Maho Morie
email: maho.morie@inphb.ci

Wielfrid

Marfisi-Schottman Iza

Goore Bi Tra
email: bitra.goore@inphb.ci

LGMD: Optimal Lightweight Metadata Model for Indexing Learning Games

Keywords: Learning Games, LOM, Game description, Metadata Model, Learning Game Indexing, Lightweight Model. 1 LOM extension Req=Required, Rec=Recommended, Opt=Optional

Learning Games (LGs) have proven to be effective in a large variety of academic fields and for all levels; from kindergarten to professional training. They are therefore very valuable learning resources that should be shared and reused. However, the lack of catalogues that allow teachers to find existing LGs is a significant obstacle to their use in class. It is difficult for catalogues, or any type of search engine, to index LGs because they are poorly referenced. Yet, many researches have proposed elaborate metadata models for LGs. However, all these models are extensions of LOM, a metadata model that is widely used for referencing learning resources, but that contains more than 60 fields, of which more than half are irrelevant to LGs. The gap between these models and the information that game designers are willing to provide is huge. In this paper, we analyze the LG metadata models proposed in previous research to detect the fields that are specific to LGs and the fields that are irrelevant to LGs. We then propose LGMD (Learning Games Metadata Definition), an optimal lightweight metadata model that only contains the important information for LG indexing.

LGMD reduces by two thirds the number of fields compared to the previous models. We confronted this model with the information actually provided by LG editors, by analyzing 736 LG page descriptions found online. This study shows that LGMD covers all the information provided by the LG editors.

Introduction

The use of Learning Games (LGs) has become more and more popular among teachers who want to change their teaching methods. A wide variety of LGs are developed each year for all levels of teaching. These LGs offer great potential for learning and can be used in many ways. They can be used to introduce new concepts, spice up a lab session or even as homework. Unfortunately, these learning resources are not easily accessible. The existing LG catalogues are not well adapted to the teacher's needs: either they are too specialized (only LGs for a specific field and level) or they are too general. Indeed, most of these catalogues offer all types of games, educational and noneducation, and are not always up to date [START_REF] Alvarez | RDU Model dedicated to evaluate needed counsels for Serious Game projects[END_REF][START_REF] Fronton | LES ECSPER : RETOUR D'EXPERIENCE D'UNE ETUDE DE CAS DE TYPE SERIOUS GAME EN GESTION DE PROJET[END_REF][START_REF] Mitamura | Serious games for learning programming languages[END_REF]. Teachers who are looking for LGs therefore have to find these catalogues and browse several of them before finding the appropriate LG. Table 1 presents the three up-to-date catalogues with the most LGs, that can be found in the literature [START_REF] Alvarez | RDU Model dedicated to evaluate needed counsels for Serious Game projects[END_REF][START_REF] Gottron | Combining Content Extraction Heuristics: The CombinE System[END_REF].

Table 1. List of biggest Learning Games catalogues

Catalogue

All Games

LGs

SeriousGameClassification [START_REF]Serious Game Classification : La classification en ligne du Serious Game[END_REF] 3,300 402

MobyGames [START_REF]Game Browser[END_REF] 110,558 260

Serious Games Fr [START_REF]La référence Serious Games[END_REF] 183 74

The problem with these catalogues is that they do not offer filtering or indexing systems that facilitate the selection of LGs that are adapted to specific teaching needs. The Se-riousGameClassification [START_REF]Serious Game Classification : La classification en ligne du Serious Game[END_REF] catalog, for example, offers to filter the list of games depending on their purpose (e.g. educational message, subjective message, storytelling), the target market (e.g. entertainment, corporate, media), and the public (e.g. general public, 3-6 years). The MobyGames [START_REF]Game Browser[END_REF] catalog, on the other hand, proposes to search for games by platform (e.g. PC, Android, Nintendo), the production year (e.g. 2008, 2019), the game theme (e.g. shooter, visual novel, board game) and the rating system (e.g. PEGI rating, ESRB rating). Finally, Serious Game Fr [START_REF]La référence Serious Games[END_REF] only allows searching by title and keywords. These search filters are inadequate for teachers. Not only do they not propose basic research criteria such as the educational field, the age or grade level of the students, but they do not make it easy to pick out the LGs from the non-educational games, that are much more numerous. Yet, several elaborate LG indexing models have been proposed. These early models are based on standards established for learning resources such as the Learning Object Metadata (LOM). This standard was used for the Learning Object Repositories (LOR) project [START_REF] Neven | Reusable Learning Objects: A Survey of LOM-based Repositories[END_REF] and the ARIADNE project [START_REF] Currier | Metadata for Learning Resources: An Update on Standards Activity for[END_REF]. It is composed of 68 fields that cover all aspects of learning resources. In order to inventory LGs, several researchers proposed extensions of LOM by modifying the meaning of some fields and by adding extra fields to cover the gaming aspects. These metadata models are therefore very heavy, and more than half of the fields are irrelevant to LGs. Even if we consider only the appropriate fields, many appear too complex and specific for LG editors, who are simply not willing to spend time providing such detailed information [START_REF] Alvarez | RDU Model dedicated to evaluate needed counsels for Serious Game projects[END_REF]. In addition, LG editors do not come from the academic world and are not familiar with this standard or its vocabulary. They are more accustomed to indexing systems used in the video gaming industry.

As a result, LGs are completely absent from learning resource platforms and find themselves indexed on specialized game platforms, hidden among many non-educational games. Not only is it not very likely for teachers to find these platforms but, even if they do, the filtering systems on these platforms are of little use to find LGs that could fit their educational needs.

In this paper, our objective is to propose an optimal metadata model for LGs, that contains only the important information to reference LGs. First, we provide an analysis of the LG metadata models proposed in previous research to detect the fields that are specific to LGs and the fields that are not relevant to LGs. We then propose LGMD (Learning Games Metadata Definition), an optimal lightweight metadata model for LGs. Finally, we test the proposed model by comparing it with the data provided by LG editors.

2

Analysis of Metadata Models for Learning Games

Characterization of Learning Resources

As any other type of learning resource, sharing and reusing LGs makes complete sense. Even more so given the fact that the development of LGs requires a lot of financial investment and a high level of skills in design, programming and scriptwriting [START_REF] Alvarez | Du jeu vidéo au serious game[END_REF][START_REF] Zyda | From Visual Simulation to Virtual Reality to Games[END_REF]. Furthermore, in the context of the constant improvement of teaching methods, the demand for these innovative pedagogical tools is high. In order to help teachers find

LGs that meet their needs quickly, these resources need to be categorized with the relevant type of information [START_REF] Wirth | On Learning From Game Annotations[END_REF]. Early research on LG inventories propose the use of the LOM model, widely used for describing learning resources [START_REF] Massart | Learning Resource Exchange Metadata Application Profile Version 4[END_REF][START_REF] Rajabi | Interlinking educational resources to Web of Data through IEEE LOM[END_REF] and one of the key foundations to Learning Management Systems. LOM has 68 fields, organized in nine categories, that describe all aspects of learning resources [START_REF] Mcclelland | Metadata standards for educational resources[END_REF][START_REF] Pernin | LOM, SCORM et IMS-Learning Design: ressources, activités et scénarios. In: actes du colloque «L'indexation des ressources pédagogiques numériques[END_REF]: ─ General -Main characteristics of the learning resource (title, description, etc.). ─ Lifecycle -Information about the design of the learning resource (version, etc.). ─ Meta-Metadata -Information about the metadata models used to describe the learning resource. ─ Technical -Technical characteristics (format, size, installation mode, etc.). ─ Educational -Pedagogical functions of the resource and its context of use (type of audience, age, language of the learner, etc.). ─ Rights -Legal conditions for using the resource (costs, copyright, etc.). ─ Relation -Relationships that may exist between resources. ─ Annotation -Comments on the pedagogical use of the resource. ─ Classification -Define the resource with classification system such as taxonomies.

LOM can be used to characterize the educational aspect of LGs, but it does not cover their gaming aspects. Important characteristics such as the platform on which the game is played (computer, console, online), the gameplay, the graphical style of the game (2D, isometric, 3D) or the type of game, are not found in LOM, initially intended for learning resources such as books, images, audio and video [START_REF] Zyda | From Visual Simulation to Virtual Reality to Games[END_REF]. How can these characteristics be considered in a metadata model? In the following section we analyze several LOM extensions that aims to solve this problem.

Metadata Models for Learning Games

In this section, we focus on the metadata models proposed to describe LGs. Indeed, LGs have specific characteristics that are not found in other learning resources [START_REF] Aouadi | A model driven architecture MDA approach to facilitate the serious game integration in an e-learning environment[END_REF] and therefore require the modification of LOM [START_REF] Prensky | Digital Game-based Learning[END_REF][START_REF] Freire | Metadata for Serious Games in Learning Object Repositories[END_REF].

One of the first LG metadata models, proposed in 2011, is LOMFR-SG, an extension of the French version of LOM for Serious Games [START_REF] Marfisi-Schottman | Un profil d'application de LOM pour les Serious Games[END_REF]. The authors add seven extra fields in the Educational category. Some of these are required or recommended such as "5.2 Learning Resource Type" and "5.14. Game Type" and others optional such as "5.12 resulting activity", "5.13 knowledge validation", "5.15 tutor assistance", "5.16 re-playability" and "5.17 game objectives". They also added an extra category 10. Course integration with 4 fields that provide information on how the LG can be used on the learning platform. In particular, the field "10.4 progress indicator" indicates the information that can be used by teachers to evaluate the progress of their students (e.g. scores, gaming time, % of completion).

Another model, called G/P/S, identifies several important fields for the description of LGs [START_REF] Djaouti | Classifying Serious Games: the G/P/S model. Handbook of Research on Improving Learning and Motivation through Educational Games: Multidisciplinary Approaches[END_REF]. For example, in the Gameplay section of this model, we can see the importance of defining the message of the game and to distinguish the student's player profile from the student's learner profile.

Hendrix et al. [START_REF] Hendrix | Defining a Metadata Schema for Serious Games as Learning Objects[END_REF] propose to expand the existing technical category by adding information on the operating systems required to play the LGs, in addition to the platform (i.e. PC, Nintendo, Tablet, etc.). They also add a field related the game's scoring based on systems such as the PEGI (Pan European Game Information) [START_REF] Hendrix | Defining a Metadata Schema for Serious Games as Learning Objects[END_REF][START_REF] Dogruel | Video game rating systems in the US and Europe: Comparing their outcomes[END_REF].

Similarly, the contributions of the SG-LOM model [START_REF] Elborji | An IEEE LOM Application Profile to Describe Serious Games «SG-LOM[END_REF] add several fields: "8.5 game rating", "8.4 gaming experience required" and "5.18 multiplayer value". They also add the recommended field "9.5 gameplay" which provides information about the graphical style of the LG (e.g. 2D, isometric, 3D).

Table 2 combines the above proposals, in which we find 60 fields (20 required or recommended and 40 optional). Most of the additions (marked with a *) or modifications are in the Educational categories and in the new category 10 Course integration. [START_REF] Hendrix | Defining a Metadata Schema for Serious Games as Learning Objects[END_REF] There are several similarities between the model proposals that show the importance of the added fields. Apart from LOMFR-SG, which removes three fields from the Educational category, the other metadata schemas keep all the LOM fields, probably to stay compatible with existing learning resource repositories. However, in reality, only 20 fields are actually used in most of the learning repositories [START_REF] Ochoa | On the Use of Learning Object Metadata: The GLOBE Experience[END_REF]. The authors of this study also estimate that the LOM fields are not used correctly in 68% of the cases. Furthermore, it is very rare to find learning repositories that simultaneously reference textual documents, audiovisual materials and LGs. Is it therefore relevant to keep so many fields that will certainly not be used?

It is difficult for the LG editors and catalogue designers to reference LGs according to metadata models with so many fields and several ambiguities [START_REF] Marfisi-Schottman | Un profil d'application de LOM pour les Serious Games[END_REF]. For example, the field "language", which is found in several categories (General, Pedagogical and Metadata) with different values for each of them, can create confusion in its interpretation. The same applies to the fields "description", "contribution" and "platform requirements". Therefore, we may wonder whether the proposed LOM extensions do not add more weight to the already complex metadata schema? We therefore propose, in the following section, a lightweight metadata model, that will contain only the fields that are relevant to LG characteristics.

3

Learning Game Metadata Definition (LGMD)

LGMD description

The analysis of LG metadata models shows that previous research has resulted in extensions that make LOM even more complex. The challenge is to propose an optimal metadata model, that contains only the fields necessary for describing LGs in all their complexity. Our hypothesis is that this optimal model can be found by keeping all the fields that were identified as important in the previous LG metadata models and removing all the fields that are not relevant to LGs.

General Category

. In this category, we keep all the fields with the quality "required" or "recommended" (see Table 3). We also remove the field "document type", since all the LGs would have the same value "Learning Game" for this field. We also remove the field "1.1 identifier" because this information is provided by the catalog rather than the LG editors. LG language Rec Description Complete description of the LG and its environment Req Keywords Set of keywords to classify the LG without reading the description Req

Lifecycle Category

. In this category, we remove the field "status" which deals with the availability of the LG, because we do not find useful to index unavailable LGs and this information can be found in the "version" field. In addition, we add the field "date" to describe the date of LGs release.

Technical Category

. In addition to the fields qualified as recommended, we keep the fields "size" and "technical requirement" which describe respectively the size and the platform required to run the LG. We believe the last field is essential because it will help teachers select

LGs according to the material, they have access to (e.g. tablet, computer, Nintendo).

Educational Category

. In this category, we merge the fields "context" and "public" since they describe the same information. We remove the "learning resource type" that would be "application/game" for all LGs. We add the field "domain", which is originally part of values of field "9.1 purpose" in the Classification category. It seems important to include this field in the Educational Category because it describes the educational field for with the LG can be used. Finally, we keep the field "progress indicator", that was in the extra category (10 -Course integration), added by the LG metadata models (see Table 4).

Rights Category

. The "description" field of this category creates an ambiguity with those in the General and Annotation categories and the information can be provided in the "copyright" field value. Thus, only the "copyright" and "cost" fields are kept.

Category Classification

. In this category, we integrate the field "game rating" proposed by the LOM extensions in the category "Annotation", since we consider it is a characteristic of the LG that allows us to classify it. Indeed, the rating systems used as values in this field are considered as classification systems based on the player's profile (e.g. PEGI +3, ESRB +14) [START_REF] Konzack | Pan European Game Information (PEGI) system. Encyclopedia of video games: The culture, technology, and art of gaming[END_REF][START_REF] Bushman | Media ratings for violence and sex: Implications for policymakers and parents[END_REF]. We also keep the field "gameplay" proposed by the LOM extensions. We remove the other fields because they are redundant. Indeed, the "taxon path" field that describes the taxonomy in which the LG is classified represents a different classification model that needs to be dissociated from the metadata model. The same applies to the "description" and its associated "descriptor" fields. The "9.1 purpose" field is in fact a collection of values that can be found in several other fields such as "8.4 gaming experience required", "5.13 knowledge validation" and "5.5 public". Often, in this field, we find a value about the domain of LGs. Yet, this is the essential educational information we need to have about LGs.

3.2

LGMD model overview

Fig. 1. Overview of the Learning Game Metadata Definition fields

In summary, the LGMD model keeps most of the fields qualified as required or recommended and deletes the fields qualified as optional, except for some that we consider important for the description of LGs such as the fields "5.12 resulting activity" and "5.13 knowledge validation", "4.2 size" and "4.4 Platform requirements". The categories Meta-metadata, Relation and Annotation are removed because they do not provide significantly useful information for the description of LGs and result in creating ambiguity.

As depicted in figure 1, the resulting LGMD model has 23 fields, divided into six categories. It reduces the fields of the metadata models studied previously by two thirds, as it is intended to be concise and simple so that it can be easily used by LG editors. However, the trap to be avoided is removing too many fields. Removing fields that could be relevant for describing LGs. In the next section, we therefore verify if the LGMD metadata model covers all the information currently provided by LG editors.

4

Analysis of Data Provided by Learning Games Editors

Data Collection

The LGMD model is designed to be lighter and easier to use for LG editors than the existing models based on LOM extensions [START_REF] Marfisi-Schottman | Un profil d'application de LOM pour les Serious Games[END_REF][START_REF] Ochoa | On the Use of Learning Object Metadata: The GLOBE Experience[END_REF]. We therefore removed all the fields that seemed redundant or irrelevant to LGs. In order to make sure we did not remove too many fields, we need to ensure that the fields in LGMD still cover the information actually provided by LG editors.

To do this, we analyze data from 736 LGs, available in the three major LG catalogues (see Table 1). We limited ourselves to LGs created after 2008 and available on the main platforms (PC, Mac, Smartphone, Tablet) and operating systems (Windows, Linux, iOS, Android) or online.

As LG editors do not follow a specific metadata model, we used the description information of their LGs to find the values for each of the fields of the LOM extension models presented in table 2 and the fields of the proposed LGMD model. We rely on an automatic extraction model, presented in previous work, that parses and analyzes text on web pages. This extraction model was tested on a sample of [START_REF] Elborji | An IEEE LOM Application Profile to Describe Serious Games «SG-LOM[END_REF] LG web pages, with the help of teachers. Even though these pages had very different formats (e.g. simple pages, pages with popups, pages presenting several LGs), the keywords extracted for each of the metadata fields have an average accuracy score of 80% with a minimum of 60%. The extraction of the text for the "description" field is particularly good with an average accuracy level of 85%, and never lower than 80%. This extraction model can therefore be considered as an effective way to extract useful information for each metadata field.

Result Analysis

The analysis of the data from the 736 LGs shows that only the information for 17 fields is provided (out of the 23 in the LGMD model and the 70 in the LOM extension).

First of all, it is important to note that the extraction model found absolutely no information for the 47 fields, that were in the LOM extensions, and that we considered non-relevant.

Fig. 2. Percentage of Data Provided by LG developers

As depicted in Figure 2, out of the 23 fields in LGMD, 10 fields are provided 100% of the time and five fields are provided about 50% of the time. However, it appears to be very hard to find information for the remaining fields. The information for the "copyright" field is only found on 1% of the pages, 2% for the "game rating" and 0.5% for the "version". For the remaining 5 fields of the LGMD (i.e. "format", "size", "result activity", "knowledge validation" and "progress indicators") none of the LG editors of the 736 LGs provide this information (0%). Nonetheless, all fields marked as required or recommended in LGMD are represented at least once. The statistics also show that the completion rate of all the categories in LGMD is at least 50%. For the General, Rights and Classification categories this number goes up to 100% (see Fig. 3).

For the LOM extensions, on the other hand, the completion rate for the categories are much lower. The Meta-Metadata, Relation and Annotation categories have absolutely no fields provided so we did not represent then on the figure 3. Only the Rights category has more than 50% of its fields filed out. The data provided for the other categories (e.g. General, Lifecycle, Technical, Educational and Classification) is between 20% and 44%.

Discussion

The first interpretation we can make of these results is that the LGMD model covers all the information provided by LG editors, despite the reduced number of its fields. The fact that LG editors do not provide any information for the fields that were not selected for LGMD proves they are not relevant for LGs.

However, the information for some of the fields in LGMD is also very close or equal to 0%. For example, the information regarding the version of the LG is very rarely provided by LG editors. This can be explained by the fact that they probably always provide the latest version of their LGs. However, it is essential that editors provide this information that can guide teachers in their choice of LGs. A new version of a LG may target newer material and teachers may be looking for an earlier game release for older material. Alternatively, a teacher may be looking for a particular version in which emphasis was put on a particular part of a lesson.

Similarly, none of the LG editors provide information for the field "knowledge validation" which could be very useful for teachers. Indeed, the text description written by LG editors only provide information on the educational field without giving a list of the precise target knowledge that one can acquire with the LG. This is probably due to the fact that LG editors are not acquainted with the precise terms used in academia to describe. This can also explain why no information can be found for the field "resulting activity".

Even though very little information can be found on LGs pages for these fields in the current catalogues, we argue that they should be kept in order to encourage LG editors to provide this information that will no doubt help teachers find the appropriate LGs.

Regarding the fields provided at a low percentage such as "game rating", we can observe that for all the LGs where the "typical age range" is provided (e.g. 3 to 6 years old), the "game rating" (e.g. PEGI +3 which means for kids three years and up, ESRB 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Classification

Rights

Educational

Technical

Lifecycle

General

LOM-Extension LGMD

-14 which means for kids younger than 14) is not provided and vice versa (Figure 4). We explain this phenomenon by the fact that these two fields provide similar types of information on the age of the learners with the "public" field. Perhaps a field that can group the data types of these three fields together would allow for a more concise metadata schema.

Conclusion

Many Learning Games (LGs) have been created these past years but there is still no centralized platform that allows teachers to search for existing LGs and find those that meet their specific teaching needs. Several researchers have tried to reproduce the success of Learning Object Repositories that are widely used in academia. Several extensions of the Learning Object Metadata (LOM) standard have been proposed. However, these extensions, based on an already heavy model, offer more than 70 fields and use very specific and complex vocabulary. LG editors are not familiar with these standards and are simply not willing to spend so much time providing information for all these fields, including the fact that more than half of the fields are irrelevant for LGs.

In this paper, we propose LGMD (Learning Games Metadata Definition), a lightweight optimal LG metadata model with only 23 fields distributed in 6 categories: general, lifecycle, technical, educational, rights and classification. It contains only the fields of the LOM extensions that are relevant for LGs. Despite its limited number of fields, an analysis of 736 LG web pages, proves that it covers all the data currently provided by LG editors. The information for 2/3 of these fields can be found in more than 50% of the cases. We argue that the remaining eight fields, for with editors rarely provide information, should be kept, in order to encourage them to provide this information, which will help teachers find their ideal LG. In addition, LGMD is retro com-patible with the LOM standard. This means that the referencing of an educational resource with the LGMD can be converted into LOM. This compatibility ensures the interoperability with existing learning resource repositories.

The proposed LGMD model is therefore suitable for practical use by editors in the referencing of their LGs. However, further studies are needed to measure how practical LGMD is for the LGs indexing. Moreover, we intent to use this model to reference LGs in a new catalogue. The filtering tools and the vocabulary used will need to be validated with the participation of teachers of all levels and from various disciplines.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Percentage of data provided per category in LOM extensions compared to LGMD.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Distribution of the age and assessment fields in relation to the public field

Table 2 .

 2 LOM field extensions to match the characteristics of Learning Games

	Categories	Main Fields	Quality	Authors
		1.1 Identifier	Req
		1.2 Title	Req
		1.3 Language	Rec
		1.4 Description	Rec
	1. General	1.5 Keywords	Rec
		1.6 Coverage	Opt
		1.7 Structure	Opt
		1.8 Aggregation Level	Opt
		1.9 Documentary Type*	Rec	LOMFR-SG
		2.1 Version	Rec
	2. Lifecycle	2.2 Status	Rec
		2.3 Contribution	Rec
		3.1 Identifier	Opt

Table 3 .

 3 Fields in the General category of the LGMD model

	Fields	Explanation

Table 4 .

 4 Fields in the Educational category of the LGMD model

	Fields	Meaning	Examples	Quality
	Public	The type of learner for	Student, Middle-School	Rec
		whom the LG is intended
	Age Range	The age required for using	6-10 th , 18+, -6	Rec
		the LG
	Game Type	The type of gameplay	Puzzle, Strategy, Adven-	Rec
			ture
	Domain	The field of study for which	Math, Biology, Environ-	Req
		the LG can be used	ment
	Resulting Activity The pedagogical activities	Create, exchange, Organ-	Opt
		engaged during the LG	ize
	Knowledge Vali-	The skills and knowledge	The alphabet, quantum	Opt
	dation	developed with the LG	physics, ecofriendly atti-
			tude
	Multiplayer value The game mode	Solo, Multiplayer	Opt
	Progress Indica-	Information on the learn-	Scoring, percentage of	Opt
	tor	er's progression in the LG	good answers, timer


Najoua Alaoui
email: najoua.alaoui@emines.um6p.ma

Ahlam Azzamouri
email: ahlam.azzamouri@emines.um6p.ma

Selwa Elfirdoussi
email: selwa.elfirdoussi@emines.um6p.ma

Pierre Fenies
email: pierre.fenies@emines.um6p.ma

Vincent Giard
email: vincent.giard@emines.um6p.ma

Interactive Scheduling Decision Support System for ore extraction at a phosphate mine

Keywords: Scheduling, Open-pit mine, Decision Support System (DSS), Graphical user interface

as open-pit mines consist in the accumulation of ore layers of different characteristics, their extraction process results from the iteration of a sequence of elementary operations performed on parcels by specialized or multipurpose machines. Medium-term extraction programming consists in deciding the assignment of the available machines over time. This problem is addressed through Discrete Event Simulation implemented in a phosphate mine, taking into account all the extraction constraints to drive the extraction process. This combines an effectiveness criterion (degree of urgency of obtaining certain ore qualities) and an efficiency criterion (machine displacements). While the parameterization used to control simulation quickly produces many technically feasible scenarios, making the final optimal choice is extremely difficult, particularly as one needs to take into account time considerations in extracted ore progressive provisioning and machine use. Our paper describes the bases of a visual decision-support system (DSS), currently under development, which enables the processing of results to compare multiple scenarios and adjust parameterization in order to come up with a good solution. This web-based DSS is coupled to the simulator via a relational database.

I. INTRODUCTION

OCP SA is phosphate ore extraction and fertilizer production world leader. The tactical decisions that need to be made by OCP in connection with scheduling are related to ore extraction and depend on two criteria as explained in [START_REF] Azzamouri | Dynamic blending as a source of flexibility and efficiency in managing a phosphate supply chain[END_REF]: the choice of parcel to be extracted and the allocation of the machines to perform the operations. The aim of scheduling is to meet known or forecast demand by extracting specific deposit layers. The deposit contains P panels and each panel is made up of Np parcels. It is worth noting that OCP parcels are 4000 m2 rectangles that contain alternate phosphate and sterile layers. The solution to our scheduling decision problem must be able to i) identify the parcels to be extracted to obtain a specific layer of required Source Quality (SQ) ore and ii) allocate the extraction machines. In fact, the extracted SQs correspond to the ore required in both nature and volume terms in order to produce and meet future demand for Merchantable Qualities (MQ) through a blending production process. Due to its size, the mining extraction mathematical programming model is hardly workable. We therefore designed a Discrete Event Simulation (DES) model with the aim of generating multiple feasible schedule scenarios [START_REF] Azzamouri | Dynamic blending as a source of flexibility and efficiency in managing a phosphate supply chain[END_REF]. Our model integrates a large number of parameters (mainly the prioritization of phosphate layer indexes, distance coefficients and layer accessibility as well as the technical specifications to allocate machines to their respective work including constraints associated with multipurpose machines, the minimum number of contiguous parcels that a machine must complete before moving to another location, etc.). All these parameters enable the user to adjust simulation behavior and the number of generated scenarios. Nevertheless, it is at best difficult, if not impossible, to come up with a compound indicator to evaluate overall scheduling option performance. Accordingly, we chose to compare the physical consequences of the different scenarios generated, particularly with respect to their overall efficiency. Indeed, it is not enough for the simulation to be technically coherent for the scenarios to be valid. This led us to design a test to exclude scenarios leading to extract SQs unfit to meet global MQ demand. This rejection test involves a set of blending problems using the same composition constraints that are defined over several planning horizons (1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months) and relying on standard LP blending formulation [START_REF] Azzamouri | Interactive Scheduling Decision Support System: case study for fertilizer production on supply chain[END_REF]. This exercise shows that many scenarios that seem interesting in the short term (next 3 months) actually fail to meet demand in the medium term (9 to 12 months).

Another crucial issue of our problem is the fact that usually the DES approach produces a graphic display of physical movements of productive system units. Such a spatial representation is possible where operations are performed at different places by different static work centers, to which items are moved to be processed. This is not the case in our simulation problem since the items to be processed (mine parcels) cannot be moved and are successively occupied by moving work centers corresponding to dedicated or multipurpose machines (able to perform one to three of the seven basic operations) that extract the ore at a given layer, before moving on to the next ore quality, in another parcel. The mine which we are interested in here (OCP's Benguerir (Morocco) open-pit mine), contains a huge number of parcels among of which only a small subset is targeted for extraction under the planning horizon (in this case five hundred parcels). Thus, the conventional representation would create as many work centers as there are parcels, each successively mobilizing different machines. This complex representation faces yet another problem as items to be processed do not come from a particular entry point but from the parcel itself, through a pile of layer blocks under the parcel surface. In other words, such modelling involves difficult machine management issues and a graphic representation that is little adapted for use in the extraction process.

In light of the above, we chose a different modelling approach, based on logic and a set of parallel processors, each dedicated to a single basic operation and linked by stocks of items (blocks) that are available for a given basic operation and that will move on, once processing has been completed, to the following stock of items waiting for the next basic operation. This modelling choice facilitates simulation monitoring but does away with the dynamic spatial view of the extraction process. Accordingly, in order to obtain a presentation of simulation results, we had to build in their static and dynamic spatial consequences to form a simple, clear and interactive view of complex results. Comparing schedule solutions involves a difficult exploration of all their multidimensional impacts that requires the help of a Decision Support System (DSS) whose original features are presented below.

The scope of our literature review presented under Section II was of course defined by the nature of our scheduling problem as briefly described above. In Section III, we describe the functional and technical bases of the designed interactive scheduling DSS and in Section IV we present an illustration of its use and results. Section V offers a conclusion and discussion for the prospective uses for this DSS).

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

In early 1971, the bases of Decision Support Systems (DSS) were laid by [START_REF] Gorry | A framework for management information systems[END_REF] before being transformed into a structured approach by [START_REF] Keen | Decision Support Systems: An Organizational Perspective[END_REF]. Additionally, information technology (IT) developments greatly augmented DSS potential [START_REF] Shim | Past, present, and future of decision support technology[END_REF], [START_REF] Eom | A survey of decision support system applications (1995-2001)[END_REF], [START_REF] Bhargava | Progress in Web-based decision support technologies[END_REF] without altering its rationale. Basically, a DSS can be broken down into: i) an interface formulating a partially structured complex issue in order to define a structured problem; ii) a single or multiple module(s) to solve the structured problem, usually backed by an optimization or simulation model [START_REF] Power | Model-driven decision support systems: Concepts and research directions[END_REF]; iii) an interface capable of exploring all the consequences of a given solution as well as of validating or adjusting it; iv) and where no acceptable solution is found and the current formulation has failed to deliver a satisfactory solution, using the feedback information from prior formulations to redefine a new structured problem.

We reviewed a number of papers published in scientific newspapers or proceedings proposing DSS for scheduling problems, our analysis of which is reported in sub-section A. In fact, most Scheduling DSS are based on an optimization model. However, due to the mathematical complexity of our problem, we chose to tackle it differently through a simulation approach, as explained before. Thus, in sub-section B we focus on simulation-based scheduling DSS.

A. Scheduling-oriented DSS [START_REF] Galasso | Decision support framework for supply chain planning with flexible demand[END_REF] proposes a DSS framework that aims to schedule the supply chain based on flexible demand, accordingly they chose a model where the decision-making parameters are built into the production management process. These authors propose in [START_REF] Krishna | Web Integrated Decision Support System for Machine Scheduling and Inventory Management[END_REF] the design of a DSS that integrates machine scheduling with inventory management for a multi-product manufacturing industry. They suggest other algorithms in [START_REF] Tang | A mathematical programming model and solution for scheduling production orders in Shanghai Baoshan Iron and Steel Complex[END_REF] to design a production scheduling model taking constraint parameters into account.

The Web-based Visual DSS developed by [START_REF] Krishnaiyer | Web-based Visual Decision Support System (WVDSS) for letter shop[END_REF] aims to schedule the letter delivery process to customers while taking process production planning into account. In order to ensure a high level of customer service quality, the optimal solution is obtained only provided information from different systems is collected and analyzed. One of the strengths of this DSS is the choice of web-based applications which is a reliable advanced technology to model a number of services. However, the scheduling process seems inefficient. IBM's DSS for paper production scheduling (A-Team) in [START_REF] Keskinocak | Scheduling Solutions for the Paper Industry[END_REF] is made up of three types of agents which work asynchronously: 'constructors', 'improvers', and 'destroyers'. The 'Constructor agent's task is to define the problem and create new solutions. The 'Improver' agent's is to improve the set of solutions by modifying and combining the existing solutions, the 'Destroyer' agent's is to eliminate poor solutions and focusing the effort of the 'Improvers' in order to limit the number of solutions. The Dispatcher is a scheduling decision-support system implemented on VBA by [START_REF] Freed | In-house development of scheduling decision support systems: case study for scheduling semiconductor device test operations[END_REF].

B. Simulation-based Scheduling DSS

Many DSSs focus on different scheduling problems and among these some are simulation-based. (GeSIM) is a simulation-based scheduling DSS proposed in [START_REF] Heilala | Developing simulation-based Decision Support Systems for customer-driven manufacturing operation planning[END_REF] for customer-driven manufacturing operation planning. The approach follows definite steps: integrating data, feeding the simulation model, showing the results and supporting interactive modifications. For a correctly defined problem and information, the tool requires user interaction before final input into the GeSIM.

[16] presents a simulation-based Decision Support System for logistics management aiming to improve decisions on a tactical and operational level. The DSS helps manage the flow of goods and business transactions between a port and a dry port in a way that is efficient for real-time management of transport systems and reduction of lead time in the port and dry-port area. They also propose a DSS to manage the flow of goods and business transactions between a port and a dry port based on a simulation approach. Finally [START_REF] Comi | CLASS: A DSS for the Analysis and the Simulation of Urban Freight Systems[END_REF] provides a DSS to understand and simulate the structure of urban system freight and to compute some indicators that, compared with target and benchmarking values, allow to identify its level of service.

III. DSS DESCRIPTION

Let us start by describing the functional architecture of our designed DSS (sub-section A) and its technical bases (subsection B).

A. DSS Functional Architecture

The design of our DSS follows a functional breakdown. In fact, starting from a partially structured problem, we define a structured problem to be simulated. The simulation of the structured problem enables an exhaustive reproduction of the extraction process through parameterized priority assignment rules for machine allocation. This is based on a weighting system that takes into account the availability and accessibility of the required layers (for efficiency purposes) as well as equipment allocation and location (for effectiveness purposes). If the resulting scenario is not feasible, one returns to structured problem formulation and parameterization.

The flowchart in "Fig. 1" matches the original pattern of the DSS designers, with its four components.

B. DSS Technical Architecture

Our DSS is based on a Model-View-Control (MVC) architecture with typical DSS functionalities, such as data management, model management and graphic user interface. The DSS is a Java-based web application integrating different APIs such as leafJS for map presentation (open-source JavaScript library for mobile-friendly interactive maps), JChart (Java Chart) for solution display and Simul8 library to launch the simulation model (it being the software used by the DSS) and also Excel, whose Solver is used to solve the set of LP blending problems to make sure the extracted SQ will meet MQ demand at different planning horizons. The display module is based on Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) to retain all of the display functionalities in the browser area without having to request the server for a new page.

As shown in "Fig. 2", our proposed ore extraction DSS for phosphate mine scheduling consists in three key stages.

The first stage concerns business-related data management. There are two kinds of data: structural and dynamic. The structural data reflect field structure such as the layers making up each panel, trenches and parcels. It includes geographical corrodes, machine specifications related to the nature of basic operations that can be handled by each machine as well as the nature of the layer to be extracted by it and its characteristics. The dynamic data reflect the state of the mine: stocks, machine initial position, parcel initial state and progress, etc. Data management is connected to a relational database that stores both kinds of data. The third stage is data display based on the scenario proposed on the simulation stage. The DSS allows users to display a scenario's results using different kinds of formats such as charts, dashboards, tables and map localizations. This stage also offers a functionality to compare different scenarios. If the results are satisfactory, then the decision is submitted to the database by means of the user interface, otherwise a new decision is evaluated.

IV. DSS: IMPLEMENTATION & EXPERIMENT

Our developed DSS imports its data from a "Parcels listing"-an Excel file containing information about each parcel, panel, layer etc. This is used to gather the structural data and initialize the DSS to run the simulation using other dynamic data. Different datasets were used to evaluate our proposed approach and architecture. In this section, we present an example of a data set and two different scenarios generated with parameter settings produced by the DSS.

The following case study concerns ore extraction scheduling at one of OCP's open-pit mines in Morocco. The initial DSS setup consists in integrating the structural data related to panels, parcels, machines etc. This is followed by parameter setting including layer priority indexes, distances and accessibility coefficients and the minimal equipment load. The simulation model embedded in the DSS then generates different scenarios, and a comparison is made on the bases of such criteria as the volume extracted per layer.

Let us turn to our DSS key component functionalities. In order to ensure an efficient use of the platform, we defined two user profiles: the 'expert' profile is used for simulation scenario parameters to be applied to the various models while the 'read' profile serves to view the collected data and the results of the forecast procedure produced by the modelling system.

In the following section, we simply present a case study for the data display function of the DSS. For this experiment, we used actual data inputs used to run our DSS and to evaluate the solution obtained as further explained below.

The inputs used for this example relate to five panels containing twenty four trenches and five hundred parcels targeted for extraction. In all, fifty machines are allocated to perform the seven basic extraction operations, each with its own specifications and nature, namely multipurpose machine or dedicated equipment.

The simulation outputs are hourly forecasts of feedings for the 10 different ore layers. The hourly grade requirements depend on blended ore (outputs) scheduled production obtained by blending the extracted ore layers (inputs). These blends are dynamically defined and depend on the extracted layers inventories, feedings and also on production schedules. These outputs need to be validated by the blending test which ensures that all the resulting scenarios are valid (meet global demand). The difference between the proposed scenarios boils down to their efficiency and effectiveness, namely the choice of parcels to be extracted and equipment allocation.

Therefore, the acceptability and choice of a simulation solution for this scheduling problem, obtained through particular parameter settings, results from its technical coherence, the ability to meet global demand on the relevant horizon and its performance versus alternative solutions that also meet the first two conditions.

A. Data management

Our framework applies a relational database scheme based on an object-oriented model to structure its implementation. A dedicated user interface is used to enter the data to ensure structural integrity.

The diversity of the parcels is such that it complicates extraction scheduling immensely. Accordingly, it was necessary to define parcel groups so as to improve the structure of actual mine imported data. The groups were designed with respect to geological characteristics (the composition of each parcel, layer volume and thickness, etc.). These geological characteristics vary a lot from panel to panel, trench to trench and even parcel to parcel. Thus, this grouping approach involves the creation of two new categories: i) the 'sub-panel' (defined as a grouping of parcels that have the same structure, i.e. the same layers and accumulation pattern). ii) a 'group' defined as cases belonging to the same sub-panel containing layers of similar thickness.

Once the structural data is ready for processing, we can initialize the system for launch, using the dynamic data. This data mainly plots initial equipment location, initial stock state as well as initial deposit state. Due to the large volume of data, we designed a tool to import the data from an Excel file supplied by the mine manager. After all the necessary data is entered or imported, the next step is to set the simulation parameters through the problem definition interface.

B. The Discrete Event Simulation Model

Based on a defined set of parameters, the simulation is run and a set of scenarios is generated. Each scenario represents a scheduling plan including the choice of parcels to be extracted and the machines to be allocated. Thus, for a given scenario, where a proposed result is unfeasible and/or unsatisfactory in terms of efficiency or effectiveness, the system is able to redefine the problem or to create a new one with the aim of achieving a satisfactory scenario to be adopted as a schedule.

C. Data Display

In this sub-section, we present two aspects of display of data scenario results and of the comparison between two scenarios.

1) Results of a scheduling scenario

The DSS presents the scenario evaluation using 4 major tabs. This can be filtered by period range.

The first tab shows the cumulative layer feeding curves as illustrated on "Fig. 3". It presents layer the aggregate extracted by volume by period and allows users to evaluate layer production based on the priority index. It evaluates the proposed scenario by checking whether it meets demand and reports any over-production or under-production situations. The second tab focuses on volume extracted from each layer over a specific period. This chart enables users to view detailed data and extraction progress. On tab 3 the proposed machine allocation by basic operation is pictured by means of machine Gantts as illustrated in "Fig. 4". For each machine Gantt, the user can view the proposed allocations for it along with timing, nature of the basic operation performed and indication of the parcel, trench and panel the machine is working on at different times. In addition, the user may filter on basic operations or specific machines in order to assess machine performance in terms of occupation and displacement time. The graphs presented above in "Fig. 3" and "Fig. 4" are used by operations managers to assess scenario short-term and long-term impact and discard any solution that may be relevant in the short-term but counter-productive in the long term.

Finally, for an efficient evaluation of work in the field, the last tab plots the solution on an actual map using mapping technologies to show the different parcels being processed "Fig. 5". The representation uses two different colors: red for parcels in progress and green for extracted parcels. The user can zoom in for more details on the machine, the basic operation it performs or parcel information (thickness, trench and panel) "Fig. 6". In other words, this interface gives a concrete view to support visual scenario validation. The views illustrated in "Fig. 5" and "Fig. 6" can be refreshed every 2 seconds, each step corresponding to mine state 12 hours later, reflecting extraction progress.

2) Comparative analysis of two different scenarios

In this case study, two different extraction scenarios based on the defined layer priority index were used. Both had the same structural/dynamic data and were run on the same planning horizon. We present below the performance evaluation graphics for each scenario "Fig. 7".

The feeding curves clearly show the influence of the layer priority index parameter defined separately for each scenario. This index produces differences in terms of extracted volume from each layer and their aggregates. The index also impacts processed parcel choice so as to exploit the layers that are most needed over a determined horizon. This justifies the choice of this variable as a parameter that can be adjusted in the simulation model settings as implemented in our DSS. Accordingly, the model uses the priority index as a primary criterion in producing extraction schedules where layers are arranged in decreasing order of priority from the larger index to the lowest one. According to the state of the mine at system initialization, this may result in extraction from other layers depending on the degree of urgency to meet demand.

Based on results, scenario comparison of the volumes extracted from each layer is possible through the graphic interface by choosing the layer used for comparison purposes "Fig. 7". There is also the option of accurate comparison using the calculated layer gap which is the difference between the cumulative volume extracted for a specific layer in scenario 1 and scenario 2. The layer gaps serve to facilitate the choice of the most efficient scenario from the set of scenarios that meet the condition of satisfying global demand. In short, these functionalities offer operational managers a chance to form a clear picture of the relevance of each scenario in the planning horizon and for the work field, based on the extracted layers and their volumes in each scenario. Additionally, the operational manager may compare the scenarios under review in terms of machine occupation and displacement time by period. As already noted, each task describes the allocation of a machine to one or several basic operations depending on its nature machine (dedicated or multi-purpose).

In this case too, results of the comparison can be plotted graphically as in "Fig. 8", which shows the different occupation and displacement time for each machine. Again, the manager may obtain an accurate calculation of the machine occupation gap between two scenarios. In the same way, displacement time machine gap between two scenarios may be calculated. These different results provide a reliable picture of the frequency of displacement and occupation time per machine for the two compared scenarios, which greatly facilitates the selection of an adequate scenario in terms of both efficiency and effectiveness. The operational manager can choose the scenario in light of the juxtaposed machine Gantts and the occupation and displacement time chart for each machine and the calculated gaps. Indeed, through a precise evaluation of one or multiple scenarios, our DSS helps the decision-maker to quantify the impact and choose the best solution very quickly. Technically, the DSS generates a retroactive loop that helps define/redefine the problem in order to obtain a different set of solutions to be analyzed and compared to others. Accordingly, the decisionmaker will then either select an adequate scenario or return to the parameterization interface

V. CONCLUSION & PROSPECTS

This paper discusses the design of an Interactive Scheduling DSS based on Discrete Event Simulation which helps the user to select the best scheduling scenario among the set of feasible ore extraction scenarios capable of meeting demand in merchantable qualities in an efficient and effective way. The simulation model reflects the complex extraction process through parameterized priority assignment rules for the allocation of machines according to a weighting system that takes into account multiple constraints including the availability and accessibility of the targeted layer and equipment availability and location. The DSS is currently being tested with real life data with different parameters in order to fine-tune its design for optimal relevance and robustness.

Our vision aims to widen the decision-making horizon from a few weeks (short term) to a one-year horizon (medium term) through a number of adjustments to the simulation model. In particular, the coupling of the scheduling simulation model and the blending optimization model offers attractive prospects. This will allow the users to obtain different scenarios focused simultaneously on efficient and effective scheduling as well as blending feasibility. Ultimately, therefore, we aim to improve the overall consistency of the decisions made locally by different supply chain actors as well as achieve a close and flexible match of output with known and forecasted demand underpinned by a well-designed DSS approach.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. DSS Functional components

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. DSS ArchitectureThe second stage is a Discrete Event Simulation that serves to model the extraction process using both the structural and dynamic data. It simulates the system and closely tracks progress throughout the extraction process as well as equipment allocation. Finally, the Excel LP solver is used to test the possible adjustments to SQs and MQs based on LP blending options.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Cumulative profil layer Feed Curves

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Machine Gantt

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Parcel and machine mapping

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Two scenarios aggregate feeding curves juxtaposed by profil layer

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. Machine Gantts juxtaposed for two scenarios


Language Policy as a tool for marginalization: the influence of the English-only movement in today's United States

Introduction

In this article, I will argue that the English-Only movement that has been very active in the US in the last 25 years has little to do with language, but instead, is motivated by symbolic and linguistic racism in an effort to further exclude groups of people who already live in the margins of American society. With 82 % of the population speaking English only, and less than 8% speaking English "less than very well" in 2007 1 , one finds it hard to understand how this rapidly assimilating population might represent a danger to the country's unity. Similarly, the 3.5 % illegal immigration hardly justifies the stigmatization of immigrants by politicians, the press, and the numerous local radio talk shows.

The discussion around the status of the English language in the construction of the Union started in the early stages of the American colony. Writing in the Federalist papers in 1788, John Jay expressed the following view:

[P]rovidence has been pleased to give this one connected country to one united people-a people descended from the same ancestors, speaking the same language, professing the same religion, attached to the same principles of government, very similar in their manners and customs. (my emphasis) 2 In his efforts to create a language Academy, John Adams also proposed to make English an official language for both the Union and Individual states, arguing that "the form of government has an influence upon language, and language in its turn influences not only the form of government, but the temper, sentiments of the people." 3 Overtones of linguistic nationalism could also be heard among some leading intellectuals and linguists at the time. For example, Noah Webster pleaded for the recognition of a standard national language: "[A] national language is a band of national union. Every engine should be employed to render the people of this country national; to call their attachments home to their own country; and to inspire them with the pride of national character." 4 Beyond linguistic ideology, political realism may also explain why the founding fathers were very cautious in their positions concerning language and immigration. Indeed, they were very acutely aware of the presence of various national groups and populations in the colonies and conscious that if they wanted their ideas to spread, respect for other nationalities and official publications in other languages would be necessary.

I. Linguistic hegemony

"The battle for nationhood," writes Michael Billig, "is a battle for hegemony, by which a part claims to speak for the whole nation and to represent the national essence."5 Using the constitution written by a select Anglo-Saxon elite without any participation of other groups, including the natives of the land, Anglo-Saxons managed to form an hegemonic block through the making of consent, a consent that was all the more readily obtained as most European immigrants shared the same monolingual ideology concerning nation-state building. In the early stages, states and territories had a strong foreign-born presence, and so, allowances were made for other languages through publication of official documents in other languages until the administration was almost fully anglicized.

In California, the first 1849 State Constitution was published in both Spanish and English and included one provision that "[a]ll laws, decrees, regulations, and provisions, which from their nature require publication, shall be published in English and Spanish."6 However, the gold rush rapidly anglicized the State. Soon, the few native californios who participated in the rush were ironically labelled "foreigners in their own land." By 1870, they had lost political influence and the 1879 California constitution prohibited the publication of the laws in laws in any language other than English.

The same could be observed in New-Mexico, be it at a slower pace in the absence of a sudden influx such as that provoked by the Gold Rush in California. In addition, there were only about 100 English settlers in the territory prior to 1846 so that it took much longer for English speakers to become the dominant group. Until 1870, laws were usually enacted in Spanish, and then translated into English. After 1870, English became prevalent, but it is only in 1912, when a majority of the population was Englishspeaking for the first time that the stated gained statehood. Ten years earlier, Senator Albert Beveridge presiding over the hearings concerning New Mexico's and Arizona's claims for statehood recommended that admission be delayed until a time "when the mass of the people, or even a majority of them shall, in the usage and employment of their daily life, have become identical in language and customs with the great number of American people; when the immigrants of the English-speaking people who have been citizens of the other states [will have done] its modifying work with the 'Mexican element. '" 7 More recently, the same argument was used to oppose access to statehood for Puerto-Rico. US English chairman Mauro Mujica was outraged when in April 2010, the House of Representatives passed the Porto-Rico Democracy Act (H.R. 2499) even though an amendment that would have required English as the sole of official language was defeated. Mujica explained that: "No state has ever come into the Union where its core organs of government operate in a foreign language and Puerto-Rico must not be an exception."8

II. Nativism and the psychological enforcement of conformity through language

Tolerance towards the foreign-born and negative reactions against "foreign elements" are clearly linked to immigration. The first surge in nativism occurred in the 1850's but almost completely vanished during the civil war when practically all foreignborn Americans "flocked to the colors" to defend their country. It picked up again in the late 19 th century as a reaction against Southern European Catholic immigration, especially after the Haymarket incidents. One newspaper lashed out against the "invasion of venomous reptiles"; another against the "long-haired, wild-eyed, bad smelling, atheistic reckless foreign wretches who never did an honest hour's work in their lives." [START_REF] Higham | Strangers in the land: Pattern of American Nativism 1860-1925[END_REF] In 1891, Henry Cabot Lodge first proposed to introduce a literacy test, a proposal with clearly racist overtones. The proposal was that all male adults should be excluded from admission who were unable to read and write in their own language. This, it was estimated, would cut immigration from southern and eastern Europe by half, while more "desirable" immigration would not suffer at all. [START_REF] Lescott-Leszczynski | The History of US Ethnic Policy and its Impact on European Ethnics[END_REF] In defending the test in 1892, Senator Chandler claimed: "No one has suggested a race distinction. We are confronted with the fact, however, that the poorest immigrants do come from certain races." [START_REF] Higham | [END_REF] Several bills successfully passed the House and Senate, but were vetoed successively by Presidents Cleveland, Taft, and Wilson until it passed over Wilson's veto in 1917. The test excluded "all aliens over sixteen years of age, physically able of reading, who cannot read the English language, or some other language or dialect, including Hebrew or Yiddish." [START_REF] Perea | [END_REF] The context of the war against Germany strongly reinforced the reaction against "foreign" elements. Wartime hysteria gave rise to movements such as the "one-hundred percent Americanism" which "felt sure that the nation would never be safe until every vestige of German culture had been stamped out." [START_REF] Higham | [END_REF] In 1917, Theodore Roosevelt declared: "We have no room for but one language here and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as American, of American nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding house." [START_REF] Crawford | Language Loyalties: A Source Book on the Official English Controversy[END_REF] Following strong restrictive immigration policies, nativist feelings dropped at the end of the 1920's, but by that time, most foreign language schools and newspapers had disappeared.

As immigration picked up again in the 1980's, following the signing of the 1980 Refugee Act, nativist reactions emerged again in the form of the English-Only movement which has introduced 5 to 10 bills in every Congress since 1990. The movement started when in 1982, former senator Hayakawa sought an amendment to the constitution making English the official language of the United States. The declaration of John Tanton, who co-founded U.S. English with him, displays the same racist overtones as their nativist predecessor:

Perhaps this is the first instance in which those with their pants up are going to get caught by those with their pants down. . . . As whites see their power and control of their lives declining, will they simply go quietly into the night? Or will there be an explosion . . . ? We are building in a deadly disunity. 15 U.S. English has been very successful in passing English-Only legislation at the state level. Indeed, whereas before 1969 only 2 states had passed laws naming English the sole langue of the state (Illinois and Nebraska) 17 states had done so by 1990 and 29 by 2009, and some are considering presently considering such legislation (Oklahoma). In addition, many cities are implementing English-Only legislation, provoking heated debates. In July 2010 for example, the City Council of Lino Lakes, a Twin Cities, MN suburb passed an English-only resolution. The following exerts from an on-line discussion group encapsulate the real motivations of the vote: "Learn English" is almost completely a nonstarter for me. Immigrant families nearly-inevitably *do* learn English, and the assimilation takes one or two generations after immigration. …Here in SW MN, that's how it worked for Germans and Swedes in 1910, and it's how it's working for Mexicans, East Africans, and Burmese now."

Well, to a large extent, it is a race issue. In the same way that poverty is, in many ways, a race issue. Whether the residents of Lino Lakes like it or not, the people being affected by this resolution are not blonde-haired, blue-eyed Swedes who want to speak Swedish. The people this affects will be Hmong, Somalis, Ethiopians, Latinos, and other non-white immigrant groups in the Twin Cities area. 16

III. English-only and linguistic racism

In this section, I will try to show that the recent attempts to impose English-only legislation continues a tradition of symbolic racism, in this case linguistic racism, that aims at marginalizing some categories of the population because of their ethnic difference. For this purpose I will use some of the most common characterizations of the symbolic racism in the social-psychological literature and illustrate how its main features are expressed in the internet forums containing the reactions to two recent attempts at impose English-only legislation While focusing on the black population, social-psychologists have characterized symbolic racism as a coherent political belief system that contains the following themes: English-only movement, linguist Richard Ruiz adds that the following arguments are used to marginalize minority language groups: (a) ethnic groups are less willing to assimilate, resulting in social fragmentation (b) bilingual services are inordinately expensive to the tax-payer of the state (c) The primacy of English is at risk and is threatened by competing "official languages" 18 Teun Van Dijk and his colleagues have shown that one of the most commonlyused discursive strategies in everyday talk about immigrants and minorities is the use of disclaimers which they define as "semantic moves with a positive part about US, and a negative part about THEM." Examples are: "I'm not a racist, but …," "some of them are smart, but …" 19 These strategies are abundantly used in the three internet forums we will now examine. 20 In our analysis, we found ten types of such moves.

English-only is not racism

 "It's not about racism or anything," Mr. Watson said. "I just think we need to save our money in this economy, and we can't be translating everything into any language all the time." "Please explain why you think these bills are racist, or marginalize your community. I'm not saying that they don't, I just didn't see any evidence to suggest that it changes anything at all."

 "Hey Rube. Add me to the xenophobe list. A country of two languages is a divided one. If we all melt into one big pot of Americans we will not have two languages."

Failure to progress results from their unwillingness to work hard enough:

Immigrants are featured as lazy people in contrast with hard-working Americans.

18 Cited in E.J. Johnson, "(Re)defining freedom of speech: Language policy, education, and language rights in the United States," Apples -Journal of Applied Language Studies, n° 3/1, 2009, p.12 19 T.A. van Dijk, "Discourse and racism," in T. Goldberg and J. Solomos (eds), A companion to ethnic and racial studies, Malden, Ma, Wiley-Blackwell, p.150. See also, e.g. E. Bonilla-Silva and T. A. Forman, "I'm not a racist but …: mapping White college students' racial ideology in the USA," Discourse and Society, n° 11/1, 2000, pp. 50-85. 20 Besides the Minnesota site mentioned above, we also examined reactions to an English-only proposal in Texas on a conservative site : http://politics.gather.com/viewArticle.action?articleId=281474979469978, as well as the reactions to a 2009 failed English-only initiative in Nashville, Tennessee.

 There are people that have been in this country for years and still don't speak English.

Why? Apparently they're apathetic to the point they don't care. Why should they when we coddle them by providing literature, signs, "press 1 for English," and translaters (sic). Good luck finding a job.

 They need to at least show an effort that they want a better way of life then the way they were living in their countries.

Demanding too much too fast/unfair demands/special privileges/special interests.

For many participants in the forums, accommodating to other languages represents a violation of some kind of "natural order." Speakers of other languages are presented as profiteers, even parasites.

 You have to speak my language, not the other way around. You came to me for a job, I didn't come to you.

 If you come here from another country, you should learn to speak the language, which is English. Don't like it go back to where you came from. Why, should we have to give, give, give.

 The entire country should be English why let these filthy blood sucking cockroaches get special privileges?! They are here illegally (sic) !  From where I stand I've seen this country bend over backwards to accommodate them which always leads to more and more accommodations once it's started as we've seen.

We wouldn't be so divided today if we had let them know from the get go that it was them that needed to change.. not us

Immigrants have gotten what they deserve

Often, there is a feeling that immigrants are not loyal, that they do not respect the rules of the game. Therefore, they are not only the victims but also the cause of discrimination.

 Condemnable, abhorrent, intolerable are words to describe recent beatings of Hispanics on

Long Island. However, while not intentional, some of this has been brought upon themselves. A local resident, who has been in the US for ten years, was interviewed Friday about the beatings, through a translator. Frequently Hispanics are heard talking about how they will be sending money to, or are waiting to make enough money to go back to "my country".

(

5) Fear of being overcome, of a reversal in power relations

The expression of racism is clear in these statements, both in terms of color and culture. Even in very "white" neighborhoods in the Twin Cities suburbs, there is a fear that white supremacy might be lost:

 If I went to another country, I would expect them to speak in their language and I would have to adapt. I would be a guest in their land, guests aren't supposed to take over.

 You just can't stand it that we have a majority anglo/white country. You can't wait to turn it into a brown/hispanic country even though hispanics are the majority in 22 countries on the Western Hemisphere already"  It USE TO BE that immigrants came here because of the American dream, ideals, and values. But look around...now immigrants are coming here trying to turn US into a 3rd world nation! (6) Danger to civilization

In some of the most extreme statements, the United States and their citizens are seen as civilized and other countries as uncivilized. The question of loyalty is raised again, but there is also a clear sense of cultural superiority related to the English language:

 Illegals are killing our healthcare systems all across the country. So the ones here who do not speak our language and who do not respect our values and way of life need to go back to their countries and clean them up instead of bring our country down to their level. (Tn forums)

 House Speaker Newt Gingrich argued for the bill, noting that California public schools teach academic subjects in more than 80 languages, and Chicago schools teach in 100 languages. He warned that a continuation of such trends would lead to "decay of the core parts of our civilization."

 We need English only so this dam country doesn't turn into some dam bananna republic.

Hasta La Vista me.

(7) Babel/divisiveness

Most participants share the same monolingual ideology, that is, the belief that multilingualism automatically leads to division and balkanization:

 I am all for diversity in cultural activities, cuisine and neighborhoods, but is it too much to ask for this Tower of Babel mentality to realize common sense? Chicago and Illinois bend over backwards providing election materials, city, county and state governmental forms and signage to myriad languages, mostly in Spanish, Mandarin Chinese and Polish.

 One person mentioned the cost of the election as a reason for not having an English only vote. Consider this: the election is a one-time cost. The cost of printing multi language

documents is an infinite cost that could run into the millions, not to mention fragmenting the culture.  I'm not against helping adults and children become proficient in English. I am against making our country a reflection of the Tower of Babel...with all of us speaking but noone understanding each.

Ancestry

Many use the common argument that their forefathers readily and willingly learned English even though, as we mentioned before, numerous schools in German, French, Polish, and other languages still existed at the beginning of the 20 th century:

 "My grandparents came from Sweden," said resident Carl Palmquist. "I remember the stories, where they used to say it was hard for them to learn English. But they did, and they practiced it in the home, they practiced it at work and they learned English.

 When my husband's German ancestors came to the USA they had to learn to speak English. They did. When my own Swedish ancestors came to this country in the late 1890's, they had to learn to speak English.

 Yes, the United States was built from the sound of many voices, many languages. BUT everyone back then LEARNED ENGLISH at some point  My ancestors came over and had to assimilate by learning the language, they were given no special concessions and they were not catered to, they worked hard learned the language and became true Americans that fought and were proud of their country 21 Cited in Sears and Henry, op.cit., p.261.

 So the ones here who do not speak our language and who do not respect of values and way of life need to go back to their countries and clean them up instead of bring our country down to their level. Tn forums  Learning English -though it's not a law that they should do so -would be a small price to pay for anyone with integrity and principle. Unfortunately, this concept has been so disregarded that even some narrow-set American-born people have overlooked it. Thugs, another yarn in the American fabric unravels Tx forum  Vincent, Excuse me!?!? My family including myself has worked our butts off for the where our mother tongue is respected. You are in America? Speak English.

 I will never understand the pandering my local government wastes my tax money under the banner of being inclusive, except that it helps bring votes for the notorious Chicago

Democratic machine. This isn't assimilation; it is consternation. 22 Sears and Henry, op. cit., p.264  Wake up folks, the American language is under attack and I suspect the ACLU is organizing the charge  It was President Reagan that put the end to the commie pleasing Metric America scam from democrats, that wanted America to take the commie measurements to accommodate the lefts Ideas.

Conclusion

The discourse used by the English-only proponents represents a modern form of racism that is in direct line with the old-fashioned "redneck" or "Jim Crow" racism of the pre-civil rights era. To conclude, I will use a quote from my corpus that shows that this kind of off-the-shelves ideology is not shared by all Americans:

This kind of nativist xenophobia has been discredited in more enlightened quarters for some time now. It's a thinly veiled re-hash of the White Anglo nativism that reared its ugly head when the Germans, Irish, then Mediterraneans came here in large numbers, in the 19th and 20th Centuries, and needs to be exposed as such, in the normal discourse about this proposal. The "undesirables" as the Irish, Italians and Jews were called by the nativists of those early immigration waves, eventually melded in and assimilated into the American way, quite successfully. All current evidence shows that similar processes are in effect with the more recent immigrant groups, though perhaps at a slower pace; contemporary air travel and communications technology allows newer immigrants to "hold on" culturally to their countries of origin, including use of their languages, in ways not possible for the earlier arrivals. Most scholarly studies show that the vast majority of immigrants eventually become proficient in English and assimilate fully, so what's the real issue? It's really xenophobia and racism, masquerading as a defense of the English language, a stance which it totally unnecessary. The idea is also very impractical. As our increasingly global and multicultural society imports and adopts words from other languages, especially Spanish, spoken on these shores about 100 years before the first English words were uttered in North America, who would "police" the English only laws? What to do with foreign words such as "dollar, ranch, junta, armada, flotilla, patio, barbecue, vamoose, buccaneer, filibuster" (all Spanish) and others such as fait accompli, au fait, bien pensant (all widely in use in America, but French). Would those terms have to be banned and replaced? By what? Who would decide? Policing such laws could take us to some pretty ridiculous scenarios.

Hopefully the people of Nashville will see through this silliness and laugh the proponents off the legislative stage.

This participant adequately summarizes the argument of this paper, with, however, some minor inaccuracies. Indeed, demographers [START_REF] Veltman | Quebec, Canada, and the United States : Social reality and language rights[END_REF] have shown that recent immigrants assimilate linguistically much faster than past generations. Further, they argue, no data suggest that English-Only legislation ever had any real impact on the amount of services offered in a foreign language. Rather, it was noted that services in Spanish are frequently offered in states with large Hispanic populations, even where English is the official language (e.g., Illinois and California) and were generally absent in states with few Hispanics and no official English legislation. [START_REF] Marshall | [END_REF] Courts usually consider Official English legislation as "symbolic statements" with no significant effect in real life, except in cases of discrimination. [START_REF] Miner | Legal implications of the Official English declaration[END_REF] "Consequently," writes Veltman, legislation designed to restrict the use of Spanish represents a statement that the English language group is dominant and that Spanish-speaking people need not expect a particularly warm welcome." [START_REF] Veltman | [END_REF] The question remains why immigrants themselves often accept and even support these language policies [START_REF]Center for Equal Opportunity[END_REF] . In this respect, one needs to remember that monolingual ideologies were shaped in the 18 th and 19 th century Europe and are now widely is shared most Western countries. The power of language is not perceived as oppressive because, in the words of Foucault, it "reaches into the very grain of individuals, touches

  (a) Blacks no longer face much prejudice or discrimination, (b) Blacks's failure to progress results from their unwillingness to work hard enough (c) Blacks are demanding too much too fast, (d) Blacks have gotten more than they deserve." 17 They add that symbolic racism reflects "a blend of strong, traditional American moral values with mild amounts of racial anxiety and antagonism", and "a blend of anti-black affect and the kind of traditional moral embodied in the Protestant Ethic ... rooted in deep-seated feelings of social morality and propriety and in early learned racial fears and stereotypes ... more likely traceable to pre-adult socialization than to current racial threat." Commenting on the overtly racist viewpoints expressed by the founders and of 16 http://twentytwowords.com/2010/07/28/elitists-in-minnesota-town-lino-lakes-approve-englishonly-resolution/. Accessed, August 25, 2010. 17 D.O. Sears and P.J. Henry, "The origins of symbolic racism," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, n° 85/2, 2003, p. 260

9 .

 9 Americanism/respect of moral values Social psychologists argue that symbolic racism often originates in a conservative moral code, what McConahay and Hough call "the traditional religious and value socialization of secular American civil Protestantism" 21 that include hard work, individualism, obedience and discipline. The feeling that speakers of other languages do not respect these values is often expressed in our corpus:

  300+ years we have been on this Continent. The majority of WASP are hard working, law abiding, and taxpaying. How about not going out of your way to look ignorant by attacking an entire group of Americans! Tn forum 10. Political allegiance Social psychologists Sears and Henry have demonstrated empirically that even though general conservativism and racial prejudice are separate and distinctive psychological constructs, symbolic racism is grounded equally in both. "Symbolic racism," they write, "is the glue that links political conservativism to racial prejudice among Whites in the contemporary era." 22 It is this mixture of political conservatism and prejudice that is expressed in the following statements:  You clueless liberals who so slavishly desire this forced multiculturalism should move to California, and see what a cesspool it's become. It's why I fled to the small town south,

Perea, op.cit., p. 298

M. Billig, Banal Nationalism, London, Sage Publication, 1995, p.27.

Perea, op.cit., p317.

D. Baron, The English-Only Question: An official language for Americans? New Haven: Yale University Press, p.

See http://www.us-english.org/view/773, downloaded May 2011.

M Foucault, Michel. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977. Trans. Colin Gordon et al. New York: Pantheon, 1980, p.39.

C.H. Williams, Introduction : Respecting the citizens-Reflections on policiy in Canada and the United States, in T. Ricento and B. Burnaby (eds), op.cit, p.2.

their bodies and inserts itself into their actions and attitudes, their discourses, learning processes and everyday lives" 28 .

If, as Colin Williams writes, "[t]he foundation of any modern democracy is the ability of its citizens to derive maximum security from contributing to the wealth of society," 29 it is time for us as sociolinguists to actively develop language awareness among our students and in society at large.