David Mpanga
email: d.mpanga@bugemauniv.ac.ug

Understanding Public Sector Enterprise Resource Planning System Implementation in Developing Countries: A Literature Review

Keywords: ERP, Public Sector, Developing Countries, Enterprise systems, CSF, CFF

This paper is a literature review of articles on implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) in public sector with a focus on developing countries. The aim of the paper is to present an in depth understanding of the implementation of ERP systems in developing countries public sector. It intends to help researchers interested in the topic to have a single source of reference, and to understand the state of ERP implementation in developing countries public sector. A systematic literature review methodology was adopted for an in-depth review of journals, conference proceedings and reviews. The review covered a range from 1998 to 2015; 72 articles relevant to public sector were reviewed and identified only 5.04% were related to ERP in developing countries, and not specific to public sector. The major themes identified include genesis of ERP, implementing ERP, CSF for implementing ERP, ERP implementing frameworks/methodologies, impact of ERP on Business Processes, ERP market, ERP cost and failure, and ERP trends. Findings on each theme are discussed. Areas are recommended that need to be understood in context of developing countries public sector; external and internal opposing factors, specific CSF/CFF, ERP implementing framework/methodologies, Total Cost of Ownership, ERP integration and ERP framework/architecture to ensure successful implementation of ERP and reduce cost.

Introduction

Many organizations have implemented information systems in order to improve efficiency in service delivery. However, information systems specific to given function area create distributed silos of heterogeneous data, inaccessible across the organization. This affects decision making at organizational level due to lack of access to organization wide real time information. Consequently the agility of the organization to promptly respond to business needs is constrained. Large organization in developed economies initiated implementation of enterprise information systems to overcome challenges caused by function-oriented information systems (Rajapakse and Seddon, 2005). Among the different types of enterprise information systems, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system is the most popular. ERP design is based on widely accepted best practices in a given industry be it private or public sector. Implementation of ERP system in an organization is intended to integrate business processes across functional areas to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in service or product delivery in a manner universally accepted in a particular industry (Rajapakse and Seddon, 2005).

Feng, Hu and Huang (2011) argue that ERP implementations are the most difficult projects to undertake because of their complexity, high cost and adaptation risks. The complexity of ERP system originate from inherent business processes to ERP system. Often the recipient organization is required to redesign the organization business processes to fit ERP system. On the other hand customization of the ERP system could be carried out to fit the ERP system in the recipient organization business processes. Though numerous researchers have contributed to the field of ERP systems in regard to Critical Success Factors (CSF), Critical Failure Factors (CFF), and implementing methodologies, most of the research is private sector oriented, and from developed economies. Meaningful interaction with the citizenry and business requires integration of ERP system with other applications. Hence, there is a need to build capabilities to manage and improve relationships with business and citizenry in a seamless Government-to-Business (G2B) and Government-to-Citizenry (G2C) environment. Governments in developing countries promote Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) as strategy to increase efficiency in service delivery. The success of the public sector in developing countries to deliver quality services efficiently, will depend on the ability to integrate the diverse network of stakeholders' relationships.

ERP systems are independent solutions that cannot integrate all interaction processes in public sector environment. An effective service delivery model in public sector organizations require leveraging the functionalities of the ERP system with another enterprise application [START_REF] Baran | ERP vs. CRM software -What is the difference?[END_REF].

Hence, an inevitable need arise to improve the interactions with suppliers of services and goods by integrating ERP with applications that provide interface with ecommerce solutions.

ERP systems in public sectors have to be extended to create links with other application like Customer Services Management (CSM) to manage service agreements, Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) to manage suppliers' relationships, and Citizenry Relationship Management (CRM) to manage citizens' interactions. These solutions are stand-alone systems with the aim to support different functions [START_REF] Beal | The Difference between CRM and ERP[END_REF]. Integration of ERP systems with another application that manage front-end processes eliminate duplication of information and reduce IT costs and expenses related to training (Kolisnyk, 2018).

ERP systems vendors are penetrating developing countries public sector, in anticipation to provide solutions that deliver efficiency similar to developed countries public sector. However, public sectors in developing countries are characterized by specific laws and government regulations, as well as specific ways of doing business that are different from those in the West [START_REF] Bitsini | Investigating ERP Misalignment between, ERP Systems and Implementing, Organizations in Developing Countries[END_REF]. These unique characteristics are likely to cause technology, information and roles misalignments or misfits between the best practices of a Western-designed ERP system and the organizational context in developing countries [START_REF] Bitsini | Investigating ERP Misalignment between, ERP Systems and Implementing, Organizations in Developing Countries[END_REF].

Prior to this article, there is no literature review on implementing ERP systems in developing country public sector is identified. Hence, the article contributions to the knowledge of ERP systems implementation with a focus on public sector in developing countries. First, it is the first single source of reference for ERP systems implementation in developing country public sector. Secondary, the article provides a background for identifying areas that need to be understood to successfully implement ERP systems in developing countries public sector domain.

Objective

The objective of the research was to collect and analyse literature on the implementation of ERP systems in developing countries public sectors. The question the article attempts to answer is; how successful is the implementation of ERP systems in developing countries public administration? It is important to understand ERP systems in context of public sectors in developing countries; ERP systems have transformed private sector organizations and now are gaining acceptance in the public sectors [START_REF] Kelemen | ERP Systems in Public Sector, Information and Communication Technology[END_REF]. Secondary, ERP systems were primarily targeted at private companies, though public organizations in developed economies have invested considerable resources in the implementation of these systems [START_REF] Alves | An Investigation into the Use of ERP Systems in the Public Sector[END_REF]. Still the continued high failure rates with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems remain a great concern [START_REF] Dwivedi | Research on information systems failures and successes: Status update and future directions[END_REF]Ram, Corkindale & Wu, 2013). Also many ERP systems' failures in developing countries are associated with the misalignment of requirements between ERP systems and implementing organizations [START_REF] Dwivedi | Factors contributing to successful ERP implementation in locally-owned and multinational firms in India[END_REF]Morton and Hu, 2008;Roseann and Weber, 2004;Strong and Volkoff, 2010).

Overview of the Paper

In this article implementing ERP systems in developing countries public sector is analysed to identify the major themes researched. Secondly, the concept of cloud ERP systems is investigated in context of developing countries. A discussion of the finding is provided, and the article conclude with areas that need to be understood further.

METHODOLOGY

A systematic literature review (SLR) methodology for conducting a high quality standalone literature review in Information Systems field was adopted as the author of the article didn't collect or analyze any primary data [START_REF] Okoli | A Guide to Conducting a Standalone Systematic Literature Review[END_REF]. SLR methodology was considered the most appropriate for a rigorous review intended to summarize existing evidence, identify gaps in current research, and provide a basis for research endeavors in ERP systems in developing countries public sectors.

Sources of reviewed papers

Papers reviewed were accessed from 25 International journals indicated in table 1, four conference/ conventional proceedings, and five international reviews listed in Selection of papers was based on three key terms; ERP implementation, public sector ERP and ERP in developing countries/economies. Paper were categorized as relevant when the author talked about ERP systems and referred to public sector globally in the text, and. papers selected in this category were 65. A second category was the contextual category; the article was about ERP systems in the context of a developing country, and the themes discussed are specifically focused on ERP in developing country. This category has 7 papers. A third category was the specific category; article fully dedicated to ERP systems in developing country public sector, and no paper identified in this category.

Themes identified

This section provides a critical review of the common themes discussed in various articles on ERP. , 2007). Introduction of ERP systems in developing countries can be traced way back in 1990s. Since mid-1990's, many public sector organizations have followed the private sector to implement prepackaged commercial ERP solutions in favor of a proprietary systems [START_REF] Sommer | Public Sector ERP Implementation: Successfully Engaging Middle Management! Communications of the IBIMA[END_REF].

Implementing ERP system

Literature reveals an increasing demand for quality services in both public and private sectors. Periseras et al. (2000) and [START_REF] Liu | Managing process centred e-government in Taiwan: a customer relationship management approach[END_REF] observed that citizens in many countries expect public administration to provide quality services at the lowest cost.

The need exists to implement technology that can increase efficiency, enhance process transparency and communication within public administration. Thus, in developing countries, enterprise systems are increasingly gaining popularity in public administration. However, according to Seddon et al. ( 2010) traditional implementation of ERP systems often cost millions or even hundreds of millions of dollars. Ziemba and Oblak (2013) state that information system implementation is a complex exercise in technology innovation. Oorganizational change management is also difficult in enterprises (Kumar, Maheshwari and Kumar 2002;[START_REF] Markus | Learning from adopter's experience with ERP: problems encountered and success achieved[END_REF]. Successful implementation of enterprise system may not easily be completed in short term. Hence, it requires top-level political will as any change in the existing public sector practices requires a review of legal framework. Most government agencies utilize experiences from private sectors to implement enterprise systems [START_REF] Watson | ERP Implementation in State Government[END_REF]). As a result, public sectors often adopt generalized private sector ERP implementation approaches. In developed countries, the public sector administration and countries, but not specifically public sector domain) business processes are reformed to reflect those in the private sectors; hence, it is appropriate to adopt private sector ERP implementing approaches developing country environment. The public sector environment in developing countries is characterized by unique cultural, structural, political, and economic complexities.

Management of information systems in public sector organizations vary significantly from those of the private organizations [START_REF] Bozeman | Public management information systems: Theory and prescription[END_REF][START_REF] Bretschneider | Management information systems in public and private organizations: An empirical test[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Bretschneider | Management information systems in public and private organizations: An empirical test[END_REF] and Cats-Barilet al. (1995) variations of public sectors from private sectors can be attributed to a number of characteristics. These include interdependencies across the organizational boundaries, higher levels of redtape, different evaluation criteria for purchasing software, extra organizational linkages, and top-level implementation management officials. In many developing countries, public sector management activities experience strong external forces. The significant forces that influence public administration functions include legislations and regulations, international funding agencies and political interference. Hence, the public sector environment in many developing countries is different from the public and private sectors in developed countries. [START_REF] Bozeman | Public management information systems: Theory and prescription[END_REF] suggested four "models of publicness" that distinguish between public and private sector information systems. In the functioning of public administration, economic authority model play a secondary role. In private sector the emphasis is on productivity, bureaucratic regulations in public sector and political authority model, the emphasis is on political influence and monitoring mechanisms. Bingi et al. (2007) and Davenport (1998) state that ERP system implementations generally involve massive organizational changes. The changes are a result of the shift from existing business processes to best practices inherent in ERP systems. Organizational changes required to implement ERP system include strategic areas to eliminate data silos, technology infrastructure, organization culture, management systems, human resources skills and structures (Al-Mashari, 2003). These changes have widespread impacts on various departments or agencies of the organization. The strong interdependence of government entities pose a high risk failure to ERP system implementation. Successful ERP system implementations require top management commitment. [START_REF] Huang | Accessing risk in ERP projects: Identify and prioritize the factors[END_REF] Markus and Tanis (1999) proposed a four-stage model. Most of the proposed models categorize activities into: before the project, the project stage and post-project undertakings. ERP implementation studies are commonly conducted in two approaches. The variance approach is focused on critical success factors for successful implementation of an ERP system. The process approach focuses on the change management process by identifying the dialectic forces that cause change during the ERP implementation process [START_REF] Robey | Learning to implement enterprise systems: An exploratory study of the dialectics of change[END_REF]. The process approach highlights the difficulties in business process mapping, infra-structure problems, lack of technical knowledge of the key-users, difficulties in procurement of hardware, codification of master data, difficulties in collection of data, and change of implementation partners (Madhayi, 2008).

According to [START_REF] Akkermans | Vicious and virtuous cycles in ERP implementation: a case study of interrelations between critical success factors[END_REF] ERP implementations are usually large and complex projects. Faced with many unforeseen developments and resources, and involve big groups of people work under considerable time pressure. Not surprisingly, many of these implementations turn out to be less successful than originally intended [START_REF] Davenport | Putting the Enterprise into the Enterprise System[END_REF][START_REF] Avnet | ERP not living up to promise[END_REF][START_REF] Buckhout | Making ERP succeed; turning fear into promise. Strategy and Business, 2 nd quarter[END_REF].

Integrated information flows can support government processes in numerous ways to improve service delivery, accountability, and managing for results. Unfortunately, most of the literature on ERP implementation is limited to the private sector, and as such neglects a substantial uniqueness of the public sector constraint. [START_REF] Gulledge | Public sector enterprise resource planning Industrial[END_REF] argue that there is nothing special about public sector business processes that insulate them from modern private sector management methods. However, it should be noted that this argument is made in context of developed economies, where the public sector undertook the initiative to adopt private sector management structure. This is not the same experience in developing economies where skills, financing, political influences, and entrenched bureaucracy, are critical constraints in public administration.

The hierarchical organizational structure in the public sector is quite different from organizational structure in private sector. Majchrzak and Wang (1996) state that it is extremely difficult to implement process management in hierarchically managed organizations. [START_REF] Sommer | Public Sector ERP Implementation: Successfully Engaging Middle Management! Communications of the IBIMA[END_REF] argue that public administration has characteristics including; cultural, political, and organizational factors that negatively influence successful ERP implementation in local government administration. [START_REF] Tregear | Government Process Management: A review of key differences between the public and private sectors and their influence on the achievement of public sector process management[END_REF] presents a list of nine key differences between the public sector and private sector. The differences include public interest, accountability, political sensitivity, whole-of-government ecosystem, budget cycle complexity, information exchange, regulating society, machinery of government changes, and culture. These differences should be considered when developing approaches to process-based management and ERP implementation in a developing country public sector organization.

One of the major changes at different levels of government is the attempt to implement "best practices modeled after those of the private sector (Caudle, 1996). The private or public sectors' best practices from developed countries imbedded in the ERP systems are far different from developing countries environment. [START_REF] Raymond | ERP adoption for E-Government: An analysis of motivations[END_REF] argue that each sector is confronted with specific environmental constraints, the transfer of IT practices from the private to the public sector would not occur automatically. Ziemba and Oblak (2013) indicated that processes in public administration have completely different characteristics compared to private organizations. Contrary to public sector, private sector processes can be improved almost anytime as organization's need emerge (Schäfermey-er and Holten, 2012). ERP systems are gen-266 erally designed for private sector and do not meet specific public administration requirements (Ziemba and Oblak, 2013).

ERP implementing framework/methodologies

Govindaraju (2012) suggested an organizational perspective framework for implementing ES; focusing on two stages in ES implementation process including project stage and post project stage. Further recommend that enterprise system implementation effectiveness need to be analyzed at two levels: short term implementation effectiveness, related to the outcome of the project stage, and the long-term implementation effectiveness, related to the outcome of the post-project stage.

Dantes and Hasibuan (2011) proposed an ERP implementing conceptual framework considering two dimensions. The ERP implementation process that have five stages: project preparation, technology selection, project formulation, implementation and post-implementation. [START_REF] Somers | A taxonomy of players and activities across the ERP project life cycle[END_REF] identified six stages of ERP implementation process: initiation, adoption, adaptation, acceptance, routinization, and infusion.

Ahituv (2002) developed a generic hybrid ERP implementation methodology combining three structured approaches: Structured Development Life Cycle (SDLC), Prototyping and application package model. He contend that the uniqueness of ERP system renders any of the three models inadequate to be adopted solely in implementation of ERP system.

Most ERP vendors propose frameworks specific to their ERP solution to simplify the implementation process. Some of the major vendor specific frameworks include: Accelerated SAP (ASAP) by SAP, Application Implementation Method (AIM) by Oracle, Direct Path by PeopleSoft and Dynamic Enterprise Modeler by BAAN (Benders, Batenburg & Van der Blonk, 2006). Vendor specific frameworks coerce client organizations to compromise their core business processes for the sake of conforming to the vendor's prescribed implementing framework; a concept of isomorphism, DiMaggio and Powell (1983).

ERP market

Despite the wide adoption of ERP systems, the biggest share is in developed economies, and the adoption rate in developing countries is very low more so in Africa. Shaul and Tauber (2013) indicated that ERP market was occupied 66% by North America; Europe had 22%, whereas the whole of Asia was at 9 %, Africa share an estimate of only 3%.

Impact of ERP on Business Processes

Literature cite [START_REF] Bozeman | A Theory of Government Red Tape[END_REF] arguing that one of the main characteristics of the public sector is the large number of formal processes that appear to be essential to ensure that the public sector functions. Successful Information System implementation requires sufficient attention to policy, processes, structure, laws, and regulations (Rose and Grant, 2010). ERP systems provide an environment for business process alignment and management, and seamless flow of data and information across silo function areas. [START_REF] Gulledge | Public sector enterprise resource planning Industrial[END_REF] noted that process management is a prerequisite for successful implementation of business process-oriented enterprise systems. Localized implementations of process management have been prevalent for years [START_REF] Grass | Processing and operation planning[END_REF].

Technology adaptation in public or private sector, should be considered only to provide capabilities to support business processes deliver efficiency and effectiveness to service delivery, and deliver value to the customer (Davenport and Short, 1990).

Hence, the public sector should consider the primary benefits of process management to ensure alignment of cross-functional processes prior to implementation of a technology solution to support enterprise functions [START_REF] Gulledge | Business process management: public sector implications[END_REF]. Columbus (2014) observed that successful ERP systems implementation requires strategic, innovative implementation and deployment approaches that incorporate business process management.

According to [START_REF] Gulledge | Business process management: public sector implications[END_REF] business process management has received much attention in the private sector management literature, and its benefits are well known; much less has been written in the public sector management literature, and what has been written has been very general.

Trends in ERP system

Hawari and Heeks (2010) argued that the designer of the ERP software package assumed the existence of a strong local area network, servers, personal computers and broadband internet connections. Many developing countries, more so the public sectors are not yet at the level of developed countries when it comes to technology and related infrastructure. According to Saini, Sain and Khandage (2011) cloud computing is a new paradigm in which computing resources such as processing, memory, and storage are not physically present at the user's location. Instead, a service provider owns and manages these resources, and users access them via the Internet. The greatest challenge of ERPs is the costs related to these systems implementation which includes investing to acquire software, hardware, consultant fees, in-house staff (in charge of the installation process), staff operating on the system and the user training

CSF for implementing ES

Enterprise systems CSFs in the public sector domain are grouped into: procurement procedure, government processes management, project team competence, and project management process (Ziemba and Oblak, 2013; Hasibuan and Dantes, 2012). [START_REF] Wang | The Consistency Among Facilitating Factors and ERP Implementation Success: A Holistic View of Fit[END_REF] further considered the importance of: top management support, vender's support, consultant's competence, users' support, IT capability, and project management leadership; to mitigate the costly failure of ERP system implementation. Ustasüleyman and Percin (2010) considers project management, consultant planning activities and internal audit to be significant in predicting the ERP implementation success. Many developing countries still experience severe constraints in these dimensions.

269

During the implementation of enterprise systems, often the business must be modified to fit the system [START_REF] Davenport | Putting the Enterprise into the Enterprise System[END_REF]. This means the organizations' business processes need to be reengineered to fit the best practices that comprise the system. This considerably add to the expense and risk of introducing enterprise systems (Kumar and Van Hillegersberg, 2000; [START_REF] Markus | Learning from adopter's experience with ERP: problems encountered and success achieved[END_REF]. Moreover, vendors try to structure the systems to reflect best practices, but it is the vendor, not the costumer who define what "best" means [START_REF] Davenport | Putting the Enterprise into the Enterprise System[END_REF]. Hence, the adopting organization is dependent on the vendor for updates of the package (Markus and Tanis, 2000

Abdelghaffar (2012 identified ten factors which had impact on ERP implementation in Egypt. Authors identified different CSFs, and also categorized them differently: Kalema et al. (2014) proposed 37; Frimpon (2012) identified 28, all obtained from literature review, and Frimpon (2012) identified 5 from SMEs in Kenya. However, ERP system design assumes a set of organizational processes that match the best practice in the industry (Strong and Volkoff, 2010). Hence, the importance of a factor may differ from one context to another (Momoh and Shehab, 2010).

ERP implementation cost and failure

Implementation of ERP systems in the public sector is considered to be challenging and require enormous investment and still with risk of failure [START_REF] Kelemen | ERP Systems in Public Sector, Information and Communication Technology[END_REF]. According to Bjørn-Andersen and Johansson (2007) the implementation of ERP project itself is far more expensive than the costs of the software licenses. Organizations leaders usually were unsatisfied with ERP implementation timelines, regularly exceeding two years (Bozaa et al. 2014). Exceeding timelines is caused by: inadequate preparation, lack of knowledge and experience, inability to predict and find an appropriate solution. According to Rouhania and Ravasan (2012) these projects are on average 178% over budget, take 2.5 times longer than intended, and deliver only 30% of the promised benefit. Harb and Twak, (2015) further cite Lutovac and Manojlov (2012) that more than 80% of companies in Indonesia failed to implement ERP and 50% of companies in the world failed to obtain the optimal return value. ). Software packages are subjected to institutional procedures, processes and forces that set rules of rationality [START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage[END_REF]. The standard practice in many ERP implementations force a match between client business processes and ERP system design through business process reengineering (BPR) resulting into massive changes and ultimately lead to failure [START_REF] Hawari | Explaining ERP Failure in A Developing Country: A Jordanian Case Study[END_REF].

Nevertheless, Information Technology (IT) governance and Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) could be another source of ERP system implementation failure. IT governance has two aspects, information technology resource management and performance measurement, that impact the alignment of the organization and the IT solutions. These IT governance components have significant positive impact on alignment of IT with business strategies [START_REF] Mohammad | The role and relevance of IT governance and IT capability in Business-IT alignment in medium and large companies[END_REF]. IT governance provides a description of the deployment of information technology in an organization. The IT governance also provides the leadership, organizational structure and processes to ensure that the implemented IT sustain and support organization's strategy (Broadbent 2000; IT Governance Institute, 2003). During the implementation of ERP system, IT governance team assess the IT infrastructure, and implement a framework to calculate the ERP system TCO. TCO is a comprehensive system approach that enable management make better decisions in regard to direct and indirect costs associated with IT resources. Any organization attempting to implement ERP system need a TCO framework to enable better decision making in regard to ERP implementation project. Though in many cases the TCO is consider under the purchasing cost, underestimating hidden costs of technology solutions can result into implementation failure. A comprehensive TCO framework captures ERP implementation cost from the onset to post implementation of the project. Literature on ERP system TCO is sparse, hence, lack of clear understanding of ERP TCO is likely to be one of the major causes of budget overrun. Understanding ERP system has to be contextualized because of the conflicting ideas that emanate from the fact that there are no universal best practices that fit different industries and environments, and particularly developing countries [START_REF] Bitsini | Investigating ERP Misalignment between, ERP Systems and Implementing, Organizations in Developing Countries[END_REF].

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Though the impact of ERP system on business processes and job environments are not among the identified themes discussed in the context of public sector, they prominently future in private sector. ERP fundamentally impact on the business processes and the work practices. In public sector environment more so in developing countries where political, legislative, and financial constraint are high, a successful implementation of ERP in such environment require an attention on public sector business processes.

CONCLUSION

In this paper a review of 74 articles ranging from 1998 to 2018 with relevance to public sector was done and identified only 5.04% of these articles were related to ERP in developing countries. However, the major themes identified include; genesis of ERP, CSF/CFF, ERP implementation cost and failure, ERP implementation frameworks/Methodologies, ERP market and trends. A critical analysis of these themes is carried out to highlight the available knowledge and gaps on ERP in public sectors in developing countries.

Limitations and feature research 273

The search didn't reveal substantial literature on developing country public sector issues. Identified literature does not also clearly distinguish public sector organisations, like agencies or authorities, from public sector administrations like local governments. Policies, regulations, business processes and mandates of public sector institutions differ from those of public administration. Most of the identified research on developing country public sectors focus on non-administrative public sectors (Simone, Célio and Julliane, 2018). Successful implementation of ERP systems in developing countries public sectors requires understanding of: the policy and regulatory frameworks relevant to developing country unique challenges; impacts caused by external influences like donor funding and vendor's highly inscribed designs; comprehensive CSF/CFF specific to developing country public sectors, Total Cost of Ownership framework, ERP integration with other application, and contextualized ERP implementation frameworks. An ERP architecture grounded on local business processes rather that considering universal best practices is critical to successful implementation of ERP system. A study on an alternative architecture that can harness capabilities of other technologies like Multi-Agent Systems and SOA could help to develop ERP systems that minimize on business process improvement, which is highly disruptive in developing countries public sectors. This could reduce the ERP system implementation cost and failure rate. The listed research dimensions contribute to the fact that despite the wide adoption of ERP systems, the biggest share is in developed economies; the adoption rate in developing countries is still very low more so in Africa. Hence, the studies are recommended to create knowledge on implementation of ERP systems in developing country public sectors.

REFERENCE

Table 2

 2

	. The research covered articles in the range from 1998 to 2015. A list of
	search words including Enterprise systems, public sector ERP, Enterprise Resource
	Planning, developing countries public were used to search the literature using Google
	scholar

Table 1 .

 1 Journal sources

Table 2 .

 2 Reviews and Conferences

	Reviews	Conventions/Conferences
	Public		International Conference on Information
	Administra-	Systems (ICIS) 2004 Proceedings
	tion Review
			Electronics and Microelectronics (MIPRO),
	Harvard	2014 37th International Convention
	Business
	Review		European Conference on Information Sys-
			tems (2000)
	American
	review	of	International Conference on System Sci-
	public	ad-	ences (2001)
	ministration
	Govern-
	ment Infor-

Table 3 .

 3 Themes published about ERP by category

	Common themes identified in articles reviewed include the genesis
	of ERP systems, critical success factors for implementing ERP, ERP implementation
	cost and failure, ERP implementing frameworks/methodologies, ERP market and
	Trends in ERP systems. ERP themes that have no article related to developing coun-
	tries are identified in table 2.
	Theme	Author
	ERP Generally	Sprecher (1999), Kumar and Hillsgers-
		berg (2000), Periseraset al. (2000) Allen et
	(one article related	al. (2002), Sally and Arnold, (2002),
	to public sector, but	Huang et al. (2003), Wagner and Antonucci
	not in developing	(2004), Alshawi (2004), Robert and Wes-
	country context)	ton (2007), Tregear and Jenkins (2007),
		Feng, Hu and Huang (2011), Nazami et al.
		(2012),
		Bailey et al. (2015)

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) was coined in the early 1990 by Gartner Group

[START_REF] Robert | Enterprise resource planning (ERP)-A brief history[END_REF]

. In private sectors both ERP software vendors and users understand technical, human resource, and financial resources requirements for ERP systems implementation. According to Columbus (2014) a successful ERP systems implementation requires strategic, innovative implementation and deployment approaches that incorporate business process management. ERP systems provide realtime access to information from various business processes integrating different functions

[START_REF] Nah | Critical factors for successful implementation of enterprise systems[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Mashari | A process change-oriented model for ERP Application. 3[END_REF][START_REF] Alsene | ERP systems and the coordination of the enterprise[END_REF]

  ; Somers et al., 2001; Grossman et al., 2004; Umble at al., 2002). Documented models of ERP systems implementation comprise of different stages. Some researchers suggest a three-stage model (Parr and Shanks, 2000; Neumann and Zviran 2002).

  (Trimi et al., 2005). Armbrust et al.(2010) stated that these ERP systems can be provided in an easier and more attractive way by their provision over the cloud. Lechesa et al. (2012) stated that ERP systems are also delivered as SaaS (Software as a Service), and is increasingly adopted in the global market.Baxter (2010) indicated that there does not appear to be one best model for the implementation of ERP system, and suggest that applying traditional methods to an ERP development project does not work. Navaneethakrishnan (2013) suggest that cloud computing gives organization all the services of computing, networking and data storage from a distinct location. Public authorities or government could benefit from these advantages by adopting cloud computing (Bernd and Arne, 2012). The analysis of Alford (2009) as cited by Bernd and Arne (2012) implies that over a 13-years lifecycle the implementation costs for cloud computing would be more than 60% lower than setting up a traditional data center. Bernd and Arne (2012) argued that these advantages make cloud computing also very interesting to be adopted in the public sector and e-Government.One of the benefits of Cloud technology to public administration is to eliminate the necessity of setting up an own IT infrastructure, hence, decreasing investment and administrative expenditures (Bernd and Arne 2012). More benefits of cloud computing for government are listed by Bhisikar (2011) including increased flexibility, access everywhere, elastic scalability and pay-as-you-go, easy implementation, service quality, sharing documents and group collaboration, data recovery, distributed data centers and availability of software updates. Maliza et al. (2012) cites Mozammel-Bin-Motalab and Shohag (2011) who argued that cloud enterprise systems is simple to deploy, and it represents the latest, greatest, and most influential IT change in years.

Vendors of Cloud ERP Systems manage, maintain and deploy IT infrastructure. Consequently, reduce the IT complexity that users face when implementing an enterprise system (Maliza et al., 2012). In the same line, Beaubouef (2011) argued that no further IT investment is required in terms of infrastructure, software and support resources upgrading. According to Bailey et al. (2010) local government administration should move aggressively to cloud computing in order to achieve service improvements and cost efficiencies.

  Wu et al. (2008) and Kwahk et al. (2010) and Salmeron et al. (2010) list a number of failed ERP systems implementations with magnitude of financial losses; resulted from not properly implementing ERP systems. Most developing countries public sector administration often rely on borrowed or donor funds. Hence, ERP systems implementation projects require extra caution to mitigate ES implementation failure.

	The continued high failure rates with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems
	remain a great concern (Ram, Corkindale and Wu, 2013). Most of ERP systems' fail-
	ures in developing countries are attributed to misalignment of requirements between
	ERP systems and implementing organizations (Morton and Hu, 2008; Roseann and
	Weber, 2004; Strong and Volkoff, 2010). Misalignment originate from mismatches in
	different contexts where ERP system is developed. Deodar and Aiming (2011) argued
	that when organizations implement an ERP system that was developed in a different
	social context, they are more likely to experience misalignment or misfit embedded
	within software packages with business models designers believe represent the best
	practice in certain contexts (Roseann et al, 2004
	Nazemi et al. (2012) found out that the total cost including: hardware, software, pro-
	fessional services, training, and internal staff costs could range between $300 and
	$400 million with an average of $15 million. This average cost is close to the US $ 30
	to US$70 stated by (Rodin-Brown, 2008). As a consequence some developing coun-
	tries continue to run enterprise systems not successfully implemented that constrain
	the ES efficiency (Rodin-Brown, 2008).
	270

271

  Though there is an increase in ERP adoption in the public sector, in many aspects developing countries are far less than developed countries; caused by differences in technological advancements and supporting infrastructure. The growth of ERP implementation in developing countries is not supported by literature indicating reduction in failure rate. Factors associated with lack of skills and technology, absence of good quality data, lack of money, user resistance and cultural issues identified by[START_REF] Hawari | Explaining ERP Failure in A Developing Country: A Jordanian Case Study[END_REF],Kamhawi (2008) andSoja (2009) and are still prevailing. The ERP designreality gap identified by Hawari and Heeks (2010) is still one of the key causes of ERP implementation failures in developing countries due to adoption of developed country perspective solutions. The challenges are even more pronounced in developing countries public domain, where business processes are highly hieratical; culture and business practices reinforced by poor motivation. The practice of reengineering business process to fit the recipient organization into ERP best practice framework reinforce the challenge. Hawari and Heeks, (2010) argue that Standard practice in many ERP implementations has been to force a match between client business processes and ERP system design through business process reengineering (BPR) which results in too much change and ultimately leads to failure. Understanding the critical success factors or rather critical failure factors for implementing ERP systems in developing countries public sector in critical to reduce the design-reality gap.

  Columbus (2014) observed that successful ERP systems implementation requires strategic, innovative implementation and deployment approaches that incorporate business process management.Bailey et al. (2015) found that ERP systems affect the quality of work life, in a study from African countries. This is likely to be caused by business process improvement, which result into the demand of new set of skills and different work practices. Europe had 22%, whereas the whole of Asia was at 9 %, Africa share an estimate of only 3%.; this gives an indication on why ERP issues in developing countries are not well researched, hence, not well understood.Dwivedi et al. (2014) envisaged the need to extend ERP research focus to include further public sector ERP systems implementation. The market percentage also don't separate the private from public sectors. However, from a business perspective this gives an indication on the ERP market trend being focused towards developing countries as they provide unsaturated market. Hence, developing countries have become a major target for ERP vendors (Dezdar and Ainin, 2011). The academic perspective, a percentage of only 5.04 research work done on ERP subject in developing countries, is an indicator of inadequate understanding of the subject in various aspects. Developing countries are still highly constrained with Information Technology infrastructure required to implement ERP systems. However, the proliferation of cloud computing technology promise ERP systems provisioning opportunities. It is important to understanding how cloud facility with "pay-as-use" and SaaS provisioning present opportunities of implementing ERP in developing countries public sector at far lower infrastructure costs and skills requirements despite other underlying issues . Though literature promote cloud computing benefits to be adopted in the public sector and e-Government (Bernd and Arne, 2012).

	tries. Hence, ERP systems implementation process should be administered differently
	as suggested by Addo-Tenkorang and Helo (2011). Sommer (2011) state that public
	administration has characteristics including: cultural, political, and organizational
	factors that negatively influence successful ERP implementation in local government
	administration.
	Research implication
	Shaul and Tauber, (2013) findings indicated that ERP market was occupied 66% by
	North America;
	Implementation of ERP system touches the core process of the business. Hence, adop-
	tion of a hybrid methodology universally is likely to result into unexpected failure due
	to cultural, organizational and political influences experienced in environments that
	are characteristically different. Existing frameworks/methodologies are private sector
	based and focus on what should be done at a particular stage with no consideration of
	variations in different domains. Characteristic variations between private sector and
	public sector significantly impact on the way activities are carried out in a given envi-
	ronment. ERP implementation in developing countries should also take into account
	the fact that developing countries have limited resources unlike the developed coun-
	272


Kuribachew Gizaw
email: kuribachewgizaw@gmail.com

Neuroethics of Augmenting Human Memory using Wearable pervasive and Ubiquitous Technologies

Keywords: Neuroethics, Memory Augmentation, Wearable Pervasive and Ubiquitous devices. 1

établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Ethics related to Artificial Intelligence (AI) is about creating intelligent machines. The possible harm caused by the machines on the human race is the main ethical concern in AI. Is it morally right to lead humans into competition with machines? This is man versus machine game. On the contrary, in the human augmentation scheme, the game is man versus an augmented man. In athletics, all athletes run for a gold medal. It is obligatory for them to be away from doping to have an equal competition platform. Using doping and coming to the running track leads to sanctions. Doping is nothing but a human augmentation psychopharmacological drug that alleviates mental alertness. Such medicines are designed for treating mental illness like ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) [START_REF] Fuchs | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. But now, doping is used unethically to aid study and professional competitions. Human augmentation can be done using drugs, mental-implants (brain pacemaker) and neuro-technologies. In this paper, the ethical issues on a type of neuro-technologies for augmenting human memory will be discussed.

Memory enables individuals to encode, store and retrieve (recall) information. Due to a number of factors, the human memory is not capable of accurately recalling all information that one may need with 100% accuracy. Memory augmentation is desired to increase the recall capacity for individuals with and without memory deficit. For an individual with a memory failure, life will not continue to be the same as before. Based on the severity, Alzheimer and dementia patients could not be able to remember their past. They even forget information including their families, home address, their learned experience in academics and professional life. Memory is identity, without having memory life will be so difficult and treating the illness with all possible means is crucial. In the other hand, individuals with a normal memory also have a desire to increase their recall capacity. College students use doping type drugs to aid their regular study to increase their recall for an exam [START_REF] Fuchs | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF].

Wearable pervasive and ubiquitous technologies are applied to augment human memory. Wearable lifelogging technologies (a type of pervasive computing) are widely applied to augment Alzheimer and dementia patients' memory deficits. There are also ubiquitous devices designed to augment students' memory.

Neuroethics discipline has emerged to manage the advancements in neuroscience research findings. It provides neuroscientists a critical look on the potential impact of the neuro-technologies on the society [START_REF] Greely | Neuroethics in the Age of Brain Projects[END_REF].

There is a desire to augment human memory using wearable pervasive computing technologies. But, considering the ethical issues before starting to develop a new and adopt an existing technology is important. System developers need to be aware of the consequences of their planned technologies. The personal, societal and cultural undesired impact of memory augmentation should be assessed at first. This is a short paper to speculate on some of the major neuroethics of augmenting human memory using wearable devices. The background section present human memory and memory augmentation then the ethical issues will be discussed in the discussion section.

Background

Human Memory

The human memory is one of the main cognitive functions that encodes stores and retrieves information [START_REF] Harvey | Remembering through lifelogging: A survey of human memory augmentation[END_REF]. According to the SPI (Serial, Parallel, and Independent) model of memory, the human brain encodes information serially. At the same instant, thousands of input stimuli could enter the human brain. However, memory encoding happens to the stimulus that gets attention in a serial manner. Encoded information will be stored in parallel and finally retrieved independently [START_REF] Tulving | Organization of Memory: QuoVadis?[END_REF]. Forgetting is unable to retrieve memories. Encoding and retrieval are the two core functions of human memory [START_REF] Sprenger | Memory Lane Is a Two-Way Street[END_REF].

Memory Encoding starts with sensory information encoding. It is triggered when input information such as visual, tactile (Sematosensory), auditory, olfactory and gustatory stimuli strikes the brain. Memory encoding ends with making a perception (semantic description of the senses). As a perception reaches working memory/short term memory if it gets the attention it will be sent to Long-term Memory to be encoded else it will be discarded just right there [START_REF] Tulving | Organization of Memory: QuoVadis?[END_REF].

Memory Retrieval results in two types of output from Long-term memory. Declarative memory output is a mental image and non-declarative memory is a motor output [START_REF] Squire | Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory: Multiple Brain Systems Supporting Learning and Memory[END_REF]. Declarative memory retrieval includes both recall and recognition, where recall is remembering in detail but recognition is remembering the highlight [START_REF] Squire | Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory: Multiple Brain Systems Supporting Learning and Memory[END_REF]. Free-recall and cued-recall are two types of recall. Free-recall is remembering the detail without having a cue and cued-recall is remembering after a cue is given [START_REF] Squire | Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory: Multiple Brain Systems Supporting Learning and Memory[END_REF].

Human Memory Augmentation

Augmenting memory is not only for individuals with memory deficit it also helps normal individuals develop a more effective memory [START_REF] Chen | Augmenting human memory using personal lifelogs[END_REF]. Memory encoding, storage and retrieval are three functions in human memory; augmentation is used to support retrieval. Memory encoding accuracy is about the functioning of the sensory systems. Memory storage is an unconscious cognitive function. Synaptic interactions of neurons form groups of neurons for long-term memory and it occurs largely unconsciously [START_REF] Niforatos | Augmenting Memory Recall in Work Meetings[END_REF]. Due to this, assisting the encoding and storage of human memory is not under the current trend of memory augmentation that this work focuses on. Augmenting memory is mainly the concern on increasing the retrieval of a memory. Once information is encoded in the human brain a human can't accurately retrieve all stored information from their past. Forgetting information is the nature of a human. This forgetting could include information which is vital to that individual.

Memory augmentation work includes the use of diaries, photos, to-do lists, calendar, address books and summarized notes to retain the past for the future. The recent trends in memory augmentation focus on using wearable cameras and life-logging technologies [START_REF] Harvey | Remembering through lifelogging: A survey of human memory augmentation[END_REF].These tools record episodes of an individuals' life. This focus on episodic memory guards against an instance of when an individual loses his/her memory (or parts of it). These recordings of episodic memory are a collection of events that are captured in a particular time and place. It is also referred to as autobiographical memory [START_REF] Tulving | Organization of Memory: QuoVadis?[END_REF], [START_REF] Niforatos | Augmenting Memory Recall in Work Meetings[END_REF]. Semantic memory augmentation is also useful for human learning, decision making, and thinking Augmenting episodic memory can be implemented through a video recording of an individual's daily life activity using a wearable camera. Pervasive computing augmentation systems provide better assistance by generating cues from the recording and playing the cues in an unnoticeable way (e.g. as a Smartphone reminder app) [START_REF] Tulving | Organization of Memory: QuoVadis?[END_REF], [START_REF] Niforatos | Augmenting Memory Recall in Work Meetings[END_REF]. Research that brings together experts from neuroscience, cognitive psychology, sociology, information technology, and knowledge management disciplines has been conducted for augmenting episodic memory. It includes Forget-Me-Not [START_REF] Lamming | Forget-me-not " Intimate Computing in Support of Human Memory[END_REF], Memory for a life (M4L)(O ' [START_REF] O 'hara | Memories for life: a review of the science and technology[END_REF] and Life-Logging [START_REF] Harvey | Remembering through lifelogging: A survey of human memory augmentation[END_REF].

Microsoft's SenseCam is the most widely known life-logging technology that is used to help patients with memory deficit by recording everyday life activities. After collecting the recordings it generates effective cues based on the context of the user (personal experiences). It also extracts thoughts, feelings and emotions from the time of the event recording. The device is used to sense the environment and record the events without human intervention. The wearer of the device can review the records using the log file as she/he requires and this improves the functioning of patients with recall problems [START_REF] Hodges | SenseCam: A Retrospective Memory Aid[END_REF].

There are also other approaches related to episodic memory augmentation. MyMemory is one such approach, it uses a mobile application to augment autobiographical memories using personal cues [START_REF] Chang | Mymemory: A mobile memory assistant for people with traumatic brain injury[END_REF]. Odor triggered episodic memory augmentation is also available [START_REF] Daniels | Odor-induced recall of emotional memories in PTSD-Review and new paradigm for research[END_REF]. Wearable real-time face-recognition systems that use face + voice recognition to replay part of the last conversation one has with the person they are currently interacting with also helps to remember the person along with the last conversation [START_REF] Utsumi | Who are you?-A Wearable Face Recognition System to Support Human Memory[END_REF]. Photos and digital libraries are used as a cue to recall episodic memory of a specific event [START_REF] Lin | A wearable digital library of personal conversations[END_REF], [START_REF] Agroudy | Impact of reviewing lifelogging photos on recalling episodic memories[END_REF] and the concept of lifelogging is used to augment memory recall in work meetings [START_REF] Niforatos | Augmenting Memory Recall in Work Meetings[END_REF] Augmenting Semantic Memory is used to recall a collection of facts and general knowledge. Recall for semantic memory is the most important for learning, professional working, critical thinking and decision making [START_REF] Tulving | Organization of Memory: QuoVadis?[END_REF]. Students need to have good semantic memory recall to achieve passing marks in their lessons. The most frequently reported failure in memory recall is semantic memory recall of information required during the exam (what to answer for the questions appearing in the exam) [START_REF] Harvey | Remembering through lifelogging: A survey of human memory augmentation[END_REF].

For augmenting the human semantic memory, cognitive neuroscientists recommend repetition and recency of the information. Rehearsal (repetition) during studying and reviewing the studied material before going for an exam helps a student to recall [START_REF] Norden | Brain Areas involved in Different Types of Memory[END_REF]. Augmentation of human semantic memory recall is addressed through using wearable devices by providing digital 'cues' [START_REF] Kawamura | Ubiquitous Memories: A memory externalization system using physical objects[END_REF], where a cue is a stimulus that helps to recall associated memory. The stimuli can be any of the five sensory stimuli. For example, tactile information is used as a cue in the ubiquitous memory project [START_REF] Kawamura | Ubiquitous Memories: A memory externalization system using physical objects[END_REF]to augment students memory. Similarly, memory palace, a device used to create contextual(personal, individuals can put what they can easily remember)cues during the encoding phase of information mapping can be used to trigger semantic memory recall later [START_REF] Harman | Creating a memory palace using a computer[END_REF].

Discussion

Ethical Issues in Human Memory Augmentations

While talking about the ethicality of memory augmentation, what first comes to everyone mind is the manipulation of memory by others as shown in Total Recall. Total Recall is an American film in 1990 starring by Arnold Schwarzenegger that tells a story of a person with a false memory implant. According to Levy (2007), there is no way for such fictions to become reality. For such fictions to be real there must be a full understanding of how memory is stored in the hippocampus and later activated to retrieve it back. Even after years in 2013 Brain initiatives have been launched around the world to understand how the brain works [START_REF] Amadio | Neuroethics Questions to Guide Ethical Research in the International Brain Initiatives[END_REF]. But still, such manipulation is far from reality. Hence, the memory encoding is a result of sensory encoding, so without the conscious involvement of the individual, memory encoding will not be realized (it will be dumping of neural circuits). In anyways if thus kinds of fictions become possible, it will be unethical and immoral to apply it. The harm caused by such technologies on the individual, in the society and as mankind will outweigh than its benefit(there could be a benefit in treating post-traumatic disorder) [START_REF]Neuroethics. Published in the United States of America[END_REF].

However, the memory augmentation types discussed in this paper to augment episodic and semantic memories are not manipulation of an individual's memory. In using wearable pervasive and ubiquitous computing devices for memory augmentation, ethical concerns can be categorized into four groups. [START_REF] Fuchs | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]The precision of the device: as long as the pervasive and ubiquitous devices for augmenting episodic and semantic memory are accurate in functionality their aids is acceptable. If there is a little error in the systems it will lead to unintended result [START_REF] Fuchs | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. [START_REF] Greely | Neuroethics in the Age of Brain Projects[END_REF] The privacy of the individual: the privacy includes the identity of the individual like autonomy, affection, cognition and behavior. The wearable devices should be designed by considering the maximum possible privacy and optimal autonomy of the individual [START_REF] Amadio | Neuroethics Questions to Guide Ethical Research in the International Brain Initiatives[END_REF]. (3) The confidentiality and security of the memories of the individual the recorded memories and lifelogging events should be free from unauthorized access. These memories/events/knowledge are the individuals' identity while designing and implementing the systems this confidentiality should never be compromised [START_REF] Fuchs | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. For example, the wearable devices used by individuals with memory illness should be designed to be used by themselves, i.e. it should be in accordance with their selfefficacy and mental health situation or if their situation needs support by others these individuals should be trusted by the patients. (4) The consequences of using the device on the individual health and social life: identifying the possible unintended consequences on the social and self is very crucial for the augmentation technology. The consequence of the augmentation on the health of the individual is debated as devaluating humans' imperfection. There is a widely held view that the imperfections of a human brain do have natural balance mechanisms. Enhancing recall may cause forgetting later. Forgetting is not only memory failure it also helps to facilitate later retrieval by reducing information overload from the human brain. This type of forgetting is not forgetting all past information. It is being selective in remembering. The type and volume of memories required to be remembered needs consideration [START_REF] Fuchs | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. Long-term and short-term side effect on the natural self also needs to be out planned. Considering the possible societal consequences is also necessary for having culturally informed neuroethics and free from cultural bias technologies [START_REF] Amadio | Neuroethics Questions to Guide Ethical Research in the International Brain Initiatives[END_REF].

On the other hand, augmenting normal functioning memory is one of the main ethical issues raised. Drugs used to help individuals with dementia disorder like ampakine can improve the memory performance of a healthy individual. Individuals who used ampakine have shown better performance in a memory test than before [START_REF] Farah | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. Similarly, in augmenting memory using wearable pervasive and ubiquitous devices ethical issues raised in having a problem on the society. Social problems in augmenting memory: in general, augmenting could never be fairly distributed [START_REF] Farah | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. As a result, the man vs. augmented man match will create disadvantageous individuals. Individuals who are privileged and have access for the augmented technologies will be advantageous and the other individuals will be disadvantageous. The other social problem created by augmenting is life will lose its standard of normalcy [START_REF] Farah | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. Individuals with their natural ability could be considered less recaller than the individual who uses augmented technology. Here, it is good to remember that augmenting have been practised from the genesis. Even during the renaissance, in the creation of paper and printing machines, there was a debate in using the machines. It was considered that will affect humans' natural ability in recalling memories from their brain. However, it is good to consider such ethical issues while designing memory augmentation technologies. Focusing on helping the natural ability to boost recall capability is always recommended [START_REF] Farah | Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience[END_REF]. Therefore, for wearable pervasive and ubiquitous technologies to have an augmented recall throughout ones' lifetime without a drawback the characteristic of the technology matters most. Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework for including neuroethics in the design of wearable pervasive and ubiquitous technologies.

Conclusion

The ethical issue for augmenting memory using wearable devices is highlighted in this paper. Relatively, using drugs to enhance memory is more debatable than using wearable devices. The harm caused by wearable devices will be insignificant as long as the device is precisely working and the privacy and security [START_REF]Information systems theory: Explaining and predicting our digital society[END_REF][START_REF] Hossain | What improves citizens' privacy perceptions toward RFID technology? A cross-country investigation using mixed method approach[END_REF][START_REF] Irani | Radio frequency identification (RFID): research trends and framework[END_REF][START_REF] Duan | Artificial intelligence for decision making in the era of Big Data-evolution, challenges and research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Hughes | Blockchain research, practice and policy: Applications, benefits, limitations, emerging research themes and research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Gutierrez | Using privacy calculus theory to explore entrepreneurial directions in mobile location-based advertising: Identifying intrusiveness as the critical risk factor[END_REF] of the individual are preserved. Moreover, considering societal aspects is also important to assure the ethicality of wearable devices. In augmenting healthy memories, designing technologies to boost recall by helping the natural ability is the most recommended type. This is a short paper to create an eye opener for other scholars to discuss it more.

Figure 1 ,

 1 Figure 1, Conceptual Framework

5


Samuel Fosso Wamba
email: s.fosso-wamba@tbs-education.fr

Maciel M Queiroz
email: maciel.m.queiroz@gmail.com

A Bibliometric Analysis and Research Agenda on Smart Cities

Keywords: Smart Cities, Intelligent Cities, Research Agenda

Smart cities or intelligent cities have been gaining visibility and importance in recent years; not only in academia but also in the agendas of governments. Smart cities represent an important and disruptive interplay of cities' infrastructure, technologies, and people. Advancements in information and communication technology (ICT) have been supported by the development of cutting-edge technologies that involve the behaviors and experiences of city dwellers. In this context, smart cities have changed drastically in the last years. However, due to the rapid advancement of this multidisciplinary field, scholars and practitioners have encountered some difficulties in catalysing the latest advances as well as identifying a consistent and robust research agenda on this hot topic. In order to understand the evolution of this field, this study used bibliometric and network analysis; and identified top authors and articles. Also, we provided research directions based on cluster classification. Lastly, this study offers theoretical and managerial contributions.

Introduction

Nowadays, 55% of people in the world live in urban areas [START_REF] Un | 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN[END_REF] and according to projected estimates, approximately 68% of the world's population will live in cities (urban areas) by 2050. This increase in population growth is already bringing unprecedented consequences to the cities, its people and their quality of life; provoking climate change.

Due to this landscape and the recent advances in information and communications technologies (ICT), cities need to become smarter in terms of resource consumption. Due to the exponential growth of data [START_REF] Manyika | Big data: The next frontier for innovation, competition, and productivity[END_REF]- [START_REF] Wamba | How 'big data' can make big impact: Findings from a systematic review and a longitudinal case study[END_REF], the advances of smartphone applications, smart products (e.g., smart TVs, smart-watch, smart clothes, among others), smart semaphore, especially with the advent of internet of things (IoT) and sensors applications, the experiences of city dwellers have changed drastically in the last years. In addition, with the use of GPS in activities that depend on vehicles, cities can accumulate important data on the behaviour of citizens in order to develop government policies to address resource usage and the well-being of the population.

In this context, a smart city can be defined as "urban areas that exploit operational data such as; that arising from traffic congestion, power consumption statistics, and public safety events, to optimize the operation of city services" [START_REF] Harrison | Foundations for Smarter Cities[END_REF]. In recent years, various scholars have devoted considerable efforts to provide information about the evolution of smart cities concepts [START_REF] Albino | Smart cities: Definitions, dimensions, performance, and initiatives[END_REF]- [START_REF] Neirotti | Current trends in Smart City initiatives: Some stylised facts[END_REF]. In this vein, a smart city occurs when its traditional infrastructure is merged with ICT in an integrated and coordinated manner [START_REF] Batty | Smart cities of the future[END_REF]. Recent studies have shown two cutting-edge technologies that have the potential to leverage smart cities; big data [START_REF] Kitchin | The real-time city? Big data and smart urbanism[END_REF], [START_REF] Townsend | Smart Cities: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia[END_REF], and the internet of things (IoT) [START_REF] Jin | An Information Framework for Creating a Smart City Through Internet of Things[END_REF], [START_REF] Zanella | Internet of Things for Smart Cities[END_REF]. In addition, smart cities have the potential to leverage the quality of life as well as the performance of the firms that use their infrastructure [START_REF] Ismagilova | Smart cities: Advances in research-An information systems perspective[END_REF].

Moreover, the smart cities can be visualized by six main dimensions (smart economy, smart people, smart governance, smart mobility, smart environment, and smart living) [START_REF] Lombardi | Modelling the smart city performance[END_REF], [START_REF] Albino | Smart Cities: Definitions, Dimensions, Performance, and Initiatives[END_REF]. Thus, recent studies have been highlighting the importance of smart cities in various contexts [START_REF] Axelsson | Stakeholders' stake and relation to smartness in smart city development: Insights from a Swedish city planning project[END_REF]- [START_REF] Caragliu | Smart innovative cities: The impact of Smart City policies on urban innovation[END_REF]. However, there are various barriers associated with their development [START_REF] Rana | Barriers to the Development of Smart Cities in Indian Context[END_REF].

Despite these significant and important innovations in the smart city field, there exists a gap in the literature regarding the bibliometric perspective in organizing and analysing the advances in this research stream; same as in the current trends. In order to outperform this gap, this study aims to 1) identify the literature on smart cities taking into consideration the period from 2000 to 2018; 2) Give insights on the more influential studies using a bibliometric and network analysis approach; 3) Provide research directions to scholars and insights to practitioners and managers.

By employing a bibliometric and network analysis approach, we identified 1226 articles, which were filtered and analysed in order to understand the dynamics of this field. Therefore, our study offers an essential contribution to theory and practice by identifying the most influential articles and suggesting new research. The next section of this paper presents the smart cities brief concept. In sequence, the methodology is highlighted, followed by results analysis. Next, the discussion and research agenda is provided.

Finally, the main conclusions are synthesized.

Smart Cities: Brief Concepts

A smart city (or intelligent city) is defined [START_REF] Caragliu | Smart Cities in Europe[END_REF] as "when investments in human and social capital, traditional (transport) and modern (ICT) communication infrastructure fuel sustainable economic growth and a high quality of life, with a wise management of natural resources; through participatory governance". There are several definitions of smart cities in existing literature (see [START_REF] Albino | Smart cities: Definitions, dimensions, performance, and initiatives[END_REF]). However, based on majority dynamics, there is an interplay between ICT, people, government, and resource consumption.

Recent studies on smart cities have contributed significantly by integrating and expanding concepts with frameworks. For instance, [START_REF] Mattoni | A multilevel method to assess and design the renovation and integration of Smart Cities[END_REF] presented an approach in which smart cities integrate energy (sustainability and optimization), mobility (movement), community (participation and communication), environment (enhancement), and economy (dynamism and innovation). Another interesting framework was provided by [START_REF] Jin | An Information Framework for Creating a Smart City Through Internet of Things[END_REF], whereby integrating smart cities approach with the internet of things (IoT), provided an urban information system that connects intelligent transportation, video monitoring, health monitoring, and environmental monitoring, among others.

Following the frameworks' perspective, [START_REF] Letaifa | How to strategize smart cities: Revealing the SMART model[END_REF] proposed an engaging framework called the SMART model. The purpose of this model was to provide insights into smart cities' implementation, integrating strategy levels and strategic steps, as well as dimensions, and focus. Finally, [START_REF] Kummitha | How do we understand smart cities? An evolutionary perspective[END_REF] provided a good literature review on the smart city field and proposed a framework on the smart cities schools of thought.

Method

This study follows a bibliometric approach (Caviggioli & Ughetto, 2019; Mishra, Gunasekaran, Papadopoulos, & Childe, 2018) to identify, collect, organize, and analyse articles about smart cities. Firstly, in the keywords definition, we used the following combination: smart cit* OR intelligent cit* in the titles of the articles published in English between 2000 and 2018, in the Web of Science (WOS) database. WOS is one of the largest databases worldwide [28] and has been used frequently in studies reporting literature reviews [START_REF] Liao | Past, present and future of Industry 4.0 -a systematic literature review and research agenda proposal[END_REF]. The search resulted in 1,226 articles. We analyzed the articles by employing an excel spreadsheet [START_REF] Vošner | Openness and information technology: a bibliometric analysis of literature production[END_REF] and VOSviewer to network analysis [START_REF] Mishra | Big Data and supply chain management: a review and bibliometric analysis[END_REF].

Results

Articles Published by Year and Top Twenty Journals

As the initial analysis, Fig. 1

Authors and Papers Influence

To analyse the influence of the authors, the data from WOS was extracted and analysed using VOSviewer. Table 2 presents the top ten contributing authors, the number of articles published, and the total citations. The author that dominated the list was Zanella with 1104 citations, followed by Zorzi, and Vangelista, with 1102 and 1098 citations, respectively. However, it can be seen that Bui, and Castellani with 983 citations each, have high influence because all their citations are concentrated in only one article. In addition, Table 3

Network Analysis Based on Co-Citation

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of network analysis (Mishra, Gunasekaran, Papadopoulos, & Dubey, 2018; Mishra et al., 2018) in the understanding of co-citation. Thus, co-citation analysis is commonly used to gain a better understanding of the relationship between the authors; but, it can also cover other relationships including keywords and journals (Mishra et al., 2018). In this vein, our co-citation took into account the cited articles as the unit of analysis, employing VOSviewer. Therefore, we are interested in the intellectual relationships in the field (Mishra et al., 2018). Of 27251 identified authors, our threshold was 30 citations of an article; representing the minimum number of citations of a cited reference. This criterion reappeared in 40 articles, distributed in 3 clusters. For each of the 40 cited references, the total strength of the cocitation links with other cited references was calculated (Figure 2). Besides, Table 6 shows the top 5 publications by each cluster. the smart cities understanding? iii) What is the awareness level of smart cities by citizens from different countries? Considering cluster 2 that is focused on frameworks and the integration with technologies, some suggestions to advance the field could be related to frameworks that can integrate different technologies to support the firm's new operations business models. Finally, in cluster 3, there exists an interesting interplay between big data and smart city governance. Future studies could explore more in-depth models associated to citizen behaviour data, in order to support decision-makers and governance policies for the well-being of people and the promotion of the use of resources in an optimized way by the organizations.

From the managerial perspective, our study brings opportunities to managers and practitioners, as well as to government policy makers. For example, based on the top 20 countries contributing articles, we identified a gap in the unavailability of articles from emerging economies from Latin America and Africa. The lack in participation could be associated to a gap in smart cities projects and implementation in these countries. In addition, the proposed cluster classification could be a starting point for managers and practitioners to improve their awareness of smart cities, and consequently, generate insights to enable them integrate and develop projects for their businesses based on the smart cities technologies.

Conclusions

Based on the bibliometric approach and network analysis, this study covered a period from 2010-2018 in smart cities articles. Our study provided significant insights for scholars and practitioners interested in gaining more insights into the smart cities past and trends. In terms of the main limitations, we highlight the following: i) we considered the keywords only in the title of the articles. Future studies can consider the search terms in the abstract, as well as in the other articles' section; ii) we focused on the WOS database. Future studies can consider other databases such as Scopus; iii) we developed the cluster using VOSviewer, other software can bring different results. Despite these limitations, our study provides useful insights for scholars and practitioners interested in smart cities.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Clusters based on the co-citation

Table 1 .

 1 highlights the number of articles published by year during the period 2000-2018. As can be seen, between 2000 and 2009, the maximum number of papers published in a year was 4. As of 2010, the number of articles has seen exponential growth, reaching 460 articles in 2018. Moreover, Table1shows the top twenty journals based on the number of publications. The journal with most articles published was Sensors with 60, followed by IEEE ACCESS with 46 articles. It is important to point out that both journals are open access format. Table captions should be placed above the tables.

	Journal	Number of articles	Rank
	Sensors	60
	IEEE Access	46
	IEEE Communications Magazine	45
	Sustainability	36
	Future Generation Computer Systems the In-
	ternational Journal of eScience	35
	Sustainable Cities and Society	29
	Cities	25
	IEEE Internet of Things Journal	22
	Journal of Urban Technology	19
	International Journal of Distributed Sensor
	Networks	15
	IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics	14
	Wireless Communications Mobile Computing	12
	Wireless Personal Communications	12
	IEEE Internet Computing	11
	Personal and Ubiquitous Computing	11
	Techne Journal of Technology for Architec-
	ture and Environment	11
	Computer	10
	Government Information Quarterly	10

Fig. 1. Distribution of articles published between 2000-2018

Table 2 .

 2 Top ten authors based on the number of citations. Co-authored papers were counted. For example, Bui and Castellani are authors of the same article. The number of citations considered up toFebruary 25, 2019.

	Authors	Articles	Citations	Rank
	Zanella, A.	4	1104	1
	Zorzi, M.	3	1102	2
	Vangelista, L.	2	1098	3
	Bui, N.	1	983	4
	Castellani, A.	1	983	5
	Nijkamp, P.	6	642	6
	Caragliu, A.	3	557	7
	Del bo, C.	2	551	8
	De Marco, A.	3	374	9
	Scorrano, F.	1	369	10
	Note:

highlights the most influential articles. In this sense,

[START_REF] Zanella | Internet of Things for Smart Cities[END_REF]

Zanella, Bui, Castellani, Vangelista, & Zorzi (2014) was the most cited article, with 983 citations, followed by

[START_REF] Caragliu | Smart Cities in Europe[END_REF]

Caragliu et al. (2011) with 551 citations.

Table 3 .

 3 Top ten articles based on citation.

	Article	Citations	Rank
	[13]	983	1
	[7]	551	2
	[8]	369	3
	[9]	356	4
	[33]	332	5

Table 4

 4 shows the top twenty countries contributing papers. China is on the top of the list with 195 publications, followed by Italy, USA, and Spain, with 169, 164, and 144 articles, respectively. It is clear that the countries from Europe and Asia dominate the list. North America, represented by USA and Canada reached meaningful participation. In addition, Brazil was the only Latin American country represented. Moreover, Table5presents the most influential areas of research interested in smart cities.

Table 4 .

 4 Top twenty countries contributing papers.

	Countries/Regions Number of pa-	Rank	Countries/Regions Number of	Rank
	pers				papers
	Peoples R. of China	195	1	Netherlands	43
	Italy	169	2	France	42
	USA	164	3	Germany	42
	Spain	144	4	Saudi Arabia	38
	England	127	5	Brazil	32
	South Korea	71	6	Pakistan	29
	India	55	7	Japan	28
	Australia	51	8	Ireland	26
	Canada	48	9	Finland	24
	Greece	44	10	Portugal	24

Table 5 .

 5 Top ten research areas.

		Number of ar-
	Research Areas	ticles	Rank
	Computer science	409	1
	Engineering	316	2
	Telecommunications	258	3
	Business economics	96	4
	Environmental sciences ecology	95	5

Table 6 .

 6 Articles organized in a cluster based on top five studies-weight citations.

	Article	Cluster	Weight (Links)	Weight (Total link strength)	Weight (Citations)
	[7]	1	39		151
	[37]	1	38		150
	[38]	1	39		127
	[8]	1	39		107
	[6]	1	39		88
	[13]	2	37		83
	[39]	2	39		70
	[40]	2	38		60
	[41]	2	39		53
	[42]	2	35		46
	[10]	3	39		90
	[43]	3	38		68
	[11]	3	38		66

 [START_REF] Söderström | Smart cities as corporate storytelling[END_REF]3 37 368 49

[45] 3 38 293 38

Discussion and Research Agenda

This study brings contribution from both, theoretical and managerial fields. In the lens of theoretical contribution, our research covered a period from 2000-2018 in smart cities publication; firstly, by employing a bibliometric strategy. We can subdivide our analysis into two periods 2000-2009, in which the maximum number of papers published by year was 4, and 2010-2018, in which each year noted a substantial growth, achieving 460 articles in 2018. Also, we identified the top 20 journals based on the number of articles published, and we discovered that the first two were open access journals. The most influential authors were also identified in the process. Regarding the countries contributing papers, China topped the list. Also, the top research areas based on the number of articles, were computer science, engineering, and telecommunications, respectively. Finally, based on the study of [START_REF] Mishra | Big Data and supply chain management: a review and bibliometric analysis[END_REF], we proposed a cluster classification (Table 7), identifying current research and providing insights for future research. Table 7 is an important contribution to theory; it can guide scholars in conducting future studies. Big data analytics applied to optimize the integration of people, government policies and firms Thus, the proposed cluster classification and research agenda can generate insights for scholars and practitioners interested in gaining a deeper understanding, as well as contribute to the advancement of the field. For instance, cluster 1, has its current studies focused basically on the concepts. Also, we identified the necessity of advancing the understanding of smart cities' definitions and concepts in different countries. Example of research questions: i) Are the six dimensions of the smart cities valid for any country? ii) Are there differences between developing and developed economies regarding