Ph. D Ilaria Candidate

Cicola

Prof Lancioni Giuliano

Prof Lory Pierre

M Pascal Crozet

M Pierre

M Giuliano Lancioni

Professore Ordinario

M Me

Antonella Ghersetti

Professore Associato

Monica Ruocco

Stefano Gaia

Simona Fosco

Francesca Leila

Then Ruska

Holmyard

Plessner, Corbin Lory Kraus

Pierre Lory

Syed Haq Lory

A computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus

XXV L'alchimie arabe et les humanités numériques L'analyse automatisée et le codage des textes est une tâche difficile, car les textes sont des réalités complexes que le lecteur sous-estime à cause de l'habitude que nous avons de les interpréter. Quand à un logiciel, il faut qu'il performe les opérations d'interprétation qu'un humain fait mécaniquement, comme la compréhension des limites rhétoriques marqués par la ponctuation, qui est assez rare dans les textes arabe et le manque de stratégies utilisées dans la typographie occidentale, comme le manque de lettres majuscules pour reconnaitre les nom propres.

Comme Lancioni et Solimando soulignent, certains textes, :

[…] are more structured, however. An extreme model of structured texts where traditional marking devices are employed is represented by dictionaries […] Even in this case, Arabic does have some specificities: Classical editions of Arabic dictionaries, and even a few modern dictionaries, such as al-Munjid, make use of colors to mark some specific pieces of information, typically entries within a root; other specific devices include special parentheses for Koranic quotations, asterisks or other symbols for citation of poetic verses. 55 En outre, le travail sur le corpus jabirien engendre une autre difficulté, c'est-à-dire le manque d'outils d'analyse adaptés au lexique médiéval. Par exemple, le lemmatizateur Buckwalter 56 ne reconnait pas les mots utilisés dans le corpus, en raison de leur

Cette thèse est constituée de deux sections et des annexes : la première section introduit la période historique et le sujet des textes compris dans l'étude, il y est compris un excursus sur la figure de Jābir Ibn Hayyān et sur les principales caractéristiques des textes (e.g. synonymie, polysémie), à la fin de la section se trouve l'explication de la méthodologie de l'étude des textes par le biais des humanités numériques. La seconde section est la partie opérationnelle de la thèse, où les procédés et les compromis utilisés sont expliqués à côté des stratégies qui ont été pensées pour faire face aux problèmes présentés dans la première section.

III

Les annexes sont le noyau de la thèse: i. Annexes A, B et C sont des extraits du corpus numérisé ; ii. Annexe D est un extrait des concordances crées à partir de la lemmatisation de l'oeuvre de Lory, Tadbīr al-iksīr al-aʿẓam ; iii. Appendix E est une liste de fréquence du même extrait sur lequel les concordances ont été construites.

Section I L'alchimie dans le monde arabe médiéval Un savant, au moyen âge arabe, n'était pas spécialiste dans un seul domaine, mais il était un chercheur qui devait connaitre la médecine, l'astrologie, la cosmologie, la théologie et la loi. C'est dans ce monde qu'il faut penser que l'alchimie s'est épanouie.

Le terme moderne « Alchimie » dérive directement de l'arabe al-kimiyya, par contre l'origine du mot arabe est controverse, deux sont les hypothèses principales : i. il dérive de l'ancien égyptien kmt/chem, et fait référence à la « terre noire », la terre amenée par le Nil après son exondation ; ii. il dérive du grec chymeia, et fait référence à l'opération de la fusion des métaux et comme la fusion était l'opération la plus pratiquée dans cette IV période, cette hypothèse est plus probable2 . Les alchimistes arabes aussi avaient des opinions assez audaces3 . Le mot alchimie, et sa version scientifique, chimie, dérivent donc de l'arabe et ont été distinguées pour la première fois dans l'Encyclopédie de Diderot, fait qui reflète l'approche occidentale à ce domaine, par contre, en s'approchant au corpus jābirien, il ne faudrait pas diviser la partie philosophique de la partie pratique.

Al-Khalili dit: Referring to Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān as an alchemist rather than a chemist (according to our modern definition of the two words) is rather like referring to the great [...] Ptolemy as an astrologer4 .

Le lien avec la philosophie et la γνῶσις grecques est facilement compréhensible grâce à la multiplicité de niveaux de lecture des textes, qui se relient dans le lexique alchimique, comme explique Corbin:

"On voit que la Balance tend à découvrir l'équilibre entre l'apparent et le caché. Elle permet d'occulter l'apparent et de faire apparaitre le caché (opération de V ta'wīl) […]. Chaque vestige, chaque signature que l'on découvre dans un être appelle un contrepoids ou contrepartie de ce qui a imprimé le vestige" 5 L'alchimie arabe et le lien avec la tradition grecque L'alchimie arabe a été considérée pendant très longtemps comme la simple héritière de la tradition grecque. Cette assomption a, certes, des liens avec la vérité, mais s'il est vrai que les deux « écoles » étaient liées, il est vrai aussi que le corpus jābirien et la tradition arabe en général ont fait évoluer la science alchimique de manière considérable entre les siècles VIII et XII.

C'est pendant cette période que un lexique spécifique et certains des concepts fondamentaux de la Grand OEuvre étaient approfondis. Cela dit, établir une date et un lieu de naissance de l'alchimie arabe est très problématique : bien que la certains éléments de la χημεία grecque soient présents, la science alchimique n'était pas inconnue dans le moyen orient, les textes alchimiques écrits en Syriaque et copte (attestés en Iran et dans la zone de l'actuelle Syrie avant l'époque des traductions) en sont témoins. Ces alchimistes ante-litteram se seraient rencontrés grace à l'islamisation de ces territoires en créant une nouvelle tradition, représentée par le corpus jābirien 6 .

5 Corbin (2003) : 16, Lory cite un cours de Corbin daté du 9 mai 1973. 6 . Lory, Alchimie (1989): 12.

Les textes de la tradition grecque constituent un corpus exigu qui remonte au III/IX siècle et qui a certainement été manipulé de manière à cacher la signification essentielle et pour la rendre inaccessible aux non-initiés. De plus, ces textes ont une nature très peu technique et les interpréter est une tache assez difficile à cause de l'aura philosophique donnée aux textes par les auteurs et à cause de l'interprétation que les alchimistes successifs ont donnée aux symboles : ces procédés engendrent une lecture assez détachée de la réalité 7 .

Le corpus alchimique arabe est assez vaste et bien que le recours à un lexique exotérique et cryptique soit fréquent, les procédés alchimiques, les matériels et les outils utilisés y sont exposés de manière claire. La plus grande différence est la façon avec laquelle les auteurs cherchent à cacher la Grand OEuvre de ceux qui ne sont adéquats : les grecs cachent avec l'utilisation de mots et symboles indéchiffrables, alors que les arabes recoururent à un procédé d'atomisation de la science, le tabdīd al-ʿilm, 'dispersion de la connaissance'.

Pour ce qui concerne en particulier le corpus jābirien, les références à la tradition hermétique et gnostique y existent, mais VII peuvent être considérés plutôt comme des mémoires littéraires.

Citations de Démocrite y trouvent leur place, et Jābir admets de s'être inspire de Pythagore, Socrate, Platon, Aristote, Homère, Diogène, Porphyre et Apollonius de Tiana, en les citant directement dans son oeuvre.

Inversement certaines oeuvres tardes de la tradition grecque montrent des influences de l'oeuvre jābirienne dans la structure du texte et dans le jargon, en particulier pour ce qui concerne la théorie des quatre éléments8 .

Pour clore, l'oeuvre jābirienne à indoutablement été influencée par les auteurs grecs lui précédents et contémporains, mais elle apporte aussi des nouvelles théories, comme celle de la « balance » qui, à leur tour influenceront les auteurs successifs, en Grèce aussi.

Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān

Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān al-Kūfī al-Ṣūfī, connu aussi comme Geber

Problématiques historiques et réligieuses : la position de Kraus

Kraus soutient que le travail sur le corpus jābirien engendre des problématiques historiques, plus précisément : i) réligieuses et ii) concernant l'histoire de la science. Une approche historique en effet donne des nouveaux éléments utiles à la datation du corpus, comme par exemple la dédicace de certaines traités aux Barmécides 18 . Cela signifierait que l'écriture est postérieure à la mort de Jāʾfar (765). En outre, comme soulingne Lory, les « éléments ultra-chiites présents dans le corpus [sont] Deuxièmement, la question du lien avec l'histoire de la science en Islam est entamée par Kraus : la vastité des sujets du corpus se base bien certainement dans la tradition, mais Jābir crée une nouvelle forme de science, dépourvue de tout hermétisme 22 , et ses textes expliquent clairement 23 les procédés alchimiques utilisés.

En outre, Jābir a été le disciple de Hunayn Ibn Isḥāq, un des traducteurs les lus importants de la science grecque, qui très probablement l'a initié à la terminologie alchimique. Le fait que cet auteur naît en 192/808 24 confirme la théorie que le corpus jabirien ne fut compose dans sa totalité avant le III/IX siècle. En dernier lieu, il faut remarquer l'utilisation de la terminologie grammaticale dans le corpus: Jabir utilise lea nisba pour les definitions ṯulāṯī, rubā'ī et ḫumāsī en parlant des verbes trilittères, quadrilittères et pentalittères alors que ses contemporains 20 EI 2 s.v. Djābir Ibn Hayyān : 358, Kraus [Plessner]. 21 E.g. takrīr, utilisé pour le procédé de la réitération et pour indiquer la réincarnation. 22 "Bien que l'alchimie jabirienne soit une science au moins aussi secrète que l'alchimie grecque, l'auteur a rarement recours à des allégories telles qu'on les trouve dans les textes grecs". voir Kraus (1942-43): 32. 23 "Il en est tout autrement [de l'alchimie grecque] pour l'alchimie jabirienne. La description relativement claire des procédés et des appareil alchimiques, la classification méthodique des substances, marquent un esprit expérimental qui est fort éloigné de l'ésotérisme outrancier des textes grecs". Ibidem, same page. 24 EI 3 , s.v. Hunayn Ibn Isḥāq, (1986): 578 , G. Strohmayer. n'utilisaient pas cette forme de dérivation, attestée pour la première fois dans Ibn al-Sarrāj au début du X siècle..

La querelle sur l'existence de Jabir

La querelle sur l'existence de Jabir doit tenir compte des D'un point de vue plus philosophiques, il est important de donner de l'espace à la vision de Corbin et Lory sur l'existence de Jābir: 28 See Haq (1994): 25 cites Sezgin "We should free ourselves from the earlier illusion that the time of translations of Greek works into Arabic began only in the 3 rd /9 th century" Sezgin (1964) IV: 170. 29 Haq (1994):24-29.

Que certaines collection du corpus postulant une pluralité d'auteurs, il n'y aurait même alors aucune contradiction à l'admettre, car finalement on verra que le concept de Jābir, la figure de sa personne finissent par prendre une signification dépassant les limites d'un situs fixé et immobilisé dans la chronologie. 30 Corbin adhère et supporte les théories de Kraus, mais il analyse le "problème" d'un angle différent, en donnant à Jābir une importance qui va au-delà de son existence physique et historique.

Lory, à partir de son étude sur le Livre des Soixante-dix 31 donne une analyse unique et complexe de la question, en déclarant qu'il y a divers niveaux d'écriture dans le corpus:

[…] autour d'un noyau primitif, d'un enseignement alchimique à caractère pratique, ont été ajoutées des considérations plus théoriques et doctrinales, et enfin des introductions, transitions et références reliant les différentes parties entre elles à l'ensemble de l'ouvre jâbirienne 32 .

Notre étude suit ce point de vue, en le considérant le plus intéressant, car il unifie l'interprétation de Kraus qui voit le corpus comme une oeuvre collective d'une école d'alchimistes et l'hypothèse des autres spécilistes d'un auteur plus ancien. 33 .

30 Corbin (2003) [1986]: 189. 31 Lory (1983). 32 Lory (2003): 21. 33 Lory donne aussi une datation historique très précise effectuée à partir d'une phrase du Livre de la Divinité "un passage (ancient) du Livre de la Divinité […] signale que la matière première doit être récoltée au printemps, lorsque le soleil entre dans le Bélier, soit […] "le dix-septième du mois Rabî'ʿ al-Akhar". Or le mois de Rabîʿ est un mois lunaire, constamment décalé par conséquent par rapport à la position du soleil. Si l'on considère Le corpus jābirien et ses particularités Le corpus jabirien est intéressant pour son utilisation unique des mots, en effet, Jābir abandonne l'utilisation du style cryptique, tout en gardant une attention particulière pour le lexique, comme explique Lory :

Chez les alchimistes arabes, et Jâbir en particulier, l'usage de l'exotérisme se modère, et sa raison d'être apparait mieux : il cherche à saisir l'évolution des phénomènes matériels en tant que flux de l'esprit. Dès lors, l'emploi des concepts et leur contenu usuel volent en éclats pour laisser place à la révélation de leur sens vertical. 34 .

La particularité du lexique jabirien est que les termes de la vie quotidienne sont utilisés pour les procédés alchimiques, de façon que tout terme dans le texte puisse être lu à différents niveaux, en créant ainsi un lexique obscur et de difficile interprétation 35 . Les mots ne font plus référence à un seul concept, que cette allusion au calendrier lunaire réfère à une date historique précise, celle de la rédaction de ce traité, et que l'on calcule en quelle année elle a pu coïncider avec l'entrée du soleil dans la constellation du Bélier, on obtient la date de 153 [770], ce qui concorde parfaitement avec les données traditionnelles sur la biographie de Jâbir" (2003: 21-22). 34 " Lory (1989) : 26. 35 "La question de l'interprétation d'un tel langage constitue donc un obstacle à surmonter de façon tout à fait prioritaire. […] les recherches précises dans ce domaine sont restées excessivement rares jusqu'à nos jours". Lory (1983): 22 . ils créent une multitude d'interactions et de symbolismes 36 .

L'utilisation de cette typologie de lexique, combinée au tabdīd al-ʿilm était une stratégie de dissimulation opérée par l'auteur afin que seules les alchimistes les plus avancés pussent accéder aux significations les plus cachées des textes, comme l'auteur affirme dans ce passage du Livre des Pierres 37 :

The same applies to [his assertions concerning the First Balance of] plants and stones. So we are done with it, and there is no obscurity nor doubt in it, nor do we present to you a confused account. And [yet], as always, we deliberately abrogate in one book what we say in another. The purpose is to baffle and lead into error everyone except those whom God loves and provides for! 38 Le Mizān al-ḥurūf, 'la balance des lettres 39 ', la grande "innovation" de l'alchimie jabirienne, est fondamentale pour la Grande OEuvre, le choix d'un mot à la place d'un autre engendrant des différentes mésurations des éléments. Ce concept qui relie le corpus jabirien à la Qabbalah, est fondamental dans l'oeuvre de Jābir: la balance des lettres divise ces dernières en groupes et leur 36 "Le langage alchimique exprime [...] la représentation unitaire d'un monde multidimensionnel." Jâbir ibn Hayyân (1983) : 25. 37 Les traductions se basent sur le travail de Haq, mais ells peuvent différer de l'originel en raison de changements actués par l'auteur. 38 Haq, (1994) (a) specific gravity (references to Archimedes); (b) the σταθμός of the ancient alchemists, meaning the measure in a mixture of substances; (c) a speculation on the letters of the Arabic alphabet, which are connected with the four elementary qualities (hot, cold, wet, dry). [...]; (d) mīzān is also the metaphysical principle par excellence, a symbol of the scientific monism of Djābir. In this sense it is opposed to the dualist principle of the Manichaeans. Neo-Platonic speculations on the One do not seem to have been without influence here; (e) lastly, mīzān derives from an allegorical explanation (ta'wīl) of the Ḳur'anic references to the weighing at the day of judgment. 40 Cet exemple montre la difficulté de l'analyse du corpus jabirien où, comme Lory explique, aucun terme de base de l'alchimie ne subit un emploi univoque et rigoureux.

XVIII

Transcriptions, translittérations et traductions L'alchimie arabe naît dans un contexte plurilinguistique et cet aspect ne peut pas être oublié dans ce travail, qui a pour but l'analyse lexicale du corpus. Malgré la querelle sur l'originalité de l'alchimie arabe, le lien avec la tradition grecque est assez indéniable et se reflète dans les translittérations du grec, comme "philosophie" (falsafa du grec φιλοσοφία) ou "élément" (uṣṭuqus du grec στοιχεῖον). Dans la plupart des cas, ces emprunts et calques sont reconnaissables à cause des modèles morphologiques clairement différents de l'arabe.

Dans d'autres cas, la formation du lexique se base sur le substrat persan. Un exemple en est le cas du mot 'substance', traduit du terme grec οὐσία avec le mot arabe jawhar. Jawhar, à son tour est un emprunt du Pahlavi "gōhr [N gauhar] substance, essence, nature; jewel; stock, lineage" 4142 . Il est intéressant de remarquer que ce mot substitute la translittération ḥayūlā du grec ὕλη qui signifiait "the stuff in which a thing is made 43 " et qui a été utilisé par Aristote pour désigner la 'substance' dans la Metaphysica. 6, 10, 4. 44 41 MacKenzie, (1971):36. 42 Pour les définitions du Persan: voir Steingass, (2008) p. 1106, [1892]. 43 Pour les définitions du Grec: voir Liddell, Scott, 1996 [1843]. 44 Haq (1994) p. 51-57.

Ce mélange crée un lexique dans lequel les traductions coexistent avec les emprunts et les calques, en créant des phénomènes de code switching et de contact. Différentes typologies d'emprunts peuvent etre trouvées: i) emprunts du grec, "mezereom" (māzariyūn,) 45 ; ii) emprunts du persan comme "hématite" šāḏanah, de šāḏanj 46 , ou "carmin" qirmiz, du persan qirmiz: à son tour dérivé du sanscrit kṛmi-jā qui signifie 'wormmade' 47 ; iii) emprunts sémantiques e.g. "cornaline", ʿaqīq ʻaqīq, pl. ʿaqā'iq. Ces exemples montrent que dans une grande majorité des cas, le lien entre la tradition grecque et arabe passa par la tradition persane ; cette particularité rend l'analyse de ces mots assez compliquée.

Synonymes

Une autre péculiarité du corpus sont les synonymes, qui ont une importance fondamentale dans le procédé alchimique, étant le mot la base pour la Balance des Lettres, (mīzān al-ḥurūf), qui donne l'analyse des "poids" de chaque lettre qui compose le mot :

As for the different ways of the removal of excesses, you need at this point what is set forth in the Book of Morphology and elsewhere in these [four] books, namely that you must necessarily remove from all things whose weight you desire what 45 Liddel&Scott, (1996). 46 Steingass (2008). 47 American Heritage Dictionary (2006) et Kluge (1899).

is added to their primitive structure, and what has entered into this structure due to reasons other than additions. It is known that the [word which denotes the] name of gold; (al-)DHaHab al-ḏahab, exists in its primitive form, since it is free from additions; and the spelling of the[word which names] silver, fīḍḍa, becomes FḌ, since the hāʾ enters in it for the sake of feminine designation, and it does not admit of masculine gender. Thus, after removing the additions from the name of silver, you ought to augment it according to the need. 48 Ce qui est intéressant est la phrase "selon le besoin", où reside la nature plus profonde de la balance des lettres, c'est-àdire l'utilisation d'un mot à la place d'un autre selon ce qui est nécessaire à l'alchimiste à un certain point de sa coction. Par exemple, il y a six synonymes du mot "étain" dans le Livre des Pierres: al-qalāʿi, al-raṣāṣ, zāwus, al-muštarī, al-qaṣdīr . 49 Une étude sur les mots 'or ', 'argent' et 'mercure' est Ferrario, (2009).

philosophes. Ces citations sont une ultérieure richesse à rendre dans la numérisation du corpus, de manière à donner la possibilité de faire des recherches précises de prénoms, phrases et mots.

Hypertextualité

La dernière caractéristique que cette thèse analyse du corpus jabirien, est l'hypertextualité. A cause de la "dispersion de la science" (tabdīd al-' ʿilm), comme Lancioni remarques, "the system is very close to the way contemporary hypertexts work" 50 .

Certaines mots comme 'livre' (kitāb), ou des passages comme: i) "nous avons souligné dans d'autres livres, si tu les a tous lus" (qadd kunnā la-ka fī ghayr kitāb, in kunta qaraʾta min kutubinā shaʾyan) 51 ; et ii) "Tu dois savoir que celui qui n'as pas lu nos écrits précédents à propos du sujet des Balances, n'aura aucun bénéfice de ces quatre livres, car ils sont intimement liés et interdépendants" (wayanbaghiy ʾan taʿallama ʾanna man lam yaqraʾ kutubinā fi-al-mawāzin qabla hadhā al-kitāb lam yantafiʿ bi-shayʾin min hadhā al-kutub al-ʾarbaʿa (t) li-ʾanna-hā munāṭa (t) baʿḍahā baʿḍ) 52 peuvent fonctionner comme pivot de recherché dans un corpus numérisé, et cela 50 Lancioni, (2008). 51 Haq (1994): 174. 52 Haq(1994): 165. montre notre thèse initiale, autrement dit que le corpus alchimique peut être interprété comme un moderne hypertexte.

Manuscrits Publiés

Le corpus jabirien est très vaste, éclectique et inclue une large quantité de sujets : de l'astronomie à la philosophie, de la musique à la magie, de la médecine ò la religion. Pour la création du corpus numérique de cette thèse, les suivant textes ont été utilisés :

HAQ, SAYED NOMANUL. (1994). Names, Nature and Things. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. KRAUS, P. (1935). Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān. Muḫtār Rasā'il, Essai sur l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. Tome I. Paris -le Caire : Textes choisis. LORY, P. (1988). L'élaboration de l'Elixir Suprême -Quatorze traités de Jâbir ibn Hayyân sur le Grand OEuvre alchimique. Damascus : Publications de l'Institut Français d'Études Arabes.

Ces éditions incluent les traités suivants, listés en ordre alphabétique (occidental) avec la référence à l'édition (e. Kitāb al-bāb (Lory : 21-38) (vii) Kitāb al-hadà (Lory : 65-78) (viii) Kitāb hatk al-astār (Lory : 165 -170) (ix)

Kitāb al-ḥudūd (Kraus : 97 -114)

XXIII (x)

Kitāb al-lāhūt (Lory : 7-20

) (xi)

Kitāb al-manà (Lory : 51-64) (xii) Kitāb al-manfaʿa (Lory : 153 -164) (xiii) Kitāb al-mājid (Kraus : 115 -125) (xiv) Kitāb al-naʿūt (Lory : 107-118) (xv) Kitāb al-sabʿa (Lory :129 -138) (xvi) Kitāb al-ṣafāt (Lory : 79 -92) (xvii) Kitāb al-ṣafī (Lory : 171 -178) (xviii) Kitāb al-ṯalāṯīn kalima (Lory : 39-50) (xix) Kitāb al-ʿahad (Lory : 119 -128 L'inclusion de ces textes pourrait être un développement futur de la numérisation du corpus. 53 Berthelot (1893). 54 Holmyard (1928). ii) Exclusion des notes en bas de page : comme le matériel de base est déjà assez vaste, et comme les textes analysés ont déjà été soumis à une édition critique, les notes en bas de pages, qui contiennent les indications critiques n'ont pas été incluses.

iii) analyse par paragraphes. Cette unité de "mesure" a été choisie car le paragraphe représente l'unité de sens. Diviser les textes en pages ou lignes ne nous aurait pas permis de comprendre les concepts expliqués par l'auteur. Les paragraphes 57 http://oujda-nlp-team.net/?p=1299&lang=en sont des méta-unités de sens : ils sont des sub-unités par rapport aux chapitres, et des macro-unités par rapport aux phrases et aux mots. "its orientation towards content, rather than representation. [...] This is an important conceptual shift, since our intuitive attitude towards texts is to consider representation as the same thing than content, which is in general not true" 61 . 65 "NLTK, Natural Language Toolkit, est une suite de modules python qui inclut plusieurs NLP typologies de donnés, taches de procédures, extraits de corpus. (Loper and Bird, 2002). 66 Bird, Klein and Loper (2009: XIV). i) la première étape à compléter était la transcription des ouvrages sélectionnées. Elle a été faite manuellement, après avoir essayé de transposer les fichiers avec un lecteur Optical Character Recognition (OCR), cette tentative a échouée à cause du manque d'un OCR précis pour l'arabe.

Outils

XXX

Le travail de correction étant plus pernicieux par rapport à la numérisation manuelle, nous avons opté pour cette méthode.

Le corpus, une fois annoté, a été unis en un seul fichier incluant les trois ouvrages, cela permet en effet de rendre le travail plus rapide et nous donne aussi la possibilité de créer des liens internes au corpus pour montrer la stratégie du tabdīd al-ʿilm.

Comment annoter un livre: choix et divisions

Une fois le texte acquis, la structure du corpus annoté devait être conçue. Chaque livre présentant ses caractéristiques, mais la structure basilaire était bien similaire : les trois livres se divisaient en sous-unités (traités, extraits de traités, etc. ), cette première division se traduit en TEI avec l'utilisation du tag <div> (division du texte) qui "contains a subdivision of the front, body, or back of a text" 67 . Ce tag fait partie de la structure de default du TEI et il a été choisi aussi pour cette raison, c'est-à-dire son XXXII efficacité. Pour définir les spécificités de chaque section (livre, section, chapitre, sous-section) ont été utilisés les attribues, comme représenté dans l'exemple suivant : <div1 type="book" n="1"> كتاب األحجار <div2 @xml:id="1.1" type="section" n="1">

الجزء األول من كتاب األحجار على رأي بليناس </div2> </div1>
L'attribut "type" explique la nature de la division et "n" représente la succession numérique de la division dans le livre ; "@xml: id" est l'attribut utilisé pour la représentation des liens dans le corpus. Le titre du livre ou de la section est le texte en arabe.

La décision suivante a été de utiliser le tag <p> pour rendre la structure interne des sections, <p> (paragraphe) "marks paragraphs in prose […]paragraphs have no firm internal structure, but contain prose encoded as a mix of characters, entity references, phrases marked as described in the rest of this chapter, and embedded elements like lists, figures, or tables".

XXXIII

Le paragraphe a été considéré la sous-unité plus utile pour montrer la structure du texte (des éléments noyaux arrange dans une séquence spatiale basée sur leur position) et en outre ce tag permet l'utilisation de la presque totalité des sous-éléments. Pour gérer la succession des éléments, chaque paragraphe a un numéro progressif, qui permet aussi de faire des références et liens intercorpus plus précis.

Les autres divisions hiérarchiques mises en etre sont le "page break" et le "line break" : ce sont des tags "vides", qui ne peuvent contenir aucun tag et font partie du groupe model.milestoneLike. Ces éléments sont utilisés pour représenter un système de référence et indiquent une frontière précise dans le texte.

L'élément <pb/> 68 est placé au début de la page qu'il identifie et l'attribut "n" donne l'indication sur le numéro de page. L'attribut "ed", (edition) "which supplies a sigil or other arbitrary identifier for the source edition" a été utilisé pour indiquer l'auteur de l'éditeur, avec l'initiale du nom de famille de l'auteur.

68 Ibidem: 1265. <lb/> 69 est placé à la fin de la ligne qu'il représente, l'attribut "n" a été utilisé comme pour les pages. L'annotation des textes et de leurs particularités Jargon alchimique L'annotation du lexique des textes jābiriens est un des buts de ce travail, une novation qu'aucune étude n'a jamais traité 70 . Un corpus de ces dimensions pourrait être une base pour tous les tests visés à la compréhension du vrai lexique alchimique arabe.

Une des difficultés les plus grandes de cette opération est représentée par le manque de précision de ce jargon, autrement dit l'utilisation de mots appartenant au lexique spécifique et de mots génériques pour décrire les concepts alchimiques. A ce point il fallait décider s'il était mieux de : i) annoter tous les mots que le lecteur pouvait identifier comme "alchimiques"; ou ii) annoter seulement les éléments essentiels, choisis pour leur pertinence dans la littérature académique 71 . Le lexique alchimique est annoté comme dans l'exemple suivant:

69 Ibidem:1135 70 Ferrario (2009a)(2009b) a étudié les synonymes des mots "or" et "mercure", sans les tagguer, Scotti (2003) a créé un système de tag des recettes alchimiques mais il n'a pas taggué le lexique, car son but était de montrer la structure des textes en général. 71 Voir Ferrario (2009a), Kraus (1942-43), Lory (1983). <term type="alch" translation="and the copper"> والنحاس </term> La tag <term> "contains a single-word, multi-word, or symbolic designation which is regarded as a technical term 72 ". Les attributs utilisés sont deux : "type" indique la nature générale du terme, et "translation » donne une traduction littérale du terme en anglais.

Synonymes

La synonymie est une caractéristique fondamentale du corpus car elle est nécessaire aux nuances impliquées par le mizān al-ḥurūf. L'annotation les synonymes donne la possibilité de montrer comment ce principe agit dans le texte. Voilà un exemple tire du Livre des Balances publié par Haq. <lb n="14" ed="H"/> L'attribut "sameAs" décrit un élément similaire au terme annoté, il a été utilisé pour unir les synonymes du mot al-qalʿay 'étain'.

Emprunts, calques

Les emprunts et les calques, qui montrent les différents origines des mots utilisés dans le corpus a été fait suivant l'exemple suivant : <term type="alch" translation="the substance" xml:lang="fa" subtype="loan">الجوهر </term> Aux deux attributs basiques (<type> et <translation>) de <term>, deux autres informations ont été ajoutées : la langue et la XXXVII typologie de l'emprunt/calque. L'attribut <xml:lang> est utilisé pour spécifier la langue de quelque chose, le code utilisé pour chaque langue est unique et univoque 73 , Dans l'exemple en haut, comme le terme est un emprunt du persan, le code est "fa"(Farsī).

La typologie d'emprunt est expliquée avec l'attribut <subtype>, qui donne une sous-catégorisation de l'élément.

Polysémie

La polysémie a été annotée comme dans l'exemple suivant du mot mīzān : <term type="alch" ana="#balance #day of judgment #specific gravity #metaphysical principle of monism">

></termميزان

Le mot n'a pas été traduit dans le tag, mais l'attribut "ana"

(analyse) a été choisi pour donner les traductions, cette décision a été prise pour permettre au lecteur d'interpréter le texte dans la manière la plus complète possible.

Citations

Le corpus jābirien est riche de citations, pour les inclure dans le corpus annoté, le tag <quote> (quotation) qui "contains a 73 Une liste: http://www.w3schools.com/tags/ref_language_codes.asp phrase or passage attributed by the narrator or author to some agency external to the text" 74 a été utilisé. Un exemple:

Fig. 1 un exemple de citations dans l'édition critique de Haq's

Devient :

<lb n="6" ed="H"/> قال بليناس : <quote type="author" ana="Apollonius of Tyana">

</p>

Les attributs utilisés dans ce cas sont "type" et "ana". Le premier donne une définition de la typologie de la citation: dans ce cas est "author" parce que c'est une citation de Balinās, mais il peut être aussi une citation d'un livre (citations du Coran, par exemple). Le second attribut "ana" est le lieu où le nom de l'auteur ou du livre est spécifié.

Hypertexte

Le tabdīd al -ʿilm étant une des caractéristiques les plus intéressantes du corpus jābirien, a aussi été annoté dans le corpus.

La lecture des textes peut être difficile à cause de cette pratique et

</div2>

Le corpus a été annoté de consequence, il y a 12 mentions de ce texte dans le corpus, un exemple: <p n="5"> <lb n="12" ed="H"/> et iii) Pour annoter les trous, le mots omis et les espaces vides, le tag <gap> 79 a été utilisé avec l'attribut "reason". L'explication de l'attribut est "sampling" parce que la décision éditoriale de Haq a été de ne pas inclure des passages de l'oeuvre originelle dans l'édition critique : ًًًً <p n="36"><del reason="sampling">58b21 -59a11]</del></p> iv)

Les tableaux sont annotés tous simplement en suivant le standard TEI : <lb n="12" ed="L"/> ربيع اآلخر، فإنه أحكم ما يكون <noteوأزكاه resp="L" n="28"/> وأجوده في هذا الوقت <lb n="13" ed="L"/> إن شاء <هللاnote resp="L" n="29"/> </p> L'attribut "resp" apporte l'information de l'autorité de la note. 81 .

Muḫtar rasā'il 82

Pour ce qui concerne le Muḫtār, Kraus a décidé d'inclure une grande quantité de son travail d'éditeur critique dans sa publication. 81 Le système qui sera utilisé pour gérer les variantes des manuscrits est le suivant: <app><note> <rdg wit="#MS1"> البدء </rdg> <rdg wit="#MS4" type="ortho"> </rdg> </app></note> <app> "apparatus", le tag <rdg> signifie "reading" les attributs sont:"wit" pour "witness", les différents manuscrits; et "type" pour signaler le changement qu'une telle lecture apporte à la doxa (d'orthographe, manque, etc.). .<quote type="book" book="The Quran" ana="39:74">

ّ ُ د ْ م َ الح ه ٰ ِلل ل الذي َا َن ق َ د َ ص ّ ُ ه َ عد َ و <lb n="11" ed="K"/> َا َن ث َ ر ْ و َ أ َ و ّ َ ض ْ ر ْ األ ّ ُ أ و َ َب َت ن ّ َ ِن م ّ ِ ة ب َ ح ْ ال ّ ُ ث ْ ي َ ح ّ ِ َاء َش ن ّ َ م ْ ِع َن ف ّ ُ ر ْ ج َ أ ّ َ ِين ِل ام َ ع ْ ال </quote>
Comme pour les citations directes d'auteurs, le tag est <quote>, et la différence réside dans les attributs : "type" nous dit que la citation dérive d'un livre, "book" nous spécifique le titre du livre, et "ana" inclut la position de l'āya.

vii) Kraus a inclus les pages des manuscrits dans le texte, cette information a été annoté par souci de précision.

87 Ibidem: 1388. -Il n'analyse pas les textes non-vocalisés ; -Il rejette les mots qui ne sont pas incluses dans le catégories de textes visées par Buckwalter; et il n'y a pas d'information stylistique ou chronologique dans la lookup list, et il en est de même pour les noms étrangers translittérés contenus dans l'arabe classique et moderne, cela ayant comme conséquence la présence de faux positifs dans l'analyse.

LII

-En dernier, la translittération utilisé par le logiciel est incroyablement compliquée et n'est pas facile à lire.

L'analyse du corpus jābirien, à part les erreurs de frappe, (par exemple.ِلنحو ل َ ل َعْ )ف n'est peut pas être conduite avec cet outil, car il ne comprend pas tous les mots liées au langage alchimique (e.g. iii) certains mots composés contruits sur des prépositions (e.g. كيال ) ne sont pas bien analysés ; iv) le dernier problème est le manque de certains mots dans la base des données du lemmatiseur (e.g.

LVI

AlKhalil vs

سرجين، الهوت، بن

).

Malgré ces problèmes, le résultat de l'analyse est assurément précis et plus complet que l'analyse avec AraMorph. été inventée pour l'homme, de même, l'homme n'écrierait pas de programmes si le support digital n'existait pas.

Résultats

Tout comme le savoir alchimique, où la pratique transcende la réalité, en créant un mouvement évolutif, l'analyse computationnelles des textes permet d'évoluer en unifiant la tradition et l'innovation, en poussant la recherche en avant, vers une nouvelle forme de texte qui travaille en même temps comme véhicule de signification de façon traditionnelle et comme un archive de ses propres informations. Lastly, other scholars showed their interest in the Arabic alchemical corpus. Among them, two deserve attention 110 :

LXIII

Table of contents Transliteration table

u و ṣ ص - ا y ي ḍ ض B ب ʾ ئؤ أ ء ṭ ط T ت a َ ك ẓ ظ ṯ ث i ِ ك ʿ ع J ج u ُ ك Ġ غ ḥ ح an ك F ف ḫ خ In ك ٍ Q ق D د n ك K ك ḏ ذ à ى L ل R ر (t)
109 "Nell'anonimo testo astrologico Dastūr al-munajjimīn, datato intorno all'XI secolo, l'enigmatico alchimista Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, «autore di opere» (ṣāḥib al-taṣānīf ), è nominato, insieme ad Abū'l-Khaṭṭāb e Mufaḍḍal ibn 'Umar al-Ju'fī (entrambi morti nell'VIII secolo), come discepolo del sesto imam sciita Ja'far al-Ṣādiq (m. 765). Con una semplice successione di nomi, esplicitamente legati fra di loro da una comune dipendenza dalla parola docente del padre dell'esegesi allegorica del Corano -a cui tutte le espressioni eterodosse dell'islam sciita hanno guardato come fonte di verità e di salvezza -questo testo riconduce ad un'unità di pensiero originaria (data quasi per scontata dall'ambiente eterodosso, vicino all'ismailismo, a cui l'anonimo autore appartiene) il corpus alchemico attribuito dai suoi redattori alla figura di Jābir ibn Ḥayyān e alcuni testi religiosi eterodossi attribuiti all'insegnamento segreto di Ja'far al-Ṣādiq. In altri termini, questo testo ricorre ad un modello "apocrifo" di rappresentazione storica: dimostra di accettare come autentica l'artificiosa identità di Jābir, discepolo a cui il sesto imam, padre dell'alchimia araba secondo la tradizione che lo circonda, riserva il segreto della manipolazione delle sostanze, e dunque accetta la cronologia delle sue opere." Capezzone (2007b): 1. 110 As for the nature of this work, all the magnificent studies conducted by Corbin on the more philosophical and exoteric meaning and procedures, cannot be developed. Needless to say, they contributed to the author's growth and understanding of the subject, giving her the possibility to look at words under a different light. Alchemy "C'est une liturgie mentale operant avec des réalités sensibles très concrètes, projetant en ells et réalisant en ells la dramaturgie de sa proper transmutation intérieure. L'alchimie presuppose essentiellement cette activité herméneutique à plusieurs sens simultanés, convertissant les uns dans les autres les différents niveaux du reel. À ce titre l'alchimie est une application, et peut-être l'application par excellence, de ce ta'wîl ou herméneutique Sébastien Moureau, who worked on both Arabic and Latin alchemy 111 , and Ferrario, who did an interesting work on the lexicon of the Arabic MS Sprenger 1908, a manuscript that includes a reference to the Liber de alumnibus et salibus, of which he analyzes in depth the words used for describing elements like gold and mercury 112 .

Why digitalize?

The short introduction on the state-of-the-art leads to a series of questions: "How can we render this wide corpus? How can we gather texts and proficiently study them? How can the Jabirian corpus "evolve" in our world?" The answer is digitalization.

Written words, since their first appearance, changed the world. Technologies were created in order to write and the more humans wrote, the more technologies were developed to help us write better and more, and the written word changed our way to interpret and relate to reality. terminology and the plethora of quotes and references -both internal and external to the corpus -make this corpus unique and interesting for academic study. Digitalization of the Jabirian corpus may lead researchers in this field to manage a vast amount of information in the most efficient way, and therefore, contribute effectively to the progress of the domains evolution.

New technologies, just as it was for printing in the XV century, influence our way of living and of thought, giving us the impulse to improve our knowledge of the world 118 . This is the approach intended for this work: be influenced by new technologies, making them useful to understand the obscurities of the Jabirian corpus and, finally, use them to improve our knowledge, in a virtuous cycle.

Structure of this thesis

This work is divided in two sections: Section I and II.

Section I is an introduction on both the historical setting and remarks of the subject of the texts studies, comprising also an excursus on the figure of Jābir Ibn Hayyān and an introduction of all the issues in analysis this work had to render (e.g. synonymy, polysemy). It ends with the explanation of the methodological setting in which this work is settled: the processing of texts with Digital Humanities ressouces. In this methodological part the programmes used in this work are listed, explained and discussed.

Section II is the operational part, where are shown the compromises used in the realization of the digitalized corpus, as well as the strategies used so as to render the various issues presented in Section I. Section II presents the set of choices that tried to aswer to the questions made in Section I. It was decided to be as clear as possible about the processes, in order to make this work accessible and complete.

The core of the work is represented by the samples included in the Appendices, these include four parts:

-Appendix A, B and C are extraits of the digitalized corpus, it was decided to include the first section of all the three source books, in order to represent every detail of the digitalization strategies and processes.

-Appendix D comprise a sample of concordances based on Lory's edition of the first two Tadbīr al-iksīr al-aʿẓam. This sample is based on the lemmatization that was carried out on the corpus;

-Appendix E is the frequency list of the sample used for the concordances.

The decision to include samples is dictated merely by space matters. Bacause a thesis is a printed work, it would have been impossible and basically useless to print the whole digitalized corpus, the focus of this work being the transformation of printed words into a digital form that transcends spatial boundaries.

SECTION I

Historical remarks and methodology -G. Balty Guesdon, (1992) presents the importance and the development of this center of knowledge, without being too verbal about her work, the article shows how, when and why this library was founded and then how it and its importance expanded. 120 Established in the Umayyad era, it was the most important center of knowledge of all fields. It contained a vast variety of books, including all the sources of ancient knowledge, known as "rational sciences" or "sciences of the ancients", together with manuscripts from the Bizantine era, as witnessed by Ṣā'id al- Andalusī (Micheau (1996): 986, who quotes the Arabic qādī from the edition of 1991 by Cheiko) : "al-Ma'mūn contact the A mention goes also to the other centers of gathering of knowledge scattered all over the Islamic territories of that time:

Alexandria, Antioch, Edessa, Ḥarrān, Nisibis and all the monasteries where manuscripts were preserved, commented on and translated.

A savant in the medieval times was conceived as a multifaceted researcher who studied medicine, astrology, cosmology, theology and law. This is the reason why it is important to underline that in the Arab world were also present numerous hospitals, the so called bīmāristān, in Baghdad, Cairo, and in other Iranian cities. These institutions, as one can easily infer from its name, were Persian, but the still debated question calls for them to be created from the Syrian xenodochion 121 .

The dissemination of knowledge, which was free and based on one-to-one relationships until the V/XI century, was later institutionalized in the madrasāt, the 'schools'. The first schools born under the will of Niẓām al-Mulk and became common in all the Seljuk Empire and beyond, and served as center for the education of the administration, religious and juridical personnel.

Emperors of Constantinople and that they sent him a selection of works from, entre autres, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, Euclid and Ptolemy".

121 Micheau (1996): 992.

Scientific knowledge, in its strict sense, was not taught in these institutions, were only fiqh and Koranic exegesis were considered as taught "sciences", even if there was plausibly place for mathematics and astronomy, considered important for jurists and clerks 122 .

1.2 Alchemy, χημεία and kīmiyā

Etymology

The modern word "alchemy" derives, from the Arabic noun al-kimiyya t . There are numerous and contrasting opinions on the origin of the Arabic word kimiyya. The most accredited theories are two: (i) it derives from the ancient Egyptian kmt/chem; (ii) it derives from the Ancient Greek chymeia.

Some scholars believe that it originated from the world kmt o chem, that was the name used by the ancient Egyptians to designate their soil. In fact, it means 'black ground' and is referred to the black soil brought by the Nile river's tides, and was so called in opposition to the desert red sand. At its beginnings, alchemy

122 Micheau (1996) can really be a good read on this topic, the article is complete and the bibliography the author annexes is exhaustive and remarkably built.

was spread in Egypt to such an extent that for a period of time it was called the "Egyptian art". However, this etymology is not supported with old enough references to the words kmt or chem.

This is why other scholars argue that kimiyya derives from the Greek chyma, which designates the operation of melting metals together 123 . Since the practical alchemy among the Arabs in its early stages was mainly concerned with this kind of operations, the hypothesis of a Greek origin is much more probable 124 . Some scholars support another catching -but rather inconsistent -theory that would find the explanation to the origin of the term in Jābir himself; in fact, the preciseness of his work and the exactness of his experiments, in particular the weighting of the substances, the ʿilm al-kammiyya, the science of the quantities, would be the basis for the modern word kimiyya 125 , although Arab alchemists themselves had other audacious opinions 126 .

123 Anawati (1996): 854 specifies that it is the melting of silver and gold. One can easyly understand the aura of mystery given by the author to alchemy whereas chemistry was view as a more scientific field, as shown by its definition given by Venel (Tome 3: 408): "la Chimie a pris plus particulierement la forme de science, c'est -à -dire depuis qu'elle a reçu les systèmes de physique régnans, qu'elle est devenue successivement Cartésienne, corpusculaire, Newtonienne, académique ou expérimentale; différens chimistes en ont donné des idées plus claires, plus à portée de la façon de concevoir dirigée par la logique ordinaire des sciences".

(according to our modern definition of the two words) is rather like referring to the great [...] Ptolemy as an astrologer 128 .

Greek origins?

In the medieval Arabic world alchemy was a particularly interesting field of studies. In fact, it was part of the ḥikma t129 , the 'wisdom' of that golden age of the Arabs. The alchemical knowledge was, rather than being strictly scientific, deeply linked to the philosophy and to the γνῶσις. This is easily understandable if the multiplicity of levels of reading that intertwine in the specific lexicon of this discipline is taken into consideration, this work will later discuss this in particular, but, in order to render the complexity of the subject it is interesting to quote Corbin : reader understand that levels of analysis were constantly moving and mixing in the process of writing and creation of alchemy.

For a long time, scholars have considered as the Greek tradition's younger sibling, but this assumption should be reconsidered. While there is no doubt that the two disciplines are For what concerns the actual corpus, the Greek texts on alchemy in the Arabic corpus that scholars such as Berthelot, Ruska and Ruelle were able to gather are nothing more than a group of fragments of books written in a certainly long period of time, which spans from the III/IX century to the middle Ages.

These Greek texts had been manipulated, they may contain transcription errors, and have been altered in order to hide the essential meaning and make it inaccessible to the non-initiated.

Furthermore, these texts are not technical in the strict meaning of the term, and their interpretation is difficult to every kind of reader, for different reasons. First, because of the philosophic aura given by the first alchemists to the texts, in order to conceal the knowledge to those who were not ready for the deepest meanings of their writings, and second because of the interpretation given by the late alchemists to the symbols created by their masters: these interpretations, in fact, lead to a very detached-from-the-reality reading 132 .

The Arabic alchemical corpus is extremely vast and, although the exoteric and cryptic use of the words, the chemical procedures are exposed clearly as well as the material and the instruments characteristic of the Great Work. The main difference 132 For a deeper analysis, see Kraus (1942-43) : pp. 30 on.

between these two kinds of alchemy is that the Arabic one discuss and explains openly the theory, and at the same time it endeavors to keep its inner meaning secret through a process of information atomization, called tabdīd al-ʿilm, 'dispersion of knowledge', a process this thesis will further discuss and deepen 133 .

For what concerns the Jabirian works in particular, they are distant from the origins of the Greek alchemy. References to the Hermetic and Gnostic traditions are seldom direct and most of them can be considered literary mémoires of the ancient philosophers. However, in the works attributed to this author ideas and references to the most ancient authors like Democritus can be easily found by the reader acquainted with Greek alchemy.

Jābir himself admits that he takes inspiration from the doctrine of Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, as well as from Homer, Diogenes, Porphyry and Apollonyus of Tiana (Balīnās), referring directly to, and quoting them, in his works 134 .

Conversely, some later works of the Greek alchemical tradition show influences from the Jabirian texts, particularly from the theory of the four elements 135 . This can be noted not only Jābir "traditional" biography and gradually deleting every link to the Barmakids. From this, as Lory resumes 161 , two points ensue: i) some elements from the Greek tradition were already translated and studied by the II/VIII century; and ii) the elaboration of the ultra-Shi'i doctrines appearing in the corpus took place long before the actual historical phenomenon of the Qarmatism (which spread at the end of the III/IX century).

Other scholars followed this line of thought: Haq's opinions on the matter are well explained in the introduction of Names, natures and things where he maintains a completely different 160 For a deeper understanding and the analysis of a case study, see Lancioni, (1997). 161 Lory (1983): 47-48.

position from Kraus, challenging the latter's opinions and conclusions.

He mainly articulates his critics on: i) the approach to the corpus; ii) the link to Jāʾfar al-Ṣādiq; iii) the discourse about the religious trends in the corpus; iv) the Greek quotes included in the corpus.

For what concerns the approach to the corpus in general,

Haq challenges that Kraus uses the principle of the tabdīd al-ʿilm to justify two opposite characteristics of the supposed Jabirian corpus 162 . The the tabdīd al-ʿilm explains how such a vast corpus maintains its homogeneous character, as well as the gaps and contradictions in it. Haq pledges the unity and continuity of the corpus but he links these characteristics to his theory of a unique author. In his view the tabdīd al-'ilm, is a practice that doesn't entail inevitably the plurality of authors in other cases, like

Maomonides or Roger Bacon 163 .

When approaching the relationship of the alchemist with his supposed mentor, the imām al-Ṣādiq, Haq underlines that in the corpus there is rarely an explicit reference to the imām.

Moreover the documents attesting their meetings and discussions are part of the most ancient part of the writings, while in the latest documents, the phrase "according to my master" is found, but without any further information about him (if he was or was not alive at the moment of the quote) 164 .

As mentioned above, Kraus pledges the connection of Jābir to the Qarmatians, using this bond as one of the pillars to date and characterize the corpus. Haq calls into question this assumption, drawing the attention onto the fact that Jābir himself often takes some distance from their doctrine and that their technical terms where created before the end of the II/VIII century. He thus ascribes this lexicon to Abu al-Ḫaṭṭāb, basing this assumptions on Massignon and Sezgin's theories 165 .

The last aspect Haq takes into consideration of Kraus'

analysis, is the explication he gives in support of a late dating of the corpus. Kraus affirms that the utilization of loans from Greek is a proof of the late dating, because he sets those translation in the translations from Greek begun way before the period Kraus 164 See Haq (1994) : p. 14-21 for the complete analysis of the problem. 165 See Haq (1994): 25 quotes Sezgin "We should free ourselves from the earlier illusion that the time of translations of Greek works into Arabic began only in the 3 rd /9 th century" Sezgin (1964) IV: 170.

suggests. Furthermore, he underlines the simultaneous utilization of the Greek origin terms with some archaisms 166 .

Conclusions?

All this makes understandable that it is very difficult to believe in the existence of a single author of all the works included the Jabirian corpus. It is more likely and it would maybe be more useful to comprehend and face on a scientific analysis that this corpus was developed by a sort of school of alchemists, living and working between the first half of the IX century and the middle of the X century, as Kraus suggests 167 .

On a more philosophical plan, it is relevant to give some space to Corbin and Lory's view on Jābir's existence: In the study and the compilation of the corpus gathered in this work, these traits couldn't be explicitly studied because of the subtlety needed in the analysis 172 , but this point of view is here kept as the most interesting to use in the study of the Jabirian corpus. This perspective unifies Kraus' interpretation of the corpus as a result of a work of a school of alchemists, with the hypothesis from others scholars of a more ancient Jābir 173 .

170 Lory (1983).

171 Lory (2003): 21. 172 At this stage of the work where the stress is on the mere digitalization and the creation and the setup of tools, unfortunately this couldn't be examined in depth, but the further developments on syntactical analysis may serve this approaches. 173 Mizān al-ḥurūf, 'the balance of the letters 179 ' was fundamental to the choice of a word instead of another, and there were trends in different periods in the utilization of a Greek calque instead of a translation 180 .

Multi-layering (Polysemy)

This definition is chosen to underline the fact that words in the Jabirian corpus may be read in many different ways, in relation to the context they are inserted in.

In facts, polysemy is an important trait of this lexicon, because of the faceted reality its discourse wanted to convey 181 .

Here's a list of all the meanings of the word 'balance' (mīzān), one of Jābir's philosophic pivots. Mīzān could mean:

(a) specific gravity (references to Archimedes); (b) the σταθμός of the ancient alchemists, meaning the measure in a mixture of substances; (c) a speculation on the letters of the Arabic alphabet, which are connected with the four elementary qualities (hot, cold, wet, dry).

[...]; (d) mīzān is also the metaphysical principle par

179 This concept, who links the Jabirian corpus to the Hebrew tradition on Qabbalah, is fundamental in Jābir's works, the balance of the letters divides the letters in groups, assigning them a weight (for more on this subject, please see Kraus (1941): 187 -303). Obviously synonyms were important, because different letters weight differently, hence changing completely the operation with the bodies involved, as this work will later discuss in §2.2.3. 180 Kraus (1942-43): 260. 181 "Le langage alchimique exprime [...] la representation unitaire d'un monde multidimensional" Lory (1983): 25. excellence, a symbol of the scientific monism of Djābir. In this sense it is opposed to the dualist principle of the Manichaeans. Neo-Platonic speculations on the One do not seem to have been without influence here; (e) lastly, mīzān derives from an allegorical explanation (ta'wīl) of the Ḳur'anic references to the weighing at the day of judgment. 182 From this quick example it is clearly detectable that one of the difficulties of the analysis of the Jabirian corpus lies in the lack of a specific lexicon, so that some fundamental terms of the Great Art are, in facts, just ordinary words used in a peculiar context, that suggests its meaning 183 .

Transcriptions, transliterations and translations

Arabic alchemy was born in a multilingual context. It was practiced in Greece before arriving in the Arab world and Kraus 184 and others like Berthelot 185 point out similarities, calques and loans in the formation of the Arabic alchemical lexicon. These strategies were used by the Arab translators from the Greek, in the period of translations that took place in the II/VII century and influenced the whole vocabulary of the scientific literature in the Arab world ever since.

182 EI 2 , s.v. Djābir Ibn Hayyān, Kraus [Plessner]. 183 As stated by Lory (1994): "aucun terme de base de l'alchimie ne subit un emploi univoque et rigoureux". 184 Kraus (1935 and 1942-43). 185 Berthelot (1967).

This cannot be forgotten when the scope of the work is to do a textual analysis of the corpus. In fact some words were transliterated and adapted from Greek, like "philosophy" (falsafa from the Greek φιλοσοφία) or "element" (uṣṭuqus from the Greek στοιχεῖον). In many cases these words are quite easy to recognize if some conscious terms of analysis are used, like word length or, sometimes, their non-Arabic morphology pattern.

In other cases the Arabic tradition relays more onto the Persian substrate for creating lexicon. This is the case of the word 'substance' that is translated from the Greek term οὐσία with the Arabic word jawhar, a word borrowed from the Pahlavi "gōhr [N gauhar] substance, essence, nature; jewel; stock, lineage" 186 that still means, in modern Persian: "A gem, jewel, pearl, precious stone; lustre of a gem or sword; root, origin; of a noble family; essence, substance, form; offspring; any hidden virtue ; intellect, wisdom; a substitute". 187 It is interesting to underline that this word substitutes the transliteration ḥayūlā from the Greek ὕλη which meant in its ancient meaning 'forest', 'woodland', and "the stuff in which a thing is made 188 " and was later used in the Aristotelic tradition to denote 'substance ' in Metaphysica. 6, 10, 4. 186 MacKenzie, (1971):36. 187 All the Persian definitions come from : Steingass, (2008) p. 1106, [1892]. 188 All the Greek definitions come from: Liddell, Scott, 1996 [1843].

Nevertheless, jawhar become more common in the treatises, leaving the Greek loan useful only in specific contexts 189 This crasis created a lexicon in which translations coexisted with loans and calques, generating code switching and contact phenomena. Several different word-building strategies can be found:

-loans from Greek, e.g. "mezereom" (māzariyūn, botanical name Daphne Mezereum) 190 . These words are often easily recognizable through morphological analysis, i.e. word-length or non-Arabic morphologic pattern; -loans from Persian, as for "hematite" šāḏanah, from šāḏanj 191 . Similarly, the word "crimson" qirmiz, coming from the Persian qirmiz: originated from the Sanskrit kṛmi-jā meaning 'worm-made' 192 .

-semantic loans, e.g. "carnelian", ʿaqīq ʻaqīq, pl. ʿaqā'iq which later entered in the technical lexicon overcoming the other traditions.

189 Haq (1994) p. 51-57. 190 Liddel&Scott, (1996). 191 Steingass (2008). 192 American Heritage Dictionary (2006) and Kluge (1899).

In these examples it becomes evident that the link between the Arabic and the Greek tradition is mediated by the Persian one, so that those words are difficult to analyze and their origin should be acknowledged in the textual analysis in order to permit the researcher to track them 193 .

Synonyms

Furthermore, just like in any other kind of text, synonyms can be found. What is important to underline is that when, in the domain of alchemy, the author chooses a word instead of another, there has to be a deep motivation for it, because the act of choosing it has profound consequences, as a result of the Balance of the Letters (mīzān al-ḥurūf). This balance gives the reader an analysis of the "weight" of the single letters that compose and characterize a word, as shown in this short passage of the Book of the Stones (Kitāb al-Ahjār): (al-)DHaHab al-ḏahab, exists in its primitive form, since it is free from additions; and the spelling of the[word which names] silver, fīḍḍa, becomes FḌ, since the hāʾ enters in it for the sake of feminine designation, and it does not admit of masculine gender. Thus, after removing the additions from the name of silver, you ought to augment it according to the need. 194 What is important to point out in this passage is the very last sentence, and specifically "according to the need", that is precisely what the whole concept of the 'balance of the letters' is:

naming something according to what the alchemist needs in calculating. That is why synonymy becomes crucial in the alchemical corpus: every letter has a specific value that influences in the alchemical procedure, so knowing all synonyms and the right steps in calculating their weights makes a huge difference in the Great Art.

There follows an extract of The Book of Stones in which several synonyms for the word 'tin' are used:

People are seriously divided over the question of the weight of tin. Thus, some of them say, "we determine its weight accordingly to its name al-qalāʿi." But the Stoics

Quotes

A last peculiarity of the corpus is the presence of quotes that emerge while reading the corpus. In his exposition, Jābir refers to other alchemists and philosophers, this being a normal routine of his time. Those quotes may represent a big challenge for the reader to recognize, so that the creation of this digitalized corpus in which words, sentences and names of other scholars can be queried is of central importance. There is a short example of the occurrences of the name Socrates (Suqrāṭ) 197 in the Book of Stones. The name of the philosopher is found five times and a direct quote of his teachings appears too:

As for Balīnās, he made the governing rules identical for all three kingdoms of nature and invoked the authority of Socrates in support, saying, "if all three kingdoms of nature arise out of the natures, then it is clear that, consequently, there is no difference between them with 196 A deeper study on the synonyms for 'gold', 'silver' and 'mercury' can be found in Ferrario, [START_REF] Hillesund | Digital Text Cycles: From Medieval Manuscripts to Modern Markup[END_REF]( ). 197 Anawati (1996)):855 describes: "Jābir defined him "the father of all philosophers", and considers his as the prototype of the pure alchemist". The tradition has it that Socrates refused to transcribe the alchemical knowledge in fear of making it accessible to the masses. From his intuition were derived the theories of the balances and of the artificial creation, that play a pivotal role in the Arabic alchemy and in the Jabirian corpus. This excerpts show that there is also an occurrence of the name of Pythagoras (Fīṯāghūras) 202 and, of course a lot of occurrences of the Arabic name of Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnās) 203 in these few lines of the book. This shows and confirms the importance of quotes and direct reference to others philosophers in the Jabirian corpus.

Hypertextuality

The last, but not for its importance, specificity of the corpus that this work would like to analyze is its hypertextuality. Because of the practice of "dispersion of the science" (tabdīd al-' ʿilm), as Lancioni points out, "the system is very close to the way contemporary hypertexts work" 204 .

202 Defined as an alchemist and "possessor" of a Ṭā'ifat Fīṯāġūrus, 'Pitagora's school'. He is said to be the inventor of the theory of numbers, and Ṭuġrā'ī quotes and takes inspiration from his treatise on numbers.See Anawati (1996) :854 203 He was contemporary of the Caliph al-Ma'mūn. His most famous work are the Kitāb sirr al-ḫalaqa wa ṣan'at al-ṭabi'a 'The Book of the Secrets of the Circle and the Production of the Nature', also known as Kitāb al-'ilāl 'The book of the causes', where the Tabula Smaradgina is found, and a second book of his, the Kitāb al-aṣnām al-sab'a, 'The Book of the Seven Idols'. The Smaradgine Table is the dogma of alchemy and is attributed to Hermes or to the Egyptian god Toth. In this work can be found the following explanations: i) the correspondence and the interaction between the celestial and the terrestrial worlds; ii)the fact that all the matter's manifestation have the same origin; iii) a universal soul or spirit permeate the cosmos and the microcosms; iv) the sun and the moon represent gold and silver, or, as later alchemists suggest, sulfur and mercury. See, for reference Anawati (1996) : 858-859. 204 Lancioni, (2008).

Here is a list of the occurrences of the word 'book' (kitāb) in an excerpt of the Book of Stones, it is here shown how hypertextuality can work with a rather easy word such as "book" used as juncture:

In several books belonging to the Books we had promised you an account of the views of Balīnās, particularly with regard to the Science of Balance. Accordingly, we now proceed at once with an exposition of those aspects of his doctrine which are in agreement [with our views] and those which are not. 205 Then Balīnās determined the quantities of these weights; [these quantities are] . "

In order to discover the natures by means of letters, you ought to follow what we taught you in the Book of the

Elite, so that we lead you at the initial stages not into the precise determination of things, but into their nature. And this is also what we taught you in the Book of the Result, accept that, for the purposes of learning, the Result is better than the Elite. This is so because the Elite is like the aroma which emanates from things, whereas the Result is like their essence: the absence of the latter is the absence of the source 209 .

This short list illustrates us the use of this technique, which can be related also to this passages: i) "We have pointed out to you in several books, if you have read them at all" (qadd kunnā la-ka fī ghayr kitāb, in kunta qaraʾta min kutubinā shaʾyan)210 ; and ii) "You ought to know that anyone who has not read our prior writings on the subject of Balances will derive from the present four books no benefit at all, for all these are intimately interdependent" (wayanbaghiy ʾan taʿallama ʾanna man lam yaqraʾ kutubinā fi-al-mawāzin qabla hadhā al-kitāb lam yantafiʿ bi-shayʾin min hadhā al-kutub al-ʾarbaʿa (t) li-ʾanna-hā munāṭa (t) baʿḍahā baʿḍ) 211 . This proves the initial 209 Haq(1994): 166.(Emphasys added).

وينبغي

أن تعلم أن اج استخر الطبائع على احلروف ك ما مناك ّ عل يف " كتاب الصفوة " لن ذل يف االبتداء على طبع كيء ك ك ك ك ك ش ال على وكذل حتقيقه ما مناك ّ عل يف " كتاب كل ك ك ك ك ك احلاص " إال ّ أن " كل ك ك ك ك ك احلاص " أ جود حتصيال من " الصفوة " ئحة كالر من األشياء و " احلاصل " كذات الشيء اليت اهلا بزو يزول العني
thesis, it being that the alchemical corpus works in the same way as a modern hypertext does.

Edited manuscripts

The Jabirian corpus is vast, eclectic and comprises a massive range of subjects: mathematics, philosophy, astronomy and astrology, music, medicine and magic, and religion. It was divided by Kraus into four different collections:

-The CXII books (al-kutub al-mi'aʾ wa-al-iṯnā ʿashar). This first

Others manuscripts were published by Kraus in Jābir Ibn

Ḥayyān. Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam" 215 :

213 Lory (1983). 214 The first ten are from "The LXX books" collection, and represent the core ideas further developed in the following sixty chapters of the same collection; the Kitāb al-tabdīr is an isolated treaty discovered after the death of Kraus, and it is impossible to give it a proper place inside the Jabirian corpus, the Kitāb al-manfa'at was classified and analized by Kraus, but it was impossible to place it inside the corpus, moreover, another 15-line extract was edited by Holmyard; the Kitāb hatk al-astār wasn't properly situated in the corpus by Kraus, who nevertheless suggests it to be part of the "Five hundreds books"; finally, the Kitāb al-ṣafī is part of the "Five hundreds books". 215 Kraus (1935). The inclusion of these edited text represents a further development of the digitalization of the Jabirian corpus 219 . 219 The choice was made not to include them for mere reasons of time, the works of Berthelot and Holmyard are important sources that will need to be represented in a future development of the corpus.

CHAPTER III

Arabic alchemy and digital humanities

Automatically analyzing and encoding texts is a difficult task. Texts are complex realities the reader tend to underestimate -just because everyone is used to deal with them -without taking into account the actions humans mechanically do. Here are presented just a few examples of difficulties one must face: i) information tags in written texts are generally just rhetorical boundaries marked by punctuation whose lack in Arabic orthography tends to obscure the source even more; ii) some common tagging strategies in Latin script are not used in Arabic texts such as capital letters to tag proper names. Luckily, as

Lancioni and Solimando point out:

Some texts are more structured, however. An extreme model of structured texts where traditional marking devices are employed is represented by dictionaries: in a dictionary, entries, phonetic and morphological information, meanings, definitions, and other information are marked by typographical devices (boldface, italics, different fonts) or semi structured markers (such as numbers and/or letters to distinguish different meanings of an entry or to separate homograph entries). Even in this case, Arabic does have some specificities: Classical editions of Arabic dictionaries, and even a few modern dictionaries, such as al-Munjid, make use of colors to mark some specific pieces of information, typically entries within a root; other specific devices include special parentheses for Koranic quotations, asterisks or other symbols for citation of poetic verses. 220 Moreover, when coping with the alchemical corpus one should take into account the fact that the tools developed for modern texts often do not entirely work for its analysis. For example, Buckwalter's lemmatizer 221 obviously doesn't recognize some of the terms used in the corpus for several reasons such as the early dating and the peculiarity of the lexicon, this is why this study also tried to use a novel lemmatizer, Al-Khalili 222,223 .

Choices

The actual process of digitalization starts from a series of choices made in order to handle the corpus: i) edited texts instead of manuscripts: this choice could be controversial, but the reason behind it is that digitalizing a manuscript could become a very intricate and complex task, thus subtracting precious time to the actual tagging and analysis work.

Typing a text from an edited edition is much more functional that 220 Solimando, Lancioni, (2012): 638. 221 This program can be found at: http://catalog.ldc.upenn.edu/LDC2004L02 222 The site of the Oujda university offers a download here: http://oujda-nlpteam.net/?p=1299&lang=en 223 The lemmatization process is expanded and analyzed in the paragraph §4.1.

having to cope with a manuscript in its raw form. Moreover, as mentioned above, lots of texts ascribed to Jābir were lost and, as shown in different studies, the paternity of several texts is unclear 224 , so that it could undermine the validity of the corpus and its integrity.

ii) Exclusion of the footnotes: as the material is quite vast for itself, and because the texts analyzed in this work were already been studied, it seemed to us quite useless to include variants at this stage of the research.

iii) the text analysis is done in paragraphs, that became the basic unit for the analyzing process, this is because paragraphs, rather than pages and lines, are considered units of concepts in this thesis. This is a step to ensure the maximum set of references in the analysis, giving the researcher a meta-unit of meaning: paragraphs are sub-units of meaning (in comparison to chapters), and macro-units (in comparison to words).

Tools

XML language

Digitalizing a text, as described above, is a process made of different steps, beginning with the choice of a marking system.

The choice in this case was to use the XML language225 (eXtensible Markup Language, hencefort XML): the most common markup language in Natural Language Processing (NLP). XML is popular not only by scholars, but also among site creators and by the majority of the NLP community. This language is employed to render the structural information that is not provided by the mere transposition in a digital form of the text. The most adequate way is to create a markup language able to make the interpretation of the text the most explicit to understand, through the use of annotations and marks inside the text that describe the structure of the text in the page. This is the encoding process: making implicit coding explicit.

In fact every text has a set of information that every reader is accustomed to decode (heading, page, line, dialogues, proper names, and so on), and what is crucial is to make it accessible to the analyzing program. A markup language is created by a series of conventions that must be specified and distinguished by the text itself; moreover, every encoding mark has its function and must be appropriate to the context of use.

Using XML language gives to the researcher several advantages: i) it is software and hardware independent, meaning that it could be used with a variety of programs and shared with users of different typologies of computers; ii) it is a descriptive language rather than a procedural one (like HTML language); iii) it allows the validation of the encoding, thus reducing the error percentage in a large scale work; moreover iv), the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) created extension that permits the encoding of almost every typology of text226 . The Principal characteristics of the XML language are:  Declarative tags: these sets of tags describe the abstract function of the textual element tagged, they do not specify how the element will show in the actual site.

 Structural tags: these tags allow the researcher to group portion of the text in complex structural units that represent the internal organization of the text.

 Hierarchical tags and nesting: every structural unit can include a series of other structures, in order to create a hierarchy (section>chapter>paragraph>clause).

 Descriptive tags: these tags describe the structural unit, encoding the string of text as part of a specific portion of text rather than to another one. These tags are part of a separate stylesheet227 .

XML doesn't cope with semantic tags, but only gives combination and structural rules, it is a meta-language. The main difference with HTML language is that XML is an extendable language that can be changed and adapted to the need of the research and of the studied texts. Moreover, it is not linked to the texts, so that the actual body of the text can be processed by any program and that the data can be transferred without any information loss, because the XML language is based just on Unicode format characters 228 . The Unicode is a computational industry that works on codification, management and representation of texts in every existing writing system whether left to right or right to left (the Unicode Standard includes 110 thousand characters covering almost a hundred writings) 229 . XML files, regardless of the language in which they were written, use this encoding, thus permitting to digitalize almost every text in the world.

Elements and characteristics of an XML document

Every XML document has a precise series of elements and characteristics:

 Elements: an XML element is everything including the element start's tag to the element end tag, meaning the textual structure, defined by a specific name.

This name represent the structure and it's, in the majority of the cases, very easy to understand and use. They can contain: text, attributes, other elements, or a mix of the above, as in the following example: Elements can be divided in markup and content, the first being the part of text inside the < > brackets, whilst content is the actual content of the element. Markups are tags, identifying the logic function of that particular string of text. The element name is called GI, Generic Identifier), included in the start-tag and in the end-tag, the start-tag includes the name, and the end-tag always includes a slash "/". Elements can be empty, or self-closing, meaning that there is only one tag that includes text in itself, like the page break tag (<pb/>); these elements usually include layout information. The tag must always be closed to validate the document.

<bookstore>
 Attributes: elements can contain attributes that add information to the element specificities. Attributes are glosses contained in the start-tag and consist in names and numbers delimitated by inverted commas. An element can include one or more attribute, and it's a decision of the digitalizing operator whether to use an element or an attribute.

A good rule is to store metadata as attributes and data as elements, as shown in the example: <note id="501"> <to>Jābir</to> <from>Jaʿfār al-Ṣādiq</from> <heading>Reminder</heading> <body>Don't forget to add the mercury!</body>

</note>

Where "id" is an attribute of "note". The main difference between using an element or an attribute is the flexibility. In fact, an elements cannot contain multiple values and tree structures, moreover, attributes are not easily expandable.

 DTD Document Type Definition: The purpose of a DTD is to define the structure of an XML document. It defines the structure with a list of legal elements. This document is useful when working on a large corpus, in order to be sure that all the information needed are well present in the actual digitalization.

The DTD can be found in the document itself or in an external note.

 XLink and XPointer: XLink is used to create hyperlinks in XML documents, XLink is used to create hyperlinks within XML documents; any element in an XML document can behave as a link; with XLink, the links can be defined outside the linked files.

XPointer, on the other hand, allows links to point to specific parts of an XML document; it uses XPath expressions to navigate in the XML document. This tag is very useful in our research, because it permits the researcher to navigate inside the corpus, among the different treaties.

XML Editor

After having copied the texts into a file, the actual digitalization starts. To do so, I used and XML Editor, a Java application that supports Unicode alphabets. This editor allows the researcher to treat data according to the international standards of encoding and also reducing the risk of syntax mistakes, because this editor automatically closes the tags once they are opened. Moreover, it suggest nesting elements and attributes that can be contained in that particular element, so that it can be easier to validate the document after the digitalization.

Finally, it provides a grid with all the elements contained in the document.

Another strong point of using an editor, is that it supports Python language, which was an essential tool in the finalization of this work, 231 in fact, Python is the language used to write the programs ad hoc for the analysis of the corpus.

Lastly, it supports TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) models, this standards permit to our research to be shared and standardized on an international scale, in addition to the simplification of the data structure. "its orientation towards content, rather than representation. [...] This is an important conceptual shift, since our intuitive attitude towards texts is to consider representation as the same thing than content, which is in general not true"233 .

Although TEI has been criticized for its complexity 234 , using just a set of tags may be just perfect for the tagging of our alchemical corpus. In facts, TEI is structured in a series of models, in which specific XML elements are declared together with their attributes. TEI guidelines are structured with a description of the module and then follows the list of elements and attributes included in that particular schema.

An alternative to TEI would have been to tag and type 235 : trying to create a completely novel XML schema for the alchemical corpus. That would have engendered a high level of uncertainty and a lack of unity, giving too much freedom to the tagging process, so, this option was quickly discarded, whereas the TEI standard guaranteed unity and consistency to the process. 234 There are some TEI-encoded morphosyntactically annotated corpora, but the impact of the current P5 version of TEI Guidelines, released in November 2007, has been rather limited so far. Probably the main reason for this state of affairs is the richness and versatility of TEI. Ideas useful for linguistically annotated corpora are scattered over the 1350-odd pages of the Guidelines, and usually there is more than one way of representing any given annotation, so designing a coherent and constrained TEI-conformant schema for linguistic corpora is a daunting task. Przepiórkowski (2009):153. 235 This method can be a reliable alternative if the project's need are not contemplated in the TEI standard, an inspiring example can be found in Fraser (2011) where he sums the advantages and disadantages of self-designing an XML schema for the creation of a lexicography tool. He founds that the whole process of self-design benefit both the product and the process itself. Of course, the flexibility of TEI cannot reach every kind of study, but in the case of this work, the structure was completely adaptable to TEI standards.

In a TEI document at the beginning of the text some compulsory syntax must be compiled, after the compulsory part, elements are listed. Elements can or cannot contain other elements or attributes. They are rather free-combining, whereas attributes are strictly linked to the "head" element. To be valid, a TEI schema must be compliant with the modules combination of elements and attributes 236 Every element is part of a class, according to the attributes that it shares with other elements, or according to the location it appears in. The first class are the Attribute Classes, the second are the Model Classes. The element inherit its properties from the class it is member of, moreover a class can inherit properties from a superclass, meaning a class that contain another class.

Attribute Classes

An attribute class groups together elements which share some set of common attributes. Attribute classes are given names composed of the prefix <att.>, often followed by an adjective.

Note also that this method ensures that the attributes in question are always defined in the same way, taking the same default values etc., no matter which element they are attached to. Some attribute classes are defined within the TEI infrastructural module and are thus globally available. Other attribute classes are specific to particular modules and thus defined in other chapters.

Attributes defined by such classes will not be available unless the module concerned is included in a schema. The attributes provided by an attribute class are those specified by the class itself, either directly, or by inheritance from another class.

An example are the Global Attributes, common to every TEI document, these attributes are defined for every TEI element. <att.global> 237 provides attributes common to all elements in the TEI encoding scheme, these attributes were used in the tagging of the corpus involved in this work:  @xml:id (identifier) provides a unique identifier for the element bearing the attribute. The name of this tag must be a name, beginning with a letter or with inverted commas, no other characters are allowed.

 @n (number) gives a number for an element, which is not necessarily unique within the document.

 @xml:lang (language) indicates the language of the element content using a 'tag'  @rend (rendition) indicates how the element in question was rendered or presented in the source text.

 @style contains an expression in some formal style definition language which defines the rendering or presentation used for this element in the source text.

 @rendition points to a description of the rendering or presentation used for this element in the source text.

 @xml:base provides a base URI reference with which applications can resolve relative URI references into absolute URI references.

 @xml:space signals an intention about how white space should be managed by applications.

These attributes are optionally available for any TEI element; none of them is required when encoding a text 238 .

Model Classes

As mentioned, members of a given TEI model class share the property that they can all appear in the same location within a document. Wherever possible, the content model of a TEI element is expressed not directly in terms of specific elements, but indirectly in terms of particular model classes. This makes content models easier and more consistent; it also makes them much easier to understand and to modify. Like attribute classes, model classes may have subclasses or superclasses. Just as elements inherit from a class the ability to appear in certain locations of a document, so all members of a subclass inherit the ability to appear wherever any superclass can appear. To some extent, the class system thus provides a way of reducing the whole TEI galaxy of elements into a tidy hierarchy, easing the work of the encoding operator. This is however not always the case.

In fact, the nature of a given class of elements can be considered along two dimensions: as noted, it defines a set of places where the class members are permitted within the document hierarchy; it also implies a semantic grouping of some kind. For example, the very large class of elements which can appear within a paragraph comprises a number of other classes, all of which have the same structural property, but which differ in their field of application. In some cases, the 'set of places where class members are permitted' is very constrained: it may just be within one specific element, or one class of element, for example.

In other cases, elements may be permitted to appear in very many places, or in more than one such set of places.

Classes of Informal Elements

Most TEI elements may also be informally classified as belonging to one of the following groupings: Broadly speaking, the front, body, and back of a text comprise a series of components, optionally grouped into divisions.

 divisions high
As noted above, some elements do not belong to any model class, and some model classes are not readily associated with any of the above informal groupings.

This brief introduction to TEI structure is fundamental to understand how the corpus was tagged. The main focus of this task in the bigger framework of this thesis is the rendering of different texts in the most accurate, appropriate and consistent way. This gives uniformity to the whole, permitting to operate on a clear and functional basis.

Python

To create the programs with which the tagged corpus was analyzed, it was decided to use Python 240 programming language, for several reasons, the first being the very easy and transparent syntax and semantics.

Moreover, this language is object-oriented, allowing the data to be re-encapsulated and re-read easily. An object-oriented language gives the programmer the possibility to define the software objects that will be able to interact defining dependency relationships, between classes, for example. Objects can have attributes (or data) and methods (or procedures) defined in the classes.

Python is a very dynamic language and it allows the programmer to introduce attributes gradually and variants, too, using a dynamic typing: this is a procedure that permits to the writer to introduce variants to types during the program runtime Using Python has been the most interesting and useful choice in this work, since it permitted us to perform multiple actions on the gathered corpus. The outputs will be analyzed later.

(

Regular expressions

The term "regular expression" (also regex, henceforth RE) comes from mathematics and computer science theory, and it refers to a specific trait of mathematical expressions: regularity.

Their syntax was conceived in the 1950s by Kleene 243 as tool of automata theory to describe formal languages; the original RE were mostly applied to mathematic theoretical environments, but they have been implemented by Thompson 244 first, and then by 242 Bird, Klein and Loper (2009: XIV).

243 Kleene (1956).

244 Thompson (1968).

others like Sipser 245 so that they could be used in programming languages and frameworks like Python. RE, used with skill, can simplify many programming and text processing tasks, and allow processes that wouldn't be at all possible without the regular expressions. A RE is a formally structured text string for describing complex search patterns. These patterns are then applied to longer text units in order to look for matches. RE are usually used for: searching, matching, replacing and splitting a text.

The pattern is formed by a sequence of characters, both functional for the syntax and "of meaning" for the text. But the RE have their sets of special characters: the first includes symbols that represent alphanumeric categories and subsets, the second includes operators that concern specific functions. Here are some examples of the first kind:

-\s means "any space (single space, tab, end of row, end of paragraph)";

-\d means "any digit", and so on.

-Among operators:

-* "find zero or more occurrences", -+ "find one or more occurrences", -? "find one occurrence".

RE are formed by the combination of these sets of characters, in a specific syntax that allows the research to perform structured queries that can be read from the program.

Tasks conducted on a text, to be granted of success, must observe some basic conditions, the fore and most important being the explicitness and regularity. In lacking of these two, it will be almost impossible to write a RE working for the corpus, e.g. in our corpus all paragraphs are marked as <p> and every <p> includes <pb> and <lb>, so the RE can "read" this signs as markers. At a first glance, this may seem an acceptable result, at a deeper reading, a high percentage of mistakes was found, somuch so that the next step was to manually correct and revise the whole file, to make it readable and accessible to the reader, both the human and the robotic. After this experience with the OCR reader, this procedure was abandoned, because of its complexity.

The only possibility was to manually input the text, and to use this step as an approach strategy to understand how to later cope with the corpus in terms of divisions and encoding. This phase of the work allowed also to study the texts in their edited forms (structure of the book, of the pages, lines, paragraphs, etc.).

Once the whole corpus is settled in a digitalized form, the analysis of the text form can begin. This in necessary in order to choose the right tagsets from the TEI P5 to render their form and their content in the most worthwhile and profitable way.

The digitalized corpus has been rendered into a single file comprehensive of the three books. This offers several advantages compared to the decision of working on separate files. Beside the fact that using one file is more practical (changes and routines of alnalysis must be performed only once instead of three or more), the use of one file only permitted the creation of internal links in the corpus, so as to render the tabdīd al-ʿilm strategy. The following is the TEI syntax needed in order to encode it 248 : So the same tag <teiHeader> is used for the books included in the corpus, in a hierarchical structure.

<teiCorpus

How to encode books: choices and divisions

Then, the structure of the texts of each book was studied, trying to understand how to encode them: did the books present a similar structure or not? Were they including information of the manuscripts they studied? Of course, every book had its 94 peculiarities, which will be later analyzed249 , but the core structure was similar: every book was divided in sub-units (i.e.

single treaties, extraits of treaties) and so it was decided to use the <div> (text division) tag which "contains a subdivision of the front, body, or back of a text"250 . This tag is part of the TEI default text structure set of tags, thus representing the most efficient strategy for this corpus. To render the specificities of every section of the texts (i.e. book, section, chapter, subsection), attributes were used, as in the following example:

<div1 type="book" n="1"> كتابّ األحجار <div2 @xml:id="1.1" type="section" n="1"> الجزء األول من كتاب األحجار على رأي بليناس </div2> </div1>
The attribute "type" explicates the nature of the division and "n" includes the serial number of the section in the book, the "@xml: id" is the attribute used for the representation on link in the corpus. The actual name of the book or section is the Arabic text tagged.

95

Next decision had to be made for the internal division of the text; two options were to be considered: i) mark every paragraph as <milestone>, used where the reference system does not correspond to any particular structural hierarchy, or if the document combines multiple structural hierarchies. In fact, <milestone/> "marks a boundary point separating any kind of section of a text, typically but not necessarily indicating a point at which some part of a standard reference system changes, where the change is not represented by a structural element"251 ; or ii) continue with the more structured version of the tagging method, this being dividing the paragraphs with their specific tag <p> (paragraph) which "marks paragraphs in prose […]paragraphs have no firm internal structure, but contain prose encoded as a mix of characters, entity references, phrases marked as described in the rest of this chapter, and embedded elements like lists, figures, or tables. 252 ".

The latter is the method chosen because, even if it is more complicated to organize, it is absolutely more useful to divide the The <pb/> 253 element is placed at the beginning of the page which it identifies, and the attribute "n" (number) specifies the page number, this number is not necessarily unique within the document. In addition to the page number attribute it was used the attribute "ed", (edition) which supplies a sigil or other arbitrary identifier for the source edition, the editor's last name initial was 97 used; the <lb/> 254 element is, by convention, placed at the beginning of a line, nevertheless, we decided to intend it the other way round, placing it at the end of every line; here, as in the <pb/>, the "n" attribute, if used, indicates the progressive number of the line in the page.

An example, the first page of Haq's critical edition of the Kitāb al-aḥjār: As it can be noticed, the elements are included in <p> (paragraph) that correspond, as a choice made for this corpus, to all the text between two indents.

The final structure looks like this: 99 1.2 Tagging the texts and their peculiarities

Alchemical jargon

The tagging of the particular jargon of Jabirian texts is one the reader could identify as "alchemical"; or ii) tag only the core elements, which were chosen for their recurrence and importance in the texts, and for their relevance in the academic literature 256 . These words are tagged as follows:

<term type="alch" translation="and the copper"> والنحاس </term>

The tag <term> "contains a single-word, multi-word, or symbolic designation which is regarded as a technical term 257 ".

The attributes used in this case are two: <type> indicates the term's nature in general, giving the possibility to further enhancements, which will later be discussed 258 ; and <translation> gives a literal translation in English.

alchemical recipies, but he did not cope with lexicon in particular, his scope was to render the structure of the texts in general (e.g. listing of the ingredients, procedure, etc.) 256 See Ferrario (2009a), Kraus (1942-43), Lory (1983 In this case, the attribute <sameAs> points to an element who is the same as the current one, and it was used to gather the synonyms of the word al-qalʿay 'tin' 259 .

Loans, calques

The tagging of loans and calques did not present any difficulty in terms of choice of the right construction of the tag to be used. An example: <term type="alch" translation="the substance" xml:lang="fa" subtype="loan">الجوهر

</term>

To the two attributes (<type> and <translation>) of <term>, two others information were added: the language of the loan, and its type.

The attribute <xml:lang> is a specific attribute of XML language created to specify the language of a certain content. Its scope is to permit all different XML document types to use the 259 For the English translation, see supra §2.2.3, see note 32 for references.

103 same attribute for language identification. 260 The "code" used for every language is unique, and must conform to the XML standard codes created for this purpose 261 , in order to be understood globally and univocally. In the example above, since the term is a loan from Persian the code used is "fa" that stands for Farsī.

The type of loan is specified in the attribute <subtype>, which provides a sub-categorization of the element, in this case is a specification of the <term>, which is already <type="alch">, meaning that the alchemic term analyzed is a loan.

Polysemy

Polysemy is another impressive feature of the corpus, as this work already discussed 262 . Again, digitalization proved very effective in rendering these characteristics. The example here refers to the word mīzān:

260 xml:lang applies to all attributes (without any difference based on their order) and content of the element where it appears and to all children of that element, except when overwritten. See TEI Consortium (2014): 5. 261 For example : English = en, Greek = el, Italian = it, French = fr, and so on, some can be found at: http://www.w3schools.com/tags/ref_language_codes.asp <term type="alch" translation="cinnabar" ana="substance" xml:lang="el" subtype="calque">الزنجفر </term> 262 See infra 2.2.1. 104 <term type="alch" ana="#balance #day of judgment #specific gravity #metaphysical principle of monism"> م ي زان </term> It was decided not to translate the word in the tag itself, as in the process of tagging synonyms 263 , it was used the attribute "ana" (analysis). This served the aim of giving the reader all the different options thus leaving the interpretation open.

Quotes

Jabirian corpus is is rich in quotes. To incorporate this in the digitalized corpus, it was used the tag <quote> (quotation) that"contains a phrase or passage attributed by the narrator or author to some agency external to the text" 264 .

Here's a quick example of the process, the edited text: <lb n="6" ed="H"/> قال بليناس : <quote type="author" ana="Apollonius of Tyana">

ّ ُ أقول ّ ُ وأصف ّ َ الحكمة التي ّ ُ دت أي بها بعد خروجي من ب َ ر الس وأخذ <lb n="7" ed="H"/> الكتاب واللوح . إن الذي ّ يعم األشياء ها كل ّ ُ الطبائع التي هي البسيطة ال بة، المرك وإذا <lb n="8" ed="H"/> كان الشئ ّ ا عام فمحال أن ال يكون له ة ي كم </quote> - وقد أوضحنا ذلك في غير شئ من <lb n="9" ed="H"/> كتبنا في هذا ّ الفن </p>
While most quotes are limited to the reference to the author, this example refers to a textual quote that exceed the line break. In very limited occurences, quotes can exceed the paragraph. Unfortunately, TEI does not allow a quote to be split among two paragraphs, in this case one can decide wether to split the quote, or to repeat the tag at the beginning of the new paragraph.

106

The attributes used in this tag are "type" and "ana". The first gives a definition of the typology of the quote: in this case it is "author" because the quote is of Apollonius, but it can also be "book" if the quote refers to a book, not specifying its author (e.g. quotes of the Koran, which were tagged using the attribute "book"). The latter, "ana" specifies the name of the author or the book.

Hypertext

The tabdīd al -ʿilm, one of the most relevant and peculiar aspects of the Jabirian corpus, it is also one the most challenging obstacles to the understanding of the Great Work texts. Because of the complexity of references intertwined in the corpus, the act of reading and understanding can be undermined by the lack of linking ability -or material possibility -of the reader. With this perspective in mind, this work aims at proposing new approaches to interact with the texts, using the digitalization as a tool for understanding them. In fact, as De Rose and Durand point out:

Cross-references have existed for millennia; what is new in hypertext is that computers can augment the usefulness and reliability of pointers, by allowing fast painless follow-up of references as well as verification of reference destinations. 265

The importance of digitalization comes out at its most with this application. The tag used was <ref> (reference) which "defines a reference to another location, possibly modified by additional text or comment"266 .

As in the Muḫtār three of the four parts if the Kitāb al-aḥjār are included, this tag was used as follows:

<div2 type="treaty" n="4"> الجزء األول من كتاب االحجار على رأى ً بليناس <ref target="#1.1"/> </div2>
In the tag <ref> the attribute "target" specifies where the reference is located. Of course, the corresponding book has been tagged with an according ID:

<div2 @xml:id="1.1" type="section" n="1"> الجزء األول من كتاب األحجار على رأي ً بليناس </div2>
108 Furthermore there are different recurring groups of words and single words related to other books (e.g. kamā bayyannā fī kutubinā …). These direct reference are rather easy found, and could act as tags once made TEI compliant. In this way the architectural structure of the tabdīd al-ʿilm is brought in plain evidence, thus offering the possibility to gather data from a wider range of sources. This process was conducted on one book, the Kitāb al-Taṣrīf, of which we have a passage in the Muḫtār Rasāʾil. So an ID has been assigned to this excerpt so to link it to the rest of the corpus:

<div2 @xml:id="#2.2" type="treaty" n="11"> نخب من ً كتاب التصريف </div2>
The corpus was tagged accordingly when the case demanded it. There are 12 mentions of this text in the corpus, an example:

<p n="5"> <lb n="12" ed="H"/> ّ ثم جعل ياته كم ا على ما قد ذكرنا في <ref target="#2.2"> " كتاب التصريف " وهو : واحد في ل األو <lb n="13" ed="H"/> وثالثة في الثاني و خمسة في ثالث وثمانية في الرابع .</ref> </p>
This research argues that the use of tags will help navigate the corpus. Moreover, this process has been conceived in order to undergo a fine tuning, which will make the references more and more specific267 , the perspective outcome is to allow the reference to point to the eventual specific phrase in the quoted book.

CHAPTER II

Book Analysis

Kitāb al-Aḫjār 268

As every text has its special publishing choices, it was decided to encode every norm, transporting the details in the digitalized edition of the texts. Haq's edition of the Kitāb al-Aḫjār presented a series of features that needed to be added in the To render the gaps, the tag <gap> 270 was used together with the attribute "reason". The explanation of reason is "sampling" because Haq editorial decision was not to include certain excerpts of the manuscript.

<gap> was used to account for the words omitted by the editor: Corresponds the following digitalization:

<p n="35"> <lb n="3" ed="H"/> والسين تزاد في " ب َ ر ْ َض ست ُ م " وهو أسم وفي " ّ َ ب َ ر ْ َض ت ْ اس " وهو فعل . واأللف تزاد <lb n="4" ed="H"/> في " ّ ب ِ ضار ُ م " وهو اسم وفي " ّ َ ب َ ضار " وهو فعل . والهاء تزاد في " ّ ة َ ِم قائ " وهو اسم <lb n="5" ed="H"/> للتأنيث فيقال " ِمه، قائ وفي " ّ ْ ِه م ْ إر " وهو للوقف . فاعرف
ًًًً <lb n="1" ed="H"/> المرتب الثانية في األربعة </p> ًًًً <p n="64"> <lb n="2" ed="H"/> ًًًًًً <table rend="unboxed" rows="1" cols="7"> ًًًًًًًًًًً <row> ًًًًًًًًًً ًًًًًًً <cell role="label"> مرتبة </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell role="label"> درجة </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell role="label"> دقيقة </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell role="label"> ثانية </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell role="label"> ثالثة </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell role="label"> رابعة </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell role="label"> خامسة </cell> 114 ًًًًًًًًًًً </row> ًًًًًً </table> ًًًًًً <table rend="boxed" rows="4" cols="7"> ًًًًًًًًًًً <row> ًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ا ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ثالثة درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًً ًًًًً <lb/> و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ه ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ط ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> درهم و ربع ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> م ًًًًًًًًًًًًًً ًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً أربع دوانيق ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً ونصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ش ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> نصف درهم ًًًً ًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ذ ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> دانق ونضف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> 115 ًًًًًًًًًًًً </row> ًًًًًًًًًًً <row> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ب ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ثالثة درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً ً <lb/> ً و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> و ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ي ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم و ربع ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ن ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ص ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً أربع دوانيق ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً ونصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ت ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً ًًًًً <lb/> نصف درهم ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ض ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> دانق ونضف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًً </row> ًًًًًًًًًًً <row> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ج ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ثالثة درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ز ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ك ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم و ربع ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> س ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ق ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً أربع دوانيق ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً ونصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ث ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> نصف درهم ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ظ ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> دانق ونضف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًً </row> ًًًًًًًًًًً <row> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> د ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً ًًًًًًً <lb/> ثالثة درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ح ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم و نصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ل ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم و ربع ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ع ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً درهم ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> ر ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً أربع دوانيق ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> ً ونصف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> خ ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> نصف درهم ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <cell><lb/> غ ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <lb/> دانق ونضف ًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًًً </cell> ًًًًًًًًًًًً </row> ًًًًًً </table>
At the beginning of the digitalization, one must specify the number of rows and columns in order to organize the table in general: <table rend="unboxed" rows="1" cols="7">.

118

Then, the digitalization continues row by row, the first row comprises the labels of the colums, that is why in <cell> an attribute "role" was added. The explanation included in role is:

"label". <row> <cell role="label">/<مرتبةcell>
Other cells did not have a specific role, so they were tagged just as <cell>.

Tadbīr al-iksīr al-aʿẓam 272

The result of Lory's editorial work of Lory is a unified version of different manuscripts. The variations are listed in the note apparatus, and, as said before, this work decided not to take notes into consideration, trusting the editor choices.

Nevertheless, the presence of notes has been rendered with a tag as follows, in order to be able, in the future, to incorporate them in the digitalization: With the same logic of the tag <gloss> used in Haq, the attribute "resp" displays the information of the authorship of the note 273 .

Muḫtar rasā'il 274

For what concernes the Muḫtār, Kraus decided to embed the critical work more extensively than Haq and Lory. The characteristics tagged for this part of the corpus are: 273 In a future development of this work, it will be taken in consideration the addition of the note text, thus permitting to fully render the original corpus. The system used will be the following: <app><note> <rdg wit="#MS1"> البدء </rdg> ًًًًًًًًًًًًًً <rdg wit="#MS4" type="ortho"> </rdg> ًًًًًًًًًًًً </app></note> <app> stands for "apparatus", the tag <rdg> means "reading" whose attributes are:"wit" for witness, i.e. the different manuscripts; and "type" for the type of change in the different reading, i.e. orthographic, gap, lack, etc. 120 These are the solutions adopted for each of the abovementioned points:

i)

The deletions Kraus suggests, are tagged as follows: The tag <del> (delete)275 has the attribute "resp" to specify who decided to cancel that specific word and "rend" to explain why the editor decided to eliminate the word from the text, in this case, the fact that he though it was superfluous.

<lb n="3" ed="K"/> ما هو فيه هو الذي يمكن أن ى يتأت منه <del resp="K" rend="superfluous"> و </del> ً الشيء الذي بالفعل الظاهر i) [ ] The original
ii)

The additions Kraus suggested were tagged in this way:

<lb n="8" ed="K"/> بالقوة لم ّ يتأت دلك عنها في الفعل و <supplied resp="K"> لم </supplied> يظهر . وكما ّ أن للنا ر <supplied resp="K"> أن </supplied>
The tag <supplied> 276 was used, together with the same attribute used in the previous example, "resp".

iii)

The third aspect digitalized was the corrections of blanks in the texts, with word added by Kraus:

<lb n="16" ed="K"/> بعينه ما <corr resp="K" ana="blank in #MS"> نقول </corr> فيه وندفع ً <corr resp="K" ana="blank in #MS"> كونه </corr> في طريق االستدالل . فمن 122
<corr> 277 stands for "correction" and two attributes are added: "resp" as usual, and "ana", that was already used in other cases, (e.g. the analysis of the alchemical lexicon), in this case it gives information about the typology of correction. This is useful when several types of correction occur in the analysis.

iv)

The "doubtful emendations" Kraus found in the manuscripts, are tagged as follows:

<lb n="5" ed="K"/> الذهب ّ إال الرزانة والصفرة <corr resp="#unknown" cert="low"> يمكن أن تصير ّ ذهبا </corr> .

ة فللفض بالقوة

In this case a new attribute is used: "cert" which stands for "certainty" 278 and, because Kraus depicts these emendation as doubtful, they were given the ranking "low" in certainty.

v)

The "irreparable error" brought to the attention by Kraus, is tagged with <sic> 279 :

<pb n="14" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/><sic>

123

Here the attribute "resp" was not used because it would have been ambiguous; in fact, <sic resp="K"/> might be read as if the error was Kraus'. vi) Clear references to the Koran are included in the text, so it was decided to render their presence by tagging them as quotes: <lb n="10" ed="K"/> والمخلد والباير وما أشبه ذلك من اآلراء .<quote type="book" book="The Quran" ana="39:74">

ّ ُ د ْ م َ الح ه ٰ ِلل ل الذي َا َن ق َ د َ ص ّ ُ ه َ عد َ و <lb n="11" ed="K"/> َا َن ث َ ر ْ و َ أ َ و ّ َ ض ْ ر ْ األ ّ ُ أ و َ َب َت ن ّ َ ِن م ّ ِ ة ب َ ح ْ ال ّ ُ ث ْ ي َ ح ّ ِ َاء َش ن ّ َ م ْ ِع َن ف ّ ُ ر ْ ج َ أ ّ َ ِين ِل ام َ ع ْ ال </quote>
As for the authors, the tag is <quote>, but the attributes are different: "type" specifies that the quote is from a book, "book" specifies the title of the book, and "ana" includes the position of the āya. vii) Kraus embedded the MSS pages in the text. They were encoded for the sake of completeness of the digitalization:

<lb n="8" ed="K"/> والفساد، ّ ُ ه َ ِم ْع ط ُ فأ ُذى وغ به كما كان َى ْذ غ ُ ي بلبن ه أم <pb n="68" ana="recto" ed="#MS"/> ّ ة مد دون 124
The difference with the other page breaks is that the "ana" attribute is added for the annotation of the recto and verso of a folio. 280 viii) The last action performed on the corpus was the insertion of images. Because they cannot be digitalized as text, they have to be uploaded on a host site, and then the URL is added to the file in the following way: This file was then analyzed in top-down motion: sentence>words>morphs.

First attempts in lemmatization: Stanford parser and Buckwalter analyzer

To analyze sentences, the Stanford Parser 283 was used. The Stanford Parser is a statistical parser that is programmed to find the grammatical stucture of the sentences. It analyses a text, parsing the phrases 284 , finding the Verb, its Subject or Object (dependency parser). It is, still, a probabilistic parser based on the 129 knowledge of language gained from hand-parsed sentences as "grammar". Statistical parsers are not completely reliable, but their advantage is that their always give an analysis that could be later corrected by a human if needed.

The Stanford parser has been adapted to Arabic, its implementation based on the Penn Arabic Treebank (PATB) 285 an analyzer of syntactical trees of Arabic. Segmentation is based on the Buckwalter analyzer 286 . Currently BAMA this analyzer can only cope with nonvocalized texts. The normalization of the text is needed for the parser to identify the Arabic ductus, this is without any doubt the main lack of this tool. For the Part Of Speech (POS) tags, the parser uses an "augmented Bies" tag set that uses the Buckwalter morphological analyzer and links it to a subset of the POS tags used in the Penn English Treebank (but some with different meanings 287 ).Phrasal categories are the same from the Penn Arabic Treebank Guidelines.

Although the parser provides Stanford Dependencies output as well as phrase structure trees for English and Chinese it 285 Maʿmouri et al (2004) 286 Buckwalter (2002) 287 http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/docs/LDC2010T13/atb1-4.1-taglist-conversionto-PennPOS-forrelease.lisp 130 has to be implemented for Arabic. So for now the output is an analysis of the sentences that cannot trace the subject or the object of a verb in a sentence, but -still-a reliable parsing of constituents that could be used to deepen the analysis with other tools.

Buckwalter Arabic Morphological Analyzer (BAMA) 288 is a program designed to allow the morphological analysis for Arabic texts in order to segment Arabic words in prefixes, stems and suffixes according to the following rules:

 prefix can be 0 to 4 characters in length;  stem can be 1 to infinite characters in length;  suffix can be 0 to 6 characters in length.

Each possible segmentation is verified by asking the software to check the existence of the prefix, the stem and the suffix in the embedded dictionary. In fact, the program has three tables containing respectively all Arabic prefixes, all Arabic stems and all Arabic suffixes. Indeed, if all three components are found in these tables, the program checks if their morphological categories are listed as compatible pairs in these three tables 289 : 288 This analyzer was chosen at the initial stage of the work because it is one ofe the most used in Arabic NLP. For a good and recent study of comparaison of the different Arabic stemmers, see Dahab et al (2015). 289

NPref-Al N NPref-Al N-ap NPref-Al N-ap_L NPref-Al N/At NPref-Al N/At_L NPref-Al N/ap NPref-Al N/ap_L
Compatibility table "tableAC" lists compatible Prefix and Suffix morphological categories, such as:

NPref-Al Suff-0 NPref-Al NSuff-u NPref-Al NSuff-a NPref-Al NSuff-i NPref-Al NSuff-An NPref-Al NSuff-ayn

Compatibility table "tableBC" lists compatible Stem and

Suffix morphological categories, such as:

PV PVSuff-a PV PVSuff-ah PV PVSuff-A PV PVSuff-Ah PV PVSuff-at PV PVSuff-ath
If all three pairs are found in their respective tables, the three components are defined suitable, thus the word is confirmed as valid. 132 However, AraMorph 290 presents some issues concerning the analysis of text types that don't match the ideal text genre targeted by Buckwalter (newspaper texts and other Modern Standard Arabic non-literary texts). In fact, the program shows three main weaknesses:

it does not either fully or sparsely analyze any kind of vocalized texts;

it rejects many words attested in some textual types which are not contained either in the sample of the text corpora chosen by Buckwalter, nor in the lookup lists of AraMorph 291 ;

there is neither any stylistic nor chronological information in the lookup lists; the same goes for a lot of transliterated foreign names entities which are contained both in Classical texts and in modern literary texts, thus giving rise to a number of false positives 292 . 290 AraMorph is the Java version of BAMA. Programmes written in Java have less implementation dependencies than others, and this makes them more portable. 291 BAMA is based on Salmoné's Arabic-English Dictionary, edited in 1890. It is based on modern Arabic, thus explaining why AraMorph is lacking in the analysis of Classical and dialectal texts. 292 In order to overcome these problems, a group of linguists at Roma Tre University had modified the original AraMorph in a new algorithm named "Revised AraMorph" (RAM), within a project of automatically analysis of ḥadīṯ corpora (SALAH project) The modifications try to overcome the weaknesses of BAMA).

• a mechanism which takes into account the vowels present in the text in order to reduce ambiguity linked to non-vocalized texts;

• a file with additional stems automatically extracted from Anthony Salomé Arabic-English dictionary (a work from the end of 19th century encoded in TEIcompliant XLM format) and with additional lists of prefixes and suffixes with the relative • combination tables of most frequent unrecognized tokens; • a mechanism which removes automatically items in order to allow them matching to contemporary foreign named entities, especially proper names and place-names. In the other hand, the items 133

In addition to these imperfections, another difficulty is the translitteration used by this program, that uses only latin characters. As it can be seen in the table below, it is not really intuitive to read:

' ء T ت Z ز g غ w و i ِ | آ V ث S س f ف Y ى ~ ِ >> إ أ J ج $ ش q ق y ي o ِ & ؤ H ح S ص k ك F ِ } ئ X خ D ض l ل N ِ A ا D د T ط m م K ِ b ب * ذ Z ظ n ن a ِ P ة R ر E ع h ه u ِ
This notwithstanding, this lemmatizer has two strengths: consistency and accuracy. For example:

above are not included in Salomé's dictionary (this way Arabic named entities which can be found in Classical texts are retained for the analysis The summary, at a first glance, is encouraging: only 184 unanalized types are listed. It is looking at the list of these types that we understand the problem: Overall the BAMA lemmatizer did not work as initially expected. The correct analysis of the lexicon and of the verbal system are fundamental in the scopes of this research. A tool able to properly address these problematics was necessary, so

AraMorph was abandoned in favor of AlKhalil.

AlKhalil lemmatizer

Researcher AlKhalil resources are divided in classes:

i) Class 'PR' of proclitics (simple and compound proclitics) contains three subclasses: a) subclass 'C' of proclitics compatible with all words, b) subclass 'N' of proclitics that must be concatenated to nouns only, c) subclass 'V' of proclitics attached to verbs.

ii) Class 'EN' of enclitics: (simple and compound enclitics). This class too is divided in three sub-classes according to the same principle of the proclitics.

iii) Class 'PEC' a list of the possibilities of simoultaneous attachment to a word of the two first classes. iv) Class 'ND' :Non derivable words. Words refractory to a root / pattern analysis: (proper nouns, functional words like particles and demonstratives). It is divided into two subclasses: a) subclass 'ND_TW' : tool words .b) subclass 'ND_PN' : proper nouns. e) Class 'PA_V' : Patterns of vocalized Arabic words. Created by using the ALECSO (Arab League Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) derivational system and NEMLAR corpus297 . This class contains the possible root derivations from which vocalized patterns are generated. This class is divided into a noun-related subclass: 'PA_N_V', and a verb-related subclass: 'PA_V_V'.

f) Classes 'PA_N_NV' and 'PA_V_NV' (non vocalized patterns). are derivated from the previous two classes 'PA_N_V' and 'PA_V_NV' by eliminating the word vowels, keeping only the unrepeated patterns.

g) Class 'RO' of roots obtained from the ALECSO derivational system which includes more than 7000 roots. h) Finally, Class 'R_PA_V', which comprises roots along with their matching vocalized patterns. To the elements of this class are assigned two morphological tags: word nature and syntactic form.

The process of analysis is conducted in several steps:

-Segmentation of the text into words; and normalization of the text (elimination of kashida and diacritics);

-Morphological segmentation: words obtained are analysed as compunds of prefix-stem-suffix and the programme proposes all conceivable segmentations according to the list of compatibility;

-Stem analysis: as Arabic unvocalized words can be interpreted in various ways, the system proceeds to a three-phase analysis of the stems of each segmentation validated in the previous step. The word is analyzed i) as a non derivable word, ii) as a derivable noun; iii) as a verb.

-The last stage is a screening of the results in which the compatibility of the analysis is doublechecked in its liability, also crossing the results with the vocalized form of the input word, which was stored before the first step of analysis.

The system then displays the results, from which the researcher can choose the right solution.

A second release 298 of the programme was later released, which resolved some critical points, mainly concerning the linguistic resources, that have been expanded, and the addition of specific features, e.g. the "Eceptional file" which contains the word هللا and its combinations. Also, the database has been transported in a XML version that improved considerably the performances of the lemmatizer. --first, the system checks if the word belongs to the "exceptional words" if yes, the analysis stops;

--second, words are checked in the non-derived list; if yes, the analysis is led on their morphology;

--if not, the word is analyzed as a derived noun, if yes, the analysis continues using the five files in the folder, creating different patterns and analyses;

--last step is analysis of the word as a verb, following the same analysis of the nouns.

The results are then validated with a routine that checkes i) the concordances of clitics and the output syntactic features (e.g. ''<''بb>and '' <''كk> can occur only with majrūr names) ; ii) the concordance of enclitics and POS (e.g. no concordance between the enclitic pronoun هم <hm> and passive verbs); iii) concordance of the hamza allograph in the solutions and the input word (e.g.:

the short vowel ḍamma cannot be followed by the hamza )ئ ; iv)

last check with the vowels included in the input words.

144

The result is a very exhaustive list of combination and analysis, Fig. 7 The example waṣafnāhu analyzed in ALKhalil

Alchemy and Computer: a computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus SECTION II

145

The output can be downloaded in CSV, HTML and XML format, the latter was the choice for this thesis. Following the analysis of waṣafnā:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?> <Results> <result word=' وصفناه ' nbresult='13' nbOccu='1'> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ْ ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> َا ن ْ ف َ ص </stem> <type> مصدر أصلي </type> <diac> ّ َ ال ْ َع ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ال ْ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ن ْ ف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ن ْ ف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صفن </root> <pos> مثنى مذكر مرفوع في حالة اإلضافة </pos> <suffixe> ا : عالمة اإلعراب + ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه َن ف ُ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe>#</prefixe> <stem> ف ُ ص َ و </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> ّ َ ل ُ َع ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ل ُ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ ف ُ ص َ و </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ ف ُ ص َ و </pat_lemme> <root> وصف </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى الغائب _ هو، الزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ َاه ن : ضمير المتكلمين + ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ْ ف ُ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe>#</prefixe> <stem> َا ن ْ ف ُ ص َ و </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> َا ْن ل ُ َع ف </diac> <canonic> َا ْن ل ُ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ ف ُ ص َ و </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ ف ُ ص َ و </pat_lemme> <root> وصف </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى المتكلمين _ نحن، الزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ْ ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe>#</prefixe> <stem> َا ن ْ ف َ ص َ و </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> َا ْن ل َ َع ف </diac> <canonic> َا ْن ل َ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ ف َ ص َ و </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ ف َ ص َ و </pat_lemme> <root> وصف </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى المتكلمين _ نحن، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ْ ِف ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> َا ن ْ ِف ص </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> َا ْن ِل ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ف َا ْن ل َ ع </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ اف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ اف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صيف </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى المتكلمين _ نحن، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ اه َن ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> ا َن ف َ ص </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> ا ن َ َع ف </diac> <canonic> َا ْن ل َ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ َن ف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ َن ف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صفن </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى المتكلمين _ نحن، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه َن ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> َا َن ف َ ص </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> ّ َ ال َ َع ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ال َ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ َن ف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ َن ف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صفن </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى الغائبين _ هما، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ اه ن ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> ا ن ف َ ص </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> ا ن َع ف </diac> <canonic> َا ْن ل َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ ن ف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ ن ف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صفن </root> <pos> ثالثي مزيد مسند إلى المتكلمين _ نحن، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ْ ف ُ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> َا ن ْ ف ُ ص </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> َا ْن ُل ف </diac> <canonic> َا ْن ل َ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ اف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ اف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صوف </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى المتكلمين _ نحن، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> ّ ف َ ص </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> ّ َع ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ل َ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ ف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ ف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صفف </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى الغائب _ هو، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ َاه ن : ضمير المتكلمين + ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه َن ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe>#</prefixe> <stem> ف َ ص َ و </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> ّ َ ل َ َع ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ل َ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ ف َ ص َ و </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ ف َ ص َ و </pat_lemme> <root> وصف </root> <pos> ثالثي مجرد مسند إلى الغائب _ هو، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ َاه ن : ضمير المتكلمين + ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> َا ن ف َ ص </stem> <type> فعل ماض مبني للمعلوم </type> <diac> ّ َ ال َع ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ال َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ ن ف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ ن ف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صفن </root> <pos> ثالثي مزيد مسند إلى الغائبين _ هما، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> <s_result> <voweled> ّ ُ َاه ن ِّ ف َ ص َ و </voweled> <prefixe> ّ َ و : حرف العطف </prefixe> <stem> َا ن ِّ ف َ ص </stem> <type> فعل أم ر </type> <diac> ّ َ ال ِّ َع ف </diac> <canonic> ّ َ ال ِّ َع ف </canonic> <lemme> ّ َ ن ف َ ص </lemme> <pat_lemme> ّ َ ن ف َ ص </pat_lemme> <root> صفن </root> <pos> ثالثي مزيد مسند إلى ين َ المخاطب _ أنتما، متعد والزم </pos> <suffixe> ّ ُ ه : ضمير الغائب </suffixe> </s_result> </result> </Results>
AlKhalil's analyasis compared to AraMorph's is definitely more accurate.

AlKhalil vs Jābir

The XML file created with all the analysis of the words of the corpus was then processed with Python in order to create an XLS (excel) file in which the analysis could be displayed in a more confortable format for the human analysis, thanks to drop down menu where the list of possible analysis was gahtered. The file was created matching the corpus information (i.e. editor, page, line, paragraph), context (phrase) and the words' analysis: Here an example of the drop down menu: Fig. 9 The drop-down menu with the different analysis of waṣafnāhu Alchemy and Computer: a computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus SECTION II 154 As mentioned, the analysis were transported in the file, in this case, the right morphological analysis is the first listed, for waṣafnāhu:

ُ اه َ ن ف َ ص َ و + # = ا َ ن ف َ ص َ و [ فعل ماض مبين للمعلوم ] َ ف َ ص َ و < وصف [ > ث الثي جمرد مسند إىل املتكلمني _ حنن متعد والزم + ] ُ ه : ضمري الغائب
The analyzer gave a solution for 92,5% of the words in the corpus, proving its great value as a tool of analysis. Moreover, one must consider that typing errors may occur, so the percentage of correct analysis might be overall considered higher.

The main issues with the AlKhalil lemmatizer are linked to the very sensitive analysis this tool provides: i) writing of the hamza is very important: Lory's edition for example did not mark the hamza in every case, because of the capability of the human reader to resolve ambiguities, but to make the lemmatizer work, this trait had to be added. This lack in the programme affected the analysis of the afʿala form verbs, of the superlatives, and sometimes of the imperative verbs;

Alchemy and Computer: a computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus SECTION II 155 ii) numerals are not always correctly analyzed, (e.g. the lemmatizer does not list the uninflected word

َ ر َ ش َ ع in compounds like عشر ;)إثنا
iii) some compounds built on prepositions (e.g. كيال )

were not correctly analyzed; iv) lastly some words were not included in the lemmatizer database (e.g.

سرجني بن الهوت

).

This notwithstanding, the overall result of the analysis is definitely accurate and, in comparaison to AraMorph, complete.

Outputs

The lemmatization permitted the creation of concordances of the corpus 300 . The file Excel was processed in Python to create the final file, styles of the text ere also added automatically.

The concordances created appear as follows: The concordances are sorted in Arabic alphabetical order, by root, lemma and then word form. The superscript number in the lemma represents the number of occurences of the word in the corpus.

The word is then listed and it context displayed together with the placement of the word in the corpus. To make the word more readable, it is highlighted in bold.

The second output created was a frequency list of the lemmas 301 . With this list, an analysis can be done on the corpus itself, for example, it is relevant to underline that the word kitāb is one of the most frequent words, thus validating the use of the The aim of the creation of concordances and frequency lists is giving the possibility to other researchers to approach the corpus from many different directions, so that it may be possible to seize new nuances in the meanings or in the overall structure.

The tools created in this thesis are thought as lenses under which and with which the corpus might be analyzed.

CONCLUSIONS

This work scope was to analyze and comprehend the most efficient way to create a crasis between Arabic NLP corpora linguistics, digital analysis and the Jabirian corpus. It began by gathering information about the corpus, the author, trying to focus on the main issues that had to be reckon with.

The digitalization process, being the first step to this study, permitted the full-immersion in the subject, free from other distraction in a one-to-one relationship between the researcher and the researched topic. A corpus is interesting only if it gathers a critical amount of data, otherwise the interest in the use of this tool can be less important. A massive amount of information An important implementation to add to this study is a syntactical analysis of the corpus. This could be done by the use of the Universal Dependencies (UD), a project developing crosslinguistically consistent treebank annotation for many languages.

UD aim is to ease the development of a multilingual parser, crosslingual learning, and parsing research. The ground for UD is language typology analysis and the frameset in which it enters is the annotation scheme based on an evolution of (universal)

Stanford dependencies 303 . UD, as TEI does for text form annotation, aims to provide a "universal inventory of categories and guidelines to facilitate consistent annotation of similar constructions across languages, while allowing language-specific extensions when necessary" 304 . This process would be assured by the utilization of the Functional Arabic Morphology, a system created and implemented by Smrž 305 : Elixir FM. MorphoTrees is the core idea of Elixir. It creates effective and intuitive hierarchies using the information provided by computational morphological systems. For clarity and completeness purposes, the texts will here be listed in alphabetical (western) order with specific reference to the edition (e.g. Haq pp#-#). Text with numerical references will be listed accordingly. Section I is an introduction on the historical setting and remarks of the subject of the texts studied, comprising also an excursus on the figure of Jābir Ibn Hayyān and the querelle on his existence; and an explanation of the methodological setting in which this work is settled.

Section II is the operational part, where are shown the compromises used in the realization of the digitalized corpus, as well as the strategies used so as to render the various issues presented in Section I. Section II presents the set of choices that tried to aswer to the questions made in Section I. translation="and the copper"> والنحاس </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the silver"> والفضة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the copper"> والنحاس </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the gold"> والذهب </term> <lb n="11" ed="H"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the tin"> والرصاص </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the silver"> والفضة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the tin"> والرصاص </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the copper"> والنحاس </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the silver"> والفضة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the gold"> translation="and the hotness"> فالحرارة </term> <lb n="7" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the coldness"> والبرودة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the humidity"> والرطوبة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the dryness"> واليبوسة </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the fire"> والنار </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the air"> والهواء </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the earth"> واألرض </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the water"> والماء </term> . <lb n="8" ed="K"/> والتركيب الثالث أعنى َّب منك َّب المرك فاألجناس ٰلثة الث أعنى الحيوان <lb n="9" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the stone"> والحجر </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the plants"> <lb n="12" ed="K"/> فهذا جميع ما يحتاج إليه في الصوت </p> <p n="561"> <pb n="14" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/><sic>

"/> أرباع ة، ّ حب يعني أن ً َ مقدار الخامسة ً مقدار العشير . ً ّ ثم أوجب ً ضرورة ً ّ أن ً َ الرابعة <pb n="120" ed="H"/> <lb n="1" ed="H"/> ً الواحدة درهم، ً ّ وأن ً َ الثالثة ّون ست ، درهما ً ّ وأن ً َ الثانية ً ثالثة آالف ّمائة وست درحم، ً ّ وأن <lb n="2" ed="H"/> ً َ
<pb n="12" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> ،َ ل َ م َ ج و ً ّ باعي ر كقولك فر، ْ جع ً ّ وخماسي كقولك ش، ر َ م ْ ح َ ج ولكله <lb n="2" ed="K"/> جنس من هذه األجناس أنواع نحتاج إلى ذكرها لحاجتنا اليها في علم <lb n="3" ed="K"/> الموسيقى، ونذكر بعدها ما نحتاج إليه في ذلك ً ال ّ أو ً ال ّ أو ً وشيئا ، شيئا <lb n="4" ed="K"/> إن شاء هللا تعالى </p> <p n="552"> <lb n="5" ed="K"/> أما ً ّ الثي الث فإنه ينقسم من بل ق طبعه اثنى عشر ، قسما وهي : <lb n="6" ed="K"/> عل ف ك ّ متحر العين كقولك ملص، ا ّ وإم ل ْ ع ف ساكن العين <supplied resp="K"> ا ّ ام </supplied> <lb n="7" ed="K"/> كقولك د ْ ع ب . ا ّ وإم ل َ َع ف كقولك ل، َ م َ ج ا ّ وإم ل ْ ع ف كقولك ْك، ل م <lb n="8" ed="K"/> ا ّ وإم ل َ ع ف كقولك ذ، َ ر ج ا ّ وإم ل ع ف كقولك ع، ب َ س ا ّ وإم ل ْ َع ف كقولك <lb n="9" ed="K"/> ر ْ
جار في ل ّ األو </sic> ٰلثة الث التي هي أمثال النغم، وهي تنقسم قسمين، <lb n="2" ed="K"/> أغنى الهمزاء والواو والياء . وذلك ً ّ أن منها ما يقال لها الصغار، ومنها <lb n="3" ed="K"/> ما يقال له الكبار، فالفتحة ألف صغيرة، واأللف نفسها - أغنى الهمزة <lb n="4" ed="K"/> ة ّ المكي - ألف كبيرة، ة ّ والضم واو صغيرة، والواو نفسها واو كبيرة . <lb n="5" ed="K"/> والكسرة ياء صغيرة، والياء نفسها ياء كبيرة . والنغم إنما هي تركيب <lb n="6" ed="K"/> هذا الستة <term type="alch" translation="the letters"> الحروف </term> بدخول األحرف األخر التي ال صوت لها والتي <lb n="7" ed="K"/> لها صوت يسير فيها بنيتها على وزن التحويل، وقد ذكرنا ً طرفا <lb n="8" ed="K"/> منه ً حسنا في كتاب مفرد لنا </p> <p n="562"> <lb n="9" ed="K"/> وليس يمكن ً أحدا أن يعلم الموسيقى ً ّ إال بعد علم العروض <lb n="10" ed="K"/> والتصريف وعلم النغم واإليقاع وعلم الشعر وصنعته والمعرفة باألوزان <lb n="11" ed="K"/> الهوائية . وجميع هذه األدوات ال يحتمل ذكرها في كتابنا هذا، <lb n="12" ed="K"/> ّا ولكن بعد ذكرنا <term type="alch" translation="the letters"> الحروف </term> واألسماء والكلم والقول <pb n="12" ed="#MS"/> والخبر <lb n="13" ed="K"/> وما قد ذكرناه ا ّ مم قادنا الكالم إليه من علم الموسيقى للتقريب <lb n="14" ed="K"/> ّا فإن عاد لون إلى القول فيما يتبع ذلك ً ال ّ أو ً ال ّ أو <supplied resp="K"> ا ّ مم يخرج </supplied> من القوة <lb n="15" ed="K"/> إلى الفعل بعد أن نذكر الداللة على ا . ب . ت . ث لنا ً ذكرا فقط . <lb n="16" ed="K"/> ّا فإن قد عملنا ً رسالة ً مفردة في وضع <term type="alch" translation="the letters"> الحروف </term> ُّفق ت لوأ عليها ً وقتا من <lb n="17" ed="K"/> األوقات َت ْن ألغ الناس عن التصحيف عغيره فتهم ّ وعر بكالم الطير <pb n="15" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> إن كان ً كالما وصرير البكر وطحن الرحاء وجميع األصوات، وهي <lb n="2" ed="K"/> كبيرة فهم ي منها كل لغة يقال لها رسالة ا . ب . ت . ث . طلبها فأ <lb n="3" ed="K"/> فإنها من غريب كتبي . وكان دي ّ سي - صلوات هللا عليه - يعشقها <lb n="4" ed="K"/> ويديم النظر فيها سنها، ح ل فهي عجيبة غريبة تفهم منها حركة كل شيء <lb n="5" ed="K"/> ك ّ متحر طق ون كل صوت ا ّ إم بمعنى تحته أو بغي معنى مثل زئير <lb n="6" ed="K"/> األسد ونباح الكلب وصهيل ً ّ الدواب وأمثال ذلك، ً ّ ألن ذلك ّه كل <lb n="7" ed="K"/> خارج من القوة إلى الفعل كما ذكرنا في كتاب الحاصل <supplied resp="#unknown" cert="low"> إذ كان </supplied> <lb n="8" ed="K"/> أصل <term type="alch" translation="the letters"> الحروف </term> وبناؤها الستخراج الطبائع منها وهي ا . ب . ت . ث . <lb n="9" ed="K"/> إلى سبع مائة حرف في نهاية الكمال </p> <p n="563"> <lb n="10" ed="K"/> وإذ قد أتينا على ما وعدنا به ً ْ د َع فلن إلى الكالم في الطبيعة وما <lb n="11" ed="K"/> فيها من القوة إلى الفعل، إن شاء هللا تعالى <supplied resp="K"> يخرج </supplied> </p> <p n="564"> <lb n="12" ed="K"/> القول في الطبيعة وتكوينها لألجناس وما فوقها وتحتها </p> <p n="565"> <lb n="13" ed="K"/> كالم مع المحيط إلى المركز </p> <p n="566"> <lb n="14" ed="K"/> ً َّ إن الطبيعة كائنة من تضاعيف ات ّ الكيفي بالحركة والسكون، <lb n="15" ed="K"/> ً وابتداء تضاعيفها <pb n="13" ed="#MS"/> ً امتزاج ة ّ الكمي معها . فالطبيعة ً إذا أربعة اشياء <pb n="16" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> ً َ ابتداء : حركة وسكون ة، ّ بكيفي هذا هو <term type="alch"
translation="substance" xml:lang="fa" subtype="loan"> جوهر </term> الطبيعة . <lb n="2" ed="K"/> فإذا هي صارت كذلك انفطرت منها أربعة اشياء ال غير : <term type="alch" translation="hotness"> حرارة </term> <term type="alch" translation="coldness"> برودة </term> <lb n="3" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="and dryness"> ويبوسة </term> <term type="alch" translation="humidity"> رطوبة

</term> ، أوائل هات ّ أم بسائط . ثم أحاطت الحركة السكون <lb n="4" ed="K"/> ة ّ والكيفي بتلك هات ّ األم ة ّ والكمي بعد اجتماعها، فكان ً أيضا عنها جميع <lb n="5" ed="K"/> األشياء الموجودات من لدن الفلك المنير إلى جميع األجناس الثلثة أعنى
<lb n="6" ed="K"/> الحيوان <term type="alch" translation="and the plants"> والنبات </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the stone">

والحجر </term> فكان <del resp="K" rend="superfluous"> عن </del> كل شيء منها ً طريفا ً بديعا . <lb n="7" ed="K"/> وذلك ً ّ أن األفالك والبروج تعطى <term type="alch" translation="the elements"> العناصر </term> طبائعها ها ّ ومود ها ّ وتتم <lb n="8" ed="K"/> فيكون عنها الزيادة والنقصان </p> <p n="567"> <lb n="9" ed="K"/> ونحن قائلون في ذلك : ً ّ إن الكواكب <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> إذ َّت حل في البروج
<lb n="10" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> فكان قرين <term type="alch" translation="the hotness"> الحرارة </term> <term type="alch" translation="the dryness"> اليبوسة </term> <del resp="K" rend="superfluous">

و </del> كان عنها ثوران النيران والزيادة <pb n="17" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> والنقصان في تها ّ ماد وحماء الزمان - وهو ى ّ المسم القيظ - وجفاف <lb n="2" ed="K"/> الشجر <term type="alch" translation="and the plants"> والنبات </term> ويبس األشياء وحماءها وثوران الصفراء في األجسام <lb n="3" ed="K"/> وكثرة ثوران النيران باإلحراق وما أشبه ذلك، واحتراق األلوان <lb n="4" ed="K"/> مرة وس الصغار الذين في األرحام وسوادهم ونقصان المياه وجمود <term type="alch" translation="the earth"> األرض </term> ين <lb n="5" ed="K"/> والمياه وهبوب لرياح الوبيئة المحرقة نة ّ والمتلو كالريح الحمراء والصفراء <lb n="6" ed="K"/> ب ُّ وتله البحر وانعقاد الحجارة الشريفة كالكبريت والياقوت وما <lb n="7" ed="K"/> أشبه ذلك </p> <p n="568"> <lb n="8" ed="K"/> وإذا كانت الكواكب <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> في البروج <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> وكان ما يجاورها <lb n="9" ed="K"/> ً رطبا في الجميع - أعنى أن تكون <term type="alch" translation="the hotness"> الحرارة </term> التي في الكواكب <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً حرة </term> <term type="alch"
translation="humid"> ً رطبة </term> والتي في البروج <pb n="18" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ة ّ حار </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> ً رطبة </term> التي في <term type="alch" translation="the coldness"> البرودة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the moist"> والرطبة </term> -<pb n="14" ed="#MS"/> ed="#MS"/> <lb n="9" ed="K"/> بالكواكب والبروج <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحر </term> <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> الباردة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the moist"> والرطبة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the dry"> واليابسة </term> </p> <p n="571"> <lb n="10" ed="K"/> فإذا وقع الخلف فيها ً أيضا فمثل ذلك؛ وهو أربعة أوجه ً أيضا . <lb n="11" ed="K"/> وهو أن تنزل الكواكب <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحر </term> <term type="alch" translation="the dry"> اليابسة </term> إلى البروج <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> الباردة </term> <term type="alch" translation="moist"> الرطبة </term> في <pb n="20" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> لها َّ أو أو

فحينئذ

وسطها أو آخرها، فذلك حينئذ كون األشياء المخالفة بالغلبة . <lb n="2" ed="K"/> ا ّ أم إن كانت ً الكواكب الغالبة في الطبع البروج كان عنها كون <lb n="3" ed="K"/> الصواعق ُّر وتكث البروج والرعود والرياح مق يسير المطر وكثرة الغم <lb n="4" ed="K"/> وما أشبه ذلك . وإن كانت البروج أغلب في الطبع كان عنها كثرة <lb n="5" ed="K"/> األمطار ط ُّ وتوس حبوب الرياح َّة وقل البروق والرعود والصواعق <lb n="6" ed="K"/> وكثرة الزالزل وأمثال ذلك . وإن تعادل اعتدل الزمان أكثر <lb n="7" ed="K"/> ما يكون من االعتدال، وحينئذ يكون ظهور المعجزات في العالم لنهاية <lb n="8" ed="K"/> االعتدال ى ئ َاف َك وت الطبائع في ة ّ الكمي والكيفية، ة ّ فالكيفي <term type="alch"
translation="to the hot"> ً ّ للحار </term> <lb n="9" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the cold"> والبارد </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the humid"> والرطب </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the dry"> واليابسة </term> ، ة ّ والكمي ؤ تكاف األقدار ً ّ لئال يكون <lb n="10" ed="K"/> احدها ً غالبا لآلخر </p> <p n="572"> <pb n="21" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> وإن كانت الكواكب <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> <term type="alch" translation="moist"> الرطبة </term> ً نازلة بالبروج <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> الباردة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the dry"> واليابسة </term> <lb n="2" ed="K"/> قارب هذا في الكون فكان مثل زمان <term type="alch" translation="philosophers" xml:lang="el"

subtype="calque"> الفالسفة </term> واستخراج العلوم <lb n="3" ed="K"/> وأمثال ذلك . ّما وإن لم ً او َ س ي هذا الزمان ذلك ً َ الزمان ً َّ ألن اإلضافة إلى
<lb n="4" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the hotness"> الحرارة </term> في ل َّ األو <term type="alch" translation="the dryness"> اليبوسة </term> فهي أقوى للكون، وفي هذه الحال <term type="alch" translation="the hotness"> الحرارة </term> <lb n="5" ed="K"/> ممازجة <term type="alch" translation="to the humidity"> للرطوبة </term>

فهي ضعيفة <comment resp="K"> اانتهى القطعة الواردة في كتاب مفاتيح الرحمة أبي </comment>. ل َّ واألو زمان األنبياء الذين هم ً ّ أتم <lb n="6" ed="K"/> أشكال الناس، فاعلم ذلك </p> <p n="572"> <lb n="7" ed="K"/> ا ّ فأم حدوث الرعد والبرق <pb n="16" ed="#MS"/> والرياح والزالزل واألمطار <lb n="8" ed="K"/> وما ى َ ل َ و ذلك من هذه الحوادث ّها فكل تابعة للطبائع األربع الثواني : </p> <p n="573"> <lb n="9" ed="K"/> ا ّ أم الغيم فإنه من ف تراد البخار . والبخار ينقسم قسمين : بخار <lb n="10" ed="K"/> رطب و بخار يابس . فالبخار <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ً ّ الحار </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> الرطب </term> إذا ّى ترق إلى العلو انعقد .
<lb n="11" ed="K"/> فإن كانت <term type="alch" translation="its humidity"> رطوبته </term>

ً كثيرة رجع ً منعكسا فكان عنه المطر، ولم ً ّ ينحل <lb n="12" ed="K"/> ذلك الغيم ّه كل . وإن كانت <term type="alch" translation="the humidity"> الرطوبة </term> ً ّ أقل ً ّ والجو <term type="alch" translation="cold"> بارد </term> انعقد <term type="alch" translation="the water"> الماء </term> ، وعلى <lb n="13" ed="K"/> قدر كثرته ّته وقل ما يكون كبيره وصغيره، <corr resp="#unknown" cert="low"> أعنى </corr> على قدر ة ّ شد
<pb n="22" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> استحالته في ً ّ الجو <term type="alch" translation="and the cold"> والبرد </term> الذي في ً ّ الجو . وإن اعتدلت <term type="alch" translation="the hotness"> الحرارة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the humidity"> والرطوبة

</term> <lb n="2" ed="K"/> ً ّ والجو <supplied resp="K">....</supplied> انعقد ً غيما ً كشيفا بغير مطر . فهذا الغيم د َ ر َ والب </p> <p n="574"> <lb n="3" ed="K"/> ا ّ فأم <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> البرد </term> واستطالته في بعض األوقات ً َّ فإن الرياح إذا كثرت <lb n="4" ed="K"/> استطال البرد ر ّ وتغي عن شكله غير لت الريح يحة ّ المر فيما، وهذا قليل <lb n="5" ed="K"/> ما يحدث . ا َّ وأم استدارته َّة فلقل الرياح المختلفة عليه </p> <p n="575"> <lb n="6" ed="K"/> ا ّ وأم ّة العل في البرق فٱلصطكاك َع ط ق الغيم العظيمة بعضها ببعض، <lb n="7" ed="K"/> فينقدح بعصها ببعض كٱنقداح <term type="alch" translation="the fire"> النار </term> بين <term type="alch" translation="the two stones"> الحجرين </term> </p> <p n="576"> <lb n="8" ed="K"/> والرعد حادث من هذا ، أيضا ً ّ ألن البرق د َ يوج <supplied resp="K"> بوجود </supplied> الرعد، <lb n="9" ed="K"/> والرعد د َ يوج بوجود البرق، ال يخلو أحدها من اآلخر . وإنما رى ي <lb n="10" ed="K"/> البرق في بعض األحايين وال سمع ي الرعد، سمع وي الرعد وال رى ي <lb n="11" ed="K"/> البرق . ا ّ فأم رؤية البرق عدم الرعد د ع ب فل المسافة وضعف الصوت، <lb n="12" ed="K"/> ً َّ ألن القدح ً أيضا تابع للطافة ة ّ الجوهري . وإذا كان البخار الدي يكون <lb n="13" ed="K"/> منه الغيم <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ّ حارا </term> ً قابال لالحتراق <pb n="17" ed="#MS"/> كثر قدحه بالطافة <supplied resp="K"> ة ّ الجوهري </supplied> <lb n="14" ed="K"/> ف وضع الصوت، بعد فل المسافة ال سمع ي . ا ّ وأم حدوث الرعد بال برق <lb n="15" ed="K"/> ً ّ فألن مالغيم تراك بعضه على بعض يمنع وصول الضوء إلى أرض العالم، <lb n="16" ed="K"/> فٱعلم ذلك ً ْ س وق عليه </p> <p n="577"> <lb n="17" ed="K"/> وفي هذا الموضع نحتاج أن نذكر انقضاض الكواكب . وذلك <lb n="18" ed="K"/> ً َّ أن البخار ً ّ الحار إذا صعد ورقي إلى أكبر ً موضع في إمكان تلك <term
type="alch" translation="the hotness"> الحرارة </term> <pb n="23" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> أن ترتقى إليه وأقضاه وغلظت <term type="alch" translation="its humidity"> رطوبته </term> وحاد عن إخراج <term type="alch" translation="its hot"> حرارته </term> <lb n="2" ed="K"/> لتلك <term type="alch" translation="the humidity"> الرطوبة </term> كست ع <term type="alch" translation="the humidity"> الرطوبة </term> ً راجعة فٱنقدح <term type="alch" translation="with the air"> بالهواء </term> اشتعاٱل بين <lb n="3" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the hotness"> الحرارة </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the air"> والهواء </term> ا نار آ كلة لتلك <term type="alch" translation="the humidity"> الرطوبة

</term> التي فيه، فكان عنه ما ى ّ يسم <lb n="4" ed="K"/> انقضاض الكواكب . والعرب العاربة تنبع موضع انقضاض <lb n="5" ed="K"/> الكواكب، <del resp="K" rend="superfluous"> ونحن ن ّ نبي بعض هذا في موضع آخر، إن شاء هللا <lb n="6" ed="K"/> تعالى </del> فتجد في ذلك الموضع ً َعا ط ق شاكل ت الطباشير - األرزق منه - <lb n="7" ed="K"/> ً مطروحة د، َ فتوج وهو دواء نافع لقلع البياض من أعين الحيوان إذا <lb n="8" ed="K"/> اكتحل به وألشياء َر خ أ ليس هذا موضعها . ا ّ فأم الكواكب فإنها <lb n="9" ed="K"/> ال ً ّ تنقض وال تخرج من أماكنها من مراكزها، ً ّ وإال فسد الرباط . <lb n="10" ed="K"/> بل ما َّ رب كثر البخار فحدث من ذلك في ً ّ الجو أمر هائل ً ّ يدل على خراب <lb n="11" ed="K"/> البالد . وزيادة البخار <supplied resp="K">....</supplied> ويكاد أن يكون هذا القول ً مناقضا
<lb n="12" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="to the philosophy" xml:lang="el"

subtype="calque"> للفلسفة </term> في قولنا ً ّ إن البخار يكثر ،ّ ويقل ولكنه ً متوان ههنا قدره . فإنك تجده، <lb n="13" ed="K"/> إن شاء هللا تعالى </p> <p n="578"> <lb n="14" ed="K"/> ا ّ وأم الرياح ب َال َغ فت الطبائع بين <term type="alch" translation="the air"> الهواء </term> وما ً ّ يمر به من ذلك،
<lb n="15" ed="K"/> كمروره بالجبال <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> الباردة </term> <pb n="18" ed="#MS"/> ومعادن الكباريت <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> وأمثل ذلك . <pb n="24" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> ا ّ فأم <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> الباردة </term> َب غال في ه جزؤ األكبر أعنى <term type="alch" translation="the

hotness"> ً الحرارة </term> ، وأما <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> ب َ غال في <lb n="2" ed="K"/> ه جزؤ األصغر أعنى <term type="alch" translation="the humidity"> ً الرطوبة </term> . وعلى قدر كثرة ة ّ الماد يكون منها تها ّ شد <lb n="3" ed="K"/> ودوامها . فٱعلم ذلك تجده، إن شاء هللا تعالى </p> <p n="579"> <lb n="4" ed="K"/> ا ّ وأم <supplied resp="K"> ما </supplied> نسب ي إلى الصاعقة فإنه َة مسامت ألحد شيئين : <lb n="5" ed="K"/> ا ّ إم أن ت يسام ً الجزؤ األعلى النارى شيئا قد ً ّ استعد لقبول االحتراق، <lb n="6" ed="K"/><supplied resp="K"> و ا ّ إم أن .........</supplied> . ً َ فساعة ته يسام - ومعنى يسامته يساويه <lb n="7" ed="K"/> وتحاذيه - ً رقة الح للمرآة المحرقة في عين الشمس ً والقارورة - فإنه <lb n="8" ed="K"/> ال يزال اإلنسان مها ِّ يقو حتى ً َ ت َ ام َ س ً الضوء ً َ الموضع الذي يمكن <lb n="9" ed="K"/><corr resp="#unknown" cert="low"> منه </corr> العكاس الشعاع على رقة الح - فساعة ته يسام ينفدح <term type="alch" translation="the fire"> النار </term> <lb n="10" ed="K"/> منه وليس نار في الموضع . وكذلك ما هو بين مرآة االصطرالب ودخول <lb n="11" ed="K"/> نقطة الشمس في ً ْ ى َ ثقب هدفته، فال يزال م ّ يقو حتى ً ّ يصح المتقابالن <lb n="12" ed="K"/> فتحرقه الشمس من موضع إلى موضع . فإذا ً َ عرفت ذلك سهل عليك <lb n="13" ed="K"/> أمرك ه، ْ صب ت إن شاء هللا تعالى </p> <p n="580"> <pb n="25" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> والدكادك من أثر القدح ، أيضا ً ّ ألن الدكدة إنما تحدث من <lb n="2" ed="K"/> الصوت . ً ّ فإن الموضع التي ً َّ المرد لها يخرقها الصوت أكثر وينحصر <lb n="3" ed="K"/> فيها، فمتى ها ّ رد ً راد من شيء من األجسام قلعته وذهبت به . وأقواه <lb n="4" ed="K"/> الرياح والرعود على ُّعها تقل من أما كنها لها ُّ وتزي عن مواطنها، وهي <lb n="5" ed="K"/> الدكادك </p> <p n="581"> <lb n="6" ed="K"/> وكذلك ما ى َّ يسم انقالب <term type="alch" translation="the earth"> األرض </term> قد نسبه بعض الناس إلى <lb n="7" ed="K"/> الدكادك وهذا <pb n="19" ed="#MS"/> خطأ، ً ّ ألن الخسف إلى الزلزلة أقرب . ونحن <lb n="8" ed="K"/> نقول كيف ذلك وما أشبه ال باألسماء المترادفة على معنى واحد </p> <p n="582"> <lb n="9" ed="K"/> وذلك ً ّ أن الزالزل إنما تحدث من استبطان رياح في بطون <term type="alch" translation="the earth"> األرض </term> <lb n="10" ed="K"/> ا ّ إم لكونها من باطن <term type="alch" translation="the earth"> األرض </term> وأنحصارها ّة وقل وجود المنافذ لخروجها، <lb n="11" ed="K"/> فإذا ترادفت وكثرت طلبت المخرج فزحم بعضها ً بعضا فانزعج لها <lb n="12" ed="K"/> ذلك المكان . وبكثرة حركتها وبكثرة تها ّ ماد لها وتواس تكون زيادتها <lb n="13" ed="K"/> وغظم حركتها ودوامها . والدليل على <supplied resp="K"> ذلك </supplied> أنها إذا كثرت ودامت <lb n="14" ed="K"/> حفرت لها اآلبار فتبطل الزالزل ً ّ وتقل . ما ّ ورب كانت من خارج، <lb n="15" ed="K"/> وٱختفاؤها ً وٱمتناع رجوعها لكثرة فها تراد في المدخل فيكون ذلك <lb n="16" ed="K"/> عنها، وهو قليل ا ًّ جد </p> <p n="583"> <lb n="17" ed="K"/> والخسف تابع النزعاج <term type="alch" translation="the earth"> األرض </term> من األشياء التي ً ْ َت ِّل ل خ في باطنها <lb n="18" ed="K"/> ً َ ف َ ع َ وص أركانها ً َ ل وثق ما عليها وأمثال ذلك . ما ّ ورب حدث هذا الحادث <pb n="26" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> ً ّ القوي <corr resp="#unknown" cert="low"> في </corr> الدي ال ً َ َل َل خ فيه بالقوة، ً َّ ألن الضعيف إذا كتر َّت وقل <lb n="2" ed="K"/> ته ّ ماد من ً ّ القوي <supplied resp="K">........</supplied> في هذه الحال تصال وال أجزائهما، <lb n="3" ed="K"/> أعنى أجزاء ا؛ضعيف بأجزاء ، ّ القوي فينخسف المكان ّل المتخل والمجاور <lb n="4" ed="K"/> له ت َ م ْ ص الم فٱعلم ذلك ر ّ وتدب ما ً َ ى وم أ إليه، ّني فإن على اإلسراع للخروج <lb n="5" ed="K"/> إلى الفائدة المظمى في هذا الكتاب، إن شاء هللا ً ّ عز ً َّ وجل </p> <p n="584"> <lb n="6" ed="K"/> فهذا ّه كل ا ّ مم يمكن خروجه من القوة إلى الفعل، وقد بان أثره <lb n="7" ed="K"/> ووضح </p> <p n="585"> <lb n="8" ed="K"/><corr resp="K" cert="high"> ا ّ فأم </corr> طباع المياه فإنه بحسب األمكنة، وذلك لقرب طباخ <lb n="9" ed="K"/> الشمس للمعادن المجاورة له . ويكون على ٰثة ثل تراكيب فقط : ا َّ أم أن <lb n="10" ed="K"/> يكون <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ا ّ حار </term> ، يابسا وهو ً ّ المر الذي ال ن َّ يتكو فيه الحيوان، فإن <lb n="11" ed="K"/> نت َّ تكو <pb n="20" ed="#MS"/> فقليل . وهو ماء البحار التي يقرب منها الكباريت <pb n="27" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> والملح وغير ذلك من األشياء حيلة الم له والتي بحرى هذا المجرى . وهذه <lb n="2" ed="K"/> المياه تحمل منها <term type="alch" translation="the earth"> األرض </term> ون ألف فرسخ وأكثر من ذلك ً ّ وأقل .</p> <p n="586"> <lb n="3" ed="K"/> ومنها مياه <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ة ّ حار </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> رطبة </term> ، وهي المياه الحلوة كمياه فارس والجبال <lb n="4" ed="K"/> العذبة وما أشبه ذلك . وهذه المياه وبيئة َّالة قت ّة عل م رة ِّ مغي <term type="alch" translation="to the chymus"> للكيموس </term> <lb n="5" ed="K"/> مفسدة للمزاج </p> <p n="587"> <lb n="6" ed="K"/> ومنها مياه <term type="alch" translation="cold"> باردة </term> رطبة، وهي المياه المعتدلة الطبيعة التي تكون <lb n="7" ed="K"/> تكثير تها ّ ب ص وبعدت مجاريها من المياه الغير محمودة <term type="alch" translation="the chymus"> الكيموس </term> أو فعل <lb n="8" ed="K"/> المعادن الرديئة نحوها، كمياه دجلة الجبال <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> الباردة </term> التي ً ّ منصب المياه من <lb n="9" ed="K"/> علوها غير متغيرة الرائحة والطعم </p> <p n="588"> <lb n="10" ed="K"/> ومنها <term type="alch" translation="cold"> باردة </term> يابسة، وليست ً طبعا وهي غير مياه كالثلوج . وأكثر
<pb n="28" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> ذلك بالجبال وما أشبهها من الموضع التي يكثر بها <term type="alch" translation="the air"> الهواء </term> <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> البارد </term> . فٱعلم

<lb n="2" ed="K"/> ذلك ً ْ س وق عليه، إن شاء هللا تعالى </p> <p n="589"> <lb n="3" ed="K"/> وإذ قد أتينا على بيان هذه األشياء أعنى طبائع الرياح والمياه <lb n="4" ed="K"/> والرعود والبرق والزالزل واألمطار والصواعق وغير ذلك وبان <lb n="5" ed="K"/> فعلها فغير ضائر أن نذكر طبائع الكواكب والبروج والبلدان والطعوم <lb n="6" ed="K"/> على األمر الظاهر، ثم نخرج بعده إلى الكالم في القوة والفعل عند <lb n="7" ed="K"/> ة َّ باعي الس َّة والعل في ذلك <corr resp="K" cert="high"> على </corr> على سبيل االرشاد ، ّ الطبعيي إن شاء هللا <lb n="8" ed="K"/> ً ّ عز ً ّ وجل </p> <p n="590"> <lb n="9" ed="K"/> القول في طبائع الكواكب السبعة </p> <p n="591"> <lb n="10" ed="K"/> جماع القول ً ال َّ أو في الطبائع أنها بالعدد ثمانية . وأعنى بذلك <lb n="11" ed="K"/> األمهات ول األ <pb n="21" ed="#MS"/> وهي : أربعة منها ل َ و أ <term
type="alch" translation="like the letters"> كالحروف </term> للكلم، <lb n="12" ed="K"/> وأربعة ً ثوان كالنطق عند <term type="alch" translation="the letters">

الحروف </term> </p> <p n="592"> <lb n="13" ed="K"/> وطباع الكواكب عند ً ّ الحس ّما إن يكون من الثوانئ التي هي :
<pb n="29" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> <del resp="K" rend="superfluous"> <term type="alch" translation="the water"> الماء </term> </del> <term type="alch" translation="the dry"> ، اليابسة </term> <term type="alch" translation="moist"> الرطبة </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> ، الباردة </term> <term type="alch" translation="the dry"> ، اليابسة </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> ، الباردة </term> <lb n="2" ed="K"/> <term type="alch"

translation="moist"> الرطبة </term> ، ألنها ّبة مرك - أعنى الكواكب - وإن كانت في ذواتها <lb n="3" ed="K"/> بسائط، وبالجملة ً َّ إن الكواكب ّها كل <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ّ حارة </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> يابسة </term> ً قوال ، مطلقا ولكن <lb n="4" ed="K"/> على <corr resp="K" cert="high"> شرط </corr> ما كانت ً متغيرة </p> <p n="593"> <lb n="5" ed="K"/> ا ّ أم الكواكب رة ّ المتحي فإنها سبعة أفالك محيط بعضها <supplied resp="K"> ببعض </supplied> <lb n="6" ed="K"/> على مثال هذا الشكل . فدائرة الشمس تحيط بالجميع ألنها في وسط <lb n="7" ed="K"/> الفلك، فبعدها من زحل ثم بعدها من القمر على <sic> الصل أصل </sic> الوسط <lb n="8" ed="K"/> العالى، وهي
K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> باردين بحماء الوسط ما ل في ذلك من الحكمة ً وإعطاء ً ّ الخواص َها حقوق </p> <p n="600"> <lb n="2" ed="K"/> وهذا - ً ّ وحق دي ّ سي - كالم ً ّ جوهري ي يق ما فيه شوب وال <lb n="3" ed="K"/> رمز . ولقد رت ّ صو لك به طبائع الكواكب في مصوغاتها على ّها، حق <lb n="4" ed="K"/> ونحتاج أن نقول من بعد ذلك في البروج، إن شاء هللا تعالى </p> <p n="601"> <lb n="5" ed="K"/> القول في طبائع البروج االثنى عشر </p> <p n="602"> <lb n="6" ed="K"/> اعلم ً ّ أن انقسام البروج االثنى عشر ً بروجا على الطبائع كانقسام <lb n="7" ed="K"/> األفالك ، سواء أعنى على أربعة أقسام، ً ّ إال أنها على مراتب ثالث . <lb n="8" ed="K"/> وذلك <pb n="23" ed="#MS"/> ً ّ أن الحمل واألسد والقوس بروج <supplied resp="K"> ة ّ ناري </supplied> <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ة ّ حر </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> يابسة </term> ، <lb n="9" ed="K"/> فالحمل منها أقوى من األسد وهو طبيعة األسد، واألسد أقوى من <lb n="10" ed="K"/> القوس وهو طبيعة القوس . وقد قلنا ّة العل فيها ً َ م ول صارت ً َ تالث مراتب <lb n="11" ed="K"/> في الكتاب
"> ً م ص ً ٌ ْم ك ب ً ٌ ى ْ م ع ً ْ م َه ف ً َ ال ً َ ون ع ج ْ ر َ ي </quote> <lb n="5" ed="K"/> أراد ً ّ أن بين أيديهم وأعينهم ً ّ الحق وال يفكرون فيه وال يعرفونه . <lb n="6" ed="K"/> وذلك ّا أن لو سألنا مائة الف من الناس : من أين تطلع الشمس؟ لقال : <lb n="7" ed="K"/> من المشرق وتغرب في المغرب ! </p> <p n="612"> <lb n="8" ed="K"/> وذلك اذا ى ّ م س المشرق ً مشرقا والمغرب ً مغربا انما هو باإلضافة <lb n="9" ed="K"/> الى الشمس، ً ّ وإال فالواجب على ما حكينا نحن أن يكون المغرب <lb n="10" ed="K"/> ً مشرقا والمشرق ً مغربا ليكون الصواب . ونحن شارحون ذلك، <lb n="11" ed="K"/> إن شاء هللا تعالى </p> <p n="613"> <lb n="12" ed="K"/> وذلك ً َّ أن المغرب هو مكان مغيب الشمس عن أبصارنا في <lb n="13" ed="K"/> الوقت الذي يه ّ نسم ، ليال ألن ذلك مأخوذ من اللغة في هذه العبارة . <lb n="14" ed="K"/> ا ّ وأم المشرق فهو ابتداء طلوعها من الوجه المقابل لموضع مغربها . <lb n="15" ed="K"/> والسبب في ذلك <supplied resp="K">.....</supplied> ، وإن كان غير ً ناقض ما ل قلنا . وذلك <lb n="16" ed="K"/> ً ّ أن فلك البروج ً ّ

ً ّ أن

<lb n="12" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the elements"> العناصر </term> أربعة وهي : <term type="alch" translation="the fire"> النار </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the air"> والهواء </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the water"> والماء </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the earth"> واألرض </term> .

وأنها ّبات مرك

<lb n="13" ed="K"/> ، ثوان وأن <term type="alch" translation="the fire"> النار </term> <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ّ حارة </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> يابسة </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the air"> والهواء </term> <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ّ حار </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> رطب </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the water"> والماء </term> <term type="alch" translation="cold"> بارد </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> رطب </term> ، <lb n="14" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the earth"> واألرض </term> <term type="alch" translation="cold"> باردة </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> يابسة </term>. وأن تعل، ً ّ أن <term type="alch" translation="the fire"> النار </term> أعنى األشياء، <term type="alch" translation="and the air"> والهواء </term> دونها، <lb n="15" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the water"> والماء </term> دون <term type="alch" translation="the translation="the hot"> ً ّ الحار </term> <lb n="3" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation=" the dry"> يابس </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the cold"> والبارد </term> <term type="alch" translation=" the dry"> يابس </term> وبالعكس، و <del resp="K" rend="superfluous"> بين </del> النسبة بهن <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ً ّ الحار </term> <term type="alch" translation=" the dry"> يابس </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the hot"> ً ّ والحار </term> <lb n="4" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" <lb n="18" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the plants"> النبات </term> أو <term type="alch" translation="to a stone"> لحجر </term>. <del resp="K" rend="superfluous"> فاما <term type="alch" translation="the animals"> الحيوان </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the plants"> والنبات </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the stone"> والحجر </term></del> ا ّ فأم <term type="alch" translation="the animals"> الحيوان </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the plants"> والنبات </term> <pb n="84" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> فإنها

> ً د ْ م َ الح ه ٰ ّ لل ل الذي َا َن ق َ د َ ص ً ه َ عد َ و <lb n="11" ed="K"/> َا َن ث َ ر ْ و َ أ َ و ً َ ض ْ ر ْ األ ً أ َّ و َ َب َت ن ً َ ن م ً ة َّ ب َ ح ْ ال ً ث ْ ي َ ح ً َاء َش ن ً َ م ْ ع َن ف ً ر ْ ج َ أ ً َ ين ل ام َ ع ْ ال </quote> <pb n="73" ed="K"/><lb n="1" ed="K"/> وهذا ر آخ الصنعة . فلنقل فيما بعد من ة، ّ باعي الس إن شاء هللا تعالى </p>> <p n="698"> <lb n="2" ed="K"/> القول في ً ّ الخواص </p> <p n="699"> <lb n="3" ed="K"/> ً ّ الخواص اسم ينقسم ٰثة بثل ً معان : ا ّ إم سريع الزوال ى ّ ويسم ، حال <lb n="4" ed="K"/> ا ّ وإم بطئ الزوال ى ّ ويسم هيئة، ا ّ وإم ً ّ ذاتي فيما هو فيه . وقد أوضحنا <lb n="5" ed="K"/> ذلك في األول من المنطق . والقول في ً ّ الخواص إنما هو في ً ّ األخص <lb n="6" ed="K"/> منها ً ّ الذاتي فيما هو فيه . وذلك ّا أن نحتاج أن ر ّ ندب أمر ، ّ الخواص فقد <lb n="7" ed="K"/> أوسعنا الكالم
ً ّ تجف وتحول ا ّ عم كنات عليه، فيطلب العمل ً ّ إال يقت ل ويزول .
<lb n="2" ed="K"/> ا ّ وأم <term type="alch" translation="the stone"> الحجر </term> فيبقى . فليكن <term type="alch" translation="the stone"> الحجر </term> إن كان الطلسم <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ا ّ حر </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> ً يابسا </term> <term type="alch" translation="and hot"> ا ّ فحر </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> ً يابسا </term> ، <lb n="3" ed="K"/> وإن كان <term type="alch" translation="cold"> ً باردا </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> ً يابسا </term> <term type="alch" translation="and cold"> ً فباردا </term> <term type="alch" translation="dry"> ً يابسا </term> ، أو <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ا ًّ حر </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> ً رطبا </term> <term type="alch" translation="and hot"> ا ًّ فحر </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> ً رطبا </term> ، أو <term type="alch" translation="cold"> ً باردا </term> <lb n="4" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> ً رطبا </term> <supplied translation="hot"> ا ّ حار </term> والكواكب <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ا ّ حار </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the stone"> والحجر </term> <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ا ّ حار </term> ، وفي <lb n="12" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ة ّ الحار </term> البرج <term type="alch" translation="cold"> ً باردا </term> والكوكب <term type="alch" translation="cold"> ً باردا </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the stone"> والحجر </term> <term type="alch" translation="cold"> ً باردا </term>. وطاائفة من <term type="alch" translation="philosophers" xml:lang="el" subtype="calque"> الفالسفة </term> <lb n="13" ed="K"/> ّقين المحق ال ترى ذلك، وتقول : إنه يجب أن يكون البرج في <term type="alch" translation="the cold"> البارد </term> <lb n="14" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="the hot"> ً ا ّ حار </term> والكوكب <term type="alch" translation="cold"> ً باردا </term> <term type="alch" translation="and the stone"> والحجر </term> <term type="alch" translation="hot"> ً ا ّ حار </term> <term type="alch" translation="humid"> ً رطبا </term>. translation="with the hot"> ً ّ بالحار </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the cold"> والبارد </term> <term type="alch" translation="with the cold"> بالبارد </term> ، <lb n="6" ed="K"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the humid"> والرطب </term> <term type="alch" translation="with the moist"> بالرطب </term> ، <term type="alch" translation="and the dry"> واليابسة </term> ب <term type="alch" translation=" the dry"> يابس

ولهم

<

I

  Le lexique alchimique arabe est un sujet complexe à étudier, car il représente l'un des syncrétismes les plus intéressantes de la pensée islamique médiévale. L'alchimie arabe vécut son expansion du II/VIII siècle jusqu'au VI/XII siècle et son développement et sa diffusion sont liés à un des auteurs les plus représentatif de cette discipline : Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān. En outre, les textes sont rares et compliqués à comprendre, à cause de leur nature et organisation. Les spécialistes ont redécouvert ce sujet au cours du XIX siècle : Berthelot, Wiedemann et Ruska étant les premiers, suivis par Holmyard, Kraus, Plessner, Lory et Haq. Le travail de découverte opéré par ces auteurs a commencé avec la collection de livres et de manuscrits, pour continuer avec le travail d'édition, critique ou diplomatique. Comment continuer l'étude de ces textes ? Comment les faire « évoluer » dans le monde contemporain ? La réponse est la numérisation. L'importance et la disponibilité de technologies modernes donnent aux chercheurs des outils capables de mettre en valeur et approfondir leurs études, la linguistique de corpus a énormément grandi depuis le XX siècle, grâce à et à cause de l'évolution de l'informatique. Ce travail s'insère dans cette II tendance et bénéficie des expériences précédentes de corpora en ligne, comme le Projet Perseus 1 . Ce travail a comme but de donner à la communauté scientifique une richesse de laquelle elle est à présent dépourvue : un corpus alchimique arabe duquel la terminologie et la pléthore de citations et références contenues le rendent un corpus unique et intéressant. La numérisation rendra accessible une large quantité d'informations de manière systématique, et contribuera au progrès dans le domaine de l'étude de l'alchimie arabe médiévale.

  9 , vécut dans le II/VIII siècle. Il est considéré comme l'auteur le plus important de la tradition alchimique arabe et des milliers des textes lui ont été attribués, cependant l'auctoritas de ces textes continue à présent d'être mise en question. Certes, il a existé : différentes sources parlent d'un Jābir né à Tus, fils d'un droguier 10 nommé Azdī, qui a été le disciple de l'imam chiite Jāʾfar al-Ṣādiq, son guide spirituel et son maitre d'alchimie 11 . Pour une longue période, Jābir a été considéré comme l'auteur de la plupart des textes alchimiques arabes, comme témoignent les alchimistes comme al-Rāzī 12 , al-Majrīṭī 13 and Ibn Umayl 14 . Malgré cela, plus tard naquirent des questions sur son autorité, au point que Ibn al-Nadīm eut le besoin d'affirmer dans le Fihrist: "Jābir did exist, his case is certain and famous, his composition being important and numerous" ; des références similaires peuvent être trouvées en Ibn Ṭahir al-Maqdisī et Ṣā'id al-Andalusī (IV/X siècle) 15 . Pourtant il est pratiquement impossible de supposer que un seul auteur ait écrit et développé la quantité de textes et théories inclus dans le corpus dit jābirien 16 , comme soutient aussi al-Miṣrī 17 (m. 859).

  un indice flagrant que la date de leur rédaction ne pouvait être antérieure à la fin du IX siècle 19 ». Voir aussi ce que Kraus écrit : « Djābir proclaimed the imminent advent of a new imam who would abolish the law of Islam and replace the revelation of the Kurgan by the lights of Greek science and X philosophy 20 ". Ce point de vue était commun dans la pensée extrémiste chiite (ġulā) à la fin du III/IX siècle, et se relie à la terminologie utilisée dans son écriture, qui est liée au Carmates 21 .

  positions d'autres auteurs comme Sezgin et Haq. Le premier veut lier la vie de Jabir à la période de Ja'far al-Ṣādiq, en disant qu'il vécut entre 107/725 et 193/812. Il arriva à cette datation en libérant de toute référence aux Barmécides la vie de Jabir. De cela, comme résume Lory, résultent deux choses : i) certains éléments de la tradition grecque étaient déjà traduits et étudies pendant le II/VIII siècle ; et ii) l'élaboration des doctrines ultra-chiites présentes dans le corpus avait déjà pris place avant la diffusion du phénomène du Carmatisme (fin du III/IX siècle). D'autres spécialistes comme Haq suivront ces assomptions, il soutient dans son oeuvre Names, natures and things une position complètement différente de Kraus, et il articule sa critique sur quatre points : i) l'approche au corpus ; ii) le lien avec Jāʾfar al-Ṣādiq; iii) le discours sur les courantes religieuses dans le corpus et iv) les citations de la tradition grecque dans le corpus. Pour ce qui concerne le corpus en général Haq mets en discussion l'utilisation du principe du tabdīd al-ʿilm en disant que XII Kraus l'utilise pour justifier deux caractéristiques différentes du corpus 25 , c'est-à-dire qu'il explique à la fois l'homogénéité du corpus et explique aussi les trous et les contradictions du même corpus. Dans son optique, Haq maintient que l'auteur est unique et dit que l'utilisation du tabdīd al-ʿilm n'implique pas forcément la pluralité d'auteurs, comme indiquent les cas de Maïmonide ou Roger Bacon 26 . En concernant la relation de Jabir avec l'imām al-Ṣādiq, son mentor, Haq fait remarquer que dans le corpus il y a rarement une référence explicite, et en plus les documents qui attesteraient leur rencontres et discussions font partie de la portion plus ancienne des écrits, alors que dans les documents plus récents les citations ne spécifient ni qui est le maitre auquel Jabir se réfère, ni s'il était vivant à l'époque des citations 27 . Au sujet du lien avec les Carmates, Haq met en discussion l'assomption de Kraus, en focalisant l'attention sur le fait que Jābir même s'éloigne de leur doctrine et souligne que leurs termes techniques furent crées à la fin du II/VIII siècle : il fait remonter XIII ce lexique à Abu al-Ḫaṭṭāb, en se basant sur les théories de Massignon et Sezgin 28 . Le dernier point que Haq prend en considération est l'utilisation d'emprunts par le Grec faite par Jabir. Kraus affirme que cela est une démonstration de la datation tardive, mais Haq suggère que les traductions du Grec commencèrent bien avant la période indiquée par Kraus, comme suggèrait déjà Sezgin, cela reporterait en arrière la datation du corpus. En outre il souligne que Jabir utilise les termes grecs et les termes plus archaïques en même temps 29 . Conclusions? Croire à l'existence d'un seul auteur pour les textes du corpus jabirien est assez compliqué. Peut-être qu'il serait plus utile de croire que le corpus fut développé par une sorte d'école d'alchimistes qui vécurent et travaillèrent entre la première moitié du IX siècle et la moitié du X siècle, comme suggère Kraus.

  donne des poids. Cela rend l'utilisation des synonymes et des calques un procédé pratique de l'alchimie jabirienne.Multiplicité de niveaux de lecture (Polysémie)La polysémie représente un des traits les plus intéressants du lexique jabirien, car elle sert à transmettre la multidimensionnalité de la réalité et les différentes facettes qu'un mot peut avoir en relation au contexte dans lequel il est inséré. Un exemple le mot 'balance' (mīzān):

  g. Haq pp#-#) : (i) Al-juzʾ al-ʾawwal min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq : 119-131 Kraus : 125 -156) (ii) Al-juzʾ al-ṯānī min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq 132 -144 ; Kraus : 157 -195) (iii) Al-juzʾ al-ṯālīṯ min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq : 145 -151) (iv) Al-juzʾ al-rābi' min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq 152 -162 ; Kraus : 196 -206) (v) Ibtidā' al-juzʾ al-ʾawwal min kitāb al-sirr al-maknūn (Kraus : 333 -340) (vi)

  ) (xx)Kitāb al-ʿašara(Lory : 93 -106) (xxi) Kitāb ʾiḫrāj mā fī al-quwa ilà al-fiʿl (Kraus : 1 -96) (xxii) Kitāb mīdān al-ʿaql a. Al-maqāla al-ʾūlà (Kraus : 224 -240) b. Al-maqāla al-ṯānīa (Kraus : 241 -260) c. Al-maqāla al-ḫāmisa (Kraus : 261 -272) d. Al-maqāla al-ḫāmisa ʿašar (Kraus : 273 -282) e. Al-maqāla al-sābiʿa ʿašar (Kraus : 283 -293) f. Al-maqāla al-ḫāmisa wa al-ʿašarūn (Kraus : 294 -302) g. Qiṭʿa ṣaġīra min kitāb al-ḫawaṣṣ (Kraus : 303 -332) (xxiii) Kitāb al-rāhab(Kraus : 527 -532)(xxiv) Kitāb tabdīr al-arkān wa al-ʾuṣūl (Lory : 139 -152) (xxv) Nuḫb min kitāb al-baḥṯ (Kraus : 501 -526) (xxvi) Nuḫb min kitāb al-ḫamsīn (Kraus : 479 -500) (xxvii) Nuḫb min kitāb al-ḥāṣil (Kraus : 533 -541) (xxviii)Nuḫba min kitāb al-ḫawaṣṣ al-kabīr (Kraus : 206 -223) (xxix) Nuḫb min kitāb al-ištimāl (Kraus : 546 -556) (xxx) Nuḫb min kitāb al-mayzān al-ṣaġīr (Kraus : 420 -459) (xxxi) Nuḫb min kitāb al-sabʿīn (Kraus : 460 -478) (xxxii) Nuḫb min kitāb al-tajmīʿ (Kraus : 341 -391) (xxxiii) Nuḫb min kitāb al-taqdīm (Kraus : 542 -546) (xxxiv) Nuḫb min kitāb al-taṣrīf (Kraus : 392 -419) Il y a deux autres livres, qui n'ont pas été inclus dans ce travail : XXIV -La chimie au moyen Age, édité par Berthelot 53 : (i) Kitāb almulk; (ii) Kitāb al-raḥma al-ṣaġīr; (iii) Kitāb al-mawāzīn al-ṣaġīr; (iv) Kitāb al-raḥma; (v) Min kitāb al-tajmīʿi; (vi) al-Qawl fī al-jism wa al-jawhar wa al-ʾarḍ; (vii) al-Qawl fī ījādi al-ṭabāyʿi wa aljawhar mufrada wa murakkiba bi-dalīlin burhānin; (viii) al-Qawl fī muqaddimāt al-kawni bi-l-ʿamal; (ix) al-Qawl fī alistiḥāla; (x) al-Qawl fī al-raḥm; (xi) faṣl; (xii) Kitāb al-zībqu al-šarqiyyi; (xiii) Kitāb al-zibqu al-ġarbiyyi; (xiv) Kitāb nāru al-ḥajar; (xv) Kitāb ʾarḍ alḥajar. -The Arabic works of Jâbir Ibn Hayyân, édité par Holmyard 54 : (i) Kitāb al-bayān; (ii) Kitāb al-ḥajar; (iii) Kitāb al-nūr; (iv) Risāla al-ʾīḍāḥ; (v) Kitāb ʾusṭuqus al-ūss al-awwal; (vi) Kitāb ʾusṭuqus al-ūss al-ṯāniyyu; (vii) Kitāb ʾusṭuqus al-ūss al-ṯāliṯu; (viii) Tafṣīr Kitāb ʾusṭuqus; (ix) Kitāb al-tajrīd; (x) Kitāb al-raḥma alṣaġīr; (xi) Kitāb al-mulk.

  péculiarité et obsolescence, c'est pour cette raison que cette étude utilise le plus récent et complet Al-Khalil 57 . Choix Le procédé de numérisation effectif commence avec une série de choix actées pour bien manipuler et gérer le corpus: i) textes publiés au lieu des manuscrits : ce choix pourrait paraitre controversée, mais elle se base sur l'optimisation des temps de travail : numériser un manuscrit nous aurait occupés pour un temps plus long et aurait soustrait du temps au procédé d'annotation et d'analyse. En outre, beaucoup de textes attribués à Jabir ont été perdus et l'autorité d'autres est incertaine.

  Le langage XML La numérisation d'un texte commence par le choix du système d'annotation : ce travail utilise le langage XML 58 (eXtensible Markup Language, dorénavant XML) : le langage d'annotation le plus utilisé dans le Natural Language Processing (NLP). Ce langage est utilisé pour rendre explicite le code implicite des textes publiés, et cela est une opération fondamentale pour l'analyse par le biais d'un logiciel. En outre, l'utilisation de l'XML comporte une quantité d'avantages : i) il est indépendant de tout logiciel ou hardware, cela signifie qu'il peut être utilisé en combinaison avec plusieurs logiciels et système d'exploitation ; ii) le XML est un langage descriptif plutôt que procédural (comme le HTML) ; iii) il permet la validation de l'annotation, en réduisant ainsi le pourcentage d'erreurs dans un travail de grande portée ; enfin, iv) le World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) a créé des XXVIII extensions qui permettent l'annotation de presque toute typologie de texte 59 . Le standard TEI L'annotation du corpus selon les lignes guide d'un des plus importants projets d'annotation courants, le Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) 60 a été un des noyaux plus important de ce travail. Le TEI existe depuis 1994 et a été créé par l'Association for Computer and the Humanities (ACH), l'Association for Literary and Linguistics Computing (ALLC) et l'Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) qui, en 1987 décidèrent de créer un modèle standard pour l'annotation numérisée. Le langage TEI est très vaste et les tags qui en font partie permettent de coder une grande variété et typologies de textes, quoique soit leur contenu ou leur forme. Lancioni et Solimando soulignent une composante fondamentale du TEI, c'est-à-dire :

  de variables et le dynamic typing. Enfin, l'IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning Environment) du logiciel est une plateforme qui peut être exécutée sur Windows, Unix, et Mac OS X, permettant au chercheur de travailler et échanger les données sans problèmes de système d'exploitation (OS). Python utilises le Natural Language Tool Kit (NLTK) 65 , une librairie numérisée open-source qui inclue logiciels, données et documents. Créé en 2001 à l'université de Pennsylvania il est devenu un des outils du NLP le plus importants dès sa création 66 . LE choix d'utiliser Python a été, au final, le meilleur pour ce travail, car il nous a permis d'exécuter plusieurs actions sur le corpus. Section II La numérisation selon le standart TEI Le Corpus: une méthodologie spécifique La numérisation du corpus a été faite en deux étapes : i) la transcription des textes et ii) le codage.

  c'est avec cette perspective que ce travail veut proposer une approche nouvelle à l'interaction avec les textes : l'utilisation de la numérisation devient un outil pour les comprendre. En effet, comme De Rose et Durand soulignent : Cross-references have existed for millennia; what is new in hypertext is that computers can augment the usefulness and reliability of pointers, by allowing fast painless follow-up of references as well as verification of reference destinations. 75 XL L'importance de la numérisation apparait dans sa totalité avec cette application. Le tag utilisé est <ref> (reference) qui "defines a reference to another location, possibly modified by additional text or comment" 76 . Dans le Muḫtār trois des quatre parties du Kitāb al-aḥjār sont inclus, voilà comment le lien a été fait: <div2 type="treaty" n="4"> Dans le tag <ref> l'attribut "target" indique où la référence est colloquée. Conséquemment, le livre correspondant a été annoté avec un ID en accord avec le premier : <div2 @xml:id="1.1" type="section" n="1Le même procédé de lien peut être fait avec des phrases, comme kamā bayyannā fī kutubinā… le lien de ces phrases avec l'objet auquel elles pointent donne la possibilité de détruire la structure obscure du tabdīd al-ʿilm donnant ainsi la possibilité aux XLI chercheurs de collecter les informations et les données à partir d'une base plus vaste de données Un exemple dans Kitāb al-Taṣrīf, qui est nommé dans le Muḫtār Rasāʾil. Un ID a été donné à cet extrait pour faire le lien avec le reste du corpus :<div2 @xml:id="#2.2" type="treaty" n="11">

Fig. 2

 2 Fig. 2 Un tableaux de l'édition critique de Haq

  situe dans l'attribut "ana" qui garde l'information <recto> et <verso> d'un folio. 88 viii) La dernière action menée sur le corpus a été l'insertion des images présentes dans le texte. Elles ne peuvent pas être numérisées, donc il faut les téléverser en ligne sur un site host, et lier leur URL dans le tag: <figure> <graphic url="https://s32.postimg.org/oj2bffsg5/230alto.j pg"/> </figure> le tag <figure> 89 a un tag child <graphic> 90 qui contient le lien direct à l'image.

Fig. 3

 3 Fig. 3 Page 443 de l'édition critique de Haq qui contient l'exemple en haut.

  Jābir Le fichier XML qui contient l'analyse faite avec AlKhalil de tous les mots du corpus, une fois créé a été traité avec Python pour créer un fichier XLS (excel) où les différentes analyses pouvaient être incluses. Ce fichier, pensée pour l'analyse humaine, a été créé en utilisant toutes les informations du corpus (éditeur, page, ligne, paragraphe), le contexte (phrase) en y ajoutant les informations données par AlKhalil. Les différentes analyses ont été arrangées dans un menu roulant. Deux colonnes y ont été ajoutées : CORR pour les analyses manquantes et NOTE pour l'explication des erreurs. AlKhalil a donné une solution au 92,5% des mots du corpus, une épreuve de la valeur de cet outil, si l'on considère que dans la numérisation il peut y avoir des foutes de frappe, cela rendrait le pourcentage d'analyse encore plus haute. Les problèmes principaux de l'analyse avec AlKhalil sont liés à l'analyse très sensible fournie par le lemmatiseur : i) l'écriture du hamza est cruciale : dans l'édition de Lory, par exemple, la décision a été de ne pas écrire le hamza dans la majorité des cas, cela implique que nous avons dû résoudre toutes les ambiguïtés pour que le programme puisse analyser le texte. Ce LVII manque a aussi créé des problèmes avec l'analyse des formes afʿala des verbes, des superlatifs et parfois des impératifs ; ii) les numéraux ne sont pas toujours bien analysés (le logiciel ne liste pas le mot invariable ً َ َر َش ع dans les mots composés comme إثنا عشر );

  La lemmatisation a permis la création des concordances du corpus97 . Le fichier Excel a été traité avec Python pour créer le fichier final, dans lequel les styles du texte sont ajoutés automatiquement.Les concordances sont ordonnées par ordre alphabétique (arabe) par racine, lexèmes et formes lexicales. Le numéro suscrit 97 voir Appendice D. représente le numéro d'occurrences du mot dans le corpus. Le mot est représenté avec son contexte, dans lequel il est en gros. Le deuxième fichier crée automatiquement est une liste de la fréquence des formes lexicales. 98 . Cette liste peut être utilisé pour une première analyse du corpus, par exemple le mot kitāb est un des mots les plus fréquents, cela pourrait indiquer que l'utilisation du tabdīd al-ʿilm est réelle dans le corpus. Le but de la création de concordances et de listes de fréquence est de donner la possibilité à d'autres chercheurs de s'approcher au corpus de manière différente et par plusieurs points de vue, pour comprendre ses nuances et pour en saisir des nouveaux concepts. L'objectif de ce travail était d'analyser et comprendre la manière plus efficace de créer une union du domaine de la linguistique de corpus et du NLP en arabe, de l'analyse numérique et du corpus jābirien. En commençant par la récupération d'informations sur le corpus, sur l'auteur, et sur les difficultés auxquelles il fallait faire face, le travail a évolué et créé une quantité de données qui a pu permettre de conduire une analyse quantitative cohérente. 98 voir Appendice E. LIX Ce travail en total a créé un corpus de: -12.749 lignes de fichier XML file; -1.591 paragraphes; -871 pages numérisés à partir d'oeuvres publiées; -10.659 lignes de texte brut (seules 2090 lignes sont des lignes de syntaxe XML); -103.166 mots en totale: o 19471 formes léxicales; o 6.370 mots alchimiques annotées; -195 citations. Les possibilités d'amélioration sont multiples : i) l'inclusion des notes en bas de pages ; et ii) l'agrandissement du corpus avec les autres oeuvres seraient des importantes additions. Certainement, l'addition des manuscrits non publiés serait une magnifique expansion du travail final, cela, bien sûr, engendre l'édition critique des manuscrits et le temps nécessaire pour ce type de travail serait très important ; il serait aussi possible d'ajouter les manuscrits directement en les codant selon les lignes guides du TEI, mais il faut aussi être certain de la justesse et de bonne lecture du texte. La lemmatisation a été la partie la plus compliquée et intéressante de ce travail et nous a permis de créer les concordances. Le choix de créer des concordances est basé sur la LX volonté d'analyser le texte d'un point de vue libre de toute superstructure. La philosophie, tout en étant fondamentale pour cette étude, a été utilisée pour comprendre le corpus sans le limiter. Dans le futur, les informations liées au contexte pourraient être incluses pour approfondir le travail et la compréhension, par exemple des phénomènes de contact, pour établir une datation du corpus. Une dernière étape serait l'analyse syntactique du corpus. Cela pourrait etre fait en utilisant les Universal Dependencies (UD), un projet qui est en train de développer un treebank translinguistique annotation concordant de plusieurs langues. Les objectifs de UD sont : la création d'un parser multilinguistique, l'apprentissage trans-linguistique et la recherche dans le domaine du parsing.La base de UD est l'analise typologique linguistique et le cadre dans lequel elles entrent est le schéma d'annotation basé sur une évolution des Stanford Dependencies 99 . UD, comme le TEI fait pour l'annotation textuelle, veut donner un "universal inventory of categories and guidelines to facilitate consistent annotation of similar constructions across languages, while allowing language-specific extensions99 DeMarneffe et al. (2006, 2008, 2014). LXI when necessary" 100 . Ce procédé serait assure par l'utilisation de la Functional Arabic Morphology, un système crée and développé par Smrž 101 : Elixir FM, à la base duquel il y a les Arbres Morphologiques (MorphoTrees). Ce système crée des hiérarchies efficaces et intuitives en utilisant les informations fournies par les systèmes morphologiques computationnels. L'annotation syntactique permettrait d'approfondir les études commencées par Lory sur le sujet des niveaux dans le Kitāb al-sabʿyn en améliorant la recherche non seulement pour ce qui concerne le texte, mais aussi pourrait permettre d'avoir des aperçus nouveaux pour ce qui concerne la sédimentation historique du corpus jābirien. Pousser les limites est la devise de cette thèse, les limites qui existent entre les textes et l'ordinateur, entre l'humain et la machine. Où finit-il le travail de l'homme et commence celui de la machine ? La réponse est complexe et vague. La tâche de l'homme, autrement dit l'input du texte et l'écriture des programmes fait écho au travail de la machine, qui n'existerait pas sans qu'elle ait 100 http://universaldependencies.org/introduction.html 101 Smrž (2007).

  is a problematic subject to cope with. It represents one of the most interesting intellectual syncretism of the medieval thought. Alchemy attained its maximum expansion and flowering from the II/VII to the VI/XI century, and its development and diffusion is connected to the most representative author of this discipline: Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān 102 . Moreover, the original texts are sparse, rather complicated to read, and even more difficult to understand, because of their inner nature and organization. Modern scholars approached and rediscovered this subject in the XIX century, when Berthelot, The most important scholar, one of those on whom this thesis is founded, is Paul Kraus, who gave a vigorous encouragement to this field with his meticulous, patient and groundbreaking work. His unexpected early death left his legacy uncompleted and the domain of Arabic medieval alchemy lost one of its biggest experts. Nevertheless, his colossal production and the publications he made laid the foundations for the successive studies. His cataloguing of the texts, his studies on the corpus and his insights on the author are still important points discussed and researched upon. He tried to give the Jabirian corpus a terminus ante quem, which he situated and established in 987 AD, the year of the edition of the Fihrist by Ibn Nadīm. This work will later discuss his views on the corpus and the author 107 . In fact, one of the most important conclusion of his research is the certainty of Other authors in the last decades approached the character of Jābir and its field, namely, Paola Carusi and Leonardo Capezzone, both from La Sapienza University in Rome. The first wrote a book, Lo zafferano e il geco (2007), where she investigates the use of plants and animals in the medieval period, while the latter studied more intensively Jābir and its relationship with his era as well as his authenticity 109 .

  Of course, the invention of the press by Gutemberg changed the world as humanity knew it, as Chartier 113 states, inspired by Condorcet's Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain(1793-94), where the French claims: "the instruction that any individual can receive in silence and solitude from books encourages the cool exercise of reason, critical judgment, and rational examination of all opinions". Condorcet here, in other words, wants to convey the message that the invention of press gave humanity the strength and the impulse to become more aware of the world it lived in, because it gave the possibility to understand the world better. This brief digression sets the grounds to the reason behind the choice of the digitalization of the Jabirian corpus: books are changing their form, the importance and the increasing availability of modern technologies give the researchers a wide set of tools to enhance and deepen their studies. Corpora linguistics has grown remarkably since last century, because of and thanks to the evolution of computer science. This work is inscribed in this contemporary trend, and tries to benefit from all the previous experiences in corpora and online collections 114 . http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/) a project born in 1985 and first realized in 1992 (Perseus 1.0 released by Yale University Press). Developed in the following years, (in 1995 Perseus site begins, in 1996 Perseus 2.0 is released by Yale University Press for Mac users), Digital corpora have been created in many languages and one of the main advantages they offer is that they can represent different typologies of the same language. An example is the Brigham Young University (henceforth BYU) corpus 115 , which includes for English only, eleven sub-corpora, e.g. "Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)" with 520 million words, gathering texts from 1990 to 2015; the "Corpus of Historical American English (COHA)" which counts 400 million words and goes from 1810 to 2009.In Arabic there is the important Arabicorpus 116 created by Dilworth Parkinson, from the very same university of the abovementioned BYU corpus. ArabiCorpus has a grand total of 173,600,000 words, from five sub-corpora : i) Newspapers; ii) Premodern; iii) Modern Literature; iv) Egyptian Colloquial; v) Nonfiction. In the 'Premodern' category, the one this work is concerned, are listed important works:-Quran -84,532 words ( -1001 Nights -557,908 words ( Literature' corpus, which has 2,073,071 words, is a subsection of the 'Premodern' corpus and consists of the following corpora:-Incoherence of the Philosophers by Al-Ghazali -

  in the Medieval Arab World When approaching the medieval Arabic sciences one almost immediately understands the extent and the multiplicity of interests present in the Middle-Eastern area during the Dark Age of Europe. Arabs were fine astronomers, mathematicians, geographers, engineers, botanists, doctors and alchemists, whereas in Europe the obscurantism that followed the fall of the ancient empires, was taking over the Old Continent. Such an impressively vast plethora of interest and disciplines (both old and newborn) couldn't develop without the multitude of scientific institutions founded in the Islamic world. One of the most emblematic examples, which hold a particular importance to the field of alchemy is Bayt al-Ḥikma of Baghdad 119 , one of the most important centers of the translations from Greek to Arabic 120 . 119 M.

  linked and related the one to the other, the Jabirian corpus and the Arabic tradition brought alchemical knowledge to a further development during the VIII and XI centuries. In this period, a specific lexicon was formulated and some of the main concepts of the Great Work were broadened.To establish date and place of birth of the Arab alchemy is, as this study already tried to underline, problematic. Although elements of the Greek χημεία are a relevant presence, this science was not unknown in the Middle East, as it is shown by alchemical texts written in Syriac and Coptic, attested in Iran, Iraq and the actual Syria before the period of translations. These ante-litteram alchemists would have met, thanks to the islamization of the area, the Arab ḥukamāʻ. The exchange of knowledge thus resulted originated a radically new tradition, that is perfectly represented in the Jabirian corpus. 131 .131 .Lory, Alchimie (1989): 12.

  collections includes texts with references to Greek scholars like Zosimus, Democritus and Hermes; -The LXX books (al-kutub al-sabaʿūn). In this collection an explanation of the alchemical teaching of Jābir is given; -The CXLIV books , known as "The Books of the Balances" (Kutub al-mawāzīn). In these books are explained the philosophical grounds of alchemy; -The D books (al-kutub al-khamsumiʾa t ). This last collection groups manuscripts investigating on more specific themes of the Books of the Balances. Kraus, managed to group and classify almost 3000 manuscripts, credited to Jābir, unfortunately most of these manuscripts were lost and others have not been published yet. In order to create a digitalized corpus the first step was to list and find the majority of the edited texts of Jābir's work. So this is a list of them 212 : -Tadbīr al-iksīr al-aʿṭam, edited by Pierre Lory 213 who gathered texts because of their main theme, the preparation of the Supreme Elixir, but they come from different collections 214 : (i) Kitāb al-lāhūt; (ii) Kitāb al-bāb; (iii) Kitāb al-ṯalāṯīn kalimāt; (iv) Kitāb al-manà; (v) Kitāb al-hadà; (vi) Kitāb al-ṣafāt; (vii) Kitāb al-'asharat; (viii) Kitāb al-naʾūt; (ix) Kitāb al-ʾahad; (x) Kitāb al-sabʿat; (xi) Kitāb al-tabdīr al-arkān wa al-uṣūl; (xii) Kitāb al-manfaʿat; (xiii)Kitāb hatk alastār; (xiv) Kitāb al-ṣafī.

( i )

 i Kitāb iḫrāj mā fī al-quwa t ilà al-fiʿl; (ii) Kitāb al-ḥudūd; (iii) Kitāb almājid; (iv) Al-juzʾ al-awwal min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās; (v) Al-juzʾ al-ṯānī min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās; (vi) Al-juzʾ al-rābi' min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās; (vii) Nuḫba t min kitāb al-ḫawaṣṣ al-kabīr; (viii) Al-maqāla al-ūlà ; (ix) Al-maqāla al-ṯānīa; (x) Al-maqāla alḫāmisa; (xi) Al-maqāla al-ḫāmisa ʿašar; (xii) Al-maqāla al-sābiʿa ʿašar; (xiii) Al-muqāla t al-ḫāmisa t wa al-ʿašarūn; (xiv) Qiṭʿa ṣaġīra min kitāb al-ḫawaṣṣ; (xv) Ibtidāʾ al-jazāʾ al-awwal min kitāb al-sirr al-maknūn; (xvi) Nuḫb min kitāb al-tajmīʿ; (xvii) Nuḫb min kitāb al-taṣrīf; (xviii) Nuḫb min kitāb al-mayzān al-ṣaġīr; (xix) Nuḫb min kitāb al-sabʿīn; (xx) Nuḫb min kitāb al-ḫamsīn; (xxi) Nuḫb min kitāb al-baḥṯ; (xxii) Kitāb alrāhab; (xxiii) Nuḫb min kitāb al-ḥāṣil; (xxiv) Nuḫb min kitāb al-taqdīm; (xxv) Nuḫb min kitāb al-istimāl. Moreover there is the work of Haq, Names, Natures and things 216 in which he published and edited the The Book of stones (Kitāb al-aḥjār), from which some of the examples gathered in this section were taken. These texts are a great base to run the computational study on the alchemical corpus, because of their nature. The Tadbīr gathers the first ten book of the Book of the Seventy, one on the SECTION I 58 fundamental works of the corpus; the Kitāb al-aḥjār is very specific on the balance of the letters and the work of Apollonius, and the Muḫtār is a comprehensive collection of various works. Other works were not included in the digitalization are: -La chimie au moyen Age, edited by Berthelot 217 : (i) Kitāb almulk; (ii) Kitāb al-raḥma al-ṣaġīr; (iii) Kitāb al-mawāzīn al-ṣaġīr; (iv) Kitāb al-raḥma; (v) Min kitāb al-tajmīʿi; (vi) al-Qawl fī al-jism wa aljawhar wa al-ʾarḍ; (vii) al-Qawl fī ījādi al-ṭabāyʿi wa al-jawhar mufrada wa murakkiba bi-dalīlin burhānin; (viii) al-Qawl fī muqaddimāt alkawni bi-l-ʿamal; (ix) al-Qawl fī alistiḥāla; (x) al-Qawl fī al-raḥm; (xi) faṣl; (xii) Kitāb al-zībqu al-šarqiyyi; (xiii) Kitāb al-zibqu al-ġarbiyyi; (xiv) Kitāb nāru al-ḥajar; (xv) Kitāb ʾarḍ al-ḥajar. -The Arabic works of Jâbir Ibn Hayyân, edited by Holmyard 218 : (i) Kitāb al-bayān; (ii) Kitāb al-ḥajar; (iii) Kitāb al-nūr; (iv) Risāla al-ʾīḍāḥ; (v) Kitāb ʾusṭuqus al-ūss al-awwal; (vi) Kitāb ʾusṭuqus al-ūss al-ṯāniyyu; (vii) Kitāb ʾusṭuqus al-ūss al-ṯāliṯu; (viii) Tafṣīr Kitāb ʾusṭuqus; (ix) Kitāb al-tajrīd; (x) Kitāb al-raḥma al-ṣaġīr; (xi) Kitāb al-mulk.

3. 4

 4 TEI and the corpus Tagging the corpus following the Guidelines of the most important tagging project, the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) 232 has been a fondant and fundamental choice of this work. The TEI runs since 1994, and it is originated by the Association for Computer and the Humanities (ACH), the Association for Literary and Linguistics Computing (ALLC) and the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) that in 1987 decided to create a standard model of digital encoding. The TEI language is -almost inconveniently ample -and its tags cover a very large variety of texts, both in content and layout. It has been utilized by many different users, such as libraries, museums, publishers, and individual scholars. The latest version of TEI guidelines, P5, is an enormous book of 1539 pages. Lancioni and Solimando seize one important feature of the TEI, that is

  These factors are reflected in the way that model classes are named. If a model class has a name containing "part", such as model.divPart or model.biblPart then it is primarily defined in terms of its structural location. For example, those elements (or classes of element) which appear as content of a <div> constitute the model.divPart class; those which appear as content of a <bibl> constitute the model.biblPart class. If, however, a model class has a name containing like, such as model.biblLike or model.nameLike, the implication is that its members all have some additional semantic property in common, for example containing a bibliographic description, or containing some form of name, respectively. These semantically-motivated classes often provide a useful way of dividing up large structurally-motivated classes: for example, the very general structural class model.pPart.data ('data elements that form part of a paragraph') has four semantically-motivated member classes (model.addressLike, model.dateLike, model.measureLike, and model.nameLike), the last of these being itself a superclass with several members. Although most classes are defined by the TEI infrastructure module, a class cannot be populated unless some other specific module is included in a schema, since element declarations are contained by modules. Classes are not declared 'top down', but instead gain their members as a consequence of individual elements' declaration of their membership. The same class may therefore contain different members, depending on which modules are active. Consequently, the content model of a given element may differ depending on which modules are active 239 .

  software, data and documents created in 2001 by the University of Pennsylvania and it has been one of the most important tools in NLP since242 . NLTK is a kit, used to create programs to analyze language, giving a schema of classes meant to be the basis to this process; it gives the possibility of tagging, parsing (syntactic parsing) and text classification. The use of the Element Tree gives access to all corpora databases in XML and the possibility to build trees by a specific parse.

  RE were used for example in the extraction in Python of the raw corpus from the tagged version, in order to lemmatize the text. The usefulness of RE is that they allow the researcher to extract the information of the tagged corpus, hence giving the researcher the opportunity to benefit from the tagged text (having references to the page, the line, the paragraph, for example) while completing the lemmatization task. : a specific methodologyThe initial task to undertake consisted in the digitalization of the corpus, which is extremely vast, and no digital form of the texts pre-existed246 . Two steps are included in this: i) the transcription of the texts; and ii) tagging.The first step was to manually transcribe the books: in order to find the most time effective strategy, a first attempt of analyzing a book was, namely the Kitāb al-aḥjār, processing it by an Optical Character Recognition (OCR) reader 247 , but it wasn't a perfect choice. A step by step representation of the procedure can be found as follows: a)the .pdf file created from the printed book:

Fig. 1

 1 Fig. 1 the first page of Haq's critical edition.

  xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1As shown, the <teiCorpus> tag is a macro-container, including different sub-units, in <teiHeader> is contained the <title> of the part, that is what is here designated by"Corpus Jabirianum", the <authority>, in this case "Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān", of course. <sourceDesc> presents a description of the source of the file. 93 Every book has its header: the corpus is a macro container of sub-unities, the three edited books. The title of the Kitāb al-Aḥjār, serve as an example of this process: and Things, The Alchemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān and his Kitāb al-Aḥjār (Book of Stones)</title> <author>Haq, Syed Nomanul</author> <editor >Kluwer Academic Publishers <

  texts in paragraphs. Paragraphs are the best subunit of a written 96 text because they allows us to render the text in the most accurate manner (they are core elements arranged in a spatial sequence based on appearance), and allowing the encoder to use almost all sub-elements (the element <p> is one of the most "open" tags). Moreover as to as render the text in the most efficient and detailed system, every <p> in the corpus has been given a univocal progressive number, this addition permits the internal references to be well-targeted as parts of a hypertext. Page break and line break are the last hierarchical tags used in this work. They are empty elements, in other words, they cannot contain any other tag. They belong to the model.milestoneLike group. Milestone-style elements are used to represent reference systems, denoting a precise boundary of the text.

Fig. 3

 3 Fig. 3 The first lines of the first page of Haq's critical edition

  of the crucial goals of this work. No previous work has ever dealt with the tagging of alchemical lexicon 255 . A corpus of this 255 Ferrario (2009a)(2009b) studied the different synonyms for gold and mercury, but did not try to tag them in an automatic lexicon. Scotti (2003) created a system fot tagging could prove an efficient testing ground for the clear-cut definition of what made a term alchemical or not. One of the biggest difficulties in this work was the blurriness of the jargon, this meaning the use of specialized and non-specialized terms altogether to render alchemical concepts. This lead the research to a crossroad: i) tag all the words

Fig. 4

 4 Fig. 4 An example of quote in Haq's critical edition

  Fig. 6 Page 443 of Haq's critical edition, example of figure in text.

ل

  َ ْر َض ت ْ اس األ األثنى Alchemy and Computer: a computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus SECTION II ُل ل ْ ُع ف ل َ ِع ف ْل ل َ ِع ف Alchemy and Computer: a computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus SECTION II 137 ت ُ وم ب َ ْر َض ت ْ س ُ وم ُن ِل ْع َف ت ْ س ُ وم ُن َت ل َ فاع ُ Beside some typing errors لنحو.(i.e ِ ل َ ل ع َ ك ,)ف ascribable to human fallacy, all the alchemical lexicon-related words result as unanalyzed (e.g. ,مائ ,الطبعني ائد ,الزو ,الكيفيات األكاسري و , ألرط و ب , انيق .)دو As mentioned above, this is the most concerning problem of AraMorph, and it cannot be resolved but by broadening the lexical ressources used by the analyzer. Other errors are linked to the structure of the lemmatizer, for example imperative verbs ;إختلف( ه ِ م إر ; ;إمسع )إعلم resemble to the verbal form afʿala, and for this reason they haven't been entered in the programme 294 .

  from Oujda University released in 2010 another analyzer also written in Java, AlKhalil 295 . This morphosyntactic parser of Standard Arabic words can process different typologies of texts: non vocalized, partially or totally vocalized. The base for the analyzer is a vast set of Arabic morphological rules. AlKhalil gives a more traditional linguistic analysis assigning the words their root and their vocalized version, associated with proclitic and enclitic tables 296 .

142 -

 142 schemes related to the nouns' lemmas; h) RootNoun where roots are associated with their corresponding vowelized patterns.

Fig. 8 A

 8 Fig. 8 A screenshot of the Excel file used for the lemmatization

  tabdīd al-ʿilm. 157 Other words that stands out are tadbīrand ḥajar, the first appears 44 times and the second appears 40 times. Those two words are the first non grammatical words in the list (aside from Allàh).

  the source books digitalized; -10.659 lines of raw text (meaning that only 2090 lines are XML syntactic lines); that the grand total of the digitalized Jabirian corpus is most certainly a good source of data for further analysis, in fact it aligns to some of the ArabiCorpus collections presented in the Introduction.The possibilities of improvement are vaste: the first, which was already announced in the thesis, is the inclusion of the footnotes, and second, the enlargement of the corpus with the works edited by Berthelot and Holmyard 302 would be definitely a relevant addition.Of course, adding the unpublished manuscripts would be a great expansion of the final work, but this a very long term improvement to think of, because they would need to be edited in a critical edition first. This passage might be skipped and the manuscripts could be added directly in the corpus, using the TEI guidelines for manuscripts, the useof critical editions is preferred because they give more than just the most appropriate version of a text comparing the various manuscripts, they give an analysis and an important perspective of the text.Lemmatization has been one of the most interesting and complicate part of thiswork, and it lead to the creation of concordances. This choice is based, again, on the importance of the text from an environment-free point of view. Philosophy, although considered important and fundamental for the study of this corpus, has been used to understand it without limiting it: it can be said that this thesis worked on a minimalistic basis. This, of course, can be improved by including more context-related information, and trying to further deepen the study of contact words to establish a dating of the corpus. In fact a study conducted of specific words created by linguistic contact might be able to track time and space setting of the corpus, thus introducing new elements to the debate.

  This syntactic annotation would allow to deepen the study initiated by Lory of the layers in the Kitāb al-sabʿyn thus enhancing the research not only on a textual level, but might provide new insights on the historical sedimentation of the Jabirian corpus also. Pushing the boundaries is the motto of this thesis, boundaries between the texts and the computer, between the human and the machine. Where does the work of the human end and the work of the machine begins? Answer is definitely complex and necessarily vague. The human work of input of the text and the writing of the programmes and routines echoes in the machine's work, which would not exists if it wasn't for the human work. Likewise, humans would not be writing programmes if the right digital support didn't exist. Just like the alchemical knowledge, where practice transcends reality, involving a movement towards evolution, computational textual analysis allows a movement forward, merging tradition and innovation, pushing towards a novel form of text which almost acronostically works as a vehicule of Sources of the corpus The corpus has been created based on the edited manuscripts included in the following works: HAQ, SAYED NOMANUL. (1994). Names, Nature and Things. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. KRAUS, P. (1935). Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān. Muḫtār Rasā'il, Essai sur l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. Tome I. Paris -le Caire : Textes choisis. LORY, P. (1988). L'élaboration de l'Elixir Suprême -Quatorze traités de Jâbir ibn Hayyân sur le Grand OEuvre alchimique. Damascus : Publications de l'Institut Français d'Études Arabes.

(

  xxxv) Al-juzʾ al-ʾawwal min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq : 119-131 Kraus : 125 -156) (xxxvi) Al-juzʾ al-ṯānī min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq 132 -144 ; Kraus : 157 -195) (xxxvii) Al-juzʾ al-ṯālīṯ min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq : 145 -151) (xxxviii) Al-juzʾ al-rābi' min kitāb al-aḥjār ʿalà raʾi Balīnās (Haq 152 -162 ; Kraus : 196 -206) (xxxix) Ibtidā' al-juzʾ al-ʾawwal min kitāb al-sirr al-maknūn (Kraus : 333 -340) (xl) Kitāb al-bāb (Lory : 21-38) (xli) Kitāb al-hadà (Lory : 65-78) (xlii) Kitāb hatk al-astār (Lory : 165 -170) (xliii) Kitāb al-ḥudūd (Kraus : 97 -114) (xliv) Kitāb al-lāhūt (Lory : 7-20) (xlv) Kitāb al-manà(Lory : 51-64) (xlvi) Kitāb al-manfaʿa (Lory : 153 -164) (xlvii) Kitāb al-mājid(Kraus : 115 -125) (xlviii) Kitāb al-naʿūt (Lory : 107-118) (xlix) Kitāb al-sabʿa (Lory :129 -138) (l) Kitāb al-ṣafāt (Lory : 79 -92) (li) Kitāb al-ṣafī (Lory : 171 -178) (lii) Kitāb al-ṯalāṯīn kalima (Lory : 39-50) (liii) Kitāb al-ʿahad (Lory : 119 -128) (liv) Kitāb al-ʿašara (Lory : 93 -106) (lv) Kitāb ʾiḫrāj mā fī al-quwa ilà al-fiʿl (Kraus : 1 -96) (lvi) Kitāb mīdān al-ʿaql a. Al-maqāla al-ʾūlà (Kraus : 224 -240) b. Al-maqāla al-ṯānīa (Kraus : 241 -260) c. Al-maqāla al-ḫāmisa (Kraus : 261 -272)

  MAEGAARD, B., L. DAMSGAARD JØRGENSEN, S. KRAUWER, K. CHOUKRI (2004a): NEMLAR: Arabic Language Resources and Tools, In: K. Choukri and B. Maegaard (ed.): Proceedings of Arabic Language Resources and Tools Conference, (pp. 42-54), Cairo. MAEGAARD, B. (2004B): NEMLAR -an Arabic Language Resources project. In: Fourth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, Proceedings Vol I, (pp. 109-112), Lisboa. MAEGAARD, B, CHOUKRI, K, MOKBEL, C., YASEEN M. (2005) Language Technology for Arabic. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen. Background and Context. Dordrecht: Springer Science & Business Media. NANCY, I. BONHOMME, P. ROMARY, L. (2000) XCES: An XML-based Encoding Standard for Linguistic Corpora. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-2000). Athens, Greece: European Language Resources Association (ELRA) PRZEPIÓRKOWSKI A. (2009) TEI P5 as an XML Standard for Treebank Encoding. In Proceedings of the Eighth International Workshop on Treebanks and Linguistic Theories, (pp. 149-160) Milano: EDUCatt. SCOTTI, A. (2003). Ipotesi per la creazione di un repertorio digitale relativo alle ricette mediche alchemiche. In Chiara Crisciani e Agostino Paravicini Bagliani (a cura di), Alchimia e medicina nel Medioevo, (pp. 337-370). Firenze: Edizioni del Galluzzo. SMRŽ, O. (2007) Functional Arabic Morphology. Formal System and Implementation. (Doctoral Thesis) Charles University. Prague. Retrieved from: http://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/~smrz/elixir-thesis.pdf SOLIMANDO, C., LANCIONI, G. (2012). The Project of a "Thesaurus Linguae Arabicae. In Clivaz C., Meizoz J., Vallotton F., Verheyden J., Bertho Bibliography 181 B. (Eds.). Lire demain, Des manuscrits antiques à l'ère digitale -Reading Tomorrow, From Ancient Manuscripts to the Digital Era, (pp. 633-647). Lausanne : Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes. SIPSER, M. (1998). Chapter 1: Regular Languages. In Introduction to the Theory of Computation (pp. 31-90). Boston, MA: PWS Publishing. SPINA, S. (2001). Fare i conti con le parole. Introduzione alla linguistica dei corpora. Perugia: Guerra. TEI CONSORTIUM (2014) TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Version 2.7.0. Last updated on 16th September 2014, revision 13036. Retrieved from: http://www.teic.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/Guidelines.pdf THOMPSON, K. (1968). Programming Techniques: Regular expression search algorithm. Communications of the ACM, 11, 6, (pp. 419-422). General References on Islamic Culture ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ISLAM, (THE) (1997) Leiden: Brill. IBN AL-NADĪM. (1871). Kitāb al-Fihrist. Leipzig: G. Flügell. Titre : Alchimie et ordinateur -Une analyse computationnelle du corpus jābirien Résumé : Cet élaborât veut donner un nouvel approche à l'étude du corpus jābirien, en prenant compte de la littérature et des études précédents et des problématiques inhérentes à ce particulier corpus (synonymie, polysémie, dispersion du savoir, citations d'autres auteurs, hypertextualité). Grace aux nouvelles technologies d'analyse computationnelle ce travail vise à la digitalisation de textes édités (Muḫtār Rasāʾil, Tabdīr al-iksīr al-aʿẓam, Kitāb al-ahjār), pour créer un corpus numérique annoté selon le Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), le système d'annotation le plus utilisé dans le Natural Language Processing (NLP). La première section de la thèse comprend une introduction historique, prenant compte de la figure de Jābir et de son travail, de la querelle sur son existence et de l'histoire de la science Arabe médiévale ; et méthodologique, qui explique les outils utilisés pour l'analyse. La deuxième section est opérationnelle : le travail est expliqué dans tous ses détails et où les choix de numérisation et analyse sont exposés. Les problématiques présentées dans la première section trouvent ici des réponses pour ce qui concerne leur analyse. Le noyau de ce travail est représenté cependant par les Appendices, divisées en quatre parties : -Les Appendices A, B et C sont des extraits bruts de la numérisation, qui donnent une idée du processus d'annotation selon le standard TEI. Les trois textes édités sont représentés par le premier livre de l'édition. -L'Appendice D est un échantillon de concordances qui se base sur la lemmatisation des deux premiers livres du Tadbīr. -L'Appendice E est une liste de fréquence du même échantillon utilisé pour la création des concordances. Title : Alchemy and Computer -A computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus Abstract : This work presents a novel approach to the study of the Jābirian corpus while taking into consideration the existent works and literature and the problems of this peculiar corpus (synonymy, polysemy, dispersion of the knowledge, quotes od other authors, hypertextuality). Thanks to the modern technologies of computational analysis, this thesis aims to the digitalization of edited texts (Muḫtār Rasāʾil, Tabdīr al-iksīr al-aʿẓam, Kitāb al-ahjār) in order to create a digitalized corpus tagged following the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), the most used annotation in Natural Language Processing (NLP).

  166 : وال ك ك ش وال كتمان فيه وليس منه فرغنا فقد مثله. احلجر فكذل النبات ا ّ

																			أم
	ال	إ	التغليط و	للتدهيش	عامدا	أبدا	ذل	أفعل	كما	الكتب	من	شيء	يف	آخر	بكالم	وننقضه	علي	خنلطه
	و رزقه	تعاىل	اهلل	ّ أحب	ملن	.

  et ḥarr raṭb. Ce phénomène doit etre pris en compte et représenté dans l'analyse du corpus 49 .

				Citations
		La tradition, quoique grecque ou persane, représente une
	valeur importante du savoir medieval et de l'alchimie arabe. Dans
	ses livres, Jābir cite une pléthore d'auteurs, alchimistes et
	48 Haq (1994): 167 من وغريه " يف التصر "كتاب يف ما إىل اآلن حتتاج فإن االسقاط وجوه فأما تل الكتب وذل أنه ينبغي ضرورة أن سقط ُ ي من كل شيء حيتاج إىل نه وز ما اد ز على وما د خل ته َ ني ِ ب للعلل بغري يادة ز . فمعلوم أن الذهب أصل إذ هو بريء من ذل وصار هجاء الفضة " فض " إذ اهلاء
	إليه	احلاجة	حبسب	فيه	ما	إسقاط	بعد	عليه	يد تز	مث	هلا .	ذكر	وال	للتأنيث	دخلت	إمنا

  spirituelle, exegesis de l'âme qui est le fondement même et le but de la théosophie ismaélienne" Corbin (1981): 152.

111

See

[START_REF] Moureau | Alchemy in the Latin World[END_REF]) and (2013). 112 Ferrario (2009)

.

  Whatever its origins, the world 'alchemy', still in use today, and its modern version 'chemistry' derives directly from the Arabic kimiyya. Until mid XVIII century, there was no distinction between the meaning of alchemy and chemistry. The first distinct definitions of the two terms can be found in the Encyclopédie by Diderot 127 . Anyway, this difference of definition between the two terms was substantial in the Western world only, whereas it did

not became important in the Arab world. In fact, alchemy, as it should be considered in this work, is a field embracing both practical and philosophical theories, as the same Al-Khalili says:

Referring to Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān as an alchemist rather than a chemist 127 Encyclopédie (1751) s.b. Alchimie (Malluin) (Tome 1:248) (emphasys added) "est la chimie la plus subtile par laquelle on fait des opérations de chimie extraordinaires, qui exécutent plus promptement les mêmes choses que la nature est long -tems à produire; comme lorsqu'avec du mercure & du soufre seulement, on fait en peu d'heures une matiere solide & rouge, qu'on nomme cinabre, & qui est toute semblable au cinabre natif, que la nature met des années & même des siecles à produire. Les opérations de l'alchimie ont quelque chose d'admirable & de mystérieux; il faut remarquer que lorsque ces opérations sont devenues plus connues, elles perdent leur merveilleux, & elles sont mises au nombre des opérations de la chimie ordinaire, comme y ont été mises celles du lilium, de la panacée, du kermès, de l'émétique, de la teinture de l'écarlate, &c. & suivant la façon, dont sont ordinairement traitées les choses humaines, la chimie use avec ingratitude des avantages qu'elle a reçûs de l'alchimie: l'alchimie est maltraitée dans la plûpart des livres de chimie."

[…]

Le mot alchimie est composé de la préposition al qui est Arabe, & qui exprime sublime ou par excellence, & de chimie, dont nous donnerons la définition en son lieu. Voyez Chimie. De sorte que alchimie, suivant la force du mot, signifie la chimie sublime, la chimie par excellence."

for the strategic importance that the choice of a word instead of another can entail, as shown in the last part of the

	say, "No, its name is, rather, al-raṣāṣ since its sibling is extract, where Jābir argues about how choosing a word can be called al-usrub." "No," say the followers of Empedocles, appellation zāwus for its nature is most equilibrated, "we determine its weight, rather, according to the important and on what grounds it should be done. 196
	and that is what the word means." But the followers of Pythagoras say, "its name is, in fact, al-muštarī, for it has the nature of the celestial body. We determine its weight in accordance with no appellation except al-
	muštarī, for it is al-muštarī which governs it, guides it, and brings it forth. Nay, this is its only name." As for Socrates, he judged in favor of zāwus and he is close to
	the truth. Balīnās said, "its name is qaṣdīr in which lies its weight; it has no other name." The Peripatetics say, "we determine its weight according to our description "hot and moist," for it has no name signifying its nature. 195 "
	There are six synonyms for 'tin', one of which is a definition
	composed by two words: al-qalāʿi, al-raṣāṣ, zāwus, al-muštarī, al-
	qaṣdīr and finally ḥarr raṭb. Of course, this should be included in
	the analysis of the corpus, not just to recognize the existence of
	synonymies, but 195 Haq (1994): 167. (Emphasys added). امسه أن على نه نز قال: ن َ م منهم ّ أن وذل متفاوتا خلفا ّ القلعي الوزن يف الناس إختلف " القلعي ." ّ هو بل ال اق: الرو أصحاب وقال " الرصاص " بل ال انبدقليس: طائفة وقالت األسرب. اسم أخوه إذ
	194 Haq (1994): 167 (Emphasys added) وقالت طائفة فيثاغورس : هو " املشت ي " وبطبع	معناه. وهو طبعه يف أعدل ألنه	"	" اوس ز	على نه نز
	فأما ينبغي وجوه كرورة ك ك ك ك ض االسقاط أن كقط ك ك ك ك س ُ ي فإن املشتي ال نه نز إال على فحكم على " اوس ز " وهو حتتاج من كل اآلن كيء ك ك ك ك ش إىل اسم املشتي ألنه ما حيتاج يف " إىل كتا نه وز ب صاحبه ره ّ ومدب يف التصر ما اد ز على " نه ّ ومكو مقارب احلق . وقال بليناس : هو " القصدير وغريه وليس " نه ووز من تل وما دخل له اسم منه ته َ ني ِ ب فمعلوم أن الذهب كل ك ك ك ك ك ك أص إذ هو بريء من ذل كار ك ك ك ك ك ك وص هجاء كة ك ك ك ك ك ك الفض " فض " إذ الكت للعلل ب غريه . أما و وذل ب غري اط سقر أنه يادة ز . وال اسم له غ ريه . اهلاء إمنا دخلت للتأنيث وال ذكر هلا . مث يد تز عليه بعد إسقاط ما فيه حبسب احلاجة إليه . وقالت ة ّ املشائي : نه نز على قولنا ّ حار رطب ألنه ال اسم له يدل على طبعه . ولست أختار أنا يف هذه ّ ان األوز كلها مثل قولنا " اوس ز " فإن عدلنا عنه ّ فحار رطب .

  By God the Great, this I have already taught you in the Book of the Arena of the Intellect 208 .

	in accordance with what we have already set forth in the Book of Morphology,
	namely 1 in the first [degree of intensity], 3 in the Second, 5 in the Third, and 8 in the Fourth 206
	Balīnās also made a pronouncement on the letters which is in conformity with what we have [ourselves] taught you in The Book of the Result. 207
	وقد بذكر ا ّ كن ما جعل كم نعدك خالف ياهتا ّ على يف غري فيه افق وو كتاب . ما قد نا ذكر من يف كتب " كتاب ازن املو يف التصر أي بر بليناس " وهو : خاص ة ّ احد و يف ّ مث ثالث مثانية و يف ابع الر . 207 Haq (1994): 165.(Emphasys added). يف علم ازن املو اآلن و فنحن بادرون 206 Haq (1994): 164. يف األو وثالثة يف الثاين و مخسة ل ّ وذكر ذ ل املقدار يف ة ّ الكمي اليت قد هتا ذكر ّ نص أيضا على احلروف كما من ّ عل يف " كتاب احلاص ل ."
	العقل	ميدان	كتاب	"	يف	هذا	مت ّ عل	العظيم	اهلل و	وقد

205 Haq (1994): 163. (Emphasys added). . 208 Haq(1994):166.(Emphasys added).

  In this example: <title>, <author>, <year>, and <price> have text content because they contain text (like 10.00), whereas <bookstore> and <book> have element contents, because they contain other elements, finally <book> has an attribute (category="children")230 , thus creating a nesting structure.

	<book category="Philosophy">
	<title>La Profession de
	Foi</title>
	<author>Ibn ʿArabī</author>
	<year>1985</year>
	<price>10.00</price>
	</book>
	</bookstore>
	<book category="Alchemy">
	<title>Dix Traités
	d'alchimie</title>
	<author>Jābir Ibn
	Hayyān</author>
	<year>1983</year>
	<price>100.99</price>
	</book>

  To render Haq'a editorial gloss, it was used the tag <gloss> 269 with the attribute "resp", in which it was written the letter

	i) "H" for Haq, as shown in the following example: ii) and iii)
										<p n="32">
	.	الزوائد		إال	هذه	غير	وليس	<lb n="4" ed="H"/>
	حقه	إلى	شيء	كل	يرد	حتى	الزوائد	تمييز	ا فأم
										فالزوائد
	من		ذكرناها	التي	العشر	في	<lb n="5" ed="H"/>
	والالم	االسم،	بهما	فمخصوص	والالم	الميم	أما	.	قبل
	digitalization, namely: وهما للتعريف في	األلف	يصحبها <lb n="6" ed="H"/>
	i) . وكل		<...> Haq's Editorial gloss و " الدواء " وما جانس ه	"	الغالم	"	" و	العبد	"
										من	كان	ما
	ii) .	[...] الجنس		Folio(s) and line(s) of MS Paris 5099 excluded from ًًًً <lb n="7" ed="H"/> األسماء يحتمل
	إليه	المشار	the selection والكاف ذكر ُ لي	األلف	بين	الالم	وتزاد
									الشيء	</gloss>	من	<gloss resp="H">
	iii) بالهمزة، ...	Omission of a word, a phrase or a relatively short <lb n="8" ed="H"/> الغائب وهي أولى
	الثانية	الالم	passage " بين	الذي	"	في	أيضا	الالم	وتزاد
	iv) ّ فاصلة بين	Tables الفتح وتكون	بها	والذال <lb n="9" ed="H"/> ليقع
	تزاد	فإنها	الميم	أما	.	الذال	وكسر	الالم	سكون
	ذلك		في " These are the solutions adopted for each of the ْرم ك َ م " <lb n="10" ed="H"/> و " ب َ ر ْ َض ت ْ س ُ م " وما شاكل
	abovementioned points: شيء شاذ وهو قولهم	في	إال	الفعل	في	لها	حظ	وال
										<lb n="11" ed="H"/> " خ َ ق َ ر ْ م ". </p>
										111 112

  version is in the brackets, but Kraus

			suggests the elimination
	ii)	< >	Lacking in the original version, and Kraus added
			it
	iii)	( )	Blank in the original version
	iv)	*	Doubtful emendation
	v)	+	Irreparable error
	vi)	﴾﴿or 	Indicates the number of the MS or the number of
			the folia
	vii)		Manuscript pages
	viii)		Images
			121

  More information can be found at: https://catalog.ldc.upenn.edu/docs/LDC2002L49/readme.txt 131 Compatibility table "tableAB" lists compatible Prefix and Stem morphological categories, such as:

  ANAWATI, G. C. (1996). Arabic Alchemy. In Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, volume III, (pp.853-886). London: Routledge. Histoire de la philosophie islamique. Gallimard, Folio.-(1986) L'alchimie comme art hiératique,. Paris : L'Herne.

	BALTY-GUESDON M.-G. (1992). Le Bayt al-ḥikma de Baghdad. Arabica, 39, 2, (pp. 131-150). BERTHELOT, M. (1893). La chimie au Moyen Age. Amsterdam: Otto Zeller Osnabrück Philo press. Bibliography Digital Humanities ATTIA, M., RASHWAN, M. (2004) A Large-Scale Arabic POS Tagger Based on a Compact Arabic POS Tags Set, and Application on the Statistical BUCKWALTER, T. (2002) Buckwalter Arabic Morphological Analyzer Version 1.0, Linguistica Data Consortium, University of Pennsylvania, LDC catalog No.: LDC 2002L49 Bibliography EL-BELTAGY, S. R., KHALIL, T., HALABY, A., & HAMMAD, M. (2013). Combining Lexical Features and a Supervised Learning Approach for Arabic Sentiment Analysis. In CICling 2016, part 1, LNCS7816, (pp. 89-97) partie. Langues et Littératures du Monde Arabe, revue en ligne, 5, (pp. 231-293). -(2007) Initiation pratique à la constitution et à Arabic Corpus. In NEMLAR Conference of Arabic Language Resources and Tools, (pp. 102-109) MAZROUI A., LAKHOUAJA A., MEZIANE A., OULD ABDALLAHI OULD BEBAH M., -(1986) FERRARIO, G. (2007) Al-Kimiya. Notes on Arabic Alchemy. Chemical Heritage Inference of Syntactic Diacritics of Arabic Text Words, NEMLAR DAHAB, MOHAMED Y., AL IBRAHIM, ASMA'A, AL-MUTAWA, RIHAB (2015), A ESKANDER, RAMY, HABASH, NIZAR, RAMBOW, O. (2013). Automatic Extraction l'exploitation de corpus électroniques en langue arabe: BOUDLAL A., SHOUL M., (2010) Alkhalil Morpho Sys 1. In Proceeding of Review, 25, 3. Comparative Study on Arabic Stemmers. International Journal of of Morphological Lexicons from Morphologically Annotated Deuxième partie. Langues et Littératures du Monde Arabe, the International Arab Conference on Information Technology, Benghazi. Presented at Int'l conference in Cairo. Retrieved in 2012 from -(2009a). An Arabic Dictionary of Technical Alchemical Berlin (fols. 3r-6r). Ambix: Journal for the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, 56, 1, (pp. 36-48). University Press. USA, 18-21 October 2013. BIBER, DOUGLAS ET AL (1998). Corpus Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge 47). Natural Language Processing, (pp. 1032-1043). Seattle, Washington, Terms: MS Sprenger 1908 of the Staatsbibliothek zu http://www.RDI-eg.com/RDI/Technologies/paper.htm Computer Applications, Volume 125, No. 8, September 2015 (pp.38-Corpora. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Empirical Methods in revue en ligne, 6, (pp. 97-114). Retrieved from: http://itpapers.info/acit10/Papers/f653.pdf
	Digital Proceedings of the First Annual Lawrence J. Schoenberg
	Symposium on Manuscript Studies in the Digital Age, Vol. 1, No. 1,
	Article	2.	Retrieved	from:
	http://repository.upenn.edu/ljsproceedings/vol1/iss1/2).
	ibn Ḥayyān. Mediaeval Sophia. Studi e ricerche sui saperi medievali, I, 2007, (pp. 5-25). CORBIN, H. (2003 [1981]). Le livre des sept statues. Paris : L'Herne http://people.ds.cam.ac.uk/blf10/Links/TEI.html DUNLOP, D. (1995). Practical considerations in the use of TEI headers in a CARUSI, P. ( 2007). Lo zafferano e il geco. Roma: Carocci. LANCIONI, G. (2008) Variants, links and quotations: classical arabic texts as Retrieved from: http://infolet.it/files/2015/06/politics-of-code-Hypertexts, in In Daniela Bredi, Leonardo Capezzone, Lucia fiormonte-et-al-def.pdf Rostagno & Wasim Dahmash (Eds.) Scritti in onore di Biancamaria Shakery, H. Khelalfa, Proceedings of the Seventh Asia Information Retrieval Societies Conference (pp. 538-549). Heidelberg: Springer. the lexicographer. Online article retrieved from: Computers and the Humanities, 29, (pp. 181-190). FRASER, B. (2011) The TEI Dictionary Schema: its worth and weakness for Scarcia Amoretti, Volume II, Roma: II, (pp. 245-265).
			169 175

BOSWORTH, C. E. (1963)

. A pioneer Arabic Encyclopedia of the Sciences: al-Khwārizmī's Keys of

Science. Isis, Vol. 54, No. 1 (pp. 97-111)

.

CAPEZZONE, L. (1998)

. Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān nella città cortese. Rivista degli studi orientali, Vol.

LXXI, fasc. 1-4, (pp. 99-115)

.

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(2007a)

. Scienza e tecnologia nello spazio mediterraneo medievale. Storia dell'Europa e del Mediterraneo, Vol. IX, (pp. 633-682). Roma: Salerno Editrice. -(2007b). Testi eterodossi e contesti di lettura nel Medioevo islamico: il caso del corpus alchemico di Jābir -(2009b). Understanding the Language of Alchemy: The Medieval Arabic Alchemical Lexicon in Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Ms Sprenger 1908. FESTUGIERE. A-J. (1944-1954). La Révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol IV, Le Dieu Inconnu et la Gnose. Paris : Les Belles Lettres. HAQ, SAYED NOMANUL. (1994). Names, Nature and Things. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. HOLMYARD, E. J. (1924). A critical examination of Berthelot's work upon Arabic chemistry. ISIS, Vol. 6, No. 4, (pp. 479-499). BIRD, S. (2009). NLTK: The Natural Language Toolkit. In Proceedings of the COLING/ACL 2006 Interactive Presentation Sessions (pp. 69-72) Stroudsbourg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics. BIRD, S., KLEIN, E., LOPER, E. (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. Sebastopol, CA : O'Reilly. BOELLA, M., ROMANI, F.R., AL-RAIES, A., SOLIMANDO, C., LANCIONI, G. (2011). The SALAH Project: Segmentation and Linguistic Analysis of Ḥadīṯ Arabic Texts. In M. V. Salem, K. Shaalan, F. Oroumchian, A. DE MARNEFFE M.C., MACCARTNEY B., MANNING C.D. (2006). Generating typed dependency parses from phrase structure parses. In Proceedings of LREC. DE MARNEFFE M.C. MANNING C.D. (2008). The Stanford typed dependencies representation. In COLING Workshop on Cross-framework and Crossdomain Parser Evaluation. DE MARNEFFE M.C., DOZAT T., SILVEIRA N., HAVERINEN K., GINTER F, NIVRE J., MANNING C. D. (2014). Universal Stanford Dependencies: A crosslinguistic typology. In Proceedings of LREC. DEROSE, S.J., & DURAND, D.G.. (1995). The TEI Hypertext Guidelines. large corpus. Computers and the Humanities, 29, No. 1, (pp 85-98).

FIORMONTE, DOMENICO. (2008). Il testo digitale: traduzione, codifica, modelli culturali. In P. R. Piras, A. Alessandro, D. Fiormonte (a cura di), Italianisti in Spagna, ispanisti in Italia: la traduzione. Atti del Convegno Internazionale. Roma: Kappa, (pp. 271-284). FIORMONTE D. SCHMIDT D. MONELLA P. SORDI P. (2015) The politics of code. How digital representations and languages shape culture. In Proceedings of the International Society for Information Studies (ISIS). -(2008) Initiation pratique à la constitution et à l'exploitation de corpus électroniques en langue arabe: Troisième partie. Langues et Littératures du Monde Arabe, revue en ligne, 7, (pp. 75-93). -(2009) Initiation pratique à la constitution et à l'exploitation de corpus électroniques en langue arabe: Quatrième partie. Langues et Littératures du Monde Arabe, revue en ligne, 8, (pp. 117-133). MAZROUI A., BOUDCHICHE M., OULD ABDALLAHI OULD BEBAH M., LAKHOUAJA A., BOUDLAL A. (2016) AlKhalil Morpho Sys 2: A robust Arabic morphosyntactic analyzer. In Journal of King Saud University -Computer and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1016/j.jksuci.2016.05.002.

  Faculty of Arts and Humanities Italian Institute of Oriental Studies Ph. D. Program in Civilizations, Cultures and Societies of Asia and Africa

	<quote type="author" ana="Apollonius of Tyana"> ana="Apollonius of Tyana"> بليناس </quote>:
	بعد من األد خروجي ن َ و ْ في من	ً أقول والذي ً وأصف أراه ً َ الحكمة في الوزن التي بالصنجة ً دت ّ أي بها هو
			Appendix A: A sample from Haq's edition of the kitāb al-ب َ ر ّ الس وأخذ العشير وهو ثالثة
	aḥjār الذي ّ يعم ً	إن	.	واللوح	<lb n="7" ed="H"/> <lb n="15" ed="Hالكتاب
			ال	البسيطة	هي	التي	ً الطبائع	ّها كل	األشياء
				al-juzʿ al-ʾawwal min kitāb al-ʾaḥjār	وإذا	ّبة، المرك
	ً ا ّ عام	الشئ	كان	<lb n="8" ed="H"/>
	أوضحنا	فمحال École Pratique des Hautes Études أن ال يكون له ة ّ ي ّ كم </quote> -<div1 type="book" n="1"> كتاب األحجار وقد ذلك في غير شئ من
			Mention « Religions et systèmes de pensée » <div2 id="1.1" type="section" n="1"> <lb n="9" ed="H"/> كتبنا في هذا ً ّ الفن </p> الجزء
								<term type="alch"	األول <p n="4"> من كتاب
	األحجار : واألوزان </term> التي ّ تعم على ً	translation="the stones"> <lb n="10" ed="H"/> ً ّ ثم قال
			رأي <term type="alch" translation="the plants"> <quote type="author" ana="Apollonius of
						</term>	بليناس <term type="alch" </quote>	Tyana"> اللنبات
				<p n="1"> translation="and the animals"> والحيوان
	</term>		<pb n="119" ed="H"/> <term type="alch" translation="and the
	. سبعة الحمد	الرحمن هي على الرحيم تناسب	<lb n="2" ed="H"/> stone"> والحجر </term> بسم هللا
	ونتبعه	ومننه	علينا	Alchemy and computer تواصل نعمه وأيادية	هلل عشر، على
	محمد -وهذا	A computational analysis of the Jabirian corpus <lb n="3" ed="H"/> بالصلواة على دنا َ سي <lb n="11" ed="K"/> وليس األكاسير كذلك
					كتبنا </p>	من	شئ	ANNEXES </p> ّاه ن ّ بي والسالم قد في غير	وآله ً أيضا
	في	نعدك ما قد	ّا كن على	<p n="2"> <p n="5"> Ph. D. Candidate Ilaria Cicola <lb n="4" ed="H"/> <lb n="12" ed="H"/> ً ّ ثم جعل ياتها ّ كم وقد
	"	Discussion date: October 17,2016 كتاب من كتب الموازين برأي ذكرنا غير في <ref target="#2.2"> " كتاب <quote التصريف
	Supervisor: Prof. Giuliano Lancioni (Roma Tre University, Department of type="author" ana="Apollonius of Tyana"> بليناس وهو : واحد في ل ّ األو
	في	خمسة	Foreign Languages, Litteratures and Cultures) </quote> ً ة ّ خاص في علم الموازين <lb n="13" ed="H"/> وثالثة في الثاني و
	Co-supervisor : Prof. Pierre Lory (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, <lb n="5" ed="H"/> واآلن فنحن بادرون بذكر ما ثالث وثمانية في الرابع .</ref> </p>
					Department of Religious Sciences) ووافق .</p>	خالف <p n="6"> فيه
			<quote type="author"	قال	<p n="3"> <lb n="14" ed="H"/>
	<lb n="6" ed="H"/> ana="Apollonius of Tyana"><quote type="author" قال بليناس :

École doctorale de l'École Pratique des Hautes Études Laboratoire des Etudes sur les Monothéismes :Livres sacrés : canons et Hétérodoxies Doctoral Thesis in Islamic Civilization: History and Phylology co-tutored by the Ph.D. program of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes of Paris

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/

Holmyard (1957): 19. Autres auteurs comme J. Al-Khalili (2012: 55) supportent une autre théorie, c'est-à-dire que l'origine du terme est ò trouver dans Jābir même et dans la pondération des éléments, la ʿilm al-kammiyya, la science des quantités, serait l'ancêtre du mot kimiyya.

EI 2 (1986): 110. S.V. al-Kimīyā, Ullmann porte comme example que "les arabes pensaient que al-kīmiyyāʾ était un emprunt du persan(Ibn Durayd, al-Djawāliḳī), ou de l'ébreu (al-Akfāni) ou su grec, et que la signification était "artifice de l'acuité" (al-ḥīla wa 'l-ḥidhk, selon al-Khafādjī) ou "solution et division"(al-taḥlīl wa 'l-tafriḳ, selon Ibn Sallūm, XI/XVII siècle)".

4 J.[START_REF] Al-Ḫāmisa Wa Al-ʿašarūn | Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Arabic Science[END_REF]

): 57.

Pour une analyse plus spécifique, voir[START_REF] Kraus | Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān. Muḫtār Rasā'il, Essai sur l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. Tome I et II[END_REF] : pp. 30 et suiv.

Ibidem, Kraus fait référence à un traité anonyme intitule "Le travail des quatre éléments, dont la datation est encore incertaine.

Cette théorie, malgré toutes les tentatives de l'argumenter, doit encore être prouvée. Il n'y a pas une continuité entre les textes de Jābir et de Geber, de manière que la théorie d'un pseudo-Geber a gagné de crédibilité.

EI 2 s.v.Djābir Ibn Hayyān, (1986): 358 de Kraus[Plessner], en suivant ce que Holmyard avait déjà suggéré.

Jāʾfar al-Ṣadiq, connaisseur des ḥādiṯ, il est le père de l'école jafarite. Il était alchimiste et mécénat. Voir Anawati (1996): 864.

N. 250/864 ca. à Rayy, Iran. Son travail plus important est le Sirr al-Asrār 'Le Secret des Secrets'. Il ne partage pas la théorie de la balance de Jābir, mais les deux croient en la possibilité de transmuter les métaux. Le Sirr établit pour la première fois dans l'histoire, la division des substances. Voir Anawati (1996): 867-869.

Pour plus d'informations, voir Anawati (1996): 872-873.

IV/X siècle. voir EI3 , s.v. Ibn Umayl, G. STROHMAIER, pag.961 -et Anawati (1996): 870-872.

 15 Pour cette querelle, voir Haq, (1993): 3-4.

Le corpus a été reconsidéré et réduit grâce aux études dans ce domaine, mais de toute manière il est très difficile de l'inscrire à un seul auteur. En outre, les différences de style et de contenu ont amené les specialists, comme Kraus et Lory, à considérer l'interpolation et à l'addition de textes au corpus pour des raisons d'autorité.

Voir Anawati (1996).

Cette théorie se base sur certains éléments linguistiques comme le nom donné à l'Imām, nātiq, à la place du plus commun ṣāmiṭ, cette utilisation du terme révèle le lien avec les Carmâtes et les Fatimides Ismaéliens .Voir EI 2 s.v. Djābir Ibn Hayyān: 358 , Kraus[Plessner].

See Haq (1994) : 13 and[START_REF] Kraus | Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān. Muḫtār Rasā'il, Essai sur l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. Tome I et II[END_REF] : XXXV.

See Haq (1994): 14.

See Haq (1994) : p. 14-21.

EI 2 , s.v. Djābir Ibn Hayyān, Kraus[Plessner].

https://www.w3.org/XML/

Voir le site du XML consortium: http://www.w3.org/TR/2009/REC-xml-names-20091208/

TEI Consortium (2014):152.

DeRose, S.J., & Durand, D.G.(1995): 182.

TEI Consortium (2014): 1324.

Dans l'annotation il a fallu inclure des notes en bas de page dans l'annotation, pour expliciter à quell MS les pages se referent. <note resp="K">MS Paris 5099 folia

Although the reality of Jābir as an author is still to be fully proven, in this work he will be considered as the writer of the texts taken under consideration. The hypothesis of the "pseudo-Jābir" being, anyway, the theory this research acknowledges as the most plausible.

He lived between the end of the III/IX century anthe beginning of the IV/X century. SeeAnawati (1996): 857-858.

This theory is based on some linguistic elements, such as the name given to the Imām, nātiq, instead of the more common ṣāmiṭ, revealing this bond with the Qarmatians and the Ismaili Fatimids. See EI 2 s.v. Djābir Ibn Hayyān: 358 , Kraus[Plessner].

Lory, (1989) : 15.

EI 2 s.v. Djābir Ibn Hayyān : 358, Kraus[Plessner].

See Haq (1994) : 13 and[START_REF] Kraus | Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān. Muḫtār Rasā'il, Essai sur l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. Tome I et II[END_REF] : XXXV.

"La question de l'interprétation d'un tel langage constitue donc un obstacle à surmonter de façon tout à fait prioritaire. […] les recherches précises dans ce domaine sont restées excessivement rares jusqu'à nos jours".[START_REF] Ibn | Dix traités d'alchimie. Les dix premiers Traités du Livre des Soixante-dix présentés[END_REF]: 22 .Of course the research has improved the study of the alchemical lexicon, nevertheless it still remain an issue to cope with while studying these texts.

Haq (1994): 174.

Berthelot (1893).

https://www.w3.org/XML/

See the XML consortium site: http://www.w3.org/TR/2009/REC-xml-names-20091208/

Cfr. Burnard, Bauman (2009): XXXI-XIII.

http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml

Solimando, Lancioni (2012): 639.

TEI Consortium(2014): 1-4.

The choice of digitalize a vast amount of texts should be interpreted both as a decision for the quantitative analysis of the corpus, and as a will of giving the research community the maximum amount of data to work on and with.

OCR readers are tools that scan a page and recognize letters, transforming an image or a .pdf file into a .doc file, allowing the user to work on modifiable sources.

See infra, Chapter II: Book Analysis.

TEI Consortium (2014):152.

Ibidem: 114.

DeRose, S.J., & Durand, D.G.(1995): 182.

TEI Consortium (2014): 1324.

Nevertheless, given the vastness of the corpus and the lacking of some books, this is a work in progress which couldn't be completed in the course of this thesis. More will be discussed in the Conclusions.

TEI Consortium (2014): 76.

TEI Consortium (2014): 937.

In Kraus only, because of the stucture of the text, that includes the folia pages, notes were added to make understandable to which MS the folia refers to: <note resp="K">MS Paris 5099 folia 68 recto -69 verso</note>

Tei Consortium (2014): 1019.

SeeGreene (2010)

It is a consituency parser different form machine translation. Constituency parsing less affected by variable word order than these latter because it analyzes its constituents.

"The stems for imperative verb forms have been entered only for a few imperatives in common use, such as xu*" ( http://lexanalysis.com/araflex/readme.html)

Named after the Great philologist and lexicographer who created the Kitāb al-ʿayn, see EI 2 s.v. al-Khalīl b. Aḥmad 962 -964 by Sellheym.

Mazroui et al (2010).

The NEMLAR Written Corpus includes about 500,000 words of Arabic text from 13 different categories, that represents quite well the variety in syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of modern Arabic language. (political news; political debate, Islamic text; common words; text from broadcast news, business, Arabic literature, general news, interviews, scientific press, sports press, dictionary entries explanation, legal domain text. The accuracy of the automatic analysis is around 95%. See alsoAttia et al (2004) Maegaard et al (2004a)(2004b[START_REF] Lenci | Testo e computer[END_REF].

De Marneffe et al. (2006[START_REF] Maʿmourī | The Penn Arabic Treebank: Building a Large-Scale Annotated STEINGASS[END_REF], 2014).

http://universaldependencies.org/introduction.html

meaning in a traditional way, and as an archive of its own information.

Acknowledgements .............................................................................. Transliteration table ............................................................................ INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................

Acknowledgements

This work wouldn't had been possible without my professor and mentor, Giuliano Lancioni; thanking him is the most important and sincere act I can do to acknowledge all the years he spent teaching me not only codes and programs, but also what is like to be a researcher.

Appendixes

Appendix A: A sample from Haq's edition of the kitāb al-aḥjār ......

SECTION II

Digitalization: a compromise process Appendix A, B and C are extracts of the digitalized corpus, it was decided to include the first section of all the three source books, in order to represent every detail of the digitalization strategies and processes.

-Appendix D comprise a sample of concordances based on the lemmatization of the edition of the first two books of the Tadbīr.;

-Appendix E is the frequency list of the same sample used for the concordances.

Mots Section I is an introduction on the historical setting and remarks of the subject of the texts studied, comprising also an excursus on the figure of Jābir Ibn Hayyān and the querelle on his existence; and an explanation of the methodological setting in which this work is settled.

Section II is the operational part, where are shown the compromises used in the realization of the digitalized corpus, as well as the strategies used so as to render the various issues presented in Section I. Section II presents the set of choices that tried to aswer to the questions made in Section I.

The core of the work is represented by the Appendices, divided in four parts:

-Appendix A, B and C are extracts of the digitalized corpus, it was decided to include the first section of all the three source books, in order to represent every detail of the digitalization strategies and processes.

-Appendix D comprise a sample of concordances based on the lemmatization of the edition of the first two books of the Tadbīr.;

-Appendix E is the frequency list of the same sample used for the concordances.

Mots-clés : Alchimie arabe ; alchimie médiévale, linguistique computationnelle, linguistique de corpus, Jābir Ibn Hayyān, extraction de données Keywords : Arabic alchemy, medieval alchemy, computational analysis, corpus linguistics, Jābir Ibn Hayyān, data retrieval, data mining