Alexander Ronzhyn
email: ronzhyn@uni-koblenz.de

Maria A Wimmer
email: wimmer@uni-koblenz.de

Vera Spitzer

Gabriela Viale Pereira
email: gabriela.viale-pereira@donau-uni.ac.at

Charalampos Alexopoulos

Using Disruptive Technologies in Government: Identification of Research and Training Needs

Keywords: digital government, disruptive technologies, research needs, training needs, scenario-technique

Over the past years, a number of new technologies have emerged with a potential to disrupt many spheres of the society. While public sector traditionally lacks behind business in innovation, significant changes are anticipated with the use of disruptive technologies. The implementation of the new technologies for the government service provision, along with possible benefits, need to be well thought through and challenges need to be carefully discussed, analysed and evaluated. This paper uses scenario-technique to identify research and training needs for the implementation of disruptive technologies in government services. Using the input of 58 experts from three workshops, research and training needs for the internet of things, artificial intelligence, virtual and augmented reality, as well as big data technologies have been identified. The identified needs can serve as a starting point for a broader and more informed discussion about the knowledge and skills that the researchers and practitioners of digital government need to obtain for the broad use of such new (disruptive) technologies.

Introduction

Digital government refers to the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) for the provision of public services with the aim of increased efficiency, effectiveness and improved quality of services for the citizens [START_REF] Yildiz | E-government research: Reviewing the literature, limitations, and ways forward[END_REF][START_REF] Brown | Achieving advanced electronic government services: An examination of obstacles and implications from an international perspective[END_REF]. Over time, along with the changes in the expectations and needs of citizens and the increasing ubiquity of technology in societies, digital government services have also been changing.

The changes in the way the public services are provided can be used as an evidence for identifying distinct stages of digital government evolution [START_REF] Mukabeta Maumbe | Questioning the pace and pathway of e-government development in Africa: A case study of South Africa's Cape Gateway project[END_REF]4]. The increase in participatory services and social media use by the public bodies parallel to the emergence of Web 2.0, allowed speaking of Government 2.0 or participatory government [START_REF] Bonsón | Local e-government 2.0: Social media and corporate transparency in municipalities[END_REF]6]. In a different classification of phases, Janowski [START_REF] Janowski | Digital government evolution: From transformation to contextualization[END_REF] suggested that digital government evolution can be delimited into four stages based on how government is transformed by the ICT. Broadly speaking, Janowski's third stage "Engagement or Electronic Governance" corresponds to the Government 2.0, characterized by increased participation and engagement, trust building and focus on transparency and accountability [START_REF] Janowski | Digital government evolution: From transformation to contextualization[END_REF].

Lachana et al argue that the recent changes in the technologies used and the focus of the use of these technologies allow identifying a new stage in digital government -Government 3.0 [START_REF] Lachana | Identifying the Different Generations of Egovernment: an Analysis Framework[END_REF]. This new stage is characterized by the extensive use of disruptive technologies for provision of customized services and data-driven evidence-based decision making [START_REF] Pereira | Scientific foundations training and entrepreneurship activities in the domain of ICT-enabled governance[END_REF]. The term "disruptive technology" refers to the technologies, whose application has potential to drastically alter the processes and operations in a particular field of the public sector [START_REF] Kostoff | Disruptive technology roadmaps[END_REF]. Artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of things (IoT), natural language processing (NLP), Virtual and Augmented reality (VR, AR), big data and block chain are such examples of technologies [START_REF] Pereira | Scientific foundations training and entrepreneurship activities in the domain of ICT-enabled governance[END_REF]. Government 3.0, as defined above, largely corresponds to the fourth stage of Janowski's [START_REF] Janowski | Digital government evolution: From transformation to contextualization[END_REF] classification: "Contextualization or Policy-Driven Electronic Governance", which emphasizes the contextualization of the digital government efforts. This technological and thematic shift poses ethical and research challenges [START_REF] Ronzhyn | Literature Review of Ethical Concerns in the Use of Disruptive Technologies in Government 3.0[END_REF] and creates new research and training needs. The current research is a part of the Gov 3.0 project [START_REF]Gov 3.0 -Scientific foundations training and entrepreneurship activities in the domain of ICTenabled Governance[END_REF] that is concerned with establishing Government 3.0 as a research domain and creating a Master curriculum addressing the needs of this new stage. The current paper describes the first steps of identification of these needs using the future scenario research technique [START_REF] Ronzhyn | Scenario Technique to Elicit Research and Training Needs in Digital Government Employing Disruptive Technologies[END_REF]. The identified needs will serve as a basis for the Government 3.0 roadmap and later the Master-level education curriculum, developed during the subsequent work packages within the project.

In the context of the paper, a "research need" is a gap identified by relevant stakeholders as important and if addressed will help to resolve a specific real-world problem [START_REF] Chang | Identifying research needs for improving health care[END_REF]. A "training need" is a gap in the existing training curricula (either formal or vocational), which when addressed allows the recipients of training to manage effectively a specific real-world problem. A "problem" in both of the definitions refers to the implementation of the disruptive technology in public service as illustrated in the scenarios.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 details the methodology used for collecting input from the experts in the workshop setting. Section 3 provides an example of a scenario used (3.1) and details the findings related to the research (3.2) and training (3.3) needs. Section 4 synthesises the findings and details the conclusions, suggesting directions for the future research.

Methodology

The use of future scenarios is an established method for research of possible futures in various fields, both public and private [START_REF] Ratcliffe | Scenario building: a suitable method for strategic property planning?[END_REF][START_REF] Schwartz | The art of the long view: Planning for the future in an uncertain world[END_REF]. Scenarios typically describe possible future developments in a specific area [START_REF] Johnson | Using participatory scenarios to stimulate social learning for collaborative sustainable development[END_REF], detailing the involvement of various stakeholders and interplay between these stakeholders [START_REF] Carroll | Five Reasons for Scenario-Based Design[END_REF]. The aim of the scenario use is to look at the problem from different viewpoints and better understand possible future evolution directions [START_REF] Janssen | Scenario building for E-Government in 2020: Consolidating the results from regional workshops[END_REF], thus improving decision making [START_REF] Ringland | Scenarios in Public Policy[END_REF]. In contrast to forecasts and prognoses, the goal of the scenarios is to suggest several possible developments with varying degree of probability, rather than identifying the most probable future. [START_REF] Peterson | Scenario Planning: a Tool for Conservation in an Uncertain World[END_REF][START_REF] Bohensky | Conservation in Practice: Future Ecosystem Services in a Southern African River Basin: a Scenario Planning Approach to Uncertainty[END_REF].

The research is guided by the following two questions:

1. What are the research needs regarding the implementation of disruptive technologies in digital government? 2. What are the training needs connected to the implementation of disruptive technologies in digital government? In this research, we use scenario methodology as described in Ronzhyn et al. [START_REF] Ronzhyn | Scenario Technique to Elicit Research and Training Needs in Digital Government Employing Disruptive Technologies[END_REF]. First, future scenarios describing the use of the disruptive technologies were developed by the research team. These scenarios were consequently presented to the experts at the workshops to elicit input about possible research and training needs for the implementation of the scenario. The workshops were organized within one or two conference sessions and include: a) introduction to the overall task, b) scenario introduction, c) group discussion of the individual scenarios led by group moderators (addressing both, research and training needs, and prioritising these needs), and d) summary of the workshop with brief discussion of the scenarios by all the participants. As a result of the discussion, experts provide a list of research and training needs along with the assessment of how important or pressing a particular need is. The assessment is a result of the expert consensus within a group. For prioritisation a three-level system is used: green low importance, yellowmedium importance, and redhigh importance.

Three workshops were organized to collect input from the experts in the field of digital government: the Roadmapping workshop at Samos Summit (Samos, Greece) in July 2018, the Roadmapping workshop at the EGOV-CeDEM-ePart 2018 conference (Krems a.d. Donau, Austria) in September 2018 and the Workshop at the NEGZ: Herbsttagung Conference (Berlin, Germany) in November 2018. In total seven different scenarios were discussed (some of them at more than one workshop). Scenarios included possible future implementations of AI, ML, NLP, IoT, AR, VR and Blockchain technologies as well as implementations of the broader concepts of smart city, gamification and co-creation of public services. Most of the scenarios involved more than one technology. For example, one of the scenarios described the use of crowdsourced sensors to monitor air quality in cities (IoT, smart city) and automated decision making to make sense of the collected data (ML, AI). A different scenario described an example of implementation of gamification of social services based on the AR technology. A total of 58 experts participated in workshops, among them academics, public officials, government representatives and private sector representatives. Experts involved were also rather varied geographically: the majority of participants came from European organizations; several participants came also from the Americas, Asia and Australia. The diversity among experts allowed gathering diverse and original input based on experts' individual backgrounds and experiences. notes by workshop moderators were taken along the discussions and used in the analysis to better understand the suggested needs. The prioritisation of the needs was done by the experts in the workshop, however, if a specific need was prioritized differently by different groups in distinct workshops, then an average prioritisation was given to the need. The needs have been classified into categories based on the area of concern (6 research and 5 training need categories, see sections 3.2 and 3.3). The classification was done by four researchers of the project employing an inductive method (described e.g. in [START_REF] Dameski | A Comprehensive Ethical Framework for AI Entities: Foundations[END_REF]).

Findings

Below, one of the scenarios is introduced along with a poster as an example of how the use of a disruptive technology in public service was presented during the workshop. Subsequently, in 3.2 and 3.3 the results of the workshops are described together with the categories that emerged during analysis.

Scenario example

The example scenario "Intelligent citizen portals connected across Europe using chatbot interface for easy interaction with citizens" details a possible use of AI and machine learning coupled with natural language processing technology, realizing a chatbot interface for better cross-border public services. Figure 2 provides a brief textual description of the scenarioa more detailed version was presented to the workshop participants.

Relocating to another country or similar action involving two or more different countries often carry high administrative burden. Citizens not only have to organize many documents over a short period of time, but also have to consider the different regulations of their home vs. destination country. In the future, the use of intelligent citizen portals with chatbot interface simplifies the organisation of complicated procedures involving authorities in multiple countries.

A citizen uses a smartphone to contact the government chatbot and requests help with the process. The citizen can send messages written in natural language without the need to use specific commands. A chatbot then processes the text using Natural Language Processing and AI to understand the meaning of the request and provides relevant answer. In a further future, a chatbot can even process the voice commands and provide answers.

The chatbot acts as an interface connecting a citizen to the intelligent portal. The portal is designed in a way to interoperate with other portals and databases across Europe. If eID is used by the citizen, the portal application can then use it to access the relevant information across borders (according to the Once-Only Principle1 ). The application can also identify the missing information required for the relocation of the citizen and ask necessary questions to gather this information. Furthermore, the intelligent portal can automatically complete foreign forms and help with understanding the specific terms, providing assistance through the conversation with a chatbot.

Based on the Once-only principle, AI, NLP and the intelligent citizen portal, relocating abroad (and other similar cross-border formalities) is no longer a complicated matter for the citizen and for public authorities. As described in the methodology, the scenario provides an example of possible future implementations of disruptive technologies in public service provision. While most of the relevant technologies can be implemented practically even today, some parts depicted in the scenario are still not quite ready (for example OOP has not been fully implemented across European borders and interoperability between different public organization is still a challenge; even more so between public and private organizations).

Figure 2. Scenario poster -"Intelligent citizen portals connected across Europe using chatbot interface for easy interaction with citizens"

The poster used along with this scenario is shown on Figure 2. On the poster, the arrows represent the exchange of information between the actors, while the boxes show technological enablers that are involved at each of the steps for information processing (e.g., AI system) and for information exchange (e.g., encryption). Both artefacts were used to deliberate research and training needs with the experts in the different workshops. The subsequent descriptions outline the main research and training needs identified during the workshops.

3.2

Research needs

Standardisation and Interoperability of disruptive technologies

Standardisation includes the needs for further research of possible standards for the disruptive technology implementation: standards for the use of AI for automated decision making, standardisation of collected data by IoT and the standardisation of the IoT devices. Common standards are especially important in IoT as different models of sensors can be used as a network to provide valuable results, so the data collected by these sensors needs to be compatible and interoperable.

Linked to standardisation, interoperability research needs deal with ensuring that different implementations of the same technology are able to effectively "talk to each other". These needs are of high priority both in IoT (especially technical interoperability of different sensors [START_REF] Khan | A Cloud-Based Architecture for Citizen Services in Smart Cities[END_REF]) and in AI/ML research (in the intelligent portals scenario, where cross-border interoperability is a necessity).

Analysis of stakeholders

This category describes the engagement of stakeholders in the implementation of modern technologies as a fundamental requirement for successful implementation and use of these technologies. Stakeholders are those who affect or are affected by decisions or actions [START_REF] Freeman | Strategic Management: a Stakeholder Approach[END_REF]. In the implementation of disruptive technologies, it is necessary to understand who the stakeholders are, how to engage various stakeholders effectively and identify the needs of target groups to involve them adequately in the implementation process. Technologies like Blockchain, AI and Machine Learning have been the biggest research needs in stakeholder (citizen) engagement, co-creation and improvement of already existing solutions both in public and private sectors. Further research needs include the user studies comparing the use of traditional web search functions and modern solutions such as Chatbots. How far can a Chatbot based on AI and ML take over the functions of traditional web and how can the digital divide between different user groups be overcome in the future, with the use of AI-driven technologies? Another research need arises as to whether citizen engagement/ co-creation and outsourcing to the private sector could increase the acceptance of and trust towards IoT, AI and ML systems. Similarly, it is necessary to examine existing architectures of technologies for their suitability in the public sector.

Evaluation and Policy making

The category refers to the necessity of assessment of impact and costs of the disruptive technologies' implementation. The research needs of the present category were raised when discussing AI (adapting legislation to the use of cross-border data) and IoT (automated policy making based on IoT data). Further research is necessary to identify the ways to adapt legislation for effective implementation of some technologies in public sector (like video monitoring regulation for AI/ML) and the implications of using AI for the creation of regulations and policy (e.g., exploring the dangers of bias in ML [START_REF] Baeza-Yates | Data and algorithmic bias in the web[END_REF][START_REF] Yapo | Ethical Implications of Bias in Machine Learning[END_REF]).

The proper way of using simulation and data modelling for e-government services is another research need. Simulation can be used for policy modelling in different settings and in the design of predictive models. In both cases it may be used as a basis for data-driven decision making. The issues of accuracy of data and accountability need to be addressed when using simulation and data modelling for making decisions.

Research needs of this category are often transdisciplinary and also very much dependent on the field where the technology is to be used. For different scenarios involving IoT, research needs may include research of urban environment (when IoT are implemented as a part of a Smart City imitative) or "earth/water evaluation" (when IoT sensors are used in agriculture).

Data security and Data privacy

Data security and data privacy are two important topics for research of the use of disruptive technologies in public sector. The willingness to allow collection, sharing and the use of sensitive citizen data is contingent on high trust in these technologies and administrations deploying them. In particular, the security and privacy of the Blockchain technology need to be addressed in the context of public service. While implemented private-sector solutions (e.g. in finance) are being used and further developed, the potential for the use of Blockchain in the public sector needs to be researched and evaluated further in the context of e-government [START_REF] Ølnes | Beyond Bitcoin Enabling Smart Government Using Blockchain Technology[END_REF] while most of the papers tend to focus on benefits of the technology rather than possible challenges of its implementation [START_REF] Ølnes | Blockchain in government: Benefits and implications of distributed ledger technology for information sharing[END_REF]. Privacy and security issues need to be researched in the context of storing sensitive personal data and allowing specific actors the access to these data [START_REF] Jun | Blockchain government -a next form of infrastructure for the twenty-first century[END_REF]. Data privacy is a significant issue in IoT as well, especially in urban setting. In case studies [START_REF] Brous | A Systematic Review of Impediments Blocking Internet of Things Adoption by Governments[END_REF], data privacy and security were found to be the main impediments on the strategic level for the introduction of IoT for e-government. Data accuracy is another issue critical for the implementation of IoT in smart cities. Research needs in data quality are connected to the standardization issues described in 3.2.1.

Automated decision-making

Due to the digitization of the public sector processes, the use of modern technologies and automation mechanisms is indispensable. Thus, the possibilities of using disruptive technologies and their possible effects must be investigated. The big data collected by sensors can be automatically processed and analyzed using the AI and ML technologies to provide real-time decisions. Such system may offer significant advantages over "manual" regulation and improve the quality of life in cities [START_REF] Song | Towards Smart Cities by Internet of Things (IoT)a Silent Revolution in China[END_REF], yet it poses a number of challenges concerning transparency and accountability. There are also concerns related to adaptability of such systems: as different environments offer different challenges, there might be no one standard way of organizing automated decision-making based on the collected environment data. Further case-study research is necessary to see how AI and ML may be adapted on the local level [START_REF] Zanella | Internet of things for smart cities[END_REF].

The use of autonomous agents also poses a concern related to the inclusivity and trust. Further research on the integration of autonomous systems in public services is necessary: addressing both the technological issues (design of such agents) and behavioral issues (public perception of the agents).

The challenges of implementation of VR and AR in the public sector reveal further research needs. In particular, the possibilities and benefits of VR and AR in connection with smart buildings must be examined in more detail. Also in regard to the training needs, further research is needed on the benefits of gamification methodology in the VR and AR contexts.

Ethical issues

A common research need in the discussion of the disruptive technologies is ethics and moral issues. By far, AI is the most ethically controversial technology. Research directions regarding AI include privacy research (surveillance, profiling), ethics of automated decision making (especially concerning sensitive decisions, e.g., in law enforcement, health), issues of responsible research. The discrepancies between the real world and the data used for AI-based decision making was identified as a high-priority research issue as decisions based on incomplete (or even biased) information may be unfair and problematic. One of the ethical issues raised in regard to the implementation of IoT is the sustainability of sensors infrastructure; if IoT sensors are used in rural environments, they are much more difficult to control and recycle properly. Possible pollution is an ethical concern that needs to be researched. An earlier study [START_REF] Ronzhyn | Literature Review of Ethical Concerns in the Use of Disruptive Technologies in Government 3.0[END_REF] showed that there is significant number of ethical issues connected to implementation of disruptive technologies in public service.

Training needs

3.3.1

Technology AI and Machine Learning, Blockchain and IoT are the technologies with most technical requirements for using and implementing them in public sector. When using AI/ML, field experts in multidisciplinary domains are required to have expertise in modelling and tools, which requires professional training. Public officials must be able to deal with non-standard situations in requests through digital agents and addressing multiple identities in the system. For the implementation of these technologies, skills on app development, security encryption and access rights are fundamental. For implementing blockchain technical training of identity providers, employers, public sector and social workers is necessary, as well as the understanding the impact of decentralized distributed system on current administrative processes. Public officials training on the use of specific devices are important for the use of VR/AR equipment and IoT sensors. Implementing IoT also requires skills on decision system modelling, monitoring systems and fog computing/infrastructure.

Management

Management training is found to be relevant for applying AI/ML, Blockchain and IoT in public sector. Considering AI/ML applications, relevant aspects include the ability to involve citizens in the process, as well as knowledge management and business models of social work (social innovation). Training on process/change management is important for using VR/AR in government. Similarly, IoT applications require courses for public employees on project management, entrepreneurship, doing business and costbenefit analysis.

New technologies in Public Management & E-Government

Training on public management and e-government is important for applying most of the discussed disruptive technologies such as AI/ML, Blockchain and IoT. For government employees using AI/ML, skills on new technical components (IT systems) and new legal basis are required, as well as the ability to establish a framework for cooperation with private companies. For blockchain, including a basic training for public sector specialists on the technology use in government is required. When using IoT in government applications, training needs refer to introductory topics of e-government such as enterprise architecture, public administration and public sector innovation, as well as the emergent digital transformation domain, which refers to complete redesigning of the government services to fulfil changing user needs [START_REF] Mergel | Citizen-oriented digital transformation in the public sector[END_REF].

In addition to the major training needs of this category, our research indicates the lack of soft skills mainly for the public officials and citizens regarding acceptance of disruptive technologies such as AI and blockchain. A "train the trainers" approach seems to be the most efficient one for covering this need.

Data Science & Data security

Most of the training needs concerning data science and security are connected to the implementation and use of the AI, ML and IoT technologies. It is worth mentioning that these 3 technologies have been used in different tested scenarios (except 3 and 6).

Our results reveal lack of knowledge on data analysis and artificial intelligence tools, the ways of achieving data trust and security including accuracy of the IoT devices and user input for the target groups of civil servants, professionals and citizens. Legal issues training is identified as a very important training need for all target groups including researchers, especially concerning the blockchain and AI technologies.

3.3.5

Responsibility & Sustainability

The last category of the identified training needs has to do with responsible research and sustainability of the applied solutions. Again, in regard to AI, a need to train the researchers in ethics was identified, specifically concerning the ethical solutions to the problems of automated decision-making. For public servants, the focus is on the managerial training needs: sustainability assessment of the applied solutions (IoT) in the public sector understanding what technology should be applied and if this technology is covering the current needs.

Discussion and Conclusions

The number and diversity of identified research needs is rather high, reflecting the novelty of application of the disruptive technologies for public service provisioning. First, researchers need to carefully examine the necessity for the implementation of services based on these technologies: evaluate the advantages (or disadvantages), which the new technology will bring in the specific cases. Then, there are research needs regarding the effective and ethical use of the data collected and its use for decision making. The critical issues of privacy and security have to be addressed to ensure the responsible implementation of such services and their acceptance by the public. Finally, as many public services are not limited to one country, research and development of standards is important to ensure interoperability of services.

Many of the research needs discussed in this paper have already been mentioned by the researchers of the specific technologies: for IoT in public services, interoperability and standardisation are seen as a major issues [START_REF] Ahlgren | Internet of Things for Smart Cities: Interoperability and Open Data[END_REF], in the AI research, ethics has been a steady concern [START_REF] Dameski | A Comprehensive Ethical Framework for AI Entities: Foundations[END_REF] and privacy is a huge pressing issue in ICT generally [START_REF] Smith | Information Privacy Research: An Interdisciplinary Review[END_REF] and with the implementation of the once-only principle. The research needs highlighted in the context of disruptive technologies in public service shall stimulate the discussion and help to further advance the digital government research and practice.

The analysis of training needs reveals two types of training that are needed. For the academics and professionals who are going to implement the new services, training in the technology is necessary: both general training regarding data security, privacy and sustainability, and specific training on particular technologies. At the same time, for public officials, soft and managerial skills training is particularly important for ensuring citizen trust towards the disruptive technologies. Services based on these technologies are significantly different from the ones of the current generation and acceptance of the new services by the public is a critical issue. In this regard, training the trainers (public officials, administrators) is the critical need so that stakeholders are able to use the new technologies and explain the benefits and functionality to the public.

Involving experts in the discussion of the new technologies in public services is very important. The chosen scenario-based technique has shown good results in stimulating the discussion and gathering diverse insights on disruptive technologies in digital government. Still, the workshop-based scenario approach has some limitations that need to be acknowledged: First, the competence area of an expert has an effect on the type of suggested needs. Experts from public service tend to view problems from the perspective of a government employee, while people with background in informatics are more interested in issues connected to the technical realisation and data. This means that if a particular discussion group at the workshop lacked experts from the scenario's field, the importance of some of the research and training needs was conceivably underestimated. Policy makers (largely absent from the workshops) could provide a unique vantage point and new useful needs. The second limitation of the approach is that it does not produce 'ready' research and training needs, and the experts need to be involved after the workshops, at the stage of analysis, to refine the participants' contributions and draw useful conclusions.

As stated in the Introduction, this paper does not aim to provide an exhaustive list of research and trainings needs. Instead, the goal is to specify a starting point for a broader discussion of the necessity to address some issues that arise as the result of implementation of disruptive technologies in digital government. An example of such an issue to be addressed is the negative consequences of the disruptive technologies, which can be the topic of the future research.

The research within the project will continue to further develop the findings described in this paper and to produce useful recommendations regarding the implementation of disruptive technologies in public service. The insight gained through the scenario-based workshops and described in this paper will be used further within the Gov 3.0 project [START_REF]Gov 3.0 -Scientific foundations training and entrepreneurship activities in the domain of ICTenabled Governance[END_REF]. First, in the elaboration of the Government 3.0 research roadmap and, secondly, for the development of the joint Master curriculum, addressing the identified training needs.

Figure 1 .

 1 Short description of the "Intelligent Portals" scenario

https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/european-egovernment-action-plan-2016-2020


Sofie Pilemalm
email: sofie.pilemalm@liu.se

ICT-enabled citizen co-production in excluded areasusing volunteers in emergency response

Keywords: public-sector innovation, co-production, citizen engagement, ICT

One of many contemporary public-sector challenges is the increasing socio-economic gaps and excluded areas in many cities worldwide. This study explores ICT-enabled citizen co-production using volunteers as first responders in excluded areas near Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. The study indicates that these volunteers can make a major difference if arriving first at an emergency site, e.g. saving lives by administering CPR and extinguishing fires before they spread. Major challenges relate to individual versus collective engagement, gender aspects and language barriers. Current ICT support, in the form of text messages or a basic app, is deemed sufficient but, for the initiative to expand and enable long-term effective engagement, calibrated solutions matching competence, role and language with incident and area are needed. In a public-sector innovation context, the study highlights the need for future research on digitalized co-production with an explicit focus on the ICT artifact and its cocreation artifact as catalysts for change. In relation to this, this study confirms previous research arguing for the merging of policy science and information systems research in an era of rapid digitalized public-sector transformation, but adds that they need to be complemented by perspectives from sociology, e.g. on gender and ethnicity, in initiatives involving citizens in excluded areas.

Introduction

The public sector is undergoing rapid transformation in response to increasing global challenges, e.g. in terms of natural disasters, migration streams, increased socioeconomic gaps, urbanization, aging populations, war and terrorism, financial cutbacks and resource shortages [START_REF] Haddow | Introduction to emergency management[END_REF]. Digitalization has paved the way for various initiatives built around citizen engagement, as one (of many) means to address several of them. This has sometimes been referred to as "do-it-yourself government" as an emerging culture within public-sector innovation [START_REF] Linders | From e-government to we-government: defining a typology for citizen coproduction in the age of social media[END_REF]. It has been explored using different perspectives and theoretical lenses; for example, co-production [START_REF] Alford | Rethinking public service delivery: managing with external providers[END_REF].

In terms of socio-economic gaps, the tendency in many western countries is towards growing segregation, whereby an increased number of urban sub-areas are characterized by poverty and social exclusion, sometimes to an extent where societal structures are deemed absent and replaced by parallel structures, and where criminality increases [START_REF] Guldåker | Spatio-temporal patterns of intentional fires, social stress and socio-economic determinants: a case study of Malmö, Sweden[END_REF][START_REF] Chalfin | Criminal deterrence: a review of the literature[END_REF]. In such areas, research reveals poorer health and school results, higher unemployment, and, not least, a larger number of emergencies than for the rest of the population [START_REF] David | The women of Katrina: how gender, race, and class matter in an American disaster[END_REF]. For instance, those exposed to intentional urban fires in Sweden more often live in socio-economically disadvantaged sub-areas [START_REF] Guldåker | Spatio-temporal patterns of intentional fires, social stress and socio-economic determinants: a case study of Malmö, Sweden[END_REF]. In emergency response, volunteerism and citizen engagement initially expanded rapidly within large-scale crisis management [START_REF] Díaz | Coproduction as an approach to technology-mediated citizen participation in emergency management[END_REF]. Over the past decade, organizing citizen volunteers as first responders has also gained attention in relation to frequent accidents on a smaller scale [START_REF] Díaz | Coproduction as an approach to technology-mediated citizen participation in emergency management[END_REF]. In Sweden, which has been progressive in developing the concept, the idea was first applied in sparsely populated rural areas where civil citizens are often closer to an incident site than professional response organizations [START_REF] Pilemalm | Participatory design in emerging civic engagement initiatives in the new public Sector: applying PD concepts in resource-scarce organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF]. More recently, it has spread to socially vulnerable municipalities and excluded sub-areas in large cities. The concept is enabled by modern ICT, such as people having access to mobile devices with GPS positioning, which can be integrated with the emergency response organizations' systems for dispatching resources. This study focuses on a brand-new initiative using citizen volunteers as first responders in collaboration with the municipal fire services, in two municipalities outside the capital of Stockholm. The initiative is aimed at improving safety and the effectiveness of first response, and reducing the consequences of emergencies in areas exposed to high rates of crime and accidents. The initiative is studied here as an example of ICT-driven public-sector innovation under the lens of coproduction.

Study aim and objectives

The aim of this study is to explore the concept of engaging citizens as volunteer first responders in socially vulnerable areas. Specifically, the objectives include:

• Describing the recruitment and tasks of the volunteers.

• Identifying the distinct features of the ICT artifact as a catalyst for the initiative.

• Identifying the perceived benefits, challenges and needs of the volunteers.

The intended audience is researchers and practitioners in emergency response, those involved in public-sector innovation and citizen co-production initiatives in general, and in excluded areas specifically. The study should have international relevance since volunteerism is growing globally and since our society shares the challenges, even if various countries' structures, regulations and legal mechanisms differ.

Background

Public-sector innovation and co-production

Public-sector innovation can be traced back to the 1960s. Recent decades, however, have seen an increasing trend of replacing random initiatives with more systematic work and planned innovations, as a response to pressing societal challenges in an era when the public sector's own resources are constrained [START_REF] Avbason | Leading public-sector innovation: co-creating for a better society[END_REF]. It can take various forms and involve public-public, public-private, and/or public-third-sector partnerships. One form concerns citizen engagement, which is described from various perspectives, sometimes depending on research discipline. It is possible to speak about coproduction, where citizens are involved in the delivery of public policies and services, as part of the conception, design, steering, and management of services [START_REF] Alford | Rethinking public service delivery: managing with external providers[END_REF][START_REF] Ostrom | Crossing the great divide: coproduction, synergy, and development[END_REF]. From the perspective of e-government, it has also been described as a form of "do-it-yourself government" or "we-government," referring to "the re-emergence of citizen coproduction" and where citizens act as partners rather than customers in the delivery of public services, in order to make them more viable and effective [START_REF] Linders | From e-government to we-government: defining a typology for citizen coproduction in the age of social media[END_REF]. In comparison with earlier forms of e-government, we-government implies that a certain group of citizens takes on certain tasks from the authorities, not only for themselves, but also for their co-citizens. This, in turn, requires that their ICT artifacts are integrated with the authorities' own information systems (IS). Speaking in terms of IS development and research, co-production and we-government can thus be related to concepts of cocreation, co-design, and participatory design (PD) [START_REF] Alford | Rethinking public service delivery: managing with external providers[END_REF][START_REF] Avbason | Leading public-sector innovation: co-creating for a better society[END_REF][START_REF] Ostrom | Crossing the great divide: coproduction, synergy, and development[END_REF][START_REF]Participatory design: principles and practices[END_REF]. Of particular relevance to the study, it has been argued that designing for and co-creating with vulnerable groups is a key priority to advance and benefit the contemporary service field [START_REF] Ostrom | Moving forward and making a difference: research priorities for the science of service[END_REF]. In a wider perspective, citizen co-production opens up opportunities for interesting mergers of research disciplines; for example, policy science and IS, a crossfertilization which has recently been pointed out in relation to government and a public sector undergoing change [START_REF] Melin | Balanced and integrated e-government implementation: exploring the crossroad of public policy-making and information systems project management processes[END_REF][START_REF] Janowski | Government information networks: mapping electronic governance cases through public administration[END_REF][START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Digital government and public management research: finding the crossroads[END_REF]. The study therefore applies intertwined coproduction/we-government/IS perspectives and relates these to the on-going discussion.

Study context: citizen co-production in excluded areas

It is sometimes claimed that the social contract between citizens and the authorities is crumbling [START_REF]Nordic civil society at a cross-roads: transforming the popular movement tradition[END_REF]. This is especially notable in an increasing number of urban sub-areas characterized by segregation, ethnic diversity and few opportunities for inclusion in society, where residents experience insecurity and a lack of trust in the authorities and perceive themselves as having little possibility of influencing their environment or lives [START_REF] Guldåker | Spatio-temporal patterns of intentional fires, social stress and socio-economic determinants: a case study of Malmö, Sweden[END_REF]. Unemployment is usually higher than average, resulting in low socio-economic status, and recruitment to criminality is correspondingly growing, especially among young people [START_REF] Urinboyev | Migration and parallel legal orders in Russia[END_REF]. Accidents also tend to strike according to patterns related to such aspects as gender, ethnicity, class, and living area [START_REF] Sefyrin | It's more important to be fast than to be informed": gender, age, disability and ethnicity in relation to IT in the Swedish Rescue Services[END_REF]. In this study, these areas are referred to as socially vulnerable areas or excluded areas. This trend is global and in need of handling. Increased citizen engagement could be one way forward.

The study takes place in the context of Swedish emergency response, referring to actors, technologies, procedures and rules, which aim to save lives and minimize human suffering and material damage in emergencies such as traffic accidents, fires and medical matters. In Sweden, various initiatives have been undertaken over the past decade to improve efficiency and overcome long distances by the involvement of various societal resources in day-to-day emergency response, in collaboration with the professional operative response organizations (fire services, ambulance services, and the Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP)). Examples include cross-sector collaboration using entirely new occupations, for example, security guards or civil volunteers, as first responders. In the latter, the concept first spread to sparsely populated rural areas in northern Sweden, where the response organizations are located a long distance from small villages. There is thus a large chance that the volunteers will arrive first at the emergency site, providing basic first aid while waiting for professional resources [START_REF] Pilemalm | Participatory design in emerging civic engagement initiatives in the new public Sector: applying PD concepts in resource-scarce organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF]. Over the past few years, similar initiatives have emerged in urban areas, above all located near Stockholm and Gothenburg. Stockholm has a population of about 2 million people if the surrounding municipalities are included, with a rapid expansion in recent decades, due to both urbanization and refugee immigration, not least in 2012-2015.

Methods: the studied initiative and action research

The studied initiative is taking place in two municipalities outside Stockholm with about 100 000 inhabitants each. Here, a major Swedish Fire Response Association has started an initiative that recruits citizens living in socially vulnerable/excluded areas as volunteer first responders. The volunteers are provided with one day of basic training in such areas as first aid, heart-and-lung rescue (CSPR), extinguishing small fires, and acting in single traffic accidents. They also receive a basic backpack containing a first aid kit, reflective vests, pocket masks and hand-held fire extinguishers. The aim of this initiative is twofold; firstly, to create a sense of presence, security and social relations in these areas, to decrease the incidence of intentional fires (mostly in cars), assaults and vandalism. Secondly, if an emergency takes place, to have the volunteers act as first responders for certain alerts. The idea is not to have the volunteers replace the professional response organizations, but rather for them to carry out first response while waiting for the professionals, in order to reduce the response time. To receive alerts, volunteers have to be less than five kilometers away from the emergency site, and acting on the alert is always voluntary. By early 2019, about 80-90 civil volunteers had been recruited and trained in various areas across these municipalities.

The overall study design has the character of action research meaning that the researchers aim to develop and improve the initiative together with the participating actors [START_REF] Denzin | Entering the field of qualitative research: strategies of qualitative Inquiry[END_REF], including the volunteers. This study reports from the first phase (April 2018 to January 2019). Three researchers have been involved in this phase. The author of this paper was involved in all data collection described below.

Data collection: semi-structured interviews and focus groups

The study was performed as a qualitative interview study including four semistructured interviews and one focus group interview with five respondents (Table 1). In semi-structured interviews, a template or themes are usually applied to guide the interview but no strict adherence to the template is required and respondents are allowed to make other associations during the course of the interview. Focus groups work similarly but enable group dynamics and collective views on a particular phenomenon from a group whose members have experience or knowledge concerning the topic in question [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business and management[END_REF]. A snowball sample approach [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business and management[END_REF] was chosen since the initiative is new, emerging and undergoing expansion. For instance, when the study started in spring 2018, only about 10 civil volunteers were in the system and it was deemed important to interview those who had responded to alerts.

First, a focus group interview was held with a fire team consisting of one fire chief and three firefighters. Another fire chief joined for the second half of the interview, and continued responding to questions when the team had to respond to an incoming emergency alert. The focus group lasted in total for 90 minutes. All focus group respondents played a role in the volunteer initiative. This was followed by interviews with the instigator of the initiative and the current project leader, who took over from the instigator (both had a background as firefighters), and two civil volunteers who were residents of excluded areas and had acted on several alerts. Each interview lasted about one hour.

For all the data collection, templates that had been used in the earlier project on volunteers in sparsely populated areas [START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF] were used. However, they were revised to suit the current initiative and urban setting. The templates were also somewhat adapted depending on whether someone from the fire services or a civil volunteer was being interviewed. All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed. For the analysis, a thematic approach was used [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business and management[END_REF], clustering data into overall themes based on the empirical data and in line with the action-research approach, with a focus on development; for example, benefits, challenges and needs. The author of this paper performed the data analysis and received feedback from one of other researchers on the identified themes.

Results

The identified themes are presented in the following. The ICT artifact will receive specific attention but is integrated under the various themes.

Recruitment of volunteers

As mentioned, there are several motivations lying behind this project, of which the most important is to create a sense of presence and security in the studied areas to improve collaboration with the response organizations, and to reduce crime, above all incidents of arson in cars and buildings. A related motivation is gender related, with the hope that women will improve their prospects for integration into Swedish society by becoming volunteers. There is also the hope of a more effective response if an emergency arises, but this is not as pronounced because the initiative is taking place in an urban area where the response times for professional response organizations are relatively short.

In the recruitment process, the fire services have deemed it important to engage people who have a certain social status in the sub-areas. An example could be the priest of a certain church. Another idea is to build on family and social relations; for example, if your relative is a volunteer first responder, you may think twice about setting a car on fire nearby. It has also been shown to be crucial that volunteers who are active in a certain area speak its dominant language and can acts as interpreters, since many people in these areas do not speak Swedish:

A problem was also that everybody believed the entire block was going to burn to the ground. Everybody who lives there ran to their balconies and were about to jump because they thought they were going to die. There were huge problems and no interpreter in place, no one from the fire station. Then I thought, what the hell, it's time to find out if I can be of any help. (Volunteer 1)

The responders from the fire services described how they have used local interest associations, the municipalities and related real-estate companies for recruitment campaigns. The volunteers confirmed that they received information about the initiative from their respective real-estate companies. The interest has generally been much higher than the fire services expected; they had wanted to start on a small scale. One of the fire chiefs provided an example in which an entire Syrian Orthodox association of about 200 women signed up their interest. This forced the fire services, which pay for all related expenses, to initially turn down many of those who were interested.

An initial fear was that they may recruit those who are involved in criminality. Before volunteers undergo training, therefore, they are first checked with the police to discover if they have a criminal record. To date, this fear appears to be groundless:

Even though it is possible that an individual is known to be a criminal by those living in the area but not by us and we recruit them, then they might feel increased trust in us for creating social benefits… Or it will have the reverse effect [on trust] ….it's a break even.…Those into heavy criminality spreading fear will not show interest; they have so much capital violence to manage, a full-time assignment… (Project leader)

Dispatching of volunteers and first response tasks

There are two ways of dispatching the volunteers, depending on sub-area. In some areas they are dispatched by text message lists (Swedish abbreviation: SMS), in which case their mobile phone's GPS functions are connected to the fire services' system for handling incoming alerts. If the type of emergency is one of those described below, the volunteers will receive an SMS if they are on the list and within a radius of five kilometers of the emergency. The SMS displays the position coordinates, the address (road, but not specific number), municipality and type of emergency (Figure 1). A commercial app adapted for the purpose, which is used in other areas, has somewhat more functionality. The principle for dispatching (radius in kilometers) is the same, but the volunteers receive a push notice together with an alert signal. In addition, the app includes a map and when the alert is due a red button is placed in the map, indicating the emergency site. Through this button, the volunteers (receivers of the alert) can also communicate with each other and provide updated information on the emergency (Figure 2). In both cases, it is the fire services back office systems that provides the GPS coordinates, the addresses and the information of the emergency, i.e. the volunteers receive the same basic information as the professional first responders. The volunteers are dispatched to the following types of emergencies: outdoor fires (e.g. vehicle), fires in building, heart failure, single traffic accidents and drownings. The emergency should not be risky for them (e.g. uncontrolled fires or a shooting) and they should be able to carry out first response using their small backpack equipment kit. The volunteers perform a range of tasks at the emergency site but those reported as most frequent by the volunteers are: extinguishing small fires, checking if the fire has spread and in this case informing the fire services, and backing bystanders and keeping them at a distance when the latter arrives. They have also acted in some single traffic accidents and after assaults (but here they must never intervene but await the police) with basic first-aid tasks (band aids, stopping minor bleeding) and providing comfort. There are heart failure alarms but these are less frequent. One of the volunteers says he has only acted on two heart failure alarms over a period of about a year.

The volunteers receive a debriefing by fire service personnel immediately after a response operation, but no follow ups. But, as stated by one of the volunteers, "the fire station is always open". The volunteers are collectively insured by the fire association.

Perceived benefits

It is deemed too early to say whether the major aim of the initiative has been fulfilled. However, it is clear that there is great engagement on the part of the volunteers, and a desire to create a safer neighborhood rather than to receive financial compensation. Also, when something does happen, volunteers sometimes arrive before the fire services and a single first response can make a major difference, as illustrated by the following quotes:

I was at home and received an alert concerning a fire near a health center. Thought that they wanted to test me to check how I function. I was the first person at the site, it was a car on fire. I extinguished it completely. (Volunteer 1, first alert).

Was at home, 200 meters from me, went there, they are screaming from the balcony that he's died. Seven floors up. He was on the floor, not breathing, I started heart and lung rescue. He comes back, starts breathing. Two minutes later, the ambulance arrives. He is alive. (Volunteer 1, heart failure alert).

Again, communication and acting as an interpreter are central, as well as having knowledge about the area and knowing the people who live there. This is something the fires services and volunteers agree upon:

I believe very much in this. Above all, they might have knowledge of the area and who is the leader, so to speak. When the police take action, the outcomes are often not that good. (Fire chief, focus group, volunteers backing crowds of people) I have learnt how to "back" a crowd of people. I know the language, I can tell them that this smoke is a cancer risk. (Volunteer 1).

Challenges

The major perceived challenge is having volunteers actually responding to alerts and going to the incident site. Massive interest in recruitment is not the same thing as actually patrolling the neighborhood or taking action when something happens. There are a few enthusiasts who respond to many alerts, but they are often the only ones responding to that particular alert, making first response an individual task. The project leader believes that a potential explanation is that few volunteers know any firefighters and that "the fire services work in an end room". This might result in hesitancy about intervening in an emergency. He also poses the question of whether economic compensation would after all play a role, and argues that it might have been better to start on a larger scale:

I think I would have started on a larger scale. More volunteers from the very beginning [training/equipping]… to kind of create a feeling of local and not individual engagement.

A related challenge concerns gender aspects. There was a hope that the initiative would pave the way for women to move into society, and many women did express interest. However, one year later, all the active volunteers are men and the project leader expresses uncertainty when considering how a female volunteer would be seen; for example, when backing people. Also, a common notion among all the fire service respondents is that communication and learning is top down; i.e., the fire services train the volunteers and tell them what to do, but there is no mechanism for the volunteers to provide feedback or share their knowledge. The project instigator is somewhat selfcritical about this:

This is true, and we devoted no time to them teaching us. It's an important point, that this should go both ways…It's not completely unproblematic having a group of more or less ethnic Swedes going to XXX [sub-area] and telling people "this is how it works".

As the initiative progressed, Facebook (FB) groups were started in various sub-areas of the municipality. However, there is much more activity in those groups that are based in more well-off areas, where the majority of volunteers are of Swedish ethnicity. Neither of the two volunteers in the interviews have joined a FB group.

Another perceived challenge is, again, language. It is not optimal to send just any volunteer, but rather one who knows the particular language of those involved in an emergency or the dominant language in the given sub-area. There is also the general challenge of evaluating the concept, both qualitatively and in terms of efficiency; for example, lives saved, response times, and monetary value. Since this is an initiative in progress, no such plans had been made at the time of this study. However, they are important for motivating the spread of the concept among municipalities and for decision-making by politicians, among others.

Needs

The fire-service respondents agree that the major need is to expand the initiative, in terms of having more volunteers acting as safety persons/first responders, making it locality rather than individual based, as expressed by the project leader in January 2019:

As things are now, the project has not really expanded to the extent that we want it to. I think that with the technical prerequisites that we have and with the design that technology makes possible…it should be possible to expand more. The technology, at the moment, does not limit us.

The volunteers also see the need to expand, and one of them suggested that they partake in the recruitment process; for example, by engaging colleagues at their workplace so that they could go on alerts together, knowing each other beforehand. Apart from this, the volunteers did not express many needs, even though they were asked explicitly. One of them mentioned a warmer jacket and that exercises are good. A concrete need, however, concerns the ICT solution. The volunteers being interviewed relied on the SMS lists and mentioned that they sometimes receive the wrong address from the rescue services, a problem they share with the fire services (since it is the back office systems that sometimes send incorrect coordinates or information e.g. indicating roads), thus delaying response time: In the app version, this have partly been addressed by the supplier adding an additional map to navigate among e.g. roads that cross or run in parallel, and the volunteers would thus like to have an extended app version that includes a map and inbuilt GPS guidance to the emergency site. Also, the project leader mentioned the importance of the app but that some structure, templates and matching is needed to send the "right" volunteer to the "right" site, reaching different roles, competences and language groups: If a certain group of immigrants becomes so dominant that we cannot reach that group, then we would need an app that could reach that specific group.

Discussion: digitalization as an enabler of public-sector innovation and co-production

Public-sector innovation is rapidly transforming our society at a global level, as are initiatives directed specifically towards citizen engagement and co-production [START_REF] Linders | From e-government to we-government: defining a typology for citizen coproduction in the age of social media[END_REF][START_REF] Alford | Rethinking public service delivery: managing with external providers[END_REF]. The emerging trends all feature digitalization and modern ICT as an enabler. Nevertheless, as argued by [START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF], there are relatively few studies (in emergency response, [START_REF] Díaz | Coproduction as an approach to technology-mediated citizen participation in emergency management[END_REF] is an exception), that focus explicitly on the direct relation between co-production and ICT artifacts, even though it has been pointed out that ICT can support coproduction [START_REF] Verschuere | Co-production: the state of the art in research and the future agenda[END_REF]. Even fewer, if any, studies focus explicitly on the ICT artifact itself, as a catalyst of the co-production. This study's findings illustrate the need to bridge this gap. At first glance, the initiative seems broad and the ICT artifact plays a less than central role, with a basic SMS solution working sufficiently in most cases, even though maps and GPS guidance have been requested. However, data analysis indicates that, for the initiative to be successful and expand, the design of the ICT artifact can contribute significantly. Future app solutions should be able to handle calibration of the volunteer concept; for example, matching availability, competence, role, and language with a specific emergency situation and/or sub-area, by adding functions allowing for dynamic resource dispatching. In order for the whole system to work, there is the corresponding need to do a thorough analysis of the necessary features and interfaces in the fire services back office systems who are to provide this information. Also the overall infrastructure need to be handled, not the least since the office systems sometimes send the wrong address and/or inexact coordinates. In terms of service design, an emergency response process can be divided into two parts, the serviceproviding process and the services supporting process [START_REF] Kling | A bit more to IT: scholarly communication forums as sociotechnical interaction networks[END_REF]. Two pay attention to both these processes, including giving correct information to mobile solutions with attractive, easy-to-handle interfaces, and to improved communication between the fire services and the volunteers, may also contribute to more volunteers acting on the alerts. This in its turn includes the necessity to involve additional stakeholders of e.g. the fire services, the PSAP, the suppliers of the back-office systems, and possibly the ambulance services. Also, in many sub-areas there are frequent alerts but few volunteers responding to them. A more secure solution with function allowing withdrawal if an emergency should turn into something that is dangerous to the volunteers (e.g. toxic fumes, gunfire) is added, this may reduce fear about responding to an alert and stimulate long-term engagement. In relation, similar studies in rural areas [START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF] have shown that the volunteers, even when collective insurances are provided, are not sufficiently protected by the current Swedish legal system. To address policy and liability issues seem even more important in areas exposed to high rates of criminality risk, and may also influence the volunteer engagement in a positive way.

From a wider public-sector perspective, the bi-directional influence of technology and various forms of governance has been recognized for over a decade and pointed out recently [START_REF] Shan | Modeling of emergency response decision-making process using stochastic Petri net: an e-service perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Loukis | Evolving ICT and governance in organizational networks: conceptual and theoretical foundations[END_REF]. Relating this to the research field of IS, the discipline has often drawn upon other disciplines when needed [START_REF] Watson | Key issues in information systems management: an international perspective[END_REF]. Several recent studies have claimed the benefits of and need for a cross-fertilization of policy science and IS research perspective, relating explicitly to emerging forms of government in an era of digitalization [START_REF] Melin | Balanced and integrated e-government implementation: exploring the crossroad of public policy-making and information systems project management processes[END_REF][START_REF] Janowski | Government information networks: mapping electronic governance cases through public administration[END_REF][START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Digital government and public management research: finding the crossroads[END_REF]. This study's finding are in line with this research since digitalization/ICT development needs to consider e.g. regulations and laws on what volunteers are allowed to do and what information the alerts can and cannot include. Below, this discussion is taken further, arguing for a wider integration of research perspectives, when turning to excluded areas and initiatives involving the residents living there.

Citizen engagement, co-production and co-creation in excluded areas

Socially vulnerable and/or excluded areas are not new phenomena, in either western or non-western countries, and parallel societal structures and gang criminality have been studied for a long time [START_REF] Chalfin | Criminal deterrence: a review of the literature[END_REF][START_REF] Klein | Street gang patterns and policies[END_REF]. As socio-economic gaps are expanding rapidly, related challenges now also include countries where thus far they have not been so tangible. Sweden is a typical example. The country took many immigrants during the refugee streams of 2012-2016, and is currently struggling to provide them with opportunities for integration and access to the Swedish labor market. Relating this to co-production, citizen engagement initiatives from "the inside", where a community's own residents are recruited to handle criminality and to work with (instead of against) the police have long existed, for example, in shantytowns across the world; albeit not without challenges. Still, [START_REF] Thijssen | Who you are/where you live: do neighborhood characteristics explain co-production?[END_REF] argues that more research on city neighborhoods affecting the will to engage in co-production, is needed. Their own study concludes that:

The answer is…straightforward. Neighbourhoods do make a difference in explaining coproduction. However, the social capital, rather than the social status, of the neighbourhood explains the difference between neighbourhoods (p.105).

This notion may contribute to explaining parts of this study's results, where the volunteers seem willing to engage but less secure about acting as a safety person or first responder. When making a brief comparison with other parts of Sweden, in rural, sparsely populated areas dominated by people of Swedish ethnicity, a different picture emerges (a full comparison is not possible since these studies have spanned longer time periods with more volunteer respondents). Here, volunteerism is a collective effort based on long-term social relations, sometimes also including the victims of accidents. Volunteers never go on an alert alone, and they have been more active in both putting explicit requests to the fire services; for example, for trauma support (while one of the volunteers in this study claimed that this is not needed because he had seen worse things in his home country). They also suggested added functionality to their dispatch ICT solutions, sometimes even implementing their own functions [START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF].

In relation to this, co-production is often related to co-creation [START_REF] Alford | Rethinking public service delivery: managing with external providers[END_REF], but as increasing numbers of ICT applications are easily available off-the-shelf from commercial suppliers, co-creation of the artifact itself is often forgotten. This is evident also in this study where the commercial app that some-sub areas use has not been created together with users, and do not include the functions for GPS navigation, calibration, language and withdrawal as suggested in section 5 above. This can be compared to [START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF], in which a mobile app prototype was developed together with end-users (semi-professionals and volunteer first responders in rural areas) along with the surrounding infrastructure (e.g. training, equipment, legal aspects), even though commercial applications for the purpose existed. This resulted in additional and partially different functions, based on user needs and in line with other features of the collaborations, which might contribute to a more efficient first response and long-term engagement. Co-creation, and corresponding IS development approaches that include user involvement, lean on the active participation of users, when developing both the ICT artifacts themselves and the surrounding infrastructure [START_REF]Participatory design: principles and practices[END_REF][START_REF] Hillgren | Prototyping and infrastructuring in design for social innovation[END_REF]. In particular, PD, which has clear political and ideological roots, has been applied to provide exposed societal groups with an opportunity to influence their own situation and environment; for example, in urban planning, in third-world countries, and among charities working for homeless people [START_REF] Halskov | The diversity of participatory design research practice at PDC 2002-2012[END_REF]. Gender relations have also been highlighted by the PD community; for example, how they affect power structures in design groups [START_REF] Balka | Participatory design in women's organizations: the social world of organizational structure and the gendered nature of expertise[END_REF]. The need to achieve the cocreation/PD of ICT support is also highlighted by this study. But this implies that you have volunteers to work with in the first place. To date, relatively few volunteers go on the alerts and women volunteers do not exist at all. It was also perceived as difficult to access the volunteers as study respondents (they did not want to be interviewed, which may have been due to such issues as language barriers). The challenges are in line with a recent study on six co-design sessions, suggesting that vulnerable user groups cannot be approached in the same way as in conventional user involvement processes, and proposing alternative design frameworks and inter-sectionalist perspectives [START_REF] Dietrich | Co-designing services with vulnerable consumers[END_REF]. Leaning on co-creation, co-design and PD such frameworks and methods for user involvement should thus be considered in future expansion of the collaboration and design of related infrastructure and ICT artefacts. It is also plausible that the initiative would benefit from adding research perspectives from others disciplines, to expand the knowledge base and enable participation. Examples may include sociology, intersectionalist perspectives, and criminology. The author of this study has previously argued that there is a need for pronounced inter-disciplinary development teams in the case of emerging collaborative forms of public-sector innovation, including crosssector collaboration and the use of volunteers [START_REF] Pilemalm | Participatory design in emerging civic engagement initiatives in the new public Sector: applying PD concepts in resource-scarce organizations[END_REF]. Adding the above competences to more traditional systems (or business) development teams seem important in the context of the current study.

Conclusion and future work

This study set out to explore the concept of citizen co-production engaging them as volunteer first responders in socially vulnerable areas with a focus on aspects including the benefits, challenges and needs, and with the ICT artifact as a catalyst. The study concludes that volunteers with basic equipment and training can make a significant difference if they arrive first at an emergency site. The major challenge is actually having them respond to an alert and go to the site. Other challenges relate to gender and to increasing the opportunities for immigrant women in Swedish society, to language barriers, and to changing the one-way communication from the fire services to the volunteers into a two-way flow. The ICT solutions provided are basic and accessible because they are installed on the volunteers' own mobile phones. Still, they are central to engagement, allowing for the dispatching of volunteers who are near to an emergency. Current solutions work sufficiently well, but for optimal usage and expansion of the initiative, ICT solutions supporting dynamic resource allocation (role, competence, language, situation), communication among volunteers and withdrawal functions are suggested.

Previous research has argued that the need to mix perspectives from IS research with policy science becomes particularly pressing in a public sector where new government forms relying on digitalizationfor example, governance, policy networks, coproduction/we-government, and citizen engagementare rapidly emerging [START_REF] Melin | Balanced and integrated e-government implementation: exploring the crossroad of public policy-making and information systems project management processes[END_REF][START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Digital government and public management research: finding the crossroads[END_REF]. In particular, policy and liability issues needs to be addressed in the emerging volunteer first responder initiatives. An additional conclusion drawn from this study is that additional inter-sectional perspectives and disciplines, not least from the field of sociology, become equally important, in this and similar initiatives, in a society where they are likely to increase. Sweden is perceived as progressive in terms of organized, long-term, civil citizen engagement in emergency response while most international studies tend to focus on issues such as on-site volunteers, large-scale crisis management and crowdsourcing [START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF]. As pointed out by [START_REF] Ramsell | Using volunteers for emergency response in rural areas: network collaboration factors and IT support in the case of enhanced neighbors[END_REF], the types of emergencies have both similarities and differences but to be able to use the same volunteers in them would be beneficial, since they would be accustomed to the ICT solutions and work procedures. This indicates that this study could provide inspiration for similar initiatives but also in relation to large-scale crisis management. A limitation of the study is that only two volunteers were interviewed and thus the perspective from the fire services is most prevalent. At the same time, the pictures painted by the fire services and the volunteers overlap in many respects, somewhat compensating for this.

In future work, the app will be further developed and also connected to fire detectors in a number of selected tenements, to also include unintentional fires, for which excluded areas are also over-represented [START_REF] Urinboyev | Migration and parallel legal orders in Russia[END_REF]. Research and co-creation/co-design will be continued with specific attention to vulnerable groups, e.g. in workshops and focus groups, to reach more volunteers, the municipalities, the fire services, the PSAP, and other relevant stakeholders, in order to address the challenges and needs identified in this study. The gender and ethnicity aspects will be addressed by involving a researcher who has studied them previously in IS, public-sector, and emergency-response contexts. Qualitative and quantitative variables will be identified, in order to be able to evaluate the initiative and its transferability to other, similar contexts, both in Sweden and internationally. At a more general level, it is of specific interest to look further into how the original concept, first developed in sparsely-populated, rural areas, can be transferred to urban contexts, and what modifications, for example, in training and the handling of challenges, should take place.. In relation to large-scale crises, future research could focus on this double use of volunteers, in Sweden not the least since the government is currently planning for large-scale digitalized coordination of volunteers, in the after-math of the 2014 and 2018 widespread wild forest fires.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. SMS-dispatched ICT solution for volunteers. The example displays outdoor fires in vehicles.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Dispatching of volunteers through the app

I

  don't always know exactly what building or tenement. With a straight address, it would be perfect. In…[sub-area] there are two roads that are often mixed up in the SMSs. Not even the fire station always knows. [Volunteer 2]

Table 1 :

 1 Respondents participating in the study.

	Focus group	Fire chief (1+1)	Firefighters (3)		5
	Interviews	Project instigator (1)	Project leader (1)	Volunteers (2)	4
	Total number of				9
	respondents

Acknowledgements

This study has been made possible by financial support from the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency and the Swedish Fire Research Board.