Pierre Gonneau

Maksim

Maksim The

Greek Pierre Gonneau

Aleksandr 2007 Andrej

Mixajlovič Kurbskij

Prosopografičeskoe Issledovanie

sources. Doubts about its (complete or partial) attribution to the real Kurbskii have been expressed3 . Nevertheless, "Andrei Kurbskii", is the key "author figure" (as in father figure ) of this text and we address him as such.

The death of tsarevich Dmitrii, the firstborn son of Ivan the Terrible, on 4 th June 1553, happens in a critical political and dynastical context. Some facts are well known, but the precise circumstances are not undisputed. One can spot discrepancies between official and unofficial, Russian and foreign sources. Andrei Kurbskii sets up the episode as part of an elaborate tale.

His endeavor can truly be described as a "literary mediation", allowing his reader to acquire a personal, almost intimate knowledge of the tsar and to develop a broad reflection about the spirit vs. the letter of religion, and the moral responsibility of the sovereign.

I. HOW DID TSAREVICH DMITRII DIE ?

What is certain is the following. On 2 October 1552, Ivan IV and his army take by storm Kazan, capital of a Tatar khanate heir of the Golden Horde. This opens the road to Muscovite expansion on the Lower Volga, and, ultimately to Siberia. On October 12, Ivan leaves Kazan on his way back to Moscow. When he reaches the town of Vladimir, he is told that his wife Anastasia has given birth to their first son, Dmitrii. The exact date is uncertain. 26 October (St.

Demetrios) is too late. It could be 19 October (St. Varus/Уар), because Varus is presented as a special protector of the child. The firstborn tsarevitch is baptized at the Trinity Saint-Sergius monastery in December. On 1-3 March 1553, Ivan the Terrible falls ill and seems to be dying.

He asks his boyars to swear allegiance to his son, but some of them object, unwilling to obey the Iurevichi-Zakhariny (aka the Romanovs), the family of tsarina Anastasia. Against all odds, Ivan recovers and undertakes a pilgrimage to the faraway St. Cyril's monastery on the White Lake. During the trip, the infant tsarevich Dmitrii dies, in June 1553, probably on the 4 th . He is buried in Archangel church of the Kremlin, in the tomb of Ivan IV's father, Vasilii III.

Strangely, the inscription on the tomb mentions his death on 4 June 1554 (not 1553). Another male heir, tsarevitch Ivan Ivanovich is born on 28 March 1554. A year or two later, Maxim the Greek dies at the Trinity-St. Sergius monastery (21 January 1555 or 1556).

1 This later source is free from the control of the Court and, obviously, gives us either unpalatable information or slanderous gossip, but is echoing an unofficial, uncensored tradition.

Under an erroneous date (Ivan the Terrible died in 1584), it lists his "7 wives"9 , in itself a daring act, because the Orthodox Church would allow only for two successive unions. The firstborn from the first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, is Dmitrii. The chronicle says bluntly that he drowned in the Sheksna river, as his father was en route to St. Cyril monastery (not on his way back, as in the Nikonian chronicle). He did not fell ill, but was the victim of a most unfortunate accident: по грешному делу means there was some sort of "sin", or "fault". The Royal progress was made on boat, but each night, it would stop and the party would camp in tents. On the morning, two "little uncles" (дядьки)10 of the tsarevich, both boyars from the Romanov family (one of them, Daniil, Anastasia's brother), took under her arms the kid's nanny (кормилица), who herself held Dmitrii in her own arms. Thus they had to carry her aboard. But she lost grip of the child who fell on the footbridge, and then in the river. He was recovered, but already dead. Here, neglect or bad luck are the reason for this death, it looks like and ill omen and not a test of faith.

4 17 . The reason for this is as follows: when you were conquering the proud strong Mussulman kingdom, there fell at the hands of the pagans many who with God fought firmly against them for the Orthodox faith; and the wives of those who were killed were widowed, their children were orphaned and their mothers lost their sons, and they continue to lament and to grieve much. And, he said, it would be far better to reward them and to settle them, comforting them in such troubles and sorrows and calling them to your ruling city, rather than to fulfill promises which are contrary to wisdom (…) For God and His saints listen to our prayers not according to their length18 , but according to our good will and according to our free will. O son of the devil ! Why, in short, did you sever the veins of human nature and, intending to destroy and remove all strength, sow in the heart of the Christian tsar such a godless spark, from which throughout the whole Holy Russian land so fierce a conflagration blazed up ? There is, I think, no need to expatiate on this. (…) When the Christian tsar had been made to drink his fill of such deadly poison by the Orthodox bishop, he set off by boat on his journey along the Yakhroma river as far as the Volga; and along the Volga he sailed several tens of miles as far as the great Sheksna river; and he sailed up the Sheksna river as far as the great White Lake, on which stand the town and fortress [of Beloozero]. And before reaching the monastery of St Cyril, while sailing along the river Sheksna, his son died, as the holy man had prophesied. Such was the first joy resulting from the prayers of that bishop we have been talking about ! Such was the reward received for promises which were not in accordance with reason and, what is more, were not pleasing to God ! And from there he went to the monastery of St. Cyril in much grief and affliction, and he returned with empty hands and in great sorrow to Moscow.

Kurbskii was, indeed, a disciple and an admirer of Maxim the Greek. They both were on the side of the "poor Church" (just like Savonarola), against the disciples of Joseph of Volokolamsk, whereas Vassian Toporkov, by blood nephew of Joseph, was one of "that cunning Josephian band"19 . But Kurbskii's tale has a wider scope. His diptych opposing two religious figures, the good counsellor Maxim, telling the unpalatable truth to the tsar, and the sycophant Vassian, igniting the worst in the tsar's soul, is in fact a reflection on the nature and the good use of royal power. There, Kurbskii also develops the concept of "Holy Russian land" Let it not be spent in vain and destroyed by war or thieves or fire". I praised your good intentions. For the Scripture says: Vow and pay your vows", and "It is better that thou shouldest not vow, than that thou shouldest vow and not pay" 24 .

Nevertheless, Maxim position on vows in general is not as uncompromising as it seems at first sight. First, he frequently uses the term "vow" (обѣтъ) in the narrow sense of monastic vows, who should not in any case be broken. Maxim insists also on the fact that one must make a vow on his own free will (данные Богу добровольно обѣты ; обѣщавшеся Владыцѣ самоволнѣ). One can see the same idea in the Paterik of the Kievan Caves monastery: by saying "you yourself said to me" Simon shows that Polycarp vowed on his own free will. For if anyone hearing about these holy places should grieve in his soul and his thoughts for these holy places, he shall receive the same reward from God as those who shall have travelled to the holy places. For many good men living at home in their own places, by their thoughts, charity to the poor, and their good deeds, attain the holy places and receive a great reward from God our Savior Jesus Christ. And many who have travelled to the holy places and to the holy city of Jerusalem have become conceited in their own mind as if they had done something good and thus lose the reward for their labor, and of these I am the first28 .

As often, in Old-Russian culture, the first and last word may come from the Scriptures29 .

Three important quotes testify to the sacrifice of the firstborn.

Исх.13.1 И рече Господь Мѻѵсею глаголѧ : ѻсвѧти ми всѧкаго первенца перворожденнаго, разверзающаго всѧкаѧ ложесна въ сынѣхъ Ізраилевыхъ ѿ человѣка до скота, іако мнѣ есть Ex.13.1-2 And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Sanctify unto me all the firstborn, whatsoever openeth the womb among the children of Israel, both of man and of beast ; it is mine.

Книга 4 Царствъ 3:27. И [царь Мѻавль] поѧтъ сына своего первенца, егоже воцари вмѣсто себе, и вознесе его во всесожженїе на стѣнѣ и бысть раскаѧнїе великое во Ізраили и ѿступиша ѿ негѻ и возвратишасѧ въ землю свою II Kings 3.27 Then he [the king of Moab] took his eldest son hat should have reigned in his stead, and offered him for a burnt offering upon the wall.

Прeмудрость Соломона.18.9 Сокровеннѻ бо жрѧху преподобніи ѻтроцы благихъ, и законъ божественный единомыслїемъ завѣщаша Wisdom of Solomon.18.9 For the righteous children of good men did sacrifice secretly, and with one consent made the law of the divinity.

As Adrian Schenker has explained, "The Wisdom of Solomon interprets the passover sacrifice of Ex. 12 as the first sacrifice for the redemption of first-born human beings (according to Ex. 13). The feast of the Passover is the feast for the institution of the redemption of the first-

(

  Святорусская земля), which he invented. Far from being an instrument of glorification of the tsarist regime (as it will be in the 19 th C.), Holy Russia is understood by Kurbskii as the where one can feel the influence of Maxim 22 . But is the tale of tsarevich Dmitrii's demise really grounded in Maxim's teaching ? III. MAXIM THE GREEK AND OLD-RUSSIAN TRADITION ON VOWS ANDPILGRIMAGEThe collected texts of Maxim the Greek, yet to be fully published in a scientific edition, do not mention the untimely death of tsarevich Dmitrii, nor Maxim's prophecy about it. Some of his sermons are very firm about the obligation to honor one's vows. To admonish his reader he quotes Psalm 5:7 : Погубиши всѧ глаголющыѧ лжу, мужа крове и льсти гнушается Господь ("Thou shalt destroy them that speak leasing; the Lord will abhor the bloody and deceitful man") and Ecclesiastes 5.4-5 : Лучше, рече Мудрость Божиа, не обѣщавшу и отдати Богу, неже обѣщавшу сългати ("Better is it that thou shouldest not vow, than that thou shouldest vow and not pay"). He also quotes Psalm 76.11 (75/12): Помолитеся и отдадите Господеви молитвы ваша ("Vow and pay unto the Lord your God")23 . This strict views can already be found in the classic of Old-Russian monastic literature, the Paterik of the Kievan Caves monastery (ca. 1225), very well known in 16 th and 17 th Century Muscovy. In his address to Polycarp at the end of Discourse (or Sermon) 21 of the Paterik, bishop Simon writes: "For you yourself said to me: "Better for me to spend everything I have on the needs of the Church.

  born. The law requiring an offering for the primogeniture and the redemption of the first-born sons of man is the meaning behind the enigmatic expression « the law of the divinity » in Wisdom 18 :9" 30 .If we read Andrei Kurbskii's tale of the demise of tsarevich Dmitrii as a source on history of mentalities in Late Medieval or Early Modern Russia, we can reach two distinct conclusions. The first one is that Kurbskii's tale is a political fiction. According to it, Ivan the Terrible concluded a kind of Faustian pact with his evil advisers (or with himself): let us get rid of wise and good men and rule by vice and terror instead of virtue and honor. The loss of the son is but the "first joy" (i.e. first punishment) for this bereavement. This is a terrible lesson for any young ruler. On the contrary, one can admit the story of the two interviews, with Maxim the Greek and with Vassian Toporkov, as fundamentally true (with some literary embellishments by Kurbskii). The tsar, still young at 23, traumatized by memories of his youth as an orphan raised by turbulent boyars, and by his recent illness, is persuaded that his dead father Vasilii III gives him a very sound advice, through Toporkov. Being devout almost to the point of superstition he insists on accomplishing his pilgrimage. He is aware that Maxim's prophecy could turn true, but prefers risking his son's life than breaking his vow. He assuages his guilt, after Dmitrii's death by mulling on the Bible verses concerning the offering of the firstborn to the Lord. The literati of 16 th and 17 th Century Muscovy were of course aware of these quotes. In the 1670s, when the question of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich's succession increasingly concerned the Muscovites, the story of Tsarevich Dmitrii's death again attracted great interest at the Muscovite court.

  . An official source, ca. 1568-1576. The Nikonian Chronicle. Никоновская летопись 4 . 7061 [1553]. Того же лѣта, мѣсяца Маiа, поѣхалъ царь и великiй князь Иванъ Васильевичь всея Русiи и съ своею царицею и съ сыномъ царевичемъ Дмитрiемъ и з братомъ княземъ Юрьемъ Василiевичемъ помолитися по манастыремъ : къ живоначалной Троицѣ, да оттолѣ въ Дмитровъ по манастыремъ, на Пѣсношу къ Николѣ ; да тутъ государь сѣлъ въ суды въ Яхромѣ-рѣкѣ, да Яхромою въ Дубну, да былъ у Пречистые въ Медвѣдевѣ пустынѣ, да Дубною въ Волгу, да былъ государь въ Колязинѣ монастырѣ у Макарiа чюдотворца, да оттолѣ на Углечь и у Покрова въ манастырѣ, да оттолѣ на усть-Шексны на Рыбную, да Шексною вверхъ къ Кирилу чюдотворцу ; да въ Кириловѣ манастырѣ государь молебная совершивъ, учредивъ братiю, да ѣздилъ единъ въ Ѳерапонтовъ монастырь и по пустынямъ, а царица великая княгиня была въ Кириловѣ монастырѣ. И оттолѣ царь и государь поиде опять Шексною внизъ, да и Волгою внизъ на Романовъ и въ Ярославль ; и вь Ярославлѣ государь былъ у чюдотворцовъ, да поѣхалъ въ Ростовъ и былъ у чюдотворцовъ, да въ Переславль, къ Живоначальной Троицѣ ; и прiѣхалъ государь къ Москвѣ мѣсяца Iюня. Преставися царевичь князь Димитрей. Того же лѣта, мѣсяца Iюня, не стало царевича князя Димитрiа въ обьѣздѣ въ Киррловьскомъ, назадъ ѣдучи къ Москвѣ ; и положили его въ Архангелѣ въ ногахъ у великого князя Василiя Ивановича.Божиими же судбами царевичь Дмитреи на пути томъ болѣзновати начя и в тои болѣзни отиде къ Богу. Царь и царица зѣлною печялию обьяти бышя, понеже не имуще тогда ни единого чяда, преже бо сего двѣ дщери ихъ, царевна Анна и царевна Мария, къ Богу отъидошя. И тако самодръжавный царь и цариця его сугубо скорбяще бяху.

	великаго чюдотворца Кирила в монастыри, и в Ферапонтове, и во святыхъ пустыняхъ, и firstborn, as tragic as it may be, only adds to the providential dimension of Russian history. Just
	въ Ярославли у чюдотворцевъ. as Vasilii III, a generation before, had to stay childless for a long time before having Ivan the
	Terrible (Degree 16, chapter 22) 7 , Ivan and Anastasia had to lose Dmitrii to finally be blessed
	with Ivan and Fedor.
	Приидоша же в Ростовъ и быша у всѣхъ иже тамо чюдотворцевъ, молящеся. У честныя
	раки святаго Леонтия прилѣжно моляхуся съ усердиемъ, просяще у Бога чядородиа в наслѣдие царствию своему. И ту малу нѣкаку ослабу отъ печали яко ощутишя. И оттуду 3. A later unofficial source, ca. 1635-1645. Moscow Little Chronicle. Московский
	приидоша въ Переяславль... у целбоноснаго гроба преподобнаго Никиты... и того же дни летописец 8 .
	приидоша въ градъ и въ царскомъ дому своемъ обрадованно почишя. И ту царица зачятъ
	во чревѣ своемъ. И оттуду въ царствующии градъ Москву, веселящеся и благодаряще Лета 7089-го [1581, sic] в великой пост в четвертую субботу преставися царь и великий
	Бога. князь Иван Васильевичь всеа Русии, был на государстве много лет, а был женат 7-ма
	браки : 1 -царица и великая княгиня Анастасия Рамановна, от нея же 1 сын царевичь The Book of degrees, is the first attempt at writing Russian history by reigns, comparing Дмитрей, в младенъчестве утонул в Шесхне реке тем обычаем, как государь ходил
	it to the ascension of a ladder, in the spirit of John Climacus, from saint Vladimir (first step) to молитися в Кирилов монастырь в судех вверх Шексною и из стану из шатров на судно
	царевича несла кормилица на руках, а кормилицу вели под руку царевичевы дядьки Ivan the Terrible (17 th step). It was directed by Metropolitan Macarius, head of the Russian бояря Данило Рамановичь да Василей Михайловичь Юрьевы, и по грешному делу
	Church (1543-1563), and the archpriest Andrei (to become Metropolitan Athanasius). They had царевич из руки у кормилицы упал на сходню, а [с] сходки в воду, и того часа выхватили,
	the use of Muscovite annals where they borrowed the description of the itinerary. But their tale и онъ залился.
	offers us a first literary mediation of the facts, or a first attempt at giving them a meaning. It
	plays on sharp contrasts between joy, grief and again joy, to enhance how the destiny of the
	Muscovite realm is the object of a special attention from the Providence and how Ivan and his
	spouse, Anastasia, maintain an exemplary piety in every circumstance. The birth of Dmitrii is
	associated with the "much glorious victory" at Kazan and the pilgrimage is undertaken to
	celebrate this happy events (no mention is made of Ivan the Terrible's illness). But "by God's
	design", the child "began to fall ill, and in this illness he departed to God" (болѣзновати начя
	и в тои болѣзни отиде къ Богу). The parents are in despair, having lost their first son, after
	two daughters. Yet, they do not lose faith and the last leg of the pilgrimage brings back joy. In
	Rostov, they fervently pray on the tomb of St. Leontius to obtain a new "heir to their realm"
	and they begin to feel "some solace". Then, they visit the tomb of St. Nicetas of Pereiaslavl,
	О царскомъ хождении по святымъ мѣстомъ и царскихъ чадехъ ихъ, чюдо о водѣ святаго
	Никиты и о распространении манастыря его. Внегда же убо милосердыи Богъ Казанское with the same pressing demand, and on that very night, in Pereiaslavl, the tsarina "conceives in
	царьство поручи святопомозанному царю и великому князю Ивану Васильевичу, всея her womb" (a Biblical expression). The second half of the chapter is devoted to the miracles of
	Русии самодержьцу, и тогда родися ему сынъ, царевичь Дмитреи, отъ христолюбивыя
	царици Анастасии. Преславныя же ради побѣды и ради чядородиа въздающе Богу Nicetas after the birth of the new "God-given" (богодарованныи) tsarevich, Ivan Ivanovich
	благодарение, поидошя царь и царица и съ отрочятемъ си по святымъ мѣстомъ (28 March 1554), followed by another son, Fedor (31 May 1557). It shows that the veneration
	помолитися. И бышя у Троици в Сергиевѣ манастыри, и у святаго Николы на Пѣсноши,
	и у Пречистые в Медвѣдевѣ пустыни, и у преподобнаго Макария в Колязиновѣ, и у of Nicetas, a local saint, takes a new dimension due to imperial patronage 6 . The loss of the

For this period, the so-called Nikonian Chronicle reproduces official annals of the Muscovite court. Among its manuscripts, the Illuminated chronicle is known under two variants: the so-called Synodal tom (Sinodal'nyi tom) and the Imperial book (Tsartvennaia kniga). If part of the tale dates from 1553, it has been revised in 1568-1576, probably under the instructions of Ivan the Terrible himself. The text scrupulously records the itinerary of the pilgrimage "among monasteries", most of it by boat. The last three lines explain that tsarevich Dmitrii deceased (no cause mentioned), on the way back to Moscow and was buried in the Archangel church.

2. An official source, ca. 1556-1563. The Book of Degrees of the Royal Genealogy. Degree XVII. Chapter 14. Степенная книга царского родословия. Cтепень XVII. Глава 14. 5 .

  . An hearsay account by a foreign observer, ca. 1609. Isaac Massa's Short tale about Muscovy 11 .Van syne grootvorstinne wirden hem gebooren dry soonen, daervan was den eersten genaempt Demetrius, die verdroncken is noch een kint synde. Want te dier tyt was den Crimsen Tarter met groote verrassing ende gewelt int lant gevallen, doende alsins groote scade, ja deede de geene ooc viuchten die in Mosco woonden, met sampt haren grootvorst, den welcken vloot met synen gantsen scaet en hoffgesin na Bielaozera, synde uuter natueren enn stercke plaetse, liggende rondtom in een groot meer, seer sterck beslooten. Also den grootvorst over voer eemael om 't leeger te besichtigen der Moscovitren, die rondtom ли убо «супротивно разуму», еже по настоящему времени жити ? Воспомяни же и в царѣхъ великого Константина: како царствия ради сына своего, рожденнаго от себе, убилъ есть.It this then « contrary to reason » -to live according to [the demands of] the present day ?Recall to memory Constantine, mighty even among the tsars; how he killed his son, begotten by him, for the sake of his kingdom13 .In his very long first letter to Andrei Kurbskii, Ivan the Terrible rejects all the accusations of tyranny and resents the fact that Kurbskii says he acted "against reason", or as an unreasonable person. Then abruptly, he reminds Kurbskii of Constantine the Great who did not hesitate to kill his own son. This is a reference to the fate of Crispus, Constantine's eldest son, who was executed in 326, presumably because his father suspected him of plotting to overthrow him 14 . Most scholars have read this passage in the context of the sudden death of Ivan takes a vow and decides to travel to St. Cyril's monastery with his wife and child. One of his first stop on the way is the Trinity St. Sergius abbey. Scene 4: Maxim the Greek, described as the archetype of the holy man, expressly forbids Ivan to go to Beloozero and advise him to care of the war widows and orphans instead. Scene 5. Ivan the Terrible persists in his vow and leaves Maxim who predicts the demise of young Dmitrii. А в том тогда монастырю обитал Максимъ преподобный, мнихъ святые горы Афонские, Ватапеда монастыря, грекъ родом, муж зѣло мудрый и не токмо в ритарском искустве многъ, но и филосов искусен. И уже въ лѣтехъ превосходные старости умащен и по Бозѣ в терпѣнию исповѣдническомъ украшенъ. Много бо претерпѣл от отца его многолѣтных и тяжкихъ оков и многолѣтнаго заточения в прегорчайшихъ темницах (…) А он был его из заточения свободил по совѣту нѣкоторых синглитовъ своихъ, исповѣдающих ему, иже отнюдь неповинне страждетъ таковый блаженный мужь. Тогда предреченный мнихъ Максим начал совѣтывати ему, да нѣ едетъ на такъ далекий путь, но и паче же со женою и с новорожденным отрочатем.In that monastery there dwelt at that time the venerable Maxim, a monk from the monastery of Vatopedi on Mount Athos, the holy mountain ; he was a Greek by birth, a very wise man, and not only was he great in the art of rhetorics, but also he was a skilled philosopher ; and he was

	5. A strange quote from Ivan the Terrible's first letter to Prince Andrei Kurbskii, 5 July
	1564. Первое послание Ивана Грозного Курбскому 12 .

'

t selve meyr lagen, hadde hy de vorstinne by hem dan in een ander jachte, die ' t selve kindt by haer hadde, en de jachten van hem en haer by malcander comende, eyste hy deesen Demetrio van haer om daer mede sich te verlustigen, en malcander ' t kint toereyckende viel het selve seer scielyck uyt hare handen tusschen de 2 booten int water en sonc ooc terstont als eenen steene, sonder hem meer te vinden; alsoo bleeff haren eersten soone, daer groote droefheyt om was in ganstchen rycke.

Isaac Massa (1586-1643), a Dutch trader-cum-diplomat, who stayed in Muscovy in 1601-1609, has heard there a tale similar to the one we read in the Moscow Little Chronicle. He confirms that tsarevich Dmitrii drowned in infancy, near the White Lake, by accident, as he was passed from one boat to another. But some details are quite different. In Massa's tale, tsarina Anastasia herself is giving her son to Ivan the Terrible who wants to play with him. The baby falls into water like a stone, never to be recovered. Either Massa dramatizes the tale, the parents being directly responsible for the accident, instead of little uncles and nanny, or he tells the truth, unspeakable in a Russian source, even unofficial. He is wrong, though, on the circumstances explaining Ivan the Terrible's presence in Beloozero. Massa writes that he was fleeing murderous raids from Crimean Tatars on Moscow and trying to organize defense. This happened later, in 1571, when Khan Devlet Girei wreaked havoc in Muscovy. In 1553, Moscow was safe and the tsar was indeed on a pilgrimage.

11 Skazanija Inostrannyx pisatelej o Rossii, izd. Arxeografičeskoj Kommissiej, t.II, Izvestija Gollandcev Isaaka Massy i Il'i Germanna, 1868: 8 (Sankt-Peterburg, Eudard Prac).

12 Perepiska Ivana Groznogo s Andreem Kurbskim, Ja.S. Lur'e, Ju.D. Rykov (eds), 1993:19 (Мoskva: Nauka). Сие tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich, in November 1581, at the hand of his own father according to several sources 15 . But Ivan the Terrible's letter, now considered genuine, was written much earlier (1564). Should it be considered as an empty threat, or as a contorted way to exonerate himself from his guilt, after Dmitrii's death in 1553 ? In this case, Massa would be right by saying that Ivan took part in the accident that caused the infant to drown.

II. KURBSKII'S PARABLE

It is a pity to cut and paste through Kurbskii's work. He can be considered, with tsar Ivan himself, as one of the first writers in Russian early modern literature. Yet his tale of tsarevich Dmitrii's death is ten pages long and cannot be reprinted in full

16

. We shall quote only the most important phrases and focus on the careful composition, resembling that of a drama. Act one. The Good adviser spurned. Scene 1: Ivan comes back in triumph from Kazan, but in his haste to return to Moscow and see his newborn son Dmitrii (following the poor advice of his brothers-in-law, the Romanovs), he abandons his army and squanders valuable resources.

Scene 2: Ivan falls ill, is expected to die, but after several days begins to recover a little. Scene 3:

13 Fennell, John L.I. 1955. The Correspondence Between Prince A.M. Kurbsky and Tsar Ivan IV of Russia, 38-39 (Cambridge, University Press).

14 Fennell, John L.I. 1955, 38, n.1. 15

Gonneau, Pierre, 2014. Ivan le Terrible: ou le métier

de tyran, 353-357 (Paris, Tallandier)

.

16

Fennell, John L.I. 1965. Prince A.M. Kurbsky's History of Ivan IV, 72-92 (Cambridge, University Press). take a man of ripe and venerable old age, adorned by God for his long-suffering as a confessor; for at the hands of his

[Ivan's]

father

[Vasilii III]

he had endured much-long-lasting and grievous chains and long-lasting imprisonment in the direst prisons (…) and the grand prince had freed him from imprisonment on the advice of certain of his advisers, who told him that so blessed a man was suffering although he was completely guiltless. Now this monk Maxim, whom we have been talking about, began to advise him not to go on so distant a journey, especially as he had with him his wife and his newly-born infant.

«Аще, -рече, -и обѣщался еси тамо ѣхати, подвижуще святаго Кирилу на молитву ко Богу, но обѣты таковые с разумом не согласуютъ. А то сего ради: егда доставал еси так прегордаго и силнаго бусурманского царства, тогда и воинства християнского храброго тамо немало от поганов падоша, яже брашася с ними крѣпце по Бозе за православие. И тѣхъ избиенных жены и дѣти осиротѣли и матери обнищадѣли, во слезах многих и в скорбѣхъ пребываютъ. И далеко, -рече, -лучше тѣ тобѣ пожаловати и устроити, утѣшающе ихъ от таковыхъ бѣд и сокрбѣй, собравше ихъ ко своему царствѣннѣйшему граду, нежели тѣ обѣщания не по разуму исполняти. (…) Понеже Богъ и святые его не по мѣсту объятия молитвам нашимъ внимаютъ, но по доброй воле нашей и по самовластию. И аще, -рече, -послушаеши мене, здравъ будеши и многолѣтен со женою и отрочатем». (…) Онъ же, яко гордый человѣкъ, упрямяся, толико: «Ехати да ехати, -рече, -ко святому Кирилу». (…)

Although, he said, you promised to go there to urge St. Cyril to pray for you to God, such vows are not in accordance with wisdom

  And, if, he said, you listen to me, you will enjoy health and long life with your wife and infant" (…) But the tsar, like a proud man, was stubborn and merely said "We must go, we must go to Saint Cyril".When the venerable Maxim saw that the tsar disregarded his advice and was determined to go on his useless journey, he was filled with the spirit of prophecy and began to prophesy to him: "If, he said, you do not listen to me who advise you according to God and if you forget the blood of those martyrs who were slaughtered by the pagans in the name of Orthodoxy, and if you overlook the tears of those orphans and widows and set off with stubbornness, then know sycophancy in his father's ear; and this is what he said: "If you wish to be an autocrat, do not keep beside you a single counsellor wiser than yourself, for you yourself are better than all; thus you shall be firm in the realm and you shall hold all your men in your hands. And if you keep near you men wiser than yourself, then perforce you will be subject to them". And thus he spun his satanic syllogism. But the tsar immediately kissed his hand and said: "O, even if my father had been alive, he would not have given me such useful advice !" О сыну диаволь ! про что человеческаго естества, вкратце рещи, жилы пресекл еси, и всю крепость разрушити и отъяти хотяща, таковую искру безбожную в сердце царя християнского всеял, от неяже во всей Святорусской земли таков пожар лют возгорелся, о немъже свидетельствовати словесы мню не потреба ? (…) Напившися царь христианский от православнаго епископа таковаго смертоноснаго яду, поплыл в путь свой Яхромою-рекою аже до Волги, Волгою жъ плылъ колко десять миль до Шексныреки великие, и Шексною вверхъ аже до езера великаго Бѣлаго, на немже мѣсто и градъ стоитъ. И не доѣзжаючи монастыря Кирилова, еще Шексною-рѣкою плывучи, сынъ ему, по пророчеству святаго, умре. Се первая радость за молитвами оного предреченнаго епископа! Се полученная мзда за обѣщания не по разуму, паче же не богоугодныхъ! И оттуду приѣхалъ до оного Кирилова монастыря в печали мнозѣ и въ тузѣ, и возвратился тощими руками во мнозей скорби до Москвы.

	Егда видѣвъ преподобный Максим, иже презрѣл его совѣтъ и ко ѣханию безгодному
	устремился царь, исполнився духа пророческаго, начал прорицати ему: «Аще, -рече,
	-не послушаеши мене, по Бозѣ совѣтующаго, и забудеши крови оных мучеников,
	избиенных от поганов за правовѣрие, и презриши слезы сиротъ оных и вдовицъ, и
	поѣдеши со упрямством, вѣдай о сем, иже сынъ твой умрет и не возвратится оттуды жив.
	Аще же послушаеши, и возвратишися, здрав будеши яко сам, так и сынъ твой». И сия
	словеса приказал ему четырмя нами: первый -исповѣдникъ его, презвитер Андрѣй
	Протопоповъ, другий -Иоаннъ, княжа Мстиславский, а третей -Алексѣй Адашев,
	ложничей его, четвертым -мною. (…)
	Moscow.
	Приходитъ царь до оного старца в кѣлью и, вѣдая, яже отцу его единосовѣтникъ был и
	во всемъ угоденъ и согласенъ, вопрошает его: «Како бы моглъ добре царствовати и
	великихъ и силныхъ своихъ въ послушествѣ имѣти?» И подобало рещи ему: «Самому
	царю достоит быти яко главѣ и любити мудрыхъ совѣтников своих, яко свои уды» (…)
	Онъ же что рече? Абие началъ шептали ему во ухо, по древней своей обыкновенной
	злости, яко и отцу его древле ложное сиковацие [На поле: лжещивание] шепталъ и таково
	слово реклъ: «И аще хощеши самодержецъ быти, не держи собѣ советника ни единаго
	мудрѣйшаго собя, понеже самъ еси всѣхъ лутчши. Тако будеши твердъ на царстве и
	всѣхъ имѣти будеши в рукахъ своихъ. И аще будеши имѣть мудрѣйшихъ близу собя, по
	нужде будеши послушенъ имъ». И сице соплете силлогизмъ сотанинский. Царь же абие
	руку его поцеловал и рече: «О, аще и отец был бы ми жив, таковаго глагола полезнаго не
	поведал бы ми ! »
	The tsar came to that elder in his cell and knowing that he had been of one accord with his

that your son shall die and shall not return from there alive; but if you listen to me and return, you shall enjoy health, both you and your son". And he enjoined four of us to convey these words to him: first his confessor, the archpriest Andrei; second, Prince Ivan Mstislavski; third Alexei Adashev, his gentleman of the bed-chamber; and fourthly, me.

Act 2. The triumph of the evil adviser. Scene 1: Ivan goes to another monastery to meet with Vassian Toporkov, a former bishop, who was a counsellor of his father's. Scene 2: He asks him what he should do to be a good ruler. Scene 3: Toporkov tells him not to keep a counsellor wiser than himself. Scene 4: Andrei Kurbskii rants against Toporkov's "syllogism". Scene 5:

Ivan continues his unreasonable pilgrimage and loses his son, returning in great sorrow to father and had been pleasing to him and in agreement with him in everything, he asked him: « How might I rule well and hold my great and powerful subjects in obedience ? » And he should have answered: "The tsar himself ought to be head [of the body] and he ought to love his wise counsellors as though they were his own limbs" (…) But what did he say ? He straightway began to whisper in his hear according to his old evil custom, just as of old he used to whisper false

  When the flesh is exhausted by old age, or illness, we must fortify it with light food (…) and we must be very careful to fast also in spirit, to abstain from all the passions of the soul, such as envy, jealousy, lust for wealth, harmfulness, malice, lie, hypocrisy, Judaic greed, usury abominable toGod, and, what is the cause of all evils, pride. Complete abstinence from these soul ruining passions, is the true fasting, agreeable to God 25 . Parable on the disorders of the kings that be (Слово пространнѣе излагающе съ жалостию нестроениа и бесчиниа царей и властелѣхъ послѣдняго вѣка сего) is well known because it is a powerful echo of Savonarola's depiction of the Church as a weeping widow, sitting on the side of the road. Maxim depicts Vassilia, allegory of Power, who laments because "those who are ruling nowadays… do not take any advice for the common good from those show them goodwill", but succumb to their passions and leave her in neglect. The connection with Kurbskii's charge against Vassian Toporkov is evident. Maxim and Kurbskii were clearly sharing the same opinion about good counsellors. Finally, a clear and positive distinction between pilgrimage of the soul, and real pilgrimage can be found in Old-Russian religious tradition. It is not made by Maxim, but by the first and very famous pilgrim from Rus' to Jerusalem, Daniel "abbot of the Russian land" (ca. 1104-1107). His text was still popular in Muscovy and Kurbskii must have read it. Daniel shows the same preference for "charity to the poor" as Maxim in Kurbskii's tale. The following lines are at the very beginning of Daniel's tale. Се азъ недостойный игуменъ Данил Руския земля, хужши во всѣх мнисѣх, съмѣреныый грѣхи многими, недоволенъ сый во всяком дѣлѣ блазѣ, понужен мыслию своею и нетрьпѣнием моимъ, похотѣхъ видѣти святый град Иерусалимъ и Землю обѣтованную. (…) И то все видѣх очима своима грѣшныма. Безлобивый показа ми Богъ видѣти, его же жадах много дний мыслию моею. (…) Сие написах вѣрных ради человѣкъ. Да кто убо, слышавъ о мѣстѣх сихъ святыхъ, поскорблъ бы ся душею и мыслию къ святым симъ мѣстом, и равну мзду приимуть от Бога с тѣми, иже будуть доходили святыхъ сих мѣстъ. Мнози бо, дома суще в мѣстѣх своих, добрии человѣци мыслию своею и милостынею убогых, добрыми своими дѣлы, достигають мѣстъ сихъ святых, иже болшую мзду приимуть отъ Бога Спаса нашего Исуса Христа. Мнози бо, доходивше святых сих мѣстъ и святый град Иерусалимъ и възнесшеся умом своим, яко нѣчто добро створивше, и погубляють мьзду труда своего, от них же пръвый есмь азъ 27 . Behold, I, the unworthy abbot Daniel of the Russian land, least of all monks, humbled by many sins and lacking in any good deed, urged by my own imagination and impatience, conceived a desire to see the holy city of Jerusalem and the Promised Land. (…) And all this I saw with my own sinful eyes, and merciful God let me see what I long desired in my thoughts. (…) I have written this for the faithful.

	Moreover, on the important question of fasting, Maxim makes a clear distinction
	between the spirit and the letter:
	Когда же изнеможетъ плоть старостiю, или отъ болѣзней, тогда требуется подкрѣпить ее
	легкою пищею (...) и то еще слѣдуетъ намъ прилежно наблюдать, чтобы поститься и
	духовно, воздержаться отъ всѣхъ душевныхъ страсрей, кои суть зависть, ревность,
	любоимѣнiе, лукавство, пронырливость, ложь, лицемѣрiе, жидовское сребролюбiе и
	богомерзское лихоимство, и причина всѣхъ золъ -гордость. Полное воздержанiе отъ
	этихъ душепогубныхъ страстей, есть истинный постъ и Богу благоприятный.
	Maxim's Шествуя по пути жестоцѣ и многыхъ бѣдъ исплъненем, обрѣтох жену, сѣдящу при
	пути... Она же, тяжко въздохнувши, отвѣщала мнѣ, глаголющи : …Къ прочимъ бо
	многымъ моимъ неисцѣлнымъ безгодиемъ правящеи ныне мене, от многыя ихъ
	жестотси, ниже мало общеполезное съвѣтование приимаютъ доброхотных ихъ, еже и
	паче иных прозябшихся в них страстеи, мене убо неуключиму и поругаему сътворили,
	онѣх же удобь плѣняемых и небрегомых показали живущимъ окрестъ ихъ 26 .
	22 Kalugin, Vasilij 1998: 79-87.
	23 Pr. Maksim Grek. 1996. Tvorenija: reprintnoe izdanie v 3-x častjax. T.1, Slovo XI, p. 137 (Svjato-Troickaja
	Sergieva Lavra) ; Pr. Maksim Grek. 2014. Sočinenija, T.2, 2014, N°16, p. 199; n°19, p. 209; n°20, p. 228 (Moskva:
	Rukopisnye pamjatniki Drevnej Rusi),.
	24 Heppell, Muriel, 1989. The Paterik of the Kievan Caves Monastery, Cambridge (Mass.), 138 (Cambridge:
	Harvard University Press); translation revised by PG.

Kalugin, Vasilij 1998. Andrej Kurbskij i Ivan Groznyj : teoretičeskie vzgljady i literaturnaja texnika drevnerusskogo pisatelja (Moskva, Jazyki russkoj literatury) ; Boeck, Brian J. 2007. 'Eyewitness or False Witness ? Two Lives of Metropolitan Filipp of Moscow', Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, 55 : 161-177.

Polnoe sobranie russkix letopisej, t.13, Moskva : Nauka, 1965 : 231-232.

The Book of Degrees of the Royal Genealogy : A Critical Edition Based on the Oldest Known Manuscripts, ed. G. D. Lenhoff, N. N.Pokrovskij, t.2, 2008: 374-375 (Moskva, Jazyki slavjanskix kul'tur).

Lenhoff, Gail 1999. 'The Cult of Saint Nikita the Stylite in Pereslavl' and Among the Muscovite Elite', 331-346, in Fonctions sociales et politiques du culte des saints dans les sociétés de rite grec et latin au Moyen Age et à l'époque moderne : approche comparative (Wrocław : LARHCOR).

The Book of Degrees of the Royal Genealogy…, t.2: 315-317.

Polnoe sobranie russkix letopisej, t.34, Moskva : Nauka, 1978: 229.

In fact, the list gives only 6 names.

The term has an affective undertone but also an institutional meaning. These two parents on the mother side were supposed to protect the child from any harm.

Razum means knowledge, wisdom, understanding, intelligence, competence, compassion, good sense.

Other possible interpretation: not according to the place from where we utter them.

Fennell, J.L.I. 1965: 80-81.

Pr. Maksim Grek, 1996, Slovo XVI, p. 155.

Pr. Maksim Grek, 2014, n°26, p. 264. The adjective общеполезное « regarding the common good », is borrowed from utilitas communis or publica, a concept known in Roman law and much debated by 16 th C. Humanists, C. Lazzeri, Introduction de H. de Rohan, 1995. De l'intérêt des princes et des États de la chrétienté, 96 (Paris, PUF).

Pamjatniki literatury Drevnej Rusi.T.2 XII vek, 1980, 25 (Moskva, Xudožestvennaja literatura).

Jerusalem Pilgrimage, 1099-1185, 1988, W.F. Ryan, J. Wilkinson, J. Hill (eds), 120-121. (London: Hakluyt Society).

Picchio, Ricardo 1991. Letteratura della Slavia ortodossa (IX-XVIII sec.), Dedalo).

Schenker, Adrian 1996. 'La Loi de la divinité, le rachat des fils premiers-nés et le sens de la Pâque en Sagesse 18, 9', Revue des Sciences Religieuses 70.2 : 183-187.

community of the suffering heroes who defended Christendom against "pagans" (the Muslim Tatars) and were rewarded with persecution by an ungrateful tsar 20 . Indeed, Kurbskii, himself a "bellator" is much concerned by the fate of the noblemen who fought bravely during the Kazan campaign (and later in the Livonian war), many of them dying in the process. Their widows and children should be generously provided for, while the living ones should be considered as the precious limbs of the body of the State, the tsar being the head. Thus, the very idea that a sovereign should not have counsellors wiser than himself is counterproductive: Ivan III, the grandfather of Ivan the Terrible "increased his frontiers to such an extent (…) because he took frequent counsel with his wise and bold advisers" (так далече границы свои разширивши... многаго его совета ради с мудрыми и мужественными сигклиты его). It is also a capital sin that may ruin the all Christian realm, because in this case the tsar behaves like Lucifer, the fallen angel. When Toporkov whispers "You are better than all men, and it is not befitting for you to have any wise man beside you" -as though he were saying: "for you are equal to God" (понеже еси Богу равен) 21 . These questions of political philosophy were of utmost importance at the time when Andrei Kurbskii's History of the grand prince of Moscow was copied and read, in the 1670s-1680s. And the story of tsarevich Dmitrii had a peculiar interest, because the Romanov ruling dynasty experienced a series of untimely deaths. In 1669, tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich lost his wife Maria Miloslavskaia (3 March), and his son, tsarevich Semen (18 June). On 17 January 1670, followed the death of tsarevich Aleksei Alekseevich. The widowed tsar married Natalia Naryshkina (22 January 1671) who gave birth to Peter Alekseevich (to be Peter the Great, 30 May 1672). But soon after that tsar Aleksei deceased (30 January 1676) and was followed by his son from his first marriage, tsar Fedor Alekseevich (27 April 1682). In fact, during this decade, the monarchy, although preserving its autocratic nature, experienced a crisis and many people asked themselves questions about what was happening within the ruling family, had it lost God's blessing ? The curious story of Ivan the Terrible, archetype of the tsar, spurning the admonition of a venerable starets and paying a heavy price for it could impress the reader.

Kurbskii's body of works, besides his History of the grand prince of Moscow and his correspondence with Ivan IV, contains quite a few religious texts, translations and original, 20 Cherniavsky, Michael 1961. Tsar and People : Studies in Russian Myths, 101-127 (New Haven ; London, Yale University Press) ; Gonneau, Pierre 2013. 'La « Santa » idea di impero nel XVI secolo. Andrej Kurbskij e la dottrina du Mosca terza Roma ', 29-55, in F. Randazzo (ed.), Russia, l'impero : saggi di storia e cultura (Tricase: Libellula). 21 Fennell, J.L.I. 1965: 84-85.

Abstract

In the year 1553, still recovering from a grave illness, Ivan the Terrible undertakes a pilgrimage to the faraway St. Cyril's monastery on the White Lake. During the trip, his first-born son, the infant tsarevich Dmitrii dies. The circumstances of this death are not explained the same way by all sources. According to prince Andrei Kurbskii, a polemist and a defector to Poland after 1564, Maksim the Greek had told the tsar that his trip was dangerous and that he could accomplish his vow in spirit instead of travelling for real, but Ivan the Terrible insisted on keeping true to the letter. Is this an historic episode, or part of the transmission of Maksim's political and religious teaching through his disciple Andrei Kurbskii ?


Christelle Saint-Marc

Hans C Hürlimann

Bertrand Daignan-Fornier
email: b.daignan-fornier@ibgc.cnrs.fr

Benoît Pinson

Serine hydroxymethyltransferase: a key player connecting purine, folate and methionine metabolism in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Keywords: Nucleotides, Amino acids, One-carbon units, AICAR, Cross-pathway regulation, Serine hydroxymethyl transferase

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Introduction

A growing number of metabolites are found to play important regulatory roles thereby directly connecting metabolic status and cellular functions. This is the case for 5-amino-4-imidazole carboxamide ribonucleotide 5'-phosphate (AICAR) which is an intermediate in the purine de novo synthesis pathway (Fig. 1) [START_REF] Daignan-Fornier | 5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-D-ribofuranosyl 5'-Monophosphate (AICAR), a Highly Conserved Purine Intermediate with Multiple Effects[END_REF]. In yeast, AICAR co-regulates purine synthesis and phosphate utilization by promoting interaction of the transcription factor Pho2 with either Bas1 or Pho4 [START_REF] Pinson | Metabolic intermediates selectively stimulate transcription factor interaction and modulate phosphate and purine pathways[END_REF]. In mammals, AICAR is an agonist of the AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) [START_REF] Corton | 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside. A specific method for activating AMP-activated protein kinase in intact cells?[END_REF][START_REF] Sullivan | Characterisation of 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase[END_REF]) and feeding sedentary mice with AICAriboside, an AICAR precursor, mimics muscular exercise [START_REF] Narkar | AMPK and PPARdelta agonists are exercise mimetics[END_REF]. Over-accumulation of AICAR is probably detrimental, as suggested by the multiple deficiencies associated with AICAR transformylase IMP-cyclohydrolase (ATIC) defect in human [START_REF] Marie | AICAribosiduria: a novel, neurologically devastating inborn error of purine biosynthesis caused by mutation of ATIC[END_REF]). Importantly, its antiproliferative effects [START_REF] Rattan | 5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-Dribofuranoside inhibits cancer cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo via AMP-activated protein kinase[END_REF]) are largely AMPK-independent [START_REF] Ceschin | Identification of yeast and human 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-dribofuranoside (AICAr) transporters[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | Discrete mechanisms of mTOR and cell cycle regulation by AMPK agonists independent of AMPK[END_REF]. In yeast, AICAR accumulation is found in an ade16 ade17 double mutant lacking ATIC [START_REF] Pinson | Metabolic intermediates selectively stimulate transcription factor interaction and modulate phosphate and purine pathways[END_REF]. Massive AICAR accumulation associated to constitutive activation of the first step of the purine pathway combined to ade16 ade17 mutations abolishes yeast proliferation [START_REF] Rebora | Revisiting purine-histidine cross-pathway regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a central role for a small molecule[END_REF]. However, when the purine pathway is not hyper-activated, the ade16 ade17 mutant is viable but displays a yet unexplained auxotrophy for histidine (Tibbetts and Appling 2000). This auxotrophy is not dependent on the Pho2 or Bas1 transcription factors that regulate the purine and histidine pathways and can be suppressed by overexpression of the putative phosphomutase Pmu1 [START_REF] Rebora | Revisiting purine-histidine cross-pathway regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a central role for a small molecule[END_REF] or by mutations resulting in decreased AICAR concentration [START_REF] Hurlimann | Physiological and toxic effects of purine intermediate 5-amino-4imidazolecarboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) in yeast[END_REF]. Additionally, when combined with the fau1 mutation affecting folinic acid utilization (Fig. 1), the ade16 ade17 mutant is unable to grow in the absence of methionine [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF].

This phenotype can be suppressed by upstream mutations in the purine and histidine pathways blocking AICAR synthesis [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF]. Thus, while a triple ade16 ade17 fau1 mutant is auxotrophic for methionine, a quintuple ade16 ade17 fau1 ade2 his4 mutant is not. Appling and coworkers proposed that the methionine auxotrophy of ade16 ade17 fau1 could be due to inhibition of methionine metabolism by combined elevated levels of AICAR and folinic acid [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF]. It is noteworthy that similarly to the ade16 ade17 double mutant, an ade3 mutant unable to synthesize 10-formyl-THF, a co-substrate for ATIC (Fig. 1), accumulates AICAR [START_REF] Hurlimann | Physiological and toxic effects of purine intermediate 5-amino-4imidazolecarboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) in yeast[END_REF]) and displays methionine auxotrophy when associated with a fau1 knock-out mutation [START_REF] Rebora | Revisiting purine-histidine cross-pathway regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a central role for a small molecule[END_REF]. In this work, we used genetic approaches to explore how AICAR connects purine and methionine metabolism in yeast.

Material and methods

Yeast media

SD is a synthetic minimal medium containing 0.5% ammonium sulfate, 0.17% yeast nitrogen base without amino acids and ammonium sulfate (Difco), 2% glucose and supplemented or not with adenine (0.30 mM; + A), histidine (0.06 mM; + H), leucine (0.40 mM; + L), methionine (0.13 mM; + M) and/or uracil (0.30 mM; + U). S-Adenosyl methionine, folic acid, glycine, homocysteine, or serine were added in the medium when indicated at 0.10 mM, 2.20 mM, 0.25 mM, 0.20 mM, and 3.5 mM respectively.

Strains and plasmids

All yeast strains are listed in Table 1 and belong to, or are derived from, a set of disrupted strains isogenic to BY4741 or BY4742 purchased from Euroscarf. Multi-mutant strains were obtained by crossing, sporulation and micromanipulation of meiosis progeny. The plasmid allowing expression of SHM2 gene under the control of a tetracycline repressible promoter (tet-SHM2; p3487) was obtained by PCR amplification of the SHM2 open reading frame using yeast genomic DNA as template and oligonucleotides 5'-CGCGGATCCACATGCCTTACACTCTAT-3' and 5'-CGCCTGCAGTTACACACAGCCAATGGGTATTC-3'. The PCR product was digested with BamHI and PstI and cloned in PCM189 plasmid [START_REF] Gari | A set of vectors with a tetracycline-regulatable promoter system for modulated gene expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF]) opened with the same restriction enzymes.

Growth test

Yeast cells from an overnight pre-culture were re-suspended in sterile water at 3.10 7 cells/ml and submitted to 1/10 serial dilutions. Drops (5 µl) of each dilution were spotted on freshly prepared medium plates and were incubated at 30°C or 37°C for 48-72 h before imaging.

Northern blot analysis

The transcript levels of SHM2 and ACT1 were determined by northern blot analysis as described [START_REF] Pinson | Low affinity orthophosphate carriers regulate PHO gene expression independently of internal orthophosphate concentration in Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF]). The SHM2 radiolabeled probe was obtained by PCR using oligonucleotides 5'-ATGCCTTACACTCTATCCGAC-3' and 5'-CATAGCACCACGTGGACCTCTC-3' on yeast genomic DNA as template. The ACT1 probe was already described (Denis et al. 1998).

Isolation of multicopy suppressors of the methionine auxotrophy phenotypes

Multicopy suppressors of the ade3 bas1 methionine auxotrophy phenotype were obtained by transforming the Y2844 strain with a plasmid multicopy library (PFL46LII backbone, 2µ LEU2;

generous gift from F. Lacroute). Positive clones were obtained by replica-plating of the transformants on SD +AHU medium containing or not methionine. Thus, the multicopy plasmid (p3147) was extracted from the unique positive clone. Sequencing revealed a DNA fragment from chromosome XII (coordinates from 255850 bp to 261890 bp) containing SHM2 and REX2 genes. Similarly, multicopy suppressors of the ade3 fau1 methionine auxotrophy phenotype were obtained by transforming the Y2031 strain with the same plasmid multicopy library (PFL46LII backbone). Positives clones were then identified by replica-plating of the transformants on SD +AHU medium containing or not methionine. Three positive clones were so identified, all containing the MET6 encoding region. The plasmid (p3157) containing the chromosome V fragment with coordinates from 339444 bp to 342871 bp was further studied.

Results

The methionine auxotrophy due to AICAR accumulation in the fau1 background is dependent on Bas1

but not Pho2 or Pho4

As mentioned in the introduction, a triple ade16 ade17 fau1 mutant is auxotrophic for methionine due to AICAR accumulation (Holmes and Appling 2002) (Fig. 2a) and similarly, an ade3 fau1 double mutant is auxotrophic for methionine [START_REF] Rebora | Revisiting purine-histidine cross-pathway regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a central role for a small molecule[END_REF]) (Fig. 2b). Of note, as reported before, we noticed that the methionine auxotrophy was enhanced at high temperature [START_REF] Rebora | Revisiting purine-histidine cross-pathway regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a central role for a small molecule[END_REF] and therefore several experiments were ran at 37°C. As for ade2 his4 ade16 ade17 fau1 [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF], we found that the ade8 his1 upstream mutations abolishing AICAR synthesis (Fig. 1) reversed the methionine auxotrophy of an ade3 fau1 mutant (Fig. 2b). AICAR accumulation was thus critical for the methionine auxotrophy of these mutants. How does AICAR result in this methionine requirement phenotype? A well-known physiological effect of AICAR is to promote interaction between two pairs of transcription factors (Bas1/Pho2 and Pho4/Pho2) and thereby activate transcription of a set of about 60 genes [START_REF] Pinson | Metabolic intermediates selectively stimulate transcription factor interaction and modulate phosphate and purine pathways[END_REF]. We asked whether this documented mechanism could be responsible for the methionine auxotrophy observed in a fau1 mutant accumulating AICAR and thus whether the transcription factors Bas1, Pho2 and/or Pho4 were involved in the methionine requirement phenotype. This was done by combining ade3 fau1 with bas1, pho2 or pho4 mutations. The growth defect of the ade3 fau1 double mutants in the absence of methionine was clearly not rescued by the pho2 or pho4 mutations (Fig. 2c), thus suggesting that the methionine auxotrophy is not strictly dependent on the activation of these transcription factors by AICAR. For the Bas1 transcription factor, we could not reach a conclusion in this genetic background, since we made the unexpected observation that a double ade3 bas1 mutant (Y2043) was itself auxotrophic for methionine even in the absence of the fau1 mutation (Fig. 2c, see section below). To circumvent the methionine auxotrophy of ade3 bas1, we constructed a triple ade16 ade17 bas1 mutant. Growth of this AICAR-accumulating mutant was clearly not affected in the absence of methionine (Fig. 2d), indicating that for this specific phenotype, ade3 did not mimic ade16 ade17. We thus took advantage of the fact that ade16 ade17 bas1 did not require methionine for growth, to construct an ade16 ade17 bas1 fau1 mutant that allowed us to evaluate the role of Bas1p in the ade16 ade17 fau1 methionine requirement. Our results establish that, by opposition to Pho2 and Pho4 (Fig. 2c), Bas1p is strictly required for methionine auxotrophy of the fau1 mutant under AICARaccumulating conditions (Fig. 2e). It is therefore likely that AICAR accumulation in the ade16 ade17 mutant activates a Bas1p-specific target that makes the ade16 ade17 fau1 triple mutant methioninerequiring. Of note, while most of the genes requiring Bas1 for their expression also require Pho2, expression of several of these genes is much more affected by the absence of Bas1 than that of Pho2 (Denis andDaignan-Fornier 1998, Denis et al. 1998).

The methionine auxotrophy due to AICAR accumulation in the fau1 mutant is suppressed by over expression of MET6 and by deletion of SHM2

In order to find clues for the methionine auxotrophy of fau1 mutants accumulating AICAR, the ade3 fau1 double mutant was transformed with a genomic library carried on a multicopy plasmid to identify genes suppressing this methionine auxotrophy when overexpressed. As a result, three positive clones were isolated, all containing a plasmid allowing overexpression of the MET6 gene. One of them containing only the MET6 gene fully bypassed the methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 fau1 strain (Fig. 3a). This result suggested that there is insufficient Met6p activity in fau1 mutants accumulating AICAR and that overexpression of MET6 can allow sufficient methionine synthesis for prototrophy.

MET6 encodes methionine synthase which catalyzes the conversion of homocysteine into methionine (Fig. 1, orange box). Met6 activity requires the one-carbon unit donor, 5-methyl-THF and is thereby directly connected metabolically to Fau1 which is required for mobilization of folinic acid (5-formyl-THF), a major source of one-carbon units (Fig. 1, yellow box). We reasoned that in the absence of fau1, specific folate derivatives could be limiting and/or inhibitory. We first asked whether folate limitation could be responsible for methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 fau1 mutant. The methionine auxotrophy of ade3 fau1 was clearly not rescued by addition of folic acid (Fig. 3b), as an external source of folate derivatives (Fig. 1, blue box) [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF]. This result suggested that folate limitation due to folinic acid sequestration in the fau1 mutant is probably not the major reason for methionine auxotrophy. To address the second hypothesis, i.e. inhibition of Met6 by a one-carbon unit compound, the ade3 fau1 mutant was grown on various organic sulphur sources. The methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 fau1 mutant was clearly rescued by AdoMet, which decreases the requirement for methionine (Fig. 1, green box), while it was not rescued by homocysteine, the methionine precursor (Fig. 3c, orange box). This result indicates that methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 fau1 mutant is due to insufficient synthesis of methionine from homocysteine by Met6 (Fig. 1). Since the fau1 mutant accumulates folinic acid, and that this accumulation is further enhanced ~4 times in the ade16 ade17 fau1 mutant [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF], we explored the possibility that folinic acid could have an inhibitory effect on methionine synthesis. We thus combined the ade16 ade17 fau1 mutations with a shm2 knock-out, because the serine hydroxymethyltransferase Shm2 was proposed to be responsible for synthesis of folinic acid [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF]Appling 2002, Stover and[START_REF] Stover | Serine hydroxymethyltransferase catalyzes the hydrolysis of 5,10methenyltetrahydrofolate to 5-formyltetrahydrofolate[END_REF] which cannot be remobilized in the fau1 mutant (Fig. 1, yellow box). Importantly, the ade16 ade17 fau1 methionine auxotrophy was fully suppressed by shm2 knock-out (Fig. 3d), strongly suggesting that folinic acid synthesis via Shm2p is responsible for methionine auxotrophy, possibly through Met6p dysfunction as suggested by Holmes and Appling [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF] and as indicated by isolation of MET6 as a multicopy suppressor gene (Fig. 3a). All together, these results suggested that the methionine auxotrophy of fau1 mutants could be the result of Met6 inhibition by folinic acid that is increased in cells accumulating AICAR [START_REF] Holmes | Cloning and characterization of methenyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae[END_REF] in which transcriptional expression of SHM2 is drastically increased [START_REF] Hurlimann | Physiological and toxic effects of purine intermediate 5-amino-4imidazolecarboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) in yeast[END_REF][START_REF] Pinson | Metabolic intermediates selectively stimulate transcription factor interaction and modulate phosphate and purine pathways[END_REF]).

The methionine auxotrophy of ade3 bas1 is suppressed by overexpression of SHM2

The newly uncovered methionine ade3 bas1 auxotrophy (Fig. 2c) was further examined. As expected, it was complemented by introduction of either ADE3 or BAS1 wild-type genes carried on centromeric plasmids (Fig. 4a). We then searched for multicopy suppressors that would restore methionine prototrophy. This approach allowed us to identify a unique multicopy suppressor plasmid which turned out to contain the SHM2 and REX2 genes. As SHM2 appears intimately linked to methionine auxotrophy (see previous section), we constructed a plasmid allowing expression of SHM2 alone (tet-SHM2) and observed that this overexpression was sufficient to restore growth of the ade3 bas1 mutant in the absence of methionine (Fig. 4b). This result suggests that low expression of SHM2 due to the bas1 mutation (Denis and Daignan-Fornier 1998) could lead to methionine auxotrophy when combined with ade3. It is noteworthy that the shm2 knock-out is synthetic lethal with ade3 [START_REF] Rebora | Revisiting purine-histidine cross-pathway regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a central role for a small molecule[END_REF]) and expression of SHM2 is activated by Bas1p at the transcriptional level (Denis and Daignan-Fornier 1998). Hence, in the ade3 bas1 double mutant, low expression of SHM2 due to the bas1 mutation (Denis and Daignan-Fornier 1998) could lead to a synthetic auxotrophy to methionine when combined to the ade3 mutation. Importantly, while the ade3 and ade16 ade17 mutants affect a common step in the purine de novo pathway (Fig. 1), the ade16 ade17 bas1 mutant is not auxotrophic for methionine (Fig. 2d). Together these results indicate that the methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 bas1 mutant is due to the combined low expression of SHM2 in the bas1 mutant and to a specific effect of the ade3 mutation. Shm2 and Ade3 enzymes both contribute to the synthesis of 5,10methylene THF, a precursor of methyl-THF which is required for methionine synthesis (Fig. 1). The methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 bas1 double mutant could therefore result from a limitation for 5,10-methylene THF. In addition, 5,10-Methylene THF, is utilized for dTMP synthesis and therefore methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (Met12, Met13) and thymidilate synthase (Cdc21) compete for 5,10-methylene THF as a substrate (Fig. 1). In a double ade3 shm2 mutant, there would be no cytoplasmic route left for 5,10-methylene-THF synthesis and thus the lethality of this double mutant is probably due to the lack of dTMP synthesis which is essential for life. A partial limitation for 5,10methylene-THF in the ade3 bas1 mutant would affect methionine synthesis but allow sufficient dTMP synthesis to maintain viability. Accordingly, methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 bas1 mutant was rescued by AdoMet, which diminishes the requirement for methionine (Fig. 1), but not by homocysteine which requires methylene THF to be metabolized to methionine (Fig. 4c). Thus, by supplying AdoMet to the cell, the residual methionine synthesis would become sufficient to allow growth in the absence of exogenous methionine (Fig. 1). By contrast, medium supplementation with folic acid, an external precursor of folate derivatives which requires Shm2 to be metabolized to 5,10methylene-THF (Fig. 1), could not rescue the methionine auxotrophy (Fig. 4d).

Shm2 a key enzyme at the crossing point between purine, methionine and folate metabolisms

In this work, we have found that the shm2 knock-out suppressed the methionine auxotrophy of the ade16 ade17 fau1 mutant (Fig. 3d), while on the opposite, SHM2 overexpression suppressed the methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 bas1 mutant (Fig. 4a). Consistently with the suppression of the methionine auxotrophy by bas1 but not pho2 knock-out (Fig. 2c), we found that SHM2 transcriptional expression is much more dependent on Bas1 than on Pho2 (Fig. 5a). This result establishes that the ade3 fau1 methionine auxotrophy is the result of the transcriptional activation of SHM2 by Bas1 in strains accumulating AICAR. Hence, both too low and too high expression of SHM2 can result in a methionine requirement in the ade3 background. Accordingly serine and glycine, which can be substrates or products of Shm2 (Fig. 1), had very different effects on the ade3 fau1 and ade3 bas1 mutants (Fig. 5b). Indeed glycine rescued the methionine auxotrophy of ade3 fau1. By contrast, serine rescued the methionine auxotrophy of ade3 bas1 (Fig. 5b). These results suggest that the serine/glycine balance favoring either the forward or the reverse reaction catalyzed by Shm2 can result in very different phenotypical outcomes. In conclusion, all these results point to the central role of the serine hydroxymethyl transferase Shm2 in the crosstalk between purine, methionine and folate pathways.

Discussion

In this paper we show that the methionine auxotrophy of ade3 bas1 and ade3 fau1 double mutants is due to inadequate expression of SHM2 which is too low in the ade3 bas1 mutant and too high in the ade3 fau1 mutant. Our results point to regulation of SHM2 expression as a critical controlling step connecting purine, methionine and one-carbon metabolism in yeast and potentially in other organisms. The main role for Shm2 in this process appears to be folate inter-conversion required to maintain proper amount of folate intermediates for methionine synthesis.

The newly uncovered methionine auxotrophy of the ade3 bas1 double mutant can be rescued by overexpression of Shm2. We propose that methionine auxotrophy observed for this mutant results from a competition for 5,10-methylene-THF between two branches of the pathway, methionine and dTMP synthesis (Fig. 1). On the opposite, the knock-out of SHM2 can efficiently suppress the methionine requirement of a fau1 mutant accumulating AICAR. Importantly both ade3 fau1 and ade3 bas1 mutants were rescued by methionine or by S-adenosylmethionine but not by homocysteine (Fig. 3c and4c) strongly suggesting that these mutants affect the methionine synthetase step either by inhibiting Met6 activity, as proposed for ade3 fau1, or by limiting its supplying with 5,10-methylene-THF co-substrate, as proposed for ade3 bas1. All together our data show intricate genetic interactions between purine, one-carbon units and methionine metabolism through fine-tuning of serine hydroxymethyl transferase.

The Bas1 transcription factor is a critical regulator of SHM2 expression (Denis andDaignan-Fornier 1998, Subramanian et al. 2005) and responds to both AICAR [START_REF] Pinson | Metabolic intermediates selectively stimulate transcription factor interaction and modulate phosphate and purine pathways[END_REF]) and glycine [START_REF] Subramanian | Transcriptional regulation of the one-carbon metabolism regulon in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Bas1p[END_REF], thus integrating these signals to properly modulate one-carbon units interconversion. Importantly, in wild-type yeast cells, physiological AICAR variations in response to adenine availability significantly impact on expression of SHM2 (3.8 fold up-regulation when adenine is lacking) [START_REF] Servant | Tye7 regulates yeast Ty1 retrotransposon sense and antisense transcription in response to adenylic nucleotides stress[END_REF], an effect similar to what is found for all the purine de novo pathway genes (except ADE16) [START_REF] Daignan-Fornier | Coregulation of purine and histidine biosynthesis by the transcriptional activators BAS1 and BAS2[END_REF], Denis et al. 1998[START_REF] Servant | Tye7 regulates yeast Ty1 retrotransposon sense and antisense transcription in response to adenylic nucleotides stress[END_REF].

Physiological AICAR variations thereby modulate expression of the key SHM2 gene which connects purine, methionine and folate metabolic pathways. Importantly, AICAR (also named ZMP) was recently shown to co-regulate purine and one-carbon metabolism in bacteria via a riboswitch mechanism [START_REF] Kim | An ancient riboswitch class in bacteria regulates purine biosynthesis and one-carbon metabolism[END_REF]. This evolutionary conservation further confirms the highly strategic role of this metabolite in cross-pathway regulation.

in human liver using specific peptide substrates and the effects of 5'-AMP analogues on enzyme Total RNAs were extracted from cells grown in SD +AHLU medium containing Methionine.

Legends of figures

SHM2/ACT1 ratios were determined using a phosphorimager and were set at 1 for the wild-type cells.

b) Glycine and serine supplementation allows growth on methionine-free medium of ade3 fau1 and ade3 bas1 mutants, respectively. Yeast strains were serial diluted and grown on SD +AHLU medium

  activity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 200: 1551-1556. Tibbetts AS, Appling DR. 2000. Characterization of two 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide transformylase/inosine monophosphate cyclohydrolase isozymes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 275: 20920-20927.

Fig. 1

 1 Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the de novo purine and histidine pathways in yeast and their

Fig. 2

 2 Fig. 2 AICAR accumulation leads to a Bas1-dependent methionine auxotrophy of fau1 mutants. a)

Fig. 3

 3 Fig. 3 Overexpression of MET6 gene, S-adenosyl methionine supplementation and SHM2 gene

Fig. 4

 4 Fig.4The methionine auxotrophy of ade3 bas1 is suppressed by overexpression of the SHM2 gene or

Fig. 5

 5 Fig.5The serine hydroxymethyl transferase Shm2 is central for connecting purine, methionine and

Table 1

 1 Yeast strains used in this study

	Strain Genotype

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Dr F. Lacroute for the gift of the genomic library. H-C. H. was supported by a fellowship from Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer. containing (+ Met) or not (-Met) methionine and supplemented or not with glycine (+ Gly) or serine (+ Ser). Plates were imaged after incubation for 48 h at 30°C.

MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade16::KanMX4 ade17::KanMX4 This study Y2031 MATa his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 This study Y2043 MATa his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 bas1::KanMX4 This study Y2816 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 This study Y2829 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 fau1::KanMX4 This study Y2831 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 pho2::KanMX4 This study Y2839 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 bas1::KanMX4 This study Y2840 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 bas1::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 This study Y2844 MATa his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 bas1::KanMX4 This study Y2845 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 This study Y2946 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 Pinson et al 2009 Y2954 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade16::KanMX4 ade17::KanMX4 bas1::KanMX4 Pinson et al 2009 Y4252 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 pho2::KanMX4 This study Y4276 MATa his31 leu20 ura30 ade16::KanMX4 ade17::KanMX4 This study Y4277 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade16::KanMX4 ade17::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 This study Y4278 MATa his31 leu20 ura30 ade16::KanMX4 ade17::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 shm2 ::kanMX4 This study Y4279 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade16::KanMX4 ade17::KanMX4 shm2::KanMX4 This study Y4924 MATa his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 pho4::KanMX4 This study Y4925 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 pho4::KanMX4 This study Y4985 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 ade8::KanMX4 his1::KanMX4 This study Y5613 MATa his31 leu20 ura30 ade16::KanMX4 ade17::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4 bas1::kanMX4 This study Y7210 MAT his31 leu20 ura30 ade3::KanMX4 fau1::KanMX4

This study


domain: spi phys

text:
Ronan Cranny

Xavier Ferrières

Thibault Volpert

Accurate method for calculating currents in wires in the vicinity of curved geometries

Accurate method for calculating currents in wires in the vicinity of curved geometries R.Cranny, X.Ferrieres, and T.Volpert ONERA/DEMR, Université de Toulouse F-31055 Toulouse -France

Precise methods to calculate currents are required for low frequency EMC simulations dealing with vehicles struck by lightning. The current model used resolves Maxwell's equations combined with a Line model based on Holland's thin wire formalism [START_REF] Holland | Finite-Difference Analysis of EMP Coupling to Thin Struts and Wires[END_REF]. The challenge is related to the approximation of the source fields obtained with Yee's scheme [START_REF] Yee | Numerical solution of initial boundary value problems involving Maxwell's equations in isotropic media[END_REF]. These sources are then used for the thin wire equations. In the vicinity of structures, the errors due to the staircase meshes representing surfaces corrupt the fields' values. In order to bypass this issue, it was suggested to apply non structured meshes such as Finite Volume (FV) [START_REF] Bonnet | Numerical Modeling of Scattering Problems Using a Time Domain Finite Volume Method[END_REF]. Difficulties are encountered when introducing thin oblique wires [START_REF] Guiffaut | New Oblique Thin Wire Formalism in the FDTD Method With Multiwire Junctions[END_REF] in this last approach, in particular for the calculation of the local self inductance L, a numerical parameter required by the line model equations.

In choosing a FV solver, difficulties will arise in terms of calculation resources due to the calculation procedure of the latter and to the unstructuredness of the meshes. To overcome this obstacle, a hybrid Non Structured-Structured (NST-ST) FV scheme which can also incorporate oblique Line models is proposed.

To illustrate the advantage of this new approach, an open cylindrical structure with wires running along its walls will be taken into account. It will be illuminated by a plane wave and we shall compare the obtained results in terms of current and field values retrieved inside and also in the vicinity of the cables.

  (a) FV scheme (b) NST-ST scheme (c) FD scheme

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Multiple configurations