Suzana Montenegro
email: suzanam@ufpe.br

Ricardo Hirata

Emmanuelle Petelet-Giraud

Lise Cary

How to face groundwater salinization and contamination under global environmental change in its societal context. Challenge of water quality in the urban environment of Recife (Brazil)

Keywords: groundwater salinization, societal context, geochemistry, isotope, Recife

ABSTRACT

Due to an increasing demographic pressure, the Metropolitan Region of Recife (RMR, the fifth largest metropolitan area in Brazil), went through remarkable water and land use changes over the last decades. These evolutions gave rise to numerous environmental consequences, such as a dramatic decline of the piezometric levels, groundwater salinization and contamination. This degradation of natural resources is linked to the increase of water demand, punctually amplified by drought periods which induced the construction of thousands of private wells, hindering global political solutions. The RMR thus appears as a typical "hot spot" illustrating the problems of emerging countries such as urbanization, unequal distribution of wealth, limited effects of political decisions, rapid industrial and touristic development. All these factors induce high pressures on water resources both on quantity and quality in the context of global social and environmental changes. Under these conditions, the COQUEIRAL research project proposes an interdisciplinary research program aiming to study the human impact on coastal overexploited aquifers. The project is structured in three principal converging axes: (1) the analysis of pressures on the groundwater resources and their societal and structural reasons, (2) the identification of sources and mechanisms of groundwater quality and quantity degradation, focusing on the physical and chemical processes as vectors of the reaction of the system to the external pressures and (3) the assessment of the regional impact of global changes on water resources. This project approaches the degradation of the groundwater resources by questioning the specific conditions of urbanization and water administration in Recife at multiple levels: the macro-sociological level with the political and institutional stake of water management; the meso-sociological level with the water's collective stakes and their perceptions; and the micro-sociological level, meaning the representations, practices, individual and collective uses of water. Geomorphological-urban maps will complete the knowledge. In parallel to the acquisition of new geological, hydrological and hydrogeological data, the objective is to elaborate methods to determine the origin and processes of salinization, including a multi-tracer approach, to identify sources and pathways of inorganic contamination and to determine the residence time of water within the aquifer system. Based on the gained knowledge, hydrogeological conceptual and 3D numerical models of the functioning of the aquifer system in its social and environmental contexts will be developed. In the aim to improve existing management tools, the project will propose the outlines for best practices, based on scenarios of groundwater resources evolution resulting from the sociological and climatic scenarios developed in the project. The results obtained in the specific framework of the metropolitan region of Recife are in great part transposable to similar contexts of "hot spots" of human and climatic pressure on water resources in emerging countries.

  COQUEIRAL is a French-Brazilian research project, financed by ANR CEP&S / FACEPE / FAPESP. It is accredited by the French competitiveness cluster DREAM Water and Environments. French teams of the consortium: BRGM, CeRIES Lille 3 university, CAREN Rennes 1 university, GEO-HYD, and Brazilian teams: UFPE, USP, APAC, CPRM, INPE.


Matthieu Bonnivard

Dorin Bucur

Micro shape control, riblets and drag minimization

Keywords: drag minimization, rugosity effect, micro-shape control

Relying on the rugosity effect, we analyse the drag minimization problem in relation with the micro-structure of the surface of a given obstacle. We construct a mathematical framework for the optimization problem, prove the existence of an optimal solution by Γ-convergence arguments and analyse the stability of the drag with respect to the micro-structure. For Stokes flows we justify why rugosity increases the drag, while for Navier-Stokes flows we give some numerical evidence supporting the thesis that adding rugosity on specific regions of the obstacle may contribute to decrease the drag.

Introduction

The main purpose of the paper is to analyse the drag minimization problem in relation with the micro-structure on the surface of a shape. The minimization of the drag with respect to the shape is a debated question. Given a model for the fluid motion and a contact law (e.g. stationary Navier Stokes equations with no-slip conditions), the question of optimizing the shape in order to minimize the drag may be answered in the classical framework of shape optimization problems (see [START_REF] Gao | Drag minimization for Navier-Stokes flow[END_REF], [START_REF] Gunzburger | On a shape control problem for the stationary Navier-Stokes equations[END_REF], [START_REF] Henrot | Variation et Optimisation de Formes[END_REF], [START_REF] Jäger | Couette flows over a rough boundary and drag reduction[END_REF], [START_REF] Mohammadi | Applied shape optimization for fluids[END_REF], [START_REF] Plotnikov | Shape derivative of drag functional[END_REF], [START_REF] Simon | Domain variation for drag in Stokes flow[END_REF]). In this paper, the drag minimization problem is discussed from a different point of view. Our problem is the following: given a fixed shape S and a non perfectly adherent material, the purpose is to create a microscopic structure on the surface of the shape such that the drag diminishes. We set the problem in terms of the rugosity effect relying on the friction-driven boundary conditions introduced in [START_REF] Bucur | Boundary behavior of viscous fluids: Influence of wall roughness and friction-driven boundary conditions[END_REF] and prove the existence of a solution which, loosely speaking, may be approached by a family of riblets with rough bottoms.

It is commonly accepted that rough surfaces increase the drag. From a mathematical point of view, this is true provided one deals with fluids obeying to Stokes equations (see Section 3). In the context of Navier-Stokes flows, it was noticed that contrary to this reasonable observation, the drag may decrease in contact with rough surfaces. In this paper, we intend to give a mathematical formulation to this micro-shape optimization problem, to analyse the question of the existence of an optimal micro-structure and to provide some numerical computations supporting our observations.

Our fundamental hypothesis is that the contact law between the fluid and the obstacle is of Navier type. From a physical point of view, this assumption may be justified by recent experimental studies that have measured significant slip lengths in the vicinity of a solid boundary in the context of microfluidics (see [START_REF] Lauga | Microfluidics: The no-slip boundary condition, Handbook of Experimental Fluid Dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Priezjev | Slip behavior in liquid films on surfaces of patterned wettability: Comparison between continuum and molecular dynamics simulations[END_REF][START_REF] Qian | Hydrodynamic slip boundary condition at chemically patterned surfaces: A continuum deduction from molecular dynamics[END_REF]). Formally, the Navier conditions 1 on the boundary of the obstacle read (see also the general formulation in relation [START_REF] Maso | An introduction to Γ-convergence[END_REF] below and the comments thereafter)

u • n = 0, [2νD(u)n] tan + βu = 0,
where u is the velocity of the fluid, n the outward normal field at the boundary of the obstacle, µ the viscosity and β the friction coefficient. The perfect adherence (no-slip condition) corresponds formally to β = +∞. Roughly speaking, in this paper we prove that as soon as the material is not perfectly adherent (i.e. β < +∞), the rugosity may play a role in the drag minimization problem. A micro-structure on such a slippery material may significantly influence the solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations, and consequently the drag. On the contrary, creating a micro-structure (riblets, denticles, etc.) on perfectly adherent material will produce a non significant variation of the drag, since the variations of the solution of the Navier-Stokes equations are small. Experimental observations of this mathematical result are listed in [START_REF] Vogel | Life in moving of fluids; the physical biology of flow[END_REF]. We assume in this paper that the (macro) shape of the obstacle is fixed and that the material is not perfectly adherent (the friction coefficient β < +∞ is fixed). We consider an ideal perfectly slippery material for setting our theoretical framework, while for the numerical experiments we choose different values for β. For a given β, the control space is the family of micro-structures on the surface of the material. The micro-structures have as effect the modification of the contact law and, from a mathematical point of view, they are the boundary conditions of friction-driven type resulting from the asymptotic behaviour of the rugosities on the surface of the material (see [START_REF] Bucur | Boundary behavior of viscous fluids: Influence of wall roughness and friction-driven boundary conditions[END_REF] and Theorem 2.1 below). We study the influence of the micro-structure on the drag and analyse the drag minimization problem with respect to the micro-structure for both Stokes and stationary Navier-Stokes equations. We prove that for Stokes equations, the drag satisfies a certain monotonicity property with respect to the micro-structure, so that riblets cannot be used to diminish the drag of an obstacle in a Stokes flow. On the contrary, for Navier-Stokes equations the drag is not anymore monotone, and we exhibit some numerical evidence showing that adding rugosity may decrease the drag.

Although we are not able to give a full answer to the optimization problem, the main objectives of the paper are:

• to introduce a mathematical framework for the drag minimization problem with respect to the micro-structure of the surface. For this purpose, we develop a Γ-convergence framework and study the drag as a function of the micro-structure;

• to prove that for Navier-Stokes equations the problem is well-posed and admits a solution in terms of friction-driven boundary conditions;

• to show that for Stokes equations, rugosity increases the drag;

• to perform numerical computations which support our mathematical results. We justify the optimization approach and confirm the non-monotonicity of the drag with respect to the friction-driven boundary conditions for Navier-Stokes equations;

• to give an example of complex rugosity effect modeled by combinations of perfectly slippery regions with in-flow micro perforations.

The structure of the paper is the following. In Section 2, we introduce the mathematical approach of the rugosity effect and recall the main results of [START_REF] Bucur | Boundary behavior of viscous fluids: Influence of wall roughness and friction-driven boundary conditions[END_REF]. In Section 3, we develop the mathematical framework for the drag minimization, prove the existence of a solution and discuss the monotonicity of the drag with respect to the micro-structures. We prove that monotonicity holds (only) for the Stokes equation, while the non-variational character of the Navier-Stokes equations leads to lack of monotonicity and, as a consequence, justifies the well-posedness of the optimization problem. In Section 4, we perform numerical computations for the Navier-Stokes equation to support the non-monotonicity argument and to justify the optimization framework. Section 5 is devoted to an example of complex rugosity effect which falls out of the friction-driven boundary conditions. This example shows that a modification of the contact law on asymptotically small regions may lead to a macroscopic effect on the flow, and significantly enlarges the class of admissible controls.

The rugosity effect: a mathematical approach

Throughout the paper, by ε we denote a generic sequential parameter which converges to 0. By B r (x) we denote the open ball of R N , centred at x and of radius r.

Capacitary measures. Let Ω ⊆ R N be a bounded open set. The capacity of a subset E in Ω is cap(E, Ω) = inf Ω |∇u| 2 dx : u ∈ U E ,
where U E is the set of all functions u of the Sobolev space H 1 0 (Ω) such that u ≥ 1 almost everywhere in a neighborhood of E.

If a property P (x) holds for all x ∈ E except for the elements of a set Z ⊆ E with cap(Z, Ω) = 0, we say that P (x) holds quasi-everywhere on E (shortly q.e. on E). The expression almost everywhere (shortly a.e.) refers, as usual, to the Lebesgue measure. A subset A of Ω is said to be quasi-open if for every ε > 0 there exists an open subset A ε of Ω, such that A ⊆ A ε and cap(A ε \ A, Ω) < ε. A function f : Ω → R is said to be quasi-continuous if for every ε > 0 there exists a continuous function

f ε : Ω → R such that cap({f = f ε }, Ω) < ε, where {f = f ε } = {x ∈ Ω : f (x) = f ε (x)}.
It is well known (see, e.g., Ziemer [START_REF] Ziemer | Sobolev spaces and functions of bounded variation[END_REF]) that every function u of the Sobolev space H 1 (Ω) has a quasi-continuous representative, which is uniquely defined up to a set of capacity zero. We shall always identify the function u with its quasi-continuous representative, so that a pointwise condition can be imposed on u(x) for quasi-every x ∈ Ω.

We denote by M 0 (Ω) the set of all nonnegative Borel measures µ on Ω, possibly +∞ valued, such that i) µ(B) = 0 for every Borel set

B ⊆ Ω with cap(B, Ω) = 0, ii) µ(B) = inf{µ(U ) : U quasi-open, B ⊆ U } for every Borel set B ⊆ Ω.
We stress the fact that the measures µ ∈ M 0 (Ω) do not need to be finite, and may take the value +∞ even on large parts of Ω.

Given an arbitrary subset E of Ω, we denote by ∞| E the measure defined by i) ∞| E (B) = 0 for every Borel set B ⊆ Ω with cap(B ∩ E, Ω) = 0, ii) ∞| E (B) = +∞ for every Borel set B ⊆ Ω with cap(B ∩ E, Ω) > 0.

For a quasi-open set A ⊆ Ω, we always identify A with the measure ∞| Ω\A and observe that H 1 0 (Ω) ∩ L 2 (Ω, ∞| Ω\A ) = H 1 0 (A) (see [START_REF] Hedberg | Spectral synthesis in Sobolev spaces, and uniqueness of solutions of the Dirichlet problem[END_REF][START_REF] Bucur | Variational methods in shape optimization problems[END_REF]).

Navier-Stokes equations with friction-driven boundary conditions. Let S be a closed Lipschitz subset of a smooth bounded open set Ω ⊆ R 3 . In the sequel, we will consider only measures µ ∈ M 0 (Ω) which are supported on ∂S. In particular, if µ ≡ 0, then its support cannot be contained in a one dimensional smooth subset of ∂S since this set has zero capacity. We consider a family of linear spaces V := {V (x)} x∈∂S , where V (x) is a subspace of the tangent hyperplane (where it exists) at x ∈ ∂S. In particular, the dimension of V (x) does not exceed 2. Furthermore, let a i,j : ∂S → R, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 3, be Borel functions such that a i,j = a j,i , and 3 i,j=1 a ij ξ i ξ j ≥ 0 for all ξ ∈ R 3 . We set A = {a i,j } 3 i,j=1 . We also consider a constant vector field u ∞ ∈ R 3 .

Following [START_REF] Bucur | Boundary behavior of viscous fluids: Influence of wall roughness and friction-driven boundary conditions[END_REF], the Navier-Stokes problem with friction-driven boundary conditions reads:

find (u, p) ∈ H 1 (Ω \ S) × L 2 (Ω \ S) such that -div σ(u, p) + (u • ∇)u = 0 in Ω \ S, (1)
div u = 0 in Ω \ S, (2)
u = u ∞ on ∂Ω, (3) u
(x) ∈ V (x) for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, (4) 2νD
(u)n + µAu • v = 0 for v ∈ V (x), q.e. x ∈ ∂S, (5)
where σ(u, p) is the stress tensor defined by σ(u, p) = 2νD(u) -pId, D(u) being the symmetric part of ∇u defined by

D(u) = 1 2 (∇u) + (∇u) T . Above, 2νD(u) • n + µAu • v = 0 for v ∈ V (x)
, is a formal q.e. pointwise relation, which has to be understood globally on ∂S via the weak form of the equation. Precisely, we say that (u, p)

∈ H 1 (Ω \ S) × L 2 (Ω \ S) is a weak solution to System (1)-(5) provided that u ∈ H 1 (Ω \ S, R 3 ) is such that div u = 0 in Ω \ S, u(x) ∈ V (x) for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, u(x) = u ∞ on ∂Ω, and satisfies 2ν Ω\S D(u) : D(φ) dx + Ω\S [(u • ∇)u] • φ dx + ∂S Au • φ dµ = 0, (6)
for every φ ∈ H 1 (Ω \ S) such that div φ = 0 in Ω \ S, φ(x) ∈ V (x) for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, ∂S Aφ • φ dµ < +∞ and φ(x) = 0 on ∂Ω. The "classical" Navier boundary conditions occur in the situation in which A ≡ Id, µ ≡ βH 2 ∂S and for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, V (x) = R 2 . In our framework, u ∞ is a constant vector field representing the velocity of the fluid at infinity.

Notice that if µ ≡ 0 and for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, V (x) = R 2 , then the friction-driven boundary conditions are precisely the perfect slip ones (the choice of A is not important in this case). If A ≡ Id, µ = +∞| ∂S and V is arbitrary, or, alternatively, if A and µ are arbitrary but for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, V (x) = {0}, then the boundary conditions correspond to the no-slip condition.

The rugosity effect. We consider a sequence S ε of equi-Lipschitz closed sets, converging to S ⊂ Ω in the Hausdorff metric, i.e.

d(•, S ε ) → d(•, S) uniformly on Ω, (7)
where d(•, F ) denotes the distance function to the set F . The main result of [START_REF] Bucur | Boundary behavior of viscous fluids: Influence of wall roughness and friction-driven boundary conditions[END_REF] reads as follows.

Theorem 2.1 Let ε → 0 and {u ε } ε>0 be a family of (weak) solutions to Navier-Stokes equations (1)-( 5) in Ω \ S ε with perfect slip conditions on ∂S ε , such that ∃M > 0 ∀ε > 0, u ε H 1 (Ω\Sε) ≤ M . Then, at least for a suitable subsequence,

1 Ω\Sε u ε → 1 Ω\S u (strongly) in L 2 (R 3 , R 3 ), 1 Ω\Sε ∇u ε 1 Ω\S ∇u weakly in L 2 (R 3 , R 3×3 ),
and there exists a suitable triplet {µ, A, V} such that u is a solution in Ω\S to Navier-Stokes equations with friction-driven boundary conditions (1)-( 5).

We underline the fact that the triplet {µ, A, V} is of geometric nature, being independent both on Ω and u ∞ . By abuse of language, we call micro-structure on the boundary of S a triplet {µ, A, V}| ∂S .

3 Drag minimization with respect to the micro-structure

In a first step, we introduce the family of admissible micro-structures. We fix an angle π/2 > θ > 0 and we work with obstacles S which are closed subsets of Ω satisfying the θ-cone condition (see [START_REF] Henrot | Variation et Optimisation de Formes[END_REF]Definition 2.4.1] and [START_REF] Henrot | Variation et Optimisation de Formes[END_REF]Theorem 2.4.7]). More specifically, let

C(x, θ, ξ) = {y ∈ R N : |y -x| < θ, (y -x, ξ) ≥ cos(θ)|y -x|}
be the cone with vertex at x, aperture 2θ, height θ, and orientation given by a unit vector ξ. We say that S satisfies the θ-cone condition if for any x 0 ∈ ∂S, there exists a unit vector

ξ x 0 ∈ R N such that C(x, θ, ξ x 0 ) ⊆ Ω \ S whenever x ∈ B(x 0 , θ) ∩ Ω \ S.
We recall that if S ε converges to S in the Hausdorff metric and all of them satisfy the θ-cone condition, then

1 Sε → 1 S in L 1 (Ω) as ε → 0. ( 8
)
Definition 3.1 Let (S ε ) ε be a sequence of closed subsets of Ω satisfying the θ-cone condition. Assume S ε converges in the Hausdorff metric to a closed set S ⊆ Ω. Let {µ ε , A ε , V ε }| ∂Sε be a micro-structure on ∂S ε . We say that {µ ε , A ε , V ε }| ∂Sε γ-converges to {µ, A, V}| ∂S if the functionals

F ε (v) =            2ν Ω\Sε |D(v)| 2 dx + ∂Sε A ε v • vdµ ε if v ∈ H 1 0 (Ω, R 3 ), div v = 0 in Ω \ S ε , v(x) ∈ V ε (x), q.e. x ∈ ∂S ε , +∞ otherwise, (9)
Γ-converges to F in L 2 (Ω, R 3 ), where F (v) =            2ν Ω\S |D(v)| 2 dx + ∂S Av • vdµ if v ∈ H 1 0 (Ω, R 3 ), div v = 0 in Ω \ S, v(x) ∈ V (x), q.e. x ∈ ∂S, +∞ otherwise. (10)
We briefly recall that a sequence of functionals

F ε : L 2 (Ω, R 3 ) → R ∪ {+∞} Γ-converges to F in L 2 (Ω, R 3 ) if ∀v ε → v in L 2 (Ω, R 3 ) =⇒ F (v) ≤ lim inf ε→0 F ε (v ε ), ∀v ∈ L 2 (Ω, R 3 ), ∃v ε → v in L 2 (Ω, R 3 ) such that F (v) ≥ lim sup ε→0 F ε (v ε ).
For details on the Γ-convergence, we refer the reader to [START_REF] Maso | An introduction to Γ-convergence[END_REF]. As usual, in optimal control theory, in the definition above we denote by Γ the classical Gamma convergence of functionals and by γ the topology induced on the space of controls (here the micro-structures).

A micro-structure {µ, A, V}| ∂S is admissible on S as soon as it is obtained through the rugosity effect, i.e. is a γ-limit obtained from a sequence (S ε ) which satisfies the θ-cone condition, in the frame of Theorem 2.1. For every β ∈ [0, +∞), we introduce

U β = {µ, A, V}| ∂S : ∃S ε → S such that {βH 2 | ∂Sε , Id, R 2 }| ∂Sε γ → {µ, A, V}| ∂S .
We refer to the recent paper [START_REF] Casado-Díaz | Asymptotic behavior of a viscous fluid with slip boundary conditions on a slightly rough wall[END_REF]Theorem 3.4], where explicit constructions of periodiclike rugosity lead to an augmentation of the friction coefficient for flat boundaries. As a consequence of this result, one could prove that for polyhedral obstacles and for every friction coefficients β > β ≥ 0, the family U β is a subclass of U β . Extending this result to general Lipschitz obstacles requires some technicalities related to the approximation result of Lipschitz domains by C 2 domains, due to Nečas [START_REF] Nečas | On domains of type n[END_REF]. This fact is not necessary for our considerations.

Remark 3.2 Let us notice that the definition above implies the continuity of the solutions to Stokes equations with respect to the γ-convergence of the micro-structures. Indeed, let us consider Stokes equations in Ω \ S with friction-driven boundary conditions {µ, A, V}| ∂S , i.e.

-div σ(u, p) = 0 in Ω \ S, ( 11
) div u = 0 in Ω \ S, (12) u = u ∞ on ∂Ω, (13) u(x) ∈ V (x) for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, (14) 2νD
(u)n + µAu • v = 0 for v ∈ V (x), x ∈ ∂S. ( 15
)
The weak solution u to System ( 11)-( 15) is also the unique minimizer of

H(v) := 2ν Ω\S |D(v)| 2 dx + ∂S Av • vdµ, (16)
over

C := v ∈ H 1 (Ω, R 3 ) div v = 0 in Ω, v(x) ∈ V (x) for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, v = u ∞ on ∂Ω .
As C is a closed subspace of H 1 (Ω \ S, R 3 ), the classical Lax-Milgram theorem together with Korn's inequality give existence and uniqueness of the solution.

Assume now that (S ε ) ε satisfies the assumptions of Definition 3.1 and denote by u ε the solution to Equations ( 11)- [START_REF] Lauga | Microfluidics: The no-slip boundary condition, Handbook of Experimental Fluid Dynamics[END_REF] on Ω \ S ε with boundary conditions {µ ε , A ε , V ε }. Let η ∈ C ∞ (Ω) be a function equal to 1 on ∂Ω and to 0 on a neighbourhood of S. Observe that for every

v ∈ H 1 (Ω, R 3 ) such that v = u ∞ on ∂Ω, H ε (v) = F ε (v -ηu ∞ ) -4ν Ω\Sε D(v) : D(ηu ∞ )dx + 2ν Ω\Sε |D(ηu ∞ )| 2 dx.
Consequently, H ε Γ-converges in L 2 (Ω, R 3 ) to H, thus their minimizers also converge in L 2 (Ω, R 3 ). Remark 3.3 In the language of γ-convergence, Theorem 2.1 asserts that for the sequence of obstacles S ε which converges to S in the Hausdorff metric, the associated micro-structures {0, Id, R 2 }| ∂Sε γ-converge to{µ, A, V}| ∂S . In fact, Remark 3.2 is an extension of Theorem 2.1. As well, we emphasize that the geometric effect of the rugosity is the same on both Stokes and Navier-Stokes equations, in the sense that if {µ ε , A ε , V ε }| ∂Sε γ-converges to {µ, A, V}| ∂S , the solutions to Navier-Stokes equations ( 1)-( 5) on Ω \ S ε with friction-driven boundary conditions {µ ε , A ε , V ε } converge as in Theorem 2.1. The argument is similar to [4, Remark 4.4 and Theorem 5.1] and relies on the persistence of the Γ-convergence for continuous perturbations.

Remark 3.4

The topology of the γ-convergence is metrizable and compact in the family of micro-stuctures associated to obstacles satisfying a θ-cone conditions and which are contained in a compact subset of Ω. Metrizability is a consequence of the equi-coerciveness of the functionals F ε and of the separability of L 2 (Ω) (see [START_REF] Maso | An introduction to Γ-convergence[END_REF]Theorem 10.22]), and compactness is a consequence of the main result in [START_REF] Bucur | Boundary behavior of viscous fluids: Influence of wall roughness and friction-driven boundary conditions[END_REF]. Theorem 3.5 For every +∞ > β ≥ 0, the family U β , endowed with the topology of the γ-convergence, is compact.

Proof. This is a consequence of Theorem 2.1, the metrizability of the γ-convergence and the definition by closure of U β . 2

The result above is independent on the fact that for every β > 0, the Navier boundary condition with friction coefficient β can be obtained as the limit of oscillating boundaries with perfect slip condition. Of course, it would be very interesting to know, in general, whether for every obstacle and every β < β one has U β ⊆ U β , but this is not necessary in our framework.

Let u be a solution to Navier Stokes (1)-( 5), respectively Stokes ( 11)-( 15), equations in Ω \ S with friction-driven boundary conditions. The drag function associated to the micro-structure and to u is given by the (same) formal expression

T ({µ, A, V}, u) = 2ν ∂S |D(u)| 2 dx + ∂S Au • u dµ. ( 17
)
Remark 3.6 If u is a smooth solution to Navier Stokes equations ( 1)-( 5) (or to Stokes equations ( 11)-( 15)) in Ω \ S, then the drag T ({µ, A, V}, u) coincides with its physical expression, given by

T = - ∂S σ(u, p)n • u ∞ dH 2 .
Indeed, we consider the case of stationary Navier-Stokes equations (Stokes system can be handled by dropping the inertial term (u • ∇)u in the following computations). Assuming that u is smooth enough, Equation (1) yields the following identity in L 2 (Ω \ S):

div σ(u, p) = (u • ∇)u. Consequently, T = - Ω\S [(u • ∇)u] • u ∞ dx + ∂Ω σ(u, p)n • u ∞ dH 2 .
Using Green's formula and boundary condition (3), we express the boundary integral on ∂Ω as follows:

∂Ω σ(u, p)n • u ∞ dH 2 = Ω\S [(u • ∇)u] • u dx + Ω\S σ(u, p) : D(u) dx - ∂S σ(u, p)n • u dH 2 .
This yields the following expression of T :

T = Ω\S [(u • ∇)u] • (u -u ∞ ) dx + Ω\S σ(u, p) : D(u)dx - ∂S σ(u, p)n • u dH 2 . ( 18
)
We only need to prove that the first integral vanishes. Indeed, using boundary condition [START_REF] Casado-Díaz | Asymptotic behavior of a viscous fluid with slip boundary conditions on a slightly rough wall[END_REF] (in a strong pointwise sense),

- ∂S σ(u, p)n • u dH 2 = ∂S Au • u dµ.
As well, since div u = 0,

[(u • ∇)u] • (u -u ∞ ) = 1 2 div |u -u ∞ | 2 u ,
and using Green's formula, we obtain

Ω\S [(u • ∇)u] • (u -u ∞ ) dx = 1 2 ∂S |u -u ∞ | 2 u • n dH 2 + ∂Ω |u -u ∞ | 2 u • n dH 2 .
Relying on the non penetration condition on ∂S and boundary condition (3) on ∂Ω, we get the desired result.

Theorem 3.7 The drag is γ-continuous for the Stokes equations.

Proof. Following Remark 3.2, the continuity of the drag for the γ-convergence is a direct consequence of the convergence of minima in the general framework of Γ-convergence. 2

Since the solution to Navier-Stokes equations may not be unique, the assertion of Theorem 3.7 has to be modified as follows.

Theorem 3.8 Assume that {µ ε , A ε , V ε }| ∂Sε γ → {µ, A, V}| ∂S . Let (u ε ) be a

family of weak solutions to Navier-Stokes equations with friction-driven boundary conditions {µ

ε , A ε , V ε } on S ε . If sup ε T ({µ ε , A ε , V ε }, u ε ) < +∞,
then there exists a solution u to Navier-Stokes equations (1)- [START_REF] Casado-Díaz | Asymptotic behavior of a viscous fluid with slip boundary conditions on a slightly rough wall[END_REF] on Ω \ S and a subsequence (still denoted using the same index) such that

T ({µ ε , A ε , V ε }, u ε ) → T ({µ, A, V}, u). Proof. Indeed, since sup ε T ({µ ε , A ε , V ε }, u ε ) < +∞, we can assume that sup ε ũε H 1 (Ω,R 3 ) <
+∞, where ũε are suitable extensions of u ε on S ε . Consequently, there exists a second subsequence (still denoted with the same index) such that u ε u weakly in H 1 (Ω, R 3 ). In particular,

1 Ω\Sε u ε → 1 Ω\S u (strongly) in L 2 (R 3 , R 3 ), ( 19
)
1 Ω\Sε ∇u ε 1 Ω\S ∇u weakly in L 2 (R 3 , R 3×3 ). ( 20
)
We define

f ε = -1 Ω\Sε (u ε • ∇)u ε ∈ H -1 (Ω, R 3 ), and notice that f ε → f := -1 Ω\S (u • ∇)u strongly in H -1 (Ω, R 3 ). Since H ε Γ -→ H, we observe that 1 2 H ε (•)-< f ε , • > H -1 (Ω)×H 1 0 (Ω) Γ -→ 1 2 H(•)-< f, • > H -1 (Ω)×H 1 0 (Ω) .
Since u ε are minimizers of the modified functionals and they converge to u in the sense ( 19)-( 20), we get that u is a minimizer of

1 2 H(•)-< f, • > H -1 (Ω)×H
T ({µ ε , A ε , V ε }, u ε ) = 2ν Ω\Sε D(u ε ) : D(ηu ∞ )dx + ∂Sε A ε u ε • (ηu ∞ )dµ ε + < f ε , u ε -ηu ∞ > H -1 (Ω)×H 1 0 (Ω) .
The right hand side passes to the limit since u ε converges weakly in H 1 (Ω, R 3 ), the boundary

term ∂Sε A ε u ε • (ηu ∞ )dµ ε vanishes and f ε → f strongly in H -1 (Ω, R 3 ). 2
Theorems 3.7 and 3.8 provide two pieces of information. The first one is practical: the drag associated to friction-driven boundary conditions is close to the drag associated to rugous domains. Consequently, optimal friction-driven boundary conditions can be approached by rugous domains. Second, from a mathematical point of view, if two micro-structures are close in the γ-distance, the associated drags are also close. Corollary 3.9 For every +∞ > β ≥ 0, the drag minimization problem on U β for Stokes, respectively Navier-Stokes, equations has at least one solution.

Proof. This is a direct consequence of Theorems 3.5 and 3.7 (respectively 3.8).

2

Drag monotonicity for Stokes equations. We consider Stokes equations with frictiondriven boundary conditions ( 11)-( 15) associated to a fixed obstacle S and different microstructures {µ, A, V}| ∂S .

Theorem 3.10 Assume that {µ

1 , A 1 , V 1 } ≤ {µ 2 , A 2 , V 2 } in the following sense: ∀ξ ∈ H 1 (Ω \ S, R 3 ) ∂S A 1 ξ • ξdµ 1 ≤ ∂S A 2 ξ • ξdµ 2 , for q.e. x ∈ ∂S, V 2 (x) ⊆ V 1 (x). Then T ({µ 1 , A 1 , V 1 }, u 1 ) ≤ T ({µ 2 , A 2 , V 2 }, u 2 ).
Proof. The proof is a consequence of the energetic formulation of Stokes equations, introduced in [START_REF] Layton | Weak imposition of "no-slip" conditions in finite element methods[END_REF]. 2

Remark 3.11 Since perfect slip boundary conditions correspond to

µ 1 = 0, A 1 ≡ Id, V 1 (x) = R 2 ,
and perfect adherence, to

µ 2 = ∞| ∂S , A 2 ≡ Id, V 2 (x) = {0},
the drag of an obstacle associated to perfect slip boundary conditions is lower than for perfect adherence.

Remark 3.12 Let us consider a riblet structure given by

µ = 0, A ≡ Id, V (x) = Rξ(x),
where ξ : ∂S → S 1 . Clearly, the value of the drag associated to this micro-structure lays between the extremal ones. Nevertheless, the monotonicity is not strict since a good choice of the riblets ξ (they choice is depending on u ∞ ) can give the optimal drag associated to the perfect slip conditions. Of course, the same structure would not be optimal for a different u ∞ .

This remarks justifies one of the main points of the paper, precisely that adding rugosity on an obstacle within a Stokes flow (in the sense of monotonicty of the micro structures given in Theorem 3.10), will not decrease the drag. In the best situation, when riblets are suitably chosen with respect to the flow, the drag will remain constant, otherwise it will increase. On the contrary, in the next section, we shall see from numerical experiments that for Navier-Stokes flows, adding rugosity may lead to the drag decrease.

Numerical computations

The purpose of this section is to give numerical evidence which justifies that adding suitable rugosity on the surface of an obstacle in a Navier-Stokes flow may decrease the drag.

In order to simplify the numerical computations, we fix the dimension of the space N = 2. In this case, the dimensions of the tangent spaces are 0 or 1, which can be simultaneously treated by a friction law, as follows.

We consider problem (1)-( 5), where boundary conditions (4)-( 5) take the form

u • n = 0 on ∂S, (21)
[2νD(u)n] tan + βu = 0 on ∂S. (22)
Above, β is a nonnegative Borel function, possibly infinite valued, corresponding to the distribution of the friction coefficient on the boundary of the solid. Notice that if β ≡ 0, boundary conditions ( 21)-( 22) correspond to perfect slip, and that perfect adherence is achieved formally by setting β ≡ +∞. For every such β and every weak solution (u, p) to problem ( 1)-( 3), ( 21)-( 22), we denote by T (β, u) the corresponding drag, given by

T (β, u) = 2ν Ω\S |D(u)| 2 dx + ∂S β|u| 2 dH 1 .
In the numerical simulations, the domain Ω is the unit disk and the obstacle S is the disk of radius 0.1 centered at the origin. We assume that the fluid has a constant velocity u ∞ = (1, 0) on the exterior boundary ∂Ω.

We apply a finite element method to solve problem ( 1)-( 2), associated with boundary conditions (3),( 21), [START_REF] Simon | Domain variation for drag in Stokes flow[END_REF]. We use P 2 elements for the velocity and P 1 elements for the pressure. The fluid domain Ω\S is discretized by a triangular mesh, which is obtained by an automatic mesh generator, based on a Delaunay-Voronoi algorithm (see [START_REF] George | Automatic mesh generation and finite element computation[END_REF]). The stationary Navier-Stokes equations are solved by a classic fixed point iterative scheme and the incompressibility condition is treated by a Lagrange multiplier (see Girault and Raviart [START_REF] Girault | Finite element methods for Navier-Stokes equations[END_REF], [START_REF] Ito | Lagrange multiplier approach to variational problems and applications[END_REF]). Finally, the non penetration condition ( 21) is treated by penalization (see, for instance, Layton [START_REF] Layton | Weak imposition of "no-slip" conditions in finite element methods[END_REF]).

Dependency of the numerical results with respect to the mesh

In order to estimate the influence of the mesh on the numerical value of the drag, we consider a family of meshes {M 0 , M 1 , M 2 } (see Figure 1). To describe the characteristics of these meshes, let us introduce some notation. For i = 0, 1, 2, the mesh M i is composed of N i triangles, each of them being denoted by τ j i for j = 1 . . . N i . To each mesh M i = ∪ N i j=1 τ j i , we associate a mesh size h i defined by

h i = 1 N i N i j=1 |τ j i | 1/2
, where |τ j i | stands for the area of triangle τ j i . The meshes are built as follows. We start from a coarse mesh M 0 , and for i = 1, 2, M i is obtained by a refinement of mesh M i-1 . This refinement consists in a conformal splitting of each triangle of mesh M i-1 , into 4 triangles. Consequently, for i = 1, 2, N i = 4N i-1 and h i = 1 2 h i-1 (see Table 1). To evaluate the influence of the mesh on the numerical results, we compute the drag associated to a constant friction coefficient β ≡ 1, using two different values for the viscosity: ν = 1 and ν = 10 -2 . The numerical results of these computations are collected in Table 1. In the case of high viscosity (ν = 1), we notice a global variation of order 10 -4 of the drag computed on mesh M 0 and mesh M 2 . Consequently, we will consider as relevant any drag reduction of order 10 -3 , computed on grid M 2 . In the case ν = 10 -2 , since the global variation of the numerical value of drag is of order 10 -5 , a drag reduction of order 10 -4 will be considered as relevant.

In the rest of this section, every numerical computation will be performed on the finest mesh M 2 .

Minimization of the drag with respect to the friction coefficient β

In order to approach realistic situations, we fix a minimal value +∞ > β min > 0 of the friction coefficient, and consider the following minimization problem:

min T (β, u) | β ∈ L 2 (∂S), β ≥ β min a.e. on ∂S . (23)
Above, β : ∂S → R + is the friction distribution on the surface of the obstacle and satisfies β(x) ≥ β min H 1 -a.e. on ∂S. To deal with this constrained optimization problem, we use a projective gradient method. We fix a stopping criterion , a constant step h > 0 and apply the following algorithm.

Gradient descent. Given a friction distribution β, satisfying the constraint β ≥ β min , we compute the gradient of T at β, in the sense of the Hilbert space L 2 (∂S). We denote this function by ∇T (β). Next, we define the projected gradient P∇T (β) ∈ L 2 (∂S) by the following formula:

P∇T (β) = min ∇T (β), β -β min h . (24)
While P∇T (β) L 2 (∂S) > , we replace β by β -hP∇T (β) and iterate. Note that the projection step ensures that the constraint β ≥ β min is preserved during the process. The computation of the gradient of T with respect to β relies on the following result, which is proved in [START_REF] Bonnivard | Influence des perturbations géoémétriques des domaines sur les solutions d'équations aux dérivées partielles[END_REF]. Proposition 4.1 Let ν be large enough so that problem (1)-( 3), ( 21)-( 22) has a unique weak solution (u β , p β ). Let O be the subset of L 2 (∂S) defined by

O = β ∈ L 2 (∂S) | β > 0 a.e. on ∂S .
Then, the mapping is differentiable in L 2 (∂S). Moreover, its gradient can be represented by the following formula:

β ∈ O → T (β) := T (β, u β ) ∈ R
∇T (β) = [(u β + ψ) • u β ] |∂S , (25)
where ψ ∈ H 1 (Ω \ S, R 2 ) is the unique solution to the adjoint system

           -div (σ(ψ, p)) + (∇u) T ψ -(u • ∇)ψ = 2(u • ∇)u in Ω \ S, div ψ = 0 in Ω \ S, ψ = 0 on ∂Ω, ψ • n = 0 on ∂S, [2νD(ψ)n] tan + βψ = 0 on ∂S. (26)
Below, we apply the gradient descent method introduced above, using the stopping criterion = 5 • 10 -5 and the constant step h = 2500. We consider two values for the viscosity: ν = 1 and ν = 10 -2 . In both cases, we start from a constant friction distribution β ≡ 5 and set the minimal value of the friction to β min = 1.

To describe the distribution of the friction obtained at convergence of the algorithm, we identify each point M ∈ ∂S by its angular coordinate θ ∈ -π 2 , 3π 2 , i.e. we set M (θ) = (0.1 cos θ, 0.1 sin θ). We introduce

Γ 1 = M (θ) | θ ∈ π 2 , 3π 2 , Γ 2 = M (θ) | θ ∈ -π 2 , π 2
, and we define C 1 = M (π) and C 2 = M (0) (see Figure 2). Moreover, given a friction distribution β, satisfying the constraint β ≥ 1 = β min , we say for H 1 -a.e. point M , that the constraint is saturated at M ∈ ∂S provided that β(M ) = 1.

High viscosity, ν = 1

Table 2 gives the numerical value of the drag at each iteration, together with the L 2 norm of the projected gradient. We notice that the drag decreases significantly during the process, the final value being about 4.1% inferior to the initial one. At convergence, the constraint β ≥ 1 is saturated at any points of ∂S, except at the central points C 1 and C 2 (see Figure 3). This leads to an irregular, non physical distribution of the friction. This can be explained by the fact that the exact velocity u of the fluid vanishes at points C the flow with respect to the axis y = 0. Consequently, formula (25) implies that the gradient of the drag is exactly zero at these points.

From a physical point of view, the tendancy to saturate globally the constraint β ≥ 1 in order to minimize the drag, may be justified by the fact that for a viscosity ν = 1, the Reynolds number associated with the flow is of order 1. As a result, the viscous effects are predominant, and as a consequence in that case, one should expect the drag to present a certain monotonicity with respect to the friction, as it happens when the inertial effects are neglected (see Theorem 3.10). From a numerical point of view, this is confirmed by the fact that the projected gradient of T , computed at β ≡ 1, is exactly zero.

Low viscosity, ν = 10 -2

The results of the algorithm are presented in Table 3. At convergence, the value of the drag is about 6.4% inferior to its initial value. Moreover, it appears that the constant distribution β ≡ 1 is not optimal for this problem. This is confirmed by the fact that the norm of the projected gradient, computed at β ≡ 1, is significantly superior to the stopping criterion = 5 • 10 -5 .

The distribution of the friction obtained at convergence is plotted in Figure 4. We observe that, contrary to the case ν = 1, the constraint β ≥ 1 is not saturated globally on ∂S. Table 3: Case ν = 10 -2 . Numerical value of the drag and L 2 norm of the projected gradient, at each iteration of the gradient descent, and for the case β ≡ 1.

the contrary, in a large vicinity of each point C 1 and C 2 , the friction has increased during the process. This phenomenon is strongly marked on Γ 1 , where the maximal value of the friction has doubled. This example constitutes a numerical evidence that, for general viscous flows, smooth materials are not necessarily optimal for the problem of drag minimization. A combination of smooth parts, generating a small effective friction, and rough areas, associated with high friction coefficients, might lead to a better result.

Example of a complex rugosity effect

As the preceding numerical computations show, the effective boundary conditions obtained as a consequence of the micro-rugosity effect associated with perfect slip boundary conditions give some room to minimize the drag associated to a fixed obstacle, by acting on the "frictiondriven" boundary conditions. This section is devoted to an example showing that with a similar construction, involving a slightly more complex control on the normal velocity (typically in-flow or out-flow conditions on very small regions), one can reach a significantly larger class of boundary conditions. Potentially, these boundary conditions could produce a stronger effect in the drag reduction.

A typical example in nature, that one may have in mind, is the shark skin. Modelling this highly complex rough surface is out of the mathematical purposes of the paper. Nevertheless, some features of this very singular surface can be loosely approached. Fine movements of the scales may drive a thin fluid layer through the open vertical spaces between the scales, so that from a mathematical point of view, one should consider, beside the "large" riblet surfaces of the scales, small vertical regions where the fluid flow can be oriented. This phenomenon is similar to synthetic jets, which consist in blowing and sucking fluid through thin holes on the surface, using electronic devices (see [START_REF] Mohammadi | Applied shape optimization for fluids[END_REF]Section 1.2.3]).

From a mathematical point of view, the "non penetration" condition u • n = 0 on the full boundary of the obstacle ∂S is then replaced by a weak control on the geometry of the surface of the obstacle where the normal velocity has a prescribed sign. In the example we give below, we consider a mixture of a very small region of in-flow complemented by a large region of perfect slip conditions on a rugous boundary. We prove that asymptotically, for a suitable distribution of the rugosity, the condition we obtain is significantly different from friction-driven. Precisely, we obtain an orientation of the flow on the full boundary of the obstacle. We treat this example only at an energetic level, formulated as a mathematical result describing the asymptotic behaviour of a sequence of Sobolev functions. Transporting this kind of result to understand the full behaviour of the solutions of Navier-Stokes equations would require more attention and should follow the same steps as in [START_REF] Bucur | Boundary behavior of viscous fluids: Influence of wall roughness and friction-driven boundary conditions[END_REF]. The full geometric control of the tangent vector spaces V (x) is a challenging issue, even in absence of PDEs (e.g. [START_REF] Birtea | Geometrical Dissipation for Dynamical Systems[END_REF]). However, it exceeds the purposes of the paper.

From the point of view of the drag minimization question, the main conclusion of this example is that the orientation of the flow can be seen as a new type of rugosity effect, out of the class of friction-driven boundary conditions, which effectively increases the space of controls U β introduced in Section 3, opening new perspectives for the drag minimization.

The elementary piece of rugosity has the geometry of a (closed

) prism P (l, L, h) = [-l 2 , l 2 ] × ∆ h,L , where ∆ h,L := {(x 2 , x 3 ) : x 2 ∈ (0, L), x 3 ∈ (0, h -hx 2 /L)
} is a right triangle of catheti of lengths h and L. Notice that the prism P has a vertical face V which is orthogonal to e 2 and two vertical faces orthogonal to e 1 (see Figure 5).

We construct sequence of open sets Ω ε ⊆ (0, 1) 3

Ω ε = (0, 1) 3 \ i∈Iε {(x ε i , y ε i , 0) + P (l ε i , L ε i , h ε i )},
converging to the cube Ω = (0, 1) 3 . The rugosity, denoted by σ ε , is given by the finite union of prisms with random sizes (l ε i , L ε i , h ε i ), which are flattening, i.e. max i∈Iε h ε i → 0 as ε → 0. For every i ∈ I ε , the rectangles

R ε i = (x ε i - l ε i 2 , x ε i + l ε i 2 ) × (y ε i , y ε i + L ε i )
are disjoint and contained in [0, 1] 2 . We assume the existence a constant C ε depending on ε such that for every i ∈ I ε we have

h ε i = C ε L ε i . We introduce σ ε = max i∈Iε L ε i + [0, 1] 2 \ ∪ i∈Iε R ε i .
For every set Ω ε , the in-flow region consists in the union of the vertical faces (denoted V ε ) of the prisms orthogonal to e 2 , while the perfect slip region is its complement V c ε := ∂Ω ε \ V ε .

Proposition 5.1 Assume that σ ε → 0. There exist C ε → 0 such that for every sequence of functions u ε ∈ H 1 (Ω, R 3 ) satisfying

u ε u u ε • n ε ≤ 0 on V ε , u ε • n ε = 0 on V c ε
we have u • e 3 = 0 on (0, 1) 2 × {0}, u • e 2 ≤ 0 on (0, 1) 2 × {0}.

Proof. First, we prove that for every C ε → 0, the non penetration condition u • e 3 = 0 on (0, 1) 2 × {0} is achieved. In a second step, a special choice for C ε will insure the orientation of the flow, u • e 2 ≤ 0 on (0, 1) 2 × {0}.

For every (x, y) ∈ (0, 1) 2 , we denote ϕ ε (x, y) = sup{z ∈ [0, 1) : (x, y, z) ∈ ∂Ω ε }. For almost every (x, y) ∈ (0, 1) 2 , we denote n ε = (-∇ϕ ε , 1)/ (-∇ϕ ε , 1) . Assume that C ε → 0, thus n ε -e 3 L ∞ → 0.

We have for almost every (x, y) ∈ (0, 1) 2 , u ε (x, y, ϕ ε (x, y)) -u ε (x, y, 0) = ϕε(x,y) 0 ∂u ε ∂z (x, y, z)dz.

Multiplying by the normal field n ε (x, y, ϕ ε (x, y)) (simply denoted in the sequel n ε ), we obtain .

Letting ε → 0, using the continuity of the trace H 1 (Ω) → L 2 ((0, 1) 2 × {0}), the non penetration condition follows on (0, 1) 2 × {0}.

In order to prove that the orientation of the flow is achieved for a special choice of C ε , we use a classical way to estimate the vanishing region of a scalar Sobolev function in terms of capacity (see for instance [START_REF] Bucur | Variational methods in shape optimization problems[END_REF]Section 4.6]). In a first step, let us assume that C ε = C is a constant independent on ε. For every ε, we shall give an estimate of the local capacity of the set V ε . By construction of the rugous domains, there exists a constant δ depending only on C, such that for every ε > 0 with σ ε < πr 2 2 < π 8 , for every point x ∈ (0, 1) × (0, 1) × {0} we have

H 2 (V ε ∩ B r (x)) ≥ δr 2 .
Let us consider P : R 3 → H, the orthogonal projection on the plane H = {x ∈ R 3 : x 2 + x 3 = 1}. There exists a constant δ such that H 2 (P (V ε ) ∩ B r (P (x))) ≥ δ r 2 .

Relying on the behaviour of capacity on Steiner symmetrization (a first symmetrization with respect to the plane, followed by a second symmetrization with respect to an axis orthogonal to the plane), there exists a constant δ such that cap(V ε ∩ B r (x), B r (2x)) ≥ δ cap(B r (x), B r (2x)).

This capacity inequality provides a sufficient condition (see for instance [START_REF] Bucur | Variational methods in shape optimization problems[END_REF]Example 4.6.3]), to get that the condition u ε • n ε ≤ 0 on V ε transforms into the limit in (u • e 2 ) + = 0 on [0, 1] × [0, 1] × {0}. By a diagonal procedure, relying on the metrizability of the Γconvergence, the same property holds for a suitable sequence C ε → 0. 2 Remark 5.2 If C ε does not converge to zero, the rugosity effect produced by the non vertical face of the elementary prism leads to a global in-flow condition u•e 3 ≥ 0 on the flat boundary. This is a consequence of the capacity density argument. As C ε → 0, the asymptotic effect of this face leads to the non penetration condition u • e 3 = 0. The choice of the values of C ε depends on σ ε , but cannot be computed explicitly in a non periodical geometry. We also notice that the vertical faces of the prisms parallel to e 2 , may or may not produce a secondary rugosity effect, which would lead to u • e 1 = 0, depending on their distribution. If this secondary rugosity effect holds, clearly the macroscopic condition u • e 2 ≤ 0 obtained in Proposition 5.1 is strengthen, the flow being oriented onto the e 2 axis.

  Ω\S σ(u, p) : D(u) dx = 2ν Ω\S |D(u)| 2 dx, and since u is solenoidal,

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: From left to right: meshes M 0 , M 1 , M 2 . For i = 1, 2, mesh M i is obtained by refining mesh M i-1 .

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Notation and systems of coordinates used to describe the friction on the boundary of the solid.

Table 2 :

 2 [START_REF] Birtea | Geometrical Dissipation for Dynamical Systems[END_REF] and C 2 , by symmetry of Case ν = 1. Numerical value of the drag and L 2 norm of the projected gradient, at each iteration of the gradient descent, and for the case β ≡ 1.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Case ν = 1. Initial value of β and value at convergence, on Γ 1 (left) and Γ 2 (right), plotted against the angular coordinate θ.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Case ν = 10 -2 . Initial value of β and value at convergence, on Γ 1 (left) and Γ 2 (right), plotted against the angular coordinate θ.

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Shape of an elementary piece of rugosity P (l, L, h).

u 2 2 )ε ∂u ε ∂z 2 L 2

 2222 ε (x, y, ϕ ε (x, y)) • n ε -u ε (x, y, 0) • n ε = n ε • ϕε(x,y) 0 ∂u ε ∂z (x, y, z)dz, which yields |u ε (x, y, 0) • e 3 | ≤ |u ε (x, y, 0)| n ε -e 3 L ∞ + (C ε σ ε ) ×{0} |u ε (x, y, 0) • e 3 | 2 dxdy ≤ 2 n ε -|u ε (x, y, 0)| 2 dxdy + 2C ε σ (Ω)

  1 0 (Ω) . As a result, u is a solution to Navier-Stokes equations, since it satisfies the Euler equation associated to a minimizer.For the function η defined in Remark 3.2, taking u ε -ηu ∞ and u -ηu ∞ as test functions in the respective Euler equations, we get that

Table 1 :

 1 Mesh Mesh size h i Number of triangles N i Characteristics of the mesh and numerical value of the drag, with β ≡ 1, for ν = 1 and ν = 10 -2 .

	Numerical value of the drag
	ν = 1	ν = 10 -2

Acknowledgments

This work is part of the project ANR-09-BLAN-0037 Geometric analysis of optimal shapes (GAOS) financed by the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR).