Charles Huyghues-Despointes
email: charles.huyghues-despointes@univ-lyon2.fr

Leila Khouas
email: leila.khouas@bertin.fr

Julien Velcin
email: julien.velcin@univ-lyon2.fr

Sabine Loudcher
email: sabine.loudcher@univ-lyon2.fr

Weaving Information Propagation: Modeling The Way Information Spreads In Document Collections

Keywords: information lineage, information propagation, document chains, textual data stream

Information usually spreads between people by the mean of textual documents. During such propagation, a piece of information can either remain the same or mutate. We propose to formulate information spread with a set of time-ordered document chains along which some information has likely been transmitted. This formulation is different from the usual graph view of a transmission process as it integrates a notion of lineage of the information. We also propose a way to construct a candidate set of document chains for the information propagation in a corpus of documents. We show that most of the chains have been judged as plausible by human experts.

Introduction

Internet came with a burst in document publication and accessibility. Nowadays, one can get far more news articles, videos or audio podcasts than one can digest on a daily basis. This has fostered new tool-assisted methods that take advantage of computer fast processing capabilities. Most of these documents convey information expressed in natural language. To analyze this information, the user mostly use search tools with a preconceived idea of what he is searching through a question or keywords. The user may need tools to understand how information propagates without using these preconceptions.

There are research efforts to study why and how information propagates in a corpus. Some works are interested on modeling the diffusion process between authors of documents in order to recover the propagation network as [START_REF] Gomez-Rodriguez | Uncovering the temporal dynamics of diffusion networks[END_REF][START_REF] Zarezade | Correlated cascades: Compete or cooperate[END_REF]. Whereas these methods give us insights on the diffusion process between authors, they do not express the diffusion between documents. The difficulty of uncovering the diffusion over documents is pointed in [START_REF] Pinto | Locating the source of diffusion in large-scale networks[END_REF][START_REF] Farajtabar | Back to the past: Source identification in diffusion networks from partially observed cascades[END_REF] where authors try to trace a piece of information back to its primary source. Most of these models consider the diffusion as an information exchange [START_REF] Zafarani | Social Media Mining, An Introduction[END_REF] with no modification. However, during the information diffusion over documents, the specific context a piece of information appears in, may slightly make its meaning mutate, even when the information syntax does not evolve [START_REF] Leskovec | Meme-tracking and the Dynamics of the News Cycle[END_REF]. Moreover, those models expect pieces of information to be explicitly defined beforehand, which makes it difficult to express mutations. Furthermore, if two pieces of information share a similar context, as in Figure 1a, knowing their diffusion history could give us insights on how and why they differ. We propose to study how information propagates through textual document streams. We consider that a succession of documents, that we call a chain, is the basic structure for describing how information propagates. A set of chains is represented in Figure 1b. The colored symbols stand for (up to now unknown) pieces of information.

We never know how the propagation phenomenon unfolds precisely. However, we consider that if information flows from a document to another, there should be some semantic similarity between these two documents. Given this assumption, we propose an algorithm to construct chains of similar documents as first candidates for propagation chains. Then, we present the results and our methodology to evaluate these chains. We show that human experts reach a consensus on what is a plausible chain of propagation and what is not, and that our calculated chains match with this evaluation. We conclude in giving several applications that can be built on top of this general chain propagation model.

Modeling Information Propagation With Chains

We do not formally define what one piece of information is. It can be expressible facts, ideas, opinions, reasoning or even sensations, but it also may be some complex discrete representation of information. We denote K the set of all pieces of information, and D a corpus of documents. An interesting property of K elements is that they may be more or less similar. Statements like "It may rain today" and "It will rain today" are not exactly the same, still they share some semantic. We set sem K : K × K → [0, 1] a semantic similarity metrics over K.

During propagation between the two documents d i and d j , a piece of information k 0 of d i may mutate, resulting in a possibly different k 1 in d j . We note such mutation as a pair (k 0 , k 1 ). We can express the propagation event between d i and d j by enumerating all the mutations that occur between them, noted as M i,j . We define a propagation event e as a triplet e = (d i , d j , M i,j ) for d i , d j ∈ D. There exists a non-trivial threshold such that: if

(d i , d j , M i,j ) is a propagation event then (k i , k j ) ∈ M i,j =⇒ sem k (k i , k j ) ≥ 1 -.
This propagation model can express historical modifications of information. Given two propagation events

(d 1 , d 2 , {(k 1 , k 1 )}) and (d 2 , d 4 , {(k 1 , k 1 )}), we can flow back the origin of k 1 in d 2 , as k 1 in d 1 .
Thus, information has propagated along the path d 1 d 2 d 4 . Such path of documents is what we call a propagation chain. Given P a set of propagation events over documents, a chronologically ordered sequence of documents c

= d 0 d 1 . . . d n is a propagation chain if: ∀i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}, ∃ e i , e i+1 ∈ P/      e i = (d i-1 , d i , M i-1,i ), e i+1 = (d i , d i+1 , M i,i+1 ) ∃(k, k ) ∈ M i-1,i ∧ ∃(k , k ) ∈ M i,i+1
We denote the set of propagation chains by T , which stands for trajectory. Conceptually, each transition of a propagation chain must keep a common endpoint (document d i ) and a common semantic endpoint (piece of information k ). Note that T has the following property: if c = d 0 d 1 . . . d n is a propagation chain of T , then ∀1 ≤ i < j ≤ n, c[i, j] = d i . . . d j is also a propagation chain of T . Furthermore, we say that c[i, j] is a sub-chain of c.

An Approach To Propagation Chain Approximation

In this section, we assume known a corpus D. We denoted by T D the chains only composed of documents from D. We do not explicitly know the information pieces contained in documents. Instead, we have a similarity function sim between documents. In order to compute a good approximation of T D , we construct coherence metrics for propagation chains based on that similarity. Then, we compute the chains that satisfy this metric up to a given threshold.

It seems reasonable that most of the propagation chains should be coherent chains. We model the coherence using a metric, denoted by coh that assigns a number between 0 and 1 to a chain. We say that a chain c is coherent if coh(c) > 1 -, with a given coherence threshold. In order to construct every document chain satisfying our coherence criterion, we make use of the property stipulating that if c is a propagation chain, then every sub-chain c is also a propagation chain. Extending this proposition to coherent chains implies that every sub-chain of c must satisfy our coherence criterion. This allows us to use a dynamic programming approach. We define F inishIn(d) as the set of coherent chains finishing by d. In order to finish in d, a document chain must be the concatenation (operator .) of a chain d d and at most one chain from F inishIn(d ). We can then construct the Candidates for d and the coherent chains T coh :

Candidates(d) = d /coh(d d)>1- {c.d/c ∈ F inishIn(d ) ∪ {d }} F inishIn(d) = {c ∈ Candidates(d)/coh(c) > 1 -} T coh = d∈D F inishIn(d)
We can solve this problem using a bottom-up strategy, starting from oldest to newer documents, since a chain always respects the publication chronology. This approach has some complexity issues due to the potentially exponential number of coherent chains. For that purpose, we introduce a constant safeguard threshold on the maximal number of coherent chains finishing in every document. This ensures a linear memory complexity.

Experiments

We sampled two datasets of 150 documents. The first one comes from the Citation Network Dataset V1 AMINER5 constructed by [START_REF] Tang | Arnetminer: Extraction and mining of academic social networks[END_REF]. This is mostly abstracts from scientific papers extracted from ACM and DBLP. Our second dataset is sampled from the full set of news articles posted on the US version of the Huffington Post from 1st July to 30th November 2016. For document similarity, we used a TFIDF cosinus similarity where we enriched the bag of words with ngrams of size 2 to 4. For chain coherence, we used the minimal similarity and the arithmetic mean of similarity between document pairs inside the chain. Three different coherence thresholds are considered: 10%, 20% and 50%. It yields six coherent chain sets for each dataset (81 and 149 chains to evaluate, respectively).

For the sake of annotation, we gathered experts who have a professional level in English and a good knowledge of reading scientific papers. We spread chains between experts such that every chain is at least evaluated twice and two experts are not exposed to the same succession of chains. For each document chain, an expert evaluates links between two successive documents (determining if there is a strong, weak or no semantic link). Then, he evaluates sub-chains from the first document to every other determining if it is strongly, weakly or not plausible that some information propagated.

Agreement ratio is computed as the proportion of paired evaluations with the same conclusion over the total number of paired evaluations. We speak of presence if the chain or the link is annotated as strongly or weakly plausible. Experts agreed on more than 70% cases on the semantic link presence for both datasets and it exceeds 80% for the presence of a plausible chain. This result reinforces the intuition that it is easier to reach a consensus when we have more context. This shows that experts can have an intuition of chain plausibility with consistency, which means that detecting coherence in a chain is a feasible task. Now, we label the annotation for each chain with five categories for both the semantic link task and the chain plausibility task. Each category represents the majority of annotations. Category 1 stands for strong intensity. Category 2 is for weak intensity. Category 3 stands for presence but with no intensity agreement. Category 4 is for absence. Category 5 is finally for the case where there is no majority agreement. Results on AMINER are good with nearly 70% of plausible chains (Cat. 1, 2 and 3) and 75% of linked chains. On the other hand, Huffpost results are much weaker. 64% of evaluated links are judged nonexistent and 75% of chains are judged non plausible. We will show that these non relevant chains come from a low coherence threshold.

Annotated chains serve as a ground truth allowing us to compare different coherence criterion. Studied similarity metrics are: TFIDF with a cosine similarity; Doc2Vec with a cosine similarity, with vectors of size 20 learnt on the dataset; RWR: a random-walk-based approach [START_REF] Shahaf | Connecting the dots between news articles[END_REF], parametrized with a 99% restart probability. For the coherence, we use the arithmetic mean coherence which is computed as the mean similarity between document pairs from the same chain. We consider the coherence as a good discrimination function if there is a small or even null intersection over coherence range (defined as the mean plus or minus the standard deviation) for strongly plausible and non-plausible chain categories. These intervals are presented in Fig. 2. On both datasets, the Doc2Vec-based coherence is the most discriminating metric. Generally, strongly and weakly plausible chains have higher coherence than non-plausible ones. For Huffpost, the results explain the proportion of bad chains observed. A typical HuffPost bad chain has a TFIDF based coherence under 0.2. It means that those chains mostly come from the trajectory computed with a 0.1 coherence threshold. These coherence metrics prove that capturing human judgment over document chains is partly possible by using well-known similarities. Considering the information propagation through trajectories over a textual document network is a novel idea. An important advantage over other methods based on the propagation graph lies in a better understanding of the history of information propagation. We proposed an approximation of trajectory by coherent chains that can be solved through dynamic programming. To qualify the computed chains, we realised a human evaluation campaign. This campaign had two benefits. First, we saw that human evaluations were consistent between themselves, which suggests that recognizing a plausible propagation chain is feasible. Second, we used evaluations as a ground truth for testing different coherence criterion. We saw that criterion based on well-known metrics succeed in capturing human judgment. We consider this result as a first proof that this task may be solved using an automatic process.

For future work, we plan to overcome the necessity of guessing a correct coherence threshold. We also plan to automatically identify the pieces of information that propagate along the chains. We foresight multiple use cases for a good trajectory approximation. One use case is to easily navigate in the document space for an analyst user by following an interesting subject flow, or to give him a good understanding of the information flow by summing up chains into a metromap of information. It may also be an interesting framework to study how information pieces interact with each other along the chains.

  (a) There is a lineage from Study A and Study B to Article 1, and a lineage from Study B to Article 2 only. (b)

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Mean and standard deviation for different document similarities by annotation category. A vertical line marks the absence category (Cat 4) overlap.

The full dataset can be obtained at: https://aminer.org/citation


Workshop on "Manner, Quality, Degree and Quantity Demonstratives in Ethiopian Languages" (organized by Ronny Meyer & Yvonne Treis, 27 September 2019) at the Seminar of the NORHED-Project "Linguistic Capacity Building -Tools for the inclusive development of Ethiopia" in Langesund, Norway, 23-27 September 2019.

Questionnaire on MQDQ-demonstratives (see https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02300001) Workshop programme: https://www.hf.uio.no/iln/english/about/organization/textlaboratory/projects/Ethiopia/schedule-of-sept-2019-workshop2.pdf 1. Background 1.1. Demonstrative system 1.1.1. How many deictic degrees (spatial oppositions) are distinguished in the demonstrative system of your language? Only proximal or distal? Or, if more, which ones?

Kambaata distinguishes 4 deictic degrees: proximal, medial, distal, contrastive ('that other').

1.1.2. Does your language make a formal distinction between adnominal (e.g. This house is nice) and pronominal (e.g. I like this) demonstratives?

Kambaata makes a formal distinction between adnominal and pronominal demonstratives and adnominal forms cannot simply be used as the head of an NP, e.g. ka A_DEM1.mACC 'this (+N)' vs. káan P_DEM1.m.ACC 'this one'. Adnominal demonstratives distinguish 3 case forms (nominative, accusative, oblique), pronominal demonstratives 10 case forms.

1.1.3. Does your language have dedicated, non-composite place demonstratives (e.g. 'here/there', 'from here/there', 'to here/there' etc.) that cannot simply be derived from the pronominal demonstratives?

Kambaata uses pronominal demonstratives that are marked for cases such as locative, oblique, ablative, instrumental-comitative-perlative to refer to locations, directions, starting points etc. Alternatively, a composite form consisting of an adnominal demonstrative plus an enclitic =b-a 'place' is used.

1.2. Expression of similarity and equality 1.2.1. How is the standard of comparison in a similative construction marked (e.g. You look like your father.)?

The standard of comparison is marked by an enclitic case-inflecting morpheme =g, which requires the standard to be marked for the genitive.

(1) Xabar-í=g-a bínn=y-í ashes-M.GEN=G-M.ACC/OBL disperse.IDEO=say-2S.IMP 'May you be dispersed like ashes!' (Curse)

Manner demonstratives

Manner demonstratives target a manner/way of doing something that is visible/gesturally demonstrated in the speech context (exophorically) or has been mentioned in the previous stretch of discourse (anaphorically) or is going to be elaborated on in the following stretch of discourse (cataphorically).

(2) Hitt-íta canc-itáyyoonti-i m-íihaa-t? MANN_DEM-F.ACC chatter-2S.PROG.REL-NMZ1a.M.NOM what-M.DAT.VV-COP3 'Why are you chattering like this?' (Here: chattering audible in the speech situation) 2.1. Provide the form(s) of the manner demonstrative(s) in your language. 2.2. Does your language have composite or non-composite manner demonstratives? (Note that by "composite" we mean "derived" or "periphrastic" here and in the remainder of the questionnaire.)

Morphologically simple manner demonstrative: hitt-íta 'like this' (ACC) (see ex. 2) with a restricted case paradigm, see hítt-i-ta '(it) is like this' (PRED).

(Historically) composite manner demonstrative: hittig-úta 'like this' (ACC), contains the similative morpheme =g (see ex. 1 above). Restricted case paradigm: hittíg-o OBL ~ hittig-óon LOC 'like this', hittíg-u-ta PRED '(it) is like this'.

2.3. Are manner demonstratives marked for different deictic degrees as e.g. demonstratives for persons, things etc.? Or are the deictic degrees reduced or neutralized?

The deictic degrees reflected in other demonstratives are completely neutralized.

2.3.1. If the deictic degrees are neutralized in the domain of manner demonstratives, which deictic degree form is it most similar to?

The manner demonstratives start with the phoneme sequence #hitt…, which is characteristic of feminine medial pronouns.

2.3.2. If manner adverbs are marked for different deictic degrees, describe their usage.

---2.4. Are manner demonstratives morphologically invariant? Or do they inflect for number, case, gender etc.?

They inflect marginally for case, are inherently feminine and unmarked for number.

2.5. Basis use: Are manner demonstratives used exophorically? Anaphorically? Cataphorically?

Exophorically -see ex. 2 above. Anaphorically:

(3) Tah-íchch-u dángo hitt-íta afuu'll-ít fly-SG-M.NOM suddenly SIM1_P_DEM-F.ACC sit-3F.PCO zug-gáni-yan waall-ó=da (…) lie_in_ambush-3F.ICO-DS come-3M.PFV.REL=COND (Context: Speaker has described how a chameleon lies in ambush.) 'When a fly comes suddenly while it (= the chameleon) is lying (lit. sitting) in ambush like this (…).'

Cataphorically: (4)

Hítt-i-ta, kárag, (…) SIM1_P_DEM-F.PRED-F.COP2 pay_attention.2S.IMP 'It is like this, pay attention (to what follows), (…).' 2.6. Extended uses and grammaticalizations 2.6.1. Are manner demonstratives used to introduce reported speech (as quotatives)?

(5) (…) qamál-ch-ut maccoocc-itán egér-t hitt-íta monkey-SG-F.NOM hear-3F.ICO stay-3F.PCO SIM1_P_DEM-F.ACC y-itóo'u: "(…)" SAY-3F.PFV '(…) the monkey listened and (then) said this/like this (here: *in this way, but: as follows): "…".' 2.6.2. Are manner demonstratives used to express to express 'just so, empty-handed, in vain, without use, without fuss, without any addition, with no excuses, at no charge'? 'A geographer is a wise man who knows where the seas, rivers, towns, mountains and deserts are found on Earth (lit. 'Saying "a geographer" is saying "a wise man who …"').'

Quality demonstratives

Quality demonstratives target a quality of something that is visible/gesturally demonstrated in the speech context, has been mentioned in the previous stretch of discourse or is going to be elaborated on in the following stretch of discourse. (Speaker pointing at a photo of a house) 'Caakkiso's house is like this (e.g. has the same design).' Questions:

3.1. Provide the form(s) of the quality demonstrative(s) in your language.

Kambaata has two synonymous quality demonstratives: hittigaam-ú (mACC) / hittigaam-íta (fACC) and hittigoon-á (mACC) / hittigoon-áta (fACC) 'such'.

Does your language have composite or non-composite quality demonstratives?

The quality demonstratives are composite forms and can be segmented into the manner demonstrative stem hittig-(see section 2 above) and adjectivising morphology -aam-ú / -aam-íta (productive proprietive derivation, see e.g. dan-á 'beauty, goodness' > dan-aam-ú/íta 'good, beautiful'). The adjectivising -oon-á(ta) is not attested elsewhere in the language 3.3. Are quality demonstratives formally related to manner demonstratives? If yes, how? See 3.2 above.

3.4. Are quality demonstratives marked for different deictic degrees (spatial oppositions)? Or are the deictic degrees (spatial oppositions) reduced or neutralized?

No marking for different deictic degrees.

3.5. Are quality demonstratives morphologically invariant? Or do they inflect for number, case, gender etc.?

Morphologically variant: inflects for all cases and genders (cf. other adjectives in the language).

3.6. Are quality demonstratives used for anything else than making exophoric or anaphoric reference to a quality? If yes, elaborate.

No, not that I know of.

Have quality demonstratives been grammaticalized? If yes, into what?

No, not that I know of.

Degree demonstratives

Degree demonstratives target a degree of a property that is visible/gesturally demonstrated in the speech context, has been mentioned in the previous stretch of discourse or is going to be elaborated on in the following stretch of discourse.

(11) (…) dikk-ú-s zahh-íteent ikkí-i market-F.ACC-DEF wander-2F.PRF HYP-ADD kank-á xe'-anó burtukaan-ú dag-gáanti-ba'a DEG/QUANT_DEM-M.ACC be_sweet-3M.IPV.REL orange-M.ACC find-2S.IPV-NEG '(…) even if you trawled the market, you would not find oranges this sweet.' (Here: reference to an aforementioned degree) Questions: 4.1. Provide the form(s) of the degree demonstrative(s) in your language. Kambaata has two synonymous degree demonstratives, kank-á(ta) and hibank-á(ta) 'this much/many, to this degree'.

Does your language have composite or non-composite degree demonstratives?

The degree demonstratives are non-composite. 4.3. Are degree demonstratives formally related to manner demonstratives? If yes, in which way?

They are not related to manner demonstratives.

4.4. Are degree demonstratives formally related to quality demonstratives? If yes, in which way?

They are not related to quality demonstratives. 4.5. Are degree demonstratives marked for different deictic degrees (spatial oppositions)? Or are the deictic degrees (spatial oppositions) reduced neutralized?

They are not marked for different deictic degrees.

4.6. Are degree demonstratives morphologically invariant? Or do they inflect for number, case, gender etc.?

They morphologically variant. They inflect for case and gender, but as degree demonstratives they always [!] occur in the masculine accusative form. Note that the accusative is not only the direct object case but also the case of adverbial constituents in Kambaata. (Non-deictic use in the quoted source) 'Mice are not very harmful (lit. Mice, there is not this much harm to them).'

In another context, the same sentence may allow an anaphoric reading of kánk-at: 'Mice are not as harmful (e.g. as other previously mentioned animals).

Have degree demonstratives been grammaticalized? If yes, into what?

Not that I know of.

Quantity demonstratives

Quantity demonstratives target a quantity (amount or number) that is visible/gesturally demonstrated in the speech context, has been mentioned in the previous stretch of discourse or is going to be elaborated on in the following stretch of discourse. Synonymous quantity demonstratives, kank-á(ta) and hibank-á(ta) 'this much/many, to this degree'. 5.2. Does your language have composite or non-composite quantity demonstratives? (Note e.g.

that English (10) has to use a periphrasis this many, this much, consisting of a demonstrative and a quantity adjective, to refer to a quantity.) Non-composite.

5.3. Are quantity demonstratives formally related to manner demonstratives? If yes, in which way?

No.

5.4. Are quantity demonstratives formally related to quality demonstratives? If yes, in which way?

No.

5.5. Are quantity demonstratives formally related to degree demonstratives? If yes in which way?

They are identical to degree demonstratives. Note, however, that degree demonstratives are used as adverbial modifiers of adjectives or verbs, while quantity demonstratives are used as adnominal modifiers or as heads of noun phrases.

5.6. Are quantity demonstratives marked for different deictic degrees (spatial oppositions)? Or are the deictic degrees (spatial oppositions) reduced or neutralized?

No.

5.7. Are quantity demonstratives morphologically invariant? Or do they inflect for number, case, gender etc.?

  it-taante-'é=da hitt-ínta PN_hyena-F/M.OBL eat-2S.IPV-1S.O.REL=COND SIM1_P_DEM-F.ACC<N> ít-e-'e, y-itóo'u harrúuchch-ut eat-2S.IMP-1S.O say-3F.PFV donkey.SG-F.NOM '(My dear) Hyena, if you want to eat me, eat me with no excuses!" said the donkey jenny.' 2.6.3. Are manner demonstratives used to express affirmation? i.e. 'it is so' = 'yes' (7) Mat-ú mat-íin usu'rr-ám-u-a? -Hittíg-u-ta. one-M.ACC one-M.ICP tie.MID-PASS-M.PRED-M.COP2 SIM2_P_DEM-F.PRED-F.COP2 (Context: The little prince is not sure whether he has understood the narrator's explanation of what tame means. He requests a confirmation.) '(Does it mean) to tie one to the other?' -(The narrator confirms.) 'Yes.' 2.6.4. Have the manner deictics been grammaticalized? If yes, into what? Markers of addition ('also')? Markers of complement or adverbial clauses? … Kambaata has grammaticalized hittigúta, or rather its emphatic form hittigúnta, into a noun phrase and sentence connector 'also, and' (8) Uull-á serekket-aan-ch-ú y-ú báar-u, lág-u, earth-F.GEN research-AAN-SG-M.ACC say-M.NOM sea-M.NOM river-M.NOM katám-u, dúun-u hitti-gúnta uull-á udúm-u town-M.NOM mountain-M.NOM SIM2_P_DEM-F.ACC<N> earth-F.GEN desert-M.NOM uull-á al-éen hakkánne he'-áa-ndo qorm-í earth-F.GEN top-M.LOC where.M.OBL exist-3F.IPV-Q be_wise-3M.PCO dag-anó man-ch-ú y-ú-a know-3M.IPV.REL person-SG-M.ACC say-M.PRED-M.COP2

  ka'mm-am-íi QUAL_DEM-M.ACC issue-M.ACC how-M.ICP forbid.MID-PASS-M.DAT dand-éenno? be_able-3HON.IPV 'How can such an issue be avoided?' (Here: reference to an aforementioned quality)

( 14 )

 14 Án kank-átaaz-úta aass-áam-ba'a 1S.NOM DEG/QUANT_DEM-F.ACC milk-F.ACC give-1S.IPV-NEG (Context: Speaker A announces that she would bring five liters of milk. -Speaker B replies:) 'I won't give this much milk.' (Here: reference to an aforementioned quantity/amount) Questions:5.1. Provide the form(s) of the quantity demonstrative(s) in your language.


Albane Buriel

Sylvie Morais

Monique Loquet

in emergency humanitarian aid: educational issues with young people living in camps in conflict areas in the Middle East

Keywords: conflict areas, humanitarian aid, education in emergencies, art education, art practices, middle east

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

More than half of the world's forcibly displaced persons are children, for whom displacement is particularly harmful (INEE, 2016). The origin and expansion of the terrorist group Daesh over the past fifteen years conflict is its peak in Syria and Iraq from 2013 led to the destruction of many cities. In 2014, Daesh took control of Iraq's second largest city, Mosul. Tens of thousands of people are fleeing in the midst of atrocities.

Today, both in Syria and Iraq, Daesh is officially wiped off the map. More than five years after Daesh occupations, massive displacements have taken place in the north and centre of the country, there are still active war zones and millions of Iraqis and Syrians displaced, some of them particularly traumatized by long years of war.

Emergency situations present a number of threats to the safety, mental and physical health and development of children and youth. Children are subject to significant sources of stress due to war-related fears (including concerns about the family remaining in Syria), as well as their own traumatic experiences and educational problems [START_REF] Hassan | Culture, Context and the Mental Health and Psychosocial Wellbeing of Syrians : A review for mental health, psychosocial support staff working with Syrians affected by armed conflict[END_REF]. Suffering is multiple during direct exposure to conflict (violence, confinement, war chaos), displacement (separation, disruption of feelings of security and normalcy), precarious settlement (adaptation to a new context, conditions and various deprivations) and eventual return exposes children to several cumulative risks to their physical, emotional and social development (UNHCR, 2017). Domestic violence and parental stress, economic pressures and confinement in the home also contribute to children's distress (ibid.).

Humanitarian field and education in emergencies

These emergencies have had a significant impact on the entire education system, including teachers and education authorities, infrastructure and the functioning of the education system and services (INEE, 2016). Armed conflict is thus a major obstacle to enrolment and persistence in school and access to quality education. The right to education is considered as a right and a lever for obtaining other rights [START_REF] Hamer | Éducation et conflits[END_REF]INEE, 2004). Despite the many international legal instruments governing this right, one in four school-age children in the world, and 75 million children are already deprived of an education, receive a poor-quality education or are at risk of dropping out of school completely (UNICEF, 2017). Since the 2000s and particularly since the major reform of the humanitarian sector in 2007, aimed in particular at the integration of education as the fourth pillar of humanitarian aid, a common reflection has made it possible to structure educational intervention strategies (Davies et Talbot, 2008).

Coordination's have thus developed, boosting new capacities (INEE, 2006), means and educational offers standardized by ideological structures legitimized by international organizations and the humanitarian government in this field [START_REF] Agier | Espaces et temps du gouvernement humanitaire[END_REF][START_REF] Agier | Un monde de camps[END_REF][START_REF] Boltanski | La Souffrance à distance[END_REF][START_REF] Martuccelli | [END_REF]. For example, participation and school attendance can protect children from recruitment into armed forces and from conflict-related risks such as gender-based violence, recruitment into armed forces and groups, trafficking, child labour and early marriage (Gladwell & Tanner, 2014;UNICEF 2016). For these reasons, education is considered by the populations themselves as a priority for emergency intervention during an active conflict [START_REF] Gürle | Enhancing the awareness of emotions through art and drama among crisis-affected Syrian refugee children in southeast Turkey[END_REF]. New evidence shows that, for the majority of children and young people affected by conflict or disaster, school routines improve mental health and resilience and help them recover from the extreme distress they have faced [START_REF] Burde | What Works to Promote Children's Educational Access, Quality of Learning, and Wellbeing in Crisis-Affected Contexts[END_REF][START_REF] Gürle | Enhancing the awareness of emotions through art and drama among crisis-affected Syrian refugee children in southeast Turkey[END_REF]. Access to formal education in conflict situations is often limited or non-existent, so non-formal education (NFE) is a privileged recourse in these emergency educational situations. In addition, the education sector is particularly used to work to improve the mental health and well-being of the targeted populations.

Art education in emergencies settings

The recognition of the many benefits and relevance of the use of artistic practices by emergency humanitarian NGOs, operating in both formal and non-formal educational settings, is unanimous [START_REF] Bamford | L'éducation artistique dans le monde . Une étude internationale[END_REF][START_REF] Bamford | The Role of Arts Education in Enhancing School Attractiveness: a literature review[END_REF][START_REF] Winner | Art for art's sake? the impact of arts education[END_REF]. Arts education in non-formal education is often deployed in humanitarian contexts. Artistic approaches are thus continuously used in emergency child protection programs and in emergency education activities.

Artistic approaches would contribute to the acquisition of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills, but also to the promotion of the well-being of the children and young people who benefit from them (INEE, 2004;INEE 2010). In addition to promoting academic persistence and thus preventing drop-out, it would also be a means of developing cultural learning and thus of considering prospects for participation in social development without the structural characteristics of conflict situations [START_REF] Boateng | Physical education and arts programme approaches in conflict settings[END_REF][START_REF] Jordans | Development of a multi-layered psychosocial care system for children in areas of political violence[END_REF][START_REF] Tyrer | School and Community-Based Interventions for Refugee and Asylum Seeking Children: A Systematic Review[END_REF]. It shows two complementary approaches to teaching and learning "of" or "by" the arts (UNESCO, 2006;[START_REF] Bamford | The wow factor: global research compendium on the impact of the arts in education[END_REF]. We consider arts education as referring to all educational processes whose mediation aims to transmit a cultural heritage to individuals and to enable them to understand and create their own artistic language, both through theory and the experimentation of cultural or artistic materials in a creative way, according to [START_REF] Bamford | L'éducation artistique dans le monde . Une étude internationale[END_REF][START_REF] Bamford | The wow factor: global research compendium on the impact of the arts in education[END_REF][START_REF] Botella | Une recherche écologique pour développer la flexibilité et les relations sociales dans la créativité artistique[END_REF][START_REF] Colignon | De l'art-thérapie à la médiation artistique: quels professionnels pour quelles pratiques ?[END_REF]Jacobi, 2018 ;[START_REF] Lesain-Delabarre | Art-thérapie, médiations artistiques : quelles différences pour quels enjeux ? La nouvelle revue de l'adaptation et de la scolarisation[END_REF][START_REF] Smilan | Building Resiliency to Childhood Trauma through Arts-based Learning[END_REF]. From the point of view of experience, art would be the act of "feeling the meaning of what one is doing and rejoicing in it: uniting in the same fact the unfolding of the inner life and the ordered development of material conditions, that is, art" [START_REF] Dewey | L'art comme expérience[END_REF].

I.

Practices for the children well-being

Many interdisciplinary research projects focus on the potential links between art and well-being. This work is undertaken in a wide range of contexts and aims to demonstrate the possible effects and impacts of arts-based programs or more specifically on the benefits of arts education on the development and well-being of young people. In particular, they aim to demonstrate that arts education invested with learning processes is structurally different from other disciplines in formal education and thus complementary.

It appears that arts programs encourage group interaction, concentration and retention, particularly with boys or marginalized students [START_REF] Bamford | The wow factor: global research compendium on the impact of the arts in education[END_REF]. Several studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of artistic interventions as an interdisciplinary pedagogical support, demonstrating a growing interest in this field and posing challenges for traditional learning methods that shape current pedagogical practice. Art-based pedagogy would improve learning processes [START_REF] Mastandrea | Art and Psychological Well-Being: Linking the Brain to the Aesthetic Emotion[END_REF].

Arts education in emergency and post-emergency situations offered through structured, meaningful and creative activities in schools or non-formal learning spaces improves the emotional and behavioural well-being of young participants [START_REF] Burde | Education in Emergencies: A Review of Theory and Research[END_REF].

Psychosocial objectives implemented through the acquisition of personal skills (perception, resilience, emotional management) and social skills (communication, conflict resolution, respect, cooperation) accompany the development of the child experiencing conflict while offering him/her the acquisition of new knowledge. The recognition of the many benefits of artistic practices by emergency humanitarian NGOs, acting within the formal or non-formal educational framework, appears to be unanimous [START_REF] Winner | Art for art's sake? the impact of arts education[END_REF]; UNICEF, Art in the box, 2016, Save the children, HEART program, aptART, etc.). Arts education is thus increasingly used in psychosocial interventions for children affected by conflict and crisis [START_REF] Burde | What Works to Promote Children's Educational Access, Quality of Learning, and Wellbeing in Crisis-Affected Contexts[END_REF][START_REF] Burde | Education in Emergencies: A Review of Theory and Research[END_REF][START_REF] Jordans | Development of a multi-layered psychosocial care system for children in areas of political violence[END_REF].

They would contribute to the acquisition of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills, but also to the promotion of the well-being of the children and young people who benefit from them (INEE, 2004;INEE 2010). In addition to promoting academic persistence and thus preventing drop-out, it would also be a means of developing cultural learning and thus considering prospects for participation in social, socio-emotional and psychosocial development without the structural characteristics of conflict situations [START_REF] Boateng | Physical education and arts programme approaches in conflict settings[END_REF][START_REF] Jordans | Development of a multi-layered psychosocial care system for children in areas of political violence[END_REF][START_REF] Tyrer | School and Community-Based Interventions for Refugee and Asylum Seeking Children: A Systematic Review[END_REF]. A number of studies have been carried out on improving children's well-being from a psychological point of view through so-called "school-based activity" art education or on the broad field of research in "art therapy".

This includes treating post-traumatic stress disorder (called PTSD or post-traumatic stress disorder) [START_REF] Ainamani | PTSD symptom severity relates to cognitive and psycho-social dysfunctioning -a study with Congolese refugees in Uganda[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Hadethe | Prevalence of traumatic events and PTSD symptoms among secondary school students in Baghdad[END_REF]. For example, through various previously established therapeutic methodologies, a collective artistic creation process of the theatre workshop type is conducted by teachers and artists over several weeks [START_REF] Kollontai | Healing the heart in Bosnia-Herzegovina: art, children and peacemaking[END_REF][START_REF] Pisani | Heart Bosnia endline report[END_REF]. Based on a meta-analysis of 21 studies [START_REF] Boateng | Physical education and arts programme approaches in conflict settings[END_REF][START_REF] Tyrer | School and Community-Based Interventions for Refugee and Asylum Seeking Children: A Systematic Review[END_REF], they improve the well-being of intervention participants [START_REF] Ager | The impact of the school-based Psychosocial Structured Activities (PSSA) program on conflict-affected children in northern Uganda[END_REF][START_REF] Boateng | Physical education and arts programme approaches in conflict settings[END_REF]. According to Malchiodi (2006) and [START_REF] Ager | The impact of the school-based Psychosocial Structured Activities (PSSA) program on conflict-affected children in northern Uganda[END_REF], these artistic interventions allow participants to effectively express their emotions and thoughts in a unique way. It also allows them to acquire skills that promote resilience such as better emotional control and a more developed sense of adaptation [START_REF] Huss | The role of collective symbols as enhancing resilience in children's art[END_REF][START_REF] Rousseau | A pilot project of school-based intervention integrating drama and language awareness[END_REF]). Fitzpatrick (2002) supports this and adds that artistic practices allow refugee children to feel a sense of community, control and structure, help them reaffirm their identity and mobilize their hope. The anxiety symptoms characteristic of children can be significantly reduced after artistic interventions, according to Urgulu et al. (2016). For example, we see in the literature a program of PSSA (school-based psychosocial activities) using art education forms [START_REF] Ager | The impact of the school-based Psychosocial Structured Activities (PSSA) program on conflict-affected children in northern Uganda[END_REF]. In addition, the role and practices of teachers and socio-educational staff are essential to consider positive effects on the well-being of young people, particularly in contexts of crisis and conflict [START_REF] Beauregard | Effects of classroom-based creative expression programmes on children's well-being[END_REF][START_REF] Burde | Education in Emergencies: A Review of Theory and Research[END_REF]INEE, 2016) The multiple links between well-being, art, conflict and displacement situations and socio-educational interventions are clearly visible. However, it is essential to understand "how art can be used in the context of social work practice and training" [START_REF] Denov | Social work practice with war-affected children and families: the importance of family, culture, arts, and participatory approaches[END_REF] and thus to provide more data on the link between arts education, cognitive development, health and well-being in terms of effects and impacts for participants [START_REF] Bamford | The wow factor: global research compendium on the impact of the arts in education[END_REF]. The purpose of this research is therefore to advance reflection on potential indicators related to well-being through art education in emergency situations.

II.

Typology inspiration

We are inspired by the work of [START_REF] Bamford | The wow factor: global research compendium on the impact of the arts in education[END_REF]

III.

Research methodology

Epistemology

Considering the perspectives outlined above and the socioconstructivist theory on which we rely, the objective of this work is to contribute to the reflection on the meanings given to the concept of well-being for arts education in emergency situations through ethnographic research. In order to undo the dualism between practice and research, we will not dissociate the two and will hear our practices and the research developed as a dialectical whole. Notions of well-being are often based on a mentalist conception. We take into account the complex even if our present work aims to select elements of signifiers participating in the progress of the reflections. Artistic research is thus defined as a paradigmatic framework for a pedagogical method. Our ontology "includes epistemologies rooted in sensory, kinaesthetic and imaginary forms of knowledge" [START_REF] Gerber | Art-based research as a pedagogical approach to studying intersubjectivity in the creative arts therapies[END_REF]. It also includes the "ontological aesthetic concept that art is often the provider of truth or enlightenment in relation to self-knowledge and knowledge of the other, as well as the belief that the use of the arts is essential to the acquisition of selfknowledge and other knowledge through the exploration of pre-verbal knowledge patterns" (ibid.).

An ethnographic approach for a typology of action

The typology of action is based on the experiences we have had 3. Cultural symbols and ethics [START_REF] Hassan | Culture, Context and the Mental Health and Psychosocial Wellbeing of Syrians : A review for mental health, psychosocial support staff working with Syrians affected by armed conflict[END_REF] demonstrate that interventions to mitigate the effects of war and promote psychosocial well-being must be adapted to the specific culture and context of participants and situations to have effective and sustainable effects. Thus, among waraffected Syrians, particular attention is paid to the narrative of the self (individual metaphors, expressions and idioms) specific to the Syrian socio-cultural context. For example, individual suffering is much more a "sociocentric" and "cosmocentric" conception of the self than an individualized narrative of emotions. These elements of understanding were taken into account in the overall approach of the study. They were systematically analysed collectively with the various stakeholders in the study. [START_REF] Denov | Social work practice with war-affected children and families: the importance of family, culture, arts, and participatory approaches[END_REF] report that many researchers have highlighted the dangers of focusing on individual trauma approaches, particularly for war-affected populations. They add that "social work practice and education continue to rely too heavily on approaches based on these same assumptions". Ethics and the ethical relationship with war-affected children are more directly studied and valued through participatory artistic methods that involve the production of artistic creations such as photos, videos and drawings [START_REF] Akesson | Stepping Back » as Researchers: Addressing Ethics in Arts-Based Approaches to Working with War-Affected Children in School and Community Settings[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchell | Beginning at the beginning in social work education: a case for incorporating arts-based approaches to working with war-affected children and their families[END_REF].

Drawing tasks

There is considerable evidence of the potential of artistic approaches such as Photovoice, participatory video, digital storytelling, drawing, painting, mapping and image theatre as a method and intervention that simultaneously aim to empower and actively engage waraffected children and youth [START_REF] Akesson | Stepping Back » as Researchers: Addressing Ethics in Arts-Based Approaches to Working with War-Affected Children in School and Community Settings[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchell | Beginning at the beginning in social work education: a case for incorporating arts-based approaches to working with war-affected children and their families[END_REF]. Drawing tasks are essential to help children express themselves verbally and tell stories. Drawing would be part of a natural language, familiar to children. Especially in cases of trauma and victimization as well as complicated loss or grief, drawing helps to reduce anxiety levels and make children more comfortable in the process of outsourcing their traumas [START_REF] Veronese | The use of narrative-experiential instruments in contexts of military violence: The case of Palestinian children in the West Bank[END_REF]. Drawing helps children to come into contact with positive thoughts related to self-esteem and a sense of protection in the family, and to restore feelings of safety in places that are experienced daily as dangerous and unsafe [START_REF] Veronese | The use of narrative-experiential instruments in contexts of military violence: The case of Palestinian children in the West Bank[END_REF]. A drawing is always meaningful to the child, because it reflects the child's interests and intentions and conveys meaning [START_REF] Denov | Engaging war affected youth through photography: Photovoice with former child soldiers in Sierra Leone[END_REF]Hopperstad, 2008).

The dream (understood hope) has been used as a theme for artistic activities. This was in response to our desire to see how children can overcome the situations they are currently facing to enable them to project themselves into the future. Thus, it made it possible to go beyond the current material and social conditions to identify an imaginary mobilizer.

Instructions were provided by the facilitators and the artist. This approach can be likened to "positive drawing", where the aim is to guide children in the development of drawings that make them feel secure and comforted. In a synergistic and collaborative way, and based on the experiences and observations of previous workshops, interviews and productions carried out over time, we have carried out five different workshops: 1) The dream workshops, 2) Self-portrait, 3) Inside the home of my dreams, 4) Outside the home of my dreams and, 5) My dream on a canvas. This process was led by the artist and facilitators to help children produce positive stories organized into coherent and aesthetic stories.

The task of tracing and visually explaining their drawings to researchers to accompany the in-depth qualitative interview proved to be an invaluable source of information, consolidating the research themes that emerged from the interview data and even guiding and informing the interview questions. The evaluation of phenomenological art includes the meaning that children attribute to their art in the context of specific cultural realities [START_REF] Huss | The role of collective symbols as enhancing resilience in children's art[END_REF]Malchiodi & Riley, 1996). Thus, the combination of phenomenological and cultural perspectives to understand children's art can lead to a more global understanding of art as an access to stressors and signs of well-being and resilience. We rely on all these methodological elements to identify the following areas of analysis:

I.

Results and discussion

1. The educational environment to improve well-being

Our observations suggest that the educational environment itself has a central role to play in promoting the safety and well-being of children in conflict-affected areas. The community and teachers play a key role in this regard. However, the implementation of

a) Bodies and postures

We observed that children were meticulous in the choice of materials and tools to carry out their production. A first step was to draw before painting or colouring. This first step was often of high quality: the drawing was finalized and the attention to detail was permanent. We notice a risk-taking and development of self-confidence. When the young people realized that their production was not "bad" during the first workshop and that it was valued, we felt a safety in the following workshops. We note a significant improvement in self-esteem.

In addition, some of the children are used to coming and going during the workshops or arriving late. This was not the case during this series of workshops This active participation is, in our opinion, a positive sign that children are able to connect and assimilate into a group, following a common activity.

b) Interactions

We observed and analysed the interactions during our workshops. Interactions focus on particular times. First, children turn to the animators or the artist when they need material, a need for security when applying colours or what they consider to be a mistake to be made up for. Then at the end of the workshop, a large proportion of children spontaneously show their drawings to one of the facilitators, the researcher or the artist in order to have a kind of evaluative endorsement. This reveals an openness to cooperation and trust in the adults around them. The fact that the children, visibly proud of their production, show it to the others, reveals both a need for confirmation and recognition as well as a gesture of gratitude for the collective work they have done.

13 The facilitators' postures were rather withdrawn in order not to interfere with the young people's experience even if some of them tended to help children by taking the brush instead of them. A facilitator wanted to help them so that they could succeed in their production. The children were coming to them when they needed it (Figure 3), children seek validation from their peers but communicate relatively little about the content of their individual productions. The main interactions involved the drawings, shared material or sometimes external subjects (another absent child, a party, what they will do in the afternoon, an older brother who has left for work). The atmosphere of the workshop is punctuated according to the tasks to be accomplished but it is conducive to exchanges that are serene and positive because the children reveal their current concerns but are especially focused on their ongoing work. The feeling of being free to express oneself in a secure space and to collaborate serenely is a sign of well-being as the show of their production to the others.

14 In addition, unlike the multiple sources of violence in the camp [START_REF] Buriel | Ethnographic study and Participatory Action-Research in Non-Formal Education, Artistic experiences and hope: identity issues of displaced childrenAshti IDPs Camp, Sulaymaniyah, Kurdistan, Iraq June to[END_REF], we did not have a negative behaviour problem to deal with. Artistic work has obviously fostered cooperative and targeted behaviour as well as problem solving. We have seen that this has excited the facilitators, one of whom has taken the initiative to make an improvised artistic workshop for the first time( Figure 4). As the workshops could not be addressed to all the children in the camp, the facilitator decided to hold a workshop on dreams with children far from the usual place in the public space of the camp. Figure 4 shows how the facilitator sees the interactions during this workshop. These are small groups of participants who can interact freely. The facilitator also saw the benefits of the first workshops and felt able to lead it alone and freely. We also noted that when the two camp communities are present in the same workshop, there are far fewer inter-community interactions than there are between Yazidis or Sunni children. Nevertheless, we have been particularly vigilant about possible tensions, but we have not detected any. It seems that artistic workshops with creative topics tends to reduce such frictions, which are nevertheless visible in public spaces. We had very few scenes of war in the drawings, first because few of the children have experienced the siege of ISIS and second because there were 3 years between them and the war. Finally, the children are living in a situation of "stability", despite the fact that he is in a temporary camp.

The artistic productions

The whole team noticed major changes as the project progressed. We based our project on the children's drawings themselves to progress in the workshop process. The vast majority of children have designed a house during the first workshop. The houses were generally large, central and takes up the entire sheet of paper. We therefore developed a workshop on identity and then the inside of the house to finally take over the house to finalize and complicate the drawing expressing children's dreams. The theme of the selfportrait may be problematic in Muslim communities, as cultural models do not encourage the representation of the human form. Our self-portraits were intended for children to represent themselves as they would like to be in the future. We had to largely accompany the children during the identity workshop, but we emerged from a lot of information and were able to perceive their ability to project themselves in the future but also their desire to grow. We noted that the support of the facilitators was beneficial and that the use of artistic tools and supports certainly allowed the drawings to be made safe and refined.

Children have added more and more symbols and have drawn themselves. He was no longer only in figuration but was involved as a person in the elaboration of the production. At first, we see children finishing their drawing very quickly. They were guided to enhance their drawing, and this became a standard (Figure 5). There was therefore a consideration for "beauty" or "aesthetics". They gained confidence and make sure to fill their canvas in order to perfect their composition.

Figure 6. A boy drew himself with his friend playing football in his house

All the elements drawn and then painted by the participants were the expression of realistic reality and socio-cultural contexts. We did not see in the drawings or interviews the expression of any fantasy, of a dream that would not be achievable (Figure ).

Children, even if they are guided by open coercion and clear instructions, seem to remain as close as possible to their past lives. Some describe a daily life that could be in the present with absent elements that give joy to children, in which they find living landmarks. However, the dreamed life is magnified because it refers of dreaming. At the same time, both boys and girls, whether during the act of creation, work quietly. Equally important are the scenes of nature, images, situations and feelings that accompany them.

We saw how the dream workshops were a way to see a situation that went beyond reality with material support. Often, the dream scenes seem to take place in a past from which we can step back because we recognize, through the notion of dream, that it is a situation that is only expected or hoped for. Productions are sometimes a mixture of a past environment and a present situation in a framework expected for the future. The future seems to have difficulty penetrating the imagination and a kind of regret of a past life seems to be the point of reference for the hopes for a future for these children. Thus, it is considered here that children caught in material constraints and instability, for a majority of them, understand waiting and try to cope with it through forms of resilience. It also seems to us that waiting serves to carry the present in order to sustain it and maintain the acceptable expectation of a better future. for children being in a Kurdish zone that is very different culturally from the rest of Iraq.

We consider, as [START_REF] Huss | The role of collective symbols as enhancing resilience in children's art[END_REF], that stress factors are also signs of resilience and that the strategies and methods of their integration into drawings are positive transition strategies to move towards well-being. We noticed as [START_REF] Veronese | Narrating hope and resistance: A critical analysis of sources of agency among Palestinian children living under military violence[END_REF] that "the individual dimensions are closely interrelated to the domain of political wellbeing and, along with psychological and emotional well-being, is highly significative".

While the drawings seem to be frozen between the past and the future, few of them represent any form of the present. There is a form of rupture or denial that some children express either by sublimating the camp or by being outside it. Figure 7 shows this well and the girl who represents herself embodies the break-up. The situation of cutting wood in the forest does not correspond to the geographical contexts of the camp in which it is at the time of drawing.

Figure 8. During a workshop on the house of her dreams, a young girl drew the tents of the camp.

Narratives through drawings Figure 9. A girl tells about what she drew and describes her dream

When we ask the children, we realize that their dream home is either their old home or a "dream home" where they used to live (Figure 8). Uprooting is either directly underlined or suggested. Very few finally locate this imaginary house in the future. The houses are surrounded by many symbolic elements, such as flags or elements typical of the agricultural region from which they come. In addition, the different sessions on the theme of the house tend to show us houses inhabited by the family and friends of the children.

These are the places where there is life, such as the lost "home".

However, it should be noted that all children express constructive thoughts for the future that they consider particularly positive both in their drawings and in the interviews conducted by the team. The displacement of these children limits their ability to dream, understood as the possibility of imagining an ideal future. The inability of their communities to return home is most certainly the cause. Nevertheless, children's ability to represent and oralize their losses is a first step towards resilience and the ability to characterize their suffering. Thus, our analysis shows how much participating children have the ability to adapt and act in the face of adversity, as [START_REF] Veronese | Narrating hope and resistance: A critical analysis of sources of agency among Palestinian children living under military violence[END_REF] also note in their study. We consider these skills to be signs of well-being that can equip these children for future challenges.

Conclusion and implications

The specific context of Ashti Camp in Iraqi Kurdistan, the volatile geopolitical situation and the educational characteristics of the workshops conducted, in addition to our ethnographic method, limit the generalization of our results. Longitudinal research based on the experience of artistic creation by these young people in an arts education project of several months would allow us to measure new indicators of outcomes and impact on well-being. Analysis by type of action can be improved, particularly by documented counter-examples. There are often new and complex issues that arise due to the nature of participatory work with war-affected children, but also from the practitioners who surround them on a daily basis [START_REF] Mitchell | Beginning at the beginning in social work education: a case for incorporating arts-based approaches to working with war-affected children and their families[END_REF]. The results of the initial study [START_REF] Buriel | Ethnographic study and Participatory Action-Research in Non-Formal Education, Artistic experiences and hope: identity issues of displaced childrenAshti IDPs Camp, Sulaymaniyah, Kurdistan, Iraq June to[END_REF] show that it is necessary to act at all levels of the community because parents and all tribal members have direct influences on the well-being of children and in particular on their ability to project into the future.

Aesthetic experiences are offered in multiple contexts but are not well developed in emergency humanitarian programs while other creative and artistic content is offered.

However, the aesthetic experience is a process that provides pleasure and can promote health and well-being [START_REF] Mastandrea | Art and Psychological Well-Being: Linking the Brain to the Aesthetic Emotion[END_REF] in addition to emotional and educational enrichment through knowledge acquisition. Nevertheless, we note the lack of presence of the arts as aesthetic response which could be associated to the arts as a cultural agent which accentuates the role of the arts in social action, social reconstruction and the role of culture in society". To do this, art must be given the power to vitalize the experience in the sense that Dewey gives it: by considering it as the place of a normativity without a predefined norm, which is experienced only in the present of the relationship to the world, and that the relationship to works educates and makes explicit [START_REF] Fabre | Expérience et normativité : penser les modalités éducatives des projets artistiques à partir de John Dewey[END_REF].

Thus, transformation is a concept directly related to well-being in our context but which must be measured over a longer period of time than the time of this research but also a challenge because it "does not seem at first sight to be a deliberate process, but rather requires patience, time, transcendence, trust and openness of mind" [START_REF] Gerber | Art-based research as a pedagogical approach to studying intersubjectivity in the creative arts therapies[END_REF].

Transformation is an opportunity because it involves perhaps one of the most powerful phenomena -internal change caused by a "holistic experiential vision". It would thus be a "significant reconfiguration of perception and thought that results in a reduction in psychological constraint and pain, allowing the emergence of new psychological perspectives that contribute to a more creative life" (ibid.).

It is about responding to the four occupations of childhood: conversation, research, making things and artistic expression (Dewey, 1900) and to ensure that explicit links are established between art, culture and the environment, so that a socially responsible arts education programme can be broadly beneficial and far-reaching while ensuring the development of the whole child through the development of a strong citizen with an acute sense of social responsibility (Edwards, 2002).

7 )

 7 proposing a typology of influences for arts education: 1) Technocratic art: presents the view that the arts are comprised of a series of skills that serve the needs of industry and a desire for a capable skilled workforce, 2) Child art: views the arts as a natural development phenomenon of children, governed by the child's physical and psychological growth and the need to freely communicate their needs and emotions, 3) Arts as expression: occurs through free engagement in arts experiences that stress creativity, imagination and authenticity of outcomes, implying a level of therapeutic benefit to the individual, 4) Arts as cognition focuses on the art as a form of intellectual inquiry capable of being studied from a critical framework and the arts embody unique forms of thinking in the process of creating artworks, 5) Arts as aesthetic response explores sensory and perceptual definitions of art through disciplined inquiry into the principles underpinning the aesthetic, 6) Arts as symbolic communication treats the arts as a language form whereby people communicate, Arts as a cultural agent accentuates the role of the arts in social action, social reconstruction and the role of culture in society and ; 8) Postmodernism challenges traditional definitions of arts and questions the physicality and performativity of the arts and the definability of a concept called "the arts".Our field experiences show that the entire proposed typology is partially present, but two influences are particularly present in our conflict and emergency humanitarian contexts: child art and art as expression. These two types of art seem to be considered as privileged vectors for the development of well-being which is one of the priorities in emergency interventions.

  . The aim is to advance what is called "well-being" through concrete indicators. Our practice allows us to say what exists to propose a breakthrough. Our typology refines the category that we consider dominant: child art and art as expression. This reflective work is based on an ethnographical study "Artistic experiences and hope: identity issues of displaced children", on the experience of the displacement of children and their parents who have found refuge, mostly for the past five years in Camp Ashti, Sulaymaniyah, Iraqi Kurdistan. Camp Ashti is rich in complexity as it is home to different communities: Sunni Arabs, Yazidis, Shabaks and Turkmens. It is the only camp holding this originality in Iraqi Kurdistan. The trajectories are diverse, so are the situations and hopes. The objectives of this study were to make children's lives and hopes understandable and known through contextualized words, but also to experiment, through participatory action research (PAR) and artistic research, with the appropriation of the potential future of children affected by conflict in displacement situations. The ethnographic survey took place over 3 months with a full-time researcher dedicated to this task. The COD/Foundation Danièle Mitterrand team of 4 facilitators was also involved in this project and Zhwan is a professor at the University of Sulaymaniyah in the Department of Visual Arts. This collective work highlighted identity issues and representations of children and their families about their living conditions in the camps and their future. This cycle of artistic workshops also focused on how imaginary ideas and ways of thinking about the future are sketched out by drawing, particularly through the reflective approach of artistic research. Five different workshops were conducted with two groups of 20-25 children, for a total of about 60 children and young people from 6 to 15 years old.

  additional conflict-sensitive educational policies and practices has an important role to play. Through training in non-formal education; and careful selection and design of teaching materials and good child management, children regularly attend the workshops of the team of facilitators. A relationship of trust has been developed: children share their ideas and needs during the workshops. Even though intercommunity relations are tense and almost non-existent, children from both communities collaborate in the same space between the two ethnic groups.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1 : Young children painting for the first time at a workshop about identity

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Young children painting for the first time at an identity workshop

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Open interaction between facilitators and participants and collaboration between peers

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Improvised workshop on dreaming by a facilitator

Figure 5

 5 Figure 5 During the workshop "Inside the house of my dream"

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: A young girl has created the house of her dreams

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Exhibition of children's works on the theme of dreams for the camp communities

Conflicts are intensifying as much as they cause protracted crises and have an impact on the long term, particularly on the fate of the populations affected [START_REF] Wieviorka | Un nouveau cycle s'est ouvert[END_REF]ICRC, 2016). Alongside life in these sclerotic war zones that we are trying to escape, global structures are impacted by migratory flows: more and more people are displaced or refugees because of conflicts, i.e. about 68.5 million people in 2018 and according to the latest UNHCR, more than 70.5 million people in the world today (UNHCR, 2019).

About the Authors :

Albane Buriel is a doctoral student at UQAM. She is an expert in the fields of humanitarian aid, artistic practices and education in conflict zones. She is a consultant to humanitarian organizations for arts and creative education as a didactician and trainer for non-formal education practitioners in emergency situations (Syria and Iraq recently). She is currently working on a thesis in her fields of interest to understand the artistic experiences of young people in the Middle East.

Sylvie Morais, University of Québec at Chicoutimi, Canada, Sylvie_Morais@uqac.ca Monique Loquet, UniR -University Rennes 2, France.