Marie-Axelle Granié
email: marie-axelle.granie@inrets.fr

Education and communication issues for pedestrians. Results from the OECD group (No. 209)

In communities across the world, there is a growing need and responsibility to provide options that give people the opportunity to walk; to walk more often, to walk to more places, and to feel safe and happy while doing so. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has created a working group on "pedestrian safety, urban space and health (PUSH)" in 2008. This group has worked on means that could be used by national governments to improve pedestrians' safety and well-being in urban space. Communication on walking and education for walking are then needed to increase number of people who safe walk in urban space.

Aim of this paper is to expose strategies and content of communication and education on walking.

Targets and contents for communication and education have been defined and best practices in OECD countries have been collected (professional, road users, pedestrians -especially younger and older ones -).

The main results proved in the paper refer to the figures of several topics and targets for communication and education and to the solutions implemented to improve pedestrian communication and education in several OECD Countries.

Marie-Axelle Granié

Psychologist researcher in the Accidents Mechanisms of INRETS, she works on pedestrian since 2000, in particular on pedestrian's competencies development and gender differences in road risks, with French Ministries of Education and Transport. She is co-organiser of the INRETS Interdisciplinary Platform on pedestrian (COPIE) and of its two international conferences.

• Institutional framework Communication on walking and education for walking are needed to increase number of people who safe walk in urban space. Aim of this paper is to expose strategies and content of communication and education on walking. Targets and contents for communication and education have been defined and best practices in OECD countries have been collected (professional, road users, pedestrians -especially younger and older ones -).

Communicating on walking

Chapter on communication in the OECD PUSH report provides an overview of the types of information and the modes of communication that will prove most useful to encourage more people walking more often.

As a framework within which these individual communication initiatives play out, however, it will be important to draw upon the Pedestrian Charter and the Walk 21 mind-map to help establish the broad-based action plans.

Formal communication and information

Many examples of communications approaches are illustrated and the need to promote the numerous benefits of walking highlighted. The benefits of walking -whether for utilitarian or recreational purposes -can be expressed in terms of improved environmental and personal health, reduced traffic congestion, enhanced quality of life, with economic rewards as well.

Many communication tools may be used in order to promote walking as a way of life, to enhance the value of walking as a transport mode for daily trips (employees, scholars), utilitarian trips (shopping) and leisure trips (culture, sports) and to encourage inhabitants to discover their town through walks. Journalists also represent an important target audience for these communication tools as they have an important role in contributing to the diffusion of messages on walking.

Communicate the opportunity to walk

There is the opportunity to communicate the walking time and distance between neighbourhoods and between key activity hubs for pedestrians. For example, some cities (Genève, Liège, Tempe) have constructed city maps with walking times and distances marked between principal locations within the city centre (COOPARCH -R.U. & CITEC Ingénieurs Conseils, 2004). Geneva map show distances and walking times (based on a mean walking speed of 5 km/h) between key locations in the city displayed schematically. The map is in a very practical pocket format, is easily navigated and provides an incentive to walk within the city centre with all parts reachable in 30 minutes.

Walking maps can be developed around a broad range of themes and topics, capitalising on the community interest in the environment, arts, education, tourism and activity topics for children and families. For example, maps can be produced that promote cultural heritage walks -taking in fine examples of architecture, cultural and historic sites, parks and museums.

Urban signs for pedestrian

The nature of being a pedestrian, in contrast to a motorist or bicyclist, means that the pedestrians can approach the sign more closely, and take as much time as they want to read it. Therefore a pedestrian sign can contain a lot more detail than is possible with a sign directed at motorists or bicyclists, if the agency wishes. Pedestrian signs and maps may serve an educational purpose as well as provide directions [START_REF] London | Legible London, a wayfinding study[END_REF][START_REF] Farrell | Best Practices in Bicycle and Pedestrian Wayfinding in the Washington Region[END_REF].

Since pedestrian trips are usually short and local, a standardized pedestrian way-finding system similar to the interstate highway system or state routes has not been developed. Instead, pedestrian signs tend to be highly customized to reflect local conditions such as architectural styles, the kind of information to be conveyed, and the audience.

Pedestrian way-finding signs are usually one of two types: directional or maps. Directional signs are usually simple signs with an arrow indicating direction, a destination name, and sometimes distance to the destination. Maps usually show the pedestrian their current location, and the surrounding streets and destinations. Signs can be used also to indicate off-street routes, links with public transport or tourist areas.

Mobilise all the actors to promote and demonstrate walking

Key actors who have an influential role in promoting walking include:

• family doctor, on health benefits of walking • school teachers, for promoting safe routes to school and teaching road safety skills

• retailers who can develop events and promotional offers to encourage increased pedestrian activity in the area • businesses that could encourage walking by work-based mobility plans or through events like "walk to work days".

Central administrations and the public sector can play a key role in visibly reinforcing the need to undertake physically active activities such as walking for professional reasons. Educational institutions can play a role as well by establishing transport plans for schools that encourage walking.

For example, in Norway, the Working Environment Act directs Norwegian employers to encourage employees to be more physically active. One incentive offered by companies is to include workouts or other physical activities during working hours (a Gallup poll among a representative sample shows that 13% of workers in Norway have a contractual right to do this). Some of these workers have an individual agreement, based on mutual trust between the employer and the employee, to include walking time to and from work as contributing to the requirement to be more physically active.

Promoting walking: create a pedestrian identity

Blogs and website displays at key activity hubs can help inform walkers of issues of interest allow them to contribute to the forum of ideas and help to establish an identity for pedestrians, in a similar vein as is happening for cyclists in a number of cities in France.

Promoting walk friendly cities

Further tools for promoting walking that are gaining ground include measures that assess the walkability of routes (Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center (PBIC), 2007)1 and the walkability of cities. While of interest to individual citizens, their value may well lie ultimately in the leverage they can gain within key decision-making bodies to institute changes favourable to pedestrian mobility.

But communicating on walking is not sufficient if no tools are given to pedestrians for walking more and more safely in the cities.

Educating for walking

Educational, awareness and behavior change programs are vital to the success of improving pedestrian safe mobility, particularly to increase the adoption of safe walking practices.

Professionals

Professionals such as politicians, elected members and decision-makers should receive continuous training about how pedestrians can benefit from urban and road installations and 30km/h speed zones. They should also be informed about ways to reintegrate pedestrians into the cities. The government of Quebec has recently developed a manual with the aim of improving road safety by reducing vehicle traffic, reducing air pollution and increasing children's walking activities. The manual is for local stakeholders who are interested in developing safe routes to school (Transport Québec, 2009).

Elderly pedestrians

Elderly pedestrians are the most vulnerable age group for being involved in an accident due to their on-road exposure. Interventions that promote physical activity, that aim to balance training and exercise are effective in lowering the risk of falls and fall-related injuries in selected groups of older people. Older pedestrians can be educated about the role of physical wellbeing and mobility in pedestrian safety, and the benefits of walking for general health. Informative campaigns are successful in teaching adults but are not necessarily useful for transferring knowledge into practice. Therefore, practical training interventions could address aspects of pedestrian behaviour and should be designed with the intent to modify behaviour in the road environment with lasting effects [START_REF] Dunbar | Older pedestrians: a critical review of the literature[END_REF].

Drivers

Driver speed is a significant contributor to pedestrian injuries. Therefore, drivers should be educated about reducing their speed in high pedestrian areas. Reducing speed at pedestrian crossings should be encouraged and promoted. Drivers can also be educated about the give way rules, as many drivers are unaware of their responsibility to give way to pedestrians at certain junctions. The presence of appropriate signs can also improve driver compliance. In regards to child pedestrians, drivers could be informed about the limitations of children's behaviour in traffic.The road safety education concerning the children is not a new issue. But some changes, in the last 20 years, give new objectives for this education.

Educating children

New challenge for children pedestrian mobility

Pedestrian mobility among children decreased in a lot of countries since 20 years. Children now are autonomous as pedestrian from the first year of secondary school (between 11 and 12 years old), instead of 7-8 years old in the 70's. Children are now more likely to travel as car passengers than as pedestrians [START_REF] Hillman | A study of children's independent mobility[END_REF][START_REF] Hillman | One False Move[END_REF].

Therefore, children's experiences of traffic are often limited, because of a lack of exposure as a pedestrian. They have not developed sufficient skills to cross the road safely, before they begin to walk alone. These elements could explain a new peak in pedestrian's accidentology is observable in developed countries since the last 20 years, when the children become autonomous in their walking: that is at the beginning of the secondary school, on a longer travel, the children do not know at all [START_REF] Demetre | Applying developmental psychology to children's road safety: problems and prospects[END_REF].

The new preoccupation for sustainable development and health problems like obesity brings also countries to promote non pollutant and active means of traveling. Walking should therefore be promoted, as early as in childhood, but children must be educated for safe use of walking.

Raising children pedestrian mobility

Many countries developed interventions which want to improve traffic safety by changing mobility patterns and reducing the use of motor vehicles. Three examples of this kind could be cited.

Walking buses develop all around the world. In 2009, 39 countries are involved in the international "walking to school" day. Walking bus increases the number of children who go to school by foot. It consists in determined route to school, with time schedule meeting points where child is taken in charge by other adults for walking to school.

Children should reinvestigate the city for walking, playing and sojourning. Lack of walking mobility plays role on children's' socialization, autonomy and space reading and understanding. The international project named "La città dei bambini" was given a political motivation: taking the children as parameters and guarantors of the needs of all citizens. Children from 6 to 11 years-old are then asked to walk to school without adult. Considering the fears of the families, favorable environmental and social conditions have to be rebuilt. Till now, experiences of "We go to school alone" are active in 21 cities in Italy, Spain and Argentina.

As pedestrian could also be a user for collective transport, education programs have been developed in France by the National Society of Railway (SNCF), in coordination with French Ministry of Education. SNCF reps go into schools to talk about dangerous games played on its property, abuse of on-board alarm systems, respect for material goods, citizenship and social respect, safety and prevention.

What is made for children pedestrian education?

In OECD countries, pedestrian education programs vary from countries where quite nothing is organized to countries where very organized programs exist, with very formal contents. In the majority of countries, one dominant, broadly anchored semi-public or public body -Ministry of Education or Ministry of Transport -is active in development of programs, actions and Medias. In other countries a broader mix of public and private bodies is in charge of these tasks.In addition, the main institutions delivering pedestrian's education -in particular schools, but also police -are paid from public budgets.

What skills are involved?

Basically, programs for pedestrian's education should be based of knowledge coming from research in developmental and educational psychology. Pedestrians require a range of fundamental skills in order to interact safely with traffic. Research shows that the following are the most critical psychological processes involved in pedestrian's behavior [START_REF] Thomson | The effects of adult guidance and peer discussion on the development of children's representations: evidence from the training of pedestrian skills[END_REF].

The detection of traffic involves basic processes as selective attention; visual search; resistance to distractibility; co-ordination of visual and auditory information Visual timing judgments require the pedestrian to determine a vehicle's direction and rate of movement so that accurate time-to-contact judgments can be made.

These judgments must be made in relation to vehicles, approaching from two or more directions. This requires the ability to divide attention; to hold information in memory; and to co-ordinate and integrate this information.

What competencies should be trained?

On the basis of the psychological processes involved previous research, four core pedestrian skills should be included in training program. These skills are generic and training program can be built by integrating them in sequential and progressive modules [START_REF] Tolmie | Development and evaluation of a computer-based pedestrian training resource for children aged 5 to 11 years[END_REF]. These were:

-First, children must be able to perceive the dangers posed by topological features of the traffic environment (for example, intersections, or parked vehicles) (Ampofo Boateng and [START_REF] Ampofo Boateng | Children's Perception of Safety and Danger on the Road[END_REF]. This is the first skill that must be learned and the easier to learn to young children.

-Roadside search strategies are built on this first skill. Children must develop attention to the more dynamic features of the environment, especially vehicle movements [START_REF] Whitebread | The contribution of visual search strategies to the development of pedestrian skills by 4-11 year-old children[END_REF]. -Visual timing and gap selection further develop this second one. Children must relate information about vehicle movements to their own potential actions, in judging whether gaps between vehicles are large enough to cross safely (te [START_REF] Te | Visual timing and adaptative behavior in a road-crossing simulation study[END_REF]. -Perception of other road users' intentions develops children's sensitivity to cues, signaling the intentions of other road users, and how this should inform and influence their own intended actions [START_REF] Foot | Children's understanding of drivers' intentions[END_REF].

Some recommendations have also been made on the general form of these training.

How children should be trained?

Usually, the first road safety education actions children are actively involved in are pedestrian actions. Evaluation of pedestrian education actions show that practical training, consisting of a sequence of modules over a long period, are the more profitable [START_REF] Thomson | Issues in safety education interventions[END_REF].

Furthermore, two forms of interaction seem to be central for learning [START_REF] Thomson | The effects of adult guidance and peer discussion on the development of children's representations: evidence from the training of pedestrian skills[END_REF]:

adult guidance which improves procedural skills, that is ways of doing things; and peer collaboration, especially discussion, which improves conceptual skills, that is why a particular procedure was necessary and how it should be adapted to different circumstances.

Actions should enable children to develop skills and strategies through discovery and experience.

Children should act, test and train themselves, and these are far more effective than mere knowledge transfer [START_REF] Thomson | The effects of adult guidance and peer discussion on the development of children's representations: evidence from the training of pedestrian skills[END_REF].

It is important that pedestrian actions use realistic scenarios to place the action in context. Ideally, a realistic setting, such as the roadside, should be chosen for the interventions. A protected area is required for actions which seek to mix several modes of traffic. Training based on simulations offers a way round these difficulties, and seems to have the potential to improve learning on comparable levels than real roadside training [START_REF] Tolmie | Development and evaluation of a computer-based pedestrian training resource for children aged 5 to 11 years[END_REF].

Moreover, children can develop skills earlier than previously assumed. Behavioral approaches are particularly effective for teaching skills to children from age 4, as they don't require verbal skills [START_REF] Tolmie | Development and evaluation of a computer-based pedestrian training resource for children aged 5 to 11 years[END_REF].

Some examples of children training

Data for this section is mainly based on ROSE 25 final report on European good practices in road safety education for young people (Weber, 2005). Pedestrian's education for preschoolers consists first in understanding the road. They must learn the rules for keeping safe near traffic and need to understand why they need to follow these rules. They have to learn that they must only cross roads when holding an adult's hand.

Older children aged 8 to 11 are increasingly exposed as pedestrians on their own but are easily distracted and have not developed sufficient skills. A number of actions are focused on teaching awareness of risk, planning safe routes and decision-making. Another way is to motivate them to observe, to investigate and to learn. Children could detect and map potentially dangerous spots on their routes to school or to leisure time activities.

From the age of 12, pedestrian actions tend to focus upon issues of responsibility, risk and peers pressure. Teenagers need for example to act responsibly when escorting younger children to school. As for walking buses, this kind of project minimizes road traffic in the surroundings of the school.

Among students, program must be tailored to be related to specific needs and interests of student population. This helps to engage students in understanding why pedestrian safety is important and how it affects them directly. They must teach what they can do, both personally and as part of the community, to improve pedestrian safety and increase walking on campus and beyond.

Educating the educators

Integration of road safety education in teachers' educational career is important pre-conditions to promote it. Nevertheless, this initial education of teachers is weak in most countries (Weber, 2005). Teachers have rather the possibility to attend road safety education additional courses after becoming teachers. In several countries, police force plays an important role in safety education, but only few countries include this in police officers' education. It is rather offer in police officer training. In brief, education and training offered for road safety education staff is voluntarily, undertaken upon request and, most frequently, is offered just once, and only for those who have a special interest in road safety education.

It is important to involve parents in actions, or to keep them informed: what is taught in school and how they can reinforce the messages? This helps to increase their awareness of child's abilities. They are important role models for children: children observe their parents' behavior and learn through it [START_REF] Granié | La construction des règles comportementales sur le port de la ceinture chez l'enfant: analyse du contenu d'entretiens auprès d'enfants de 5 et 8 ans[END_REF]. Therefore, a number of actions aim to make parents, and teachers, aware of their own pedestrian behavior. From the very beginning when their child starts to walk on the road, parents should receive information and practical advice how to train their child. Furthermore, parents could be involved as trainers of school children [START_REF] Thomson | The effectiveness of parents in promoting the development of road crossing skills in young children[END_REF]. This has several benefits. Training can then occur in small groups with a high adult-child ratio and this ensures that the action is child centered. This combines an effective training method with cost effectiveness. Nevertheless, parents require training to ensure pedestrian's education.

After training, parents are as effective as expert trainers. The benefit is also to increase parents' awareness and knowledge of road safety, and involves them directly in addressing the problem of high child pedestrian injuries.

Why should children be educated to pedestrian mobility?

As a conclusion, children have to be educated for becoming safe and active pedestrians. This education should take into account all the knowledge brought by research. Parents should be involved in this education, to become support and good role model, because they are the major educator of the children. Teachers should be educated to be pedestrian's educators, because being pedestrians themselves is not sufficient, as being a driver is not sufficient to be driving instructor.

Educating children to be pedestrian is important for several reasons. Obviously, it is important for their safety as pedestrian. Moreover, what they learn as pedestrian could be also useful in their future other means of traveling. Be able to read and understand traffic scene, to judge gaps between vehicles, to understand differences between see and be seen, to interpret others users' behaviors are important skills, in all the modes of traveling. Walk safely is also important for children's health, because all active modes of transport are preferable for health, instead of being passive in a motor vehicle. Walking in the cities is important for children's development too. It permits to the children to build a representation of their environment, to feel they belong to a neighborhood, a town, a country. Walking permits to the children to travel around the town, to meet people and cultures. And these are important things for their social development.

Improve walking and safety walking among children is a good way to give back the town to the citizens, to give back life in the cities and to give back sustainability to the cities as environments of life.

http://drusilla.hsrc.unc.edu/cms/downloads/walkabilitychecklist.pdf


Corinne ; Blanquart

Amélie ; Gonçalves

Ligdwine Vandenbossche

Leila Kebir

Caroline Petit

Kebir

PETIT Caroline ; Leïla

Jean- Baptiste Traversac

Vandenbossche Lidwine

Blanquart

Gonçalves

Corinne ; Gonçalves

Amélie ; Kebir

The logistic leverages of

Keywords: Short food supply chains, performance, fruit and vegetable baskets BLANQUART

come

They are notably considered as a way to relocate or maintain agricultural activities, particularly in suburban areas. They are also supposed to be able to restore the connection between producers and consumers and to promote an alternative agricultural model based on "greener" production methods and the reduction of transport distances (the "food miles"). However, several studies have shown the limits of these models. Firstly, many important retailers have developed short food supply chains, questioning the local food system as an alternative business model. Moreover, it needs specific resources that many producers can't always offer. Secondly, an inadequacy between consumer's and producer's expectations can be observed, and many initiatives aren't based on collective approaches but on individual actions. Thirdly, these models aren't always based on alternative producing models (as organic agriculture) and the limitation of distances isn't always a factor of reduction of greenhouse gases.

The paper tries to assess the performance of local food systems and the logistic leverages that could improve that performance. Long food chains have demonstrated the importance of logistic as a means to improve performance, and we can wonder how the improvement of the logistic organization of short food systems could increase their economical, social and environmental performance.

Considering the fact that there's not only one local food system but a wide range of possibilities based on different numbers of intermediates or different geographic scales, our

INTRODUCTION

Many works in the literature propose the hypothesis that the development of short food supply chains is explained by their contribution to the renewal of food supply and by their ability to limit the constraints imposed to the farmers by the industrial and / or commercial intermediates. Thereby, they should be strong driving forces for the transformation of food supply chains regulation. If there are many advantages associated with them, many constraints limit their development. These constraints are often analysed from an agronomical point of view or through the resources and time necessary to implement these chains.

Although the logistics issues are considered as strategic in long food supply chains, few researches are dealing with the subject in short food supply chains. However, logistic organizations play an important role in the performance improvement of the short chains, particularly as far as their environmental performance is concerned. The objective of this article is to fill the lack of knowledge and analysis about the short food chains logistic organization.

The research that has been conducted puts the stress on the fruit and vegetable baskets in the French Paris Region. Its goal is to develop knowledge about the specificities of the baskets supply chains and their developing logistic scheme.

After a short presentation of short food supply chains and their potential advantages, we will focus on their environmental performance. More particularly, we would like to discuss the traditional assessment of this environmental performance, which is only based on the positive impacts of the reduction of distances without taking into account the other logistic dimensions.

We will demonstrate in this paper the strategic dimension of the logistic organization in the long food chains contrasting with the few studies about the logistic of the short ones. Our purpose is to show the diversity of the logistic organizations that are implemented and their

Potential advantages of short food supply chains:

Many virtues are associated to these schemes, starting with local and sustainable development, and farm perenniality.

As far as local development is concerned, short food chains are supposed to encourage the relocation of agricultural activities in suburban areas, activities whose profitability might be lower when included in conventional food chains due to lower wholesale prices and gross profits.

In addition, the farms involved in these schemes require more manpower. Small farms that are part of these systems seem to demonstrate many socio-economical advantages compared to big farms, notably concerning the employment in rural areas.

These chains are also supposed to guarantee the perenniality of farms by limiting the number of intermediates whose gross profits can make 60% of a product retail price [START_REF] Bressoud | Vente directe -Questions autour de la vente directe de légumes dans les Pyrénées-Orientales[END_REF]. Moreover, long food chains seem to have reached a maximum efficiency, whereas the organization of short ones might still be strongly improved. Short chains also seem to be based on cooperative movements, constituting a counter-power in front of conventional distribution channels.

However, these virtues may be discussed. Firstly because short chains remain marginal. For fruit and vegetable they represent about 7% of French consumers' procurements, less than 10% of French production [START_REF] Dubon | Distribution: un lien entre producteurs et consommateurs, Dossier Felscope, Fruits et légumes[END_REF] and 70% of them remain distributed by hypermarkets. In addition, these distribution channels aren't excluded from the short food supply chains as an increasing number of large-scale retailers tend to have more direct links with producers for their procurements. This strategy of stores procurement directly by the producer isn't new, but the promotion of special trademarks, sometimes associated with good agricultural practices is a fast developing model2 .

The economical perenniality (profitability, property transfer …) of farms involved in short food supply chains is also far from being demonstrated. [START_REF] Pailler | Identification et analyse de l'efficacité des principales stratégies des domaines viticoles de l'Entre-Deux-Mers[END_REF], who has studied the case of wine producers in Gironde, shows that the implementation of a direct selling strategy doesn't automatically increase their profits. [START_REF] Morizot-Beau | Les questions à la recherche de la production et de la vente de biens alimentaires, Filières Courtes de Distribution Développement Durable et Territoires[END_REF], in his recommendations to farmers who would try direct sale, insists on the importance of a detailed economical study of each project, as farmers of rural areas come up against many difficulties to access markets. Furthermore, short chains are, most of the time, individual initiatives and, for some of them who are very recent like baskets of products, the collective dimension doesn't play a central part in the organization

The environmental performance of short food supply chains:

The development of these systems is also part of nowadays concerns about more sustainable practices in agriculture and in the way of consuming. The debate is particularly lively in Anglo-Saxon countries where the concept of food-miles3 has become very important, notably because of the high proportion of imported food.

The decrease of transport distances leads to consider those short chains as sustainable systems that reduce the environmental nuisances caused by food supplying. In their study, [START_REF] Pretty | Farm costs and food miles: An assessment of the full cost of the UK weekly food basket[END_REF] have assessed the external costs due to transport for an average basket of products (based on a classical procurement model with long supply chains). It shows that the consumer should pay 3% more if the environmental costs where taken into account in the final price4 . But if these products had originated from a maximum distance of 20 km around the place of consumption, environmental costs would be 90% lower.

In addition, recent studies show that the producers involved in short chains tend to have more environmentally friendly practices [START_REF] Spanu | La pratique des circuits courts par les agriculteurs favorise-telle l'adoption de pratiques agricoles plus respectueuses de l'environnement? Cas du bassin de consommation de Rennes[END_REF], notably to meet the consumers demand for "greener" products. However, more detailed studies are necessary to determine how far those short chains may be factors of environmental performance.

For example, [START_REF] Carlsson-Kanyama | Weighted average source points and distances for consumption origin-tools for environmental impact analysis?[END_REF] show that the distance is only one of the parameters that determine the ecological impact of transports. The indicators may thus be used with caution. They can notably be used to identify the consuming models based on an important rate of imports, and which are huge energy consumers, before further analysis such as products life cycle analysis. So, the food miles, by integrating one and only criteria of geographical distance, only gives a first indication concerning the environmental impact of a product. The environmental performance of a food providing system as a data must be associated with others data. It means that the transport modes, the type of fuel used, the filling rate of the vehicles, etc, are also very important and should be considered. This explains why further studies like carbon assessment have generally been used to qualify the impact of supply chains on the environment 5 BLANQUART, Corinne; GONÇALVES, Amélie; KEBIR, Leïla, PETIT, Caroline; TRAVERSAC, Jean-Baptiste, VANDENBOSSCHE Lidwine This bar chart shows the emissions of different products (a column = a product). Four products have almost systematically been evaluated (potatoes, carrots, tomatoes, eggs) in all types of supply chains. Four types of short chains are described, the organic food store being considered as a structure combining short and long chain. The variables used are the type of vehicle, its greenhouse gases emissions and its filling rate. In short chains, vehicles have lower emission factors but also much lower loading capacity. The "market" system is a model of hyper-proximity with, in this case study, a rather high filling rate. It represents the systems with the lowest rate of carbon emissions. Imported products sold in organic shops represent the logistic model with the highest rate of carbon emissions. Delivery is the system that produces the highest rate (in this study, the filling rate is very low and goes on decreasing thru out delivery round). The emissions in that system are comparable with those of organic shops regional supply.

So, the strategic part of logistics in the economical and environmental dimensions of short food chains is confirmed by the Perez-Zapico's study (2008). It shows that new types of logistic organizations have to be implemented to reduce the number of trips and to increase the offer for specific outlets. We can take for example the pick up at farms of the products used to elaborate baskets or the creation of local platforms to group them. At the same time, the actors of short chains are becoming more and more concerned with the logistic organization, as they are aware of the fact that they'll have to improve it soon. The Logistic leverages of short food supply chains performance in terms of sustainability BLANQUART, Corinne; GONÇALVES, Amélie; KEBIR, Leïla, PETIT, Caroline; TRAVERSAC, Jean-Baptiste, VANDENBOSSCHE Lidwine

THE LOGISTIC ORGANIZATION AS A MEANS TO IMPROVE THE SHORT FOOD SUPPLY CHAINS PERFORMANCE

Logistics: a tool for long chains performance improvement:

But the logistic organization and the resources dedicated to short chains (infrastructures, skills, strategies…) remains ignored or under-estimated whereas logistics as been identified since many years as an essential way to improve conventional chains performance. If we consider, as B. Redlingshöfer does in a recent collective book [START_REF] Maréchal | Les Circuits courts alimentaires : bien manger dans les territoires[END_REF], that the long chains organization has already reached its maximum efficiency, the short chains can still be widely improved. Innovative solutions have to be found, notably by stimulating collective strategies.

There's not only ONE type of logistic organization in long chains as it can vary according to the supply mode, to the destination of the product (exchanges within or between areas, international exchanges) and its purpose (sale to customers, catering industry and eating outside of home or food processing). But a global pattern can be drawn, as shown in the example below based on the analysis of the fruit and vegetable industry. The graph shows the major role of intermediates in the chain: traders, central purchasing departments of large-scale retailers and/or logistics service providers. Producers are deprived of the control of flows and information.

To have a better control of their procurements, large-scale retailers and local authorities have developed their own buying structures, which limit the use of dedicated intermediates. As a result, traders have lost their importance and represented only 2 112 firms and 26 105 employees in 2006 (Xerfi, 2008) whereas the sector had already been declining since the beginning of the decade.

An evolutionist model with three steps (Paché & Colin, 2001) enables us to understand the logic behind the development of the retailers' logistics:

-At the beginning, the control of the flows in the distribution channel remained under the control of industrial firms and wholesellers, which were the only ones able to deal with wholesaling. -Then, following quite diverse trajectories, the first insourcing strategies of the logistic activities by the retailers appeared. The first logistic initiatives taken by major food retailers occurred early on (Crespo de Carvalho et [START_REF] Paché | Les distributeurs alimentaires adoptent-ils un modèle logistique universaliste ? L'exemple des enseignes françaises au Portugal[END_REF] and took place in the 1920s, when branch firms implemented a network of regional warehouses for the procurement of their stores. The goal was to benefit from the leverage effect due to the multiplication of branch firms to short-circuit wholesellers and to have direct links with providers [START_REF] Meuleau | L'introduction du Marketing dans l'entreprise en France (1888-1973)[END_REF] in order to reduce the cost of products. -The last step is based on a will to rationalize the flows so as to obtain a lasting competitive advantage towards upstream actors of the sector.

The mastering of flows and information makes logistics a strategic activity. Thus, the service provider who interfaces between production and markets can implement logistic solutions based on a massification of flows and on a mutualisation of the assets which satisfy both retailers and industrial firms. They are at the intersection of several value chains, which enables them to consolidate the demands sent by their diverse clients and to invest more easily in appropriate assets [START_REF] Paché | Period changes and inventory management : three ages of retail logistics[END_REF].

…which needs complex and costly assets:

The management of the numerous assets needed to organise logistics justifies the resorting to service providers. When industrial firms were in charge of logistics, the stores procurements came directly from factories or suppliers' warehouses. The retailers had little power in the organization of the supply chain as they had no logistic assets. This system related with " EX works" contracts enabled the industrial firms to adopt a policy based on the retention of productivity gains [START_REF] Carbone | Le rôle des prestataires logistiques en Europe -Intégration des chaînes et alliances logistiques[END_REF]).

Among those assets, the importance of the logistic infrastructures can be noticed. Today, in France, approximately 80% of the flow of items intended to the supermarkets transit to a warehouse or a platform. The retailers organise their stores procurements from central 9 platforms and regional or local warehouses that become obligatory as the stores have to be supplied faster and faster to avoid stocks.

The warehouse carries out several functions from massification, shipping re-composition, dispatching to storage. It's also the place where the break of load is used to realise some operations: repackaging, labelling etc… They are mixed or dedicated to a type of product (dry, fresh, frozen…). This specialization enables the retailers to overcome the risk of gigantic storage areas due to flow massification. It offers a better coherence of assets and logistic practices, of skills, of the needs for specific temperature or specific storage height….

Another advantage is the coherence of the stocks turnover. The degree of specialization of the sites depends on the diversity of the stores selection and on the number of warehouses.

However the implementation of a logistic scheme inspired by a just-in-time model to meet the need for reactivity has lead to an evolution of the use of logistic sites: the warehouse is no longer the main asset used by retailers.

Platforms have become more and more important in flows management, notably for certain types of products such as fresh products. The platform appears to be a key of the optimization of bulking and un-bulking without storage. It is now only a transit zone for the customer's order. It's the best place for cross-docking (dispatching of items without storage [START_REF] Carbone | Le rôle des prestataires logistiques en Europe -Intégration des chaînes et alliances logistiques[END_REF]).

But the management of these assets needs a critical mass, the implementation of technologies that fit the needs and an important capital.

Either the retailer wants a very specialized logistic support. In a situation of strong logistic constraints, the retailer who wants to manage the whole process on his own may not reach the required mass necessary, may not have the right technological tools and, as a consequence, might be behind compared to competitors.

Or the retailer wants to use specific logistic structures without tying up financial capital. Here, outsourcing of the products delivery enables him to use financial resources to develop his network and marketing strategy.

The outsourcing chosen by Carrefour and Cora is extreme as they delegate some entire parts of their activities to service providers. But most of time there's a coexistence of internal and outsourced infrastructures in the logistic chain of a retailer.

A first look at short supply chains:

Paradoxically, the logistic of short chains remains badly informed and eludes the question of the assets, in the analysis but also on the field. The short retailing systems / short supply chains do not benefit specific initiatives to improve transport and logistic organization.

A study was nevertheless conducted in 2008 about the logistic organization of these systems [START_REF] Perez-Zapico | Une évaluation de l'impact du transport dans l'alimentation. Comparaison entre circuits courts et circuits longs du Pays de Dinan[END_REF]. [START_REF] Hochedez | Le bonheur est dans le panier: réseaux alimentaires et commercialisation des produits issus de l'agriculture biologique: l'exemple suédois[END_REF] also made an analysis of two systems of biodynamic baskets in Sweden. These researches illustrate that the logistic organizations of these 10 systems remain quite unsophisticated. They also show their variety, related to the number and the nature of the products. Perez-Zapico distinguishes baskets from a single producer and from several producers. The diagrams below illustrate these two systems of baskets. In this last case, the collaboration of several producers to make diversified baskets can require a more complex logistic organization, with an operation of bundling / unbundling and the need for the producers to meet each others. Besides, the dairy products and the meat require specific equipments to respect the cold chain and the transport organization can rapidly become complex.

Production Area

Distribution Of Baskets

Mono-product basket system (elaborated by only one producer) → AMAP Multi-product basket system (elaborated by several producers and allowing the expansion of the range of products sold to consumers).

Withdrawal of

11

The biodynamic basket, including local and international products, is at the same time a traditional scheme of supply chain with many intermediates and a mode that is more craft like for local supplies.

Our objective is to complete the analysis of the logistic organizations of the short food supply chains, as far as these concerns begin to appear in many groups of producers. The members of the association "Saint Gilles's baskets" are looking for solutions to reduce their members' trips. In order to optimize their delivery system, the 'Baskets of the Val de Loire' have also chosen to create a logistic hub in the Paris Region with a structure specialized in occupational integration.

LOGISTICS FOR BASKETS DISTRIBUTION IN THE PARIS REGION Methodological elements

Fruit and vegetables basket is a supply of services and products (fruit and vegetables), which can be fresh or processed, sold in a single batch, proposed by a producer-farmer, a group of producers or a commercial intermediate, meant for the consumer or a group of consumers, with or without a long-lasting commitment.

The baskets systems, even if they are marginal in the food economy, are a very mediatized distribution scheme. As an innovative system that sometimes uses new technologies, it has become more and more relevant as the origin and quality of products and the associated services has become a major concern for consumers. Baskets distributed and sold to "AMAP" (association for the preservation of farming) are well known in France. But there are also other commercial organizations which distribute and deliver baskets, with organic products or not, at home or in drop-off points. There is a large variety of models for the Currently, the baskets business has become more and more dynamic and has increased, especially for the commercial intermediates. Thus, it is difficult to estimate the economic importance of the phenomenon. All the French Regions have a more or less important baskets network, in particular big towns where there is a strong demand. The baskets supply is concentrated in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Rhône-Alpes and Paris Regions, each having about twenty commercial operators. To a lesser extend, Languedoc-Roussillon, Brittany and Midi-Pyrénées Regions have about ten operators each.

In this research project, we have analysed the networks of fruit and vegetable baskets delivered in the Paris Region, with products coming from the Region or from other Regions or countries but with a delivery area in the Paris Region. Some quantified elements help presenting the phenomenon: at the end of 2008, the AMAP network for Paris identified 106 groups of consumers and 71 farmers under contract. The other basket networks include at the same time producers who deliver consumers without belonging to AMAP and also include commercial intermediates who supply baskets to people thanks to various modes. The chart below illustrates the various types of baskets taken into account in the study.

A variety of logistic organizations

The survey shows a variety of logistic organizations according to the following criteria:

13

-The number of suppliers / farmers involved in the preparation of baskets -The nature of the demand: "AMAP" or " without AMAP ".

It indeed seems that these two variables impose constraints and different opportunities that can lead to a typology of the logistic schemes associated with the basket systems we have analyzed.

The four logistics schemes we have identified are located in the various spaces bounded by our two variables:

1. Case I: basic logistic organization, centred around a small or medium sized farm and the farmer, with commercialization in AMAP: this is the case in which a single producer (1 or 2, rarely more) attends to all the operations of the supply chain associated with the baskets production.

2. Case II: basic logistic organization but in a bigger farm and with commercialization in AMAP. This case is similar to the first one: case in which a single producer (1 or 2, rarely more) attends to all the operations of the supply chain associated with the baskets production. We are dealing with bigger farms, so the system remains the same but on a larger scale.

3. Case III: basic logistic organization with commercial links without AMAP (sales of baskets in stations, at farmers' markets, or in works councils): this is the case of baskets sold by one or two producers in which there are products from their farms and sometimes complements from other producers.

4. Case IV: complex and subcontracted logistic organization with commercialization outside the AMAP system (commercial intermediates): case of commercial intermediates who centralize the products of various farmers to put together baskets (or have them put together) and who deliver them (or have them delivered). There is commercialization outside AMAP, by using drop-off points.

The typology can be seen in the following diagram. On the X-axis is the nature of the demand (AMAP or without AMAP) and on the Y-axis is the number of producers or suppliers associated to the preparation of the basket. The cases I, II and III describe the logistic organization of from producers, made by a single producer or a small group, with products that come only from their own farms. It is a basic logistics managed by the producer (s), relevant for small volumes and flexible in spite of the constraints of baskets content and of regularity of the deliveries. The counterpart of this flexibility is the time needed for the management of this logistics and for the implementation of a successful organization for the producer. These cases also have in common an organization in which there aren't any delivery rounds, but one route for each delivery and no subcontractors.

The four cases have all adopted just-in-time (with sometimes a short storing), because baskets include essentially fresh or extra fresh products (same-day picked). Besides, the sharing of the logistic tools remains very marginal as well as the global logistic strategies.

The main issues often are the optimization of the load of the vehicles or the decrease of the time dedicated to the preparation and delivery of baskets.

There is no case in box two (numerous producers / commercialization in AMAP). It can be explained by the AMAP contract which stipulates that it can only be supplied by a single producer.

Case IV:

Case I: basic logistic organization, with a small or medium sized farm and commercialization in AMAP

It is the case in which a single producer (1 or 2, rarely more) is in charge of all the operations of the supply chain associated with the basket production. The delivery areas are between 8 and 110 km (about sixty kilometers on average). The number of baskets is lower than 200 a week. The frequency of deliveries is on a weekly basis (a delivery per week for each AMAP) and deliveries take place on a given day and at a fixed hour. Deliveries are made with a single vehicle: personal car or small vans containing 8 to 10m3 on average. Flows are then direct, and logistics is basic.

Case II: basic logistic organization but bigger farms

This case is similar to the first one: a single producer is in charge of all the operations of the supply chain associated with the basket production, but on a larger scale. The number of baskets is over 200 per week. The producers make a weekly delivery for each AMAP. The use of 2 to 4 vehicles can be noticed, various types of vans containing 7m3 to 20m3.

Case III: basic logistic organization with commercialization outside AMAP

It is the case in which baskets sold by one or two producers contain products from the farms with sometimes complements from other producers. It is in particular baskets sold in stations, at the farmers' markets, or to works councils. The volume is between 60 to over 200 baskets per week. There are 1 to 4 deliveries per week using 1 to 4 vehicles, essentially vans containing 7m3 to 20m3.

Case IV: complex and subcontracted logistic organization with commercial links without AMAP

In that case, we can find commercial intermediates who centralize the products from various farmers to put together baskets (or have them put together) and deliver them (or have them In that case, the commercial intermediate groups together products from local farms (located in the same Region in which the baskets are made or in the same Region of points of delivery). The products transport towards the place where baskets are put together can be done by the producers or the intermediates. The preparation and the distribution can be subcontracted or not, and when it is subcontracted, in our study, it is done by associations specialized in occupational integration. The producers' implication in the creation of the offer of products and services is varied, but very strong for some of the intermediates such as farmers' cooperatives. This system allows more important volumes, bigger variety of products in the baskets and the ability to react if a producer can't deliver the products. But it means for the intermediate an important effort of coordination between the producers, so as to have a permanent and diversified offer. These intermediates are global because they belong to longer supply chains that allow them to choose more easily between important and diversified volumes of products. They can, according to the cases, stock up at local producers (in particular at the Rungis market) as well as at other wholesellers. Thus, they are able to satisfy consumer for local production and variety, and to react to the changes in that demand. These intermediates always choose the selection of products (regional, national or international), the baskets preparation and their marketing. They can also be in charge of the delivery or the delivery can be subcontracted.

AS A CONCLUSION: LOGISTICS, A TOOL OF THE COORDINATION BETWEEN ACTORS

The typology illustrates the importance of upstream (producers/suppliers) and downstream (demand) relationships in the organisation of the logistics schemes that are implemented. Thus logistics becomes a tool of coordination between the actors of the supply chain.

Logistics is not only a way to optimize costs (transport costs or transaction costs). Logistics include all the activities that coordinate the activities of production to their environment of resources and demand. There is thus a variety of forms of interaction and coordination between the actors and thus a variety of logistic organizations in which transport will plays different roles.

Therefore, the logistics has to be considered as a strategic activity in the process of coordination between the actors. Improvements in the logistic organisations also allow improvements in the relations between the actors, that is to say improvements in the performance. This is very important to ensure the continued existence of the short food supply chains and to ensure that producers get this complementary income.

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1 -Greenhouse gases emissions at km per product (in G equivalent c/km). Source :Original chart elaborated from Perez-Zapico (2008) P: potatoes; C: carrots; T: Tomatoes; E: Eggs

Figure 2 -

 2 Figure 2 -Long food chain organisation -elaborated from Xerfi (2008) * Central Purchasing Department °° Catering industry and eating outside of home

Figure 3 -Figure 4 -

 34 Figure 3 -Diagram of a basket from a single producer -Perez-Zapico (2008)

Figure 5 -

 5 Figure 5 -Diagram of multi-origin basket -Hochedez (2007 P Local = Local Producer

Figure 8 -

 8 Figure 8 -The basket of the local intermediate, the flows in beam -Original figure

Figure 9 -

 9 Figure 9 -The basket of the local intermediate, a logistic scheme based on the segmentation of the different functions -Original figure

Table 1 -

 1 The various concepts of baskets in our analysis

	Consumers	Group of consumers	Individual consumers
	Producers
	Producer -farmer	AMAP type baskets	Baskets in drop-off points
		Work council baskets	Baskets in stations
		Deliveries: various places,	Baskets at farmers' markets
		farms, firms	Deliveries: in stations, at
			farmers' markets, in various
			drop-off points
	Commercial intermediate	Baskets for works councils	Baskets in drop-off points
		Deliveries: firms	Baskets delivered at home
			Deliveries: in various drop-off
			points, at home
	14 detailed interviews were realized with:
	-Basket producers
	-A representative from a group of consumers
	-A representative from a Chamber of Commerce

  Products come from numerous farms (between ten and 400), sometimes from abroad. They are centralized at the intermediate's location. The delivery areas stretch from ten kilometers to approximately 180 km, especially in the Paris Region and sometimes outside (Lyon, Orléans among others). Volumes span from 50 to more than 1000 baskets per week. Deliveries are weekly or twice-weekly according to the drop-off points. There are from two to five delivery days a week. Forms of subcontracting were observed in particular cases for the transport as well as the packaging of the baskets. Flows are organized in rounds. The intermediates who are in charge of the deliveries use up to 5 vehicles. They are mainly vans containing 2m3 to 20 m3.We should distinguish the case of the local commercial intermediate and the case of the global commercial intermediate.

	The Logistic leverages of short food supply chains performance in terms of sustainability
	BLANQUART, Corinne; GONÇALVES, Amélie; KEBIR, Leïla, PETIT, Caroline; TRAVERSAC, Jean-
		Baptiste, VANDENBOSSCHE Lidwine
	delivered).
	Producer		Consumer
			Consumer 1
		Group of
	Producer	consumers	Consumer x
		or
		other drop-off
		points	Consumer n
	Figure 7 -The basket of producer a basic logistic scheme -Original figure
		16

BLANQUART, Corinne; GONÇALVES, Amélie; KEBIR, Leïla, PETIT, Caroline; TRAVERSAC, Jean- Baptiste, VANDENBOSSCHE Lidwine

For example, collective initiatives in supermarkets : Les Maraîchers de Traditions (Île de France), les Saveurs du coin (Rhône), Terres d'Ici (Grenoble), les Maraîchers des Campagnes Lilloises, Saveurs en Or (Pas de Calais), les Jardins du pays d'Aubagne (Bouches du Rhône), Traditions maraîchères Marne, Haute Garonne, Pyrénées Orientales, Var), Terres de goût (Provence), Le petit producteur (Fraises de Carpentras).

The food miles indicate the number of kilometres covered by food from its production area to its consuming place, in other words the consumer's plate. Introduced by Tim Lang (professor of food policy at London's City University), this concept is today widely accepted and taught as an indicator in Anglo-Saxon countries, notably by large-scale food retailers (Tesco, Marks and Spencer) which have decided to indicate on overseas products the production area or the transport mode (airfreight being the least environmentally friendly).

This additional cost is mainly made up of public subsidies for agriculture (£0.93), agricultural externalities (£ 0.81), road freight transport for retailing (£0.76) and the transport of products once they've been bought by customers (£ 0.41).

The « Bilan Carbone » (Counting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions) is a tool designed by the ADEME (French Agency for the Environment and Energy Management) to assess the greenhouse gas emissions. It was developed in 2000 by Jean-Marc JANCOVICI from the MANICORE consulting firm. Data can easily be found in a database of emission factors developed be the ADEME.

th WCTR, July 11-15, 2010 -Lisbon, Portugal