Samuel Okae

Francis Kofi

Andoh Baidoo

Emmanuel Ayaburi

Antecedents of Optimal Information Security Investment: IT Governance Mechanism and Organizational Digital Maturity

Keywords: Digital-maturity, Board, Dysfunctional, Duality, IT-Savviness, Optimal security investment

Information security risk is of concern to both researchers and practitioners. In this study, we investigate the antecedents of optimal information security investment from organizational perspective using the concept of information technology governance. Specifically, we examine how board attributes including IT savviness, board duality, experience, and functional debate along with an organizational attribute, digital maturity, influence optimal information security investments. Data was collected from board members in organization to test the research model. Our results offer both theoretical and practical implications.

Introduction

Information security incidents worldwide have attracted attention of organizations and researchers since the effects on the associated institutions are disastrous [START_REF] Kozak | The role of information technology in the profit and cost efficiency improvements in the banking sector[END_REF]. The 2014 JPMorgan Chase data breach is a classic case of a disastrous information security incident. This attack is believed to have compromised over 83 million of the bank's accounts affecting 76 million households and 7 million businesses in the United States (Ponemon Institute, 2015). Addressing information security risks demands making optimal security investments in key technologies to protect the organization. Prior studies that have examined optimal information security investments employed analytical methods (e.g., Gordon & Loeb 202; Huang, Hu, & Behara, ( 2006)) with little emphasis on how organizational factors such as governance culture may play a critical role. Specifically, little is known about which attributes of organization's governing board affect how funds are allocated for security investment. Board IT governance has been found to be critical for the success of information security programs (FFIEC, 2017). Board IT governance involves the decision and strategy of board of directors in ensuring that they distribute firm resources judiciously [START_REF] Heenetigala | Corporate Governance Practices and Firm Performance of Listed Companies in Sri Lanka[END_REF]. Board of directors needs to ensure resources available to the firm are distributed in a manner that will yield optimal results to serve organizational aims and objectives. In deciding how firm's resources are to be distributed, the board must consider the extent to which organizational resources should be invested in critical functions such as information security. Board with inadequate information security knowledge, may ask the wrong question about IT risks and expense [START_REF] Nolan | Information technology and the board of directors[END_REF]. This ultimately makes the board incapable of fulfilling their oversight responsibilities, exposing the firm to security threats. Given that the characteristics of the board are likely to affect the decisions they make, this issue bears an examination (Jensen 1995; Zahra and Pearce 1989). Thus, the purpose of the current study is to investigate which Board IT governance and organizational attributes influence optimal information security investment. We argue in this study that, having a well composed IT savvy board of directors could be one way to improve the board's decision-making regarding information security implication.

To investigate the research problem, we deploy the concept of Board IT governance [START_REF] Jewer | Antecedents and consequences of board IT governance: Institutional and strategic choice perspectives[END_REF], to develop a model that explicates antecedents to optional IT security investment. Data was collected from the upper level managers in the banking industry in a developing country to test the model. The financial industry is a suitable target for most hackers and cyber criminals, and the industry has experienced increased average cost of information security data breach [START_REF] Mohammed | Ghanaian Banks Systems at Risk of Cybercrime-Cyber Security Expert[END_REF]. The results of our analysis demonstrate that while digital maturity plays an important role in firms' decision to invest in optimal information systems not all characteristics of the board members are a good predictor of such a decision. Based on our results, we offer both theoretical and practical investments.

Theoretical Foundation and Hypotheses

Some scholars have studied information security investments with the focus on optimal investment. [START_REF] Gordon | The economics of information security investment[END_REF] address information security investments by building a model that helps to determine how much organizations must invest in information security. [START_REF] Huang | Economics of Information Security Investment in the Case of Simultaneous Attacks Economics of Information Security Investment in the Case of Simultaneous Attacks[END_REF] also developed a model for information security investments that deal with simultaneous attacks from multiple external sources. These studies employed analytical models. However, to make the necessary investment in IT, the board needs to be convinced. Several economic, strategic, technological, operational, and environmental factors inform firms' decision to invest in information security [START_REF] Gordon | The economics of information security investment[END_REF]. The economic or financial factors consider the budgetary allocations firms are ready and are able to make considering the structures at risk of being corrupted or lost if such actions are not taken to protect them in the short to long term [START_REF] Johnson | Business and security executives views of information security investment drivers: Results from a Delphi study[END_REF]. The organizational factors consider firms' contextual view prompting their investments in information security. The firm's organizational factors also consider operational factors that look at how existing and new IT structures will be used strategically, either exploratively or exploitatively in the protection of clients' and firms' information. The technological factors look at the technological capability of firms, the human resources available to operate and maintain information security structures when investments are made in this area [START_REF] Tatsumi | Optimal timing of information security investment: A real options approach[END_REF]. The environmental factors affecting investment in information security include firms' identified strengths, weaknesses, threats and identified opportunities when investment is made in information security investment. However, the human factor is considered a critical management input necessary for effective information security [START_REF] Soomro | Information security management needs more holistic approach: A literature review[END_REF][START_REF] Chang | Organizational factors to the effectiveness of implementing information security management[END_REF]. This study investigates how a management factor, Board IT governance, influence optimal IT investment from governance perspective.

Board Information Technology Governance

Board governance makes up the integral part of corporate governance by implementing processes, relational mechanisms, and structures within the firm which allow individuals to execute their expectations in backing up IT business value (Wilkin & Chenhall, 2010). Most organizations have IT governance. However, institutions with efficient governance team have set of active IT structural mechanisms such as committees, procedures and plans which are consistent in promoting actions in line with the firms' strategies and values. Board Information Technology governance refers to current and formal frameworks which provide structures to ensure that IT investment strategy is aligned with organizational strategy [START_REF] Pereira | IT governance implementation: The determinant factors[END_REF]. IT governance is a structure of technologically based institutional arrangements that affects the decisionmaking and the framework adopted by the institutions. It emerged as a fundamental business imperative because it is key to realizing the value of IT in today's business. IT governance must consider and implement the most effective and secure structure for its effectiveness. It should adopt a defined process as any undefined actions lead to vulnerability of the system to attackers. Using Board IT governance as the theoretical basis, Jewer et al., (2012) examine how board attributes, a governance mechanism, influence organizational strategic choice. The board attributes investigated include proportion of insiders, board size and board IT competence. In this study, we use board composition (duality, dysfunctional level of debate, and experience of board members) and IT savviness to represent proportion of insiders and board IT competence respectively. Board IT governance is the system and procedure put in place to ensure that an organization is efficient in the application of IT, in achieving the set objectives of an organization OECD (2004). IT governance considers oversight processes and the responsibilities of the management [START_REF] Brisebois | What is IT Governance and why is it important for the IS auditor[END_REF]. Most organizations approach IT governance from the perspective of tool or procedures [START_REF] Allen | Governing for Enterprise Security (GES), Implementation Guide: Characteristics of Effective Security Governance1[END_REF]. [START_REF] Allen | Governing for Enterprise Security (GES), Implementation Guide: Characteristics of Effective Security Governance1[END_REF] argues that the likelihood of the success of IT governance procedures largely depends on certain principles. One of these identified principles is executive support. The support of the board is fundamental to the success of launching an idea in the organization. The initiatives that are adopted are often because the board can relate the IT initiative to organizational goals and appreciate how such initiative will be beneficial to the organization (OECD, 2004). Another factor is the composition of the board which includes experience, duality and functional debate of the board members [START_REF] Zahra | Boards of Directors and Corporate Financial Performance: A Review and Integrative Model[END_REF].

Practical board IT governance sets apart unique assets in the firm for IT use and at the same time ensures that the organization complies with the overall principles of mission and vision. In this regard, a firm with efficient IT governance will ensure that its personnel have IT skills, IT processes, IT knowledge assets and experience. Though there is a strong argument for more board involvement in IT governance, [START_REF] Andriole | Boards of Directors and Technology Governance : The Surprising State of the Practice Boards of Directors and Technology Governance : The Surprising State of the Practice I[END_REF] found that boards of directors were alarmingly uninvolved in the planning or oversight of technological initiatives and were increasingly out of the loop with regards to these initiatives. The study found that because of this the various boards included in the study were missing prospects to enhance and optimize their technological investments. For IT issues, boards should be involved in decision making especially on the systems that the company uses. This study seeks to determine how IT governance structures and processes influence the relationship between board composition and information security investments. Specifically, we investigate significant organizational strategic choice, optimal security investment decision which comprises economic or financial factors considered in the budgetary allocations firms make with regard to the structures at risk of being corrupted or lost if such actions are not taken to protect them in the short to long term [START_REF] Johnson | Business and security executives views of information security investment drivers: Results from a Delphi study[END_REF].Organizations with effective IT governance are likely to carve out competitive advantage regarding technological decisions [START_REF] Allen | Governing for Enterprise Security (GES), Implementation Guide: Characteristics of Effective Security Governance1[END_REF]. According to Weill ( 2004), most organizations have information Technology governance. However, institutions with efficient governance team have set of active information technology structural mechanisms such as committees, procedures and plans which are consistent in promoting actions in line with the firms' strategies and values (Weill, 2004).

Board's IT Savviness and Optimal Information Security Investment

Board IT savviness can be described as the level of IT knowledge possessed by board members. An IT-savvy board is considered to have enough technical knowledge regarding IT issues. This study proposes that more IT savviness of board members improves the board's understanding and appreciation of technological issue particularly in the domain of information security and would thus be able to make good information security investment decisions. Ensuring a more efficient and effective IT governance structures and information security investments would be easier if the board, who control the organization's resources and set policy, were IT savvy. [START_REF] Harrison | Executive Decisions About Adoption of Information Technology in Small Business: Theory and Empirical Tests[END_REF] found that the executives' perceptions of the usefulness of IT initiatives was a major factor in their decision making. However, it can be argued that without enough level of literacy, it would be difficult for a board member to appreciate that usefulness or benefits of information security initiatives and how investing in them could assist in achieving the organizations' strategic goals. IT savviness, also referred to as IT competence [START_REF] Jewer | Antecedents and consequences of board IT governance: Institutional and strategic choice perspectives[END_REF], can be considered as an attribute of board members that would impact their decision making particularly regarding IT related issues. IT experience at the board level can help guide management through changes in the business environment. It would be prudent for firms to have IT-savvy members on the board to enrich boardroom discussion on IT investments [START_REF] Nolan | Information technology and the board of directors[END_REF]. By asking the appropriate questions, directors can make the right decisions to improve their businesses and protect the company's integrity and brand. Thus, we posit that:

H1: Board IT savviness has a positive effect on optimal information security investments.

Board Composition and Optimal Information Security Investment

Another board characteristic that could potentially influence members' decision making is the composition of the board. Board composition factors such as experience, duality and level of functional debate play a critical role in its governance culture [START_REF] Zahra | Boards of Directors and Corporate Financial Performance: A Review and Integrative Model[END_REF]. Our first board composition factor, Board duality, is a corporate leadership structure that merges the position of board chair and CEO. A single person holding both the Chairman and CEO role improves the value of a firm as the agency cost between the two is eliminated (Alexander, Fennell and Halpern, 1993). However, CEO duality can lead to worse performance as the board cannot remove an underperforming CEO and can create an agency cost if the CEO pursues his own interest at the cost of the shareholders (White and Ingrassia, 1992). [START_REF] Hermalin | The Determinants of Board Composition[END_REF] argue that often the context or environment that the company finds itself in will determine the extent of board duality. Their findings showed that firms tended to recruit directors from within the firm when a CEO was nearing the end of his or her tenure and often chose a new CEO from the new batch of a board member. On the other hand, their study found that when a firm or organization had had to withdraw from a market or was performing poorly, board members tended to be recruited from outside the organization. There is still debate in the literature about the effectiveness of outsider-dominated boards against insider-dominated boards. This study examines the role that duality plays in influencing the optimal information security investment.

The second component of board composition that this study will considere is the level of debate which Forbes & Milliken, (1999) describe as board cohesiveness. The authors define this as the board members' ability to work with each other and their motivation to remain on the board. This refers to the level of affection or level of willingness to work together. For the purposes of this study, high levels of cohesiveness will be considered functional debate. [START_REF] Gabrielsson | Understanding the Leadership Role of the Board Chairperson Through a Team Production Approach[END_REF] argue that board members tend to make more meaningful contribution when in situations of high cohesion since they believe their inputs are valued than when faced with situations of low cohesion among the board members.

The final component of board composition considered in this study is experience. The literature generally agrees that the experience of board members is an important factor that influences the positions that board members take and the choices they make when faced with strategic and policy decisions [START_REF] Westphal | How Experience and Network Ties Affect the Influence of Demographic Minorities on Corporate Boards[END_REF]. The experience of individual board members acts as a mix of competencies and capabilities that help in executing the governance function. Therefore, putting together we posit that:

H2A: The duality of the board members has a positive effect on optimal information security investments. H2B: The level of functional debate among board members has a positive effect on optimal information security investments. H2C: The experience of the board members has a positive effect on information security investments.

Digital Maturity and Optimal Information Security Investment

Digital maturity of a firm is the degree to which the firm has used technology and its capabilities to engage its employees, enhanced its operation and develop new business [START_REF] Kane | Achieving digital maturity[END_REF]. Digital maturity enables an organization to deploy digital innovations and to achieve enterprise-wide transformation [START_REF] Kane | Is Your Business Ready for a Digital Future?[END_REF]. Digital maturity measures the intensity at which digital technologies are deployed in an organization and how leadership and employees are transformed through the creation of management capabilities that effectively facilitate digital transformation [START_REF] Valentine | Enterprise Business Technology Governance: Three competencies to build board digital leadership capability[END_REF]. Digital maturity dictates the need to invest in innovative information technologies and build competencies in IT skills, IT knowledge and to transform business processes. An organization's digital maturity will influence how information security risks are addressed through the right information security investments even as they continue to deploy innovative technologies. Hence considering digital maturity as a valuable resource it will influence the extent to which limited resources are dedicated to information security. Thus, we suggest that:

H3: The degree of digital maturity of the firm is positively related to optimal investments in information security positively.

Methodology

Measures In this study, only the quantitative method was used to empirically test the relationship between the study constructs. We obtained 100 usable responses from our target population. Dawson (2002) noted that the use of a quantitative method and a case study ensure collection of rich data and provide the researcher with the opportunity to maintain a detached, objective view in order to understand the responses as the use of this method requires minimal contact with the respondents

Analysis

The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to investigate the casual paths hypothesized in this study. A two-step approach was used to analyze the data. In the first step, the covariance-based technique was used to assess the appropriateness of the measurement model. The covariance-based technique was used as it minimizes the differences between the covariance of the collected sample and that of the ones predicted by the model and reproduces the covariance matrix of the observable variable (Chin and Newsted, 1999). For testing the structural model, Variance based partial least square (PLS) SEM was used as it maximizes the variance of the dependent variable which is explained by the independent variables (Hair et al., 2014).

Results

We used the composite reliability and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) to test for reliability and validity of the constructs. Convergent validity was demonstrated by large factor loadings (0.70 or above) for all constructs (Hair et al., 2014). Discriminant validity of each latent construct was tested by the method recommended by [START_REF] Fornell | Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics[END_REF]. The square root of AVE of each construct (diagonal of Table 1) should be higher than the correlation between that construct and any other constructs. This criterion is satisfied by all latent constructs. The composite reliability was noted to be above 0.70 for most constructs. Therefore, our measurement model exhibits sound reliability and validity necessary for further testing of the research hypotheses. (1.15) were much less than the threshold of (VIF < 10), indicating absence of multicollinearity problem. In assessment of the explanatory power, our model accounted for about 25% of variance (R 2 = 0.248) in explaining the likelihood of making optimal decision in investing in information security in the firm. The Adjusted-R 2 (0.2018) further strengthens the explanatory power as it takes into account our sample size and number of variables in our model (Hair et al. 2010). Summary of the hypotheses testing are depicted in Table 2 andFigure 2 As hypothesized, BME was shown to be a good predictor of optimal investment in information systems security (β=0.27*, p < 0.05; t= 1.99), as well as the hypothesized positive relationship between ITS and MAT and optimal investment in information systems security (β=0.21, p < 0.05; t=2.05 and β=0.23, p < 0.05; t=2.09 respectively). However, no support was found for the relationship between DF and Dual, and optimal investment in information security (β= 0.03, p > 0.05; t= 0.25 and β= 0.04, p > 0.05; t= 0.25 respectively).

Discussion and Future Research Direction

The advancement of information technology (IT) has brought about rapid changes in businesses operations. However, the use of IT is associated with information risks [START_REF] Dangolani | The Impact of information technology in banking system (A case study in Bank Keshavarzi IRAN)[END_REF]. Information security risk is defined in this study as the risk that arises when the firm's information assets and information systems are not protected sufficiently against various kinds of damage or loss [START_REF] Straub | Coping with Systems Risk[END_REF]. Board of board have responsibility to provide resources to ensure that information security risks are minimized. However, to ensure the growth of businesses, corporate boards need to make concerted effort to distribute their resources judiciously. This calls for optimal information security investment. We argue that board characteristics (IT Savviness, composition) and organizational digital maturity will influence organization's optimal information security investments. Only one of the hypotheses relating the dimensions of board composition, i.e., experience was supported. Level of functional debate and duality of board members were not supported. Both IT savviness and digital maturity were also supported.

Implication

Our results offer several theoretical and practical implications. For theory, we have demonstrated how Board IT governance can enable optimal information security investment using the banking sector as a context. The proposed theoretical model or variant can be tested in other contexts to expand our understanding of IT governance and information security investments. We also demonstrated that the digital maturity of a firm influences board of directors' decision to optimally invest in information security. For managerial, since business executives are more likely than security executives to view information security as a cost center rather than a business enabler, our results indicate a greater need for board members with skills and knowledge in IT issues to better understand information security investments. This is important because according to the 2017 Cybercrime Report, Cybersecurity Ventures predicts cybercrime will cost the world in excess of $6 trillion annually by 2021 [START_REF] Morgan | Cyber Ventures Cybercrime Report[END_REF]. In 2017, cybercrime is estimated to have caused $450 billion in damages worldwide [START_REF] Thornton | Locking down the value of data Contents: Executive summary[END_REF]. Businesses must protect their systems in order to avoid these damages by ensuring vulnerabilities are reduced [START_REF] Gartner | Magic Quadrant for Content-Aware Data Loss Prevention[END_REF]. Specifically, organizations must consciously invest in various security technologies such as data loss prevention, spyware detection, removal applications and cryptographic techniques to protect systems, data and processes against technical failure, damage or attacks [START_REF] Gartner | Magic Quadrant for Content-Aware Data Loss Prevention[END_REF]. Second, in general, the study highlights the need for more dialogue and information sharing between security executives, who are responsible for designing the organization's security infrastructure, and business executives who must allocate the funds to support that infrastructure. For example, in 2016, Thomson Reuters (2015) reported that the U.S. government had reserved $14 billion of its budget proposal for cybersecurity efforts to protect federal and private networks. [START_REF] Johnson | Business and security executives views of information security investment drivers: Results from a Delphi study[END_REF] affirms this and argues that firms invest in information security for different reasons.

  Figure 1: Research Model

  β=-0.04 ns β=0.21 * ns: p>0.5, *: p<0.5

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Model Results

Table 1 .

 1 Construct

				Validity
		CR AVE (1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	BME(1) 0.71 0.58 0.76
	DF(2)	0.95 0.86 -0.43	0.93
	Dual(3) 0.75 0.51 -0.16	0.04	0.71
	ITS(4)	0.87 0.72 0.23	-0.20	-0.11 0.85
	Invest(5) 0.64 0.40 0.35	-0.17	-0.11 0.35	0.63
	MAT(6) 0.83 0.62 0.19	-0.17	-0.04 0.34	0.35 0.78
	We conducted model robustness checks for multicollinearity. VIF values for BM
	(1.29), DF (1.24), Dual (1.04), ITS (1.18) and MAT

  .

			Table 2. Results
	Path	Coef.	t-Stat	P Values	Supported?
	BME -> Invest	0.271	1.988	0.047	Yes
	DF -> Invest	0.031	0.247	0.805	No
	Dual -> Invest	-0.035	0.246	0.806	No
	ITS -> Invest	0.207	2.052	0.040	Yes
	MAT -> Invest	0.234	2.093	0.037	Yes


Kayode I Adenuga
email: kayodeadenuga@yahoo.ca

Victor W Mbarika

Zacchaeus O Omogbadegun

Technical Support: Towards mitigating effects of Computer Anxiety on Acceptance of e-Assessment amongst University Students in Sub Saharan African Countries

Keywords: E-Learning, E-Assessment, Anxiety, Computer Anxiety. 1

The application of Information technology in educational context and environment has dramatically changed the pattern at which people teach and learn. Institutions of higher learning globally are increasingly adopting e-Assessment as a replacement for traditional pen on paper examination due to its cost effectiveness, improved reliability due to machine marking, accurate and timely assessment. In spite of the numerous benefits of e-assessment, it is unclear if University students in Sub Saharan African Countries are willing to accept it. The purpose of this study is to examine technical support role towards mitigating effects of computer anxiety on electronic assessment amongst University students in Nigeria and Cameroon. Therefore, the study extended Technology Acceptance Model and was validated using 102 responses collected randomly across universities in Nigeria and Cameroon. This study supports the body of knowledge by establishing that Computer Anxiety is an important factor which can affect University students regardless of their level of computer proficiency. The outcome of the proposed model indicated that when technical assistance is provided during e-Assessment, computer anxiety on majority of University students in Nigeria and Cameroon is reduced. The practical implication of this study is that students' actual academic potentials may not be seen if education policy makers and University administrators do not always strive to ensure that all measures, including technical support that can reduce fear associated with use of computer for assessment, are introduced.

Introduction

The application of Information technology in educational context and environment has dramatically changed the pattern at which people teach and learn. These effects have been extended to areas of assessment most especially towards reducing the cost and examination misconduct associated with traditional paper based assessment methods. Nevertheless learning is a continuous process which begins at an early age and one of the major importance of learning is assessment [START_REF] Gilbert | Synthesis report on assessment and feedback with technology enhancement[END_REF]. It is a measure used to evaluate the rate at which individuals are progressing [START_REF] Llamas-Nistal | Blended e-assessment: Migrating classical exams to the digital world[END_REF][START_REF] Alruwais | Identifying factors that affect the acceptance and use of E-assessment by academics in Saudi Universities[END_REF]. It is a form of assessment which is conducted electronically. E-assessment; also known as electronic testing or computer based test, has become an important tool for learning and teaching [START_REF] Dhar | A Cross-cultural Study of Navigational Mechanisms in Computer Based Assessment Environment[END_REF]. Nevertheless the potential benefits of the classification of this assessment, it is unclear if prospective learners are willing to accept it. One of the factors mentioned to be affecting its exploit is anxiety related to the use of technology on the prospective learners; which in other words can be termed as computer anxiety. In the field of e-assessment acceptance, a number of studies have been done on computer anxiety [START_REF] Conti-Ramsden | Computer anxiety: A comparison of adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI)[END_REF][START_REF] Nurcan | Identifying factors that affect students' acceptance of web-based assessment tools within the context of higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Putwain | Is the relationship between competence beliefs and test anxiety influenced by goal orientation? Learning and Individual Differences[END_REF], only few of such studies have mentioned the role of provision of technical support most especially if the examinees cannot find their way around using some of the inherent features of the technology efficiently during assessment. The purpose of this study therefore is to examine the role of technical support towards mitigating effects of computer anxiety on electronic assessment amongst University students in Nigeria and Cameroon.

Problem Background

In students' academic assessment, institutions of higher learning globally are increasingly adopting e-Assessment as a replacement for traditional pen on paper examination [START_REF] Jimoh | Acceptability of Computer Based Testing (CBT) Mode for Undergraduate Courses in Computer Science[END_REF][START_REF] Sieber | Factors associated with the successful introduction of online diagnostic, formative and summative assessment in the Medical Sciences[END_REF]; and in comparison with paper based assessment, e-assessment has advantages of cost effectiveness, improved reliability due to machine marking, unbiased assessment, greater storage capability, quick submission and grade report retrieval, effective record keeping, accurate and timely assessment [START_REF] Ndunagu | E-Assessment of Bi-Weekly Report: A Case Study of National Orientation Agency (NOA), Imo State, Nigeria[END_REF]. In addition to the benefits inherent in e-assessment, researchers are still finding ways to ensure that prospective learners utilize its potential benefits. One of the factors affecting its exploit is anxiety related to the use of technology on the prospective learners. Naturally, fear or anxiety is an emotional and psychological phenomenon which is correlated with any form of assessments. It is an intuition caused by identified fear or instability which changes the entire biochemical processes that occur within living organism and ultimately lead to a change in behavior such as sudden movement away from the point of danger. Fear in humans can manifest as a result of sharp response to a certain stimuli occurring presently or in anticipation of a life threatening future occurrence. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM IV) of the American Psychiatric Association and cited by Beckers, Wicherts [START_REF] Beckers | Computer anxiety:"Trait" or "state"?[END_REF] defined "anxiety as a mood state in which a subject experiences fear, apprehension, nervousness, worry, tension".

Naturally, anxiety's task is to warn ahead of an impending danger and consequently build an adequate coping mechanism against it. However, when this fear becomes extreme; there is an element of frustration which often makes this anxiety difficult to manage [START_REF] Beckers | Computer anxiety:"Trait" or "state"?[END_REF]. This apprehension can also be extended to traditional classroom as-sessment most especially when the learners are lacking adequate preparation towards the assessment and if such test were to be examined using electronic means, this level of anxiety increases particularly if the users have low computer self-efficacy. Notwithstanding, preliminary investigation has revealed that most test takers would prefer to have a handy technical assistance that can provide timely solutions to any technical issues that might come up during assessment. In view of this, it becomes important to conduct more studies on ways to reduce the level of anxiety on test takers so that their academic mastery and emotional intelligence are not measured by their inability to manipulate the technology driving the assessment. Nevertheless, a number of studies have been conducted to establish links between computer anxiety and related factors; using suitable theoretical model such as Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), extended TAM, Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), Computer based assessment acceptance model (CBAAM); only few of this study have mentioned impact of technical support [START_REF] Farzin | Proposing a Model to Predict Students' Perception Towards Adopting an E-Assessment System[END_REF] on prospective test takers during assessment most especially when there are reported low level of computer selfefficacy on the prospective test takers. In addition, it is unclear whether presence of technical support variable actually has the potentials to reduce computer anxiety on prospective University students in Nigeria and Cameroon context; besides, the researchers seek to address the research question: Does technical support has capability to reduce computer anxiety amongst University students in Nigeria and Cameroon? Hence, it becomes necessary to investigate this and proffer a suitable theoretical model to address this gap.

2

Literature Review

Learning and Assessment

Lachman [START_REF] Lachman | Learning is a process: Toward an improved definition of learning[END_REF] stressed that, most textbook definitions defined learning as behavioural transformation brought about by change in experience. This definition is fundamental; as in the contemporary world, learning is perceived as an instrument that delineates experience into behavior. In other words, it is considered as an outcome of a circumstance or behavior [START_REF] De Houwer | What is learning? On the nature and merits of a functional definition of learning[END_REF]. Over 50 years ago, Ausubel, Novak [START_REF] Ausubel | Educational psychology: A cognitive view[END_REF] suggested that "the most important factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly". Assessment is an important element that measures how a learner is progressing and it can be employed to provide feedback (formative assessment) or applied for grading purposes (Summative assessment). Whatever the reason behind assessment, learning cannot be said to be complete without assessments. Naturally, fear is a phenomenon which is correlated with any form of assessments most especially when the learners are afraid of their performance due to the perceived threat of failure. There is an ongoing feeling of worry and apprehension, and this constant fear can hinder learners' attempts to understand the information that is required for academic success. According to an online article entitled Strategies for Addressing Student Fear in the Classroom written by Scott Bledsoe Psy.D. and Janice Baskin stressed that "…Fear can cause students to experience adverse responses which can be physiologically (e.g., shortness of breath), cognitively (inability to focus or concentrate, obsessive thinking, replaying in their minds problematic incidents that occurred in previous classes), and emotionally (easily agitated, overcome by excessive nervousness, frustration, and other negative feelings…". However, due to many obvious benefits inherent in the use of technology in assessing learners, there is an increase in the level of apprehension most especially when the learners cannot find their way around using the technology. The objective of this study therefore is to minimize the effects of computer anxiety using technical support on University students in Nigeria and Cameroon.

E-Learning and E-Assessment

In comparison with traditional classroom learning system, E-learning has obvious advantages including real time availability, elimination of barrier of distance to learning, and personalized learning pace. Often, e-learning and e-assessment are considered to be one and the same thing, but it is not so. E-Assessment can be simply defined as the use of ICT for the purpose of carrying out assessment for measuring a student's learning [START_REF] Imtiaz | A Review of Technology Acceptance Studies in the Field of Education[END_REF]. E-Assessment can be categorized according to different measuring guidelines. It can be classified as formative and summative in context of examination. Formative assessment helps to examine how learners are progressing towards their learning goals and it is also used to provide feedback to the students, e.g. in class quiz, assignment; whereas summative assessment is for grading purpose, e.g. end of session or semester exams [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF]. This assessment classification can come in form of multiple choice questions, adaptive tests, and open-ended questions. In adaptive tests, the difficulty level of questions is adapted as per the response of the user. In case of wrong response, the difficulty level of the next questions is usually dropped. The most complex of these three types are essay type questions, as evaluating them using computers is still a major obstacle and an important area of research that has received little academic attention in the field of e-assessment [START_REF] Mason | Automated free text marking with paperless school[END_REF][START_REF] Bennett | Inexorable and inevitable: The continuing story of technology and assessment. Computer-based testing and the internet[END_REF][START_REF] Siozos | Participatory design of a tablet PC based assessment application for secondary education[END_REF][START_REF] Mohamadi | Comparative effect of online summative and formative assessment on EFL student writing ability[END_REF].

E-Assessment can also be classified according to the type of technology used to conduct the examination. One of such technologies is Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) sheets which have become very popular over the last ten years. However, the use of dedicated scanners to read OMR sheets is an added financial and technical burden. The other popular types include E-Portfolios, standalone systems and network/web based systems. E-Portfolios provides assessment of the student as all the student's activities during the course lifetime are recorded in it. Standalone systems on the other hand usually apply some external devices to record the test output while networked systems' output are usually saved on a server [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Bennett | Inexorable and inevitable: The continuing story of technology and assessment. Computer-based testing and the internet[END_REF][START_REF] Deutsch | Implementing computer-based assessment-a web-based mock examination changes attitudes[END_REF]. Other advantages of e-assessment are quick appraisal of examinations, developing pragmatic questions by using audio-visual mediums, simulation etc. This type of examination can also be administered for children with special needs. Nevertheless, both elearning and e-assessment or computer based test are not without their limitations. Researchers have stressed that high level of self-discipline and motivation are required greatly on the part of learners using e-learning mode of instruction while eassessment shortfalls include high cost, security risks and technological hitch [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Singleton | Computer-based assessment in education[END_REF].

E-Learning and E-Assessment acceptance in Sub-Saharan African Countries

Universal interest in the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) is evident in Africa and tertiary education institutions are increasingly shifting focus towards distance education and the establishment of virtual communities [START_REF] Darkwa | Virtual learning communities in Africa: challenges and prospects[END_REF]. Elearning in not new in Africa, a survey conducted by Unwin [START_REF] Unwin | Survey of e-Learning in Africa[END_REF] on the status of elearning in Africa from 46 countries, revealed that e-learning has been adopted by many countries in Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon. Countries all around Africa are willing to tap the benefits of using technology to aid learning and assessment. In Nigeria, for instance, not many institutions have fully adopted electronic examination as an assessment method due to many factors which may be related to issues with infrastructural challenges [START_REF] Nwana | Challenges in the applications of e-learning by secondary school teachers in Anambra State, Nigeria[END_REF][START_REF] Ajadi | E-learning and distance education in Nigeria[END_REF]. However, some institutions have come to terms with e-assessment as an option due to its inherent benefits which are not available in traditional pen on paper type of assessment.

For instance, National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) is an institution of higher learning operating on open and distance learning mode. As at 2010, NOUN had 90,767 registered students and conducting assessment for this number without a corresponding human and infrastructural resources posed a great challenge for the university; hence the need to adopt electronic examination as an alternative to pen-onpaper examination [START_REF] Osang | Electronic examination in Nigeria, academic staff perspective-Case study: National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)[END_REF]. Although previous study conducted by [START_REF] Osang | Electronic examination in Nigeria, academic staff perspective-Case study: National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)[END_REF] focused on reactions of academic staff to e-examination, there is little known if anxiety plays a significant role towards academic staff adoption of electronic examination as a form of assessment.

Similarly, there had been a growing concern about the conduct, authenticity and reliability of qualifying examinations into Nigerian tertiary institutions. It is in this regard that the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) introduced the computer-based testing (CBT) with the objective of eliminating all forms of examination malpractices and promote the use of electronic testing in Nigeria [START_REF] Abubakar | Using computer based test method for the conduct of examination in Nigeria: Prospects, challenges and strategies[END_REF]. In their study, many challenges such as economic, social, technological factors were mentioned [START_REF] Adomi | Application of ICTs in Nigerian secondary schools[END_REF]; though there were sensitization campaign going on to ensure students were well informed on the modalities surrounding CBT exams, but a study on whether failure of some students to pass Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) can be attributed to fear of using computer for assessment is yet to be seen.

Related Studies on Computer Anxiety and e-Assessment

A number of studies have been conducted in the field of computer anxiety role on e-assessment adoption. Beckers, Wicherts [START_REF] Beckers | Computer anxiety:"Trait" or "state"?[END_REF] defined computer anxiety as one of the most common anxiety disorders, it is a feeling of fear and apprehension experienced by prospective learners when they have the thought of using computer for assessment [START_REF] Simonson | Development of a standardized test of computer literacy and a computer anxiety index[END_REF]. In this study, computer anxiety was classified into temporary or state anxiety which is experienced as a result of the state of the learner most especially when technology is introduced in assessment [START_REF] Simonson | Development of a standardized test of computer literacy and a computer anxiety index[END_REF][START_REF] Laguna | Computer anxiety in young and older adults: Implications for human-computer interactions in older populations[END_REF][START_REF] Rosen | Myths and realities of computerphobia: A metaanalysis[END_REF] while the other is trait-like which may be difficult to treat since the source of this anxiety is profound. The purpose of their study was to confirm if computer anxiety is a permanent attribute of humans or an anxiety that is subject to the introduction of a particular situational stressor such as computer use. Their study examined relationship between computer anxiety, trait and state anxiety and to measure the effect of this anxiety when a stressor like computer technology is introduced to assessment. The findings of their study highlighted that computer anxiety is more strongly correlated to trait anxiety than state anxiety. They further suggested that computer anxiety is deep-rooted in trait anxiety and therefore remains a composite occurrence which requires multi-dimensional approach.

Jimoh, Yussuff [START_REF] Jimoh | Acceptability of Computer Based Testing (CBT) Mode for Undergraduate Courses in Computer Science[END_REF] extended Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) in TAM with additional variable; perceived fairness (PF) towards acceptability of CBT for undergraduate courses in computer science. The findings of their study highlighted that PEOU of CBT positively influences its PU and PEOU, PU and PF of CBT systems have statistical significant effect on Behavioral Intention of students to accept the CBT systems. The important finding here is that students will use the CBT when they have the feeling that the system is fair to them; since those students who did well have a feeling that CBT was fair to them while those who did not do well perceived it as being unfair. This outcome is similar to a study conducted by Daly and Waldron [START_REF] Daly | Introductory programming, problem solving and computer assisted assessment[END_REF] who suggested that students who performed better during assessment preferred CBT more. Despite this productive outcome, there was no indication that those who performed poorly did so as a result of fear associated with computer usage or low level of computer self-efficacy; since they have the perception that CBT platform might not have been fair to them after all.

In a related study conducted by Babo, Azevedo [START_REF] Babo | Students' perceptions about assessment using an e-learning platform[END_REF], this study ascertains the students' perceptions about the use of Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) e-assessment using Moodle quizzes features. From the analysis, it was observed that students have positive perceptions about the MCQ test type. Although, technical issues such as servers' instability and lack of sufficient time for the test were reported. Despite the effect a new type of test has on levels of anxiety, higher levels of fear and nervousness were not observed compared to traditional tests. In other words, students agreed that there are no differences in the complexity level of the two tests classifications, therefore suggesting that when the reported technical challenges are resolved, computer anxiety may not really have an effect on the subjects under investigation. Alruwais, Wills [START_REF] Alruwais | Identifying factors that affect the acceptance and use of E-assessment by academics in Saudi Universities[END_REF] developed a conceptual model where Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior (DTPB) [START_REF] Chien | An investigation of teachers' beliefs and their use of technology-based assessments[END_REF][START_REF] Taylor | Decomposition and crossover effects in the theory of planned behavior: A study of consumer adoption intentions[END_REF] (which has all important constructs of TAM and TPB) was extended with IT support (Conceptual Model of Acceptance and Usage of E-assessment (MAUE)) towards finding impacts of E-assessment used by lecturers in Saudi universities. However, this extension did not explain the role of computer selfefficacy and IT support in minimizing the effect of e-assessment on prospective learners. Similarly, Farzin and Dahlan [START_REF] Farzin | Proposing a Model to Predict Students' Perception Towards Adopting an E-Assessment System[END_REF] proposed a model to explore students' perception of e-assessment. Their study extended UTAUT with two constructs which include Habit and Computer anxiety towards Behavioral Intention (BI) and Usage intention. Lack of technical support [START_REF] Fluck | State wide adoption of e-assessments[END_REF][START_REF] Fluck | Comparison of institutional innovation: Two universities' nurturing of computer-based examinations[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Qeisi | Website design quality and usage behavior: Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology[END_REF], a component of facilitating condition was also considered as a factor affecting e-assessment. However their proposed model did not provide an empirical evidence to highlight the effect of computer anxiety on prospective e-assessment users. Therefore, in view of the outcomes of the related studies, it becomes necessary to find ways to reduce the effect of computer anxiety on the examinee most especially if the inherent benefits of using this technology for assessment are necessary to be harnessed.

Theoretical Model of Adoption

Technology Acceptance Models (TAM) have been applied in many fields to understand factors that encourage prospective users to use a particular technology. For instance, TAM by Davis mentioned that users will rather use a technology if it is perceived to be beneficial and easy to use [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF]. TAM shown in Fig. 1, represents an important theoretical contribution towards understanding Information Systems (IS) utilization and IS acceptance behaviors [START_REF] Davis | User acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models[END_REF][START_REF] Robey | Research commentary: diversity in information systems research: threat, promise, and responsibility[END_REF][START_REF]Information systems theory: Explaining and predicting our digital society[END_REF][START_REF] Dwivedi | A Bibliometric Comparision of the Usage of Two Theories of IS/IT Acceptance (TAM and UTAUT)[END_REF] and the adoption and usage of new IS [START_REF] Malhotra | Extending the technology acceptance model to account for social influence: Theoretical bases and empirical validation[END_REF]. However in the context of e-assessment, a number of studies have applied TAM and extended versions of TAM to establish relationships between computer anxiety and related factors [START_REF] Jimoh | Acceptability of Computer Based Testing (CBT) Mode for Undergraduate Courses in Computer Science[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF][START_REF] Venkatesh | User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view[END_REF]. In TAM, Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) is defined as the extent to which a system or innovation is easy to use [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF] and Perceived Usefulness, which is the extent to which a person believes that using a particular system will enhance his / her job performance, are important predictors of BI of technology use. PEOU predicts PU while PEOU and PU are predictors of Attitude (A) towards using a technology. In addition, Attitude predicts BI and BI consequently predicts actual use of a technology. TAM explains the relationship that existed among perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, user attitudes, behavioral intention and actual system use constructs [START_REF] Szajna | Empirical evaluation of the revised technology acceptance model[END_REF]. According to TAM, behavioral intention determines if prospective users make decision to use the system or not. In this study, TAM was considered for extension since it is regarded as one of the mostly applied technology adoption models in e-learning context that measures user's intention towards the use of technology in learning [START_REF] Nurcan | Identifying factors that affect students' acceptance of web-based assessment tools within the context of higher education[END_REF][START_REF] Park | An analysis of the technology acceptance model in understanding university students' behavioral intention to use e-learning[END_REF][START_REF] Van Raaij | The acceptance and use of a virtual learning environment in China[END_REF].

Conceptual Model Development and Research Hypotheses

Over the years, tremendous work has been published in the area of e-assessment most especially in the developed countries where e-assessment has recorded a huge success [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Sun | What drives a successful e-Learning? An empirical investigation of the critical factors influencing learner satisfaction[END_REF][START_REF] Terzis | The effect of emotional feedback on behavioral intention to use computer based assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Terzis | Continuance acceptance of computer based assessment through the integration of user's expectations and perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Kalogeropoulos | Computer-based assessment of student performance in programing courses[END_REF]. Relatively little has been handled in the developing countries [START_REF] Jimoh | Acceptability of Computer Based Testing (CBT) Mode for Undergraduate Courses in Computer Science[END_REF][START_REF] Bhuasiri | Critical success factors for e-learning in developing countries: A comparative analysis between ICT experts and faculty[END_REF] most especially in Nigeria and Cameroon context which forms the scope of this study. In addition, a number of studies have been conducted to establish links between computer anxiety and related factors, using suitable theoretical model such as TAM [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF][START_REF] Venkatesh | User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view[END_REF], extended TAM [START_REF] Jimoh | Acceptability of Computer Based Testing (CBT) Mode for Undergraduate Courses in Computer Science[END_REF], UTAUT [START_REF] Farzin | Proposing a Model to Predict Students' Perception Towards Adopting an E-Assessment System[END_REF][START_REF] Venkatesh | Individual reactions to new technologies in the workplace: the role of gender as a psychological construct[END_REF][START_REF] Venkatesh | Bridging the qualitative-quantitative divide: Guidelines for conducting mixed methods research in information systems[END_REF][START_REF] Rana | Adoption of online public grievance redressal system in India: Toward developing a unified view[END_REF][START_REF] Rana | Citizens' adoption of an electronic government system: towards a unified view[END_REF], Social Cognitive Theory [START_REF] Rana | Citizen's adoption of an e-government system: Validating extended social cognitive theory (SCT)[END_REF], Computer based assessment acceptance model [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF] (CBAAM) only few of them have used TAM without extending it in the field of e-learning and e-assessment. This research therefore aims to investigate the role of technical support towards mitigating the effect of computer anxiety of prospective test takers. This study focuses on students in sub Saharan African countries where there are reported low level of computer self-efficacy. The effect of this technical support variable and other variables will be tested randomly across Universities in Nigeria and Cameroon.

However, the researchers of this study seek to maximize the strength of this model and adapt it within the context of e-assessment adoption towards reducing the effects of computer anxiety on prospective test takers most especially when the latter are perceived to have low computer self-efficacy. In this study, this extension did not include attitude and actual use variables of TAM since Venkatesh, Morris [START_REF] Venkatesh | User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view[END_REF] mentioned that researchers are often faced with huge number of related constructs provided by many theories and discovered that they "pick and choose" variables from these models or simply go for a preferred model. In view of this, the researchers hypothesized based on the conceptual model in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Proposed Model for e-Assessment Acceptance

Perceived Ease of Use

In technology acceptance model (TAM), Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) is defined as the extent to which a system or innovation is easy to use [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF]. PU and BI are found to be influenced by PEOU [START_REF] Venkatesh | User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view[END_REF][START_REF] Agarwal | Time flies when you're having fun: Cognitive absorption and beliefs about information technology usage[END_REF].

Therefore the researchers hypothesize as follows: H1: Perceived Ease of Use has significant relationship with Perceived Usefulness of E-Assessment.

. H2: Perceived Ease of Use has significant relationship with Behavioural Intention Use of E assessment.

.

Perceived Usefulness

Perceived Usefulness (PU) is defined as the extent to which a person believes that using a particular system will enhance his / her job performance [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF][START_REF]Information systems theory: Explaining and predicting our digital society[END_REF] relationship PU on BI were reported by many studies [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Van Raaij | The acceptance and use of a virtual learning environment in China[END_REF][START_REF] Ong | Gender differences in perceptions and relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance[END_REF] and it is considered as one of the most important predictors of technology acceptance and actual use.

H3: Perceived Usefulness has significant relationship with Behavioural Intention use of E assessment.

Technical Support

Tarus, Gichoya [START_REF] Tarus | Challenges of implementing e-learning in Kenya: A case of Kenyan public universities[END_REF] as cited by Saidu, Clarkson [START_REF] Saidu | E-Learning Security Challenges, Implementation and Improvement in Developing Countries: A Review[END_REF] mentioned that lack of technical support is one of the major factors affecting the implementation of e-Learning in Kenya public Universities. Similarly, Farzin and Dahlan [START_REF] Farzin | Proposing a Model to Predict Students' Perception Towards Adopting an E-Assessment System[END_REF] explained that the use of available features of e-assessment can be quite challenging to the test takers most especially when there is perceived lack of technical support during the assessment, a component of facilitating condition available in UTAUT [START_REF] Venkatesh | Individual reactions to new technologies in the workplace: the role of gender as a psychological construct[END_REF] Model. Therefore the researchers aim to investigate the effects of technical support on Perceived Usefulness (PU) which is to what extent the user feels presence of technical support helps to see inherent benefits of e-assessment, and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) that is to what extent the user feels availability of technical support makes e-assessment easy to use. In the case of Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE), the researchers seek to find the influence of technical support on users with reported low or high computer self-efficacy. In other words, to know if technical support is desirable where there is reported high computer self-efficacy, while technical support on Computer Anxiety (CA) seeks to know if presence of technical support reduces fear associated with use of eassessment on students, and finally, effect of technical support on users Behavioual Intention (BI) to use e-assessment, and thus hypothesize as follows: H4: Technical Support has significant relationship with Perceived Usefulness of E assessment.

H5: Technical Support has significant relationship with Perceived Ease of Use of E assessment.

H6: Technical Support has significant relationship with Computer Self-efficacy use of E assessment. H7: Technical Support has significant relationship with Computer Anxiety use of E assessment.

H8: Technical Support has significant relationship with Behavioural Intention to use E assessment.

Computer Self-Efficacy

51

Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) is determined as the individual's beliefs on his/her ability to use computers [START_REF] Compeau | Computer self-efficacy: Development of a measure and initial test[END_REF]. In Computer Based Assessment, computer self-efficacy is an important factor which influences students' performance during assessment. Students with higher CSE were reported to gain significant time only by clicking, typing or reading through the PC quicker. Previous studies reported relationships between Computer Self-Efficacy and Perceived Ease of Use [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Agarwal | The evolving relationship between general and specific computer self-efficacy-An empirical assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Venkatesh | A model of the antecedents of perceived ease of use: Development and test[END_REF], and thus the researchers hypothesized that: H9: Computer Self-Efficacy has significant relationship with Perceived Ease of Use of E assessment. H10: Computer Self-Efficacy has significant relationship with Computer Anxiety use of E assessment.

Computer Anxiety

Computer anxiety is defined as the extent to which an individual expresses uneasiness or fear when he/she is faced with the possibility of using computers for assessment. Anxiety can be classified into three: trait anxiety (permanent since the source is fundamental), state anxiety (temporary or induced by the present circumstance), and dependent anxiety (a mixture of both trait and state anxiety) [START_REF] Oye | Behavioral intention to accept and use ICT in public universities: integrating quantitative and qualitative data[END_REF]. Farzin and Dahlan [START_REF] Farzin | Proposing a Model to Predict Students' Perception Towards Adopting an E-Assessment System[END_REF] suggested that the construct, computer anxiety, can be classified under the second type of anxiety (state anxiety) since the feeling will emerge before or during an engagement with an information system. The researchers of this study therefore support this notion by focusing on state anxiety since they are of the opinion that the anxiety associated with computer usage may be temporary since it might have been induced by the presence of computer technology for assessment. [START_REF] Rana | Citizen's adoption of an e-government system: Validating extended social cognitive theory (SCT)[END_REF] in their study of citizen adoption of e-government systems also stressed that Anxiety will have significant relationship with behavioral intention and therefore the researchers hypothesized that: H11: Computer Anxiety has significant relationship with behavioural Intention to use E assessment.

3

Research Method

Data Collection

This study followed a positivist research paradigm and in order to investigate eassessment acceptance for this study, survey methodology was applied. The final questionnaire consisted of 24 questions (see Appendix I). All the questions were multiple choice close ended, five point likert scales [START_REF] Gilbert | Synthesis report on assessment and feedback with technology enhancement[END_REF][START_REF] Llamas-Nistal | Blended e-assessment: Migrating classical exams to the digital world[END_REF][START_REF] Alruwais | Identifying factors that affect the acceptance and use of E-assessment by academics in Saudi Universities[END_REF][START_REF] Dhar | A Cross-cultural Study of Navigational Mechanisms in Computer Based Assessment Environment[END_REF][START_REF] Conti-Ramsden | Computer anxiety: A comparison of adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI)[END_REF], from strongly disagree to strongly agree. A random probability sampling technique was adopted and in order to ensure the adequacy of the sample size in this study, G* power software concept de-rived from [START_REF] Mayr | A short tutorial of GPower[END_REF][START_REF] Erdfelder | GPOWER: A general power analysis program[END_REF] was applied and total sample size was given at seventy-four 74. (See Appendix II). This was necessary to obtain a representative sample [START_REF] Schreuder | For what applications can probability and non-probability sampling be used?[END_REF] that is generalizable to a larger population [START_REF] Kasunic | Designing an effective survey[END_REF]. The study applied online survey methodology (see Appendix III) to distribute questionnaire across Universities in Cameroon and Nigeria. A total of one hundred and five (105) questionnaires were retrieved out of which 3 were excluded due to incomplete responses; thereby giving one hundred and two (102) responses as highlighted in Table 1. The final sample consisted of 64 (62.75%) male and 38 (37.25%) female. 44 participants (43.14%) were above average in ability to use computer, 52 respondents (50.98%) were average while only 6 students (5.88%) were below average. According to level of study, Undergraduate Year 1 respondents were 55 (53.92%), Year 2 were 18 (17.65%), Year 3 were 13 (12.74%) while Year 4 were 14 (13.72%) of the sample respectively.

Data Analysis

This study applied structural equation modeling (SEM) for data analysis. SEM is a causal modeling procedure with sole objective of maximizing the explained variation of the dependent latent variables to examine the quality of data with reference to the attributes of the measurement model [START_REF] Ahmad | The importance-performance matrix analysis in partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with smartpls 2.0 M3[END_REF]. Our applying SEM for data analysis in this study is necessary to ascertain if the measurement and structural model meet the quality criteria for evidence-based research. Empirical studies that applied structural equation modeling (SEM) are very common lately in the field of information systems [START_REF] Urbach | Structural equation modeling in information systems research using partial least squares[END_REF] and it can be considered as having another distinctive and very functional approach called partial least square (PLS).

Measurement Model

To examine measurement model assessment, the PLS algorithm method was applied by examining the construct validity and reliability. This involved measuring the convergent, discriminant validity and loadings of all items with respect to the individual variables [START_REF] Urbach | Structural equation modeling in information systems research using partial least squares[END_REF].

The first consideration for this study is the reliability of internal consistency. Reliability of a measurement has been defined as the consistency of a particular research instrument, and also regarded as the level to which a test consistently measures whatever it measures, as it is primarily concerned with the extent of stability between multiple measurements of constructs [START_REF] Sitzia | How valid and reliable are patient satisfaction data? An analysis of 195 studies[END_REF]. A construct is considered reliable when the value of a composite reliability for a construct is greater than 0.7 and according to Hair, Sarstedt [START_REF] Hair | An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research[END_REF]), composite reliability (CR) measure of 0.7 and over is acceptable. Cronbach's alpha (CA), (coefficient alpha), a type of reliability coefficient reported most often in the literature, is known to provide the conventional measure for this internal consistency reliability. Cronbach's alpha measures internal consistency reliability, or the degree to which responses are consistent across the items of a measure. If internal consistency is low, then the content of the items may be so heterogeneous that the total score is not the best possible unit of analysis. A conceptual equation is [START_REF] Gilbert | Synthesis report on assessment and feedback with technology enhancement[END_REF] where n i is the number of items, not cases, and r ij is the average Pearson correlation between all pairs of items [START_REF] Kline | Principles and practice of structural equation modeling[END_REF]. Although, CA presumes that all items of a construct are equally dependable and therefore, sometimes perceived as having characteristics of measuring internal consistency conservatively. In view of these limitations, therefore, composite reliability was considered a good substitute for CA. [START_REF] Hair | PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet[END_REF] mentioned that generally accepted threshold for CA is 0.7. In social science, it may go down to 0.6 and still be considered valid [START_REF] Santos | Cronbach's alpha: A tool for assessing the reliability of scales[END_REF][START_REF] Peterson | A meta-analysis of Cronbach's coefficient alpha[END_REF]. [START_REF] Nunnally | Psychometric theory[END_REF] maintained that in theoretical studies, even modest reliabilities of 0.60 or 0.50 may be acceptable for Cronbach's alpha [START_REF] Ozturk | Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Educators' Attitudes toward Educational Research Scale[END_REF][START_REF] Nazari | Organizational culture, climate and IC: an interaction analysis[END_REF]. Therefore the result suggested that construct reliability for this study may be accepted as shown in Table 2. Convergent validity in this study was established with three criteria: item factor loading, composite reliability, and average variance extracted [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error[END_REF]. Firstly, the convergent validity was evaluated from the measurement model by evaluating the factor loading greater than or equal to 0.7 which is preferred as mentioned by [START_REF] Hulland | Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: a review of four recent studies[END_REF] and cited in [START_REF] Wong | Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) techniques using SmartPLS[END_REF]. Therefore, factor loading lower than 0.7 were removed from the study as shown in Table 3. This is also mentioned by Hair, Sarstedt [START_REF] Hair | An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research[END_REF], that ordinarily composite reliability should be above 0.70. Consequently, AVE denotes the average variance from a set of items that were inspected. The indicators removed as highlighted in Table 3. (PEOU_1, PEOU_4, CSE_2 and CA_2) from the initial measure increased the AVE value of Computer self-efficacy from 0.412 to 0.559. Therefore, value of AVE greater than 0.5 indicates that the set of items has sufficient convergence in measuring the constructs, as reported by [START_REF] Barclay | The partial least squares (PLS) approach to casual modeling: personal computer adoption ans use as an Illustration[END_REF]. Discriminant validity is often considered as the extent to which a construct empirically varies from other constructs. Thus, discriminant validity is confirmed when a construct exhibits a different characteristic not captured by another construct in the same model. In this study, discriminant validity was measured using Fornell-Larcker criterion which is measured by substituting the square root of AVE for the correlation coefficient matrix diagonals, with values greater than the correlation coefficients in the other dimension as highlighted in Table 4. The AVE of this study ranged between 0.559 and 0.833. In view of these, this study however shows the square root of AVE is well above the correlation coefficients in other dimensions, which indicates that the model in this study has discriminant validity.

Structural Model

The Coefficient of Determinant (R²)

The first important measure in examining the structural model is the assessment of the coefficient of determinant (R 2 ) for dependent constructs. The R-square measures the proportion of the variance of a dependent variable that is explained by the independent constructs [START_REF] Hair | An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research[END_REF]. It signifies model's capability to interpret the dependent variable [START_REF] Ringle | A critical look at the use of PLS-SEM in MIS Quarterly[END_REF]. Following recommendation by [START_REF] Chin | The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling[END_REF] In this study, the predictive power of constructs for the model is 38% of the variance in students' intention to use e-assessment thereby implying the descriptive strength of the whole model as well as the evaluation of the predictive power of the independent variables highlighted in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Outcome of PLS Algorithm Analysis

Discussion and Implication

The hypotheses for this study were verified by evaluating the statistical importance of the path coefficients using t-statistics computed by means of the bootstrap resampling approach utilizing 5000 samples as highlighted below, and Nonparametric bootstrapping [START_REF] Efron | An introduction to the bootstrap[END_REF] was then applied with 5000 replications as recommended by [START_REF] Hair | A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM)[END_REF]. The two tailed t-tests used as the hypotheses were directional and unidirectional [START_REF] Gudergan | Confirmatory tetrad analysis in PLS path modeling[END_REF]. The t-value and the Degree of Freedom (DF) were used to calculate the p-value for each hypothesis. Eleven hypotheses were evaluated for this study. The p-value results are shown in Table 5 and Fig. 4 along with the degree of significance for each p-value.

The purpose of this study is to examine the role of technical support in mitigating the effect of computer anxiety on acceptance of electronic assessment. Technology acceptance model (TAM) was extended to include Technical Support (TS), Computer Anxiety and Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) and hypotheses formed based on the proposed model. The findings from the analysis reveal that Perceived Ease of Use has significant positive relationship with Perceived Usefulness. This indicates that students are able to see the potential benefits inherent in the use of e-assessment and thus can be considered useful. The outcome is consistent with findings from previous studies on computer-based assessment acceptance [START_REF] Jimoh | Acceptability of Computer Based Testing (CBT) Mode for Undergraduate Courses in Computer Science[END_REF][START_REF] Terzis | Computer based assessment: Gender differences in perceptions and acceptance[END_REF]. Perceived Ease of Use was found to have positive significant relationship with behavioural intention. This outcome supports previous studies on acceptance of learning management system [START_REF] Van Raaij | The acceptance and use of a virtual learning environment in China[END_REF][START_REF] Teo | A path analysis of pre-service teachers' attitudes to computer use: Applying and extending the Technology Acceptance Model in an educational context[END_REF]. This further suggested that when students see potential benefits of e-assessment, their will to use the technology increases. Similarly, Perceived Usefulness was found to have a very strong positive relationship with behavioural intention. This means that when students are convinced on the usefulness of eassessment, it will enhance their decisions to use it. This is supported by Padilla-Meléndez, Garrido-Moreno [START_REF] Padilla-Meléndez | Factors affecting e-collaboration technology use among management students[END_REF] on acceptance of learning management systems and related study on students attitude to use blended learning systems by Padilla-Meléndez, del Aguila-Obra [START_REF] Padilla-Meléndez | Perceived playfulness, gender differences and technology acceptance model in a blended learning scenario[END_REF].

On the role of Technical Support, there were no empirical studies found prior to conducting this study. Although, Tarus, Gichoya [START_REF] Tarus | Challenges of implementing e-learning in Kenya: A case of Kenyan public universities[END_REF] as cited by Saidu, Clarkson [START_REF] Saidu | E-Learning Security Challenges, Implementation and Improvement in Developing Countries: A Review[END_REF] did mention that lack of technical support is one of the major factors affecting the implementation of e-Learning in Kenya, and Farzin and Dahlan [START_REF] Farzin | Proposing a Model to Predict Students' Perception Towards Adopting an E-Assessment System[END_REF] stressed that eassessment can be quite challenging to the test takers most especially when there is lack of technical support during assessment. The findings of the analysis show that Technical Support has strong relationship with Perceived Usefulness of e-Assessment system. This indicates that students are able to see the usefulness of e-Assessment when technical assistance is provided. On the other hand, Technical Support correlates with Perceived Ease of Use. This outcome indicates that availability of prompt technical assistance during assessment would help the students see the relative advantage hence the validity of this hypothesis. Nevertheless, outcome of the analysis did not show any significant relationship between Technical Support and Computer Self-Efficacy; therefore not supporting the hypothesis.

Technical Support has strong positive relationship with Computer Anxiety. This outcome indicates that presence of Technical Support has the capability to reduce fear associated with the use of computer for assessment by University students in Nigeria and Cameroon. This confirms the objective of this study which is to confirm if Technical Support has the capability to reduce computer anxiety on Undergraduate students during electronic assessment. Although, the outcome of the analysis did not support the hypothesis that Technical Support has relationship with students' behavioural intention to use e-Assessment, the researchers believed that with larger sample size, the relationship between these two constructs might be significant since there is significant relationships between Technical Support and Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use as reflected in Fig. 4. Computer Self-Efficacy did not report any significant relationship with Perceived Ease of Use. The researchers believed CSE may not be an important factor for them since they are comfortable using computer and therefore using e-Assessment by this group of students would not be an issue after all. This is contrary to previous studies where there are reported relationships between Computer Self Efficacy and Perceived Ease of Use [START_REF] Terzis | The acceptance and use of computer based assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Agarwal | The evolving relationship between general and specific computer self-efficacy-An empirical assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Venkatesh | A model of the antecedents of perceived ease of use: Development and test[END_REF]. Notwithstanding, there is a strong relationship but negative path between Computer Self-efficacy and Computer Anxiety. This indicates that Computer Anxiety is likely to affect the students' performance during assessment regardless of their level of proficiency in the use of Computer. This outcome is evident from the survey as most of the respondents claimed to have average and above average skills in the use of computer. Finally, there is a negative significant relationship between Computer Anxiety and students' behavioural intention to use e-Assessment. This confirms the objective of this study which is to find ways to reduce fear that arises when students are faced with using computer for assessment.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study is to examine the role of technical support in mitigating effect of computer anxiety on students taking e-assessment in sub Saharan African countries, Cameroon and Nigeria in particular. This study extended Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) with additional variables such as Computer Self-Efficacy, Computer Anxiety and Technical Support. The model hypothesized eleven relationships and eight of them were found to be significant. The theoretical contribution of this study filled the research gaps where empirical validation of role of Technical Support construct towards mitigating effect of computer anxiety on University students during e-Assessment had not been carried out by any other researcher in the field of e-assessment acceptance. The conceptual model was found to be reliable having subjected it to measurement and structural analysis giving birth to the final model for this study (e-Assessment Acceptance Model, shown in Fig. 5). In addition, this study supports the body of knowledge by establishing that Computer Anxiety is an important factor which can affect University students regardless of their level of computer proficiency. It also revealed that when technical assistance is available, computer anxiety during e-Assessment on majority of University students in Nigeria and Cameroon is reduced.

The practical implication of this study's outcome is that many students' actual academic potentials may not be seen if education policy makers and University administrators do not always strive to ensure that all measures that can reduce computer anxiety are introduced, which include provision of Technical Support during electronic assessment.

Finally this study is not without its limitations, due to limited time available to complete this study, the total sample used for this study are not equal representation of students from the countries under investigation (Nigeria and Cameroon); caution should be taken when generalizing the outcome of this study. Future study is expected to increase the sample size and confirm the final model for this study so as to obtain findings that can be generalized. In addition, the study can be separated to see the effect on the individual countries and taking survey of students who do not have knowledge of computer may provide an insight that can further guide organizations and education administrators.

Computer Anxiety

CA1

The e-assessment system is somewhat intimidating to me (Reverse). CA2 I hesitated to use the e-assessment system for fear of making mistakes that I couldn't correct (Reverse). CA3

I am afraid about using the e-assessment system (Reverse). CA4

Working with the e-assessment system made me nervous (Reverse). Technical Support

TS1

It will be easy to use e-assessment if there is technical staff around me. TS2

It will be easy to use e-assessment if I'm shown its inherent benefits TS3 I will use e-assessment if I'm guided on how to use some of its features during assessment. TS4

Fear of e-assessment is reduced if I have a feeling that technical support staff is around. TS5

Technical support is important for me to use e-assessment.

Behavioural Intention

BI1

I intend to use e-assessment in the future BI2 I predict I would use e-assessment in the future BI3 I plan to use e-assessment in the future

Appendix II: G* Power Analysis

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. The Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, Bagozzi & Warshaw 1989)

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Outcome of Structural Model Analysis

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. e -Assessment Acceptance Model (e-AAM)

Table 1 .

 1 Data Distribution Table

	Measure	Items	Frequency	Percentage
			N=102	100%
	Gender	Male	64	62.75%
		Female	38	37.25%
		Above Average	44	43.14%
	Computer Proficiency	Average	52	50.98%
	Level	Below Average	6	5.88%
		Year 1	55	53.92%
	University Study Level	Year 2	18	17.65%
		Year 3	13	12.75%
		Year 4	16	15.68%

Table 2 .

 2 Composite Reliability and Internal Consistency Reliability

	Construct	Composite Reliability	Cronbach's Alpha	AVE
	Perceived Usefulness	0.937	0.900	0.833
	Perceived ease of Use	0.852	0.736	0.658
	Computer Self efficacy	0.792	0.610	0.559

Table 3 .

 3 Convergent Validity for Research Constructs

	Constructs	Indicators	Loadings	Composite	AVE
				Reliability
		PU_1	0.915
	Perceived Use-fulness	PU_2	0.924	0.937	0.833
		PU_3	0.898
		PEOU_1	0.668
	Perceived ease of Use	PEOU_2	0.807	0.852	0.658
		PEOU_3	0.729
		PEOU_4	0.666
		PEOU_5	0.890
		CSE_1	0.750
	Computer Self-Efficacy	CSE_2	0.251	0.792	0.559
		CSE_3	0.769
		CSE_4	0.724
		CA_1	0.761
	Computer Anxiety	CA_2 CA_3	0.260 0.845	0.867	0.686
		CA_4	0.874
		TS_1	0.712

Table 4 .

 4 Discriminant Validity for Research Constructs

	Constructs	BI	CA	CSE	PEOU	PU	TS
	Behavioural Intention	0.882	0	0	0	0	0
	Computer Anxiety	-0.218	0.828	0	0	0	0
	Computer Self-Efficacy	0.386	-0.281	0.748	0	0	0
	Perceived Ease of use	0.407	0.122	0.135	0.811	0	0
	Perceived Usefulness	0.547	-0.051	0.266	0.549	0.913	0
	Technical Support	0.360	0.206	0.185	0.359	0.525	0.751

  , measures of approximately 0.670 is substantial, measure around 0.333 is considered moderate, and values less than or

	Technical equal to 0.190 is weak. TS_2	0.774
	Support	TS_3	0.785	0.866	0.564
		TS_4	0.732
		TS_5	0.751
		BI1	0.885
	Behavioural	BI2	0.873	0.913	0.778
	Intention	BI3	0.888

Table 5 .

 5 Hypothesis Testing

	Hypothe-	Path	Path Coef-	t-Value	Results
	sis		ficient
	H1	PEOUPU	0.414	4.128***	Supported
	H2	PEOUBI	0.192	1.826*	Supported
	H3	PUBI	0.342	3.680***	Supported
	H4	TSPU	0.377	3.897***	Supported
	H5	TSPEOU	0.346	2.386**	Supported
	H5	TSCSE	0.185	0.745	Not Supported
	H7	TSCA	0.267	2.574**	Supported
	H8	TSBI	0.165	1.479	Not Supported
	H9	CSEPEOU	0.071	0.624	Not Supported
	H10	CSECA	-0.331	2.294**	Supported
	H11	CABI	-0.258	3.031***	Supported
	*t0.1 = 1.65, **t0.05=1.960, ***t0.01=2.576

Technical Support

Perceived Usefulness Computer Anxiety

Behavioural Intention Perceived Ease of Use Computer Self-Efficacy

Appendix I: Final Survey Description

Perceived Usefulness

PU1

Using e-assessment will improve my work

PU2

Using e-assessment will enhance my effectiveness PU3

Using e-assessment will increase my productivity Perceived Ease of Use

PEOU1

My interaction with e-assessment is clear and understandable PEOU2

It is easy for me to become skilful in using the e-assessment. PEOU3 E-assessment system enabled me to take exams easily. PEOU4 I find the e-assessment easy to use. PEOU5

Using e-assessment to take exams was a good idea.

Computer Self -Efficacy

CSE1

I could complete a job or task using the computer CSE2 I could complete a task using the computer if someone me showed how to do it first CSE3 I can navigate easily through the web to find any information I need CSE4 I believe I have the basic skills required to use internet and computer before I begin to use e-assessment.

Appendix III: Data Source Link https://www.surveymonkey.com/analyze/CHYvAqnK1Bpo9mahS btI6INn5leHha2UuA3sFPNd3bN95RZ3ZIEN5b_2Bk5COgaH5