxial layer. Due to self heating, current decreases as the voltage increases (since electron mobility decreases and induces a current reduction). This effect is amplified while increasing limiting current density. When a negative bias is applied between gate and source, the PN junction formed by the Pwell and the epitaxial layer is reverse biased leading to current modulation. A trade off between specific resistance and blocking capabilities was investigated by simulations.

B. Static simulations

A global optimal parameter (eq.1) taking into account both doping concentration and geometrical dimensions (detailed in eq. 2) allow to get a range of parameters to be investigate by fine simulations.

) , , ( .

. 0 . max ) , , ( L Nd W p I p V ms g g L Nd W Opt         =     (1) ( ) ( ) [ ] 2 / 1 2 / 1 2 / 1 . . . . 2 . . g di p d ms V V V N q L Z g - - = ε µ , L a N q Z g d o . . . .µ = ε . 2 ² . . a N q V d p= , L a Nd q Z p I . . 6 3 . 2 ². . . ε µ = (2)
As an example, considering a channel doping concentration of 3.10 16 Atoms/ cm -3 , the optimal channel thickness is assumed to be around 0.4µm (Fig. 3). To estimate peripheral effect on the electrical characteristics, finite element simulations are useful. In that case, different models are used, taking into account physical properties of silicon carbide. As the dissipated power can reach high values, the mobility temperature dependence is taken into account Tab.1 . Most of parameters were given by Ruff [START_REF] Ruff | SiC devices : Physics and Numerical Simulation[END_REF] or are extracted from experimental results [START_REF] Lades | Modeling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Devices : 4H/6H-SiC[END_REF]. Main parameters to be adjusted are presented in Fig. 2. As an example, channel parameter N d2 has been investigated. Current density dependence and self heating effect are presented on Fig. 4 (both increasing while rising doping concentration). The simulated specific resistance R d in the linear mode is in the range of 150 mΩ⋅cm² @ V DS = 1V.

Finite simulations allows to stand a current dependence versus channel implanted doses. This let us choose a set of fabrication parameters considering for example the desired current saturation value (Fig. 5). Additional parameters such as device breakdown voltage have been taken into account for the design of the final demonstrator.

C. Dynamic simulations

Mixed-mode simulations using a spice circuit and finite element for the VJFET were done to evaluate switching performances of the circuit described on Fig. 6. Parasitic wiring inductance has been taken into account. Using a shunt for current sensing and an appropriate electronic command block allows to modulate the VJFET gate voltage to thereby reduce the current in the circuit. The simulated electrical circuit is presented in Fig. 7. Switching simulations were performed with a two step gate bias.

The first gate bias step underlines the current reduction ability (V GS = -10 V @ t = 10µs). Then, applying a gate bias V GS = -40 V @ t = 15 µs allows to shut down the current in the circuit as presented in Fig. 7. The switch off gate current is function of the gate resistance value and voltage rise time. Adjusting resistance value allow to control the gate switch off power losses, without effect on drain current value and switch off time, as shown in Fig. 8. Consequently, gate power losses and peak current are reduced of around 10% as resumed in table I.

III. DEVICE FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION

Various device layouts have been implemented (such as an interdigitated device presented in Fig. 9), to validate both the process technology, parameters adjustments and the device performances.

Key points of the device fabrication are high energy implantation, annealing activation and ohmic contact formation. State of arts values [START_REF] Matsunami | Progress in Wide Bandgap Semiconductor SiC for Power Devices[END_REF] of ohmic contact were measured on the first batch of VJFET fabricated (≈10µΩ.cm²). The specific resistance varie from 176 mΩ⋅cm² up to 237 mΩ⋅cm² for the matrix structures. The maximum pulsed power density dissipated in the limiting mode is 160 kW/cm². Limiting capabilities have also been measured for a bidirectional device made of two unidirectional device connected head to tail (i.e. drain connected). This one exhibits a specific resistance of 700 mΩ⋅cm². Highest breakdown in "current limiting state" were measured to be around to 811 V (Fig. 11), corresponding to a high pulsed power density of 140 kW/cm². The first demonstrator measurements exhibit optimistic results. Bi-directional components were measured by associating two devices head to tail. SiC VJFET manufacturing process is compatible with SiC MESFET manufacturing process [START_REF] Tournier | Compatibility of VJFET technology to MESFET fabrication and its interst to system integration[END_REF]. This allows to foreseen the integration of a self controlled current limiter by an appropriated association of FET transistors. This device could be used in application such as current limitation in case of a short circuit of an electrical system. It could permits an elevation of the current ratings of classical mechanical device. Switching measurements will be made to validate both current sensing and gate bias voltage generation using the electronic control card.

RG I Gmax

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig.1. Cross section of the VJFET.

Fig. 3 .Fig. 5 .

 35 Fig.3. Optimal channel thickness estimation.

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig.6. Electrical circuit for switching.

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig.8.Switching off characteristics details for 2 Rgate values.

  Fig.9a. Interdigitated structure cross-section.

Fig. 9b .

 9b Fig.9b. Fabricated interdigitated VJFET.

Fig. 10

 10 Fig.10presents the measured electrical characteristics for an unidirectional VJFET. Unidirectional measurements were done with 0,5 s pulse (f = 2Hz), with drain bias up to 400 V. The specific resistance varie from 176 mΩ⋅cm² up to 237 mΩ⋅cm² for the matrix structures. The maximum pulsed power density dissipated in the limiting mode is 160 kW/cm². Limiting capabilities have also been measured for a bidirectional device made of two unidirectional device connected head to tail (i.e. drain connected). This one exhibits a specific resistance of 700 mΩ⋅cm². Highest breakdown in "current limiting state" were measured to be around to 811 V (Fig.11), corresponding to a high pulsed power density of 140 kW/cm².

Fig. 10 .

 10 Fig.10. Electrical measured characteristics for unidirectional and bidirectional limiter.

Fig. 11

 11 Fig.11 Unidirectional current limiter characteristics

TABLE II .

 II COMMUTATION LOSSES AS FUNCTION OF RG Fig.7. Current reduction and switch off waveform.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT We would like to thank Ferraz-Shawmut Company for their financial support of this work and the European Community for the Access to Research Infrastructure action of the improving Human Potential Program. The realization of this device has been achieved at the CNM (Barcelona).