Graça S Carvalho

Rosa Branca

Cameira Tracana

Grita Skujiene

Keywords: environmental education, secondary school, multicultural user): Textbooks, Images, Comaparative analysis Analysis of spatial, ecological, economical, social and cultural dimensions environmental education, textbooks analysis, comparative analysis

Trend in environmental education images of textbooks from Western and Eastern European countries and non-European countries

presented in the textbooks of these from 14 European, African and Middle-East countries by looking at the spatial, economical, ecological, social and cultural dimensions that are relevant to reach environmental sustainability [START_REF] Sachs | Estratégias de transição para o século XXI: desenvolvimento e meioambiente [Transition strategies to the 21 st century: development and the environment[END_REF]Oliveira & Bizzo, 2005). For this purpose images of current textbooks were analysed, as they validate what the text states and have a powerful role as representations of the real world through the reader's work of interpretation, perception of the narrative, and perceptual order of the document [START_REF] Pozzer | Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks[END_REF].

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Concepts of the 'Sustainable Development' in Environment Education

Nowadays, a global increase of environmental problems have been observed, such as air, water and soil pollution, destruction of ozone layer, biodiversity reduction, exhaustion of natural resources and global warming (UNESCO, 2004). Therefore the need for environmental education oriented towards the aim of sustainable development is a matter of great concern nowadays.

In 1987 the concept 'sustainable development' was described as a systematic, long-term utilization of natural resources ensuring the accessibility of these resources for future generations (WCED, 1987). Later, the Conference in Rio de Janeiro emphasized the significance of Sustainable Development in Agenda 21 (UNESCO, 1992). This document introduced the principle of sustainability and the need to apply it to economic, social and environment aspects. Since then the interpretation of the concept 'sustainable development' has diverged into two different interpretations [START_REF] Salīte | Teachers' views on the aim of education for sustainable development[END_REF] stresses the significance of human beings and capability of humans to understand and control natural processes in a desirable direction. In this view, the focus is on the development of normative criteria for energy connections between humans and the environment, such as the monitoring of human actions, the calculation of human impact on nature. The latter, the ecocentrism, is looking for ways of creating cohesion with human life and life-supporting systems, as complementary components within the ecosphere. Here the focus is on the psychological-ethical relationship between humans and nature, i.e. it undertakes studies on the aims, values, attitudes and humans' actions.

Both levels of seeking solutions for problems of sustainable development have been gradually adopted as typical approaches to education and in the consciousness of society but, gradually, the ecocentrism recognition has been increasing (Filho, 2000;[START_REF] Salīte | Teachers' views on the aim of education for sustainable development[END_REF].

Environmental eEducation nowadays intends to provide people with an understanding of their natural and cultural environment and to enable the development of new rules, practices and values, encouraging the sustainable use and development of natural resources and the improvement of quality of life for all living beings (Obara et al., 2009).

The concept of Environmental Education embraces four important issues: the understanding of the concept of Ecosystems as defined by modern ecology, particularly related with the dynamics of systems and the notion of Biodiversity, being the latter a central concept in the comprehension of evolution, and of the policies of control and ecological management; Pollution and the Use of Resources, which are important topics involving values and beliefs, and that are central in the education for a sustainable future (Caravita et al., 2008). Textbooks are cultural artefacts which participate in the cognitive and social organization of knowledge (Lebrun, 2007). They translate national programmes guidelines which are the expression of national education policies. Textbooks are used by teachers with a double function: as a national programme (or syllabuses) guideline and as a didactical resource (Carvalho et al., 2009). Thus, the textbook analysis turns out to be a relevant tool for studying socio-cultural determinants of environmental problems, in particular the school-related ones.

Images that appear in the textbooks have a major importance in the construction of pupils' conceptions, and they serve to wake emotions and actions. It has been claimed that some images are better memorized than the corresponding text (Meyers, 1990;Korfiatis et al., 2004;[START_REF] Pozzer | Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks[END_REF] and that they have had an important role in the environmental wakeup since the 60s [START_REF] Seppanen | Visualizing biodiversity: the role of photographs in environmental discourse[END_REF]. For example, images of human-nature relationship might be given in two oppositions [START_REF] Schroeder | Place experience, gestalt, and the human-nature relationship[END_REF]: 'people apart from nature' and 'people as a part of nature'. The former represents a belief that human beings are somehow different or separate from the natural world. This view implies that the presence of people in images, their artefacts and activities give a negative impact by diminishing the naturalness of the environment. Therefore, nature is seen as having an intrinsic order, harmony, or beauty, in a world where humans are absent. The latter statement represents the belief that human beings belong to the natural world and they live and coop with nature, not necessarily destroying it. [START_REF] Schultz | Empathizing with nature: The effects of perspective taking on concern for environmental issues[END_REF] has shown that people who see themselves as more connected to nature score higher on measures of ecocentric concern and lower on measures of egoistic concern, i.e. utilitarian perspective, with respect to environmental problems. The same author (Schults , 2004) has found that believing in oneself as being included in nature vary in different cultures and may be influenced by situational and environmental factors, for example, people who live in large cities and are distanced from the natural world might see themselves as less connected to nature. Similarly, Hernández et al. (2007) have found that place attachment and place identity in natives and non-natives is an affective factor for sensibility and deeper look into environmental problems.

The gender issue must be viewed within a sustainable community where the selfdetermination of women, as well as men, is important for the well-being of human societies within the well-being of the entire Earth community, as noted in Gender and education for all: The leap to equality (UNESCO 2003), where gender parity and gender equality in education mean different things: reaching parity should be considered as a 'first stage' measure of progress towards gender equality in education. Studies (Sørensen, 2007:266) have further shown that "girls more than boys value content with connection to the surrounding world and with emphasis on the environment and ethical issues".

Having in mind this framework, in the present work we analysed (i) local and foreign/global images; (ii) urban, rural and nature images; (iii) negative and positive impact, human management, beauty of nature and neutral images; and (iv) the presence of humans in images, particularly the gender distribution in positive and in negative impact images. Textbooks for 14-16 years old students were selected as this age group children are especially sensitive to environmental problems (Keller, 1985;Sivek, 2002;[START_REF] Prokop | High school students' attitudes towards spiders: A cross-cultural comparison[END_REF].

METHODOLOGY

This work was performed by using the specific parts of the grid on "Ecology and Environmental Education" constructed by the European FP6 STREP project BIOHEAD-CITIZEN (CIT2-CT-2004-506015) (Carvalho, 2004;Caravita et al., 2008). For the design of the grids to be applied in textbooks analysis, precise subtopics of Environmental Education being exemplar of interactions between Science and Society and challenges in Citizenship were chosen. They were: Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystem and Cycles and Biodiversity.

These grids of analysis were the result of a collective and international work carried out by researchers from all the countries involved in the project. For the grids construction, a sample of textbooks from all countries was analysed in a project meeting, and an initial version of the grids was built. Then, in each country, these grids were pre-tested on at least one textbook. The final version of the grids took into account the results of this pretest (Carvalho et al., 2009;Tracana, 2009). This final grid was applied by each team in its country textbooks. The problem of subjective interpretation in this kind of qualitative analyse, was controlled by having two analysts applying separately the grids and crosschecking the findings afterwards.

The corpus of the present study was composed of 25 textbooks from 14 different European, African and Middle East countries: Cyprus (1), Estonia (1), Finland (2), France

(2), Germany (2), Hungary (2), Italy (4), Lebanon (3), Lithuania (1), Malta (1), Morocco (2),

Portugal (1), Romania (1), Senegal (2) (see Annex 1). These current textbooks were selected, when possible, out of the most used ones in schools, but in some countries only were the presence of the four subtopics and targeting the 14-16 years old pupils.

In countries like Estonia, France, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal and Romania the four subtopics (Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystem and Cycles and Biodiversity) could be found in the same textbook whereas in other countries (Finland, Germany, Hungary, Lebanon, Morocco and Senegal) the four subtopics were found in separate textbooks. In this case, when more than one textbook covered complementary the four subtopics, the books were put together for the subsequent analysis, as shown in the Results (see table 2).

In the present study we used a part of the long grid related to the qualitative and quantitative images analysis (Table 1). For further analysis, all images were examined and grouped into categories: 1) images with local or global environment; 2) images with or without human activities; 3) images which represent a negative or positive human impact on nature or management of nature; 4) images of men, women, or children. To assess the occurrences of each indicator, the grid was applied by noting the page numbers and the quantity of images found in each textbook.

[Insert 2). The absence of the today important Biodiversity subtopic in the Cypriot current textbook can be due to the fact that this book was firstly published long time ago (in 1999), when this subtopic was not considered as important as it is nowadays.

In fact, the concept Biological Diversity or Biodiversity was formally introduced in the American Forum of Biodiversity in 1986(Thompson & Starzomski, 2007). The absence of Pollution in Moroccan textbooks may be due to the low concern given in this country to this issue, as developing countries are mostly "concerned about hunger, misery, unemployment" (Vargas, 2005: 75).

[Insert table 2 about here]

Although missing the subtopic Biodiversity, the Cypriot textbook was the longest one (190 pages) having the highest number of pages on Pollution (112), and also a high number of pages on Ecosystems and Cycles (55) and the Use of Resources (23). Generally, the text surface text is higher than the images surface, indicating that the main information is within the text. The longer textbooks devoted to the four subtopics were from Senegal, Italy-B and Romania with 159, 134 and 128 pages, respectively (Table 2). The lowest number of images was in the Lithuanian and Estonian textbooks (31 in each), but the proportion between images and pages in these textbooks (0.9 and 0.6, respectively) was similar to the one found in Cypriot textbook: 0.5 ( Textbooks differed largely as far as the proportion of images and pages were concerned (Table 2). Figure 1 shows that the majority of the textbooks (18) had more images than pages (being the Lebanon-05 textbook the one with higher proportion of images: 3.5), whereas only seven (Lithuania, France-99, Italy-P, Senegal-86, Estonia, Cyprus and Morocco-S) have fewer images than pages.

[Insert figure 1 about here]

We agree with [START_REF] Pozzer | Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks[END_REF] when they refer that, on one side, the use of few

Qualitative analysis of textbooks images

Images are powerful tools for learning, giving important opportunities for discussion, analysis and group activities (Mowat, 2002). Images in textbooks illustrate what is written in the text and, usually, they are better memorised than the text itself (Korfiatis et. al., 2004). In the present study we analysed how the images in current textbooks of 14 sustainability and cultivate a consequent ethic impression. However, when Lithuanian pupils read their textbook and find images information about pollution only in Gujarat, Brasilia, Burkina Faso, Denmark, Britain, and India, and never in Lithuania, they automatically get the message that these problems are not so serious in their own environment. Consequently, they may feel that the responsibility for the solution of these problems relates mainly to the citizens of those countries. On the contrary, when pupils realize that the same problems facing their country are evident all over the world, then they conceptually understand the need for coordinated efforts to provide sustainable solutions.

Urban, rural and nature images

We found that urban and rural landscapes in textbooks often conveyed the negative effects of human actions on natural ecosystems, showing an anthropocentric conception about the environment. In contrast, nature was usually presented in the absence of humans, not only in wilderness but also in town green spots and villages, such as, public gardens and farms (Figure 3).

[Insert figure 3 about here]

Results showed a strict difference between textbooks from all Western European countries and those from Eastern European countries and non-European countries as far as the presence of urban/rural versus nature images are concerned. The former countries exhibit more images of urban/rural landscape rather than nature: Italy-G, France-03, France-99, Malta, Italy-M, Portugal, Italy-B, Finland, Italy-P, Germany (Figure 4).

Anthropocentric view, which interprets that "natural world" exists entirely for human benefits [START_REF] Salīte | Teachers' views on the aim of education for sustainable development[END_REF], is visible when nature is represented majority in rural and urban landscapes. In contrast, Eastern European countries and non-European countries present more images showing nature than urban/rural landscapes: Romania, Morocco, Senegal, Lebanon, Cyprus, Estonia, Lithuania and Hungary (Figure 4).

[Insert figure 4 about here]

As Rehmann-Sutter (2000) has pointed out, when one speaks about "nature" as appearing in the wilderness, he/she has the notion that nature exists and develops by itself without intervention from human beings. The above disproportions of images in textbooks can shape public opinion that nature is the opposite of culture, society, technology, and can promote the idea that persons play a role outside nature.

Negative impact, human management, beauty of nature and neutral images

A large proportion of images illustrated the negative impact (Figure 5, NI) by humans, indicating authors' attempts to fix students' attention to some human indifference towards nature and unwillingness in environment related actions. In general, textbook pictures on human management conveyed positive impact on the environment, indicating a real understanding of the importance to protect the different ecosystems (Figure 5, HM). Images that showed the beauty of nature conveyed a positive human impact too, as expressing the message that nature should be protected (Figure 5, BN).

Some of the pictures transmitted none of the above three kind of messages therefore they were considered as neutral images (Figure 5 In general, persons do not appear frequently in images. From a total of 2136 images, men could be found in 157 images (7.4%) and women in 134 (6.3%), being the difference between groups not statistically significant (P>0.05). Similarly, there were no significant differences (P>0.05) between the presence of men (125 occurrences, 5.8%) and women (129 occurrences, 6.0%) in positive impact images, although women were more frequent than men. In contrast, considerably less persons could be found in negative impact images and significant differences could be found between gender groups (P<0.05), being more men (32, 1.5%) than women (5 occurrences, 0.4%), transmitting the idea that Interesting is the case of the Finish textbook that for the negative impact images showed only men (10 occurrences, Figure 6A) whereas for the positive impact showed more women (70 occurrences) than men (23 occurrences) (Figure 6B). Women in higher presence than men could be found in European countries only: Finland, Lithuania, Hungary, Italy-G, Italy-M, Malta and Portugal (Figure 6B).

[Insert figure 6 about here]

Most images expressing the human negative impact on the environment did not include persons, but only machines and the polluted areas, as in the textbooks from Senegal, Lithuania, Hungary, Italy-P, Italy-M and Estonia (Figure 6A).

There were also few images where persons appeared as victims of the degradation of the environment, as the example of the Hungarian textbook, where the images presented children playing in a nearby polluted river or next to the dirty and polluted area of a chemical factory (Figure 7).

[Insert figure 7 about here]

The fact that men are strictly more frequently presented in negative impact images and women in positive impact ones, shows a clear association with the social representation of men and women in society: men with the male active role in society and women with a contemplative view in the beauty of nature. In the present study, we found images associated to all these five aspects and we looked at the specificities found among groups of countries.

Having in mind the spatial aspects, the textbooks of most countries showed a higher number of local images. We think that young people at the age of 14-16 years old should be introduced to peculiarities of foreign ecosystems (including cultural aspects) in order to get aware of a wide-reaching view of the geo-socio-cultural diversity of the world.

According to O'Connor (1992) the slogan "act locally thinking globally" has limitations, since it is also necessary to act globally, advocating and adopting policies at planetary level, enabling to avoid the impositions of private interests and prejudicial values to other persons, to other populations or continents and also to future generations. Therefore 14- The emphasis in urban-rural and nature is also a matter of the spatial dimension. The results showed that the Western European countries -in contrast to the Eastern European countries and non-European countries -exhibited more images of urban-rural landscape rather than nature. We suggest that textbooks from these Western European countries should give more emphasis to images of nature since it has been argued that these images influence individual behaviour and the willingness to valorise and to protect the environment [START_REF] Bogner | Environmental perceptions of Irish and Bavarian pupils: An empirical study[END_REF]Gobster, 2001, referred in Korfiatis et al., 2004).

As mentioned above, both economical and ecological dimensions focus on the consumption and management of natural resources. Results from the textbook analysis showed that the negative impact images were more frequent than the positive impact ones in all countries and the main value represented in these images regarded raw material and food for human consumption. Similar results have been found by Korfiatis and collaborators (2004). In textbooks from four countries (Lithuania, Cyprus, Morocco and Italy-P) human management images are absent. The presence of negative impact images together with the absence of human management images in these textbooks indicates that authors aimed at showing ecological problems but paid no attention how to solve them, which may compromise the education for the environmental sustainability (Woollcombe, 2002;[START_REF] Jacobi | Educação Ambiental, Cidadania e Sustentabilidade [Environmental education, Citizenship and Sustainability[END_REF].

Finally, both social and cultural dimensions could also be analysed in the 14 countries textbooks. Only in negative impact images the men presence dominated comparing to women, transmitting the message that women have a lower role in disturbing the environment which is in agreement with data showing that girls are more sensitive to the [START_REF] Sørensen | Gender inclusive science education?[END_REF]. Excepting textbooks from Eastern European countries (Romania, Lithuania, Hungary and Estonia) and Senegal, the other textbooks give more emphasis to negative impact and human management rather than the beauty of nature, which is in contrast to what is argued by Dunlap and colleagues (2000) defending that persons should live in harmony with the nature instead of using it as a resource for their needs. This is in accordance to the UNESCO (2004:13) message which defends that sustainable development has the purpose of "life with several individual, institutional and society challenges, to have the vision of tomorrow as a day that belong to all or it will not belong to anyone".

In brief, this study on textbooks addressed to 14-15 years old young people suggests that most countries should introduce to wider foreign images on human-nature relationship.

The textbooks from Eastern European countries should give more emphasis to both human management and urban and rural images whereas those from Western European countries should pay attention to the beauty of nature. Furthermore, the subtopics of biodiversity and pollution should be introduced in textbooks from Cyprus and Morocco, respectively. Finally, a balance in the presence of men and women in images (either with negative or positive impact) should be a matter of greater concern by all textbooks authors and publishers. active participation in existing environmental related programmes [START_REF] Palmer | Environmental education in the 21st century: theory, practice, progress and promise[END_REF].

In 1987) has been subject to some criticism from those who claim that development is too often associated to economical growth, assuming the economic development cannot be allowed to go on degrading the environment [START_REF] Lélé | Sustainable development: a critical review[END_REF]. A widely used concept of SD has been defined as 'improving the quality of life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems' (Jacobs, 1996, p. 26).

The Conference in Rio de Janeiro emphasized the significance of Sustainable Development in Agenda 21 (UNESCO, 1992). This document calls for a reorientation of EE and introduces the principle of sustainability and the need to apply it to economic, social and environmental aspects. Sauvè (1996) summarizes in two ways the multiple views regarding how environmental education should be linked to sustainable development: (i) adding SD objectives to existing EE goals and (ii) ultimating goals of SD to EE. The latter is close to Education for Sustainable Development (Sauvè, 1996) and the concept of sustainable development as systematic, long-term utilization of natural resources ensuring the accessibility of these resources for future generations has been largely accepted [START_REF] Salīte | Teachers' views on the aim of education for sustainable development[END_REF]2003). For Salite (2002) the anthropocentrism stresses the significance of human beings and capability of humans to understand and control natural processes in a desirable direction. In this view, the focus is on the development of normative criteria for energy connections between humans and the environment, such as the monitoring of human actions, the calculation of human impact on nature. The latter, the ecocentrism, is looking for ways of creating cohesion with human life and life-supporting systems, as complementary components within the ecosphere. Here the focus is on the psychological-ethical relationship between humans and nature, i.e. it undertakes studies on the aims, values, attitudes and humans' actions. Both levels of seeking solutions for problems of sustainable development have been gradually adopted as typical approaches to education and in the consciousness of society but, gradually, the ecocentrism recognition has been increasing (Filho, 2000;[START_REF] Salīte | Teachers' views on the aim of education for sustainable development[END_REF][START_REF] Postma | Why care for nature? In search of an ethical framework for Environmental responsibility and education[END_REF]. Furthermore, [START_REF] Dawe | The faulty three-legged stool model of sustainable development[END_REF] insist that sustainable development is definitely anthropocentric and thus unable to dissolve the false barriers between the human sphere of economic and social activities and the ecological sphere that sustains these activities (Sneddon et al., 2006). After all, only the needs of (present and future) humans are considered in its definition [START_REF] Postma | Why care for nature? In search of an ethical framework for Environmental responsibility and education[END_REF].

The role of images in textbooks on environmental education

Textbooks are cultural artefacts which participate in the cognitive and social organization of knowledge (Lebrun, 2007) (Carvalho et al., 2009). Thus, the textbook analysis turns out to be a relevant tool for studying socio-cultural determinants of environmental problems, in particular the school-related ones.

Most of the studies on textbook analysis have focused on the text analysis but iconic information has been considered as authenticating what the text is about [START_REF] Pinto | Students' difficulties in reading images: Comparing results from four national research groups[END_REF][START_REF] Pozzer | Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks[END_REF]. In contrast to the need for interpreting and understanding the complex textual language, pictures are autonomous systems of communication that do not simply reproduce reality but produce images of reality which are bound up with the interests of the social institutions (as school) within which the pictures are produced, circulated and read [START_REF] Kress | Reading images: The grammar of the visual design[END_REF]. Therefore they are a suitable tool for the assessment of semantic contents and hence to create specific types of order, relations and identities within the pedagogic and the more general communicative discourse [START_REF] Dimopoulos | Towards an Analysis of Visual Images in School Science Textbooks and Press Articles about Science and Technology[END_REF].

Image analysis turns out to be rather relevant when analysing textbooks from 14 countries with 11 different languages.

Images that appear in the textbooks have a major importance in the construction of pupils' conceptions, and they serve to wake emotions and actions. It has been claimed that some images are better memorized than the corresponding text (Meyers, 1990;Korfiatis et al., 2004;[START_REF] Pozzer | Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks[END_REF] and that they have had an important role in the environmental wakeup since the 60s [START_REF] Seppanen | Visualizing biodiversity: the role of photographs in environmental discourse[END_REF]. For example, images of humannature relationship might be given in two oppositions [START_REF] Schroeder | Place experience, gestalt, and the human-nature relationship[END_REF]: 'people apart from nature' and 'people as a part of nature'. The former represents a belief that human beings are somehow different or separate from the natural world. This view implies that the presence of people in images, their artefacts and activities give a negative impact by diminishing the naturalness of the environment. Therefore, nature is seen as having an intrinsic order, harmony, or beauty, in a world where humans are absent. It represents the belief that human beings belong to the natural world and they live and coop with nature, not necessarily destroying it. Some authors [START_REF] Schultz | Empathizing with nature: The effects of perspective taking on concern for environmental issues[END_REF]Korfiatis et al., 2004) A great deal of theoretical uncertainty exists regarding gender differences in environmental concern that can be seen in three perspectives: (i) difference in sensitivity of gender to environmental problems; (ii) social roles of gender; (iii) gender equality in education. [START_REF] Glaschi | Gender Positioning in Education: A Critical Image Analysis of ESL Books[END_REF][START_REF] Leach | Practicing Gender Analysis in Education (GB: Oxfam)[END_REF][START_REF] Macdonnald | Gender Differences in Environmental Among College Students[END_REF][START_REF] Mepham | Bioethics. An Introduction for the Biosciences[END_REF][START_REF] Sørensen | Gender inclusive science education?[END_REF]. Gender parity and gender equality in education mean different things:

reaching parity should be considered as a first stage measure of progress towards gender equality in education (UNESCO 2003). In the past, textbooks tended to exhibit gender stereotypes (Glashi, 2000) but in the last two decades the educational systems of most countries have been centring their action against discrimination or inequalities of any order [START_REF] Leach | Practicing Gender Analysis in Education (GB: Oxfam)[END_REF]. This surveillance includes text and images in school textbooks. In the present study we analysed the presence of men and women in images associated to environmental issues.

Objectives and methodological approach

Environmental education embraces four important issues (Caravita et al., 2008) countries, specifically aiming at identifying key issues for improving the transmission of science knowledge in the perspective of reinforcing the link between science and education and contributing to a better citizenship in a knowledge based society (Carvalho, 2004). Two main approaches have been carried out in this project: one, seeking teachers' and future teachers' conceptions about biology, health and environmental issues and, the other, looking at the same issues in current school textbooks in the same countries.

For the design of the BIOHEAD-CITIZEN grids to be applied in textbooks analysis, four precise subtopics of environmental education being exemplar of interactions between Science and Society and challenges in Citizenship were chosen. They were: Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystems and Biodiversity (Caravita et al., 2008). These grids of analysis were the result of a collective and international work carried out by researchers from all the countries involved in the project. For the grids construction, a sample of textbooks from all countries was analysed in a project meeting, and an initial version of the grids was built.

Then, in each country, these grids were pre-tested on at least one textbook. The final version of the grids took into account the results of this pre-test (Carvalho et al., 2009;Tracana et al., 2008;Tracana, 2009). This final grid was applied by each team in its country textbooks. The problem of subjective interpretation in this kind of qualitative analyse, was controlled by having two analysts applying separately the grids and cross-checking the findings afterwards.

In the present study we used a part of the long grid related to the qualitative and quantitative images analysis (Table 1). To assess the occurrences of each indicator, the grid was applied by noting the page numbers and the quantity of images found in each textbook.

The same picture could be analysed in different contexts, for example, one image of "local" environment could also illustrate human "negative impact" in rural landscape. All images were examined and grouped into categories according to men and women in environments with negative and positive impact.

[Insert table 1 about here]

It was considered to be an "exotic or foreign/global environment" if the image exhibited clearly fauna, flora, geologic or geographic pictures of other countries or other world regions than the textbook. "Natural environments" were images showing nature without the apparent intervention of humans, such as forests, mountains and marine ecosystems, or pictures/drawings of fauna and flora; "nature with human Activities" when the presence of humans was evident. Images with "negative impact" included human activities of whatever kind that were represented as causing damage to the natural ecosystems; images with human "positive impact' included activities portrayed as being environmentally friendly or as direct management in improving the environment, as reforestation. The number of men and women present in images with negative and positive impact enabled to evaluate gender peculiarities among textbooks.

For this study we selected textbooks for 14-16 years old pupils as at this age group children are especially sensitive to environmental problems (Kellert, 1985;Sivek, 2002;[START_REF] Prokop | High school students' attitudes towards spiders: A cross-cultural comparison[END_REF]. The current textbooks were selected, when possible, out of the most used ones in schools, but in some countries only one official textbook was available. The corpus of the present study was composed of 25 textbooks from 14 countries: 12 books from Western

European countries (WEc) -Finland (2), France (2), Germany (2), Italy (4), Malta (1) and Portugal (1); 6 books from Eastern European countries (EEc) -Cyprus (1), Estonia (1), Hungary (2), Lithuania (1) and Romania (1); and 7 books from Lebanon (3), Morocco (2) and Senegal (2) (see Annex 1). In countries like Estonia, France, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal and Romania the four subtopics (Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystem and Cycles and Biodiversity) could be found in the same textbook whereas in other countries (Finland, Germany, Hungary, Lebanon, Morocco and Senegal) the four subtopics were found in separate textbooks. In this case, when more than one textbook covered complementary the four subtopics, the books were put together for the subsequent analysis, as shown in the Results (see table 2).

Images in environmental education subtopics: Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystem and Cycles, and Biodiversity

Images are powerful tools for learning, giving important opportunities for analysis, discussion and group activities (Mowat, 2002). In textbooks, images illustrate what is written in the text and, usually, they are better memorised than the text itself (Meyers, 1990;[START_REF] Pozzer | Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks[END_REF]Korfiatis et al., 2004). The first approach in the present analysis of textbooks concerned the number of pages and images on environmental education subtopics (Table 2 and Figure 1)

as well as the proportion of the surface occupied by text and images per page (Table 3).

The four subtopics (Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystem and Cycles and Biodiversity), targeting around 14-16 years-old pupils, were found in textbooks of all countries, except those from Cyprus and Morocco which missed one subtopic, Biodiversity and Pollution, respectively (Table 2). The absence of the today important Biodiversity subtopic in the Cypriot current textbook can be due to the fact that this book was firstly published long time ago (in 1999), when this subtopic was not considered as important as it is nowadays, since the concept of Biodiversity was formally introduced in the American Forum of Biodiversity in 1986(Thompson & Starzomski, 2007). The absence of Pollution in Moroccan textbooks may be due to the low concern given in this country to this issue. None of the textbooks from non European countries presented the four subtopics (Table 2).

[Insert (190) and the Romanian one with more images (348). However the ratio of the number of images and pages (I/P) is the same in both Eastern and Western European countries (1.6), followed by NEc (1.4).

Figure 1 shows that the majority of the textbooks ( 18) have more images than pages (being the Lebanon-05 textbook the one with higher proportion of images: 3.5), whereas only seven (Lithuania, France-99, Italy-P, Senegal-86, Estonia, Cyprus and Morocco-S) have fewer images than pages. Textbooks from different regions (WEc, EEc and NEc) are mixed along the axes of Figure 1, showing that there is not a predominance of any region textbooks about higher or lower I/P ratio. These results, together with those shown on Table 2, indicate that no evident tendency of any region could be found in textbooks as far as the number of pages, images and I/P ratio is concerned.

[Insert figure 1 about here]

We analysed not only the number of pages and images (Table 2 and Figure 1) but also the space occupied by images and text (Table 3). For this, we made 3 groups concerning the proportion of text and image per page: Group A -text surface larger than image surface;

Group B -text surface equivalent to image surface; Group C -text surface shorter than image surface.

Textbooks from Western European countries, especially Italy and Malta, tend to have a balanced distribution among the three groups A, B and C (

[Insert table 3 about here]

Figures exemplify what the text is about and assist students in understanding and making sense. We agree with [START_REF] Pozzer | Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks[END_REF] when they refer that, on one side, the use of few images (as in textbooks: Morocco-S with I/P=0.2; Cyprus, I/P=0.05; Estonia I/P=0.6;

Senegal, I/P=0.06, Table 2 and Figure 1) often does not allow pupils to disclose what really matters and so the message may be missed; on the other side, too many illustrations (as in Lebanon-05 textbook, I/P=3.75; Hungary-03, I/P=2.9; Germany-05, I/P=0.5; Romania, I/P=2.7) may distract attention and students can miss important textual information.

Therefore, a balanced presence of images should be expected in textbooks.

However, more important than a quantitative analysis of images in the text is their relevance, meaning and implication for learning. Such qualitative approach is the matter of the subsequent analysis on human-nature relations, having in mind the five environmental education dimensions proposed by [START_REF] Sachs | Estratégias de transição para o século XXI: desenvolvimento e meioambiente [Transition strategies to the 21 st century: development and the environment[END_REF]: spatial, ecological, economical, social and cultural dimensions.

Local and foreign/global images

Images representing local and foreign environments may attract pupils' interest and challenge their curiosity and attention for the environment in general, instead of focusing only on their local, regional or national environment. We considered a foreign image if it exhibited clearly fauna, flora, geologic, geographic or cultural pictures from other countries or other world When mainly foreign images are shown, like in Lithuanian textbooks, pupils may get the message that these problems are not so serious in their own environment and, consequently, they may feel that the solution of these problems is of the responsibility of such faraway countries only and that they have no need for action. On the contrary, when pupils realize that the same problems facing their country (local) are evident all over the world (global), they can understand the need for coordinating efforts to provide sustainable solutions.

We think that textbooks for young people at the age of 14-16 years old should present local and foreign images in a balanced way so that they get aware of a wider reaching view of the geo-socio-cultural diversity of the world. This balance between local and foreign/global images is important for pupils, since on one hand the local context "provides the opportunity for generation of local knowledge informing and empowering action" (Gough, 2002a(Gough, , p. 1212)), on the other hand "thinking globally" allows "knowing and caring about the global dimensions and significance of environmental problems and issues" [START_REF] Gough | Thinking/acting locally/globally: Western science and environmental education in a global knowledge economy[END_REF](Gough, , p. 1218)).

For example, people can be educated/empowered to act at individual level (e.g. buying a low CO 2 emission car) to contribute for the prevention of the climate change at global level (Rabonovich et al., 2009). The slogan "Think globally, Act locally" used for the last three decades in environmental education is associated to the connections between local knowledge or experience and global needs or conditions. Different interpretations of this "thinking globally" has been a matter of deep analysis by several authors [START_REF] Yencken | Attitudes to nature in the East and West[END_REF]Gough, 2002a[START_REF] Gough | Thinking/acting locally/globally: Western science and environmental education in a global knowledge economy[END_REF], which goes beyond the scope of the present work.

Urban/rural and nature images

We found that urban and rural pictures in textbooks often convey human effects on ecosystems. In contrast, nature is usually presented in the absence of humans, not only in wilderness but also in town green spots and villages, such has public gardens and farms (Figure 3). In contrast, Eastern European countries and non-European countries present more images showing nature than urban/rural landscapes: Romania (nature 28 more times than urban/rural images), Senegal (15 more times), Estonia (8 more times), Morocco (15 more times), Lithuania (1.5 more times) and Hungary (1.1 more times) (Figure 4).

[Insert figure 4 about here]

The above mentioned disproportions of images in textbooks can shape public opinion that and (iv) neutral images, those images that do not transmit any of the above ideas.

Textbooks of Western European countries show a large proportion of negative impact (NI) plus human management (HM): Italy-G, France-99, Portugal, Malta, Italy-M, France-03, Germany, Italy-P and Italy-B (Figure 5). Together, these pictures express the message of the human power over the environment, in both negative and positive senses.

[Insert figure 5 about here]

Human management is absent in textbooks from Lithuania, Cyprus, Morocco and Italy-P expressing only the negative human influence (Figure 5). In these cases, pupils can interpret it as alarming messages suggesting that the environmental disturbance is so deep that this trend cannot be reversed and that humans can do very little or nothing for improving the situation.

Images that showed the beauty of nature (BN) and neutral images (Nt) are dominant in textbooks of Senegal and some Eastern European countries: Lithuania, Romania, Hungary, Estonia and Cyprus (Figure 5).

These results show that textbooks from Western European countries express anthropocentric view of environment, highlighting the capability of humans to use and control the natural processes in a desirable direction (Salite, 2002), contrasting with Eastern European countries and non-European countries which tend to show the environment more associated to the beauty of nature, with little humans' influence. Men and women in images with negative and positive impact

The gender issue must be viewed within a sustainable community where the selfdetermination of women, as well as men, is important for the well-being of human societies within the well-being of the entire Earth community (UNESCO 2003). In this study we looked at the presence of humans in environmental education images, looking particularly at men and women presence in negative and positive impact images. Negative images are those referred above (showing environmental damages caused by humans), positive images are those showing environmental improvement and well-being.

In general, persons do not appear frequently in environmental education images. From a total of 2136 images, men could be found in 157 images (7.4%) and women in 134 (6.3%), being the difference between groups not statistically significant (t-test: p>0.05). Similarly, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) between the presence of men (125 occurrences, 5.8%) and women (129 occurrences, 6.0%) in positive impact images. In contrast, considerably less persons could be found in negative impact images and significant differences could be found between gender groups (p<0.05), being more men (32, 1.5%) than women (5 occurrences, 0.4%), transmitting the idea that males, rather than females, are associated to the negative actions towards the environment.

There are some images where persons appear as victims of the degradation of the environment, as the example of the Hungarian textbook, where images exhibit children playing in a nearby polluted river or next to the dirty and polluted area of a chemical factory (Figure 6). However, most images expressing the human negative impact on the environment do not include persons but only machines and polluted areas, as in the textbooks from Senegal, Lithuania, Hungary, Italy-P, Italy-M and Estonia (Figure 7A).

[Insert figure 7 about here]

Interesting is the case of the Finish textbook that for the negative impact images showed only men (10 occurrences, Figure 7A) whereas for the positive impact showed more women (70 occurrences) than men (23 occurrences) (Figure 7B). Women in negative impact images were found only in Western European countries textbooks: Italy, Portugal, France-99 and Germany (Figure 7A).

In contrast to non-European countries, in European (both Western and Eastern countries) higher presence of women than men in some pictures could be found: Finland, Lithuania, Hungary, Italy-G, Italy-M, Malta and Portugal (Figure 7B).

The fact that men are strictly more frequently presented in negative impact images and women in positive impact ones, shows a clear association with the social representation of men and women in society: men with the male active role in society and women with a contemplative view in the beauty of nature.

General remarks and conclusions

The analysis of environmental education images in textbooks of 14 countries enabled us to distinguish some trends between Western and Eastern European countries and non-European countries. Although no differences could be found in the number of pages, of images and in I/P ratio between textbooks of the various regions, Eastern European countries textbooks tend to have the pages occupied with more text than images, in contrast to non-European countries that tend to have the opposite, more images than text. The Western European countries distribute text and images more evenly. In contrast to the textbooks from Eastern and non-European countries, which tend to

show the beauty of nature with little humans' influence, Western European textbooks tend to exhibit more images of urban/rural landscape (rather than nature), of human negative impact and of human management, expressing an anthropocentric view about the environment and highlighting the human power over it, either in destroying and consuming resources (negative impact) or improving the environment by managing it (positive impact).

Men are usually more present in textbook images than women. However, some images exhibiting more women than men could be found in textbooks from Western and Eastern countries, but never in non-European countries. In negative impact pictures, men are more often present than women, but non-European women are never present in such images.

Women are more frequent in positive impact images than men.

In brief, this study on textbooks addressed to 14-16 years old pupils suggests that most countries should introduce a better balance between local and global images.

  in environmental education: the anthropocentrism and the ecocentrism. The former

  The role of the Images in School Science Textbooks for Environmental Education

  was available. The other two criteria for the textbooks selection

  than females, are associated to the negative actions towards the environment.

  a major issue nowadays and textbooks are good tools to contribute to children's and young people's learning and acquiring competences and willingness for environmental protection and management. According to[START_REF] Sachs | Estratégias de transição para o século XXI: desenvolvimento e meioambiente [Transition strategies to the 21 st century: development and the environment[END_REF], to reach environmental sustainability it is necessary to consider simultaneously five dimensions: spatial, economical, ecological, social and cultural dimensions. The spatial dimension incorporates a balanced configuration of the local-global and rural-urban issues; the economical dimension looks at the possibility of efficient allocation and management of resources; the ecological dimension involves research and measures not only to reduce resources consumption but also to intensify resource saving technologies, in order to define rules allowing an appropriate environmental protection; the social dimension aims at reducing distance between life pattern of social groups; the cultural dimensions cover the acknowledgement of the peculiarity of each ecosystem, culture and local history.

  textbooks should give balanced importance to either local or foreign/global images as we observed in textbooks from Hungary, Germany, Italy and Lebanon.

  , J.(1992). Think globally ? Act locally? Towards an international red-green movement.Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, 3(4), 1-7. Oliveira, M.I. & Bizzo, N. (2005). O Discurso da Sustentabilidade, Educação Ambiental e a Formação de Professores de Biologia [The Discours of Sustainability, Environmental Education and Biology Teachers Training]. Ensenanza de las Ciências, Numero extra, 1-5. Pozzer, L.L. & Roth, W.M. (2003). Prevalence, function, and structure of photographs in high school biology textbooks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40, 1089-1114. Prokop, P., Tolarovičová, A., Camerik, A., Peterková, V. (2010). High school students' attitudes towards spiders: A cross-cultural comparison. International Journal of Science Education,32, 1665-1688. Rehman-Sutter, C. (2000). Biological Organicism and the Ethics of the Human-Nature Relationship. Theory Biosciences, 119, 334-354. Sachs, I. (1993) Estratégias de transição para o século XXI: desenvolvimento e meio-ambiente [Transition strategies to the 21 st century: development and the environment]. São Paulo: Nobel/Fundap. Salīte, I. (2002). Teachers' views on the aim of education for sustainable development. Journal of Teacher Education and Training, 1, 68-81. Salīte, I. & Klepere, R. (2003). Biotism as a ground for the evocation of reflection in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education and Training, 3, 44-58. Sørensen, H. (2007) Gender inclusive science education? In D. Corrigan, J. Dillon & R. Gunstone (Eds.) The re-emergence of values in science education (pp. 249-267). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Figure 1 .Figure 2 .Figure 3 .Figure 4 .Figure 5 .Figure 6 .Figure 7 .

 1234567 Figure 1. Proportion of the number of images and pages addressing EnvironmentalEducation in 25 textbooks from 14 Countries.

  Environmental education nowadays intends to provide people with an understanding of their natural and cultural environment and to enable the development of new rules, practices and values, encouraging the sustainable use and development of natural resources and the improvement of quality of life for all living beings(Obara et al., 2009). Responsible environmental action requires serious reasoning about environmental issues.[START_REF] Drummond | Sustainable development: the impasse and beyond from The Condition of Sustainability[END_REF] discuss two alternative and extreme positions on sustainability, grounded on two philosophical positions, anthropocentrism and ecocentrism, respectively, soft and hard sustainability. The main task of soft sustainability is prevention of catastrophe for human society accepting science and modern technologies and intergeneration distribution treated lower environmental risk. The main task of hard sustainability is promotion of society in harmony with supporting ecosystems and questions science for seeking alternative technologies.

  example, Lithuania textbooks show images from Brazil, Burkina Faso, Denmark, Great Britain and India.In general, greater emphasis on local images rather than to foreign or global images is given in textbooks (Figure2): Italy-G, Senegal, Romania, Estonia, Finland, France-03, Italy-P, Malta, Morocco, Portugal and France-99. In contrast, the Lithuanian textbook is the only one giving much higher emphasis to foreign images. Other five textbooks have equal proportion of local and foreign/global images (Figure2): Hungary, Germany, Italy-B, Italy-M and Lebanon.[Insert figure2about here]

[

  Insert figure 3 about here]Results showed a strict cultural difference between textbooks from all Western European countries and those from Eastern European countries and non-European countries as far as the presence of urban/rural images versus nature images are concerned. The former countries exhibit more images of urban/rural landscape rather than nature (Figure4): Italy-G (urban/rural images 61 more times than nature), France-03 (1.1 more times), France-99 (11.5 more times), Malta (3.2 more times), Italy-M (5.6 more times), Portugal (3.3 more times), Italy-B (1.2 more times), Finland (1.1 more times), Italy-P (1.1 more times), Germany (4.0 more times).

Figure 1 .Figure 2 .Figure 3 .Figure 4 .Figure 5 .Figure 6 .Figure 7 .

 1234567 Figure 1. Proportion of the number of images and pages addressing EnvironmentalEducation in 25 textbooks from 14 Countries.

table 1

 1

	about here]

The four subtopics (Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystem and Cycles and Biodiversity), targeting around 14-16 years-old pupils, were found in textbooks of all countries, except those from Cyprus and Morocco which missed one subtopic, Biodiversity and Pollution,

Table 2

 2

	, last column). In contrast, the

  It was considered to be a foreign image if it exhibited clearly fauna, flora, geologic or geographic pictures from other countries or other world regions. For example, Lithuania textbooks showed images from Brazil, Burkina Faso, Denmark, Great Britain and India. In general, a greater emphasis on local images was given rather than to foreign or global images (Figure2). The majority of countries emphasise the local images: Italy-G, Senegal,

	4.2.1. Local and foreign/global images
	F o r F o r
	P P
	e e
	e r Hungary, Germany, Italy-B, Italy-M and Lebanon (Figure 2). e r
	R R
	e [Insert figure 2 about here] e
	v i e w v i e Following the remark by Girdwidz et al. (2006) that learning in "virtual" environments should be always complemented with "real" experiments in order to promote pupils' w
	O n l abilities and skills in planning, realizing, and verifying the results from virtual situations, similarly, learning from "visual" material of textbooks should be also complemented with O n l
	y "real" experience of pupils in order to promote their ecological viewpoint and skills in y
	tackling local or global ecological problems. In other words, balanced images representing
	local and foreign environments may attract students' interest and challenge their
	curiosity and attention for the environment in general, instead of focusing only on their
	local, regional or national environment. The coexistence of local and foreign
	Biodiversity. environments in textbook images can be considered as an attempt to point towards

countries refer to the human-nature relationship, within the four subtopics of environmental education: Pollution, Use of Resources, Ecosystems and Cycles, and Romania, Estonia, Finland, France-03, Italy-P, Malta, Morocco, Portugal and France-99. In contrast, the Lithuanian textbook is the only one giving much higher emphasis to foreign images. Other five textbooks have equal proportion of local and foreign/global images:

  , N). Neutral images and those on the

	beauty of nature dominated in textbooks of Senegal and some Eastern European
	countries (Cyprus, Romania, Lithuania, Hungary and Estonia).
		[Insert figure 5 about here]
	Negative impact was present in all countries textbooks. Western European countries
	textbooks (Italy-G, France-99, Portugal, Malta, Italy-M, France-03 and Germany) F presented a large proportion of both negative impact and human management pictures, o r expressing the message about human power to change environment in both negative and
	P positive trends. Human management was absent in textbooks from four countries:
	e Lithuania, Cyprus, Morocco and Italy-P. Strong, powerful negative impact images can be e r inadequate for environmental education as pupils can interpret them as alarming
	R message suggesting that the environmental disturbance is so deep that this trend cannot
	e be reversed and that humans can do very little or nothing for improving the situation.
	v i e 4.2.4. Presence of humans in images: images having men/ women in negative and
	positive impact	w
		O n l
		y

uk International Journal of Science Education

	environmental issues than boys
	F o r
	P
	e
	e r
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	e
	v i e
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	y

Page 17 of 70 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/tsed Email: editor_ijse@hotmail.co.

Environmental Education and Sustainable Development in images of textbooks from European and non-European countries: Analysis of spatial, ecological, economical, social and cultural dimensions TablesTable 1 .

 1 Schultz, P. W., Shriver, C., Tabanico, J.J. & Khazian, A.M. (2004). Implicit connections with nature.Vargas, L. (2005). Educação ambiental: a base para uma acção político/transformadora na sociedade [Environmental Education: A basis for a political/transforming action in society]. The part of the grid constructed by the European project BIOHEAD-CITIZEN "Content of images: Humans and Nature" used in the present study.

	Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24, 31-42.
	Schroeder, H.W. (2007). Place experience, gestalt, and the human-nature relationship. Journal of Revista Electrónica do mestrado em Educação Ambiental, 15, 72-79.
	Environmental Psychology, 27, 293-309. WCED -World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future,
	Seppanen, J. & Valiverronen, E. (2003). Visualizing biodiversity: the role of photographs in Oxford University Press, Oxford.
	F o r environmental discourse. Science as Culture, Vol. 12, (1), 59-85. Sivek, D. J. (2002). Environmental sensitivity among Wisconsin high school students. Environmental Education Research, 8, 155-170. F o r Woollcombe, D. (2002). Whither Education for Sustainable Development. Applied Environmental Education and Communication, 1, 17-19. F o r F o r
		P P P P
		e e e e
	Images of local environments Images of "exotic" environments Images illustrating the negative human impact Images emphasizing the beauty of nature Images illustrating human management of environment	e r R e v i e w e r R e v i e w e r R e v i e w Images of natural environments Images of nature with human activities Urban environment e r R e v i e w	Rural landscapes	Humans in environments M F M+F
		O n l O n l O n l O n l
			y y y y
	UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2003). Gender and
	education for all: The leap to equality. Paris: UNESCO.
	UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2004). United Nations
	Decade of Education for Sustainable development 2005-2014: Draft International
	Implementation Scheme. UNESCO.

Schultz, P. W. (2000)

. Empathizing with nature: The effects of perspective taking on concern for environmental issues. Journal of Social

Issues, 56, 391-406. Thompson, R. & Starzomski, B.M. (2007)

. What does biodiversity actually do? A review for managers and policy makers. Biology and Conservation, 16, pp. 1359-1378. Tracana, R.B. (2009). Educação Ambiental no ensino básico e secundário: Concepções de professores e análise de manuais escolares [Environmental education in primary and secondary education: Teachers' conceptions and textbooks analysis]. PhD thesis. Braga: University of Minho. UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1980). Environmental education in the light of the Tbilisi Conference. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1992). The UN Conference on Environment and Development: a Guide to Agenda 21, UN Publication Service, Geneva.

Table 2 .

 2 Number of pages and images addressing the four subtopics of Ecology and Environmental Education in 25 textbooks from 14 Countries.

		Country	Number of Pages (P) Pol UR EC Bio Total Pol UR EC Number of Images (I) Bio Total	I/P
	1	Cyprus (1999)	112	23	55	-	190	16	24	55	-	95	0.5
	2	Estonia (2002)	17	4	12	23	56	13	2	10	6	31	0.6
	3	Finland (2004)	59	25	-	-	84	137	47	-	-	184	2.2
	4	Finland (2005)	-	-	18	14	32	-	-	30	30	60	1.9
	5	France (2003)	10	5	5	7	27	22	5	5	6	38	1.4
	6	France (1999)	10	4	33	12	59	25	3	9	14	51	0.9
	7	Germany (1994)	11	7	47	-	65	8	19	60	-	87	1.3
	8	Germany (2005)	-	-	-	19	19	-	-	-	54	54	2.8
	9	Hungary (2003)	4	-	4	3	11	13	-	13	6	32	2.9
	10	Hungary (2004)	-	22	-	-	22	-	37	-	-	37	1.7
	11	Italy-G (2004)	7	2	34	6	49	8	2	57	8	75	1.5
	12	Italy-M (2000)	7	9	28	9	53	19	18	63	9	109	2.1
	13	Italy-B (2004)	20	60	36	18	134	31	95	57	20	203	1.5
	14	Italy-P (2001)	18	18	16	3	55	5	9	29	3	46	0.8
	15	Lebanon (2001)	-	-	33	15	48	-	-	44	23	67	1.4
	16	Lebanon (2004)	56	-	-	-	56	74	-	-	-	74	1.3
	17	Lebanon (2005)	-	4	-	-	4	-	14	-	-	14	3.5
	18	Lithuania (2000)	7	12	11	3	33	7	8	15	1	31	0.9
	19	Malta (1986)	8	4	39	6	57	14	12	67	11	104	1.8
	20	Morocco-A (2005)	-	9	78	-	87	-	29	189	-	218	2.5
	21	Morocco-S (2005)	-	-	-	57	57	-	-	-	12	12	0.2
	22	Portugal (2004)	17	8	10	6	41	23	8	9	5	45	1.1
	23	Romania (2000)	12	3	30	83	128	19	9	125	195	348	2.7
	24	Senegal (1986)	5	-	139	15	159	4	-	58	35	97	0.6
	25	Senegal (1996)	-	13	-	-	13	-	24	-	-	24	1.8
		TOTAL 380 232 628 299 1539 438 365 895	438 2136	---

Environmental Education and Sustainable Development in images of textbooks from European and non-European countries: Analysis of spatial, ecological, economical, social and cultural dimensions

	Figures
	0,0

  1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development

	F o r
	P
	e
	e r
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	e
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	issued the Brundtland report, "Our Common Future", which proposes some advances towards
	sustainability, i.e. sustainable development (SD), or development that meets 'the needs of the
	present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'

(WCED, 1987, p. 12)

. It includes three dimensions (environmental responsibility, economic return and social development) and five areas for SD: (i) economic growth; (ii) equity, i.e. a fair allocation of resources to sustain growth; (iii) more democratic systems; (iv) adoption of 3 lifestyles within the planet ecological means; (iv) population levels within the productive potential of ecosystems. Despite its commendable objectives, the Brundtland Report (WCED,

  who see themselves as more connected to nature score higher on measures of ecocentric concern and lower on measures of utilitarian or anthropocentric perspective with respect to environmental problems. In addition, Schults and collaborators (2004) have found that believing in oneself as being included in nature vary in different cultures and may be influenced by situational and environmental factors, for example, people who live in large cities and are distanced from the natural world might see themselves as less connected to nature. Similarly,Hernández and collaborators (2007) have found that place attachment and place identity in natives and non-natives is an affective factor for sensibility and deeper look into environmental problems.

	F o r
	P
	e
	e r
	R
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	v i e
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	have shown that people

  concept in the comprehension of evolution and of the policies of control and ecological management; (iii) Pollution, as the introduction of contaminants causing harm to the environment; (iv) and the Use of Resources, which are important topics involving values and beliefs, and that are central in the education for a sustainable future. In the present study we analysed these four important environmental education topics in textbooks of 14 countries from Western Europe, Eastern Europe and outside Europe. citizenship can be promoted through biology, health and environmental education. It is intended to improve the understanding across different disciplines and across different

	F o r Furthermore, the textbook analysis focused the five dimensions required to reach environmental sustainability (Sachs, 1993): spatial, economical, ecological, social and F o r
	P P
	e e
	e r e r
	R R
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	v i e v i e
	w w
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	y y
	The present study was developed within the large European project BIOHEAD-
	CITIZEN (FP6, STREP CIT2-CT-2004-506015; Carvalho, 2004) involving nineteen
	countries: thirteen European countries (Cyprus, Estonia, England, Finland, France, Germany,

: (i) Ecosystems, particularly related with the dynamics of systems; (ii) Biodiversity, as a central cultural dimensions. The (i) spatial dimension incorporates a balanced configuration of the local versus global and urban/rural versus natural environment; (ii) the economical dimension looks at the human management of resources; (iii) the ecological dimension involves research and measures not only to reduce resources consumption but also to intensify resource saving technologies, in order to define rules allowing an appropriate environmental protection; (iv) the social dimension aims at reducing distance between life pattern of social groups; and (v) the cultural dimensions cover the acknowledgement of the peculiarity of each ecosystem, culture and local history. In this study we carried out quantitative and qualitative analyses of images on the topic environmental education in textbooks of 14 countries, having focused on: (i) local and foreign/global images; (ii) urban/rural and nature images; (iii) negative impact, human management and the beauty of nature; and (iv) men and women in images with negative and positive impact. Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Portugal and Romania), five African countries (Algeria, Morocco, Mozambique, Tunisia and Senegal) and one from the Middle East (Lebanon). The aim of this project is to deepen the understanding of how different aspects of

Table 1 :

 1 (i) local and "exotic" (foreign/global) environments; (ii) natural (with or without humans) and urban/rural environments; (iii) negative impact, human management and the beauty of nature; and (iv)

	F o r
	P
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	e r
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	y

table 2 about here]

  Of the analysed textbooks, those from Eastern European countries (EEc) have more pages (mean = 73.3, Table2) and more images (95.7) than those from Non-European countries (NEc) (60.6 and 72.4, respectively) and Western European countries (WEc) (56.3 and 88.0, respectively). In the EEc group, the Cypriote textbook is the one contributing with more pages

	F o r
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Table 3

 3 Use of Resources and 33% for Biodiversity) whereas non-European countries have higher proportion of Group C (29% for Pollution, 29% for Use of Resources, 25% for Ecology and Cycles, and 32% for Biodiversity). These results indicate that Eastern European countries textbooks tend to have the pages occupied with more text than images, in contrast to non-European countries that tend to have the opposite: more images than text. The Western European countries distribute text and images more evenly.

	F o r
	P
	e
	e r
	R
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	v i e
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	y

). In contrast, Eastern European countries tend to have higher proportions of Group A (42% for Pollution, 56% for

  Rehmann-Sutter (2000), can promote the idea that nature exists and develops by itself without intervention of human beings.

	Negative impact, human management and the beauty of nature
	Images could be classified in four categories: (i) negative impact, images showing
	environmental damages caused by humans; (ii) human management, images showing
	F humans' supervision and improvement of the environment; (iii) beauty of nature, images o r conveying aesthetics messages and expressing implicitly the importance of protecting nature;
	P
	e
	e r
	R
	e
	v i e
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	y
	nature (predominant in textbooks of Eastern European countries and non-European countries)
	is the opposite to socio-economic development (European countries) and, as noticed by

Trend in environmental education images of textbooks from Western and Eastern European countries and non-European countries TablesTable 1 .

 1 Part of the grid constructed by the European project BIOHEAD-CITIZEN "Content of images: Humans and Nature" (above) and "Density of text and images for subtopic" (below) used in the present study

	Page 59 of 70
	countries: Nicos Valanides (Cyprus), Kai Pata and Tago Saraparuu (Estonia), Anna-Liisa
	Kosonen (Finland), Pierre Clément (France-Lyon), Claude Caussidier and Daniel Favre
	(France-Montpellier), Christine Geier and Franz Bogner (Germany), Dániel Horváth and
	Attila Varga (Hungary), Silvia Caravita (Italy), Iman Khalil (Lebanon), Paul Pace (Malta),
	Sabah Selmaoui (Morocco), Adrienne Kozan (Romania), Mame Seyni Thiaw and Valdiodio
	Ndiaye (Senegal).
	F o r F o r F o r F o r F o r F o r F Images of natural environments o Images of local environments r Images of "exotic"	Images of nature with human activities	Urban environment	Rural landscapes	Humans in environments M F M+F
	environments Images illustrating the negative human impact	P P P P P P P
	Images emphasizing the beauty of nature Images illustrating human management of environment	e e r e e r e e r e e r e e r e e r e e r
	Textbooks from Eastern European countries and non-European countries should give more emphasis to both human management and urban/rural images whereas those from Western European countries and women in images (either with negative or positive impact) should be a matter of greater w w w w w w w should pay attention to the beauty of nature. Furthermore, a balance in the presence of men R e v i e R e v i e R e v i e R e v i e R e v i e R e v i e R e e i v Chapter devoted to (title of chapter) Number of pages (or 1/2 pages) per part, or number of paragraphs (specify) Surface of Surface of Surface of Pages Only text > > > > text = text < < < < Only (pp… to pp…) text surface of images images images surface of surface of images
	concern by all textbooks authors and publishers.	O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l O n l
						y y y y y y y

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uk International Journal of Science Education

	F o r
	P
	e
	e r
	R
	e
	v i e
	w
	O n l
	y

Table 2 .

 2 Number of pages and images addressing the four subtopics Pollution (Pol), Use of Resources (UR), Ecosytems and cycles (EC) and Biodiversity (Bio) in 25 textbooks from 14 Countries.

	Textbook presenting the four subtopics.

Table 3 .

 3 Proportion of text/image surface per page in each subtopic: Pollution (Pol), Use of Resources (UR), Ecological cycles (EC) and Biodiversity (Bio).

	Senegal (1996)

Trend in environmental education images of textbooks from Western and Eastern European countries and non-European countries

	Figures
	0,0

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-100 -60 -100

9-100 -125 -100

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work had the financial support of the European project FP6 Biohead-Citizen CIT2-CT-2004-506015 and the Portuguese FCT project ("Analysis of school textbooks" PTDC/CED/65224/200). The authors particularly thank the colleagues who gathered data or coordinated this process concerning the topic "Environmental Education" in the textbooks of their respective countries: Nicos Valanides (Cyprus), Kai Pata and Tago Saraparuu (Estonia), Anna-Liisa Kosonen (Finland), Pierre Clément (France-Lyon), Claude Caussidier and Daniel Favre (France-Montpellier), Christine Geier and Franz Bogner (Germany), Dániel Horváth and Attila Varga (Hungary), Silvia Caravita (Italy), Iman Khalil (Lebanon), Paul Pace (Malta), Sabah Selmaoui (Morocco), Adrienne Kozan (Romania), Mame Seyni Thiaw and Valdiodio Ndiaye (Senegal). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work had the financial support of the European project FP6 Biohead-Citizen CIT2-CT-2004-506015 and the Portuguese FCT project ("Analysis of school textbooks" PTDC/CED/65224/200).

The authors particularly thank the colleagues who gathered data or coordinated this process concerning the topic "Environmental Education" in the textbooks of their respective

Sivek, D.J. (2002). Environmental sensitivity among Wisconsin high school students.

Environmental Education Research, 8, 155-170. Sneddon, C., Howarth, R.B., & Norgaard, R.B. (2006). Sustainable development in a post-Brundtland world. Ecological Economics, 57, 253-268. Stapp, W.B., Havlick, S., Bennett, D., Bryan, W. Jr., Fulton, J, MacGregor, J., Nowak, P., Swan, J., & Wall, R. (1969). The Concept of Environmental Education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 1 (1), 30-31. Thompson, R., & Starzomski, B.M. (2007). What does biodiversity actually do? A review for managers and policy makers. Biology and Conservation, 16, 1359-1378. Tracana, R.B., Ferreira, C., Ferreira, M.E. & Carvalho, G.S. (2008) Pollution topic in Portuguese primary and secondary textbooks of Biology and Geography. International Research in Geography and Environmental Education, 17 (3), 199-211. Tracana, R.B. (2009). Educação Ambiental no ensino básico e secundário: Concepções de professores e análise de manuais escolares [Environmental education in primary and secondary education: Teachers' conceptions and textbooks analysis]. PhD thesis. (Braga: University of Minho). [in Portuguese] UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1980). Environmental education in the light of the Tbilisi Conference (Paris: UNESCO). UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1992). The UN Conference on Environment and Development: a Guide to Agenda 21 (Geneva: UN Publication Service). UNESCO -United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2003). Gender and education for all: The leap to equality. Paris: UNESCO. WCED -World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Page 57 of 70 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/tsed Email: editor_ijse@hotmail.co.uk International Journal of Science Education

Textbook presenting the four subtopics.

Non-European countries (NEc)

Lebanon ( 1999)