Sophie Chiari

The Limner's Art in Shakespeare's Macbeth

For all its Protestant mistrust of images, Elizabethan and Jacobean England was fascinated by the visual arts and, as Horst Bredekamp puts it, paradoxically "reinforce [d] what it reject[ed]" (2015, 169). While continental treatises like Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo's A tracte containing the artes of curious paintinge caruinge buildinge, translated by Richard Haydock in 1598, "introduced the English-reading public to the theory of linear perspective" (Elam 2017, 9), the first original texts in English on the arts of drawing and painting began to circulate in print. A man of his time, Shakespeare could hardly ignore these new discourses on pictures, as his frequent and expert use of iconographic references and technical terms testifies (ibid., 10). It is with this context in mind that I intend to reassess the style and aesthetics of Macbeth in connection with early modern pictorial techniques.

" [W]hy do I yield to that suggestion / Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair [?]" (1.3.136-37, my emphasis), 1 Macbeth wonders after he has heard the predictions of the witches.

Ghastly, albeit sophisticated, visual images abound in Shakespeare's Scottish tragedy.

Overwhelmed by the evil forces that they have unleashed and that are now crushing them, the Macbeths are ironically reduced to miniatures in the last act of the play. As the plot thickens, they are indeed gradually downsized and seem hopelessly dwarfed in the end: "Now does he feel his title / Hang loose about him, like a giant's robe / Upon a dwarfish thief" (5.2.20-22), Angus says of the titular character.

How then should we understand the idea of "miniature" in the early modern period? The word was first used by Edward Norgate in connection with "limning" in a treatise written around 1627, Miniatura or the art of limning. Yet, limning originally referred to a technique rather than to a small size painting and it designated "the cleanly, discreet art of watercolour" (Coombs 2009, 78), an art that took up "neither undue space nor time" (ibid.). Sixteenth-and seventeenth-century painters could rely on a number of treatises to improve their practice.

primarily concerned with heraldic texts and ornamental motifs rather than with portrait limning), limners are advised to first "draw [their] worke [s] with a pencell of blacke lead," then to "ingrosse" their "gould and silver." Once that stage is completed, limners can "lay [their] colours" and "purfle them about the sides with blacke inke." Finally, they may "diaper them over with whyte coloure" before "vernish[ing] them over wyth good old glayre" (fol xjv).

In early modern England, "picturing" could take on different shapes and apply to several arts. Alexander Marr rightfully reminds us that a "picture" could designate a "miniature" as well as a "theatrical event," and that Inigo Jones saw the masque as "nothing else but pictures with light and motion" (Marr 2016, 375). Similarly, I would like to suggest that Macbeth can be defined as a picture with light, colors and motion. In that perspective, the tragedy's visual rhetoric may be linked to Shakespeare's palette and the playwright's method of composition compared to that of the limner.3

Step 1: "[D]raw thy worke with a pencell of black lead" Critics who focus on the predominance of obscurity in the play have interpreted the tragedy as an intimist one or as a night piece4 which points to the dark inwardness of the Macbeth couple. This reading has led to successful stage productions by such eminent directors as

Trevor Nunn (at The Other Place in 1976) and Gregory Doran (at the Swan in 1999), who both re-interpreted Macbeth as a chamber play.

In point of fact, as he drew/wrote his own piece, Shakespeare seems to have started by delineating the darkest lines of his plot. Anyone commenting on Macbeth unmistakably notes the somber character of his tragic universe and its subtle interplay of light and darkness. 5 If for early modern painters, black "denot[ed] sadnesse, griefe" (Peacham 1612, 147), Shakespeare associates it with evil much more than with sadness in his play ("The devil damn thee black," 5.3.11). "Stars, hide your fires, / Let not light see my black and deep desires" (1.4.50-51), Macbeth exclaims in the opening act. This not only foregrounds the importance of darkness in connection with Macbeth's devilish intentions, but also functions as a metatheatrical reference to the Globe where the underside of the roof, which covered part of the stage, was studded with painted stars. Macbeth calls for a starless night in order to hatch his plot and bring about the prophecies of the weird sisters. Doing so, he threatens to darken the theatrical space in which his actions are staged. This suggests a deliberate use of white and dark hues by the playwright, with particular emphasis on light in darkness. In a number of scenes, daylight is rapidly fading 6 while, in others, night has already fallen. If/when performed inside, the nocturnal scenes would have looked perfectly suited to the general atmosphere of the playing space. Closed performing areas were lit by candlelight and "candles could be snuffed or removed" (Leggatt 2006, 89). 7 On the contrary, when performed in full daylight at the Globe, the play's darkness must have been "theatrically conjured rather than literally provided," as John Mullan explains (2016, n.p.). This is corroborated by Macbeth's "Out, out brief candle" speech in which light is openly associated with stage business (5.5.22-24).

As Emma Smith observes, "[t]he play's plot, structural and ethical, is […] encapsulated in the struggle between night and day" (2013, 144). 8 The succession, and sometimes confusion, of day and night further suggests the intense internal struggle fought by the protagonists.

Significantly, the tragedy begins with a storm ("thunder and lightning"), probably materialized onstage by fireworks generating a fetid smoke that made the audience immediately realize that the Scottish climate as depicted by Shakespeare was a deeply disturbed one. 9 The three witches' eerie refrain ("Fair is foul, and foul is fair," 1.1.9) 10 points to an upside down situation which is unwittingly echoed by Macbeth later on as he meets Banquo: "So foul and fair a day I have not seen " (1.3.38). Night and day thus constantly seem to fight against each other, lending cosmic as well as biblical undertones to the tragedy. Armelle Sabatier reminds us that "[t]he conventional opposition between darkness and light stems from the opening lines of […] Genesis when the world was created thanks to the coming of light over darkness" (2017, 71). Seen in this perspective, Macbeth presents us with 6 See 1.1.5; 1.6 where the use of "torches" suggests that night is falling; or 3.3.5. 7 The tragedy, composed around 1606, was obviously not written for the Blackfriars, since the King's Men only acquired it in 1608. However, some critics think that the play was performed at the court of James I. 8 In connection with this, it may be worth noting that Shakespeare's contemporaries, including the encyclopedist Stephen Batman, saw black and white as the two main dyes of the color spectrum (1582, fols. 388r and 389r). 9 In Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles (1577), Shakespeare's main source, the weather becomes dark and cloudy after Duncan's murder (1978, 483-84). In Shakespeare's tragedy, the terrible weather plaguing the "unruly" night described by Lennox (2.3.54) is concomitant with the murder, and the "strange screams of death" (2.3.56, my emphasis) he mentions suggest supernatural occurrences not unlike those depicted in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar just before the assassination of the title character. 10 The "fair is foul" phrase can be found in an earlier poem by Giles Fletcher entitled "Galatea" (1593, 58). If Shakespeare knew Fletcher's poem, he dramatized and re-contextualized the poetic formula of his predecessor.

a reversed Genesis, one in which darkness dims light and foreshadows the tragic events to come.

As a result, light is used as a means of underscoring the pictorial effects of the scenes and gives Shakespeare's playtext a peculiar dramatic intensity. Some limners, at the time, sought to create a contrast between their handling of light and the dark background of their pictures.

If Nicholas Hilliard (1547-1619) strongly disapproved of vague, impure lines, 11 his pupil Isaac Oliver (1565-1617) did use the chiaroscuro technique (an effect borrowed from large scale oil paintings) in some of his works, thereby paving the way for a shift in taste at the turn of the century. 12 In his Jacobean tragedy, Shakespeare appears to be yet another precursor of the chiaroscuro, albeit not exactly the one used by Caravaggio. 13 Later exponents of the Utrecht school such as Gerrit van Honthorst (1590-1656) or Hendrick Terbrugghen (c. 1588-1629) created night scenes in which artificial sources of light, such as torches or candles, illuminate part of the painting to make it stand out against the dark background. Act 5, scene 5 of Macbeth, which includes the "Out, out brief candle" speech and where tapers signal a night-time setting as much as the titular character's extinguishing life, contains similar effects.

Step 2: "[I]ngrosse [thy gould and silver] with a sharpe knife" Most early modern treatises devoted to painting techniques point to the importance of gold and silver in the limning practice of the time. Henry Peacham's The art of drawing with the pen, and limming in water colours contains a chapter entitled "Of guilding or the ordering of gold and silver in water colors" (1606, 49). A painter and a jeweler obsessed with glittering light, Hilliard used gold and silver in his paintings, thus following in Holbein's footsteps (Jones and Stallybrass 2003, 41). 14 Gold was for him a means of highlighting certain parts of the picture as well as of turning it into a jewel-like work. 15 He used it as a metal rather than as a powdered pigment (Fumerton 1991, 78) and he painted gold and silver lines around the 11 Rejecting the use of shadows and chiaroscuro, he "celebrate [d] the truth of the line as opposed to sfumato" (Costa de Beauregard 2015, paragraph 10). 12 See for instance Isaac Oliver, "Unknown Woman, known as Frances Howard," c. 1596-1600. Watercolor on vellum (dia. 130 mm). 13 On Shakespeare's "Caravaggesque effect," see for instance Geraldo U. de Sousa's analysis in connection with Othello (2016, 96). 14 On gold and silver as essential to the limner's art, see Dulac 2015, especially paragraphs 6 and 7. 15 One may note, in connection with this, that Macbeth includes a cluster of images related to jewelry (2.1.15; 3.4.113; 5.9.22).

edges of his miniatures so as to give them lustre, a technique that, in all likelihood, did not go unnoticed to the playwright. 16 Shakespeare himself relies on golden shades to highlight some of his scenes and to aestheticize the violence of his characters. Early on in the play, Lady Macbeth designates the much-coveted crown as a "golden round" (1.5.28) which will unleash the ambitious desires of the Macbeths and cause their downfall; then, during "the show of eight kings" (4.1.110 s.d.), Banquo's crown "sears [Macbeth's] eyeballs" (4.1.112). In the long opening scene of the play, Macbeth acknowledges his reluctance to kill Duncan in significant terms:

He hath honoured me of late, and I have bought Golden opinions from all sorts of people, Which would be worn now in their newest gloss [.] (1.7.32-34, my emphasis)

Macbeth values these golden opinions and would be loath to see them lose their lustre. It is thus particularly ironical that, in her preparation of the murder, his wife should take up the same clothing imagery and proceed to actualize (or un-metaphor) it. 17 Indeed, as she prepares to smear the servants with blood to have them accused in the place of her husband, she announces that she will "gild" their faces during their sleep (2.2.57) with a quibble on "guild" and "guilt": (2.2.56-58) This passage will later on be echoed by the eerie description of "Duncan's golden blood"

(2.3.113); yet here, gold already seems transmuted into blood, a transformation facilitated by the fact that "old gold was red" (Clark and Mason 2015, note to 2.2.57-58, 182). Indeed, red components "were often ingredients in recipes to produce gold pigment" (Smith 2016, 40) at the time and the "correspondence between blood, red, and gold in the worldview of early modern metalworkers" in the sixteenth century is now well documented (ibid.). 16 See Beauregard 1991, 185, note 57;Kinney 1983, 85;and, more broadly, on Hilliard's technique, Dulac 2015. 17 On the "unmetaphoring" technique, see Colie 1974, 145. We should also remember that limning was narrowly correlated with the technique of blazoning arms (Coombs 2009, 80) where "gules" (the heraldic term for red) was often paired with gold, an association familiar to Elizabethan playgoers. 18 Shakespeare himself took a strong interest in heraldic devices since he probably "devised the coat of arms for the Shakespeare family approved by the Garter King of Arms on 20 October 1596" (Elam 2017, 37). 19 In Macbeth, red and gold are paired to become part and parcel of a form of tragic heraldry. Subsequently, the grooms are depicted by Lennox as "badged with blood" (2.3.103, my emphasis) and the image resurfaces when Macbeth hurriedly designates them as Duncan's murderers: "there, the murderers, / Steeped in the colours of their trade, their daggers / Unmannerly breeched with gore" (2.3.115-17, my emphasis). If Holinshed insisted on the bloody sight of the murdered king, he did not allude to heraldic emblems as, in his Chronicles, Donwald (the counterpart of Shakespeare's Macbeth) simply "break[s] into the chamber" and finds "cakes of bloud on the bed, and on the floore about the sides of it" (1978, 483). In Shakespeare's tragedy, the same gruesome scene is rendered in highly visual terms by Lennox and Macbeth who coin a heraldry of blood strongly reminiscent of Hamlet and its description of Pyrrhus's "complexion smeared / With heraldry more dismal" (2.2.360-61). 20 In both plays, heraldry lionizes and ritualizes pointless destruction and allows the speakers to describe offstage violence through powerful images. 21 As already noted, this aestheticization of violence through golden hues resurfaces in the play when, in Macbeth's description, Duncan's "silver skin" and "golden blood" (2.3.113) add a preternatural touch to the scene while suggesting the hallucinations of the murderer:

[…] Here lay Duncan, His silver skin laced with his golden blood, And his gashed stabs looked like a breach in nature For ruin's wasteful entrance; […] 18 See Goggin 2012, 30. Goggin explains that "[i]n English coats of arms, dating from the fifteenth century though today, red is the most common color used after gold and silver," occurring in more than half of the arms. 19 It is worth noting here that Richard Burbage, the lead actor in Shakespeare's company, was also known for his skill in painting crests. In 1614, Shakespeare collaborated with him "on the design of an impresa […] for the sixth Earl of Rutland, Francis Manners […]" (Salkeld 2018, 119). They were each paid forty-four shillings in gold by Thomas Screvin, Manners's steward. 20 See also Hamlet 2.2.362: "Now is he total gules," 2.2.362. 21 As the play is about to close, Macduff enters Macbeth's castle and turns the murderer into a circus freak: "We'll have thee, as our rare monsters are, / Painted upon a pole […]" (5.8.25-26). Once again, the passage is reminiscent of the player's speech in Hamlet as the latter compares the vengeful Pyrrhus to "a painted tyrant" (2.2.384).

(2.3.112-15) 22 The "liquid gold" (Peacham 1606, 51) generally used by limners is here distilled in Duncan's veins. 23 Farah Karim-Cooper and Lucy Munro suggest that "the candlelight shining in the blood would have created a glistening effect" which could have perfectly rendered Duncan's "golden blood" (2006, 23). Others insist on the narrow links between gold and red to account for this scene: Stephen Deng, for instance, downplays the oddity of the passage and explains that it "partially relies on an early modern perception of gold as 'red' in color" (2011, 233).

Yet, there is more to it than that as Macbeth's hypotyposis points both to an extraordinary reality and to a distorted, abnormal perception of this reality. "[T]he killing of Duncan is an erotic event," Ewan Fernie writes. "Silver skin laced with golden blood is seductive, luxurious, perversely iconic" (2015, 188). Given Macbeth's fascination and his lavish, highly poetic description of the king's corpse, there may be a touch of morbid homoeroticism here.

An eerie mix of preciosity and refinement paradoxically emanates from the depiction of this ghastly scene which can also be interpreted in alchemical terms: death seems to have brought about the transmutation of Duncan's vital fluid into gold and turned the king into a religious icon. If we accept this reading, the blood of the murdered king looks golden because, as W.

Murray puts it, "it is already in the hand of God. It is part of the perfection of heaven" (1966, 42).

Step 3: "Then lay thy colours"

If perfection belongs to heaven in Macbeth, corruption and disease plague Scotland. "Infected minds / To their deaf pillows will discharge their secrets" (5.1.72-73) the doctor says of the sleepwalking Lady Macbeth. Interestingly, the word "infection" derives from the Latin root inficere, meaning "to stain" or "to taint," an etymology which Shakespeare must have been aware of. 24 The whole play is structured around this sense of infection: the colors of the tragedy contaminate the spiritual world of the protagonists as Macbeth, in particular, is infected by bloody and gaudy hues.

In his paintings, Hilliard used bright and markedly distinct hues which he associated with gems. In The Arte of Limning, he explains that, "besides whittes and blacks, there are 22 On this passage, see also Lecercle 1987, 83. 23 Henry Peacham explains how "To make liquid gold or silver" (1606, 51). 24 See Sonnet 111, where the poet alludes to "the dyer's hand" (l. 7) in close proximity to the word "infection" (l. 10). but five other principall cullors" (Kinney 1983, 32). These pure, or unmixed, pigments are murrey, 25 red, blue, green, and yellow, and they happen to correspond to five precious stones, namely amethyst, ruby, sapphire, emerald, and topaz. While I'm not arguing here for a direct or specific influence of Hilliard on the playwright, the general impact of contemporary visual praxis on Shakespeare's playtext should not be overlooked. Admittedly, the playwright makes a limited use of blue, green and yellow shades, 26 but murrey and red are given pride of place.

The word "blood" and its cognates crop up no less than 41 times in the play, stage directions included. Recent studies on the subject have shown that, on the early modern stage, blood had a very realistic aspect, all the more so as animal blood (from calves, pigs or sheep) was used in performance. 27 In this regard, the mention of stinking blood in the last act of the play (5.1.50) may well be understood as a metadramatic comment on this particular stage practice, even though it can also be read as a reference to bad-smelling dyes. 28 Be that as it may, in such a context, the highly stylized and refined blood imagery analyzed above suggests that, in Macbeth, Shakespeare engages in something transcending this crudely realistic dimension by inviting his audience to imagine blood in stylistic and mystical terms.

The playwright thus relies on a camaieu of reds (i.e. on several tints of this single color) which, in terms of bodily humors, underscore the sanguine temperaments of the protagonists, presented as hot and active, heat being then thought to stimulate action. According to Henry Peacham's The gentlemans exercise, red "signifieth a warlike disposition, a haughtie courage, dreadlesse of dangers" (1612, 151). Although this "warlike" disposition is emphasized at the beginning of the play (1.2), the martial values associated with red are gradually perverted by the Macbeths and, as the plot unfolds, Shakespeare's red strokes are less used to highlight the characters' "warlike dispositions" than as a means to depict ritualized scenes of horror in a play where the obscene (in the etymological sense of "off-scene") gradually comes to the fore and becomes the norm. Duncan's murder is not shown while Banquo's murder is performed onstage (3.11.16 s.d.). Paradoxically, the evocative power of the description of the "sleepy grooms" (2.2.51) smeared with blood makes the unseen murder a more horrifying scene than 25 "Murrey," OED, A.1: "Chiefly Heraldry. A colour resembling that of the mulberry; a reddish purple or blood red. Also: cloth of this colour." 26 Blue may have been part and parcel of the play's staging, for John Taylor, in The pennyles pilgrimage (1618), writes that the Scots were then known to wear "blue flat caps on their heads" (quoted in Braunmuller 2001, 260). Green is associated with the sea (2.2.64) metaphorically reddened by the bloody murders perpetrated by the two Macbeths. Finally, yellow hues are merely suggested when a desperate Macbeth reaches the end of his life and in the "yellow leaf" soliloquy evokes his barren life thanks to a seasonal imagery. 27 See from instance Karim-Cooper and Nelson 2006, 3. 28 On Nicholas Hilliard's undesirable "ill smelling coullers" for example, see Kinney 1983, 79. These colors, such as "orpament, verdigres, verditer, pinck, lapgrene, litmousy," were often toxic.

Banquo's visible death at the hands of his executioners, and it is Duncan's murder which give rise to Macbeth's lyrical descriptions: Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No, this my hand will rather

The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green, one red.

(2.2.61-64)

The hallucinatory quality of the speech, fraught with abstract, polysyllabic words on the one hand, and concrete, monosyllabic terms on the other, aptly conveys Macbeth's deranged mind and suggests that his own evil is about to contaminate the natural world. 29 According to W.A.

Murray, the image of the reddened sea "rests upon a common alchemical concept, that of tincture." The critic points out that, "[a]fter the murder, […] the audience would instantly take the point that Duncan's blood has become an alchemical tincture, [a] […] strong colouring agent made of perfected matter, which has the power of transmuting substances" (1966, 41).

While this interpretation certainly needs to be qualified, especially if we regard Duncan's blood more as an agent of pollution than of perfection, it deserves to be quoted because it underscores the special treatment of blood which, as a major visual object in Macbeth, can be said to perform "picture acts" and "interact [s] with and even substitute[s] the human subject" (Elam 2017, 31). Sometimes fluid, sometimes coagulated, sometimes sticky, blood saturates the play and belongs to "this poetic compulsion to repetition" analyzed by David L. Kranz (2003, 351): the same colors are bound to appear from one scene to another and, as a result, stage blood catches the spectator's eye at the risk of making us voyeuristic, if not complicit. 30

Step 4: "[T]hen purfle them about the sides with blacke inke"

If limners mainly painted in watercolor, they also resorted to ink, black ink in general-even though "inkes of sundry colours" could actually be obtained (Peacham 1606, 61)-in their miniatures. In The arte of limming, ink serves to highlight the colors already laid on the canvas and to delineate the lines. 29 François Laroque sees in the reddening of the green ocean a process which is gradually inverted in the last two acts, where "green begins again to prevail over red […]." See Laroque 1993, 155. 30 In the early modern period, glasses of pig's blood were concealed onstage in order to imitate human blood (Gurr and Ichikawa 2002, 61).

Ink, in Macbeth, is discreetly used to characterize Lady Macbeth's line of action. As she sleepwalks, she is seen "tak[ing] forth paper, fold[ing] it, writ[ing] upon't it" (5.1.6-7).

According to Sandra Clark and Pamela Mason, "[t]he Lady's mind may be reverting to the letter she received from Macbeth in 1.5" (2015, 270, n. to 5.1.7). Yet she does not simply rereads an already written text as the playtext makes it clear that she does write something, obsessed as she is with the power of ink and, ultimately, with the idea of writing one's own destiny.

One should remember here that she initially asks spirits to "take [her] milk for gall" (1.5.48) 31 before calling for "the blanket of the dark" (1.5.53) "to blot out her action" (Jacobson 2015, 118). The proximity of "gall" and darkness in 1.5 turns night into an inky substance as "caustic and bitter galls" were then not only used in dyes but also in "the darkest printing and manuscript inks" (Jacobson 2015, 118). 32 Therefore, in metaphorical terms, Lady Macbeth uses the inky, poisonous night to rewrite the nightmare of history. 33 Her husband's face is "as a book" (1.5.62), she says. Yet, rather than Macbeth himself, she is the one who is holding the pen: she will realize all too late that she has written a foul story which has stained her hands with red and black ink ("Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood / Clean from my hand?" 2.2.61-62).

Realizing that his sleepless wife has broken down, Macbeth asks the doctor to "find her disease / And purge it to a sound and pristine health" (5.3.51-52). If "purgation" is first and foremost a medical term, it can also be applied to writing, especially in the early modern context which promoted the links between physicians and poets: the latter anatomized the soul while the former dissected the body. 34 In 1570, Roger Ascham wrote of the writer that he is "alwaies the best English Physition, that best can geue a purgation, that is, […] to cut all ouer much away" (1570, fol. 45). By contrast, Lady Macbeth is a poor writer using too much ink-and, of course, too much blood-to put her story into words. 31 A different kind of gall ("gall of goat") is used by the weird sisters who put it in their cauldron (4.1.26). 32 Generally imported from Eastern Europe, oak gall was quite expensive at the time. Recipes for black ink generally included oak galls, iron sulphate and gum arabic (Beal 2008, 202). 33 In the Nestor episode of James Joyce's Ulysses, Stephen Dedalus exclaims: "History is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake" (Joyce 1986, 28). 34 In The Arte of English Poesie (1598), George Puttenham explains that the poet must "play also the Phisitian, and not onely applying a medicine to the ordinary sickness of mankind, but by making the very greef it selfe (in part) cure of the disease." As to Thomas Heywood, he asserts in An Apology for Actors (1612) that plays had a curative power and could "recreate such as of themselves are wholly devoted to Melancholly, which corrupts the bloud […]" (quoted in Pollard 2005, 15). Her famous ejaculation "Out, damned spot!" (5.1.33) refers to the inky blood (or bloody ink) 35 that she sees on her hands: having first railed against the "milk of human kindness"

(1.5.17) which presumably weakened her husband's virility, she now feels disgusted by her own impurity. 36 She is thus overwhelmed by the power of (blind) spots, or macchie (i.e. undetermined color patches). 37 The ghost scene (3.4) in which Macbeth sees what the others cannot see reinforces the impact of the invisible or the indistinct-Leonardo's cose infuscate (Pedretti 1964, 52, note 53)-in the play. 38 Macbeth's "quit my sight!" (3.4.91) actually prefigures his wife's "Out, damned spot!": husband and wife are both victims of visual hallucinations triggered by their lavish use of red/blood. Their deadly work has proved poisonous and, instead of poisoning the viewers, it has intoxicated them 39 : in Macbeth, it is therefore "th'inventor" who is "plague[d]" (1.7.10).

Step 5: "[T]hen mayst thou diaper them over with whyte coloure"

In The arte of limning, the addition of white hues is not compulsory ("if thou wilte") but it clearly gives the painting its finishing touch. In Norgate's Miniatura or the art of limning, touches of white serve to render the lower part of the sky in an accurate way: "The lowest part of your skie nearest the earth is exprest by masticot and white with a little fine yellow oker" (1919, 48-49). In Shakespeare's play, this finishing touch is present but, instead of beautifying the play, it emphasizes its dismal aspect. Gemma Bodinetz's 2011 production of the play at Liverpool's Everyman playhouse featured a drifting, whitish smoke hanging over the stage. Shakespeare's alfresco scenes are indeed "diapered over" by the white fog of the Scottish heath, itself associated with the foul air of the place. In The art of drawing with the pen, and limming in water colours, Henry Peacham complained of the frequent "mistes" or "vapours" which, in the early seventeenth century, 35 Peacham explains that, to get "The best red inke," you must use "grind vermilion with the glaire of an egge, or stiffe gumme Arabeck water, putting hereto a little saffron, and so write with it out of a shell, if it be drie, you may soften it by adding a little more water" (1606, 61). Interestingly, he also gives advice on how to make "Sanguine Inke" (ibid., 62). 36 On this see Chiari 2018, paragraphs 4 and 26. 37 The word macchia was indeed "used by the Italian writers of the sixteenth century to indicate the blocking-out of the masses of light and shade." On macchie, see Da Vinci's "On Flesh Tones and Figures Distant from the Eye" in Pedretti 1964, 52. The quote is drawn from note 53 on the same page. 38 If we are to believe Simon Forman's testimony, the ghost was probably "visible from the earliest performances, but when Kemble reopened Drury Lane on 21 April 1794 with the young Edmund Kean, according to the legend, as one of the many goblins, Kemble omitted a visible Ghost of Banquo and thus initiated a long theatrical and critical debate" (Braunmuller 2001, 67). 39 Many miniatures of the time were potentially dangerous for man's health because the pigments used were often toxic ones. See Osborne and Tanner 2007, 128. prevented painters from observing the landscape and which, he feared, would soon grow "so thicke" that no one would be able to see correctly the details of the surrounding landscape (1606, 31).

In an ironical twist, Shakespeare depicts mist rather than landscape in his play. As already remarked before, tropes of infection permeate a play whose Scottish climate "evokes miasmic associations that make atmospheric, moral, and political corruption seem mutually constitutive" (Cole 2016, 37). In this context, Duncan's repeated allusions to the pleasant atmosphere of Macbeth's castle in Inverness (1.6.1-3) sound cruelly ironic and betray his lack of lucidity. A similar blindness and inability to look beyond appearances causes Banquo to think that the air is "delicate" (1.6.10) there.

Yet right from start, the foggy air (1.1.10) of the heath gives the play a fearful visual frame (Hobgood 2014, 42): "Fair is foul, and foul is fair, / Hover through the fog and filthy air"

(1.1.9-10), the witches chant. For the spectators, this smoky landscape suggests potential horror (before being actualized) while making the staged events slightly unreal. More importantly, it conveys the characters' limitations in their apprehension and understanding of the world around them. Indeed, in early modern plays and pageants, putrid exhalations were traditionally associated with error. 40 Shakespeare's misty landscapes thus point to the erring actions of the titular characters.

Macbeth's ultimate remark about "th'equivocation of the fiend" (5.5.42) encapsulates the whole atmosphere of the play while reminding us that it was probably composed after the discovery of the Gunpowder plot of 5 November 1605. 41 Focusing on the importance of smell rather than on the power of sight, Jonathan Gill Harris convincingly argues that the stinking smell of the stage fog, caused by sulphurous explosive squibs, offered the early modern playgoers an indirect parallel with the Gunpowder Plot (2009, 126). 42 During the Globe performances, the references to fog could also work as extra-textual clues pointing to London's polluted atmosphere. 43 40 See for instance Middleton's pageant The Triumphs of Truth (1613), in which London, symbolized by the "Mount Triumphant" (C2r), is overspread with the mist of error. This infectious fog must "vanish" (C2v) so that spectators may discover the power of Truth. 41 For further details, see Drakakis 2013, 4. 42 Harris notes that, in a sermon evoking the Gunpowder Plot and pronounced on November 5, 1605 before James I, Lancelot Andrewes thus described the plotters' failure: "Be they fair or foul, glad or sad […] the great Diespater, 'the Father of days' hath made them both" (my emphasis). He deduces that Shakespeare may have lifted the witches' incantatory formula from this sermon (2009, 126). 43 In the formulaic speeches of the three sisters, fog even becomes a linguistic clue for contamination as it is part and parcel of the fricatives in the "Fair is foul" couplet. See Clark and Mason 2015, 48. When Lady Macbeth realizes at the end that "[h]ell" is "murky" (5.1.36), she acknowledges her own damnation. If "murky" is to be understood as obscure, dim and foggy, 44 it then describes hell on earth, an infernal locus which corresponds to the misty Scottish heath she inhabits. Her husband's final moments are similarly colorless: whereas a dense red characterizes the murders he has committed with his wife, he is now doomed to a "dusty death" (5.5.22) without panache.

In light of these observations, I would thus like to argue that fog, in the tragedy, works as the dramatic equivalent of artistic grisaille. A "method of decorative painting in grey monochrome" (OED a), it was sometimes employed as a neutral, preliminary underpainting for a work that was subsequently overpainted with layers of color glaze, but it could also be used in a very controlled way for a finished painting (Judge and Toyne 1990, 194). Some early modern limners resorted to this technique in order to emphasize the sculptural shape of their subjects. 45 This attention to statue-like sitters is worth noting here, all the more so as sculptures can be contrasted with alive and kicking subjects. As Rosalie Colie explains, "[i]n paintings, […] statues are generally distinguished from living people […] by their grisaille, as opposed to the flesh-colored tints of those depicted as living" (1974, 280).

In Macbeth, Shakespeare repeatedly calls attention to the petrification of his characters. They are either turned into stone when aghast with horror ("Approach the chamber, and destroy your sight / With a new Gorgon," Macduff tells Lennox in 2.3.71-72) or compared to architectural monuments once they're dead (Duncan's body is compared to the "Lord's anointed temple," 2.3.68). This emphasis on material artifacts soon gives way to the play's insistent concern with the insubstantial. Unable to purge her soul, the queen herself becomes a "walking shadow" (5.5.23), both "a poor actor" and a living dead.

If Lady Macbeth only loses her vigor at the end of the play, the unnatural lack of color in her husband's face betrays his emotional distress and morbid state early on in the tragedy. In the first act, Lady Macbeth associates him with a personified Hope, drunk, dejected, and thereby turned "green and pale" (1.7.37). Sandra Clark and Pamela Mason contend that this image may ironically feminize Macbeth by associating him with the green sickness then affecting 44 See "Murky," OED, 2.a. "Of air, the atmosphere, etc.: obscured by mist or vapour; foggy, cloudy […]." The first example noted by the OED dates back to 1667. Yet in the fifteenth century, the word "murk" already applied to foggy air ("murk," OED, 1. †c.). 45 young girls, 46 even though the pallor mentioned by Lady Macbeth may also be seen as a sign of cowardice. Indeed, in his 1582 Batman vponn Bartholome, Stephen Batman affirmed that when hot humours doth cool, then red colour doth change to white or pale, and so of others it is to be understood. Also changing in the skin cometh of passions of the soul. The red waxeth pale for anguish or for dread […]. (1582, 390r) Lady Macbeth knows full well that her husband's monochrome complexion is indicative of his weakness. Her initial remark on Macbeth's pallor ties in with her rebuke for his cowardice (incidentally, "coward" is an anagram of "Cawdor," the first title acquired by the hero of the battle against the Norwegians) in the following act: "My hands are your colour, but I shame / To wear a heart so white. […]" (2.2.65-66). Later on in the banquet scene, Macbeth will once again turn "blanched with fear" (3.4.114). This imagery develops the red/white color code borrowed from the Petrarchan idiom of love which is here applied to the language of horror and terror. Whether real or metaphorical, colors in the play function as markers of emotions and they provide an insight into the character's changing and complex feelings. As Allison P. Hobgood remarks, "pallor renders Macbeth's fear visible," all the more so as his countenance was "probably stark white in performance,"

showing his "body's predictable humoral response to fear" and "precipitat[ing] fear's risky contagiousness" (2013, 39). When, at the end, Macbeth upbraids a "cream-faced loon"

(5.3.11) or "lily-livered boy" (5.3.15)-whose livid hue effeminizes him and corresponds to a specific pigment then used by limners, namely Venice ceruse 47 -for being a coward, he resorts to the same color imagery as the one Lady Macbeth uses to his detriment. Faced with the reflection of his own dismay, he refuses to admit his dejection and tries in vain to "forg [et] the taste of fears" (5.5.9).

Conclusion: A "gentle" aesthetics of terror 48

46 See Garrison 2009, 17. Girls then often "failed to get enough iron to keep up with the dual demands of growth and iron loss through menstruation." So, their "pale faces […] often had a greenish-yellow tint, leading to the popular term 'green sickness' […]." 47 See Peacham 1606, 55: "Your principall white is Ceruse […]: it hath beene much used (as it is also now adaies) by women in painting their faces." A less pure white called "white Lead" (ibid.) was also used by limners. 48 I refer here to Nicholas Hilliard's definition of limning as "a kind of gentle painting," quoted and analyzed by Coombs 2009, 77-84 (esp. 77).

By borrowing so much from the limner's sophisticated art, Shakespeare puts forward a gemlike technique that foregrounds the artifice of his play and, generally speaking, a high degree of stylization. Yet, at the same time, the playwright also makes his audience "behold, in what order Art match[es] with nature, and how the limning painter ha[s] almost exceeded nature" (Lodge 1596, n.p.) : he possesses a gift for expressing the intimate desires of his characters through small, delicate touches of light. This tension between "expressiveness" and "verisimilitude" (Sokol 2018, 43) was characteristic of Hilliard's miniatures, and Shakespeare certainly makes the most of it in Macbeth. In other words, limning techniques allow him to probe the private self: through artifice, he reveals the deepest feelings of the Macbeth couple.

However, whereas Hilliard promoted the use of a "line without shadow" to conceal the "aging features" of Queen Elizabeth (Fumerton 1991, 80), Shakespeare never yields to idealization: in its pictorial manner, Macbeth illustrates the way the private self gets tainted and crushed by the libido dominandi.

In Shakespeare's Scottish tragedy, our vision is simultaneously stimulated and clouded, illuminated and obfuscated. Fashioned by the expression of the invisible, the play can be seen as an early example of expressionism. 49 If its garish colors are markers of excess and serve to underscore the cruelty of its title characters, the enveloping fog appears as a paralyzing presence that highlights the force of the preternatural and that threatens to erase the chromatic contrast created by the use of gaudy tints. Blurring Shakespeare's restricted yet sophisticated palette, it calls attention to the general blindness of the characters, whether it be Duncan's, who fails to notice the approaching evil, or Macbeth's, whose unbridled ambition, encouraged by his wife, can only lead to his spectacular and bloody downfall.

The various hues emphasized by Shakespeare are thus employed as catalysts for extreme and morbid emotions as much as vectors of pure beauty. In other words, through the limner's art, the playwright manages to ennoble the ignoble and to make his audience stare at unbearable acts of violence which, once polished and aestheticized, become the objects of voyeuristic fascination. The tension which gradually transforms "foul" into "fair" on page and stage produces a chromatic tragedy of evil which reconciles the precious and the repulsive. As a result, the play's color spectrum underpins an uncanny aesthetics of terror which, up to a point, may be regarded as foreshadowing Antonin Artaud's théâtre de la cruauté as, in Macbeth, Shakespeare already promoted "a theatre where violent physical images pulverise, mesmerise the audience's sensibilities" (Artaud 1993, 63). 49 On expressionism as the artistic expression of "primary emotion[s]" and as a means of foregrounding "something visible, an inner meaning," see Wilde 1987, 33.

  […] If he do bleed, I'll gild the face of the grooms withal, For it must seem their guilt.

  See Isaac Oliver, "St. Jerome Reading" (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/365453; date accessed: 8 February 2019) or "Madonna and Child" (http://www.ellisonfineart.com/portraitminiatures/d/madonna-and-child/258841; date accessed: 8 February 2019).

All references to the play refer to Clark and Mason

For other Shakespeare plays, I rely on Taylor, Jowett, Bourus and Egan

2 It went through six editions between 1573 and 1605.

Critics have already detected borrowings from the limner's techniques in several of his plays, including Twelfth Night and Hamlet(Sokol 2018, 239, notes 28 and 29).

A "night piece" is first and foremost a "painting or picture representing a scene or landscape at night" (OED, 1.a).

On "the effects of darkness" in the play, see A.C.Bradley 2004, 51.


Hana Gruet-Skrabalova

Czech Modal Complement Ellipsis from a Comparative Perspective

Keywords: VP-ellipsis, modal verbs, auxiliary verbs, Czech, Romance languages, Germanic languages

This paper deals with Modal Complement Ellipsis (MCE) in Czech from a comparative perspective. We show that Czech MCE displays a mixed behaviour in comparison with languages like English, Dutch and French. Like English, it allows for various extractions from the ellipsis site and for different subjects in ACD constructions. Like French and Dutch, it does not allow for intervening elements between modal verb and ellipsis site and it requires voice identity of the elided VP and its antecedent. Adopting a deletion approach to analysis, we propose to account for this behaviour by parametrizing the syntactic properties of a presumably universal ellipsis feature [E], initially proposed by Lobeck (1995). In our proposal, the syntax of [E] include the head licensing ellipsis and the ellipsis site. We argue that the type of licensing head (T, V or Mod) and the type of ellipsis site (VP, TP or VoiceP) induce the properties of MCE that we observe at the surface.

Introduction

This paper deals with ellipsis of verbal phrase that occurs in context of modal verbs, as in (1). Following [START_REF] Aelbrecht | Dutch modal complement ellipsis[END_REF], I will refer to this phenomenon as Modal Complement Ellipsis (henceforth MCE) in order to distinguish it from a well-known phenomenon of VP-ellipsis in English (Ross 1969[START_REF] Sag | Deletion and LF[END_REF], Merchant 2001, a.o.). When it comes to other languages than English, it seems relevant to set apart ellipsis after auxiliary verbs, and ellipsis after modal verbs, because the former is not always available in languages that display the latter, as e.g. Romance 1 languages (Busquets & Denis 2001[START_REF] Depiante | On null complement anaphora in Spanish and Italian[END_REF][START_REF] Dagnac | L'Ellipse modale en français : arguments pour une ellipse du TP[END_REF], 2011 a.o.) and Germanic languages like German or Dutch [START_REF] Lobeck | Ellipsis: Functional Heads, Licensing and Identification[END_REF][START_REF] Aelbrecht | Dutch modal complement ellipsis[END_REF], see (2). The contrast between English on the one hand, and Romance and other Germanic languages on the other has been argued to follow from the properties of modal verbs (see Section 2).

(1) a. John helped them, but Mary could not.

b. Jean les a aidés, mais Marie n'a pas pu.

(French) (=1a) J. them has helped.pl but M.

NEG.has NEG could c. Jan heeft ze geholpen, maar Maria mocht niet.

(Dutch) (=1a) J. has them helped but M. could not

(2) a. John helped them, but I did not. b. *Jean les a aidés, mais je n'ai pas.

(French) (=2a) J. them has helped.pl but I NEG.have NEG c. *Jan heeft ze geholpen, maar Ik heb niet.

(Dutch) (=2a) J. has them helped but I have not Interestingly, Czech behaves differently from both English-like and Romance-like languages in that: (i) ellipsis is only partially available after auxiliary verbs2 , compare (3b) with the past auxiliary and (3c) with the future auxiliary, and (ii) ellipsis after modal verbs in (3a) does not behave entirely like either VP-ellipsis in English, or like MCE in French or Dutch, as we will see in detail in Section 4. While the possibility of ellipsis after auxiliary verbs in Czech can be claimed to depend on their morphosyntactic status (see Section 3.1), I will argue that the mixed properties of Czech MCE follow from both the properties of modal verbs (see Section 3.2) and the structure targeted by ellipsis. Adopting a deletion approach to ellipsis, I will propose that we can account for (not only) Czech MCE by parametrizing the syntactic properties of a presumably universal ellipsis feature [E], initially proposed by [START_REF] Lobeck | Ellipsis: Functional Heads, Licensing and Identification[END_REF] and formalized in [START_REF] Merchant | The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis[END_REF], which determines the licensing head and the selection of the ellipsis site in each language.

(3) a. Jan jim pomohl, ale Marie bohužel nemohla.

(Czech) J. them.DAT helped but Marie unfortunately NEG.could 'John helped them, but The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly presents the main evidence for a deletion approach to MCE. Section 3 presents the auxiliary and modal verbs in Czech. I discuss here ellipsis after auxiliary verbs and argue that modal verbs behave syntactically neither like T nor like V heads. Section 4 focuses on the properties of MCE in Czech in comparison with English, French and Dutch. I show that Czech MCE resembles English VP-ellipsis in that it allows for various extractions from the ellipsis site and for different subjects in ACD constructions. In contrast, Czech MCE is similar to French and Dutch in that it does not allow for intervening elements between modal verb and ellipsis site and it requires voice identity of the elided phrase and its antecedent. Section 5 proposes a syntactic analysis of this variation based on the mechanism of ellipsis and the syntax of the feature [E], as developed in [START_REF] Aelbrecht | The Syntactic Licensing of Ellipsis[END_REF]. Section 6 sums up the paper.

Assumptions about the syntax of ellipsis

There are two main approaches to ellipsis in the literature, the deletion approach and the null proform approach, both of which have been applied to VP-ellipsis and to MCE. Within the first approach, ellipsis is considered as a deletion or not spelling-out of a fully specified verbal phrase. This analysis is generally assumed for VP-ellipsis in English after both auxiliary and modal verbs (Ross 1967[START_REF] Sag | Deletion and LF[END_REF][START_REF] Hankamer | Deep and Surface Anaphora[END_REF][START_REF] Merchant | The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis[END_REF], 2007 a.o.), see (4a), but it has also been recently argued for Dutch [START_REF] Aelbrecht | Dutch modal complement ellipsis[END_REF][START_REF] Aelbrecht | The Syntactic Licensing of Ellipsis[END_REF] and Romance [START_REF] Dagnac | Modal Ellipsis in French, Spanish and Italian: evidence for a TP-deletion analysis[END_REF]. The second type of analyses sees ellipsis as involving a null verbal proform, so-called Null Complement Anaphora, represented by e in (4b). This analysis has been in particular proposed by [START_REF] Depiante | On null complement anaphora in Spanish and Italian[END_REF] for Spanish and Italian, and by [START_REF] Lobeck | Ellipsis: Functional Heads, Licensing and Identification[END_REF] for Dutch. The main argument in favour of a deletion approach that I will adopt here consists in the possibility of extraction from the ellipsis site. Extraction of the wh-object from the elided VP is possible in English, while it seems impossible in Dutch and Spanish, compare (5a) and (5bc). However, even if Dutch does not behave exactly like English, [START_REF] Aelbrecht | Dutch modal complement ellipsis[END_REF][START_REF] Aelbrecht | The Syntactic Licensing of Ellipsis[END_REF] shows that at least subject extraction from the elided VP in Dutch in ( 6) is possible, contrary to object extraction. She argues that this is because MCE in Dutch targets a larger string than VP-ellipsis in English, namely VoiceP, which constitutes a phase blocking the object extraction (i.e. when the licensing head is merged, the ellipsis site is sent to PF and the site is frozen for extraction).

( Likewise, [START_REF] Dagnac | Modal Ellipsis in French, Spanish and Italian: evidence for a TP-deletion analysis[END_REF] shows that even object extraction is possible in Romance if subjects in both clauses are identical, as in [START_REF] Neg | can 'John reads all books that Mary is not allowed to read[END_REF]. She calls this constraint The Same Subject Constraint. Assuming that modal verbs in Romance are raising verbs selecting a TP, Dagnac argues that the ellipsis after modal verbs in Romance is not a VP-deletion but a TP-deletion. This allows to explain e.g. why ellipsis in ACD constructions requires subjects of both elided TP and its TP antecedent to be identical. [START_REF] Neg | can 'John reads all books that Mary is not allowed to read[END_REF] In addition, an overt pronoun and the verbal anaphor le faire 'do it' are ungrammatical with wh-extraction and relativization from the VP in French, see (8a) and (8b) respectively [START_REF] Dagnac | L'Ellipse modale en français : arguments pour une ellipse du TP[END_REF] 3 . This also supports the claim that there is a movement from an elided structure, which cannot be reduced to a null pronoun. Dagnac's and Aelbrecht's arguments thus make it very reasonable to assume that there is an underlying syntactic structure in contexts involving MCE, but they also suggest that we need to specify for each language, (i) the type of head licensing ellipsis, and (ii) the ellipsis site. I will propose in Section 5 that these two micro-parameters can be encoded in the syntax of the ellipsis feature [E] responsible for the distribution of ellipsis throughout languages.

Auxiliary and modal verbs in Czech

Czech is a West-Slavic language with a rich morphology in both its nominal system (number gender, case) and its verbal system (tense, voice, aspect). It also differs from English, French and Dutch in that (i) it is a subject pro-drop language, (ii) it has second position clitics (2PCl) including pronominal and verbal (auxiliary) clitics, and (iii) it has -despite its basic SVO order -a relatively free word order that reflects the information structure of the clause. Like many other languages, it shows various elliptical constructions, such as gapping and sluicing (Gruet-Skrabalova 2016).

The auxiliary být

Czech uses only the auxiliary verb být 'be', in three series of forms: (i) forms in js-in the past tense, (ii) forms in by-in the conditional mood, (iii) forms in bud-in the future tense. Past and conditional forms are second position clitics (2PCl), which combine with lexical l-participles in the active voice, and with the (non-clitic) passive auxiliary byl 'been' and lexical nparticiples in the passive voice, see (9ab) 4 . The future forms are autonomous words, and combine with non-finite imperfective verbs in the active voice, and with n-participles in the passive voice, see (9cd). [START_REF] Veselovská | Phrasal Movement and X° Morphology: Word order parallels in Czech and English nominal and verbal projections[END_REF][START_REF] Veselovská | The extended verbal projection in Czech: Three variants of the verb být[END_REF] argues that Czech clitic auxiliaries bear agreement, but not tense features, and thus that they are generated above T (cf. Roberts 2010, who places Slavic 2PCL in the C-system). By contrast, the non clitic future auxiliary should be merged within the extended VP since it is sensitive to Aspect on the lexical verb (cf. [START_REF] Kyncl | Semi-lexical Heads in Czech Modal Structures[END_REF], as shown in (9c). For the purpose of this paper, I assume that 2PCl auxiliaries are generated in a low C-head, while non clitic future and passive auxiliaries are generated below T (Aspect and Voice respectively, see Cinque 2004), as indicated in (10). I also assume the finite auxiliaries move to T to check their T-feature.

(9) a. já jsem (ne)četl / (ne)přečetl všechny tyhle knihy I PAST.1SG NEG.read.IMPF NEG.PF.read all these books 'I (have) (not) read all these books.' b. já jsem (ne)byl pozván I PAST.1SG NEG.been invited.PASS 'I was (not) invited.' (i) Jean peut te répondre, mais moi, je ne (le) peux pas.

J. can you answer you, but me I NEG it can NEG (ii) Je vais résister aussi longtemps que je (le) peux.

I will resist as long that I it can 4 Czech morphologically distinguishes active l-participles and passive n-participles. L-participles are considered as tensed forms (see [START_REF] Veselovská | Phrasal Movement and X° Morphology: Word order parallels in Czech and English nominal and verbal projections[END_REF][START_REF] Veselovská | The extended verbal projection in Czech: Three variants of the verb být[END_REF], which may bear sentential negation ne-. As has already been shown in Section 1, ellipsis is not available with clitic auxiliaries, see (11). [START_REF] Gruet-Skrabalova | VP-ellipsis and the Czech auxiliary být ('to be[END_REF] argues that this follows precisely from their clitic status: 2P clitics cannot license VP-ellipsis because they appear too high in the structure with respect to the VP domain. We will return to the analysis of ellipsis in (11a) in Section 5.3.

Modal verbs

There are five strictly modal verbs in Czech: moci/moct 'can/be able to', smět 'may/be allowed to', muset 'must/have to', nemuset 'need not', mít 'have to') These verbs have mixed morphosyntactic properties, as shown in [START_REF] Kyncl | Semi-lexical Heads in Czech Modal Structures[END_REF]: like functional verbs, they have no imperative (*mus) and no passive (*musen, *mocen) and they do not combine with aspectual affixes (*domuset, *musívat). They are not sensitive to the aspectual makeup of the lexical verbs either, contrary to the future auxiliary budu requiring imperfective verbs in (9c) above. Like lexical verbs, modal verbs combine with the auxiliary být 'to be', see (12bc), and bear the prefix ne-expressing sentential negation when they are finite, as we can see in (12ab). They can be followed by active or passive infinitival verbs, see (12d Although modal verbs can occur with the auxiliary verbs, they cannot co-occur, like in English, and contrary to Romance or Dutch. The co-occurrence of French and Dutch modal verbs in (13c) and (13d) respectively can be explained if we assume, as has been argued in the literature [START_REF] Ruwet | Théorie syntaxique et syntaxe du français[END_REF][START_REF] Wurmbrand | Modal Verbs must be Raising Verbs[END_REF], 2001) Czech modal verbs also systematically require climbing of pronominal clitic complements of the lexical verb, and thus behave obligatorily like restructuring verbs [START_REF] Medová | Transparency phenomena in Czech syntax[END_REF]. Although clitic climbing is typical for Romance languages (e.g. [START_REF] Rizzi | A Restructuring Rule in Italian Syntax[END_REF][START_REF] Roberts | Restructuring, Head Movement, and Locality[END_REF] The properties of Czech modal verbs discussed above suggest that they behave neither like T heads, as in English (Sag 1976 a.o.), nor like V heads, as in French or Dutch [START_REF] Aelbrecht | Dutch modal complement ellipsis[END_REF][START_REF] Dagnac | Modal Ellipsis in French, Spanish and Italian: evidence for a TP-deletion analysis[END_REF]). Given their restructuring properties, I assume that modal verbs are heads of a specific functional projection ModP between V and T (cf. Cinque 2004) selecting an extended VP projection as complement.

As already said, ellipsis is available after modal verbs, as shown in (15a). Interestingly, ellipsis may occur even if the modal verb follows the future auxiliary and is therefore nonfinite, as in (15b). This suggests that MCE is not licensed by the head T. Note that the modal verb does not appear in the first sentence and thus constitutes new information in the elliptical clause.

(15) a. I když já čtu nahlas, ty nemusíš. even if I read.1SG aloud you NEG.must.2SG 'Although I read aloud, you do not have to.' b. I když já budu číst nahlas, ty nebudeš muset. even if I FUT.1SG read aloud you NEG.FUT.2SG must 'Although I will have to read aloud, you will not have to.'

Modal Complement Ellipsis in Czech

This section focuses on Czech MCE in comparison with English, Dutch and French. We will see that Czech MCE looks like English VP-ellipsis with respect to extraction and subjects in ACD constructions, and like French and Dutch MCE with respect to the size of the elided string and voice properties of the elided VP and its antecedent.

English-like properties

In non-elliptical constructions, the verbs 'can' and 'must' in the languages under discussion can have two readings, a deontic (root) reading and an epistemic reading. Czech is similar to English in that both readings are also acceptable in elliptical constructions, although ellipsis appears most frequently with the deontic reading. In contrast, it has been observed for Romance and Dutch6 , that MCE is only available with deontic reading of these modal verbs:

(16) deontic reading: a. Jan na večírek přijít nemohl a Petr nesměl. J. to party come NEG.could and P. NEG.could 'John was not able to come to the party, and Peter was not allowed.' b. John couldn't come to the party, and Peter was not allowed. Another property Czech shares with English concerns the possibility of pronominalizing the elided string. Actually, missing material after modal verbs in Czech is not in complementary distribution with an overt pronoun, as shown in [START_REF]Jan ti odpoví, ale já (*to) nemůžu[END_REF]. French and Dutch behave differently except for contexts with extraction like in (19) (see Section 2, note 3). This might be not completely surprising if both pronominalization and MCE in these languages target a TP, as proposed by Dagnac (2011) (see Section 5.1).

Finally, recall that the main argument for the deletion approach of MCE is based on extraction from the elided string. In Czech, several types of extraction are possible, to both Aand A'-positions. Extraction to subject position can be seen with the inaccusative verb přijít 'come' in the example (16a) above, repeated in ( 21).

(21) extraction to subject position: Jan na večírek přijít nemohl a Petr nesměl. J. to party come NEG.could and P. NEG.could The example ( 22) shows regular wh-object extraction of the dative wh-word komu 'to whom' to the CP domain (cf. Section 2, ex. ( 7)), and the example (23) shows topicalization of an accusative DP-object. It must, however, be noted that extraction from VP in English usually requires a specific contrastive focus [START_REF] Schuyler | Wh-movement out of the site of VP ellipsis[END_REF][START_REF] Lasnik | When Can You Save A Structure By Destroying It[END_REF], Merchant 2008b). This is also true for French, where topicalization is acceptable provided the context is contrastive enough 8 . In Czech, no specific prosody is required to accompany extraction in the examples below. I assume that this is because the word order in Czech is much is much freer than in English and French, and serves to mark a specific information status of a phrase. In English, the information focus or topic status is generally marked by prosody. With respect to extraction, Czech may thus seem even more permissive than English. The last example in this section presents a more questionable extraction: in English, (24b) is generally considered as a case of pseudogapping, but some also analyse it as involving 7 We provide here an attested and more natural example: Helenku bolelo břicho a tak Elizabetka snědla všechny bonbóny který Helenka nemohla. H.DAT ached stomach and so E. ate all sweets that H.

NEG.could

'Helen had a stomach ache, so Elisabeth ate all sweets that Helen could not.' 8 The degree of contrast may explain why native speakers' judgements on this kind of data vary. movement (Aelbrecht 2007[START_REF] Gengel | Pseudogaping and Ellipsis[END_REF]. Whether or not we assume that (24a) involves an object extraction, Czech would again be similar to English rather than to French or Dutch.

Differences from English

Despite several similarities with English VP-ellipsis presented in the previous subsection, Czech MCE is also (at least to some extent) similar to French and Dutch MCE. First, we observe that verbal elements intervening between modals and the VP must be elided, see the passive auxiliary 'be' in (25). In French and Dutch, these elements also include negation and aspect morphemes 9 , which in Czech appear directly on the verb stem.

(25) a. Tento text může být čten nahlas, ale tato báseň skutečně nemůže (*být). ( =25b) this text can be read.PASS aloud but this poetry really NEG.can be b. This text can be read aloud but this poetry really cannot (be). c. Ce texte peut être lu à voix haute, mais ce poème ne peut vraiment pas (*être).

this text can be read in voice high but this poetry NEG can really NEG be (French, [START_REF] Dagnac | Modal Ellipsis in French, Spanish and Italian: evidence for a TP-deletion analysis[END_REF] (=25b) d. Deze tekst kan hardop gelezen worden, maar deze poëzie kan echt niet (*zijn). ( =25b) this text can aloud read be but this poetry can really not be (Dutch)

By contrast, second position clitic auxiliaries are obligatory with MCE in Czech, see (26a), which is not surprising since they occur very high in the clause (cf. Section 3.1). 10 Note also that second position pronominal clitics that are complements of the lexical verb are excluded. These clitics normally appear on modal verbs, see (14a) above and (26b). This suggests that pronominal clitics must be elided before clitic climbing. 11

(26) a. Já jsem to musela podepsat, ale ty *(jsi) (*to) nemusel. I PAST.1SG CL:it had-to sign but you PAST.2SG CL:it NEG.had-to 'I had to sign it, but you didn't have to.' b. Já jsem to musela (*to) podepsat (*to). I PAST.1SG CL:it had-to CL:it sign CL:it 'I had to sign it.' Finally, it has been pointed out [START_REF] Hardt | Verb Phrase Ellipsis: Form, Meaning and Processing[END_REF], Merchant 2008, 2013) that the voice of the elided VP and that of its VP antecedent in English may differ. In (27a), the elliptical clause is in the active voice, while the clause with the VP antecedent is in the passive voice. The Paul can take LM01 and Luc can not take LM01 10 Contrary to MCE, auxiliary clitics cannot escape sluicing, as has been noted by [START_REF] Merchant | The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis[END_REF] in his Sluicing-Comp Generalization. This follows if MCE targets a smaller structure than sluicing does. 11 For Roberts (2010), pronominal clitics consistently escape the interior of the low v-cycle. If this is true, MCE in Czech targets a larger structure than the low v-cycle, which is compatible with our analysis in Section 5. example (27b) shows the opposite distribution: passive elliptical clause and active clause containing the antecedent. 12 Assuming that voice is encoded on the head Voice and that Voice is distinct from the head v, Merchant (2008) argues that VP-ellipsis in English targets a verbal phrase (vP/VP) below Voice head. Ellipsis therefore does not include VoiceP.

(27) a. This problem had to be solved long ago, but obviously nobody could (solve it).

b. The janitor must remove the trash whenever it is apparent that it should be (removed).

Contrary to English, we can see in (28) that Czech, French and Dutch require the same active or passive morphosyntax in both the clause and the clause containing the VP antecedent. 13 Ellipsis in ( 28) is excluded because the elliptical clause is presumably in the active voice, while the clause containing the antecedent is in the passive voice. This suggests that VoiceP is included in the ellipsis site.

(28) a. Ten problem měl být dávno vyřešen ale nikdo zřejmě nemohl *(ho vyřešit). this problem had-to be longtime solved.PASS but nobody obviously NEG.could (it solve) 'This problem had to be solved long ago, but obviously nobody could solve it.' c. Ce problème aurait déjà dû être résolu, mais personne n'a pu *(le résoudre). this problem has.COND yet had-to be solved but nobody NEG.has could (it solve) (French, Dagnac 2011) (=30a) d. Dit probleem had al lang geleden opgelost moeten worden maar niemand kon this problem had already long ago solved must be but nobody could *(het opgelessen). (Dutch) (it solve)

Given the properties discussed above, I conclude that Czech MCE seems to target a larger structure that VP-ellipsis in English, but probably a smaller structure than MCE in French or Dutch.

Summary

The Table 1 below summarizes the properties discussed in this section. Lines 1 to 3 indicate for each language whether it allows ellipsis after auxiliary verbs (Aux + ellipsis), cooccurrence of an auxiliary and a modal verb (T + Mod), and co-occurrence of two modal verbs (Mod + Mod The proposed analysis can account for the properties of Czech MCE as follows. First, MCE requires voice identity in both the elliptical clause and its antecedent, i.e. both clauses must be either active or passive. Assuming that the parallelism requirement on ellipsis includes voice features, postulating that the feature [E] targets VoiceP guarantees that ellipsis takes place only if elided and antecedent VoiceP are identical. Furthermore, since VoiceP is neither a nominal nor a clausal phrase, it follows that it cannot be pronominalized by an overt pronoun. Second, MCE does not target the clitic and the future auxiliaries, but it cannot leave aside the passive auxiliary. Since clitic auxiliaries are generated high in the structure, the analysis predicts that they will not be included in the ellipsis site. Likewise, the future auxiliary generated above modal verbs will not be elided (see Section 3.1, ex. ( 10)). In contrast, the passive auxiliary located in the VoiceP will be elided along with the VoiceP.

Third, MCE allows extraction of focused (wh-object) and contrastively focused XPs (contrastive topics). Since elided elements are informationally given, it follows that only focused XPs can escape ellipsis and undergo extraction. This is especially visible in the case of pronominal object clitics, which cannot be focused, and will thus never be allowed to escape the ellipsis site. Extraction of non-identical XPs from the ellipsis site could, however, be viewed as problematic for parallelism constraints assumed for deletion, although these constraints do not mean full morphophonological identity. I thus propose to assume with Merchant that focus overrides "identity condition" in deletion [START_REF] Merchant | The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis[END_REF]). In the case of subject extraction from vP to TP, for instance, the identity required for deletion reduces to the type of argument (referential DP), but it does not concern the meaning or the reference of the DP subjects themselves. In the case of Antecedent Contained Deletion, we can consider that the subject of the relative clause must escape deletion precisely because it is contrasted with the subject on the main clause.

(31) a. Jan čte všechny knihy, které i Eva nesmí (číst t i ).

John reads all books that Eva The observation that extraction is relatively easy in Czech can be related to the monoclausal structure of sentences with modal verbs.

Extending the analysis to ellipsis after the future auxiliary

Since English modal and auxiliary verbs represent the same kind of head (Ross 1967), it is not surprising that they behave alike with respect to ellipsis. We can thus reduce the analysis of MCE to the analysis of VP-ellipsis, by having the same [E] feature for both. In French and Dutch, modal and auxiliary verbs are syntactically different heads and behave differently with respect to ellipsis. If these languages only possess the [E] feature with the syntax given above, ellipsis after auxiliary verbs will be excluded since auxiliary verbs are not V heads and do not have a non-finite TP complement. As for Czech, I propose that the analysis in terms of VoiceP-ellipsis can be extended the future auxiliary because: (i) the future auxiliary is a functional verbal head between V and T, (ii) its complement is an extended VP, and (iii) the ellipsis also requires voice identity, see (33):

(33) a. Udělali to, kdykoliv museli (to udělat). / *to muselo (být uděláno).

did.PL it whenever had-to.PL (it do) it had-to (be done.PASS) 'They did it whenever they did have to (do it).' b. Měl být operován, ale nebude (operován) / *nebudou (ho operovat). had-to be operated.PASS but NEG.FUT.3SG operated.PASS) NEG.FUT.3PL (him operate) 'He had to be operated but he will not (be operated).'

To allow both the future auxiliary and modal verbs to license ellipsis, I suggest defining the [E] feature as follows: (i) the licensing head is a functional verbal head F v , that can be realized as Mod and Asp, and (ii) the uninterpretable features of [E] are uF v , see (34b).

(34) a. Měl být operován, ale pro i [ AspP nebude [ VoiceP PASS [ VP operován t i ]]] had-to be operated.PASS but NEG.FUT.3SG operated.PASS 'He had to be operated but he will not (be operated).

Conclusion

In this paper, I have dealt with Modal Complement Ellipsis (MCE) in Czech from a comparative perspective. I have shown that Czech modal verbs and Czech MCE exhibit a mixed behaviour with respect to languages like English, French, and Dutch. Like English, it allows for various extractions from the ellipsis site and for different subjects in ACD constructions. Like French and Dutch, it does not allow for intervening elements between modal verb, and ellipsis site and it requires voice identity of the elided VP and its antecedent. I have argued that the properties of MCE that we observe at the surface are induced by the head licensing ellipsis (F v , V, or T) and the ellipsis site (VoiceP, TP or VP). Adopting a deletion account of MCE based on a presumably universal ellipsis feature [E], I have undertaken to parametrize this feature [E], whose properties include precisely the licensing head and the ellipsis site. In addition, the properties of this E feature also imply whether ellipsis is available with auxiliary verbs. As for Czech, I have proposed that [E] is licensed by a functional verbal head F v , which can be realized by modal verbs or the future auxiliary, and targets VoiceP.

The question remains whether we can relate the parametrization of the [E] feature to other language properties. One hypothesis to explore can be found in [START_REF] Cyrino | VP-Ellipsis in European and Brazilian Portuguese -a comparative analysis[END_REF], who claim that there is a correlation between the possibility of verbal ellipsis (after both auxiliary and modal verbs) and the structure of the extended verbal projection, in particular the realization of aspect. This issue is however outside the scope of this paper and must be left to further investigation.

(

  24) a. Já budu volit pro něj a ty můžeš pro ni. I FUT.1SG vote for him and you can for her b. I will vote for him, and you can for her. c. *Je voterai pour lui, et tu peux pour elle. (French, Dagnac 2011) I vote.FUT.1SG for him and you can for her d. *Ik zal voor hem stemmen, en je kan voor haar. (Dutch, Aelbrecht 2008) I will for him vote and you can for her

9

  Cf. Dagnac (2008): (i) *Paul peut avoir fini en juin, et Luc peut aussi avoir [fini en juin]. Paul can have finished in June and Luke can too have finished in June (ii) *Paul peut repasser LM01 et Luc peut ne pas [repasser LM01].

  (4) a. You can help me, but she can't [ VP help me]. b. Je kan me wel helpen, maar ze kan niet [ VP e]. (Dutch) you can me PRT help but she can not

a. Maintenant, je sais à qui je peux confier mon fils, mais je ne sais toujours pas

	now	I know to who I can confide my son but I NEG know still	NEG
	à qui je ne peux pas. (French, Dagnac 2011)
	to who I NEG can NEG
	'Now I know to whom I can confide my son, but I still don't know to whom I can't.
	b. ... à qui i je j ne peux pas [ TP t j [ vP t j confier mon fils t i ]]
	c. Ahora, ya	sé	a quién puedo confiar mi hijo, pero todavía no sé
	now already know.1SG to who can.1SG confide my son but still	NEG know.1SG
	a quién no puedo.	(Spanish, Dagnac 2011) (=14a)
	to who not can.1SG

  c. já budu číst / *přečíst všechny tyhle knihy I FUT.1SG read.IMPF PF.read all these books 'I will read all these books.' d. já (ne)budu pozván I NEG.FUT.1SG invited.PASS 'I will (not) be invited.' (10) [ CP ... CL [ TP ... [ AspP bud-[ VoiceP byl [ VP ...]]]]]

  1SG COND.1SG read aloud and you PAST.2SG COND.2SG too Intended: 'I read aloud, and you did too.' / 'I would read aloud, and you would too.'

	(11) a. Já budu	číst nahlas, a ty budeš taky.
	I FUT.1SG read aloud and you FUT.2SG too
	'I will read aloud, and you will too.'
	b. *Já jsem	/ bych	četl nahlas, a ty jsi	/ bys	taky.
	I PAST.

  ).

	(12) a. Nemůžu	přece přečíst / číst	všechny tyhle knihy.
	NEG.can.1SG though PF.read read.IMPF all	these books
	'I cannot read all these books.'
	b. Nemohl jsem	přece přečíst / číst	všechny tyhle knihy.
	NEG.could PAST.1SG though PF.read read.IMPF all	these books
	'I could not read all these books.' (*I have not could ...)
	c. Nikdy nebudu	moci přečíst / číst	všechny tyhle knihy.
	never NEG.FUT.1SG can PF.read read.IMPF all	these books
	'I will not be able to read all these books.' (*I will not can ...)
	d. Já budu	muset být pozván.
	I FUT.1SG must be invited.PASS
	'I will have to be invited.'

  5 , that they are raising verbs selecting not a VP, but a TP complement.(13) a. *Já musím moci prečíst ty knihy. I must can PF.read these books intended: 'I have to be able to read these books.' b. *You must can read these books. c. Vous devez pouvoir lire ces livres.(French)

	you must can	read these books
	d. Hij moet goed kunnen koken.	(Dutch, Lobeck 1995:40)
	he must well can	cook
	'He has to be able to cook well.'

  , it is no longer true for modal verbs in French.

	(14) a. Petr musí přečíst ty knihy. / Petr (je)	musí (*je)	přečíst.
	P. must PF.read these books P. CL:them must CL:them PF.read
	'Peter must read these books / them.'
	b. Pierre doit lire ces livres. / Pierre (*les)	doit (les)	lire. (French)
	P.	must read these books P.	CL:them must CL:them read
	'Peter must read these books / them.'

  ACC already PAST.1SG bought but books.ACC PAST.1SG yet NEG.could 'I have already bought the/some toys, but I was not yet able to buy the/some books.' b. The toy she had already bought, but the book she really couldn't. c. Les jouets, je les ai déjà achetés, mais les livres, je n'ai pas encore pu. (French) the toys I them have already bought but the books I NEG.have NEG yet could d. *Het speelgoed had ik al gekocht, maar het boekje kon ik niet.

	(22) wh-object extraction:
	Vím	komu	můžu děti	svěřit a komu	nemůžu.
	know.1SG who.DAT can.1SG children confide and who.DAT NEG.can.1SG
	'I know to whom I can confide my children and to whom I can't.'
	(23) object topicalization:
	a. Hračky už	jsem	koupila, ale knížky	jsem	ještě nemohla.
	toys.(Dutch)
	the toy		have I already bought but the book could I not

  ). With respect to MCE, lines 4 to 8 indicate whether it is compatible with deontic and epistemic reading of modal verbs (Deont/Epist reading), with subject extraction, object topicalization, wh-object extraction and object scrambling (if there is any). Finally, lines 9 to 12 show whether MCE requires identical subjects in ACD constructions (Same Subject Constraint) and identical voice on the verb (Voice identity), and whether it allows a passive auxiliary to occur after the modal verb (Passive Aux). We can see that Czech shares most but not all the examined properties with English. (29) The syntax of [E] feature in MCE: a. Czech: E MCE [INFL [uMod], SEL [Voice]] b. English: E MCE [INFL [uT], SEL [v]] (cf. Merchant 2007) c. French: E MCE [INFL [uV], SEL [T nf ]] (cf. Dagnac 2008) d. Dutch: E MCE [INFL [uV deon ], SEL [Voice]] (cf. Aelbrecht 2008) (30) a. Czech: [ ModP může [ VoiceP [ vP t subj [ VP ...]]]]]] AspP (have) [ VoiceP (been) [ vP t subj [ VP ...]]]]] c. French: [ VP peut [ TP t subj [ AspP [ vP t subj [ VP ...]]]]] d. Dutch: [ VP kan [ TP t subj [ VoiceP [ vP t subj [ VP ...]]]]]

	a'.	ModP
	Mod	VoiceP
	může	Voice E	vP
	E [SEL Voice, uMod]	...
	b. English:	[ TP can [

  NEG.can read b. Jan čte [ VoiceP [ VP t sub t v všechny knihy [ CP které i [ TP Eva [ ModP nesmí [ VoiceP [ vP t sub [

VP ... t i ]]]]]]]]

  In the case of an intermediate extraction (if we assume objects scrambling instead of pseudogapping), like in (32), we can suppose that extracted elements are hosted by a TP-internal Focus position (following Beletti 2004) between the modal verb and the elided VoiceP. This kind of extraction would not be available in French or Dutch, where ellipsis targets the TP complement of the modal V. (32) a. Já třeba napíšu Heleně básničku, a ty zas můžeš písničku. I maybe PF.write H.DAT poem.ACC and you then can song.ACC 'I might write a little poem for Helen, and you, you can write a little song for her.

	b.	ModP
	Mod		FocP
	můžeš	DP i	Foc'
			písničku Foc	VoiceP
				Voice E	vP
			E [SEL Voice, uMod]	... t i

See Section

3.1 for different forms of the auxiliary verb být 'to be' in Czech.

French modal verbs may combine with an overt pronoun in contexts without extraction. Here, the pronoun can be analysed as a pronominalization of the overt TP complement of the modal verb. These contexts thus constitute arguments neither for deletion, nor for null anaphora. See also Section

4.1.

Traditionally (e.g. Ross 1969), deontic verbs have been claimed to be control predicates and epistemic verbs to be raising predicates. For[START_REF] Wurmbrand | Modal Verbs must be Raising Verbs[END_REF], however, this semantic difference is not represented in syntax.

Cf.[START_REF] Barbiers | The syntax of interpretation PhD thesis[END_REF],[START_REF] Lobeck | Ellipsis: Functional Heads, Licensing and Identification[END_REF],[START_REF] Aelbrecht | Dutch modal complement ellipsis[END_REF]. For our informants, the verb moeten 'must' would be ruled out in (16d), the verb hoefen 'should' being more acceptable.

Apparent counter-examples in English are reanalysed byMerchant (2007[START_REF] Merchant | Voice and ellipsis[END_REF] as cases of pseudogapping.

Voice identity also applies to ellipsis after the auxiliary future verb, see Section 5.3.

This assumption is at variance with[START_REF] Merchant | The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis[END_REF], for whom it is the complement of the head bearing [E] that is elided.

Proposal

Before proposing an analysis of MCE in Czech, I present here my assumptions about the general mechanism licensing ellipsis, following in particular [START_REF] Aelbrecht | The Syntactic Licensing of Ellipsis[END_REF], and to some extent [START_REF] Lobeck | Ellipsis: Functional Heads, Licensing and Identification[END_REF], [START_REF] Merchant | The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis[END_REF] and [START_REF] Van Craenenbroeck | What Sluicing Can Do, What it Can't, and In Which Language: On the Cross-Linguistic Syntax of Ellipsis[END_REF]. I thus assume that: (a) ellipsis is triggered in a checking relation (Agree) between the licensing head X and the ellipsis site YP, (b) there is a feature [E] that occurs on the head of Y and indicates that YP 14 will not be spelled out (non-pronunciation at PF), once the feature is checked out by the head X.

The feature [E] has a specific syntax consisting of two properties: (i) selection of the head on which the feature may occur, i.e. the head of the constituent that will be elided (SEL X), (ii) uninterpretable features that must be checked against the features of the head licensing ellipsis (uY). I will propose that parametrizing these two properties accounts for the behaviour of (not only) Czech MCE. The elided YP must be given [START_REF] Barbiers | The syntax of interpretation PhD thesis[END_REF][START_REF] Lobeck | Ellipsis: Functional Heads, Licensing and Identification[END_REF][START_REF] Merchant | The Syntax of Silence: Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis[END_REF], and syntactically/structurally isomorphic with its antecedent (cf. Fiengo & May 1994).

Specifying the properties of the [E]-feature in MCE

We have seen in Section 3 that the behaviour of modal verbs in Czech suggests that they are neither T nor V head, but rather head of a specific functional projection between T and V, which I call Mod. They can therefore co-occur with T but not with other modal verbs.

To account for ellipsis licensed in the contexts of modal verbs in Czech, I propose in (29a) that the feature [E] is merged on the head Voice, i.e. that it selects as ellipsis site the phrase headed by Voice (SEL Voice). Moreover, the feature [E] must have its uninterpretable features (uMod) checked out by the head Mod, i.e. it is licensed by Mod. The properties of the [E] feature in Czech would differ from the properties of the [E] feature in English, French and Dutch respectively, as shown in (29bcd). In English, ellipsis targets vP and is licensed by T (see Merchant 2007). In French, ellipsis targets TP and is licensed by modal V selecting a TP (see [START_REF] Dagnac | L'Ellipse modale en français : arguments pour une ellipse du TP[END_REF]. In Dutch, ellipsis targets VoiceP but it is licensed by a deontic V (see [START_REF] Aelbrecht | Dutch modal complement ellipsis[END_REF]. Contrary to Dutch, however, we do not need to postulate that the VoiceP in Czech constitutes a phase blocking object extraction, since both subject and object extractions may take place before VoiceP is sent to PF.


Keywords: Enterococcus faecium, Probiotics, Dried Ossban, Safety, Antibiotic Resistance, Virulence

.

In this work, the lactic microbiota of "Dried Ossban" has been studied, and diverse biochemical approaches, molecular tools and cellular microbiology have been used to investigate the probiotic properties of the highly active isolates against Listeria spp. and Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212.

: Lactobacillus curvatus, L. sakei, L. casei, L. brevis, L. plantarum, Carnobacterium piscicola, C. divergens, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus.

.

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS and METHODS

RESULTS and DISCUSSION

Conclusion

Contacts: mohamed.zommiti@hotmail.fr, nathalie.connil@univ-rouen.fr

  + esp -ace -vanA -vanB -MZF2agg -gelE -esp -ace -vanA -vanB -MZF3agg -gelE -esp -ace -vanA -vanB -MZF4agg -gelE + esp -ace -vanA -vanB -MZF5agg -gelE -esp -ace -vanA -vanB - Frontiers in Microbiology Zommiti et al, 2018, Front Microbiol, 9:1685. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01685.

Mohamed Zommiti 1 , Mélyssa Cambronel 2 , Olivier Maillot 2 , Magalie Barreau 2 , Khaled Sebei 1 , Marc Feuilloley 2 , Mounir Ferchichi 1 , Nathalie Connil 2 1

  . Unité de Protéomique Fonctionnelle et Potentiel Nutraceutique de la Biodiversité de Tunisie, Institut Supérieur des Sciences Biologiques Appliquées de Tunis, Rue Z. Essafi, 1006 Tunis, Université Tunis el Manar, Tunisie. 2. Laboratoire de Microbiologie Signaux et Microenvironnement (LMSM) EA 4312, Université de Rouen, 27000 Évreux, France.