Professor (PhD, Elisa Salvador
email: elisa.salvador@essca.fr

Roberta Comunian

"Why and how Higher Education is so important for Cultural and Creative Industries' sustainable development?"

Keywords: sustainability, sustainable development, SDGs, cultural and creative industries, higher education, higher education institutions

Considering the role played by Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs), we recognize that more knowledge is needed to provide a better understanding of their relationship, collaborations and work in relation to sustainable development. The aim of this article is to highlight why and how Higher Education (HE) is key to CCIs'sustainable development. Academic research in this specific field is scarce and we aim at soliciting more attention towards this niche research sector, given the potential positive spillovers that it could originate. Through retracing the arising of interest towards the CCIs in general and recently towards sustainability issues linked to the CCIs facing the challenge of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), we show how these matters are inextricably associated to the essential role played by HE and HEIs.

Thanks to the strong link between HEIs and CCIs' sustainable development, we can expect that a sort of mimetic isomorphism process will happen in the coming years, with a choice of a strategy of imitation instead of differentiation.

Introduction

In the last decade, the relevance of the universities' "third mission" has been growing [START_REF] Etzkowitz | The Triple Helix.University, industry, government innovation in action[END_REF][START_REF] Leydesdorff | Triple Helix indicators of knowledge-based innovation systems", Introduction to the special issue[END_REF]. Knowledge transfer processes have shifted towards a more active academic engagement in economic and social development. In this context, the concept of the "entrepreneurial university" has emerged [START_REF] Hytti | A Research Agenda for the Entrepreneurial University[END_REF], and a close relationship between the dynamics of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) -Industry collaborations and regional governance and development has been observed [START_REF] Lazzeroni | Beyond "town and gown": the role of the university in small and mediumsized cities[END_REF]. This has also been explored in the context of creative and cultural industries (CCIs) and the creative campus (Comunian and Gilmore, 2016).

Concurrently, we are recently assisting to the emergence of a new research area that is being prioritised in debates and policy initiatives worldwide: sustainability and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Starting from the seminal report "Our Common Future", which was released in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development, the term "sustainable" has become more and more popular (WCED, 1987). Sustainability has become one of the main pivotal subjects of all the debates at national and international levels. Climate change, resource scarcity and social inequality are leading a revolution in companies' behaviour and consumers' habits. Consequently, in recent years HEIs have launched successful education programs for training students to become responsible leaders. Environment and social sustainability goals are now considered strategic competitive drivers.

CCIs are not excluded from this challenge; indeed, these industries are among the pivotal actors that could provide original and unexpected solutions, thanks to their unique creativity, skills, and talent [START_REF] Amabile | A model of creativity and innovation in organisations[END_REF], which can be transferred to other related industrial sectors.

The seminal definition of CCIs was provided by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport Creative Task Force in the UK as "those industries which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property" (DCMS, 1998 and2001: 5). Starting from this definition and the first initiatives carried out in the UK, a new line of research has emerged with many studies regularly underlining the unique contribution to economic growth, social and cultural development and organisational design brought by the CCIs. The information and communication technologies revolution and the digital age have also accelerated this process [START_REF] Benghozi | Strategies in the cultural and creative industries: static but flexible vs dynamic and liquid. The emergence of a new model in the digital age[END_REF][START_REF] Salvador | The digital strategies of publishing houses: a matter of book content?[END_REF].

Considering the role played by HEIs and CCIs, we recognize that more knowledge is needed to provide a better understanding of their relationship, collaborations and work in relation to sustainable development.

In this context, sustainable solutions and greener production and consumption practices are being to be implemented by several sectors of the CCIs (EIF-KEA, 2021). Like other industrial sectors, also the CCIs are adopting sustainable practices to green their value chain: as highlighted by a recent report of EIF-KEA (2021), CCIs are rethinking ways cultural products and services are produced and consumed by adopting more sustainable practices. Overall, we see a significant shift -especially after the 2008 global financial crisis -towards creative-social economies [START_REF] Comunian | Guest editorial: The creative economy is dead -long live the creative-social economies[END_REF] and towards engagement with environmental issues [START_REF] Oakley | Cultural Industries and Environmental Crisis: An Introduction[END_REF]. For example, recycled materials are more used in production processes; plastic bottles are replaced by more eco-friendly solutions during cultural events; saving energy lighting systems are implemented in museums and other cultural spaces; certifications like the Creative Green Certification explicitly designed for the arts and CCIs by Julie's Bicycle1 are more and more diffused; the fashion industry is implementing eco-friendly practices in the production system and thinking about extensive products' lifecycle (cf. EIF-KEA, 2021). Finally, collective movements are emerging to engage artists and creators to take a stand on climate change and ecological emergencies to increase environmental consciousness towards more sustainable production and consumption choices (EIF-KEA, 2021).

Looking specifically at higher education (HE) and the knowledge it develops, they are potentially connected with all the 17 SDGs (United Nations General Assembly, 2015) but some are even more interconnected and strongly relevant for the specific area of interaction between HE and CCIs [START_REF] Duxbury | Why must culture be at the heart of sustainable urban development?[END_REF][START_REF] Comunian | African Hub for Sustainable Creative Economies: collaborative activities and shared learning[END_REF]. The connection between CCIs and SDGs spans across a range of topics -set often with the development of sustainable cities and communities (11) -but, in our opinion, there are three main pillars that deserve further exploration. The first one is related to the connection between HEIs, CCIs and sustainable economic growth: this relates to the need to engage with ideas of decent work and economic growth (8) but also improving industry innovation and infrastructure (9) and engage with responsible consumption and production (12). The second one is linked to the connection between HEIs, CCIs and societal agendas for development, with particular attention to the importance of quality education (4), gender equality (5) and reduced inequalities (10).

The third one is related to the connection between HEIs, CCIs and environmental agendas, including climate action (13) affordable and clean energy (7) and the protection of life on land (15) and below water (14).

Therefore, the articles and case-studies included in the Special Issue of Industry & Higher Education (February 2024) about "Cultural and creative industries and the challenge of sustainable development: opportunities for higher education, businesses and communities" are devoted at investigating the overlap and connections between HE, CCIs and sustainable development as illustrated in Figure 1. We particularly consider how there is research that explores the relationships between CCIs and SDGs (overlap 1 in the Figure ) and there are studies looking at connections between HE and SDGs (2) and CCIs and HE (3). However, more research is needed to address together the potential that collaborations, coordination and support, running through all three areas (CCIs, HE and SDGs) could generate. More policy and research need to expand and explore the area identified with (4) in Figure 1. To facilitate the understanding and introducing the topic, the aim of this article is to highlight why and how HE is key to CCIs'sustainable development. The article is structured as follows: Section 1 is dedicated to presenting the CCIs' evolving interest and focus in the academic and grey literature as well as the core role played by these industries facing the challenge of SDGs; Section 2 highlights the pivotal link between HEIs and CCIs, considering SDGs, through references to the content of the Special Issue (2024) of Industry & Higher Education Journal.

Section 3 provides some concluding remarks and avenues for future research.

Cultural and Creative Industries and the challenge of sustainable development

CCIs have for long been neglected by policymakers and in the academic literature despite their growing economic contribution: a recent systematic literature review of creative industries highlighted that the field is in its infancy, multifaceted and fragmented, and has been dominated by the contributions of few researchers [START_REF] Dharmani | A bibliometric analysis of creative industries: Current trends and future directions[END_REF]. At European Union (EU) level, for example, the EU treaties took into consideration "Culture" as a field of action very late [START_REF] Bruell | Creative Europe 2014-2020: a new programme -a new cultural policy as well?[END_REF]: the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 adopted article 128 about Culture, then included in the Lisbon Treaty as article 167. Several programs supporting cultural cooperation, mobility of artists, creation of networks between the EU country members appeared in the '90s and other initiatives like the promotion of the Capitals of Culture have been introduced. With the "Creative Europe programme (2014-2020)" the economic impact and the objective of economic growth become more prevalent. This aspect is linked to the growing awareness of the role that culture, but also CCIs in general, can play at EU level (and beyond) for economic development.

Generally speaking, an increased interest towards the CCIs can be observed in recent years [START_REF] Salvador | The evolving place of the Cultural and Creative industries in the public policy orientation: What can we learn from the Communications of the European Commission?[END_REF]UNCTAD, 2010). While in the past the scientific literature focused mostly on the role of the creative class and the management of talents [START_REF] Scott | Creative cities: conceptual issues and policy questions[END_REF][START_REF] Florida | The rise of the creative class: and how it is transforming work, leisure and everyday life[END_REF][START_REF] Caves | Creative Industries: Contracts between Art and Commerce[END_REF], attention then shifted towards the establishment of creative atmosphere, networks, CCIs' clusters as well as creative cities seen as regional development strategies (UNCTAD, 2010;[START_REF] Comunian | Location, location, location: exploring the complex relationship between creative industries and place[END_REF][START_REF] Crossick | Knowledge transfer without widgets: the challenge of the creative economy[END_REF]. Furthermore, more recently, researchers focused explicitly on CCIs' business models, value chains, innovation and R&D strategies [START_REF] Simon | Facing disruption: the cinema value chain in the digital age[END_REF][START_REF] Benghozi | When Organisations in the Cultural Industries Seek New Business Models: A Case Study of the French Online Press[END_REF][START_REF] Benghozi | How and where the R&D takes place in creative industries? Digital investment strategies of the book publishing sector[END_REF][START_REF] Brandellero | Keeping the market at bay: exploring the loci of innovation in the cultural industries[END_REF][START_REF] Miles | Hidden Innovation in the Creative Industries[END_REF] and HE and the creative economy relationship beyond the creative campus (Comunian and Gilmore, 2016).

Opportunities of economic wealth, growth and jobs creation at local level fostered by the CCIs were finally identified as main key factors [START_REF] Piergiovanni | Creative industries, new business formation, and regional economic growth[END_REF][START_REF] Henry | Entrepreneurship and the Creative Economy: Process, Practice and Policy[END_REF][START_REF] Paper | Unlocking the potential of cultural and creative industries[END_REF][START_REF] Florida | The rise of the creative class: and how it is transforming work, leisure and everyday life[END_REF]. CCIs are thus recognised as strategic actors that may help also in the attainment of various SDGs [START_REF] Dharmani | A bibliometric analysis of creative industries: Current trends and future directions[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Creative cities: conceptual issues and policy questions[END_REF].

The interest towards the CCIs has also been strengthened and renewed by the Internet and information and communication technologies (ICTs) revolution. It is well acknowledged that the digital revolution had a disruptive effect on the traditional model of the various CCIs: the music industry [START_REF] Moreau | The disruptive nature of digitisation: the case of the recorded music industry[END_REF][START_REF] Benghozi | Strategies in the cultural and creative industries: static but flexible vs dynamic and liquid. The emergence of a new model in the digital age[END_REF] is one of the most representative examples, while the publishing or the cinema industries were also profoundly affected (Salvador, Benghozi, 2021;[START_REF] Simon | Facing disruption: the cinema value chain in the digital age[END_REF]. Notwithstanding, the emergence of dominant economic actors like the GAFA (Google, Apple, Facebook and Amazon) has been supported also by the use and worth of cultural and creative contents: the knowledge and innovative economy is fostered also by "creative" processes [START_REF] Cohendet | Playing across the playground: paradoxes of knowledge creation in the videogame firm[END_REF].

Given this context, the scientific and the grey literature about the CCIs is growing and both qualitative and quantitative studies are emerging as well as Special Issues of scientific journals 2 . Additionally, several local governments are increasingly calling for public reports to consider and support future policy strategy guidelines 3 . European projects financing scientific research collaborations at international level are also increasing in the latest years 4 .

Notwithstanding this interest, it is difficult to find a univocal classification as well as definition of what the CCIs are at the national and international levels, with consequent difficulties of comparative studies among different countries [START_REF] Salvador | The evolving place of the Cultural and Creative industries in the public policy orientation: What can we learn from the Communications of the European Commission?[END_REF]. Last but not least, CCIs include various industries, ranging from secular industries like book publishing and cinema to more recent ones like video games, as well as different sectors like tourism, gastronomy or even software. This heterogeneity can be seen as a strength, but it can also make difficult to identify suitable methodologies of investigation as well as formulate and generalise policy suggestions to the overall CCIs' sectors. For example, as highlighted by [START_REF] Benghozi | How and where the R&D takes place in creative industries? Digital investment strategies of the book publishing sector[END_REF], R&D activities may be undertaken by CCIs' companies without defining them formally as effective R&D activities. Innovation in CCIs is usually considered as a tool to develop new creative content and CCIs are generally associated with various forms of "hidden innovation", difficult to measure with traditional indicators. This context generates difficulties for researchers in collecting data, and it explains why academic papers focused on the CCIs often utilise qualitative methodologies, with findings coming from interviews, focus groups, and questionnaires as primary sources of analysis.

Considering their broad scope and influence, CCIs are attracting attention not only for their general contribution to economic growth and jobs' creation, but recently also as a means for specifically fostering sustainable development [START_REF] Wu | Integrated approach for exploring critical elements that affect sustainable development of cultural and creative industries[END_REF]. However, on the one hand, Sokol and Mempel-Sniezyk (2022) recently focused on Poland and revealed the strong relationship between sustainable development and three dimensions of creative capital, meaning talent, technology and culture. On the other hand, [START_REF] Pratt | Toward circular governance in the culture and creative economy: Learning the lessons from the circular economy and environment[END_REF] highlighted challenges and problems linked to the relationship between the environment and culture. He argues that the impact of cultural consumption on the environment is expected to become more severe and visible in the coming years, while digitisation and digital content consumption are raising new issues for sustainability and the cultural economy. Nonetheless, sustainable development means also assuring decent work, quality education, gender equality and reduced inequalities…in short, all the 17 SDGs are potentially involved and bring new challenges for the CCIs, that could become strategic and essential actors in the attainment of SDGs.

To this aim, a recent UNESCO (2022) report highlights the potential usefulness of culture for fostering sustainable development planning mechanisms -with a great emphasis on its contribution to the social dimension of sustainable development -but also the necessity to accelerate the CCIs' transition towards sustainable production and consumption5 facing climate change and environmental impact [START_REF] Kamara | Culture and sustainable development: a still untapped potential[END_REF]. This report underlines the lack of enough efforts for valorising the CCIs in adopting new sustainable models in the fight against climate change. Also the European Commission has recently highlighted the cultural dimension of sustainable development, with a leading role played by culture and creativity: it reminds that 2021 was declared "the international year of creative economy for sustainable development" (COM, 2022).

Comunian et al. (2023) present a series of interesting examples of twenty-five collaborative projects

across Africa that are all connected with SDGs while involving a range of creative practitioners and academics, delivering creative performances, products, training and more. In the report, they reflect on the fact that while some SDGs were more popular (Decent Work and Economic Growth, Quality Education, Responsible Production and Consumption, Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure), the project engaged with almost all of them. It seems thus that matters about sustainable development and SDGs have become one of the main challenges that also the CCIs are facing in the next future. The Special Issue of Industry & Higher Education (February 2024) about "Cultural and creative industries and the challenge of sustainable development: opportunities for higher education, businesses and communities", edited by Salvador E. and Comunian R., aims at providing some first contributions towards this goal through original papers and case-studies for advancing knowledge in the academic literature.

Higher Education (Institutions), Cultural and Creative Industries and Sustainability

Generally speaking, "education" has a crucial role in transmitting values, helping understanding the causes and impacts of human actions and raising awareness towards responsible behaviour. This could be, of course, the case also for sustainability matters, as recently underlined by [START_REF] Séraphin | A research agenda for the sustainability of the tourism industry: A childish perspective on overtourism[END_REF] for the tourism industry and by [START_REF] Sokol | Is creative capital a function of sustainable development: Framework development and application[END_REF] for the role played by creativity in fostering sustainable development. Culture is most often associated with education and, consequently, mobilised for educational purposes (UNESCO, 2022;[START_REF] Kamara | Culture and sustainable development: a still untapped potential[END_REF]. Education also has an influence in shaping creative workers' career and providing opportunities or barriers to sustainable creative careers [START_REF] De Bernard | The role of higher education in sustainable creative careers: exploring UK theatre graduates and theatre careers[END_REF]. HEIs also play a central role: [START_REF] Comunian | Exploring music careers: music graduates and early career trajectories in the UK[END_REF] highlighted that in specific CCIs' sectors, such as in the case of music, the institution from which the student graduates dramatically influences his or her employment outcome.

Recent research has shown the importance of HE in contributing more broadly to the creative economy (Comunian and Gilmore, 2016;[START_REF] Atkinson | The creative class in utero? The Australian city, the creative economy and the role of higher education[END_REF]. Creative HEIs can foster the formation of creative and cultural ecosystems at local level by attracting and retaining graduates and by developing networks for career opportunities [START_REF] England | Support or competition? Assessing the role of HEIs in professional networks and local creative communities: the case of glass-making in Sunderland[END_REF][START_REF] Dent | The challenges of developing sustainable cultural and creative ecosystems and the role of Higher Education Institutions: Lessons from Dundee and Chatham, UK[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Higher education and sustainable creative cities: the development of creative and cultural ecosystems in the (new) capital city of Kazakhstan[END_REF].

Among others, education also contributes to reducing social inequalities and fostering growth and technological and innovative progress. Thus, educational programmes can accelerate sustainable development, and creativity may play a key role: the regeneration of urbal centres can be encouraged by cultural activities and creative industries development [START_REF] Sokol | Is creative capital a function of sustainable development: Framework development and application[END_REF]. [START_REF] Sokol | Is creative capital a function of sustainable development: Framework development and application[END_REF] argued about the link between creative capital and formal education. Some researchers underline the necessity of several years of formal education for acquiring specific specialist knowledge needed for producing creative products, while others highlight more the role played by territorial, family and organisational conditions than the completion of formal education.

Furthermore, the recent NESTA report (2023) about the state of creativity, argued about "time to prioritise creative education" and it highlighted the growing importance of creative (digital) skills in the workforce: originality, creative solutions, creative problem-solving capacities facing the challenges of new skills-intensive jobs, are more and more demanded on the marketplace. However, as highlighted by some of the case studies in the present Special Issue and by the work of the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Creative Diversity in the UK (APPG, 2023), challenges of social exclusion and equity still need to be addressed and HEIs need to make sure creative skills remain accessible to all to ensure a diversity of content producers and voices being represented across CCIs' products and services.

Recent research focused on the UK has demonstrated the vital contribution of creative HE: highly skilled roles are employed by the creative workforce that has a degree or higher-level qualification, and the percentages for creative occupations are higher than for the UK workforce in general [START_REF] Giles | Skills, jobs and education[END_REF]. The pivotal role played by HE has also been demonstrated by [START_REF] De Bernard | The role of higher education in sustainable creative careers: exploring UK theatre graduates and theatre careers[END_REF] Cappelen and Strandgaard-Pedersen (2024) also underline a very specific and unexpected role played by HEIs, that goes well beyond their traditional role of producing and diffusing knowledge: the authors political and creative and cultural capital city, but also what challenges these kinds of policies can face.

This original example proves that creative and cultural HE development cannot happen in isolation but needs to be planned and carried out as part of the wider development of a cultural and creative ecosystem. This means reinforcing the local creative and cultural economy and attracting and retaining creative and cultural human capital through a migration movement. Obviously, this requires a longterm strategy and vision for building networks and developing knowledge, as well as interaction with top-down initiatives to create a stable cultural and creative ecosystem.

In conclusion, these examples -focused on different CCIs' sectors and various geographical areasunderline the strong link between HEIs and CCIs and they show how HE is actually an essential element for CCIs' sustainable development.

Discussion and some concluding remarks

This article aimed at highlighting the importance of HE for CCIs' sustainable development. Academic research in this specific field is scarce and we aimed at soliciting more attention towards this niche research sector, given the potential positive spillovers that it could originate.

Through retracing the arising of interest towards the CCIs in general and recently towards sustainability issues linked to the CCIs, we showed how these matters are inextricably associated to the essential role played by HE and HEIs. One could say that the important role played by HE can be taken for granted, but in reality, this requires a deeper understanding of the concrete relationships and interrelationships arising from the link that unites and influences both these parties.

In recent years, we have witnessed the growing importance of the role of HEIs in local and regional development through the dissemination and valorisation of research results, knowledge and activities beyond academic boundaries -the so-called third mission [START_REF] Carree | The contribution of universities to growth: empirical evidence for Italy[END_REF]. This originated a closer relationship between the dynamics of HEIs-Industry collaborations and regional development [START_REF] Lazzeroni | Beyond "town and gown": the role of the university in small and mediumsized cities[END_REF]. HEIs attract and retain talents and skilled human capital to a dedicated city, and this creates further positive spillover effects such as start-ups creation and knowledge exchanges between different actors at local level (cf the triple helix model). We could, therefore, assist in the rising of 'a so-called "milieu", or co-location effect' as underlined by Goldstein and Glaser (2012, p. 159): HEIs catch and train scientists and engineers that sometimes become (or have relationships with) successful entrepreneurs, consequently generating positive economic spillovers at local level, wealth and jobs creation. The region that hosts one or more HEIs is therefore characterised by a concentration of highly educated people (i.e. professors and researchers) as well as entrepreneurs located not far.

Given this context, we focused on the specific link between HEIs and CCIs, that are attracting more and more interest in the latest years, but remain difficult to investigate and analyse. Our focus was on the link between these actors for sustainable development: we identified three main pillars of investigation. The first one -related to the connection between HEIs, CCIs and sustainable economic growth -and the second one -linked to the connection between HEIs, CCIs and societal agendas for development -have been deeply explored through the original contributions included in the present Special Issue. The third one -related to the connection between HEIs, CCIs and environmental agendas -remains a subject for further research.

Through this introductory theoretical article, we hope to solicit the interest of readers in going further and exploring in detail the content of all the contributions included in the present Special Issue: they all focus on under-explored areas, and they all bring added value to the scientific literature through original focus, methodologies and findings.

In conclusion, it is essential to strengthen the relationships at local level between HEIs and cultural and creative ecosystems and look at their future evolution: the development of sustainable creative economies and cultural and creative ecosystems in the two small-sized cities of Dundee (Scotland) and Chatham (England) [START_REF] Dent | The challenges of developing sustainable cultural and creative ecosystems and the role of Higher Education Institutions: Lessons from Dundee and Chatham, UK[END_REF], as well as the development of a new political and cultural capital city (Astana) in Kazakhstan [START_REF] Kim | Higher education and sustainable creative cities: the development of creative and cultural ecosystems in the (new) capital city of Kazakhstan[END_REF] are exemplary evidence. Considering that HEIs are deeply intertwined with and often influence and/or define the theatre creatives' work life, more extensive attention in creative economy research and policymaking about the effective role and influence played by HEIs is necessary, as highlighted by [START_REF] De Bernard | The role of higher education in sustainable creative careers: exploring UK theatre graduates and theatre careers[END_REF]. Last but not least, original and unexpected forms of collaboration arising between HEIs and CCIs are worth exploring: they could reveal unusual practices, like the interactions described by [START_REF] Cappelen | Culinary movements and higher education collaborating for sustainable development[END_REF] between HEIs and culinary movements facing sustainable change.

And following the findings by [START_REF] Cappelen | Culinary movements and higher education collaborating for sustainable development[END_REF], we can even predict that an imitative behaviour will prevail in the next future. Thanks to the strong link between HEIs and CCIs' sustainable development, we can expect that a sort of mimetic isomorphism process will happen in the coming years, meaning a constraining process that forces one unit in a population to resemble other units that face the same set of environmental conditions [START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF][START_REF] Hannan | Organizational Ecology[END_REF]. We can say that given the problems of survival in a changed environment and the general uncertainty and lack of past experience on how to face the challenges of SDGs, a choice of a strategy of imitation instead of differentiation will be the most suitable as a starting point. At the end of the day, this may suggest that imitation is less risky than differentiation.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: The overlap and connections between HE, CCIs and sustainable development

  in an analysis focused on the careers of UK theatre workers. The authors considered how HE shapes and influences the latter and how it connects with opportunities and barriers to the sustainability of creative careers. The nature of the relationship between HE and creative workers goes well beyond the natural role as training institutions of HEIs: following de Bernard et al. (2024) findings, UK theatre careers are thus severely shaped by their relationship with HE in terms of trajectory and sustainability.

2

  Among others, one can cite: International Journal of Arts Management, special issue: Financing Creativity: New Issues and New Approaches, 2014; Journal of Education and Work, special issue: Creative graduate pathways within and beyond the creative industries, 2015; The Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society, Special Issue Digital Cultural Policies in Comparison, 2017; Revue d'Economie industrielle, special issue : Industrie et comportements créatifs : leçons du passé et recherches actuelles, 2021; International Journal of Arts Management, Special Issue "Organization and Management of Cultural Festivals: new Challenges in the Digital Age?", 2022; Industrial Marketing Management, special issue "Business-to-Business Marketing in the Cultural and Creative Industries: Opportunities and Challenges", 2024.

https://juliesbicycle.com/creativegreen-certification/

About SDG 12 "Responsible Consumption and Production", see alsoSalvador and Pappalepore (2024, forthcoming).

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the Research Visiting period (April 2023) of Prof. Elisa Salvador at King's College, London (UK), Department of Culture, Media and Creative Industries. This research visiting period enabled the authors to significantly advance the content of the present article during face-toface exchanges and work meetings at King's College, London.

focus on the original collaboration between culinary movements and HE for sustainable development.

The food industry is attracting an increased attention in recent years, considering sustainability matters, health requirements, security problems and so on, but till now the relationship between HE and the gastronomic sector has been under investigated. The authors aim at advancing our knowledge about HE and culinary movements collaboration through focusing on how culinary movements interact with HEIs when promoting sustainable development. Through investigating three culinary movements (Slow Food, New Nordic Cuisine and New Anatolian Cuisine), [START_REF] Cappelen | Culinary movements and higher education collaborating for sustainable development[END_REF] identified four types of interactions: "formal collaboration" on research projects, "imitative practices" through emulating successful HEIs' models, "enlisting academics" through collaborating with academic scientists, and "emulating academic events" through adopting the HEIs' conference and events models for building networks and fostering sustainable food practices. [START_REF] Dent | The challenges of developing sustainable cultural and creative ecosystems and the role of Higher Education Institutions: Lessons from Dundee and Chatham, UK[END_REF] focus on the relationships and collaborations between HEIs and CCIs within a particular geographical location, another specific field of research that is under investigated. They focus on two small-sized cities based in the UK, Dundee (Scotland) and Chatham (England), and they look at resources necessary for developing sustainable creative economies in these geographical areas.

These authors highlighted the key benefits of HEIs-CCIs co-location and integration at local level, in terms of attraction of creative human capital, retention of students, workers and start-ups, and creation and dissemination of opportunities and partnerships for local individuals and communities.

Interconnections and interdependencies between HEIs and CCIs are thus pivotal for the sustainable development of creative economies and the creation of cultural and creative ecosystems at local level.

Along this line and looking specifically at the role that HE can play in developing local economies, [START_REF] Kim | Higher education and sustainable creative cities: the development of creative and cultural ecosystems in the (new) capital city of Kazakhstan[END_REF] focus on the specific role played by HE in a peripheral and under-investigated country: Kazakhstan. They reflect on the complex interconnections between creative and cultural HEIs and the capital cities of Astana (the new capital city) and Almaty (the old one). This paper offers an original exploration of the central role HE plays in the top-down strategic development of a new


Maxime Derex

Thomas J H Morgan

The Cultural Transmission of Technological Skills

Human adaptation relies on the multigenerational transmission and accumulation of both skills and knowledge. Nonetheless, there is currently no agreement on which factor, or combination of factors, explains our peculiar ability to do so. Theoretical and empirical work, however, has identified many candidates, that operate at both the individual and population levels. In this chapter, we start by giving a brief overview of these factors that support cultural transmission, before highlighting the relative lack of research on the cultural transmission of skills. We characterize skills as behaviors that rely on fine motor control, and knowledge as mental-states that guide behaviors. Many behaviors require both complex knowledge and skilled actions to be effective. Nonetheless, we argue that the field of cultural evolution has largely studied the transmission and evolution of knowledge, as opposed to skill, raising the possibility it presents an incomplete picture of human adaptation. Drawing on evidence from anthropology and economics, we suggest that the cultural evolutionary dynamics of skill are likely to differ from those of knowledge. Specifically, we argue that (1) skills are less reliant on language for transmission than is knowledge, (2) skills are more costly to transmit than knowledge, (3) skills are transmitted along different pathways than is knowledge, and are more often limited to vertical transmission, and (4) as a result, skills likely evolve more slowly than does knowledge. We conclude that a full picture of human adaptation requires an increased focus on skill, alongside knowledge.

Introduction

A central feature of our species is our unprecedented ability to develop sophisticated technologies that have allowed us to colonize and permanently occupy environments for which we are poorly suited genetically [START_REF] Boyd | The cultural niche: why social learning is essential for human adaptation[END_REF]. Knives, spears, slings, bows, kayaks and clothes, along with large-scale constructions like houses, weirs and drivelines are only a few examples of the myriad technologies that sustain humans in almost every terrestrial environment on earth.

These technologies, and the skills to use them effectively, are not developed in isolation by especially gifted individuals but result from a cumulative cultural evolutionary process in which skills and knowledge are gradually accumulated across many generations [START_REF] Boyd | The cultural niche: why social learning is essential for human adaptation[END_REF][START_REF] Henrich | The secret of our success: how culture is driving human evolution, domesticating our species, and making us smarter[END_REF]. As we shall see in this chapter, our ability to transmit and accumulate skills and knowledge results from a combination of factors that operate at the individual and population levels. In what follows, we start by giving a brief overview of these factors that support cumulative cultural evolution, before highlighting the relative lack of research on the cultural transmission of skills. We describe examples of experimental work that, at first glance, might appear to investigate the cultural transmission of skills, but that we argue actually study the transmission of knowledge. Drawing on evidence from anthropology and economics, we suggest that the cultural evolutionary dynamics of skill are likely to differ from those of knowledge. We conclude that the current focus on knowledge is likely to present an incomplete picture of human adaptation and so a fuller picture requires an increased focus on skill.

Factors contributing to the transmission of cultural information

There is currently no agreement on which factor, or combination of factors, explains our peculiar ability to transmit and accumulate skills and knowledge. Theoretical and empirical work, however, point to two main factors: individual capacities that promote cultural transmission and population characteristics that buffer against cultural loss and foster innovation.

At the individual level, there has been much focus on cognitive abilities supporting high-fidelity social learning. Factors that promote faithful cultural transmission include teaching, language, and prosociality [START_REF] Laland | Darwin's Unfinished Symphony: How Culture Made the Human Mind[END_REF]. Many studies have investigated this topic using a variety of different methods, including theoretical models and experiments. For instance, [START_REF] Morgan | Experimental evidence for the co-evolution of hominin tool-making teaching and language[END_REF] found empirical support for the transmission enhancing effects of teaching and language in the context of modern humans learning to make Oldowan stone tools. Across experimental conditions, participants who were taught, as opposed to learning via passive observation, produced more tools, did so more quickly, and made more efficient use of raw materials. These benefits were further enhanced by verbal, as opposed to gestural, teaching. Such results, however, have not consistently replicated across tool types [START_REF] Putt | The Role of Verbal Interaction During Experimental Bifacial Stone Tool Manufacture[END_REF][START_REF] Whiten | Experimental studies illuminate the cultural transmission of percussive technologies in Homo and Pan[END_REF][START_REF] Pargeter | Testing the Effect of Learning Conditions and Individual Motor/Cognitive Differences on Knapping Skill Acquisition[END_REF] and it is important to note that while teaching and language may enhance transmission, they are unlikely to be strictly necessary [START_REF] Snyder | Early knapping techniques do not necessitate cultural transmission[END_REF]. Furthermore, the extent to which they help cultural transmission has been shown to vary with tool complexity [START_REF] Lucas | The value of teaching increases with tool complexity in cumulative cultural evolution[END_REF].

From a theoretical perspective, [START_REF] Fogarty | The evolution of teaching[END_REF] examined the conditions under which teaching, defined as a costly ability to increase the efficacy of transmission, will evolve.

They found it did so when the inclusive fitness benefits of helping the learner outweigh the personal costs of being a teacher. As a result, teaching evolves when the information being transmitted is neither too easy nor too hard to learn, but rather falls in a middle ground of learnability. This is because easily-learned information would likely be invented anyway, whereas difficult-to-learn information is unlikely to be successfully transmitted even with teaching, and so in both cases the inclusive fitness benefits are small. At the population level, demography is widely considered as a key factor for the stability of cultural information. The main idea behind demographic models of cultural evolution is that our social learning abilities subtly interact with demography to affect the maintenance of cultural traits [START_REF] Henrich | Demography and cultural evolution: How adaptive cultural processes can produce maladaptive losses -The Tasmanian case [Article][END_REF][START_REF] Powell | Late Pleistocene Demography and the Appearance of Modern Human Behavior [Article[END_REF]. More specifically, it has been shown that the size of the population within which information is shared can buffer the risk of losing cultural information. Indeed, models have shown that, when populations are large enough, individuals' propensity to learn from successful cultural models creates a selective force that promotes the transmission of beneficial cultural traits and outweighs the degrading effects of learning errors [START_REF] Henrich | Demography and cultural evolution: How adaptive cultural processes can produce maladaptive losses -The Tasmanian case [Article][END_REF]. The plausibility of demographic models has been tested using real-world ethnographic and archaeological data. However, results from studies looking for a correlation between toolkit size and population size have been mixed. Some studies support the hypothesis [START_REF] Powell | Late Pleistocene Demography and the Appearance of Modern Human Behavior [Article[END_REF][START_REF] Kline | Population size predicts technological complexity in Oceania[END_REF]Collard et al., 2013;[START_REF] Marquet | Emergence of social complexity among coastal huntergatherers in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile[END_REF], but others do not [START_REF] Collard | Causes of Toolkit Variation Among Hunter-Gatherers: A Test of Four Competing Hypotheses[END_REF][START_REF] Collard | Risk, mobility or population size? Drivers of technological richness among contact-period western North American hunter-gatherers[END_REF]Collard et al., 2013c;[START_REF] Buchanan | Drivers of technological richness in prehistoric Texas: an archaeological test of the population size and environmental risk hypotheses[END_REF].

The difficulty with testing demographic models using real-world data is that human populations are typically embedded within extended networks of cultural exchange, making it difficult to gather meaningful estimates of population size [START_REF] Derex | Cumulative Cultural Evolution within Evolving Population Structures[END_REF]. For this reason, cultural evolution researchers have turned to lab experiments, in which groups of participants are tasked to improve a piece of technology, to test predictions from theoretical models. Most experiments provide support for a positive effect of group size on the accumulation of cultural information [START_REF] Derex | Experimental evidence for the influence of group size on cultural complexity[END_REF][START_REF] Wisdom | Social Learning Strategies in Networked Groups[END_REF][START_REF] Muthukrishna | Sociality influences cultural complexity[END_REF][START_REF] Kempe | An experimental demonstration of the effect of group size on cultural accumulation[END_REF][START_REF] Derex | The foundations of the human cultural niche[END_REF], but see Caldwell & Millen, 2010;[START_REF] Fay | Increasing population size can inhibit cumulative cultural evolution[END_REF]. One study, for instance, exposed naïve participants in groups of 2, 4, 8 and 16 to demonstrations showing how to produce virtual arrowheads and fishing nets, and tracked the efficiency of those tools across time [START_REF] Derex | Experimental evidence for the influence of group size on cultural complexity[END_REF]. The larger the group, the less likely tools were to deteriorate, the more likely they were to improve, and the more likely a diversity of tool types were to be maintained. These studies illustrate how decreases in effective population size may result in a loss of technologies and/or skills and can help explain non monotonical trends in cultural evolution.

Along with studies about population size, an increasing number of studies have started to investigate how the structure of the population impacts the transmission and accumulation of cultural information. Human populations are typically embedded within extended networks of cultural exchange and recent work suggests that differences in rates of connectedness strongly affect the transmission and accumulation of cultural information [START_REF] Derex | Cumulative Cultural Evolution within Evolving Population Structures[END_REF]. For instance, experimental studies that assume that existing traits can not only be refined, but also combined with other existing cultural traits have shown that cultural accumulation can benefit from lower levels of connectedness [START_REF] Derex | Partial connectivity increases cultural accumulation within groups[END_REF]. This is because high levels of connectedness make individuals more likely to converge on similar solutions, which results in lower levels of cultural diversity and slower rates of innovation compared with less connected groups. When the risk of cultural loss is considered, simulation models show that optimal rates of accumulation are reached for intermediate levels of connectedness [START_REF] Derex | Divide and conquer: intermediate levels of population fragmentation maximize cultural accumulation[END_REF]. This is because low levels of connectedness increase the risk of cultural loss by decreasing access to demonstrators, while high levels of connectedness reduce opportunities to innovate by homogenizing cultural behaviors. At intermediate levels of connectedness, groups can accumulate cultural information while remaining culturally distinct, which keeps fueling innovation [START_REF] Derex | Cumulative Cultural Evolution within Evolving Population Structures[END_REF].

The relationship between knowledge and skill in technology

While the above highlights the progress made in understanding the transmission and accumulation of cultural information, we will now suggest that it has failed to account for how technologies are manifest as complex motor actions, what we will call skills. In particular, we suggest that much existing work can be better characterized as studying the transmission of knowledge, as opposed to skill. Let us begin by briefly outlining how we feel these two concepts differ.

The core of our distinction is that skill emphasizes actions, while knowledge emphasizes mental states. For instance, the creation of a colonial knot (as opposed to, say, a French knot) in cross-stitch requires quite fine motor-control to perform highly specific actions and, as such, it is a skill. On the other hand, the ability to read a map and use it to successfully navigate to your destination requires understanding the conventions of map creation (scale, contour lines, location symbols), but does not require any particularly challenging actions, and so it is an example of knowledge. This is not a dichotomy: in the vast majority of cases both skill/action and knowledge/mental state are at work (you need to know how to make a French knot, and holding a map involves actions). The interaction between knowledge and action has long been stressed by archaeologists who clearly recognize that both contribute to activities such as toolmaking [START_REF] Pargeter | Knowledge vs. know-how? Dissecting the foundations of stone knapping skill[END_REF]. Improvements in skill require increased precision of selected actions which leads to higher replicability in achieving a desired goal [START_REF] Crown | Learning to Make Pottery in the Prehispanic American Southwest[END_REF][START_REF] Stanley | Motor skill depends on knowledge of facts [Hypothesis and Theory[END_REF]. Individuals, then, may be poorly skilled because they perform appropriate actions with poor precision or because they perform inappropriate actions.

Becoming a skilled hunter, for instance, requires more than developing fine motor-control and depends on knowing facts about the local environment and animal behaviour. [START_REF] Kawabe | Development of hunting and fishing skill among boys of the Gidra in lowland Papua New Guinea[END_REF], for instance, has shown that among the Gidra from southwest Papua New Guinea, adolescents vary in hunting success rate because of difference in environmental knowledge.

Nonetheless, certain tasks may rely on skills more so than knowledge and so are better characterized as tasks of skill or knowledge.

The way in which we are using the terms knowledge and skill here has considerable overlap with the archaeological terms connaisance and savoir-faire [START_REF] Pelegrin | Framework for analyzing prehistoric stone tool manufacture and a tentative application to some early stone industries[END_REF] commonly translated as knowledge and know-how, and which refer to the mental images of possible actions and the ability to perform those actions, respectively. There is also similarity with the notions of public/behavioral and private/mental culture [START_REF] Tamariz | Replication and emergence in cultural transmission[END_REF], where the public performance of a behavior is distinguished from its mental representation. Despite this overlap, the intention behind the work is different. Here, we argue that tasks can be characterized as relying to various degrees on skill and/or knowledge.

With the difference between skill and knowledge in mind, let us note that not all technologies (the focus of this chapter) emphasize skill. For instance, the use of programming languages is at the heart of a vast array of contemporary technological developments and learning these languages is a key part of modern-day cultural inheritance. Nonetheless, the successful use of these languages relies almost entirely on an individual's mental state as opposed to their ability to perform certain actions, and so we suggest that a successful programmer is better characterized as knowledgeable as opposed to skilled. Despite this, skills are critical to the ecological success of the human species.

Compared to chimpanzees that obtain 95% of their calories from foods that they gather by hand, human foragers obtain 32% of their calories from extracted resources and 60% from hunted resources [START_REF] Kaplan | The emergence of humans: The coevolution of intelligence and longevity with intergenerational transfers[END_REF]. Technologies that support this subsistence strategy require huge amounts of skill, and this can occur both at the level of production, and at the level of use. As one example, consider the bow hunting of caribou by the Netsilik living along the Arctic coast of North America [START_REF] Balikci | The Netsilik Eskimo[END_REF]. To produce a bow requires the skilled manipulation of a musk-ox horn handle and antler limbs, as well as antler splits and blocks, along with sinew to bind them all together. Once a bow is made, several hunting techniques can be implemented to efficiently use the produced tool. One in particular, stalking on open terrain, requires the hunter(s) to approach their prey by standing bent at the waist and imitating the gait of a grazing caribou in order to approach the animal without scaring it off.

This approach can last for several hours, and once sufficient proximity is achieved, the hunter would suddenly stand upright and quickly release an arrow. While knowledge is critical to this hunting technique, its successful execution also relies on highly complex motor actions making it a skill.

Cultural evolution typically studies knowledge and not skill

With the distinction between knowledge and skill in mind, we can now return to studies of cultural transmission and ask to what extent the two are present.

For practical purposes, experimental tasks used in cultural evolution tend to be simple and straightforward to solve compared to the ecological problems solved by human cultures [START_REF] Miton | Cumulative culture in the laboratory: methodological and theoretical challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Derex | Human cumulative culture and the exploitation of natural phenomena[END_REF]. Limiting the complexity of tasks is important to effectively study cultural transmission over relatively short period of time. However, it carries the risk of leading to an incomplete understanding of the mechanisms at work, as well as of the resulting cultural evolutionary dynamics. In this section, we argue that most current work focusses extensively on knowledge transmission, leaving relatively little known about the transmission of skill.

As an example, consider an experimental investigation of the transmission of Oldowan stone knapping techniques [START_REF] Morgan | Experimental evidence for the co-evolution of hominin tool-making teaching and language[END_REF], finding transmission was enhanced by teaching (in particular when gestural teaching was combined with speech). The controlled production of stone tools undoubtedly requires a considerable amount of skill and precise motor control. Indeed, a study comparing the knapping ability of experts (with more than 20 years of experience in stone knapping) against intermediate knappers (several years of experience) and novices (little to no experience) found clear differences between the groups, with only experts being able to precisely predict and control the outcome of strikes [START_REF] Nonaka | How do stone knappers predict and control the outcome of flaking? Implications for understanding early stone tool technology[END_REF]. Nonetheless, although the experiment involved such a technology, we suggest it likely did not study the transmission of skill because the experimental timeframe was too short. The expertise study mentioned above shows that the skills underlying stone knapping develop slowly, continuing to improve over decades of practice. The transmission study, however, took under an hour of a given participant's time, with no more than 30 minutes spent making tools. We suggest this time is too short for the meaningful transmission of skill.

Indeed, a more recent study involving two hours of knapping was still unable to detect increases in skill [START_REF] Pargeter | Testing the Effect of Learning Conditions and Individual Motor/Cognitive Differences on Knapping Skill Acquisition[END_REF]. Instead, what was likely transmitted was basic knowledge concerning stone knapping-how to hold the materials, the general characteristics of suitable strike locations, how hard to hit, and so on-which participants put into practice as best they could. Such knowledge allowed participants to make a number of viable flake tools, but their skill as knappers likely remained poor.

Similar arguments could be made about most experimental tasks that are commonly used in the cultural evolution literature. Making paper airplanes so that they fly as far as possible or building towers so that they are as tall as possible involve relatively straightforward actions in which individuals are already competent prior to the experiment (such as folding a piece of paper; [START_REF] Caldwell | Experimental models for testing hypotheses about cumulative cultural evolution [Article][END_REF]. Therefore, cultural transmission in those studies likely concerned knowledge and not skill. The unintended focus on knowledge that we aim to highlight in this chapter is not limited to experimental studies. For instance, one of the rare field studies looking at the interaction between social structure and cultural transmission among traditional populations focused exclusively on the transmission of knowledge [START_REF] Salali | Knowledge-Sharing Networks in Hunter-Gatherers and the Evolution of Cumulative Culture[END_REF].

That these studies investigate the transmission of knowledge, as opposed to skill, does not mean they are poor studies. The transmission of knowledge is itself a critical part of culture and worthy of study. Experimental studies of knowledge transmission have proved useful tests of theoretical predictions about how individuals learn in groups [START_REF] Mesoudi | An experimental comparison of human social learning strategies: payoff-biased social learning is adaptive but underused [Article][END_REF][START_REF] Morgan | The evolutionary basis of human social learning[END_REF] and field studies are extremely valuable to reveal the pathways through which knowledge might flow within actual populations [START_REF] Migliano | Characterization of hunter-gatherer networks and implications for cumulative culture[END_REF]. Nonetheless, this work leaves untouched the cultural transmission of skills and we should be cautious about the extent to which current findings generalize.

The cultural evolutionary dynamics of skill likely differ from those of knowledge

The broad focus of the cultural evolutionary literature on knowledge is only problematic to the extent that knowledge does not capture the full spectrum of cultural evolution. Whether skills have different cultural evolutionary dynamics to knowledge is an empirical question that remains to be addressed. Some findings from the cultural evolutionary literature are likely to be valid regardless of the cultural content involved. For instance, consider the influential finding of theoretical models that population size and connectedness critically affect the transmission and maintenance of cultural traits by buffering the risk of cultural loss [START_REF] Henrich | Demography and cultural evolution: How adaptive cultural processes can produce maladaptive losses -The Tasmanian case [Article][END_REF][START_REF] Powell | Late Pleistocene Demography and the Appearance of Modern Human Behavior [Article[END_REF][START_REF] Creanza | Greater than the sum of its parts? Modelling population contact and interaction of cultural repertoires[END_REF][START_REF] Derex | Partial connectivity increases cultural accumulation within groups[END_REF]. Although experiments supporting the role of population size on the proper transmission of cultural information have mostly involved the cultural transmission of knowledge [START_REF] Derex | Experimental evidence for the influence of group size on cultural complexity[END_REF][START_REF] Kempe | An experimental demonstration of the effect of group size on cultural accumulation[END_REF][START_REF] Muthukrishna | Sociality influences cultural complexity[END_REF], we should expect to observe similar effects when skills are involved. Indeed, both knowledge and skills are at risk of cultural loss due to our limited learning abilities, and, while the magnitude of the risk may differ, it is plausible that fewer learners will increase the risk of losing cultural information in both cases. Nonetheless, there are multiple reasons to suppose that the cultural evolutionary dynamics of skill might differ from that of knowledge and we shall describe a few examples here.

The role of language

One difference between skills and knowledge is that the transmission of skills is potentially less reliant on, or derives less benefit from, language. For instance, the complex actions involved in skills may be more difficult to put into words, meaning language struggles to transmit them. Similarly, while knowledge is difficult to demonstrate directly (although it can be manifest in behaviors), it may be readily put into words and expressed verbally. As such, without language, knowledge transmission may have been more challenging than skill transmission. However, the evolution of language may have reversed this relationship by greatly facilitating the transmission of knowledge. This suggests that simpler social learning mechanisms, such as imitation, may be more conducive to the transmission of skills than language.

The difficulty of transmitting skills verbally is illustrated by an experiment that compared the acquisition of stone tool-making skills among learners who were taught using speech alone (unassisted by gesture), gesture alone or 'full language' (gesture plus speech) [START_REF] Cataldo | Speech, stone tool-making and the evolution of language[END_REF]. Comparisons of flintknapping performance indicate that individuals who were taught using speech alone performed poorly compared to individuals instructed through either gesture alone or 'full language', suggesting that language in the absence of demonstration was poorly suited to transmitting an understanding of the process of tool making.

Costs of transmission

Skills and knowledge are also likely to vary in terms of costs associated with their transmission. Indeed, since skills can be difficult to put into words, they are more likely to require demonstration from teachers. This should be particularly the case for skills that are complex and/or more hazardous. Ethnographic studies, for instance, have shown that complex extractive subsistence skills such as big game hunting and multicomponent toolmaking typically involve direct instruction even within populations where direct, active teaching is relatively rare [START_REF] Lew-Levy | How Do Hunter-Gatherer Children Learn Subsistence Skills?[END_REF]. Thus, even though simpler skills such as trapping small game and pounding grain can be acquired through observation and participation to daily activities, skills involving risks (such as the risk of being harmed or the processing of rare raw material) will tend to involve substantial costs of transmission.

Another difference between skills and knowledge is that skills require extensive practice. To some extent, practice is likely to benefit the transmission of knowledge as well.

For instance, in a knowledge-based experiment in which learners received lengthy cultural demonstration on how to build a virtual fishing net by selecting different materials and pointing and clicking on a grid to arrange the materials, 100% of fishing-net builders failed at the first trial [START_REF] Derex | Experimental evidence for the influence of group size on cultural complexity[END_REF]. This illustrates the importance of multiple demonstrations and multiple attempts in the proper acquisition of knowledge (see also [START_REF] Flynn | Studying children's social learning experimentally "in the wild[END_REF]).

Yet, ethnographic and experimental evidence indicate that skills are acquired through long apprenticeships during which motor control is progressively developed [START_REF] Kaplan | The emergence of humans: The coevolution of intelligence and longevity with intergenerational transfers[END_REF][START_REF] Pargeter | Knowledge vs. know-how? Dissecting the foundations of stone knapping skill[END_REF]. As noted above, knappers continue to improve in their fine control over flaking outcomes over the course of decades. Similar learning curves are seen in bows and atlatls [START_REF] Whittaker | Comparing Atlatls and Bows: Accuracy and Learning Curve[END_REF]. The role of practice in the acquisition of skills is also exemplified by return rates of ache hunters who become proficient years after reaching their peak strength [START_REF] Walker | Age-dependency in hunting ability among the Ache of Eastern Paraguay[END_REF]. Moreover, experimental archeology studies have showed that learners' inability to produce stone tools is largely accounted for by a failure to properly execute intended actions rather than a failure to conceptualize appropriate goals [START_REF] Pargeter | Knowledge vs. know-how? Dissecting the foundations of stone knapping skill[END_REF]. A consequence of this is that skills may take much longer to successfully transmit, while knowledge, although not instantaneous by any means, will often be faster to transmit.

The fact that skills require extensive practice creates specific demands for learners and might have led to the emergence of unique mechanisms to support their proper acquisition [START_REF] Sterelny | The Evolved Apprentice: How Evolution Made Humans Unique[END_REF]. One example is the production of miniature toys by adults that allow children to emulate adult activities. Many ethnographical studies have revealed that adults facilitate skill acquisition by providing children with toy or small hunting weapons at an early age. For instance, at the Par-Tee site in Oregon, children were provided with miniature atlatls for them to practice with [START_REF] Losey | Learning to use atlatls: equipment scaling and enskilment on the Oregon Coast[END_REF]. Other examples include miniature baskets, digging sticks, and spears which support the acquisition of subsistence skills such as harvesting and small-game hunting [START_REF] Lew-Levy | How Do Hunter-Gatherer Children Learn Subsistence Skills?[END_REF].

Transmission pathways

The fact that the transmission of skills is likely to incur larger costs to demonstrators compared to knowledge suggests that their respective transmission pathways might differ. In particular, the costs associated with the transmission of skills may disincentivize teaching toward non-kin and limit learning opportunities (Buckley, this volume). Reviews of the ethnographic literature confirms that skills are mostly transmitted vertically. For instance, [START_REF] Shennan | Cultural learning in hominids: a behavioural ecological approach[END_REF] have reported that craft and tool-making traditions are predominantly transmitted from father to son or mother to daughter. A recent metaethnographic review studying how children learn subsistence skills also suggests that samesex vertical transmission is one of the major ways by which children learn various foraging skills [START_REF] Lew-Levy | How Do Hunter-Gatherer Children Learn Subsistence Skills?[END_REF]. To some extent, this is true of knowledge transmission as well.

Studies looking at the distribution of knowledge in hunter-gatherer population have also showed that not all knowledge is equally shared despite being cheaper than skills to transmit.

For instance, field studies have showed that knowledge about medicinal plants were mostly shared between spouses and kin, while plants that serve other functions were shared more widely. This illustrates that transmission networks are content specific even in the case of simple pieces of knowledge that can be transmitted at low cost. Nonetheless, because the transmission of skills requires more effort on the part of the demonstrator, skilled individuals should be more inclined to teach kin because of inclusive fitness benefits (Buckley, this volume).

The fact that skills tend to be passed on vertically does not mean they are exclusively transmitted in this way. For instance, ethnographic studies have showed that hunting skills are sometimes taught by uncles, grandfathers and other elders [START_REF] Puri | Deadly Dances in the Bornean Rainforest: Hunting Knowledge of the Penan Benalui[END_REF][START_REF] Wallace | The Comanches: Lords of the South Plains[END_REF]. In some cases, like among Ethiopian Chabu, adolescents even choose their teachers, preferring to go on hunts with knowledgeable individuals [START_REF] Dira | Learning to Spear Hunt Among Ethiopian Chabu Adolescent Hunter-Gatherers[END_REF]).

Yet, for teaching toward non kin to occur it must be supported by informal or formal institutions that compensate teacher for their efforts. For instance, cultural evolution scholars have argued that learners use deference to buy access to skilled models [START_REF] Henrich | The evolution of prestige -Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission [Review][END_REF].

Economists have long stressed the role of institutions in providing an enforcement mechanism that incentivize cultural transmission of skills (de la [START_REF] De La Croix | Clans, Guilds, and Markets: Apprenticeship Institutions and Growth in the Preindustrial Economy[END_REF]. Within families, no enforcement mechanism is required because parents and relatives are inclined to teach kin because of inclusive fitness benefits. However, outside the family, skills are often passed from knowledgeable individuals to learners in return for help with routine tasks and menial assignments. For complex tasks, transmissions mechanisms often take the form of an apprenticeship, which is a relation linking a skilled individual (typically an adult) to a learner (typically a child or adolescent). The duration of apprenticeships can vary, but it typically increases with the complexity of the skill involved (de la [START_REF] De La Croix | Clans, Guilds, and Markets: Apprenticeship Institutions and Growth in the Preindustrial Economy[END_REF]. Research among stone-adze makers of Langda in Indonesian, for instance, has shown that toolmaking skills are traditionally transmitted through semi-formal apprenticeships that began around age 12 and last several years [START_REF] Stout | The social and cultural context of stone-knapping skill acquisition. Stone knapping: the necessary conditions for a uniquely hominin behaviour[END_REF]. In exchange for being trained, learners must often commit to defer to the teacher and follow the tradition precisely. Teachers also evaluate the commitment of potential learners and might evaluate their potential by asking them to perform activities relevant to the skill that they wish to acquire [START_REF] Stout | The social and cultural context of stone-knapping skill acquisition. Stone knapping: the necessary conditions for a uniquely hominin behaviour[END_REF]. Studies investigating the transmission of skills in preindustrial modern Europe have also found that parents often paid premiums, with the amount depending on the prestige of the teacher.

Premiums could also vary depending on the physical strength of learners with strong individuals paying less than weak individuals (de la [START_REF] De La Croix | Clans, Guilds, and Markets: Apprenticeship Institutions and Growth in the Preindustrial Economy[END_REF].

Thus, compared to knowledge, the high costs associated with skill transmission are likely to require specific mechanisms that mitigate or eliminate the moral hazard problem in the teacher-learner relationship. It is likely that informal and formal institutions that compensate teachers for their effort are key determinants of the dissemination of skills.

Resulting evolutionary dynamics

The difference between skills and knowledge suggest that the cultural evolutionary dynamics of skill might differ from that of knowledge in significant ways. First, limited learning opportunities will make skills more prone to cultural loss than knowledge. Moreover, difficulty of transmitting skills relative to knowledge may render their persistence across generations increasing fragile. Evidence of this can be seen in the Polar Inuit that, following an epidemic in the 1820's that killed many elder group members, rapidly lost the ability to make and use kayaks, leisters and bows and arrows [START_REF] Boyd | The cultural niche: why social learning is essential for human adaptation[END_REF]. These technologies were regained through contact with migrating Inuit from Baffin Island, but in the meantime the Polar Inuit were unable to make and use these tools even though many of them would have grown up surrounded by their use and undoubtedly understood the general principles behind their creation and use. Nonetheless, given the historical nature of this account it is unclear the extent to which the Polar Inuit suffered from a loss of knowledge or skill.

Second, skills may evolve more slowly than knowledge. There are two reasons to suppose this might be the case: (1) as already discussed there are reasons to suppose that skills transmission is a slower process than knowledge transmission, if true, and assuming that both transmit with similar fidelity, then skill evolution will also be slower than knowledge evolution, and (2) the evidence reviewed above suggests that complex skills (due to the cost of their transmission) are disproportionately transmitted vertically. Such a process will slow the spread of innovations within and between populations, and cause cultural evolution to approximate genetic evolution which is slower than cultural change [START_REF] Perreault | The Pace of Cultural Evolution[END_REF]. Boudot and [START_REF] Buckley | The evolution of an ancient technology[END_REF], for instance, reported that loom designs and weaving techniques (that are mostly transmitted from mother to daughter through a lengthy apprenticeship) exhibit low rates of innovation. An additional reason why skills might evolve slowly is that teachers are often concerned with detecting and correcting errors in learners' techniques. These corrections, however, not only concern actual errors but also deviation from the traditional way of performing the technique [START_REF] Buckley | The evolution of an ancient technology[END_REF]. This is likely to increase the fidelity of transmission between generations but will ultimately reduce opportunities for innovation.

Due to the conservative way in which skills are transmitted, mechanisms are likely to be required to promote the diffusion of innovations between families. One such mechanism is marriage. Weavers, for instance, often move from the parental household to their spouse's household [START_REF] Buckley | The evolution of an ancient technology[END_REF]). Yet, because innovation rates are low, skills are often uniform within communities with no variation between household. Another mechanism that has been put forward by anthropologists is ritual relationship, which has been shown to promote interactions between communities [START_REF] Hill | Hunter-Gatherer Inter-Band Interaction Rates: Implications for Cumulative Culture[END_REF]. For instance, quantitative analyses of interaction rates have revealed that ritual relationship is a more important predictor than kinship for different types of interaction, including opportunities for cultural transmission (such as observing tool-making skills). However, it is not entirely clear whether occasional episodes of observation are sufficient to enable the transmission of complex skills.

Apprenticeships may also help diffuse skills beyond single families. Economists, for instance, have argued that because semi-formal and formal apprenticeship are independent from family ties, they allow learners to acquire skills from larger populations (de la [START_REF] De La Croix | Clans, Guilds, and Markets: Apprenticeship Institutions and Growth in the Preindustrial Economy[END_REF]. For instance, they have argued that, compared to China where training was provided by family members, preindustrial Western Europe had a formal system of apprenticeship organized by guilds that were better at disseminate techniques and innovations. One interesting feature of guilds is that they introduced journeymanship [START_REF] Lis | Journeymen Associations in Western Europe, 1300-1800[END_REF].

Journeymen were considered competent craftsmen and were authorized to work in the field they have been trained at but could not yet work as self-employed master craftsmen. Rather they had travel to another city to acquire additional skills, which exposed them to a broader range of skills and fostered the spread of new techniques. (De la Croix et al., 2017 have compared their status to postdoctoral researchers in scientific fields). It is likely that regions that relied on institutions such as extended families and clans may have experienced lower rates of innovations than regions where learners could sample from larger pools of skilled teachers.

Conclusion

Human adaptation relies on the cultural accumulation of both skills and knowledge.

Theoretical and empirical work indicate that our ability to transmit cultural information results from a combination of factors that operate at the individual and population levels. In this chapter, we briefly reviewed these factors and have argued that most cultural evolutionary work has studied the transmission of knowledge. Yet, humans extract resources and exploit technologies that require high level of skill. As we have argued, skills and knowledge differ along many dimensions, and we should be be cautious not to assume that findings about the transmission of knowledge necessarily generalize to skills. Compared to knowledge, the transmission of skills might occur via different learning mechanisms, over longer periods of time and might involve different transmission pathways. Understanding how cultural transmission differ between skills and knowledge is critical for debates about the relationship between of humans' unique social structure and the transmission and accumulation of cultural innovations. Indeed, it has been argued that humans live in large networks of unrelated individuals that might be conducive to the spread and accumulation of cultural information [START_REF] Hill | Hunter-Gatherer Inter-Band Interaction Rates: Implications for Cumulative Culture[END_REF]). Yet, actual measurements of cultural transmission in natural populations remain scarce and little is still known about how skills, in particular complex ones, spread in natural populations. Due to the features of skills, it seems unreasonable to assume that large social networks will automatically result in large skill transmission networks.

Additional mechanisms such as semi-formal and formal institutions have probably been key to promote the dissemination and accumulation of skills. A more detailed understanding of the cultural transmission of skills, alongside and in interaction with knowledge, will provide a more general basis for understanding cultural evolution and human adaptation.