Bastien Wailly

Adrien Bousseau

Line rendering of 3D meshes for data-driven sketch-based modeling

Keywords: sketch-based modeling, nonphotorealistic rendering, geometry processing, deep learning, vector graphics

: SynDraw is a tool to generate synthetic vector drawings from triangular meshes.

Introduction and Related Work

A number of recent sketch-based modeling systems rely on deep learning to recover 3D information from 2D line drawings. Examples include the voxel-based approach of Delanoy et al. [DAI * 18], the multi-view reconstruction technique by Lun et al. [LGK * 17], the parametric modeling approach by Nishida et al.

[NGDA * 16], the normal map prediction by Su et al.

[SDY * 18], and the method by Li et al. that com-bines depth, normal and curvature-field information [LPL * 18]. All these data-driven approaches require thousands of drawings aligned with ground-truth 3D shapes for training, which would be cumbersome to collect by hand. The common solution to this challenge is to resort to synthetic training data, obtained by rendering 3D shapes in a line-drawing style. Existing systems either rely on custom non-photorealistic renderers, or on the publicly available rtsc software [START_REF] Decarlo | Suggestive contours for conveying shape[END_REF]. However, these renderers only support a subset of popular synthetic lines, and export them as bitmaps, which limits the range of stylization effects that can be applied on the resulting drawings. We propose an open source library for line rendering, which we designed to fulfill the needs of modern data-driven sketch-based modeling systems.

Our library -called SynDraw -provides the following features:

• It takes as input triangle meshes, which is the most common form of geometry. SynDraw thus represents a valuable alternative to the Blender plug-in FreeStyle [START_REF] Grabli | Programmable style for npr line drawing[END_REF], which offers more advanced stylization features but was not designed for lightweight generation of large datasets. The main algorithmic components of SynDraw follow the recommendations made by Benard and Hertzmann in their tutorial on line rendering [START_REF] Bénard | Line drawings from 3d models[END_REF]. We implemented SynDraw on top of the libIGL geometry library [JP * 18], using C++11.

Overview

Figure 2 lists the main steps of the line extraction algorithm implemented in SynDraw. The system takes as input a 3D mesh and a set of parameters, and outputs an SVG file that encodes the lines and associated attributes as vector polylines. The first processing step consists in parsing the mesh to extract line segments that will populate the view graph -a data structure that represents all lines and vertices (see the tutorial by Benard and Hertzmann for details [START_REF] Bénard | Line drawings from 3d models[END_REF]). The second step applies various filters to remove spurious lines. The third step determines which lines are visible from the current viewpoint. Finally, the extracted line segments are chained to form long polylines, before being exported. We offer user control on each of these steps through the input parameters.

Implementation

Line extraction

We extract different types of surface lines using popular non-photorealistic rendering algorithms, namely smooth occluding contours [HZ00], suggestive contours [START_REF] Decarlo | Suggestive contours for conveying shape[END_REF], sharp and smooth creases [START_REF] Ohtake | Ridge-valley lines on meshes via implicit surface fitting[END_REF], demarcating curves [START_REF] Kolomenkin | Demarcating curves for shape illustration[END_REF], some of which are illustrated in Figure 3. Many of these lines require access to differential quantities on the surface, such as the principal directions of curvature and the radial curvature.

We compute these quantities using the method by Panozzo et al. [START_REF] Panozzo | Efficient multi-scale curvature and crease estimation[END_REF]. We use a Lazy Loading design pattern to avoid computing anything not needed given the input line parameters.

Filtering

The algorithmic lines we have implemented can quickly yield cluttered drawings if extracted with default parameters. We allow users to filter out some of the lines based on several geometric criteria (Fig 4

Chaining

The last processing step consists in chaining the extracted line segments to form long polylines that resemble human-drawn pen strokes. We assign consecutive segments to the same chain if they share the same line type and visibility, and if their angle is below a threshold. We also used those chains to make the visibility more robust by casting multiple rays per chain and voting for the dominant visibility [START_REF] Bénard | Line drawings from 3d models[END_REF], which is especially beneficial at grazing angle where numerical imprecision often occurs (Fig 5).

Interactive viewer

We provide an interactive OpenGL viewer to help users find suitable extraction parameters for the 3D shapes they are interested in (Figure 6). While the visibility computation can take a few seconds, other parameters can be adjusted in real time. Users can then save their parameter settings to apply them to other shapes via scripting.

Stylization tools

We developed a set of simple tools to further process the drawing, such as simulating sketchy drawings by perturbing the vector polylines with random 1D and/or 2D noise (Figure 7). Such stylization effects greatly improve the realism of the line drawings, which in turn makes the trained deep learning algorithms more robust to real-world sketches. Other effects include varying the line width and opacity according to line type or depth. We also provide a simple rasterizer based on the CairoSVG library to convert the stylized drawings into bitmaps ready to be fed to deep networks.

Applications

SynDraw has already been used internally in several research projects. We demonstrated a procedural approach for sketch-based modeling [START_REF] Wailly | Sketch-Based Modeling of Parametric Shapes[END_REF], where all deep networks have been trained with data produced by our system (Fig 8). We generated 100k synthetic drawings from simple meshes in around two days, which was enough to train our architecture for 20k iterations. Gryaditskaya et al. [GSH * 19] also used our tool to showcase the importance of prior knowledge on how designers draw when generating synthetic drawings, on the task of predicting normal maps from raster drawings.

Performance

Our system has been successfully tested on Unix and MacOS environments. On an Intel Xeon E5-2650 @ 2.2GHz (8 cores), a mesh with 50k facets is processed within one second to one minute, depending on the line types that are selected, with demarcating curves being the most costly type because of second order derivative computations. Larger meshes can take a significant amount of time to compute, while small meshes (<5k facets) are generally processed in a fraction of a second. We compute the parsing of a mesh in a parallel fashion and we believe other parts of the system could also be optimized with parallel computing. One way to alleviate the potential overhead of the system is to generate multiple drawings per mesh to reuse redundant computation such as non view-dependent curvature.

We enable this optimization via a simple script-like C++ file that users can adapt to their needs.

Conclusion

We presented an open source library to generate synthetic drawings from 3D meshes. We designed and used this library to generate large training datasets for deep learning. The library is modular and can easily be extended to include other line types, filtering methods, and stylization algorithms. The library also exports attributes of the lines, such as visibility and depth, and could be extended to support other attributes such as semantic part labels. We hope that this library will foster research on data-driven sketch processing.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the ERC starting grant D3 (ERC-2016-STG 714221) and research and software donations from Adobe. We express special gratefulness to Pierre Bénard for his help. We thank Adele Saint-Denis for her work in preparing the ground for the development of this tool.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Overview of our system. Each successive step edits the view graph (3D lines and vertices). The output SVG file is generated based on the state of the graph after all these steps.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Camel head model with different line types, with filtering step disabled. From top to bottom : suggestive contours, ridges and valleys, demarcating curves. Occluding contours are in black.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Example of filtering based on facets normals, on cheburashka model (top: before, bottom: after).

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Impact of chaining. Top: chaining not applied, visibility may be incorrect in regions of low grazing angle. Bottom: each unique color is a chain. Visibility is corrected thanks to multiple raycasts per chain.

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: The interactive viewer lets the user adjust extraction parameters and see their impact on the view graph.

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Three levels of random noise illustrated on the teapot model.

Figure 8 :

 8 Figure 8: We used SynDraw to generate training data for sketch-based modeling of parametric shapes.

c JFIGRV 2019.


Maria Elisa

Echartea Ruiz

Isaure Chauvot De Beauchêne

David W Ritchie

EROS-DOCK for Pairwise and Multi-body Protein-Protein Docking

Protein-protein docking algorithms aim to predict the 3D structure of a complex using the structures of the individual proteins. For binary complexes, this involves searching and scoring in a six-dimensional space. Many docking algorithms use FFT techniques to exhaustively cover the search space and to accelerate the scoring calculation. However, the results often depend on the initial protein orientations with respect to the Fourier sampling grid. Furthermore, Fouriertransforming a physics-base force field can involve a serious loss of precision.

Here, we present a novel docking algorithm called EROS-DOCK (Exhaustive Rotational Search based Docking) [START_REF] Ruiz-Echartea | Protein-protein docking using exhaustive branch-and-bound rotational search[END_REF] to rigidly dock two proteins using a series of exhaustive 3D rotational searches in which non-clashing orientations are scored using ATTRACT coarse-grained force field (ff) [START_REF] Fiorucci | Binding site prediction and improved scoring during flexible protein-protein docking with ATTRACT[END_REF]. Initial positions are defined by putting each attractive pair of surface pseudo-atoms at their optimal distance in the ff. Thus, EROS-DOCK retains the exhaustive nature of FFT-based search algorithms while using a sensitive physics-based scoring function. Rather than calculating an O(N M) interaction energy * explicitly at every grid point, we use a quaternion "π-ball" to represent the space of all possible 3D Euler angle rotations [START_REF]Global Optimization through Rotation Space Search[END_REF], and we recursively sub-divide the π-ball in order to cover the rotational space systematically, from each initial position. An associated tree-like data structure allows rotations that give steric clashes to be pruned efficiently using a "branch-and-bound" technique. To our knowledge, this is the first time that such a branch-and-bound pruning technique has been applied to the rigid-body protein docking problem. The EROS-DOCK algorithm was tested on 173 target complexes from the Protein Docking Benchmark (v4) [START_REF] Hwang | Protein-protein docking benchmark version 4[END_REF], and results were compared with those of ATTRACT and ZDOCK [START_REF] Bg Pierce | Accelerating protein docking in ZDOCK using an advanced 3D convolution library[END_REF]. Overall, EROS-DOCK was able to find local minima that were not explored by the ATTRACT gradient-driven atom-based search. After refinement by a short coarse-grained minimization, the EROS-DOCK results were generally better than those of ATTRACT and ZDOCK, according to the standard CAPRI criteria. EROS-DOCK can use contact restraints as an additional pruning criteria. Our results show that using even just one residue-residue restraint in each interaction interface is sufficient to increase the number of cases with acceptable solutions within the top 10 from 51 to 121 out of 173 pairwise docking cases. We used EROS-DOCK with restraints to dock trimeric complexes by combinatorial assembly of pairwise solutions. We expected that all interfaces in a multi-body docking solution should be similar to at least one interface in each lists of pairwise docking solutions. Thus, we used a new fast technique to calculate the RMSD between pairs of transformation matrices [START_REF] Popov | Rapid determination of RMSDs corresponding to macromolecular rigid body motions[END_REF], and an adaptation of the branch-and-bound rotational search algorithm to accelerate the search for low RMSD docking solutions. By test on a home-made benchmark of 11 three-body cases, 7 obtained at least one acceptable quality solution in the top 50 solutions.


Jean-Philippe Genet

Michel-André Bossy

Christine De Pizan

Margaret Of

Christine de Pizan dans l'Angleterre du XV e siècle : une autorité en matière de bon gouvernement ?

Aux XIV e et XV e siècles, l'anglais écrit connaît un développement considérable 1 , donnant lieu à une production foisonnante et, surtout, à sa littérarisation 2 . Cette évolution relativement tardive est liée à la longue prépondérance du français chez les élites anglaises à la suite de la conquête normande de 1066 ; mais, à l'extrême fin du Moyen Âge, l'anglais endosse les fonctions d'une langue écrite et intellectuelle, dans le cadre de la constitution d'une culture laïque spécifiquement anglaise. Parmi les productions littéraires, nombre d'entre elles, dans la seconde moitié du XIV e siècle et plus encore au XV e , possèdent une tonalité politique (au sens le plus large du terme) et révèlent une préoccupation constante pour le bon gouvernement et le bien commun, dans un contexte politique souvent troublé, comme l'indiquent ces quelques exemples : la déposition de Richard II au profit d'Henri IV de Lancastre en 1399, la minorité d'Henri VI [p. 492] dans le deuxième quart du XV e siècle, et finalement, les guerres des Roses dans les années 1450-1480, auxquels il faut ajouter le choc provoqué par la perte des territoires anglais en France autour de 1450 3 . Plusieurs de ces textes sont des traductions ou des adaptations d'oeuvres en français, qu'elles soient originales ou elles-mêmes traduites du latin 4 , sans compter les influences plus informelles. Il faut toutefois souligner qu'au XV e siècle, les bibliothèques de la noblesse et de la gentry (la petite et moyenne noblesse) comptent encore pour la plupart davantage d'ouvrages en français qu'en anglais 5 . Christine de Pizan est une figure bien connue en Angleterre dès le tournant des XIV e et XV e siècles 6 : en 1398, lors d'un voyage à Paris, John Montaigu, le comte de Salisbury, a invité le 1 Cet article est issu d'une communication présentée au IX e colloque international Christine de Pizan -« Figures d'auteur, figures d'autorités, figures exemplaires », organisé par le Groupe de recherche sur le moyen français de l'Université catholique de Louvain, à Louvain-la-Neuve en juillet 2015. Tous mes remerciements aux organisateurs pour leur invitation, ainsi qu'à Claude Gauvard et Adrienne Pérard pour leurs conseils et leurs relectures attentives. 2 La bibliographie sur ces questions est importante. Pour une première approche, voir David Wallace (dir.),

fils de Christine, Jean Castel, dans sa maisonnée, et il a sans doute, à cette occasion, rapporté des copies d'oeuvres de Christine 7 . Après la mort de Salisbury, intervenue dans les remous de la déposition de Richard II, le nouveau roi Henri IV abrite le jeune Castel et invite Christine à le rejoindre. Elle a, on le sait, refusé cette invitation, non sans avoir envoyé un certain nombre de manuscrits au nouveau roi, jusqu'au retour de son fils à Paris en 1402 8 . Outre ces premières copies, il est désormais bien établi que d'autres manuscrits d'oeuvres de Christine de Pizan ont circulé en Angleterre dans les premières décennies du XV e siècle 9 . Les deux copies les plus célèbres sont sans doute le manuscrit Harley 4431 de la British Library, anthologie composé sous la supervision de Christine pour la reine Isabeau de Bavière en 1414 et apporté par le duc de [p. 493] Bedford en Angleterre en 1425 10 ; et le manuscrit Royal 15.E.VI de la British Library, anthologie de textes français comprenant Les faits d'armes et de chevalerie, offert par John Talbot à Marguerite d'Anjou lors de son mariage avec Henri VI en 1445 11 . Les textes de Christine sont donc lus très tôt, en français, par les Anglais. Ainsi les traductions ou adaptations de ses textes en anglais, assez nombreuses au long du XV e siècle et dans la première moitié du XVI e siècle, apparaissent-elles d'autant plus significatives : Tableau 1 -Les traductions anglaises des oeuvres de Christine de Pizan L'epistre au dieu d'Amour (1399)

Letter of Cupid de Thomas Hoccleve (1402) Les proverbes moraux (1400)(1401) The Morale Proverbes of Cristyne d'Anthony Woodville (1478) Epistre Othea (1400)(1401) Epistle of Othea (Boke of Chivalry) de Stephen Scrope (années 1440) Epistle of Othea, anon. 12 , (2 nde moitié du XV e s.) Here foloweth the .c. Hystoryes of Troye, de Robert Wyer, (v. 1540) La cité des dames (1404)(1405)(1406)(1407) The boke of the cyte of ladyes de Brian Ansley (1521) Le livre du corps de policie (1406)(1407) The body of polycye, attribué à Anthony Woodville (v. 1470) Le Livre des faits d'armes et de chevalerie (1410) The Book of Fayttes of Armes and Chyvalrye de William Caxton (1489)

Ces textes soulèvent la question de l'articulation entre la littérarisation de l'anglais et l'usage politique que font leurs auteurs de Christine de Pizan, durant une période où l'Angleterre et la

France se construisent aussi par leur confrontation. Selon nous, cette articulation tient, [p. 494] en partie, à la volonté de puiser à un modèle d'éloquence vernaculaire ainsi qu'à l'existence d'idéaux communs au sein des deux royaumes, axés sur les notions de bon gouvernement et de 69 , ainsi que dans de très nombreux poèmes plus courts, parfois de circonstance, qui déploient les mêmes idées. Certaines de ces oeuvres sont spécifiquement adressées au prince, mais toutes ont vocation à éduquer les élites anglaises, que ce soit pour le gouvernement du pays ou, nous y reviendrons, pour la conduite de la guerre. Scrope, dans sa préface originale adressée à Fastolf, le souligne clairement :

« Considérant ces prémices et d'autres choses, j'ai, par la charge de votre noble et bonne paternité et par votre commandement pris sur moi à ce moment-là, pour un accroissement de la vertu, de traduire du français et de transposer dans notre langue maternelle un livre de chevalerie, aussi bien sur des actes d'armes élevés et spirituels pour le bien de l'âme que sur des actions de ce monde et de la gouvernance politique » 70 .

Notons que ces lignes éclairent le titre donné par Scrope à sa traduction : Boke of Chivalry. Il s'agit bien de sensibiliser l'aristocratie aux [p. 503] vertus de la chevalerie 71 . Le traducteur y insiste à plusieurs reprises, notamment lorsqu'il évoque les trois qualités essentielles du chevalier, à propos du duc de Berry :

« Et il a exercé ses oeuvres chevaleresques en trois choses. La première était dans ses victoires, faits de chevalerie et d'armes, en défendant le dit royaume de France de ses ennemis. La seconde était dans sa grande politique, en usant d'importants conseils et de sagesse, les donnant et exécutant pour la conservation de la justice et de la tranquillité, ainsi que pour le maintien de la paix pour le bien commun de ce noble royaume. La troisième était dans ses actes élevés et spirituels pour la santé et le bien-être de son âme » 72 .

ce dernier, la figure d'Hector joue un rôle majeur, puisqu'il incarne, comme chez Christine, à la fois le chevalier modèle par sa bravoure et par son sens politique 79 , mais aussi les limites de ce modèle en raison de son échec final, causé par la désobéissance à son père et par sa cupidité qui l'a rendu imprudent. À propos de la mort d'Hector, on peut lire dans le Troy Book, en écho au quatre-vingt douzième texte de L'Epistre de Christine :

« Car la convoitise et la chevalerie, je l'ai appris, ne peuvent être attachées par une seule chaine. En effet, de telles rapines ont souvent été la cause et la racine de la perte de nombreux hommes valeureux -que celui qui le souhaite y prête attention -comme vous pouvez maintenant le lire à propos d'Hector qui amené à sa fin pour avoir dépouillé ce riche roi » 80 .

[

  bon gouvernant 13 ; cela n'exclut pas, toutefois, la présence de rapports complexes entre la féminité de Christine et son auctoritas14 . Dans les lignes qui suivent, nous souhaitons poser les texte, elle se situe dans les années 1440 28 . Il s'agit d'une traduction fidèle, probablement issue d'une copie de la version présentée au duc de Berry 29 : Scrope reprend soigneusement la structure du texte -vers prononcés par Othéa, glose et allégorie pour chacun des 100 exempla -et ne s'éloigne que très peu de l'original. La seule exception est constituée par les prologues. De même que quatre dédicaces différentes de l'oeuvre de Christine subsistent -dont une, adressée à un roi qui fut très probablement Henri IV 30 -de même, trois dédicaces différentes de sa traduction ont été conservées, une par manuscrit : la première, sous forme d'un prologue original en prose, à John Fastolf, beau-père de Scrope et commanditaire de l'oeuvre ; la seconde, sous forme d'une reprise de la dédicace versifiée de Christine au duc de Berry, à Humphrey Stafford, duc de Buckingham ; et la troisième à une « princesse » qui n'a pas été identifiée avec certitude 31 . Il faut à nouveau inscrire cette oeuvre dans une communauté précise, dont le centre de gravité fut Sir John -1482), considéré comme un des premiers humanistes anglais36 et auteur, notamment, du Boke of Noblesse, composé vers 1451 puis révisé vers 1472-1475 pour convaincre Édouard IV de la nécessité de reprendre la guerre contre la France, dans lequel il se réapproprie en partie le Livre des fais d'armes de Christine 37 . Le cercle de Fastolf est donc à la fois imprégné de culture française et marqué par l'affirmation de l'Angleterre et de la communauté anglaise. Enfin, le Livre des faits d'armes et de chevalerie a été traduit et imprimé par William Caxton (1422-1492), le premier imprimeur anglais, dont la production fut prolifique, tant en termes d'éditions que de traductions 38 . Là encore, il s'agit d'une traduction fidèle 39 , publiée en 1489 à la demande d'Henri VII Tudor. Tout comme le cercle de Fastolf, le milieu dans lequel évolue Caxton apprécie Christine de Pizan 40 . Un des proches de l'imprimeur, Sir Anthony Woodville (1440-1483), Earl Rivers et beau-frère d'Édouard IV 41 , a par exemple traduit les Proverbes moraux (imprimés par Caxton en 1478) 42 , ainsi que le Livre du corps de policie, qui n'a été conservé que dans un seul manuscrit, mais a été édité en 1521 43 . Cahiers de Recherches Médiévales et Humanistes, n° 19, 2010, pp. 123-142. 39 Danièle Buschinger, « Le livre des faits d'armes et ses adaptations anglaises et alémaniques », in Danièle Buschinger et alii (dir.), Christine de Pizan et son époque, Amiens, Université de Picardie, 2012, pp. 32-45. 40 Il existe d'ailleurs des connexions entre ces deux communautés : voir Dominique T. Hoche, « Interrogating Boundaries », op. cit. (n. 7), pp. 49-99. 41 Il a notamment été le précepteur du prince de Galles entre 1473 et 1483. Pour une biographie de Woodville, voir Michael Hicks, « Woodville, Anthony, second Earl Rivers (c. 1440-1483) », Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, op. cit. (n. 32). 42 Voir Anne Coldiron, « Taking advice from a Frenchwoman: Caxton, Pyson and Christine de Pizan's Moral Proverbs », in William Kuskin (dir.), Caxton's Trace. Studies in the History of English Printing, Notre Dame, Ind., University of Indiana Press, 2006, pp. 127-166. Il n'existe pas, à ma connaissance, d'édition moderne de ce texte. Christine en rimes royales, inventées par Chaucer et fréquemment employées au XV e siècle 53 . Dans ce contexte, l'attrait pour Christine s'explique plutôt, nous semble-t-il, par une admiration plus large pour la poésie française de cette période, en particulier celle de Guillaume de Machaut ou d'Eustache Deschamps 54 . L'argument de Laura Finke nous paraît plus pertinent pour la seconde moitié du XV e siècle, où l'on observe un usage plus soutenu d'une prose sophistiquée 55 , que ce soit par la mise en prose de romans en vers, ou par la composition de nouveaux romans comme la Morte Darthur de Thomas Malory 56 . Par ailleurs, de nombreux textes possédant une dimension politique sont désormais composés en prose, tels [p. 500] les traités de Sir John Fortescue 57 , le Boke of Noblesse de Worcester ou la traduction du Livre du corps de policie de Woodville. Les nombreuses traductions de Caxton réalisées entre 1475 et 1490 -romans, oeuvres didactiques et historiques, textes dévotionnels -constituent le témoignage le plus éclatant de cet attrait pour la prose 58 . Dans ce Dans le courant du XV e siècle, on assiste à la formation de ce que l'on peut, avec prudence, appeler une nation anglaise 61 , bien que les [p. 501] contacts avec la culture continentale soient restés importants. Certes, pour ce qui concerne les localisations des récits ou les critiques des Anglais, on note des aménagements. Hoccleve, par exemple, transpose la situation de l'Epistre en Angleterre : « Et passant toutes les terres, sur cette île appelée Albion, elles se plaignent beaucoup et disent que s'y trouvent le grain et la racine de la tromperie, que les hommes peuvent dissimuler et feindre avec des larmes dans leur deux yeux alors que leur coeur ne ressent aucune détresse afin d'aveugler les femmes » 62 . Des coupes peuvent également être effectuées lorsqu'un passage comporte, par exemple, une critique de l'Angleterre 63 -mais notons que ce n'est le cas ni chez Scrope, qui loue d'ailleurs le duc de Berry dans son prologue original, ni chez Caxton. 'un homme, mise à feu, défaite et finalement détruite, comme on le sait » 66 .L'Epistre Othea s'inscrit pleinement dans cette littérature anglaise contemporaine soucieuse du bon gouvernement et souvent férue d'exempla67 . On le voit dans la Confessio amantis de John Gower ou le Regement of Princes de Hoccleve68 , mais aussi dans la Fall of Princesde Lydgate (1420de Lydgate ( - 1428) )

	textes, uniquement en anglais et dans des genres aussi variés que les miroirs au prince, les poèmes
	dévotionnels, les ballades politiques, et même des textes « autobiographiques » 19 . La Letter of Cupid
	[p. 495] est sa première oeuvre datée, composée dans le cercle du nouveau roi -sans doute à Des idées politiques communes
	partir d'un manuscrit rapporté par le comte de Salisbury mais peut-être aussi à partir d'une copie
	envoyée par Christine à Henri IV 20 . Il s'agit en réalité d'une adaptation plus que d'une traduc-
	tion dans la mesure où, si Hoccleve abrège considérablement le texte de Christine (de moitié
	environ), il introduit en parallèle des additions de son cru, en particulier un passage sur sainte
	Marguerite d'Antioche 21 . Cette adaptation s'inscrit dans un contexte littéraire précis, proche de la
	cour ricardienne 22 : dans les années précédentes, plusieurs oeuvres mettant le dieu de l'amour en
	scène ont été composées, tels le Boke of Cupid de John Clanvowe 23 , un proche de Richard II, le
	Testament of Love de Thomas Usk 24 , un administrateur londonien, et surtout les Legend of Good
	Women de Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400), l'écrivain le plus important de cette période 25 ,
	auxquelles Hoccleve fait explicitement référence dans son épître (vers 316-317) et qui constitue
	une influence essentielle -à tel point que la Letter of Cupid sera par la suite plusieurs fois attribuée
	à Chaucer, notamment dans des éditions du XVI e siècle 26 . Si la dimension politique de ces poèmes
	n'apparaît pas d'emblée, soulignons toutefois qu'elle affleure en réalité avec constance.
		L'Epistre Othea est traduite par Stephen Scrope (1397-1472) dans le deuxième quart du
	XV	e siècle 27 . La date de cette traduction reste [p. 496] débattue, mais selon Curt Bühler, l'éditeur
	Oxford University Press (coll. « Early English Text Society », ordinary series n° 264), 1970. Pour le texte original,
	voir Christine de Pizan, Epistre Othea, éd. Gabriella Parussa, Genève, Droz (coll. « Textes littéraires français »,
	n° 517), 1999.
	17 Alfred T. P. Byles (éd.), The Book of Fayttes of Armes and of Chyvalrye Translated and Printed by William Caxton, Londres,
	H. Milford (coll. « Early English Text Society », Original Series, n° 189), 1932. Pour le texte original, voir Christine
	Moneera Laennec, « Christine 'Antygrafe': Authorship and Self in the Prose Works of Christine de Pisan, with an
	Edition of B.N. Ms. 603 "Le Livre des Fais d'Armes et de Chevallerie" », Ph.D., Yale University, New Haven, 1988.
	18 Sur Hoccleve et le Sceau Privé, voir Helen C. Killick, « Thomas Hoccleve as Poet and Clerk », PhD, Université
	d'York, 2010.

jalons d'une enquête sur ces problématiques. Trois exemples de traductions ont été choisis dans un premier temps afin de permettre, d'une part, de parcourir l'ensemble du XV e siècle et, d'autre part, d'interroger trois textes possédant chacun une forme différente : la Letter of Cupid de Thomas Hoccleve, écrite au tout début du XV e siècle 15 , l'Epistle of Othea (ou Boke of Chivalry) de Stephen Scrope rédigée dans les années 1440 16 et le Book of Fayttes of Armes de William Caxton, imprimé en 1489 17 .

L'epistre au dieu d'Amour est adaptée dès 1402 par Thomas

Hoccleve (v. 1367Hoccleve (v. -1426))

, clerc à l'office du Sceau Privé du roi d'Angleterre, office où les lettres et les décisions du roi et du Conseil étaient mises au net et authentifiées par le Sceau privé avant d'être envoyées à leurs destinataires

18

. En dehors de son activité professionnelle, Hoccleve a composé de nombreux 13 Cela n'exclut pas l'existence de différences significatives : voir Franck Collard et Aude Mairey, « In the Mirror of Mutual Representation: Political Society As Seen By Its Members », in Christopher Fletcher, Jean-Philippe Genet et John Watts (dir.), Political Society in France and England at the end of the Middle Ages, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015, pp. 317-350. 14 La bibliographie sur ces questions est abondante. Voir par exemple les deux recueils suivants : Liliane Dulac et Bernard Ribémont (dir.), Une femme de lettres au Moyen Âge. Études autour de Christine de Pizan, Orléans, Paradigme (coll. « Medievalia », n° 16), 1995 ; Marylin Desmond (dir.), Christine de Pizan and the Categories of Difference, op. cit. (n. 11) ; voir également Kevin Brownlee, « Christine de Pizan. Gender and the New Vernacular Canon », in Pamela J. Benson et Victoria Kirkham (dir.), Strong Voices, Weak History, Early Women Writers & Canons in England, France & Italy, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 2005, pp. 99-120. 15 Thelma S. Fenster et Mary Carpenter Erler (éd. et trad.), Poems of Cupid, God of Love: Christine de Pizan's "Epistre au dieu d'amours" and "Dit de la rose"; Thomas Hoccleve's "The Letter of Cupid". Editions and Translations, With George Sewell's "The Proclamation of Cupid", Leyde et New York, Brill, 1990. 16 Curt F. Bühler (éd.), The Epistle of Othea, Translated from the French Text of Christine de Pizan by Stephen Scrope, Londres, 19 Pour une présentation en français, voir Aude Mairey, « Thomas Hoccleve ou l'ambiguïté de l'autorité poétique », in Jean-Philippe Genet (dir.), La légitimité de l'implicite, 2 vol., Rome et Paris, École Française de Rome-Publications de la Sorbonne, 2015, t. 1, pp. 337-355. Outre la thèse d'Helen Killick citée à la note précédente, voir également Nicholas Perkins, Hoccleve's Regement of Princes: Counsel and Constraint, Cambridge, D. S. Brewer, 2001 ; Ethan Knapp, The Bureaucratic Muse: Thomas Hoccleve and the Literature of Late Medieval England, University Park, Penn., The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001. 20 Voir Dominique T. Hoche, « Interrogating Boundaries », op. cit. (n. 7), pp. 23-24. 21 Pour le détail des additions, voir Thelma S. Fenster et Mary Carpenter Erler (éd. et trad.), Poems of Cupid, God of Love, op. cit. (n. 15), pp. 161-162. 22 Ibid., pp. 162-164. Pour le contexte général, voir Michael Bennett, « The Court of Richard II and the Promotion of Literature », in Barbara Hanawalt (dir.), Chaucer's England: Literature in Historical Context, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1992, pp. 3-20. 23 V. John Scattergood (éd.), The Works of Sir John Clanvowe, Cambridge, D. S. Brewer, 1975. 24 Thomas Usk, The Testament of Love, éd. Richard Allen Shoaf, Kalamazoo, TEAMS, 1998 [en ligne à l'adresse suivante : http://d.lib.rochester.edu/teams/publication/shoaf-usk-the-testament-of-love]. 25 Geoffrey Chaucer, Legend of Good Women, in Larry D. Benson (dir.), The Riverside Chaucer, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 587-630. 26 Dominique T. Hoche, « Interrogating Boundaries », op. cit. (n. 7), p. 24. 27 Voir notamment Douglas Gray, « "A Fulle Wyse Gentylwoman of Fraunce": The Epistle of Othea and Later Medieval English Literary Culture », in Jocelyn Wogan-Browne et alii (dir.), Medieval Women: English Texts and Contexts in Late Medieval Britain, Essays for Felicity Riddy, Turnhout, Brepols, 2000, pp. 237-249 ; Stephanie Downes, « A 'Frenche booke called the Pistill of Othea' », art. cit. (n. 9) ; Stephanie Viereck Gibbs, « Christine de Pizan's Epistre Othea in England: the Manuscript Tradition of Stephen Scrope's Translation », in Angus J. Kennedy, Rosalind Brown-Grant, James C. Laidlaw et Catherine M. Müller (dir.), Contexts and Continuities. Proceedings of the IVth International Colloquium on Christine de Pizan (Glasgow 21-27 July 2000) Published in Honour of Liliane Dulac, Glasgow, University of Glasgow Press, 2002, t. 2, pp. 397-408.

du Fastolf (1380-1459), membre éminent de la gentry et surtout militaire chevronné qui servit de nombreuses années en France, où il fut un temps lieutenant du duc de Bedford 32 . Il se retira en Angleterre en 1439 et, malgré sa propension à léser ses proches, et en premier lieu son beau-fils, il entretint un cercle intellectuel important, nourri des nombreux livres qu'il avait rapportés ou fait venir de France 33 . Il a également fait copier et enluminer des textes français en Angleterre, dont un manuscrit de L'Epistre Othea 34 . Scrope a d'ailleurs traduit un autre texte, les Dicts and Sayings of Philosophers (1450), à partir de la version française de Guillaume de Tignonville du Liber philosopharum moralium antiquorum de Giovanni da Procida, lui-même adapté d'un texte arabe 35 . Toutefois, le personnage le plus intéressant de ce cercle [p. 497] fut sans doute William Worcester (1415[p. 498] Ces traductions ou adaptations s'inscrivent donc toutes dans des contextes politicolittéraires bien précis. Que cherchaient ces hommes dans les textes de Christine ? D'abord un modèle d'éloquence.

Une éloquence vernaculaire

Dans un article important 44 , Laura Finke a insisté sur la portée de la prose de Christine, son style clergiale 45 , pour les Anglais du XV e siècle, qu'elle relie à l'influence de l'activité de traduction

36 Voir Daniel Wakelin, Humanism, Reading, and English Literature, 1430-1530, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007. 37

William Worcester, The Boke of Noblesse, éd. John G. Nichols, Londres, 1860. Sur cette oeuvre, voir notamment Christopher Allmand et Maurice Keen, « History and the Literature of War: the Boke of Noblesse of William Worcester », in Christopher Allmand (dir.), War, Government and Power in Late Medieval France, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 1992, pp. 91-105 ; Philip Caudrey, « William Worcester, The Boke of Noblesse, and Military Society in East Anglia », Nottingham Medieval Studies, n°

52, 2008, pp. 191-211. 38

Pour une présentation en français, voir Aude Mairey, « William Caxton : auteur, éditeur, imprimeur », 43 Diane Bornstein (éd.), The Middle English Translation of Christine de Pisan's "Livre du corps de policie", edited from MS. C.U.L., Kk. I. 5, Heidelberg, Winter (coll. « Middle English Texts », n° 7), 1977.

44

Laura A. Finke, « The politics of the canon », art. cit. (n. 33).

45

Bien qu'elle ait été employée par Christine elle-même dans une épître à Eustache Deschamps (voir Françoise Autrand, Christine de

Pizan, op. cit. [n. 6]

, p. 164), l'emploi de cette expression par les spécialistes modernes a été contesté par John Burnley, qui préfère le qualificatif « curial » à celui de « clergiale » dans la mesure où ce dernier se vers de contexte, celle de Christine peut effectivement s'avérer un modèle séduisant ; Caxton reprend à son compte, dans nombre de ses prologues, ces mots tirés du prologue des Fais d'armes : « Je nentens a traittier ne mais au plus plain et entendible langaige que je pourray, a celle fin que la doctrine donnée par plusieurs aucteurs, qui a laide de dieu propose en ce présent liure declairer, puist estre a tous cler et entendible » 59 . Il y revient d'ailleurs dans l'épilogue original des Fayttes : « Je prie humblement sa grandeur très excellente et bonne de me par-donner pour cette traduction simple et rustre, sans termes de rhétorique subtils et élégants, mais je place mon espoir en dieu tout puissant afin qu'elle soit claire et compréhensible par chacun » 60 .

Les vertus majeures de la prose, soulignées par de nombreux auteurs apparaissent avec netteté : sa clarté et sa simplicité. L'emploi de la versification ne disparaît pas, mais il est vrai que les textes à tonalité politique, et c'est le cas d'une grande partie des traductions de Christine, sont plus volontiers écrits en prose. Mais l'une des motivations principales de ces traductions réside, nous semble-t-il, dans le fait que leurs auteurs et, plus largement, une grande partie des auteurs anglais de la période, partagent de nombreuses préoccupations avec Christine de Pizan -et avec d'autres auteurs français comme Alain Chartier, dont plusieurs oeuvres ont aussi été traduites en anglais

64

. Parmi elles, soulignons l'importance de l'attachement au bon gouvernement, la peur permanente des divisions politiques (et rappelons qu'à cet égard, l'Angleterre n'est pas en reste par rapport à la France), mais aussi un souci constant de la figure du gouvernant, qui doit, en conformité avec le regimen princier

65

, être sage, prudent, avisé, soucieux de ses sujets et qui ne doit mener une guerre que si celle-ci est juste.

Cela se perçoit même dans le texte le moins politique en apparence, celui de Hoccleve qui note, à la suite de Christine : « Il n'est pas surprenant que les hommes, par tromperie et stratagème, puissent tromper une femme innocente, simple et ignorante, car la cité de [p. 502] Troie, comme l'histoire le raconte, a été trahie par la ruse d

  p. 505] Le funeste destin d'Hector nous permet d'introduire le poids de la guerre durant cette période. Plusieurs poètes anglais, dont Hoccleve et Lydgate, exaltent alors les vertus de la paix et les dangers de la guerre, même au plus fort des victoires anglaises 81 . Mais il existe un réel engouement de l'aristocratie pour les traités militaires, en particulier pour le De re militari de Végèce, dont les copies latines ou françaises en circulation sont nombreuses et qui a également fait l'objet de traductions en anglais 82 . Toutefois, comme l'a montré Christopher Allmand, le traité de Végèce est également un traité sur le bon gouvernement et sur les vertus que doivent entretenir le chef de guerre et les combattants. Quant au Livre des Fais d'armes de Christine qui, rappelons-le, n'utilise pas seulement Végèce mais aussi d'autres sources comme le Tractatus de bello de Giovanni de Legnano pour ce qui concerne la guerre juste et l'Arbre des batailles d'Honoré Bouvet pour les questions juridiques 83 , il est connu en Angleterre bien avant la traduction de Caxton. Il se trouve, par exemple, dans le manuscrit offert par John Talbot à Marguerite d'Anjou en 1445 84 , ou encore dans la bibliothèque d'un membre bien connu de la gentry, Sir John Paston II 85 . William Worcester, on l'a vu, en a également repris une partie dans son Boke of Noblesse. Pour ce dernier, comme pour Christine, il s'agit de bien conduire la guerre, qui doit être pp. 108-111. 79 Sur ce point, voir Wladyslaw Witalisz, The Trojan mirror: Middle English narratives of Troy as books of princely advice,Francfort-sur-Main, Peter Lang, 2011. 80 JohnLydgate, Troy Book, op. cit. (n. 52), vol. 2, livre III, p. 549, vers 5365-5372 : « For covetyse and knyghthod, as I lere, / In o cheyne may nat be knet yfere ; / For kouthe it is that ofte swiche ravyne / Hath cause ben and rote of the ruyne / Of many worthi -whoso liste take hede -/ Like as ye may now of Hector rede / That sodeinly was brought to his endynge / Only for spoillynge of this riche kyng. » Voici le texte de Christine : « De Polibeté sa ne couvoites / Les armes, ilz soient maloites ; / Car au despouller s'ensuivra / Ta mort, par cil qui te suivra » (Christine dePizan, Epistre Othea, op. cit. [n. 16], p. 329).juste et nécessaire 86 , bien que les arguments diffèrent selon qu'on se place du point de vue français ou du point de vue anglais. Il s'agit égale-ment de bien y participer. À cet égard, l'épilogue de la traduction de Caxton est significatif. Il y explique en effet que la traduction lui a été commandée par Henri VII, peut-être en lien avec la préparation de campagnes militaires dans le contexte de relations tendues avec la France à propos de la Bretagne 87 , mais néanmoins dans une optique [p. 506] générale, puisqu'il s'agissait « de l'imprimer afin que chaque gentleman né pour les armes et chaque homme de guerre -capitaines, soldats, pourvoyeurs et autres -puissent avoir la connaissance de la manière dont ils doivent se comporter dans les faits de guerre et de batailles 88 ». Et il ajoute un peu plus loin : « et certainement, selon mon opinion, c'est un livre requis et nécessaire afin que chacun -quelque soit son état, élevé ou inférieur, puisse s'y entendre dans les faits de guerre 89 ». Tous doivent connaître non seulement les différentes manières de conduire la guerre et ses exigences, mais aussi les critères d'une guerre juste -élément crucial dans un pays sortant de longues guerres civiles. Revue des langues romanes, n° 117.2, 2013, pp. 321-340.87 Danièle Buschinger, « Le livre des faits d'armes et ses adaptations », art. cit. (n. 39), p. 35. À la suite de Lotte Hellinga (William Caxton and Early Printing in England, Londres, British Library, 2010, p. 102), elle suggère que cette commande était liée à la volonté d'Henri VII de diffuser les lois de la guerre auprès du plus grand nombre. De fait, la constitution et la diffusion de règlements et de codes de guerre est une ancienne préoccupation anglaise : voir Anne Curry, « Disciplinary ordinances for English and Franco-Scottish armies in 1385: An international code ? », Journal of Medieval History, n° 37, 2011, pp. 269-294 ; Ead., « The military ordinances of Henry V: Texts and Contexts », in Chris Given-Wilson, Ann Kettle et Len Scales (dir.), War, Government and Aristocracy in the BritishIsles, op. cit. (n. 74), pp. 214-249.88 Alfred T. P. Byles (éd.), The Book of Fayttes ofArmes, op. cit. (n. 17), p. 291 : « to put it in emprynte to thende that euery gentylman born to armes & all manere men of werre captayns / souldiours / vytayllers & all other shold haue knowledge how they ought to behaue theym in the fayttes of warre & of bataylles. » 89 Idem : « & for certayn in myn oppinyon it is as necessary a boke & as requysite / as ony may be for euery estate hye & lowe that entende to the fayttes of werre. » 90 Idem : « Thus endeth this boke whiche Christyne of pyse made & drewe out of the boke named vegecius de re militari & out of tharbre of bataylles with many other thynges sett in. » 91 W. J. B. Crotch, The Prologues and Epilogues of William Caxton, Londres (coll. « Early English Text Society », original series, n° 176), 1928, p. 32 : « Of these sayynges Cristyne was aucteuresse / Whiche in makyng hadde suche temps » 106 . Cette forme d'attribution se retrouve également dans une note marginale du manuscrit du Boke of Noblesse de William Worcester 107 . Certes, le déni d'auctorialité est flagrant dans la mesure où les deux hommes savaient que Christine était l'auteur d'Othea et des Fais d'armes, présents dans la bibliothèque de Fastolf 108 . Et sans être aussi radicale que Jane Chance, qui a affirmé que l'on avait affaire à une castration linguistique 109 , Nancy Warren Bradley a suggéré que c'était une manière de confiner Christine, et les femmes en général, dans une hiérarchie genrée claire et, au sein de cette dernière, dans un rôle de transmission passive de textes d'abord forgés pour renforcer un idéal anglais de masculinité, constitutif de la formation de la nation : « Christine, qui […] est présentée comme une nonne ou une veuve devenue nonne, accomplit le seul rôle que les femmes "devraient" avoir dans ces domaines proprement masculins -celui d'autoriser les actions masculines et de soutenir l'autorité masculine » 110 . [p. 510] Toutefois, le statut de commanditaire n'est pas dénué d'autorité, puisqu'il implique nécessairement un statut social élevé. En outre, ce transfert partiel d'auctorialité doit, nous semble-t-il, être mis en relation avec le fait que ces auteurs ne bénéficient pas d'une autorité aussi complète et assurée que l'éloge de la masculinité souligné par Nancy Warren Bradley pourrait impliquer. En effet, tous ces traducteurs sont laïcs et écrivent en anglais -autrement dit, ils doivent, comme Christine, affirmer leur autorité en un temps où cette dernière est surtout de nature cléricale et où le latin reste la langue clergiale par excellence tandis que le français conserve, on l'a vu, une place essentielle. Comme l'a souligné Misty Schieberle à propos des deux traductions de l'Epistre Othea, dont celle de Scrope :

	Gender et autorité

Dans son épilogue des Fayttes of Armes, Caxton reconnaît explicitement Christine comme un auteur : « Ainsi finit ce livre que Christine de Pise a fait et conçu à partir du livre nommé Vegetius, De re militari, et à partir de l'Arbre des batailles avec de nombreuses autres choses en plus » 90 . Il prodigue même d'éloquentes louanges dans le colophon des Moral Proverbs traduits par Woodville et imprimés par ses soins en 1478 : « Christine était l'auteur de ces dits qui, dans leur composition, était d'une telle intelligence qu'elle en était ainsi miroir et maîtresse. Ses oeuvres témoignent de son expérience. Cette sentence fut écrite en français et Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, l'a traduite en anglais » 91 . 86 Sur l'argumentation de Christine, voir Liliane Dulac et Earl Jeffrey Richards, « Guerre sainte ou guerre juste ? Le nouveau discours polémologique, juridique et humaniste chez Christine de Pizan après la débâcle de Nicopolis »,

Curt F. Bühler (éd.), The Epistle ofOthea, op. cit. (n. 16),

Idem.

Voir James C. Laidlaw, « Christine de Pizan, the Earl of Salisbury and Henry IV », art. cit. (n. 6).

Curt F. Bühler (éd.), The Epistle ofOthea, op. cit. (n. 16),

Voir notamment Jonathan Hughes, « Stephen Scrope and the Circle of Sir John Fastolf: Moral and Intellectual Outlooks », in Christopher Harper-Hill et Ruth Harvey (dir.), Medieval Knighthood IV, Woodbridge, Boydell, 1992, pp. 109-146. Pour une biographie de Fastolf, voir Gerald L. Harriss, « Fastolf, Sir John (1380-1459) », Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004.

Outre l'article de Jonathan Hughes, voir Dominique T. Hoche, « Interrogating Boundaries », op. cit. (n. 7), pp. 49-99 ; Laura A. Finke, « The politics of the canon: Christine de Pizan and the fifteenth-century Chaucerians »,Exemplaria, n° 19.1, 2007, pp. 16-38.

 34 Voir Curt F. Bühler, « The Revisions and Dedications of The Epistle of Othea », Anglia, n°76, 1958, pp. 266-270 ; Marilyn Desmond, « Reading and visuality in Stephen Scrope's Translatio of Christine de Pizan's Epistre Othea », in Elina Gertsman et Jill Stevenson (dir.), Thresholds of medieval visual culture: liminal spaces, Woodbridge, Boydell, 2012, pp. 95-

122. 35 Curt F. Bühler (éd.), The Dicts and Sayings of the Philosophers: the Translations Made by Stephen Scrope, William Worcester, and an Anonymous Translator, Londres, Oxford University Press (coll. « Early English Texts Society », original series, n° 211), 1941. Ce n'est pas la seule traduction anglaise de ce texte : il subsiste une révision du texte de Scrope par Worcester, une traduction d'Anthony Woodville, imprimée par Caxton en 1477, et une traduction anonyme, éditée par Bühler et plus récemment par John William Sutton, The Dicts and Sayings of the Philosophers, Kalamazoo, TEAMS, 2006 [en ligne à l'adresse suivante : http://d.lib.rochester.edu/teams/publication/sutton-the-dicts-and-sayings-ofthe-philosophers].

Voir Donka Minkova, « The Forms of Verse », in Peter Brown (dir.), A Companion to Medieval EnglishLiterature and Culture, c. 1350-c. 1500, Oxford, Blackwell, 2007, pp. 176-195.

Voir sur ce point William Calin, The French Tradition and the Literature of Medieval England, Toronto, Toronto University Press, 1994.

Sur cette sophistication, voir Norman Blake, « The Literary Language », in Norman Blake (dir.), The Cambridge History of the EnglishLanguage, vol. 2, 1066-1476, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 503-508.

Voir Helen Cooper, « Romance after 1400 », in David Wallace (dir.), The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 690-719.

Voir notamment Anthony Gross, The Dissolution of Lancastrian Kingship: Sir John Fortescue and the Crisis of Monarchy in Fifteenth-Century England, Stanford, P. Watkins, 1996 ; Jean-Philippe Genet, « Les idées sociales de Sir John Fortescue », in Économies et sociétés au Moyen Âge. Mélanges Édouard Perroy, Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne, 1973, pp. 446-461.

Voir Aude Mairey, « William Caxton », art. cit. (n. 38).

Alfred T. P. Byles (éd.), The Book of Fayttes of Armes, op. cit. (n. 17), pp. 6-7 : « I entende not to treate / but to the moste playn and entendible langage that I shal mowe / to that ende that the doctryne gyuen by many auctors / whiche by the helpe of god I purpose to declare in this present book / may be to alle men clere & entendible. »

Ibidem, p. 291 : « I humbly beseche his most excellent & bounteous hyenes to pardone me of this symple & rude translacion where in be no curyous ne gaye termes of rhetorik / but I hope to almighti god that it shal be entendyble & vnderstanden to euery man… »

Aude Mairey, « Les poètes lancastriens : quel engagement pour la paix ? », à paraître dans Jean-Philippe Genet, Patrick Boucheron et Étienne Anheim (éd.), De Dante à Rubens : l'artiste engagé ?(v. 1300-v. 1640), Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne.

Voir Christopher Allmand, The De Re Militari of Vegetius: The Reception, Transmission and Legacy of a Roman Text in the Middle Ages, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011 ; CatherineNall, Reading and War, op. cit. (n. 78).

Voir Françoise Autrand, Christine de Pizan, op. cit. (n. 6), pp. 293-296 ; Christine Moneera Laennec, « Christine 'Antygrafe' », op. cit. (n. 17).

Voir Dominique T. Hoche, « Interrogating Boundaries », op. cit. (n. 7),


Proteins are involved in many essential cellular processes of living organisms. Proteins form macro complexes joining themselves to other proteins to carry out these processes. Therefore, to know the 3D structures of such complexes is of biomedical interest.

Proteinprotein docking algorithms aim to predict how two proteins interact with each other to form a 3D complex. Docking algorithms need to fulfill two main tasks:

(1) sampling all the possible relative positions of the two proteins and (2) computing the interaction energy at each position to find the minimum energy (= the best solution). Obtaining the interaction energy is a computationally expensive task. We are developing a new algorithm based on the ATTRACT coarsegrained forcefield [1] and using a quaternion ball representation to accelerate the search of the 3D rotational space.

Maria Elisa Ruiz Echartea is supported by a doctoral bursary (CORDIS) from Inria Nancy Grand Est. Based on a preliminary study, we found that a large number of interfaces contain at least one pair of atoms at almost their optimal distance according to an empirical force field. Therefore, our idea is to perform a series of restricted docking searches in which a pair of surface beads from each protein is placed at the coordinate origin (see Fig. 4). The 3D rotational space is represented by a pball contained inside a cube. Any point within the ball may be mapped to an Euler rotation defined by the three Euler π rotation angles, ( , , ). Points within the ball may be represented as a unit α β γ π quaternion, Q = (cos( /2), sin( /2)u), where u is a unit vector from the origin.

θ θ

A series of sample rotations is generated by dividing the cube containing the ball into π 8 subcubes, and recursively subdividing each such cube into 8 smaller cubes until a given threshold cube dimension is reached. Each cell contains a subspace of similar rotations of the rotations space, since they are near each other.

2.The Quaternion π-Ball

Conclusions

Introduction

The set of all possible sample rotations from the ball cube centres π Rc and their radii  may be collected as a set of nodes in a 3D "search tree" data structure.

Each node can be tested to know if such subspace leads to forbidden orientations (i.e. leading to atomic clashes). If yes, the node leads to a forbidden orientation so it is labeled along with its descendants as forbidden.

Application to Protein Docking

Input

The docking process Output The rotational space can be labeled in order to identify unfavorable rotations before computing any energy. Thus, the labeled ball can be used as a rotational map avoiding to compute π energies using at useless rotations. Therefore, the exploration of the rotational space is done is an efficient way. The exploration is exhaustive since the complete rotational space is analyzed and labeled. The RootMeanSquare Deviation (RMSD) is a measure of the average distance between the atoms of two superimposed proteins. In practice, to evaluate the efficiency of a docking algorithm, the RMSD is used to evaluate the difference between a calculated and an experimentally determined 3D structure. Above, we show the rank and RMSD of some of the solutions found by our algorithm.

Optimal distance

Then, the tree is walked to label as forbidden those rotations of the search space that intersect some orientation of the list. If a bead comes close enough to receptor bead a to always give a clash, then that rotation and all the rotations in the cube's descendants are labeled as forbidden (see Fig. 6).

In the last stage, the tree is walked to compute energies in order to find the best solutions. The ball is used π as a rotational map. Therefore, millions of trial rotations are discarded and the rotational search space is pruned to achieve an improvement in efficiency.

In our experiments we use a minimum cell radius of 7.5 degrees, which divides the ball π into 299,593 cells. We observe that about 96% of these are forbidden, leaving only 4% of the search space where interaction energies have to be computed.

In order to detect the bead pairs that can lead to steric clashes upon ligand rotation, we compute the differences between the distances. Thus, for all (a, b) in (Receptor, Ligand):

If |Ra -Lb | > σab, where σab is the clashing distance for atom types a and b, see Fig. 3 and5, then beads a and b will never clash else we have to examine in more detail if the beads might overlap or not (see Fig. 5 and6).

= rMin

Results

Rc

  2π

Fig 1 .

 1 Fig 1. The ball representation. π

Fig 5 .

 5 Fig 5. Two beads aligned to find if they are clashing.

Fig 3 .

 3 Fig 3. ATTRACT force field describing the interaction energy for a given pair of beads.

Fig 4 .

 4 Fig 4. Example of an initial starting position for a 3D rotational search.

  cause a steric clash.Case 2) > + ∆s => No rotation within ω β cube s can cause a steric clash.

Fig

  Fig 6. Possible cases when a rotation moves a bead.

Acknowledgements

Divide and Conquer


Masaru Abuku

Takayuki Fumoto

Shuya Hiranuma

Eikou Kim

Soichiro Wakiya

Hannelore Derluyn

X-RAY CT AND DIGITAL VOLUME CORRELATION OF TUFF STONE UNDER UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION

Keywords: X-ray tomography, digital volume. correlation, displacement field, crack

We present X-ray CT of a dry or wet tuff stone specimen under uniaxial compression. The obtained CT data were analyzed using a digital volume correlation software to determine the displacement and strain fields.

INTRODUCTION

Weathering of cultural heritages made of stones are often caused by ingress of water into a porous material. To quantitatively understand such physical phenomena and then propose a proper countermeasure, the knowledge of transport phenomena and mechanics for porous media is essential. In this study, we measured the strain of a dry or wet tuff stone specimen under uniaxial compression test as well as continually but simultaneously obtaining X-ray CT data of the specimen. Measurements we present here are intended to provide some useful quantitative data for precisely understanding the mechanical behavior of a stone under different weathering conditions and validating the calculation model. Tuff stone was selected as a type of stone of this study because it has been often used for curving scriptures in Kyushu, Japan and is suitable to be applied by a digital volume correlation.

METHODOLOGY

The experiments were performed at the department of Social and Civil Engineering, Kindai University, using a set-up (see Fig. 1(a)) [START_REF] Fumoto | Development of X-ray CT of new mechanism and application to compression test of polymer concrete[END_REF] which enables to conduct X-ray imaging and uniaxial compression test simultaneously. Specimens of tuff stone from drill cores were prepared to be a diameter of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm and then grinded manually using a sandpaper. The specimens were dried in a room. One specimen was dried, while the other specimen was saturated with pure water using a vacuum pump. Each X-ray image was obtained with a resolution of 0.0615 mm and 2000 images were reconstructed to obtain the tomography. During X-ray projection, the mechanical load was not increased. Each of the axial and radial strain was measured by the two strain gauges at the middle height of the specimen and the average of the two was calculated. The obtained CT data were analyzed using a digital volume correlation (DVC) software (TomoWarp2) [START_REF] Tudisco | TomoWarp2: A local digital volume correlation code[END_REF] to determine the displacement and strain fields. The axial and radial strain of the specimens were then determined. The size of correlation window is 16 (x) x 16 (y) x 16 (z) voxels and the node spacing is also 16 voxels for each direction.

*e-mail: abuku@arch.kindai.ac.jp †e-mail: fumoto@civileng.kindai.ac.jp ‡e-mail: hannelore.derluyn@univ-pau.fr

RESULTS

Fig. 1(b) compares the axial and radial strain measured by the gauges with those calculated based on the displacement field that was obtained by DVC of the X-ray CT data. The axial strain was calculated by dividing the difference in the displacement in the axial direction between two heights (1.5 cm and 8.5 cm) by the difference in height (7 cm). The radial strain was calculated for the circumference of the horizontal section of the specimen and the average between 4 cm and 6 cm where the gauges were glued to the surface of the specimens was taken. Also, as an example, the displacement field of the wet specimen under a uniaxial mechanical load of 8.5 kN is also compared to the X-ray CT image at 4.1 cm height in Fig. 1(c) and (d). |V XY | (mm)

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: (a) Photograph of a setup with a specimen inserted between the loading platens. (b) Stress -strain relations of dry and wet tuff stone under uniaxial compression test, either measured by strain gauges or determined based on X-ray CT and digital volume correlation. (b) CT image and (c) the corresponding displacement field (|V XY | is the horizontal component of the displacement vector), at 4.1 cm height, of a wet specimen with some cracks under a uniaxial mechanical load of 8.5 kN. The displacement field was obtained by digital volume correlation.

  (Gauge) Dry, Radial (Gauge) Wet, Axial (Gauge) Wet, Radial (Gauge) Dry, Axial (CT) Dry, Radial (CT) Wet, Axial (CT) Wet, Radial (CT)


Angel Torres-Toukoumidis

Mario Maeöts

IMPLEMENTATION OF GAMIFICATION STRATEGIES FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF DIGITAL COMPETENCES

Keywords: Gamification, digital literacy, Delphi method, interaction, digital competences

Transforming the learning process through strategies and tools dedicated to reinforcing experiences, producing commitment, unifying tasks and being fun and persuasive will generate changes in the particular needs of the educational context. In fact, gamification is presented as one of the catalysts of educational potential based on the application of play elements affecting motivation and knowledge apprehension. This research aims to deepen in the suitability of incorporating gamification on the learning process for que acquisition of digital skills. Thus, in this research is examined the disposition of gamification within the global framework of references to digital skills [1] organized into 7 areas and subdivided into 26 competencies: browsing, searching and filtering data, information and digital content; evaluating data, information and digital content; managing data, information and digital content; Interacting through digital technologies; sharing through digital technologies; engaging in citizenship through digital technologies; collaborating through digital technologies; netiquette; managing digital identity; developing digital content; integrating and re-elaborating digital content; copyright and licenses; programming; protecting devices, protecting personal data and privacy; protecting health and well-being; protecting the environment; solving technical problems; identifying needs and technological responses; creatively using digital technologies and identifying digital competence gaps; computational thinking; Operating specialized digital technologies for a particular field; Interpreting and manipulating data, information and digital content for a particular field. The methodology used is based on the application of a questionnaire to 50 experts in educational technologies from Europe and Latin America, obtaining as a result that there is greater convenience in the implementation of gamification for the development of the following digital competencies: collaborating through digital technologies, managing digital identity, programming, engaging in citizenship through digital technologies, sharing through digital technologies and protecting health and well-being. In conclusion, it is evident that the use of gamification for the development of digital competencies is mainly focused on the areas of safety, communication and collaboration. It is therefore recommended to formalize designs of gamification interfaces that address these issues.

INTRODUCTION

The development of the digital ecosystem and new trends in information consumption has involved the formulation of new literacies with the aim of facilitating the acquisition of a set of skills, knowledge and attitudes, that people need in order to function within the Information Society. These include media, informational and digital literacy, each contributing to the democratization of knowledge and the need to cope with the mass emergence of ICTs. Precisely, media literacy has been oriented towards the critical formation of new audiovisual content transmission systems [START_REF] Tornero | La sociedad multipantallas: retos para la alfabetización mediática[END_REF], while information literacy encompasses knowledge, practices and skills aimed at the use of new tools for the recovery and handling of information conditioned by the personal, institutional and social context [START_REF] Johnston | Como podríamos pensar: Alfabetización informacional como una disciplina de la era de la información[END_REF]. Finally, digital literacy, the object of this research, is presented as a set of competencies aimed at developing instrumental skills, seeking, selecting, organizing, using, applying and evaluating information, effectiveness and ability to share, creativity and problem solving, security, identity, in short, it is based on the use of technology, critical understanding and creation and communication of digital content [START_REF] Martínez | Evolución de la alfabetización digital: nuevos conceptos y nuevas alfabetizaciones[END_REF]. The new current technological scenarios towards which contemporary education is directed, make literacy no matter how elementary it is shown, whether it has to be digital or multimedia. Meanwhile, valuing teacher recognition and the progressive implementation of digital literacy in curricular design, it has meant the incorporation of a multiplicity of pedagogical techniques and strategies aimed at its apprehension, among which flipped classroom [START_REF] García | Las flipped classroom a través del smartphone: efectos de su experimentación en educación física secundaria[END_REF], project-based learning [START_REF] Burdick | Digital learning, digital scholarship and design thinking[END_REF], cooperative learning [START_REF] Jun | Fostering Digital Literacy through Web-based Collaborative Inquiry Learning--A Case Study[END_REF], problem-based learning [START_REF] Voogt | Challenges to learning and schooling in the digital networked world of the 21st century[END_REF], gamification [START_REF] Kingsley | Gamification[END_REF], among others.

As for gamification, a technique analyzed in our research, it is defined as the use of game design elements in non-game contexts [START_REF] Deterding | From game design elements to gamefulness: defining gamification[END_REF]. Although it is the best known and least explicit definition of all, in which it is omitted to delve into the particularities of the game design elements and their purpose. For its part, another of the most popular definitions within the academic field states that "Gamification is using game-based mechanics, aesthetics, and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems" [START_REF] Kapp | The gamification of learning and instruction: game-based methods and strategies for training and education[END_REF] mentioning both the elements of game design and the functions of gamification. Under this context, gamification is based on a series of principles, which in this particular case visualize the six principles of user-oriented efficiency [START_REF] Marache | Perception of gamification: Between graphical design and persuasive design[END_REF].

According to this analysis, any gamification process needs to specify a set of principles that efficiently guide the user experience. This is the only way to materialize a set of phases that satisfy the process:

1 Freedom of choice: Give the user the freedom to act voluntarily, allowing them to deactivate functions and participate in the gamification experience.

2 Benefits and Meanings: The influence of gamification must be relevant to both creators and users, through components that motivate them. Otherwise, the use of the system will not produce any influence, therefore, no benefits will be obtained.

These principles contribute to the possibility of issuing a gambling process that has as its priority the safeguarding of the interests of those who participate towards a common goal. Basically, gamification occupies two variables within its principles that allow the creation of specific emotional experiences in the participants:

1 Interaction: Also defined as feedback. Basically, it is about participants communicating and receiving a response to their actions. Regardless of whether it is done with other players or with artificial intelligence, the gambling process has to incorporate the exchange of information.

2 Motivation: From it comes the fun, the commitment of the players for an activity, the entertainment, the freedom of choice. Motivation is part of the human cognitive process that stimulates learning and, therefore, the ability to connect with an activity. Motivation is and must be a necessary and prevailing element in the design of the gambling process.

Gamification in education

According to the results of the application of gamification in the educational context, it is considered that effectively, the transformation of the learning process through strategies and tools dedicated to reinforce experiences, produce commitment, unify tasks and that in turn is fun and persuasive has generated positive changes in the particular needs of the participants [START_REF] Koivisto | Demographic differences in perceived benefits from gamification[END_REF].

With respect to the fields of study, gamification began to be applied within the field of informatics and information technologies [START_REF] Dicheva | Gamification in Education: Where Are We in 2015?[END_REF], and progressively there was also an incursion into disciplines derived from social sciences such as psychology [START_REF] Estrada | El perfil del estudiante: Nuevo desafío para la educación puertorriqueña[END_REF] or those derived from experimental sciences, including mathematics and biology [START_REF] Lubis | Math workout series: Enhancing learning application with gamification[END_REF].

Similarly, incorporating gamification into learning has involved the formation of three particular approaches. Therefore, structuring ideas on this subject can be summarized as follows: entrepreneurial, empirical and theoretical.

• Business: Projects based on a freemium business idea, adding game elements to motivate participants and increase profitability: Khan Academy, Coursera.

• Empirical: Field research related to playing elements in education, in which it is possible to measure the usefulness of gamification components in the educational services provided [START_REF] Hamari | Transforming homo economicus into homo ludens: A field experiment on gamification in a utilitarian peer-to-peer trading service[END_REF], new guidelines are also proposed based on the results of gamification experiences [START_REF] Simões | A social gamification framework for a K-6 learning platform[END_REF].

• Theoretical: Conceptualizations [START_REF] Lee | Gamification in Education: What, how, why bother?[END_REF], models [START_REF] Kim | Dynamical model for gamification of learning (DMGL)[END_REF] and strategies [START_REF] Holman | GradeCraft: What can we learn from a game-inspired learning management system?[END_REF] linked to education are taken into account, coinciding in the educational potential of play elements to change behavior and promote learning.

Indeed, gamification is a practical system that provides quick solutions with which the user progressively learns through a rewarding experience [START_REF] Lee | GREENIFY: A real-world action game for climate change education[END_REF]. In addition, in the educational context, gamification is kept on a path of growth and experimentation predisposed in the different learning modalities, including the presence-based, blended and online modalities, with the purpose of motivating the apprehension of knowledge through the change of attitude in people's behavior [START_REF] Romero-Rodríguez | Ludificación y educación para la ciudadanía. Revisión de las experiencias significativas[END_REF].

Gamification in digital literacy

The emergence of virtualization, technological literacy, and the need to deepen knowledge has implied the extension of tools that promote digital skills in students in order to train in a collaborative way in problem solving. Among these tools, gamification classification is presented from the perspective of pedagogical renewal and updating, being a relatively new concept within the teaching-learning theme produced in parallel with the development of new technologies. The link between gamification and digital literacy, is proposed from two approaches, in the first gamification and leisure activities has been used as a tool to establish pedagogical strategies approaching users towards the acquisition of digital and informational skills [START_REF] Rozo | Estrategias de gamificacón aplicadas al diagnóstico de la incorporación pedagógica de las TIC en una comunidad académica[END_REF] both for secondary students [START_REF] Rioja | Experiencia de gamificación en Secundaria en el Aprendizaje de Sistemas Digitales[END_REF] and higher education teachers [START_REF] Montoro | Diseño y validación de un instrumento para evaluar la competencia digital de los docentes en la Educación Superior española[END_REF], specifically this link has facilitated the understanding of lexical and mnemonic principles of digital grammar, digital navigation, network operation, determination of the communicational environment and critical evaluation of content [START_REF] Rodriguez | Gamificación de la alfabetización digital en mayores según los estilos de aprendizaje y actividades polifásicas[END_REF].

While in the second approach, gamification and leisure activities are proposed as an object of study in digital literacy, that is to say, games form part of the current technological ecosystem in which the training of users in the knowledge society has an impact. Meanwhile, recognizing that interaction with playful platforms generates an influence on players when determining ways of thinking and affecting cognitive skills [START_REF] Eshet | Digital literacy: A conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era[END_REF], these must be taken into account in the assessment and promotion of digital competences.

In order to limit the variables corresponding to the link between gamification and digital literacy, the first approach has been predisposed towards the use of gamification strategies to promote the teaching of digital competences, thus building the solid bases for their formal integration.

METHODOLOGY

The general objective of this study is to analyze the suitability of incorporating gamification on the learning process for the acquisition of digital skills. The following specific objectives have been articulated:

• Reviewing the disposition of gamification within the global framework of references to digital skills

• Evaluating the convenience of the implementation of gamification for the development of digital competences according to educational technologies experts.

For the first specific objective it is worth mentioning that although there are multiple frameworks aimed at developing digital literacy competencies [START_REF] Martin | DigEuLit-a European framework for digital literacy: a progress report[END_REF], [START_REF] Neumann | A conceptual framework for emergent digital literacy[END_REF] [31], the choice of the Global Framework of Reference on Digital Literacy Skills [START_REF] Law | A Global Framework of Reference on Digital Literacy Skills for Indicator 4[END_REF] is justified by its current validity when it was published in 2018 and because it is a global study carried out by UNESCO, a supranational organization legitimized by 195 countries. This framework is organized in 7 areas and 26 competencies: The framework used by UNESCO is based on The Digital Competence Framework 2.0 [START_REF] Vuorikari | DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens. Update Phase 1: The Conceptual Reference Model[END_REF] adding 2 new areas each with 2 new competencies, specifically devices and software operations and careerrelated competence. Both are correlated. The first of these, although approaching information literacy, aims to ensure that the user generally identifies and knows how to use hardware and software, recognizing the advantages of their operability, while career-related competence refers to the use and interpretation of digital tools within each specialized field.

As for the second objective, 50 experts in educational technologies were selected, the experts selected to answer the questionnaire are doctors and researchers from the departments of applied technology education and communication belonging to the University of Huelva-Spain-, University of Cantabria-Spain-, University of Coimbra-Portugal-, Università di Torino-Italy-, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven-Belgium-, Saint Cloud State University-United States-, Tecnológico de Monterrey-Mexico-, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana-Ecuador-, Universidad Luis Amigó-Colombia, Universidad de la Habana-Cuba-and Universidad Metropolitana-Venezuela to the convenience of implementing gamification for the development of digital competences. In the first instance, to determine the number of experts selected, one of the most cited researches in media literacy [START_REF] Ferrés | La competencia mediática: propuesta articulada de dimensiones e indicadores[END_REF] was used as a reference, which likewise incorporates 50 experts from Europe and America to construct the dimensions and indicators of this subject. Under this heading, the 50 experts questioned answered 27 questions based on a 3-point Likert scale questionnaire about the degree of agreement: 3-agree; 2:

unsure/uncertain/neutral; 1-disagree. In total, 26 questions were about the implementation of gamification as a strategy for the development of each of the digital competencies, while one question, and in this case the last of the 27, referred to the degree of agreement on the use of the Global Framework of Reference on Digital Literacy Skills [START_REF] Law | A Global Framework of Reference on Digital Literacy Skills for Indicator 4[END_REF] to connect gamification with digital literacy. It should be noted that next to each question a blank space was proposed for experts to optionally express their views on the link between gamification literacy and each competency.

RESULTS

After evaluating the results obtained, it should be mentioned that there is a high degree of agreement among experts in linking the Global Framework of Reference on Digital Literacy Skills [START_REF] Law | A Global Framework of Reference on Digital Literacy Skills for Indicator 4[END_REF] with gamification classification, thus obtaining a positive response of 98% of those surveyed. Only one of the experts commented on the need to make a comparison between the different digital literacy frameworks analyzing the suitability of applying gamification in digital competences. In spite of this, the competencies that received the greatest degree of agreement regarding the use of gamification strategies for their teaching are the following: collaborating through digital technologies, managing digital identity, programming, engaging in citizenship through digital technologies, sharing through digital technologies, and protecting health and well-being.

Collaborating through digital technologies

The 92% of the experts surveyed agree on the suitability of gamification and use digital tools and technologies for collaborative processes and for co-construction and co-creation of resources and knowledge. Some of the comments made show that gamification enhances teamwork and group cohesion through proposed challenges and feedback of the solutions obtained. Likewise, gamification offers the opportunity to establish networks of collaboration and consensual decision making motivated by a group reward.

Basically, there are a series of gamification platforms that invite collaborative work, among which are: Duolingo, Tango Card, LevelEleven and so on.

Managing digital identity

Second, 86% of experts believe that gamification affects competition aimed at creating and managing one or multiple digital identities, to be able to protect one's own reputation, to deal with the data that one produces through several digital tools, environments and services. The gamification grants the advantage of motivating the personalization and the creation of avatars fulfilling the search to reach a social status and a representation of the person with the purpose of promoting the sensation of being inside a social circle.

Among the gamification experiences that incorporate the idea of identity are GamEffective, Classcraft, Byju's and Bounty Tasker.

Programming

Considering that programming is inherently embedded in gamification [START_REF] Burke | Gamify: How gamification motivates people to do extraordinary things[END_REF]. In this case, 82% of the experts agree to add gamification in this process, in fact, there are already experiences [START_REF] González | Técnicas de gamificación aplicadas en la docencia de Ingeniería Informática[END_REF] in which the use of gamification mechanics for teaching programming is exhibited by applying the PBL system (points, badges and leaderboards) together with levels and restrictions that facilitate student motivation.

As for programming, gamification can be seen in Treehouse, Codecademy, Code Hunt, Dungeons and Developers, Ruby Warrior, Hack n Slash.

Engaging in citizenship through digital technologies

The 78% of experts recognize that gambling can boost participation in society through the use of public and private digital services. To seek opportunities for self-empowerment and for participatory citizenship through appropriate digital technologies. Among the gaming elements promoted by gamification in this context are feedback, levels, reward systems, challenges and random elements [START_REF] Torres-Toukoumidis | Evaluación de políticas públicas con técnicas de gamificación para la educación ciudadana[END_REF]. In short, gamification allows for the configuration of an active citizenship that makes decisions and is actively involved in public policy programs geared towards digital technologies, especially young people, who will face the orientation of future public policies.

Regarding the following indicator, the commitment of citizens through gambling can be observed in the following experiences that combine e-participation: Love Your City!, OldWeather, DoGood [START_REF] Thiel | Gamification as motivation to engage in location-based public participation?[END_REF], Digitalcitizen, etc.

Sharing through digital technologies

Admitting that this competition concentrates on sharing data, information and digital content with others through appropriate digital technologies acting as an intermediary, to know about referencing and attribution practices. The 74% accept their link with gamification, essentially arrange alliances and meetings for common purposes, build teams, support interaction in chats, appoint ambassadors, influencers who sponsor good practices and finally are awarded rewards for inviting and sharing actions that could benefit the use of digital technologies.

The new technologies have facilitated the exposure and the interweaving of contents between digital platforms, which is why the gamification is evident in applications such as: Evoq Engage, Rise and Playlyfe.

Protecting health and well-being

The problems caused by the excessive use of new digital technologies, among which are visual problems, obesity, depression among others can be prevented through the use of gamification [START_REF] Ahola | Gamified physical activation of young men-a Multidisciplinary Population-Based Randomized Controlled Trial (MOPO study)[END_REF]. The 72% of the experts agree with this premise, some of them have commented that gambling stimulates physical activity and breaks with sedentarism, they even express that gambling has been applied in preventive campaigns producing greater interest on the part of society and changes in behavior.

Finally, the protection of health and well-being has also been specifically highlighted in gamma applications, among which are: Loseit!, Mango Health, CaféWell, Blue Shield California, Ayogo, Reflexion Health, Cohero Health, Pact, HubBub, Cog Cubed, Fitocracy, Zombie Run! among others.

CONCLUSIONS

The information addressed our research demonstrate that safety, communication and collaboration are the areas of digital literacy that have the greatest attachment to learning with gamification strategies. In addition, the interactive trend produced by the incorporation of gamification for the development of digital competencies is seen as an opportunity to generate an active engagement learning through a constructivist approach. [START_REF] Mäeots | Designing Interactive Scratch Content for Future Ebooks[END_REF].

The use of multiple mechanics from game elements tends to create greater motivation among students [START_REF] Hanus | Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance[END_REF], thus impacting on the acquisition of digital skills. In sum, this study has achieved the 2 specific objectives through the questionnaire applied to the 50 experts. The first of the analyzed objectives states that the use of frameworks can be used to determine the gamification disposition. In the second instance, although the 26 (100%) digital literacy competencies are over 50% agreed for the implementation of gamification, there are 6 competencies that are over 70%: collaborating through digital technologies, managing digital identity, programming, engaging in citizenship through digital technologies, sharing through digital technologies, and protecting health and well-being, which are more suitable for the potential application of gamification. We recommend that future researchers apply gamification empirically in each of the above-mentioned competencies in order to measure its effect on digital literacy.

Table 1 .

 1 UNESCO Digital Literacy Global Framework[START_REF] Law | A Global Framework of Reference on Digital Literacy Skills for Indicator 4[END_REF]

	Area	Competences
	Devices and software Operations	Physical operations of digital device
		Software operations in digital device
	Information and data literacy	Browsing, searching and filtering data, information and digital content
		Evaluating data, information and digital content
		Managing data, information and digital content
	Communication and collaboration	Interacting through digital technologies
		Sharing through digital technologies
		Engaging in citizenship through digital technologies
		Collaborating through digital technologies
		Netiquette
		Managing digital identity
	Digital content creation	Developing digital content
		Integrating and re-elaborating digital content
		Copyright and licenses
		Programming
	Safety	Protecting devices
		Protecting personal data and Privacy
		Protecting health and well-being
		Protecting the environment
	Problem-solving	Solving technical problems
		Identifying needs and technological Responses
		Creatively using digital technologies
		Identifying digital competence gaps
		Computational thinking
	Career-related competence	Operating specialised digital technologies for a particular field
		Interpreting and manipulating data, information and digital content for
		a particular field

Table 2 .

 2 Example of the question's items

	Indicators	3-agree	2-unsure/uncertain/neutral	1-disagree
	1. Information and data literacy
	1.1 Browsing, searching and
	filtering data, information and
	digital content with gamification
	1.2 Evaluating data, information
	and digital content with
	gamification
	1.3 Managing data, information
	and digital content with
	gamification
	The questionnaire was applied from October 15 to November 15, 2018 to experts from Spain,
	Portugal, Italy, Belgium, United States, Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia, Cuba and Venezuela, generating
	the following contributions.

Proceedings of INTED2019 Conference 11th-13th March 2019, Valencia, Spain ISBN: 978-84-09-08619-1

Personalized experience: The system must act on different user profiles to trigger acts that demonstrate general acceptance.

Long-term interaction: Interactions change. Here it is important to consider motivational theories.

Unwanted side effects. Inducing stress, giving the feeling of lack of credibility and privacy, subjectivity with rewards, are factors that can play against gamification systems.

Legal and ethical issue: There is a legal context about data, privacy and user interests that must be respected.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work has been prepared within the framework of Alfamed (Euro-American Interuniversity Network for Research in Media Competencies for Citizenship), with the support of the Coordinated R&D&I Project "Media Competencies of Citizens in Emerging Digital Media (Smartphones and Tablets): Innovative practices and educommunicative strategies in multiple contexts" (EDU2015-64015-C3-1-R) (MINECO/FEDER), and the "Media Education Network" of the State Program for Scientific Research-Technical Excellence, State Subprogram for Knowledge Generation (EDU2016-81772-REDT), financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain and the first Games Laboratory of Ecuador GameLab UPS.