S Nurcan
email: nurcan@univ-paris1.fr

J Barrios
email: barrios@univ-paris1.fr

G Grosz
email: grosz@univ-paris1.fr

C Rolland
email: rolland@univ-paris1.fr

CHANGE PROCESS MODELLING USING THE EKD-CHANGE MANAGEMENT METHOD

The Enterprise Knowledge Development -Change Management Method (EKD-CMM) provides a systematic way to organise and to guide the organisational change management. The EKD-CMM road map, implemented in the electronic guide book 2 , describes the different routes to manage change through modelling using EKD-CMM. Roughly speaking a route is a sequence of steps to be followed by the EKD-CMM user. Every step in one possible EKD-CMM route is supported by guidelines. This paper presents the guideline allowing an enterprise to construct its change process model when its current goals, its external constraints, its future requirements and its existing processes are known. The undertaken modelling approach, called "goal deployment" approach, proposes an iterative process which consists in progressively generating the hierarchy of change goals by studying the impact of the external constraints onto the current goals and of defining the impacts of the change on current business processes. The approach is illustrated using examples borrowed to an industrial case of the electricity supply sector where change management is motivated by European deregulation rules.

INTRODUCTION

Companies are nowadays facing huge pressures to improve their competitiveness. Responses to these are restructuring, downsizing and reengineering along with a strong commitment to customer satisfaction. Organisational transformation then becomes a major issue. As stated in [START_REF] Barrett | Process visualization, Getting the vision right is key, Information Systems Management[END_REF], organisational transformation depends of the creation of a powerful vision of what future should be like. We claim that an in depth understanding of the current functioning is also required. The systematic modelling of business knowledge can ease the complex task of building up the understanding of the business situation (Jarzabek 1996).

The Enterprise Knowledge Development -Change Management Method (EKD-CMM) presented in this paper provides a systematic way to organise and to guide the change management. It is currently applied in ELEKTRA3 project, in which we describe the knowledge related to the change process in the Electricity Supply Industry (ESI) sector in terms of the EKD-CMM concepts (i.e. enterprise goals, enterprise processes etc.) [START_REF] Loucopoulos | Using the EKD Approach: The Modelling Component[END_REF], [START_REF] Bubenko | EKD User Guide[END_REF]. EKD-CMM is a method that provides a systematic and controlled way of analysing, understanding, developing and documenting an enterprise and its components by using Enterprise Modelling. Its purpose is to provide a clear and unambiguous picture of (a) how the enterprise functions currently, (b) what are the requirements for change and the reasons for change (c) the alternatives that could be envisaged in order to meet these requirements and (d) the criteria and arguments for evaluating these alternatives [START_REF] Bubenko | EKD User Guide[END_REF].

The ELEKTRA project addresses the two requirements of (i) assisting in the development of EKD-CMM specifications (Rolland et al. 1997a), (Rolland et al. 1998a), (Rolland et al. 1998b), (Rolland et al. 1998c), and (ii) assisting in the management of change within the ESI sector (Rolland et al. 1997b). This paper deals with the second requirement. Within the ELEKTRA project, two complementary ways of working have been applied. They correspond to two possible routes among others to perform change management. These routes are included in the EKD-CMM road map that will be presented in section 2. We have been more precisely implied in the bottom-up route of the EKD-CMM in the restructuring the distribution of a European Electricity Company (ECOM). The main strategy used in this study, namely the goal deployment strategy, is presented in section 3. Section 4 introduces the electronic guide book. This tool has been developed to guide managers and change engineers involved in the change process management based on the EKD-CMM road map. Conclusion and future work are presented in section 5.

2.THE OVERALL VIEW OF THE CHANGE MANAGEMENT

Understand the change management within EKD-CMM

This section presents both the ethos and the details on the way the EKD-CMM proposes to undertake change management. The requirement for change usually takes the form of a vision held by some top managers. A classical example is John F. Kennedy´s statement: 'to send a man to the moon before the end of the decade'. In order to implement such a vision, two major tasks have to be performed.

First, relevant habits must be analysed and the goals, policies and visions behind them must be made explicit. This is essentially a goal-driven abstraction process from existing practice leading to define the 'As-Is' model. Second, the vision must be established as a mission in this context leading to the 'To-Be' model which defines the requirements for the envisioned organisation. The quality of the 'As-Is' and 'To-Be' models depends on the knowledge elicited from the stakeholders and their involvement in the change process. According to Jackson [START_REF] Jackson | Software requirements and specifications -A lexicon of practice, principles and prejudices[END_REF], the 'As-Is' model describes indicative properties whereas the second one describes optative properties. As depicted in figure 1, mastering the change in an organisation requires four major steps.

As-is Model

To-be Model

Old Reality New Reality

(1) Reverse analysis The change process (step 2 in figure 1) is defined as the process of establishing a vision for change in context. It is a complex process where several alternative change routes and many 'To-Be' model can be envisioned. In order to master this complexity, we propose to reason on the concept of scenario. A scenario is defined as one change route leading to one 'To-Be' model. On top of the need for defining the 'As-Is' and the 'To-Be' models, EKD-CMM suggests two more tasks consisting of first, modelling the alternative scenaria for change, and secondly selecting the appropriate scenario for change.

The EKD-CMM conceptual support for change consists in reasoning on models. The EKD-CMM process results in three models (the As-Is model, the To-Be model and the Change Process model) and identifies four states to be reached when performing change management. We refer to those as the four EKD-CMM states: (1) 'As-Is' state ; (2) 'Alternative scenaria for change determined' state ; (3) 'Alternative scenaria evaluated and the most appropriate one selected' state ; (4) 'To-Be' state.

EKD-CMM does not impose one single way of reaching the four states but proposes several ones. In other words, there are several routes that can be followed to reach the four EKD-CMM states required for managing change. These routes are integrated in the EKD-CMM road map.

The EKD-CMM Road Map

Change definition (step 2 in figure 1) is a decision making process. It is performed by stakeholders having the freedom to decide how to proceed according to their assessment of the situation they are faced to. However, change definition cannot be an ad-hoc and chaotic process. There is a high need for methods and tools which offers guidance to provide advice on which activities are appropriate under which situations and how to perform them [START_REF] Rolland | Understanding and Guiding Requirements Engineering Processes, invited talk[END_REF], [START_REF] Wynekoop | System Development methodologies: unanswered questions and the research-practice gap[END_REF], [START_REF] Dowson | Towards requirements for Enactment Mechanism[END_REF].

EKD-CMM views the process of modelling change as intention driven [START_REF] Rolland | Enterprise Knowledge Development : a change process[END_REF]. At any moment, the change engineer has an intention, a goal in mind that he/she wants to fulfil. Taking this into account, the EKD-CMM road map identifies the set of modelling intentions that have to be achieved in order to solve the problem at hand. There are two key intentions in EKD-CMM, namely "Conceptualise Enterprise Business Process Model" and "Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure". We refer to them as EKD-CMM Process Intentions. "Conceptualise Enterprise Business Process Model" refers to all activities required to construct a business process model whereas "Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure" refers to all those activities that are needed to identify goals and to relate them one another through AND, OR (exclusive OR) and AND/OR (inclusive OR) relationships. The two first are traditionally used in goal modelling [START_REF] Nilsson | Problem Solving Method in Artificial Intelligence[END_REF]. The AND/OR relationship is required in order to make possible the expression of a multiple choice between several options.

A strategy is an approach, a manner to achieve an intention. The strategy characterises the flow from an intention Ii to an intention Ij and the way the intention Ij can be achieved when coming from Ii. The analogy can be made with a strategy to reach a location on a map. For instance, to reach Nice from Paris, one can imagine three strategies: fast, "andouillette", lazy. With strategy (1), the idea is to reach Nice as fast as possible. Strategy (2) is motivated by the desire to eat an "andouillette" in Lyon, where it originates from. In strategy (3), time is not important whereas, visit as much as one can in the French site is key factor. Clearly, the route to be followed to reach a point depends on the strategy(ies) selected.

(3)

Participative Modelling Strategy

(2) (4)

Evaluation Strategy

(5)

Figure 2. EKD-CMM process intentions and strategies

Similarly, the performance of the EKD-CMM modelling process is based on strategies to reach one of the two key process intentions "Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure" and "Conceptualise Enterprise Business Process Model" as shown in figure 2. Six strategies are used in the road map for organisational change, namely Participative Modelling Strategy, Analyst Driven Strategy, Process Clustering Strategy, Goal Deployment Strategy, Evaluation Strategy and Completeness Strategy.

For example, EKD-CMM offers different strategies to "Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure". Two of them are Participative Modelling Strategy and Analyst Driven Strategy. Both are possible ways to reach the same result, namely a goal structure, modelled using concepts of the EKD-CMM goal model. The former is more suitable when the method usage maturity and the organisational commitment are high. The latter is appropriate when these factors are low. The route (the precise sequence of steps) depends on the selected strategies. The multiplicity of strategies and routes justifies the need for a road map.

A road map is a process model in which a non-deterministic ordering of intentions and strategies has been included. It is a labelled directed graph with intentions as nodes and strategies as edges between intentions. There are two specific intentions called "Start" and "Stop" that represent the intention to start navigating in the road map and to stop doing so. The Completeness Strategy can be applied at any moment when the four EKD-CMM states have been reached. The road map contains a finite number of routes, each of them prescribing a way to develop the product, i.e. each of them is a EKD-CMM process model. Therefore the map is a multi-model. It embodies several process models, providing a multi-model view for modelling a class of EKD-CMM processes. None of the finite set of models included in the road map is recommended 'a priori'. Instead the approach suggests a dynamic construction of the actual path by navigating in the road map. In this sense EKD-CMM is sensitive to the specific situations as they arise in the process. The road map of figure 3 visualises all possible EKD-CMM routes as a graph consisting of the four process intentions and the six identified strategies. Roughly speaking, a route is characterised by the sequence of strategies it uses. More precisely, a route is a sequence of steps, each step corresponding to the achievement of an intention according to the selected strategy. For instance, the bottom-up route (so called because current business processes are modelled before enterprise goals) is defined as a sequence of six map sections. The stepwise description of a route shall be considered as a reminder of this route. There might be used during an EKD-CMM project, to visualise the route followed. Sections in the EKD-CMM road map are supported by guidelines. A guideline is a set of indications on how to proceed to achieve an intention. A guideline embodies method knowledge to guide the change engineer in achieving an intention in a given situation. The selection of the map section to carry out next identifies the guideline which supports this section. For instance, the guideline associated to map section <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Goal Deployment Strategy> supports the change definition as it was introduced in figure 1 of section 2.1. This guideline will be developed and exemplified in the following section.

THE GOAL DEPLOYMENT STRATEGY AND ITS APPLICATION TO AN ELECTRICITY COMPANY

Change is generally a response to some significant threat or opportunity arising out-side of the organisation. According to Pettigrew 'Changes within an organisation take place both in response to business and economic events and to processes of managerial perception, choice and actions. Managers in this sense see events taking place that, to them, signal the need for change' [START_REF] Pettigrew | The awakening giant : continuity and change in imperial chemical industries[END_REF]. Once the need for change is perceived, it is necessary to consider what the causes of changes are and what actually needs changing in the organisation. The main causes of change can be classified into 'external causes of change' and 'internal context of change' [START_REF] Gilgeous | Operations and the management of change[END_REF]). In the organisation we have been working with (ECOM), the cause for change is external to the organisation. It concerns market evolution and change of legislation dictated by the European Union regulation along with competitor activities and customer expectations. Internal context of change relates to management structure, culture and system of power and control. The characteristics of the ECOM internal context, in other words its situational factors (low method usage maturity, low degree of participative involvement, hierarchical organisational culture, well known pressures), led us to use one way of defining change among the several others proposed in the EKD-CMM road map : the bottom-up route. Within this route, in order to define changes (step 2 in figure 1), it is suggested to use the goal deployment strategy.

The goal deployment strategy focuses on the analysis of the impact of the external constraints and the future requirements on the current enterprise goals. The product of the guideline implementing this strategy is a hierarchy of goals : change process model. It contains a particular type of goals, called change goals. Change goals tell us how to change the organisation, i.e. what should be improved, what should be introduced and what should cease to be performed. The change process model describes all possible change routes that the enterprise can follow to reach its envisioned future state in which all constraints imposed by the external pressures and future requirements will be satisfied. The application of this guideline leads to the EKD-CMM state 'Alternative scenaria for change determined'.

This section presents the goal deployment guideline and its application in the distribution division of an European Electricity Company (ECOM). The resulting change process model describes alternative change scenaria that the ECOM distribution division can follow in order to reorganise itself to conform with the European Union (EU) rules. It precisely describes at an intentional level how changes can be performed. Section 3.1 introduces our approach to change process modelling. Application of this approach to the definition of the ECOM change goal hierarchy is presented in section 3.2. Section 3.3 presents the detailed algorithm for the generation of change goal hierarchy.

Approach to change process modelling

This section develops the goal deployment strategy followed in the ELEKTRA project to model the ECOM change process. The change definition (step 2 in figure 1) is a complex process as many alternative change routes and many future models can be envisioned. We propose scenaria as an appropriate means to support the definition of these alternative change routes and to achieve better stakeholder involvement. The change process model therefore describes how to perform the change and includes the description of alternative scenaria that the enterprise could follow in order to reorganise itself to meet the specific requirements for the future and to comply with the constraints external to the enterprise. As illustrated in figure 4, the change process model describes all possible change routes that the enterprise can follow to reach its envisioned future state in which all constraints imposed by the contextual forces will be satisfied.

Possible Futur Situations

B B

Alternative Change Scenaria Current Situation

A A

Constraints imposed by the EU on ECOM

Figure 4. The change process

In the following, we first introduce the different hierarchies of goals that are used in the change process modelling using the goal deployment strategy and then present an overview of the approach.

The three goal hierarchies

The modelling approach uses two goal hierarchies as input and generates a third one. The former are referred to as the 'hierarchy of current goals and the 'hierarchy of contextual forces'. The latter corresponds to the 'change process model'. The three hierarchies are goals graphs using AND, OR and AND/OR connectors [START_REF] Loucopoulos | Using the EKD Approach: The Modelling Component[END_REF].

The hierarchy of current goals. The hierarchy of current goals expresses what the enterprise aims to achieve in the current situation at different levels of abstraction. Figure 5 shows the first level of the ECOM's current goals hierarchy that we will use to exemplify the goal deployment guideline. The hierarchy of contextual forces. A contextual force is a constraint external to the enterprise that shall be taken into account while studying the changes. In our case, this hierarchy reflects the constraints imposed by the EU on the ECOM distribution. This is highlighted in the top level goal named " Change ECOM Distribution to comply to the EU rules ". In order to satisfy this constraint, ECOM has already chosen to " Introduce means for Third Party Access (TPA) ". Furthermore, the fact that the electricity market will not remain a monopoly anymore in the future forces the ECOM distribution to " Enter the competition market ". These observations led us to describe the hierarchy of the contextual forces as depicted in figure 6. The two level hierarchy represents the positioning of the ECOM distribution with regards to the electricity market.

The change process model. The change process model is a hierarchy of change goals. It models the possible alternative change routes to be followed by the ECOM distribution in order to reach the envisioned future state complying with the constraints imposed by the EU. Because it includes alternative paths, the change process model proposes ECOM scenaria for change.

Overview of the change process modelling approach

The goal deployment strategy followed to construct the change process model is an iterative process which suggests to progressively generate the hierarchy of change goals by studying the impact of the contextual forces onto the current goals and to highlight the impacts of the change on current business processes. First, the current goal hierarchy is considered in a top down manner starting with the top level goal and examining its descendants step by step, until the leaves are reached. The hierarchy of change goals which describes the alternative scenaria for change is constructed accordingly, in a top down manner, step by step, by generating the change goals either as improvements of the current goals or by introducing new goals. Then, in order to facilitate the conceptualisation of the future enterprise state which will be performed afterwards, for each leave of the hierarchy of change goals, current processes which will be maintained, extended or improved will be attached. Roughly speaking the process followed in constructing the change goal hierarchy iterates for each goal in the current goal hierarchy on the two main activities: "deploy goals" and "add new goals". The former organises goal deployment by studying the impact of the contextual forces on the current goals, eliciting and introducing the change goals reflecting the impact and envisioning alternative solutions. The latter suggests to introduce new goals that complement a goal that has been elicited during the deployment step, to introduce alternative goals and to develop in detail all goals that have been introduced.

There are four ways to type the impact of a contextual force on a current goal. The type "improve" shall be used when there is no need to drastically change the current goal but rather to perform some improvements that lead to increase the efficiency of the current practices. The type "maintain" shall be used when there is no need to change the current goal but to keep it as it is. The type "cease" shall be used when there is a need to withdraw a current goal that is considered to be no longer beneficial for the enterprise. The type "extend" shall be used when the current goal is still valid but there is a need to enlarge its scope (e.g.. to add a new functionality, etc.). Accordingly, a change goal is elicited based on the type of impact and the current goal being impacted. A change goal can be achieved in several alternative ways with respect to different factors (quality requirements, market opportunity, technology availability, etc.). Envisioning alternative change goals means describing all possible alternative ways for fulfilling the change goal.

The fifth type of change goal, namely "introduce", shall be used when a change goal is totally new to the enterprise with regard to its current goals. The first task when adding new change goals consists in envisioning new complementary goals which should be necessary to comply with the change goal considered in the situation. As pointed in [START_REF] Anton | Goal-Based Requirements Analysis[END_REF], [START_REF] Potts | A Generic Model for Representing Design Methods[END_REF]) and [START_REF] Dardenne | Goal-directed Requirements Acquisition[END_REF], finding goals is very hard and no efficient way of solving this problem is known. Organising cooperative work and brainstorming sessions seems the most adapted approach to deal with this kind of highly creative activity in order to make ideas emerge. The EKD-CMM road map suggests to use the guideline Elicit goal which proposes three alternative ways for the goal elicitation: interviewing domain experts, perform SWOT analysis or follow electronic brainstorming strategy. Second, goals that are alternatives to the change goal considered in the situation should be envisioned and introduced in the hierarchy. This activity could be based on both the contextual forces and the future requirements. Finally, all change goals that have been introduced previously should be developed. It is suggested to use the guideline Reduce goal providing three alternative means for reducing a goal: milestones driven reduction, case driven reduction or agent driven reduction [START_REF] Dardenne | Goal-directed Requirements Acquisition[END_REF]. This guideline was presented in (Rolland et al. 1998a).

An illustration of the change goal hierarchy generation

As an illustration of the goal deployment strategy, let us consider the figures 7 and 8 which describe respectively, the ECOM current top level goals and the chunk of the change process model resulting of the application of the goal deployment strategy.

ECOM distribution goals

Satisfy customer requests

Minimise operational costs

Current goals

Ensure product quality

Enter the competition market

Figure 7. The impact of a contextual force on ECOM current top level goals

Clearly when ECOM will 'Enter the competition market', the company will have to deal with two types of customers: the non eligible customers and the eligible ones. The impact of the contextual force is therefore twofold: the current goal " Satisfy customer requests " is turned into 'Improve existing processes to " Serve efficiently non eligible customers "' and a new goal is set, namely " Introduce new means to serve efficiently eligible customers ". ECOM identified two ways to serve efficiently non eligible (and eligible) customers: by improving/adapting the current practices or by introducing an intelligent front desk. These two alternative change goals " Serve efficiently non eligible customers " and " Introduce new means to serve efficiently non eligible customers " are therefore introduced in the hierarchy (same for eligible customers).

Figure 8. The resulting chunk of the change process model

In a competitive environment having a good quality product is maybe not enough and instead, it is necessary to improve the current processes in order to " Exploit distribution network in a competitive environment ". More importantly, ECOM should move from a situation where to " Minimise operational cost " was a satisfactory objective to a situation where it is necessary to " Become financially efficient and competitive". Complementarily, it is clear that competitiveness will depend to a large extend of the customer satisfaction, requires to train the ECOM personnel and to " Introduce a customer oriented culture ".

To sum up, the three current goals, namely " Satisfy customer requests ", " Ensure product quality ", " Minimise operational costs ", remain with improvement and two new goals, namely " Introduce new means to serve efficiently eligible customers ", " Introduce a customer oriented culture " are introduced. The hierarchy of figure 8 is an excerpt of the change process model and reflects the impact analysis for change: the processes attached to the three current goals will have to be improved in the light of the change goals " Become financially efficient and competitive ", " Exploit distribution network in a competitive environment " and " Improve current practices for serving efficiently non eligible customers ". In addition complementary processes will have to be defined in order to cope with the new goals, namely " Introduce a customer oriented culture ", " Introduce intelligent front desk for serving efficiently non eligible customers " and " Introduce new means to serve efficiently eligible customers " with its possible alternatives " Introduce intelligent front desk for serving efficiently eligible customers " and " Introduce adaptations of existing practices for serving efficiently eligible customers ". It shall be noticed that the impact analysis in this example results in (a) adding complementary goals (b) introducing alternative manners of proceeding and (c) improving current goals. This illustrates the way by which scenaria for change are discovered and introduced in the change process model.

The detailed view of the guideline implementing the goal deployment strategy

The iterative process which is formally described by the following algorithm is encapsulated into the guideline associated to the map section <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Goal Deployment Strategy>.

For each goal G in the current goal hierarchy and its immediate sub-goals SG i

For As it can be seen in this description (see the two For each loops), the generation of the change goal hierarchy is an iterative process. Each iteration is composed of two main steps which consist of deploying the current goals (Deploy (G, SG i ) with regards to CF), and then, adding new goals (sub-steps 2.1 and 2.2) and developing them (2.3) . It shall be noticed that step 1 is always applied to a current goal (G) together with its sub-goals (SG i ). This structure is referred as a 'basic block'. Thus, each iteration in the process deploys a current goal based on the analysis of the corresponding basic block.

Step 1 consists in determining the impact of the contextual force CF on each SG i . We have identified four types of impact namely, "improve", "extend", "cease" and "maintain" as developed in section 3.1.2. Thus, as illustrated in figure 9 the current goals SG1, SG2, SG3, SG4 are turned into C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 respectively. Taking examples from the ECOM study, the impact of the contextual force " Enter the competition market " on the current goal " Handle agricultural electrification " is of the type "maintain". This allows to identify a change goal " Maintain handle agricultural electrification ". The impact of this contextual force on the current goal " Offer services to public organisations " is of the type "cease" and leads to the change goal " Cease offering services to public organisations ". When the impact on a subgoal SG i is typed "improve", the corresponding change goal C i is named in a way which reflects this improvement. For instance, the impact of the contextual force " Enter the competition market " on the current goal " Satisfy customer requests " which is of the type "improve" is called " Serve efficiently non eligible customers ". When all change goals corresponding to the possible impacts have been introduced in the hierarchy, sub-step 1.3 consists in identifying alternative scenaria for them. For instance, in figure 9 the change goal C1 has two alternatives namely, " Improve SG1 using the manner M1 " and " Introduce the manner M2 for improving SG1 ". Figure 8 gives an example for ECOM: there are two alternatives to " Serve efficiently non eligible customers ", namely " Improve current practices for serving efficiently non eligible customers " and " Introduce intelligent front desk for serving efficiently non eligible customers ". Sub-step 2.1 consists in introducing new complementary goals C k which could be necessary to comply with the change goal C. In figure 9, " Introduce C5 " is a complementary change goal which has been added in the change process model. The same applies to the goal " Introduce a customer oriented culture " in figure 8. Sub-step 2.2 of the change goal hierarchy generation consists in envisioning alternative goals C a of C and introducing them in the hierarchy. This is illustrated in figure 9 by the change goals " Introduce alternative to C ". Finally, in sub-step 2.3, all change goals which have been introduced before must be developed in detail. This step is illustrated in figure 9 by the change goals " Introduce the manner M2 for improving SG1 ", " Introduce C5 " and " Introduce alternative to C ". The development has been shown only for " Introduce C5 " leading to the following change goals: (i) Introduce C5 using the manner M'1 which is an ANDed goal composed of Introduce C5.1 and Introduce

THE ELECTRONIC GUIDE BOOK

The electronic guide book [START_REF] Nurcan | Using EKD-CMM electronic guide book for managing change in organisations[END_REF] provides a set of guidelines to understand EKD-CMM and to guide stakeholders involved in the change process to manage it. Following [START_REF] Rolland | An approach for defining ways-of-working[END_REF], we consider a method as being composed of a set of guidelines. In the context of EKD-CMM, a guideline suggests how to progress at a given point of the EKD-CMM process, how to fulfil a modelling intention that an EKD-CMM user may have.

According to the contextual formalism developed within the ESPRIT project NATURE, we propose to describe a guideline using the concept of context. A context is defined as a pair <(situation), intention>. A situation is a part of the product it makes sense to make a decision on. It details when the guideline can be applied. What we mean here by product refers to the different EKD-CMM models. At the beginning of the EKD-CMM process the situation can be a problem statement, in other words some guidelines can be used 'from scratch'. An intention represents a goal a user wants to fulfil at a given point in time during the EKD-CMM process. It corresponds to the name of the guideline. The result expected of fulfilment of the intention is the target of the guideline. The result produced by this guideline is described using one of the EKD-CMM models (see figure 10). For example, the guideline <(Goal) ; Reduce goal> considers a goal in the goal model as the situation and Reduce goal as the intention. In this case, what the EKD-CMM user wants to achieve is to decompose or to refine the goal of the situation into more specific goals. This guideline describes a set of different strategies for reducing a goal (e.g. using a case driven strategy, an actor driven strategy, etc.) and provides means for the selection of the most appropriate strategy. All the EKD-CMM guidelines available in the electronic guide book are described with respect to the following template:

Name of the guideline: It expresses a process intention. Description of the guideline: It provides a summary of the content of the guideline. Body of the guideline: It tells how to achieve the intention by providing steps, choices, activities to be performed and the related concepts to be used. Situation: It describes when the guideline can be applied. Product: It refers to one of the EKD-CMM models.

EKD-CMM guidelines are organised into hierarchies. Links between guidelines are of two kinds: refinement links allowing the refinement of a large-grained guideline into finer ones and composition links for the decomposition of a guideline into component guidelines. Guidelines are of three types, namely choice, plan or executable. The EKD-CMM knowledge is defined as a hierarchy of guidelines having executables ones as leaves of this hierarchy.

When progressing in the EKD-CMM process, the user may have several alternative ways to solve an issue. Therefore, he/she has to select the most appropriate one among the set of possible choices. In order to model such a piece of EKD-CMM process knowledge, we use the first type of guideline, namely the choice guideline. The body of a Choice Guideline offers different alternative ways for achieving the process intention. For example, the context <(There is a need to move the organisation from the current state to a future state), Construct change process model> is a choice guideline (figure 11) introducing two alternatives to the construction of the change process model, each alternative proposing a specific strategy, namely follow goal deployment strategy and follow participative strategy. Arguments (in italics in figure 11) are defined to support the various alternatives of a choice guideline and to help in the selection of the most appropriate one. Like in IBIS [START_REF] Conklin | gIBIS: A Hypertext Tool for Exploratory Policy Discussion[END_REF], decisions are motivated by positions which are themselves supported or objected by arguments. For example, to follow goal deployment strategy is the right decision to make when current enterprise goals, requirements for the future and contextual forces driving the change are known. It is important to notice that the alternatives of a choice guideline are guidelines too. In our example, the first alternative guideline, namely follow goal deployment strategy, is a plan guideline.

Construct change process model

This guideline provides two alternative manners to construct a change process model In order to represent situations requiring a set of decisions to be made for fulfilling a certain intention, the EKD-CMM process modelling formalism includes a second type of guideline called the Plan Guideline. A plan guideline can be looked upon as a macro issue which is decomposed into sub-issues, each of which corresponds to a sub-decision. Components of a plan context are also guidelines. For example, the guideline <(ST0=Hierarchy of current goals, contextual forces, future requirements, documentation on existing processes), Follow goal deployment strategy> is a plan guideline composed of two component guidelines, namely <(ST0), Construct a hierarchy of change goals>, and <(ST0 and hierarchy of change goals constructed), Attach processes>. This means that, when using the goal deployment strategy, the EKD-CMM user has first to construct the hierarchy of change goals and then to attach processes to the leaves of this hierarchy as shown in figure 12.

Select your alternative

Follow goal deployment strategy

This guideline provides a way to construct the change process model in terms of a hierarchy of change goals and to highlight the impacts of the change on the current processes. The change process model includes the description of alternative change scenaria that the enterprise could follow in order to reorganise itself to meet its specific requirements for the future and to comply with the external constraints called "contextual forces".

Follow these steps

Construct the change goal hierarchy

Hierarchy of current goals, contextual forces, future requirements, documentation on existing processes

Enterprise goal model

This steps aims at constructing the hierarchy of change goals which describes the different envisionable scenaria for change.

Attach processes

For each leave of the hierarchy of change goal, current processes which will be maintained, extended or improved will be attached.

Figure 12. An example of plan guideline

An Executable Guideline corresponds to an operationalisable intention which is directly applicable through a set of activities. The body of an executable guideline proposes a set of activities to be performed for achieving its process intention. For instance, the executable guideline <(Hierarchy of current goals, contextual forces, future requirements, documentation on existing processes), Construct a hierarchy of change goals> suggests to perform the activities described in the algorithm of section 3.3.

CONCLUSION

The paradigm of Business Process Reengineering and Business Process Improvement contrast with traditional information system development that focused on automating and supporting existing business processes [START_REF] Guha | Business Process Reengineering, Building a comprehensive methodology, Information System Management[END_REF]. Now, enterprises should create -entirely-new ways of working to survive in a competitive environment. The intention based modelling used in EKD-CMM provides basis for understanding and supporting organisational change and helping the development of information systems supporting these organisation. Change management is a highly creative activity and therefore cannot be fully prescribed. Accordingly, the EKD-CMM road map contains a finite number of routes and none of them is recommended a priori. In fact, the appropriate route needs to be dynamically constructed according to the situational factors, such as organisational culture, ability to commit human resources, social skills of participating actors, use of software tools, the familiarity with applied strategies and supporting technologies.

Roughly speaking a route is a sequence of map sections to be followed by the EKD-CMM user. Map sections are supported by EKD-CMM guidelines. Guidelines are organised in a hierarchical manner through successive refinements and decompositions in order to guide the user in the use of the method. The EKD-CMM road map allows the dynamic selection of methodological guidelines to be applied in the situation at hand according to the intention the change engineer has in mind.

In this paper, we developed the guideline which is provided to the EKD-CMM user to define the enterprise change process model following the goal deployment strategy. This guideline suggests an iterative process which consists of progressively generating the hierarchy of change goals by studying the impacts of the contextual forces onto the current goals and of highlighting the impacts of the change on current business processes.

The benefits for the ECOM company for having used the approach presented in this paper are the following : (a) The systematic and guided search for alternative manners to achieve a change goal, being either an improvement, an extension of an existing goal or the introduction of a goal was very positive. Indeed, it helped the stakeholders to envisage innovative solutions ; (b) Because the goal deployment approach uses as input the 'As-Is' state, the stakeholders were able to point the impacts of the change they proposed on the existing processes ; (c) Using the output of the goal deployment approach, the change model process, the stakeholders are now able to carry out an informed evaluation of the alternative scenaria for change to select the most appropriate one (step B5 in the bottom-up route).

According to [START_REF] Kotter | Marketing management[END_REF], products and services require different marketing, financial, operations and purchasing strategies in each stage of their life-cycle (introduction, growth, maturity and decline). This has implications for the way in which operations should be managed, in other words, for the way in which change goals -typed introduce, maintain, improve, extend and cease-should be operationalised.

Our proposal is currently limited to change definition (step 2 in figure 1), taking into account the organisational situational factors. We are now defining means by which the required changes can be

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. The EKD-CMM view of the organisational change 1 -Reverse analysis : Abstracting a model from current reality (As-Is model); 2 -Change definition : taking the vision for change into account, the required changes are studied and integrated for defining the model of the future organisation (To-Be model) ; 3 -Change implementation : Implementing the new organisation based on the To-Be model ; 4 -Legacy integration : Taking into account the existing context during the change implementation.

  Figure 3. The EKD-CMM road map

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. The first level of the hierarchy of Figure 6. Contextual forces

Situation

  Figure 10. Symbols used in the description of the guidelines

Follow

  Figure 11. An example of choice guideline

  Define the corresponding change goal C i , and introduce it in the hierarchy 1.3. Envision alternative scenaria C ij for C i , and introduce them in the hierarchy 2) Add new goals 2.1. Envision complementary goals C k and introduce them in the hierarchy 2.2. Envision alternative goals C a and introduce them in the hierarchy 2.3. Develop goals C k and C a

	each contextual force CF
	1) Deploy (G, SG i ) with regards to CF
	For each sub-goal SG i
	1.1. Determine impact of F on SG i
	1.2.

The author is supported by the University of Los Andes. Merida, Venezuela.

The current version of the electronic guide book can be found at http://panoramix.univ-paris1.fr/CRINFO/EKD-CMMRoadMap

This work is partially supported by the ESPRIT project ELEKTRA (N°22927) funded the by the EC in the context of the Framework IV programme

effectively implemented (step 3 in figure 1), i.e. to support the "enactment" of the change process model. We also study how the characteristics of strategic options for the management of change as defined in (Gilgeous 1997), ranging from "revolutionary change" to "evolutionary change", can be introduced in the change process model. Similarly, the various ways by which resistance to change can be tackled (Kotter and Schlesinger 1979) are studied for introduction.

Contextual force

Current goal G

SG2 SG3 SG1

Resulting chunk of the change process model

Basic block under consideration

for each goal for change for each basic block The complete trace of the process that has been carried out to construct the ECOM change model is presented in [START_REF] Rolland | The goal deployment approach for modelling the change process, ELEKTRA Demetra deliverable[END_REF].


Selmin Nurcan

Colette Rolland

Using EKD-CMM Electronic Guide Book for Managing Change in Organisations

The assumption of the work presented in this paper is the situatedness of the change process. The Enterprise Knowledge Development -Change Management Method (EKD-CMM) provides multiple and dynamically constructed ways of working to organise and to guide the change management. The method is built on the notion of labelled graph of intentions and strategies called a road map and the associated guidelines. The EKD-CMM road map is a navigational structure which supports the dynamic selection of the intention to be achieved next and the appropriate strategy to achieve it whereas guidelines help in the operationalisation of the selected intention. This paper presents the electronic guide book which implements the EKD-CMM road map and its associated guidelines.

Introduction

Enterprises are facing increasing pressures and competitiveness. In this context, achieving organisational transformation depends of the creation of a powerful vision of what future should be like [START_REF] Barrett | Process visualization, Getting the vision right is key, Information Systems Management[END_REF]. The work presented in this paper addresses the organisational change management method applied in the ESPRIT project ELEKTRA 1 . The so-called Enterprise Knowledge Development -Change Management Method (EKD-CMM) provides a systematic way to organise and to guide the change management. EKD-CMM is a method to documenting an enterprise, its objectives, business processes and support systems, helping enterprises to consciously develop schemes for implementing changes. Contemporary enterprises are highly complex distributed systems having many purposes and customers and involving many actors, technologies and business processes.

Enterprises that can manage complexity and can respond to rapid change in an informed manner can gain a competitive advantage. The purpose of the EKD-CMM is to provide a framework for considering how the enterprise functions currently, what are the requirements for change and the reasons for change, what alternatives could be envisaged in order to meet these requirements, and what are the criteria and arguments for evaluating these alternatives.

According to Seligmann [START_REF] Seligmann | Analyzing the structure of I. S. methodologies, an alternative approach[END_REF], a method is composed of a way of thinking, a way of modelling and a way of working. The way of working describes the modelling process to be followed by application engineers. Work in this area mainly focus on prescriptive approaches. However, due to its social and innovative nature, the organisational change can not be fully prescribed. In fact, the change process is a decision making process, i.e. a non deterministic process. Accordingly, a method for organisational change management should allow to select dynamically the next task to be performed depending on the situation at hand [START_REF] Grosz | Modelling and Engineering the requirements engineering process : an overview of the NATURE approach[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | Guiding the participative design process[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | A way of working for change processes[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | Enterprise Knowledge Development: a change process[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | Using generic method chunks to generate process models fragments[END_REF].

EKD-CMM satisfies two requirements : (i) assisting Enterprise Knowledge Modelling and (ii) guiding the change process. Enterprise Knowledge Modelling refers to a set of conceptual models for describing various aspects of organisations [START_REF] Loucopoulos | The ELEKTRA project : Enterprise Knowledge Modelling for change in the distribution unit of Public Power Corporation, 2nd[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | A unified framework for modelling co-operative design processes and co-operative business processes[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | An electronic handbook for accessing domain specific generic patterns[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | A framework for generic patterns dedicated to the management of change in the electricity supply industry[END_REF], [START_REF] Rolland | A framework for encapsulating best business practices for electricity supply industry into generic patterns, 2nd[END_REF] including enterprise business processes (roles, actors, activities, objects,...) and enterprise objectives [START_REF] Bubenko | Enterprise Modelling[END_REF], [START_REF] Loucopoulos | Enterprise Modelling and Teleological approach to Requirements engineering[END_REF]. Process support in EKD-CMM is based on a road map which is a navigational structure in the sense that it allows the change engineer to determine a route from Start intention to Stop intention. The approach suggests a dynamic construction of the most appropriate route by navigating in the road map. Thus, EKD-CMM proposes several ways of working, and in this sense, it is a multi-method.

This paper is organised as follows. Section 2 defines the way of thinking, the way of modelling and multiple ways of working of the EKD Change Management Method. Section 3 introduces the electronic guide book that has been developed to guide managers and EKD-CMM engineers involved in the change process management to organise this process.

The EKD change management method

EKD-CMM provides a systematic approach to develop and document enterprise knowledge, to help organisations to develop models for implementing changes. Its way of thinking, way of modelling and multiple ways of working are developed in sub-sections 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3, respectively.

The EKD-CMM way of thinking

The need for change is typically stated in a simple manner as a change vision. A classical example is John F. Kennedy´s statement: 'to send a man to the moon before the end of the decade'. Thus, the change process is the process of transforming the vision into a new model. Within the world in which the vision has to be realised, many habits (legacies) exist. Some are based on formally stated goals, policies, or competing visions. Others are just regularly observable phenomena for which no predefined structure or reasons are known a priori.

The task is therefore twofold. First, relevant habits must be analysed and the goals, policies and visions behind them must be made explicit. This is essentially a goal-driven abstraction process from existing practice leading to the 'As-Is' model which defines the functionality and history of the existing organisation. Second, the new vision must be established as a mission in this context leading to the 'To-Be' model which defines the requirements for the envisioned organisation. The quality of the As-Is and To-Be models depends on the knowledge elicited from the stakeholders and their involvement in the change process. According to Jackson [START_REF] Jackson | Software requirements and specifications -A lexicon of practice, principles and prejudices[END_REF] the first model describes indicative properties whereas the second one describes optative properties. As depicted in figure 1

As-is Model

To-be Model

Old Reality

New Reality Noticing this necessary juxtaposition of vision and context in an always changing environment, we define the change process as a process of establishing a vision for change in context. The change definition (step 2 in figure 1) is itself a complex process as many alternative change routes and many future models can be envisioned. Thus, EKD-CMM suggests two more tasks consisting of first, modelling the alternative scenaria for change within a change process model and secondly, selecting the appropriate scenario for change.

The EKD-CMM conceptual support for change consists in reasoning on models. Thus, the EKD-CMM process results in three models (the As-Is model, the To-Be model and the Change Process model) and identifies four states to be reached when performing change management. We refer to those as the four EKD-CMM states:

(1) 'As-Is' state ;

(2) 'Alternative scenaria for change determined' state ;

(3) 'Alternative scenaria evaluated and the most appropriate one selected' state ;

(4) 'To-Be' state. EKD-CMM does not impose one way of reaching the four states but proposes several ones. In other words, there are several routes that can be followed to reach the four EKD-CMM states required for managing change. These routes are integrated in the EKD-CMM road map.

The EKD-CMM way of modelling

The models underlying EKD-CMM are based on the use of Enterprise Models [START_REF] Bubenko | Enterprise Modelling[END_REF] which purpose is to represent various views of an enterprise. A detailed presentation of the EKD-CMM Models can be found in [START_REF] Bubenko | EKD User Guide, ELEKTRA project[END_REF] and [START_REF] Loucopoulos | Using the EKD Approach: The Modelling Component, ELEKTRA project[END_REF].

The inter-connected set of EKD-CMM models describing an enterprise can be visualised in three levels of concern as shown in figure 2: Enterprise Goal Model, Enterprise Business Process Model and Enterprise Information System Model. The first one describes the enterprise objectives and the second one describes various aspects of enterprise processes. The third is used when the EKD approach is applied to define the requirements for an information system. The focus is thus the computerised system which has to support the goals, the processes and the actors of the enterprise as defined in the previous models. The EKD-CMM electronic guide book presented in this paper concerns the two first levels of modelling, enterprise objectives and enterprise business processes. Enterprises form networks of related processes in order to meet their objectives. Strategic goals set the direction and purpose of the enterprise. The purpose of the enterprise goal model is to describe what the enterprise wants to achieve or to avoid.

Enterprise business processes motivated by enterprise objectives should be modelled according to several points of view : (a) What happens in enterprise processes can be analysed in terms of the roles that individuals or groups play in order to meet their responsibilities. Roles correspond to sets of responsibilities and related activities. The actor/role model aims to describe how actors are related to each other and also to enterprise objectives. (b) People perform activities to achieve enterprise objectives. The role/activity model is used to define enterprise processes, the way they consume/produce resources to achieve enterprise objectives. (c) Activities carried out by different roles deal with business objects. Business objects set the structure of the support systems and their behaviour has an identifiable life-cycle. The object model is used to define the enterprise entities, attributes and relationships. (d) Enterprise processes run according to business rules. Business rules are the way that enterprises function. The business rules model is used to define business rules, defining the way that the enterprise functions, consistent with the goals model.

A road map defining multiple ways of working of EKD-CMM

A road map is a process model in which a non-deterministic ordering of intentions and strategies has been included. It is a labelled directed graph with intentions as nodes and strategies as edges between intentions. The directed nature of the graph shows which intentions can follow which one. A map consists of a number of sections each of which is a triplet <I2 i , I j , S3 ij >. There are two distinct intentions called Start and Stop respectively that represent the intentions to start navigating in the map and to stop doing so. Thus, it can be seen that there are a number of routes in the graph from Start to Stop. The road map is a navigational structure which supports the dynamic selection of the intention to be achieved next and the appropriate strategy to achieve it whereas the associated guidelines help in the operationalisation of the selected intention.

We assume change processes to be intention-oriented. At any moment, the change engineer has an intention, a goal in mind that he/she wants to fulfil. To take this characteristic into account, the road map identifies the set of intentions that have to be achieved in order to solve the problem at hand. There are two key intentions in EKD-CMM, namely "Conceptualise Enterprise Business Process Model" and "Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure". We refer to them as 'Process Intentions'. "Conceptualise Enterprise Business Process Model" refers to all activities required to construct a business process model whereas "Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure" refers to all those activities that are needed to identify goals and to relate them one another through AND, OR (exclusive OR) and AND/OR (inclusive OR) relationships. The two first are traditionally used in goal modelling [START_REF] Nilsson | Problem Solving Method in Artificial Intelligence[END_REF]. The AND/OR relationship is required in order to make possible the expression of a multiple choice between several options.

A strategy is an approach, a manner to achieve an intention. The strategy, as part of the triplet <I i ,I j ,Si j> characterises the flow from I i to I j and the way I j can be achieved. Six The specific manner in which an intention can be achieved is captured in a section of the map whereas the various sections having the same intention I i as a source and I j as target show the different strategies that can be adopted for achieving I j when coming from I i . The EKD-CMM road map is shown in figure 3. As shown in this figure, there might be several flows from "Start" (I i ) to "Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure" (I j ), each corresponding to a specific strategy (for example <Start, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Participative Modelling Strategy> and <Start, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Analyst Driven Strategy>). In this sense the map offers multi-thread flows. There might also be several strategies from different intentions to reach an intention I i (for example <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Goal Deployment Strategy> and <Start, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Participative Modelling Strategy>). In this sense the map offers multi-flow paths to achieve an intention. Finally, the map can include reflexive flows, for instance <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Goal Deployment Strategy> in figure 3.

The road map contains a finite number of routes, each of them prescribing a way to develop the product -a way of working-, i.e. each of them is a EKD-CMM process model. Therefore the map is a multi-model. It embodies several process models, providing a multimodel view for modelling a class of EKD-CMM processes. None of the finite set of models included in the road map is recommended 'a priori'. Instead the approach suggests a dynamic construction of the actual path by navigating in the road map.

Because the next intention and strategy to achieve it are selected dynamically, guidelines that make available all choices open to handle a given situation are of great convenience. The EKD-CMM road map has such associated guidelines. A guideline is a set of indications on how to proceed to achieve an intention. A guideline embodies method knowledge to guide the change engineer in achieving an intention in a given situation. EKD-CMM guidelines are provided for each section of the road map to support the achievement of an intention following a given strategy. Some of them will be described in section 3.

The electronic guide book

The electronic guide book structure

In this sub-section, we deal with the electronic guide book and guideline structure. We first introduce the structure of the guide book and show how a goal hierarchy helps organising its contents. We then, move to the structure and typology of guidelines. In sub-section 3.2, we will describe the electronic guide book contents itself and its use.

A hierarchy of usage intentions

The main objective of the EKD-CMM electronic guide book is to guide the selection and application of a route in the EKD-CMM road map. To this end, it guides the engineer involved in change management to select the route appropriate to the situation at hand ; it helps him/her to select the task to be executed next in this route; and it guides the task performance by the means of guidelines associated to the traversed map sections. However, the electronic guide book provides knowledge not only to guide stakeholders involved in the change process, but also to understand EKD-CMM framework. The hierarchy of usage intentions shown in this figure represents the indexing of the EKD-CMM knowledge base as a goal graph. Thus, as shown in figure 4 the EKD-CMM electronic guide book comprises three main parts which are identified by the three usage intentions: Understand the Use of the EKD-CMM Electronic Guide Book, Understand EKD-CMM Change Management Framework and Apply EKD-CMM.

• The first part, called Understand the Use of the EKD-CMM Electronic Guide Book, describes the navigation in the guide book which can be performed in two ways : -using the EKD-CMM electronic guide book usage intentions hierarchy (see figure 4), or -step by step selecting one of the three main entry points (see figure 5) and then browsing page to page using the arrow buttons : the up-arrow to move to the previous level in the intention hierarchy, the right-arrow to move to the next intention at the same level in the intention hierarchy, and the left-arrow to move to the previous intention at the same level. • The third part, called Apply EKD-CMM, provides multiple ways of applying EKD-CMM and gives access to guidelines supporting the map sections of the road map.

Managing change in organisations using EKD-CMM electronic guidebook Apply EKD-CMM Guidelines

Typology of guidelines

Following [START_REF] Rolland | An approach for defining ways-of-working[END_REF] we consider a method as being composed of a set of guidelines. In the context of EKD-CMM, a guideline suggests how to progress at a given point of the EKD-CMM process, how to fulfil a modelling intention that an EKD-CMM user may have. A guideline might be looked upon as a structured module of knowledge for supporting decision making in the EKD-CMM process.

According to the contextual formalism developed within the ESPRIT project NATURE [START_REF] Rolland | Using generic method chunks to generate process models fragments[END_REF], we propose to describe a guideline using the concept of context. A context is defined as a pair <(situation), intention>. A situation is a part of the product it makes sense to make a decision on. It indicates when the guideline can be applied. What we mean here by product refers to the different EKD-CMM models. At the beginning of the EKD-CMM process the situation can be a problem statement, in other words some guidelines can be used 'from scratch'. An intention represents a goal a the change engineer wants to fulfil at a given point in time when he/she uses the EKD-CMM method for managing change in organisations.

The result expected of fulfilment of a EKD-CMM modelling intention is the target of the guideline associated to the map section leading to this intention following a given strategy. This result is described using one of the EKD-CMM models (see figure 6).

Situation

Product model

It precises when the guideline can be applied in the road map

It is used for representing the result (target) of a guideline asssociated to a map section For example, the guideline <(Goal), Reduce goal> considers a goal in the goal model as the situation and Reduce goal as the intention. In this case, what the EKD-CMM user wants to achieve is to decompose or to refine the goal of the situation into more specific goals. A guideline has a body that describes how to fulfil the intention. The guideline mentioned above describes a set of different strategies for reducing a goal (e.g. using a case driven strategy, an actor driven strategy, etc.) and provides means for the selection of the most appropriate strategy. All the EKD-CMM guidelines available in the electronic guide book are described with respect to the following template:

Name of the guideline: It expresses a process intention Description of the guideline: It provides a summary of the content of the guideline Body of the guideline: It tells how to achieve the intention by providing steps, choices, activities to be performed and the related concepts to be used. Situation: It describes when the guideline can be applied. Product model: It refers to one of the EKD-CMM models.

EKD-CMM guidelines are organised into hierarchies. Links between guidelines are of two kinds: refinement links allowing the refinement of a large-grained guideline into finer ones and composition links for the decomposition of a guideline into component guidelines. Guidelines are of three types, namely choice, plan and executable. The EKD-CMM method knowledge is defined as a hierarchy of guidelines having executables ones as leaves of this hierarchy. Browsing this hierarchy, the change engineer obtains more and more fine grained guidance.

When progressing in the EKD-CMM process, the change engineer may have several alternative ways to solve an issue. Therefore, he/she has to select the most appropriate one among the set of possible choices. In order to model such a piece of EKD-CMM process knowledge, we use the first type of guideline, namely the choice guideline. The body of a Choice Guideline offers different alternative ways for achieving the process intention. For example, Construct Change Goal Hierarchy is a choice guideline (figure 7) introducing two alternatives to the construction of the change goal hierarchy (an enterprise goal model). Arguments (in italics in figure 7) are provided to help in the selection of the most appropriate alternative. For example, Construct Change Goal Hierarchy following One Shot Tactics is the right decision to make when the stakeholders that will be involved in the definition of the change goal hierarchy are aware of both what should be changed in the current functioning of the enterprise as well what should be introduced. It is important to notice that the alternatives of a choice guideline are guidelines too. For instance, the second alternative guideline, namely Construct Change Goal Hierarchy following Two Phases Tactics, is a plan guideline that will be presented in detail in section 3.2.3 (figure 16).

In order to represent situations requiring a set of decisions to be made for fulfilling a certain intention, the EKD-CMM process modelling formalism includes a second type of guideline called Plan Guideline. A plan guideline can be looked as dealing with a macro issue which is decomposed into sub-issues, each of which corresponds to a sub-decision. Components of a plan guideline are also guidelines. For example, the guideline associated to the map section <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Goal Deployment Strategy> is a plan guideline composed of two component guidelines, namely Construct change goals hierarchy, and Attach processes. This means that, when using the goal deployment strategy, the change engineer has first to construct the hierarchy of change goals supported by the guideline shown in figure 7 and then to attach processes to the leaves of this hierarchy as shown in figure 8.

An Executable Guideline corresponds to an operationalisable intention which is directly applicable through a set of activities. The body of an executable guideline proposes a set of activities to be performed for achieving its process intention. For instance, the guideline associated to the map section <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Analyst Driven Strategy> suggests to perform the activities described in figure 9.

Any guideline in the electronic guide book is referred to by its name i.e. the intention part of the context the guideline is associated to.

The electronic guide book contents

In this section we illustrate the following intentions: Understand EKD-CMM Change Management Framework, Select EKD-CMM guidelines and Apply EKD-CMM guidelines.

Select EKD-CMM guidelines

The first sub-branch of the Apply EKD-CMM part of the electronic guide book, called Select EKD-CMM guidelines, offers three guided ways to select the guideline the change engineer has to apply next: through the EKD-CMM road map, through a step in a route or through change management steps.

(i) As we have already introduced, the EKD-CMM road map (see figure 3) proposes flows to navigate from one intention to another using given strategies. One way of progressing in the change management process is to select the intention to perform next, and to select one of the possible strategies (if several) to flow to this intention. Select guidelines through road map intention of the indexing hierarchy allows the change engineer to identify the guideline supporting the achievement of the intention he/she wants to fulfil based on the EKD-CMM road map. Based on this decision, the associated guideline can identified using (and triggered through) the list of figure 11.

(ii) Select guidelines through pre-defined routes, allows the change engineer to visualise the steps of the three routes implemented in the EKD-CMM electronic guide book.

Their stepwise description shall be considered as reminders of these routes. There might be used during an EKD-CMM project, to visualise the route which is followed. If the change engineer decides to apply the EKD-CMM guidelines by selecting them through an example of a pre-defined route, he/she should first choose the route as shown in figure 12.

Let us suppose that in the situation at hand, the organisational maturity of modelling and the degree participative involvement are low, the organisational culture is hierarchical, and the external pressures are known. Therefore, the change engineer decides to follow the bottom-up route (see figure 13). The selection of the step to carry out next in the route identifies the guideline (the corresponding hypertext link) which supports this step as shown in figure 13.

(iii) Select guidelines through change management steps allows the change engineer to identify the guideline to be followed according to the change management step he/she wants to carry out. Figure 14 shows the page of the guide book indexed by the usage intention Select guidelines through change management steps.

Thus, the Select EKD-CMM guidelines sub-branch of the intention hierarchy allows the change engineer, first to decide in which manner he/she wants to be guided, second to select the methodological guideline he/she has to apply next in a guided way, and third to apply it using the corresponding hypertext link embedded in the page of the guide book chosen in the first step (figures 11, 13 and 14).

Apply EKD-CMM guidelines

The second sub-branch of the Apply EKD-CMM part of the electronic guide book, called Apply EKD-CMM guidelines, is suitable if the change engineer is knowledgeable enough of what he wants to do next in order to select the guideline to be applied next directly. This sub-branch contains the EKD-CMM available guidelines. There is one guideline to be applied for each map section of the road map (see figures 3 and 10). The page of the guide book indexed by the intention Apply EKD-CMM guidelines offers choices with arguments to help in the selection of the appropriate alternative (see figure 15). The participative modelling strategy seems appropriate in the situations where the organisational maturity of modelling and the participative involvement are high, the organisational culture is flat and the degree of clarity of the problem is low. The guideline implementing this strategy is than suggested for map sections <Start, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Participative Modelling Strategy> and <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Participative Modelling Strategy>. A participative modelling session is typically carried out using a large plastic sheet on the wall where participants post their descriptions of different components of the models used. After this session, the modelling technicians transport the model produced on the plastic sheet into a computerised tool, analyse, restructure and refine it. Then a walk-through seminar takes place in a room equipped with means to expose the results. Finally continued work proceeds as iterations of additional analysis and restructuring work and additional walkthroughs.

The analyst driven strategy seems appropriate in the situations where the organisational maturity of modelling and the participative involvement are low, the organisational culture is hierarchical and the problem is relatively well defined. The analyst driven strategy to elicit enterprise goal structure, as well as participative modelling strategy, is based on the premise that the vision of the future does not pre-exist in the minds of the change engineers and the stakeholders but needs to be formulated through brainstorming and deliberating. Nevertheless, a low level of the maturity of modelling of stakeholders and a hierarchical culture of the organisation call for more guided analyst driven co-operative modelling sessions rather than participative modelling sessions. The guideline associated to map sections <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Analyst Driven Strategy> and <Start, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Analyst Driven Strategy> suggests to discuss respectively (i) on the contextual forces which constraint the enterprise to change and on the future enterprise requirements and (ii) on currents goals of the enterprise. A contextual force is a constraint external to the company that shall be taken into account while studying changes. Future requirements are the goals describing the envisioned future state of the company. The Analyst Driven Strategy and the use of a CSCW tool [START_REF]Ventana GroupSystems for Windows[END_REF] allow the stakeholders to formulate freely (brainstorming) their vision of the future, and then to deliberate and negotiate with each other. This results in a shared understanding of the issues involved in the change process.

The guideline associated to map sections <Start, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Process Clustering Strategy> and <Conceptualise Enterprise BPM, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Process Clustering Strategy> suggests to abstract the goals corresponding to the current state of the enterprise [START_REF] Loucopoulos | System design specification for PPC, ELEKTRA project, Demetra Deliverable[END_REF] by clustering the business processes aiming to achieve the same high-level business goal and to structure them in a goal hierarchy.

Figure 15. Applying EKD-CMM guidelines directly

The guideline associated to map section <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Goal Deployment Strategy> supports the transformation of the hierarchy of current goals into a change process model [START_REF] Nurcan | Change process modelling using the EKD -Change Management Method, 7th European Conference on Information Systems[END_REF]. The goal deployment strategy focuses on the analysis of the impact of the external constraints and the future requirements on the current enterprise goals. The product of this guideline is a hierarchy of goals [START_REF] Loucopoulos | Using the EKD Approach: The Modelling Component, ELEKTRA project[END_REF]. It contains a particular type of goals, called change goals. Change goals tell us how to change the organisation, i.e. what should be improved, what should be introduced and what should cease to be performed in the organisation. The change process model describes all possible roads that the enterprise can follow to reach its envisioned future state in which all constraints imposed by the contextual forces will be satisfied [START_REF] Rolland | The goal deployment approach for modelling the change process, ELEKTRA project[END_REF].

The guideline associated to map section <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Evaluation Strategy> consists of revisiting the change process model in order to identify and then evaluate alternative scenaria against pre-defined criteria. Based on this evaluation, comparisons of alternative scenaria occurs and recommendations are made concerning the most appropriate scenaria. The application of this guideline leads to the fourth organisational change state 'alternative scenaria evaluated and one selected'. This means that the end of the change management route is reached and the completeness strategy suggests to stop.

Let us illustrate now one guideline in detail. Let us suppose that, the change engineer which has previously decided to follow the 'bottom-up' route offered by the electronic guide book (see figure 12), want to apply the goal deployment strategy in the fourth step of this route (see figure 13). By clicking on the corresponding hypertext link, he/she will browse the EKD-CMM guideline associated to this map section. As shown in figure 8, the modelling process described in this guideline consists of progressively generating the hierarchy of change goals by studying the impact of the contextual forces onto the current goals and of highlighting the impacts of the change on current business processes. First, the current goal hierarchy is considered in a top down manner starting with the top level goal and examining its descendants step by step, until the leaves are reached. The hierarchy of change goals which describes the alternative scenaria for change is constructed accordingly, in a top down manner, step by step, by generating the change goals either as improvements of the current goals or by introducing new goals. Then, in order to facilitate the conceptualisation of the future enterprise state which will be performed afterwards, for each leave of the hierarchy of change goals, current processes which will be maintained, extended or improved will be attached. 7. The corresponding guideline suggested for constructing the change goal hierarchy will now be described through an example of browsing. Roughly speaking the process for constructing the change goal hierarchy following two phases tactics iterates for each goal in the current goal hierarchy on the two main activities: 'deploy goals' and 'add new goals' as shown in figure 16.

The first step organises goal deployment by studying the impact of the contextual forces on the current goals, eliciting and introducing the change goals reflecting the impact and envisioning alternative solutions (see figure 17). There are four ways to type the impact of a contextual force on a current goal : 'improve', 'extend', 'maintain' and 'cease' (see figure 18). The second step of the guideline shown in figure 16 suggests to introduce new goals complementing goals that have been elicited during the deployment step, to introduce alternative goals and to develop in detail all goals that have been introduced. The guideline suggested for this step is shown in figure 19.

In summary, the guideline suggested for map section <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Goal Deployment Strategy > recommends an intentiondriven modelling process which results in a hierarchy of change goals including the alternative roads to be followed by the enterprise in order to reach the envisioned future state.

When the change engineer wants to conceptualise the current or future enterprise processes, the page of the electronic guide book shown in figure 20

Conclusion

The Enterprise Knowledge Development-Change Management Method looks upon the change process as intention driven. Multiple EKD-CMM ways of working included in the EKD-CMM road map provides users of the EKD-CMM with the possible routes of using the method depending on their intentions, the methodological situation they are in, and the tools available to them. Nevertheless, we believe that mastering the change in an organisation requires four key states to be reached while modelling with EKD-CMM. These are the 'As-Is' state defining the current business processes and objectives, the 'To-Be' state defining the future business processes and goals, the 'Alternative scenaria for change determined' state defining the alternative scenaria for describing the possible alternative routes to be followed by the enterprise in order to reach its envisioned future state complying with the external factors, and the 'Alternative scenaria evaluated and one selected' state resulting of the evaluation of the alternative scenaria and the selection of the most appropriated one.

EKD-CMM guidelines describe a number of activities that should be performed in a certain order in order to fulfil the EKD-CMM modelling intentions. The products of these guidelines are conceptual models which model the enterprise, its reengineering requirements and the alternative scenaria for change.

The purpose of the EKD-CMM electronic guide book that has been presented in this paper is first to help the change engineer to understand the EKD-CMM method, second to guide him/her to choose the way of selecting guidelines associated to the road map sections (through the road map, through routes, through change management steps or freely), third to help him/her to select the guideline to be executed next, and fourth to guide the task performance.

This work has been realised in the ELEKTRA project which aims to discover generic knowledge of change management for reusing it in similar settings in other electric supply companies. EKD-CMM applied in this project provided a systematic way to organise and to guide the change management in the context of an industrial application concerning the deregulation of a large European electricity company with a particular focus on the company's distribution unit [START_REF] Nurcan | Change process modelling using the EKD -Change Management Method, 7th European Conference on Information Systems[END_REF]. This company is in the process of redesigning its business structure, in anticipation of the opening of the European electricity market. The benefits for the company for having used the method presented in this paper are the following : (a) The systematic and guided search for alternative manners to achieve a change goal, being either an improvement, an extension of an existing goal or the introduction of a goal was very positive. Indeed, it helped the stakeholders to envisage innovative solutions ; (b) Because the goal deployment strategy uses as input the 'As-Is' state, the stakeholders were able to point the impacts of the change they proposed on the existing processes ; (c) Using the output of the goal deployment approach, the change model process, the stakeholders were able to carry out an informed evaluation of the alternative scenaria for change to select the most appropriate one.

1 - 2 -

 12 , mastering the change in an organisation requires four major steps. Reverse analysis : Abstracting a model from current reality (As-Is model). In most cases, no conceptual model of the actual organisation exists. Change definition : Integrating the change definition into the As-Is model defining the model for the future organisation (To-Be model). 3 -Change implementation : Implementing the new organisation based on the To-Be model. 4 -Legacy integration : Taking into account the existing context during the change implementation.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. The EKD-CMM view of the organisational change

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. EKD-CMM models

  strategies are used in the road map for organisational change, namely Participative Modelling Strategy, Analyst Driven Strategy, Process Clustering Strategy, Goal Deployment Strategy, Evaluation Strategy and Completeness Strategy.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. The road map

Figure 4 :Figure 5 .

 45 Figure 4 : The hierarchy of usage intentions of the EKD-CMM electronic guide book

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. Symbols used in the description of EKD-CMM guidelines

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. An example of choice guideline Construct Change Goal Hierarchy

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. An example of plan guideline : Elicit Change Goal Structure from Current Goal Structure following Goal Deployment Strategy

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. An example of executable guideline : Elicit Future Requirements from Current Goal Structure following Analyst Driven Strategy

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Navigation in the second part of the EKD-CMM electronic guide book

Figure 11 .Figure 12 .

 1112 Figure 11. Applying EKD-CMM by selecting guidelines through the road map

Figure 13 .Figure 14 .

 1314 Figure 13. Applying EKD-CMM by selecting guidelines through the 'bottom-up route'

Figure 16 .

 16 Figure 16. Guideline for constructing the change goal hierarchy following the two phases tactics

Figure 17 .

 17 Figure 17. Guideline for deploying the current goal structure

Figure 18 .

 18 Figure 18. Guideline for determining the impact of the change on a current goal

Figure 19 .

 19 Figure 19. Guideline for adding new goals in the change goal hierarchy

  offers him/her two guidelines associated to road map sections <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Conceptualise Enterprise BPM, Participative Modelling Strategy> and <Start, Conceptualise Enterprise BPM, Analyst Driven Strategy>. The guidelines associated to <Elicit Enterprise Goal Structure, Conceptualise Enterprise BPM, Analyst Driven Strategy> and <Conceptualise Enterprise BPM, Conceptualise Enterprise BPM, Evaluation Strategy> have not been developed and therefore are not proposed as choices in this page.

Figure 20 .

 20 Figure 20. Suggested guidelines for conceptualising enterprise BPM

This work is partially supported by the ESPRIT project ELEKTRA (N°22927) funded the by the EC in the context of the Framework IV program

Intention are in italics (I i , I j )

Strategies are in arial narrow (Sij)

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the support and collaboration of Strategy and Distribution personnel of Public Power Corporation (Greece) and to express their gratitude to all their partners within the ELEKTRA project.