L Bestani

N Espurt
email: espurt@cerege.fr

J Lamarche

O Bellier

F Hollender

Reconstruction of the Provence Chain evolution, southeastern France

Keywords:

The Provence fold-and-thrust belt forms the eastern limit of the Pyrenean orogenic system in southeastern France. This belt developed during the Late Cretaceous-Eocene Pyrenean-Provence compression and was then deformed by Oligocene-Miocene Ligurian rifting events and Neogene to present-day Alpine compression. In this study, surface structural data, seismic profiles, and crustal-to-lithospheric-scale sequentially balanced cross sections contribute to the understanding of the dynamics of the Provence Chain and its long-term history of deformation. Balanced cross sections show that the thrust system is characterized by various structural styles, including deep-seated basement faults that affect the entire crust, tectonic inversions of Paleozoic-Mesozoic basins, shallower décollements within the sedimentary cover, accommodation zones, and salt tectonics. This study shows the prime control of the structural inheritance over a long period of time on the tectonic evolution of a geological system. This includes mechanical heterogeneities, such as Variscan shear zones, reactivated during Middle Cretaceous Pyrenean rifting between Eurasia and Sardinia. In domains where Mesozoic rifting is well marked, inherited basement normal faults and the thermally weak crust favored the formation of an inner thick-skinned thrust belt during Late Cretaceous-Eocene contraction. Here 155 km (~35%) of shortening was accommodated by inversion of north verging crustal faults, north directed subduction of the Sardinia mantle lithosphere, and ductile thickening of the Provence mantle lithosphere. During the Oligocene, these domains were still predisposed for the localized faulting of the Ligurian basin rifting and the seafloor spreading.

Introduction

The fold-and-thrust belt preserved in the Provence basin forms the eastern limit of the Pyrenean orogenic system in southeastern France, between the Alps to the northeast, and the Ligurian basin passive margin to the south (Figure 1) [START_REF] Mattauer | L'évolution structurale de la partie est du domaine pyrénéo-provençal au Crétacé et au Paléogène. Biogéographie du Crétacé-Éocène de la France méridionale[END_REF][START_REF] Séguret | Etude Tectonique des Nappes et Series Décollées de la Partie Centrale du Versant sud des Pyrénées[END_REF]. The principal phase of shortening in the Provence segment occurred during the Campanian-Eocene period (named the Pyrenean-Provence compression), and this has been attributed to the collision between the Sardinia-Corsica continental block and Eurasia, and NW directed subduction of the Tethys (at least south of the Sardinia) (Figure 2) [START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF][START_REF] Schettino | Tectonic history of the western Tethys since the Late Triassic[END_REF][START_REF] Schreiber | The Southeast France basin during Late Cretaceous times: The spatiotemporal link between Pyrenean collision and Alpine subduction[END_REF]Molli and Malavieille, 2011;[START_REF] Advokaat | Eocene rotation of Sardinia, and the paleogeography of the western Mediterranean region[END_REF]. This subduction system was connected eastward with the east directed Alpine subduction [START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF]. In contrast to the western Pyrenean segment, which underwent shortening until Miocene times as a result of the collision between Eurasia and Iberia [START_REF] Desegaulx | Structural evolution of the Pyrenees: Tectonic inheritance and flexural behaviour in the continental crust[END_REF][START_REF] Muñoz | Evolution of a continental collision belt: ECORS-Pyrenees crustal balanced cross-section[END_REF], the eastern Provence segment was affected by the opening of the north trending West European rift, and then by the NE trending back-arc rifting of the Ligurian basin and the seafloor spreading that was associated with the counterclockwise rotation of the Sardinia-Corsica block during the Oligocene-Miocene period [START_REF] Hippolyte | Tectonic-stratigraphic record of paleostress time changes in the Oligocene basins of the Provence, southern France[END_REF][START_REF] Gattacceca | Miocene rotation of Sardinia: New paleomagnetic and geochronological constraints and geodynamic implications[END_REF]. This last major rifting event prevents any direct structural continuity between the Pyrenees and Provence belts. As a result, the inner structures of the Provence belt are now found in the Ligurian offshore basin and Sardinia-Corsica where some Pyrenean-Provence thrusts are suspected (Figure 2) [START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF]. The Eurasia-Adria collision and growth of the Alps were responsible for renewed Neogene to present-day shortening and deformation mainly in western Provence [START_REF] Bergerat | Stress fields in the European platform at the time of Africa-Eurasia collision[END_REF][START_REF] Champion | La déformation post-Miocène en Provence occidentale[END_REF] and in localized salt basins in eastern Provence [START_REF] Angelier | Contribution à l'étude géologique des bandes triasiques provençales: De Barjols (Var) au bas Verdon[END_REF]. The superimposition of these later tectonic phases strongly modified the overall geometry of the Provence Chain and makes it difficult to unravel its complete geological history.

The Provence Chain is a hybrid thick-skinned and thin-skinned belt [START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF]. This structural setting was influenced by the preexisting basin architecture, which included reactivation of the Late Paleozoic crustal faults and heterogeneous Mesozoic sedimentary pile [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF][START_REF] Roure | Cenozoic inversion structures in the foreland of the Pyrenees and Alps, in Peri-Tethys Memoir 2: Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands[END_REF].

Exhumation history of the sedimentary and basement units in Provence, Corsica, and Sardinia is well constrain by low-temperature thermochronometry data including zircon and apatite fission track and apatite (U-Th)/He data [START_REF] Lucazeau | Heat flow, heat production and fission track data from the hercynian basement around the Provençal Basin (Western Mediterranean)[END_REF][START_REF] Morillon | Etude thermo-chronométrique appliquée aux exhumations en contexte orogénique: Le Massif des Maures (France), et les Cordillères Bétiques[END_REF][START_REF] Jakni | Thermochronologie par traces de fission des marges conjuguées du bassin liguro-provençal: la Corse et le massif des Maures-Tanneron[END_REF][START_REF] Zarki-Jakni | Cenozoic denudation of Corsica in response to Ligurian and Tyrrhenian extension: Results from apatite fission track thermochronology[END_REF][START_REF] Fellin | Neogene to Quaternary rifting and inversion in Corsica: Retreat and collision in the western Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Danišík | Burial and exhumation of Corsica (France) in the light of fission track data[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Géométrie et cinématique de l'avant-pays provençal: Modélisation par coupes équilibrées dans une zone à tectonique polyphasée[END_REF][START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF]. Three groups of cooling ages can be distinguished: old ages ranging between 110 and 244 Ma, intermediate ages ranging between 35 and 80 Ma, and young ages ranging between 10 and 30 Ma. Old ages are found in Mesozoic cover and in Paleozoic basement of eastern Provence and Sardinia. These ages are interpreted as detrital ages in the cover units or as long-term erosion episodes in the basement units prior Late Cretaceous followed by small reburial below the Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary cover [START_REF] Danišík | Burial and exhumation of Corsica (France) in the light of fission track data[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Géométrie et cinématique de l'avant-pays provençal: Modélisation par coupes équilibrées dans une zone à tectonique polyphasée[END_REF][START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF]. Intermediate ages are found in Paleozoic basement units of Provence, Corsica, and Sardinia. They are related to the Late Cretaceous-Eocene structural growth and erosion of the Pyrenean-Provence wedge also recorded by distributed growth-strata deposits in Provence and Sardinia [Espurt et al., 2012 and references therein;[START_REF] Bestani | Géométrie et cinématique de l'avant-pays provençal: Modélisation par coupes équilibrées dans une zone à tectonique polyphasée[END_REF][START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF]. Oligocene-Neogene cooling ages are found along the southeastern Provence coast and in Corsica and Sardinia. These young thermochronometric ages are related to a reheating and/or erosion episode during the back-arc rifting of the Ligurian basin associated with major volcanism [START_REF] Jakni | Thermochronologie par traces de fission des marges conjuguées du bassin liguro-provençal: la Corse et le massif des Maures-Tanneron[END_REF][START_REF] Zarki-Jakni | Cenozoic denudation of Corsica in response to Ligurian and Tyrrhenian extension: Results from apatite fission track thermochronology[END_REF][START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF]. Apart from regional structural geometry descriptions and some balancing and restoration tests [e.g., [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF][START_REF] Roure | Cenozoic inversion structures in the foreland of the Pyrenees and Alps, in Peri-Tethys Memoir 2: Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands[END_REF][START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF][START_REF] Terrier | Reassessment of the structural framework of western Provence (France): Consequence on the regional seismotectonic model[END_REF][START_REF] Molliex | Tectonic and sedimentary inheritance on the structural framework of Provence (SE France): Importance of the Salon-Cavaillon Fault[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF], a comprehensive study of the structure, quantification of the shortening, and definition of the role of crustal-lithospheric inheritances in this outstanding segment of the Pyrenean orogenic system have not been achieved yet.

The aim of this paper is to reconstruct the crustal-scale to lithospheric-scale structural architecture, the kinematics, and the shortening of the Provence Chain, using surface, subsurface, and deep geophysical data, and balanced cross sections together with paleogeographic reconstruction maps. This study has allowed us to evaluate the role of preexisting rift basin architecture on the evolution of this polyphase segment of the Pyrenean thrust belt, and it provides an insight into the Pyrenean and Mediterranean geodynamics along the Eurasian-Sardinian plate boundary.

Geological Setting

Regional Background

The Provence basin can be separated into two structural domains according to the NE trending Middle Durance and Aix-en-Provence faults, which is a major fault system that overlies a Paleozoic basement grain [START_REF] Arthaud | Les décrochements tardi-hercyniens du sud-ouest de l'Europe. Géometrie et essai de reconstitution des conditions de la déformation[END_REF][START_REF] Guignard | Géometrie et cinématique post-oligocene des failles d'Aix et de la moyenne Durance (Provence, France)[END_REF][START_REF] Cushing | A multidisciplinary study of a slow-slipping fault for seismic hazard assessment: The example of the Middle Durance Fault (SE France)[END_REF][START_REF] Terrier | Reassessment of the structural framework of western Provence (France): Consequence on the regional seismotectonic model[END_REF][START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | Modélisation 3D multi-échelle des structures géologiques de la région de la faille de la moyenne Durance (SE France)[END_REF] (Figure 1). These two domains can be defined as follows: 1. The southeastern domain corresponds to a complex tectonic domain made up of a thin (<4 km thick) Mesozoic to Cenozoic sedimentary cover and Variscan Maures and Tanneron-Esterel massifs to the southeast [START_REF] Roure | Geometry and kinematics of extensional structures in the alpine foreland basin of southeastern France[END_REF][START_REF] Mascle | The petroleum systems of the Southeast Basin and Gulf of Lion (France), in The Mediterranean Basins: Tertiary Extension Within the Alpine Orogen[END_REF]. It is bounded by the Alps to the north-northeast (Figure 1). This domain is composed of an array of multidirectional structures that are oriented from N010°E to N120°E. The deformation of the cover was mainly defined by deep-seated basement thrusts that were associated with cover décollements and salt tectonics [START_REF] Angelier | Contribution à l'étude géologique des bandes triasiques provençales: De Barjols (Var) au bas Verdon[END_REF][START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF][START_REF] Jannin | Rôle de la Tectonique Salifère dans la Structuration du Bassin du Sud-Est (SE de la France): Définition d'un Modèle de Tectonique Salifère d'Après l'Etude du Secteur de Draguignan et Comparaison de ce Modèle aux Structures Halocinétiques Rencontrées sur l'Ensemble du bassin[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF]. From south to north, the southeastern thick-skinned belt consists of a series of structures: Cap Sicié (western edge of the Hercynian Maures massif), Beausset basin, Sainte-Baume, Aurélien Mount, Etoile, Nerthe, Arc basin, Sainte-Victoire Mountain, Concors, Mirabeau-Vautubières, Vinon, Gréoux, and Valensole Plateau (Figure 1). This domain shows structural and stratigraphic similarities with the Sardinia [START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF][START_REF] Carosi | Post collisional transpressive tectonics in northern Sardinia (Italy)[END_REF][START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF]. 2. The northwestern domain corresponds to a trapezoidal panel made of a thicker (>7 km thick) Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary cover that is bounded by the Baronnies basin to the north and the Nîmes fault to the west [START_REF] Mascle | The petroleum systems of the Southeast Basin and Gulf of Lion (France), in The Mediterranean Basins: Tertiary Extension Within the Alpine Orogen[END_REF] (Figure 1). The sedimentary cover is deformed by east trending spaced, long-wavelength thrust-related anticlines, and salt tectonic structures [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF][START_REF] Rangin | Gravity tectonics in the SE Basin (Provence, France) imaged from seismic reflection data[END_REF].

From south to north, this domain comprises the following structures: Istres basin, Fare, Costes, Trévaresse, Luberon, Apt basin, Vaucluse Mounts, Carpentras basin, and Ventoux-Lure range (Figure 1).

Lithostratigraphy and Geodynamics of the Provence Basin and Sardinia

In the Provence basin, the oldest rocks are the Variscan granite and metamorphic series that are exposed in the southeastern Tanneron, Maures, and Cap Sicié massifs, close to the present-day coastline (Figure 1) [START_REF] Onézime | Étude pétro-structurale du complexe granitique Rouet-Plan-de-la-Tour (massifs des Maures et du Tanneron occidental, Var)[END_REF][START_REF] Rolland | Metamorphic and structural evolution of the Maures-Tanneron massif (SE Variscan chain): Evidence of doming along a transpressional margin[END_REF]. These are unconformably overlain by ~1 km thick Late Carboniferous to Permian volcanoclastic and detrital series and lower Triassic detrital series that were deposited in NNE trending and ESE trending graben systems during the rifting phase of the Pangea [START_REF] Delfaud | Un cône alluvial en bordure d'un bassin intramontagneux: La formation permienne du Rocher de Roquebrune (Bassin du Bas-Argens, Provence orientale)[END_REF][START_REF] Toutin-Morin | Enregistrement sédimentaire de l'évolution post-hercynienne en bordure des Maures et du Tanneron, du Carbonifère supérieur à l'actuel[END_REF][START_REF] Rolland | Metamorphic and structural evolution of the Maures-Tanneron massif (SE Variscan chain): Evidence of doming along a transpressional margin[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF].

The Mesozoic-Cenozoic lithostratigraphy of units that are exposed in the Provence basin is illustrated in logs of Figure 1. Middle Triassic-Early Cretaceous rocks were deposited during the opening of the Tethys ocean, Pyrenean rift to the west, and Valais domain to the northern Alps [START_REF] Handy | Reconciling plate-tectonic reconstructions of Alpine Tethys with the geological-geophysical record of spreading and subduction in the Alps[END_REF][START_REF] Beltrando | The Valaisan controversy revisited: Multi-stage folding of a Mesozoic hyper-extended margin in the Petit St. Bernard pass area (Western Alps)[END_REF][START_REF] Bellahsen | Collision kinematics in the western external Alps[END_REF]. Triassic rocks are dominated by basal detrital series and upper evaporitic series, with Keuper facies mostly made up of gypsum and clays [START_REF] Arnaud | Le gypse triasique de la vallée de l'Huveaune (Bouches-du-Rhône) a été karstifié pendant le Crétacé supérieur. Implications tectoniques[END_REF]. This upper mechanically weak level was locally involved in surficial salt tectonic structures, like Suzette or Propiac diapirs [START_REF] Casagrande | Le massif de Suzette (Vaucluse): L'inversion tectonique d'un graben oligocène[END_REF] (Figure 1). The Jurassic and Early Cretaceous rocks consist of marine limestone in the eastern Provence, which evolves into thick basinal shale west of the Middle Durance fault system and toward the Vocontian basin, north of the Ventoux-Lure range (Figure 1) [START_REF] De Graciansky | Early Cretaceous tectonics in the southwestern French Alps: A consequence of North Atlantic rifting during Tethyan spreading[END_REF][START_REF] Léonide | Relation between stratigraphic architecture and multi-scale heterogeneities in carbonate platforms: The Barremian-lower Aptian of the Monts de Vaucluse, SE France[END_REF]. North of the Ventoux-Lure range, and south of the Beausset syncline, locally the basin shows up to 1 km thick Late Aptian-Albian turbiditic and basinal series, which include olistoliths and breccias [START_REF] Montenat | Sur la tectonique anté-cénomanienne du fossé de Sault-de-Vaucluse (chaînes subalpines méridionales)[END_REF][START_REF] Philip | L'évolution paléogéographique et structurale du front de chevauchement nord-toulonnais (Basse-Provence occidentale, France)[END_REF][START_REF] Montenat | L'accident du Toulourenc: Une limite tectonique entre la plate-forme provençale et le Bassin vocontien à l'Aptien-Albien (SE France)[END_REF]. These series were deposited in graben systems [START_REF] Chorowicz | Evidence of a NW-SE striking Albo-Aptian extensional event in Provence (southeastern France)[END_REF][START_REF] Homberg | Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous faulting in the Southeastern French basin: Does it reflect a tectonic reorganization?[END_REF] during the Middle Cretaceous rifting, as the Pyrenean rift system [START_REF] Debroas | Le Flysch noir albo-cénomanien témoin de la structuration albienne à sénonienne de la Zone nord-pyrénéenne en Bigorre (Hautes-Pyrénées, France)[END_REF][START_REF] Clerc | Exhumation of subcontinental mantle rocks: Evidence from ultramafic-bearing clastic deposits nearby the Lherz peridotite body, French Pyrenees[END_REF].

Bauxite development marked the long-lasting stratigraphic hiatus, from at least the end of the Early Cretaceous to the beginning of the Late Cretaceous, which was related to the "Durance uplift" between the Vocontian basin to the north and the Pyrenean rift system to the south [START_REF] Masse | Paléogéographie et tectonique du Crétacé moyen en Provence[END_REF][START_REF] Chorowicz | Evidence of a NW-SE striking Albo-Aptian extensional event in Provence (southeastern France)[END_REF][START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | 3D structural modelling of small-deformations in poly phase faults pattern, application to the Mid-Cretaceous durance uplift, Provence (SE France)[END_REF]. The bauxite is covered by Middle Cenomanian-Santonian transgressive marine sediments that range from a maximum of ~1.1 km in thickness in the Beausset syncline (Figure 1), which progressively onlapped northward [START_REF] Philip | Les formations calcaires à rudistes du Crétacé supérieur provençal et rhodanien[END_REF]. Locally, the southern limb of the Beausset syncline comprises massive Turonian-Coniacian conglomerates (La Ciotat conglomerates) and Santonian sands (Figure 1). These terrigenous deposits record the erosion of a southward emerged basement high between Provence and the Sardinia [START_REF] Hennuy | Sédimentation carbonate et silicoclastique sous contrôle tectonique, le bassin sud-provençal et sa plate-forme carbonatée du Turonien au Coniacien moyen[END_REF].

Foreland deposition started in the uppermost Santonian in a marine environment and evolved into a general continental environment from the Campanian to Eocene, during northward propagation of the Pyrenean-Provence deformation front [START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF]. The Campanian-Paleocene series display massive alluvial fans with growth stratal geometries close to thrust-related anticlines, like the Etoile-Nerthe, Luberon, Sainte-Baume, or Sainte-Victoire structures [START_REF] Corroy | Le brachyanticlinal des pics des Corbeaux, dans le massif de la Sainte-Baume (Var)[END_REF][START_REF] Clauzon | Sur la présence d'une brèche syn-orogénique d'âge paléogène dans le chaînon du Petit Luberon (Vaucluse)[END_REF][START_REF] Leleu | Alluvial fan development and morpho-tectonic evolution in response to contractional fault reactivation (Late Cretaceous-Palaeocene)[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF] (Figure 1).

Tectonics

10.1002/2016TC004115

The Oligocene times were characterized by thick fluvial conglomerates, shale, evaporite, and lacustrine limestone [START_REF] Hippolyte | Tectonic-stratigraphic record of paleostress time changes in the Oligocene basins of the Provence, southern France[END_REF] that were deposited in an extensional basin during the West European rift, which then saw the back-arc rifting of the Ligurian basin between Provence and Sardinia-Corsica block (Figure 2). The Miocene transgression was associated with a major planar erosional surface that was well developed in western Provence and was overlain by marine limestone and grainstone (Figure 1) [START_REF] Besson | Architecture du bassin rhodano-provençal miocène (Alpes, SE France), Relations entre déformation, physiographie et sédimentation dans un bassin molassique d'avant-pays[END_REF][START_REF] Oudet | Land and sea study of the northeastern Golfe du Lion rifted margin; the Oligocene-Miocene of southern Provence (Nerthe area, SE France)[END_REF][START_REF] Demory | Magnetostratigraphy and paleoenvironments in shallow-water carbonates: The Oligocene-Miocene sediments of the northern margin of the Liguro-Provençal basin (West Marseille, southeastern France)[END_REF]. The Neogene compression was related to the growth of the Alps, and it is locally recorded by the Neogene continental growth strata [START_REF] Clauzon | Morphostructural evolution of the Luberon since the Miocene (SE France)[END_REF]. A drastic sea level fall related to the Messinian salinity crisis was responsible for the deep incised valleys in the present morphology of Provence [START_REF] Clauzon | Alternate interpretation of the Messinian salinity crisis: Controversy resolved?[END_REF].

The Sardinia continental block is largely constituted by Variscan basement rock similar to the Maures massif [START_REF] Carosi | Post collisional transpressive tectonics in northern Sardinia (Italy)[END_REF][START_REF] Rolland | Metamorphic and structural evolution of the Maures-Tanneron massif (SE Variscan chain): Evidence of doming along a transpressional margin[END_REF][START_REF] Rossi | A restored section of the "southern Variscan realm" across the Corsica-Sardinia microcontinent[END_REF]. The basement is overlain by thin Mesozoic platform sequences and Paleocene-Eocene syntectonic series that show similarities with Provence [START_REF] Philip | Comparaison entre les plates-formes du Crétacé Supérieur de Provence and Sardaigne[END_REF][START_REF] Busulini | Nouvelles données sur le Crétacé Supérieur de la Sardaigne Orientale[END_REF][START_REF] Mameli | Geological, geochemical and mineralogical features of some bauxite deposits from Nurra (western Sardinia, Italy): Insights on conditions of formation and parental affinity[END_REF] and widespread Late Eocene to Quaternary volcano-clastic-series-filling grabens [START_REF] Cherchi | Les conséquences stratigraphiques de l'extension oligo-miocène en Méditerranée occidentale à partir d'observations dans le système de grabens de Sardaigne (Italie)[END_REF].

Décollement Levels

Deep-seated basement faults inherited from the Late Carboniferous to Permian and the Early Triassic might have been preferentially reactivated during subsequent episodes of deformation [START_REF] Lacombe | Basement-involved shortening and deep detachment tectonics in forelands of orogens: Insights from recent collision belts (Taiwan, Western Alps, Pyrenees)[END_REF]. Upper Triassic series formed the main décollement level for thrusting during Pyrenean-Provence and Alpine compressions [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF]. Disharmonic shallower décollement levels are also found in the Middle Jurassic black shales and Berriasian limestones [START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF][START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | Three-dimensional structural modeling of an active fault zone based on complex outcrop and subsurface data: The Middle Durance Fault Zone inherited from polyphase Meso-Cenozoic tectonics (southeastern France)[END_REF].

Data Sets and Methodology

To constrain the structure of the Provence Chain, we used new field data, 1:50 000 Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières geological maps and exploration wells. We also used depth-converted seismic reflection profiles provided by the Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives [START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | Three-dimensional structural modeling of an active fault zone based on complex outcrop and subsurface data: The Middle Durance Fault Zone inherited from polyphase Meso-Cenozoic tectonics (southeastern France)[END_REF] (Figure 1). The depth geometry was constrained using published geophysical data for the Moho discontinuity depth, as determined by gravity data and P wave seismic tomography [START_REF] Tesauro | EuCRUST-07: A new reference model for the European crust[END_REF][START_REF] Garibaldi | Thermal anomalies and geological structures in the Provence Basin; implications for hydrothermal circulations at depth[END_REF], and for the crust-lithosphere thickness [START_REF] Jiménez-Munt | Active deformation in the Mediterranean from Gibraltar to Anatolia inferred from numerical modelling and geodetic and seismological data[END_REF].

A balanced cross-section technique is used to restore the basin geometry to the initial stages and to estimate the horizontal movement (shortening and extension). All of the above-mentioned data were integrated to balance and restore two cross sections across the external Provence fold-and-thrust belt (T1 and T2; ~120 km long) and a lithospheric-scale section (T1′; ~400 km long) that included the Ligurian basin, and the Sardinia and Tethyan subduction systems (Figures 1 and2a). For the Provence belt, we used new structural data and the previously published [START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF] section. For the Ligurian basin, the Sardinia domain, and the Tethyan subduction system, we integrated data published by [START_REF] Guieu | Arguments for the pre-rift uplift and rift propagation in the Ligurian-Provencal Basin (northwestern Mediterranean) in the light of Pyrenean Provencal Orogeny[END_REF], [START_REF] Rollet | Back-arc extension, tectonic inheritance, and volcanism in the Ligurian Sea, Western Mediterranean[END_REF], Dèzes et al. Balancing and restoration were performed using the "Move" structural modeling software (Midland Valley Inc.) based on thrust tectonic concepts [START_REF] Dahlstrom | Balanced cross-sections[END_REF][START_REF] Boyer | The geometry of thrust systems[END_REF][START_REF] Suppe | Geometry and kinematics of fault-bend folding[END_REF][START_REF] Suppe | Geometry and kinematics of fault-propagation folding[END_REF][START_REF] Shaw | Seismic interpretation of contractional fault-related folds[END_REF], and bed-length and thickness conservation, and flexural slip algorithm for cover. Area-balance approach is used for the deep crust and mantle [START_REF] Butler | Area balancing as a test of models for the deep structure of mountain belts, with specific reference to the Alps[END_REF]. Cross sections were sequentially restored using regional stratigraphic data (see below). To calculate total extension and shortening amounts, cross-sections T1 and T2 are pinned in Baronnies in the north and near the Mediterranean coast to the south; lithospheric-scale cross section T1′ is pinned in Baronnies in the north and on southern edge of the Sardinia crust.

The section orientation is orthogonal to the fold axes, in order to be parallel to the Late Cretaceous-Eocene N-S tectonic transport direction [START_REF] Lacombe | Determining paleostress orientations from faults and calcite twins: A case study near the Sainte-Victoire Range (southern France)[END_REF]. The Provence basin is characterized by major NNE trending fault systems (Figure 1). These faults controlled deposition of the Mesozoic series and Oligocene-Miocene series and thrusting during Pyrenean and Alpine compressions [START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF].

Although the kinematic of these oblique faults is clearly established, the quantification of the oblique Tectonics 10.1002/2016TC004115 movement is still not constrained. The Late Cretaceous-Eocene N-S shortening was mainly accommodated by regional NNE trending left-lateral strike-slip faults in the boundary between Languedoc and Provence (Cévennes and Nîmes faults) and in the eastern edge of Corsica (Figure 2b) [START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF]. We assume that the oblique motion along the NNE trending Middle Durance fault system is small at least west of the Valensole Plateau [START_REF] Roure | Alpine inversion of the North African margin and delamination of its continental lithosphere[END_REF] (Figure 1) and would not significantly affect the structural geometry but might affect the shortening estimates [START_REF] Wallace | Yakataga fold-and-thrust belt: Structural geometry and tectonic implications of a small continental collision zone[END_REF].

Kinematic reconstruction of plate motion between Eurasia and Iberia-Corsica-Sardinia block indicates transcurrent motion at least during the Late Paleozoic [START_REF] Matte | The Variscan collage and orogeny (480 ± 290 Ma) and the tectonic definition of the Armorica microplate: A review[END_REF][START_REF] Guillot | Paleozoic evolution of the External Crystalline Massifs of the Western Alps[END_REF] and Late Jurassic, followed by orthogonal extensional stretching in the Middle-Late Cretaceous [START_REF] Jammes | Tectonosedimentary evolution related to extreme crustal thinning ahead of a propagating ocean: Example of the western Pyrenees[END_REF]. Late Paleozoic and Late Jurassic periods, which recorded major strike-slip motion, prevent precise reconstruction of the lithospheric-scale balanced cross section before Early Cretaceous.

Structure and Restoration of the Provence Thrust System

The following structural description of the Provence belt is separated into three parts from southeast to northwest, with regard to the geological map given in Figure 1 and the cross sections in Figures 3 and4:

(1) the southeastern Provence domain, where the deformation is mainly controlled by deep thick-skinned thrusting;

(2) the central Aix-Middle Durance fault system; and (3) the northwestern Provence domain, where the deformation is mainly thin-skinned.

The Thick-Skinned Domain

On the basis of the structural and stratigraphic data, the previously published balanced cross section of [START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF] suggested that the structure of this domain is governed by deep-seated basement faults and salt structures (Figures 1 and3). In the southern part of section T1 (Figure 3), the Late Paleozoic normal faults controlling pre-Triassic sedimentary basin geometry beneath the Bandol, Sainte-Baume, and Sainte-Victoire structures were deformed by gently south dipping basement thrusts propagating with short-cut trajectories (Figure 3). The Late Cretaceous-Eocene tectonic inversion of the inherited rift structures led to deep intercutaneous basement thrust wedges [START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF] and large thin-skinned thrust displacements through the complete transfer of the shortening from the basement faults to the cover décollements (i.e., the Bandol, Sainte-Baume, Aurélien Mount, and eastern Sainte-Victoire thrusts; Figures 1 and3). Salt tectonic structures are found beneath the Bandol and Sainte-Baume thrusts [START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF].

In the southernmost part of section T2 (Figure 4), the Nerthe structure shows structural and sedimentary affinities with the eastern thick-skinned domain [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF]. This structure corresponds to an east trending anticline that is mainly constituted by Early to Middle Cretaceous series (Figures 1, 4b, and5). Field data and cross-section construction suggest surficial southward thrusting in sedimentary cover on an ~5°N dipping ramp associated with small-scale north vergent thrusts [START_REF] Dufaure | Description sommaire d'un sondage dans la chaine de Martigues (Bouches-du-Rhône)[END_REF][START_REF] Guieu | L'évolution tectonique de la chaîne de la Nerthe, au Nord-Ouest de Marseille[END_REF]. The Nerthe anticline lies above a basement structural high that is associated with thin Mesozoic series compared to the Istres basin located to the north [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF][START_REF] Andreani | New structural constraints on the southern Provence thrust belt (France): Evidence for a Eocene shortening event linked to the Corsica-Sardinia subduction[END_REF]. We propose that the Nerthe anticline is separated from the Istres basin by a major east trending north dipping Mesozoic normal fault (Figures 4 and6). This normal fault controlled thickness variations of the Mesozoic series. As previously speculated by [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF], we propose that the Nerthe high and its preexisting normal fault were decapitated by a later south dipping basement thrust located at ~9.5 km below sea level (bsl) during the Pyrenean-Provence compression (Figure 4). This thrust is assumed to have fed slip northward into the western Provence cover.

Salt tectonic structures related to Triassic series started to develop during the Jurassic to Late Cretaceous times and were then reactivated during the Pyrenean-Provence compression and Oligocene extension (e.g., Huveaune area; Figures 1 and3) [START_REF] Jannin | Rôle de la Tectonique Salifère dans la Structuration du Bassin du Sud-Est (SE de la France): Définition d'un Modèle de Tectonique Salifère d'Après l'Etude du Secteur de Draguignan et Comparaison de ce Modèle aux Structures Halocinétiques Rencontrées sur l'Ensemble du bassin[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF]. Pyrenean-Provence thrust activity is mainly recorded from Campanian to Eocene (Figures 3b and4b) by alluvial fan deposits that locally show spectacular growth strata patterns, as for the Sainte-Baume and Sainte-Victoire thrust-system areas [START_REF] Leleu | Alluvial fan development and morpho-tectonic evolution in response to contractional fault reactivation (Late Cretaceous-Palaeocene)[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF]. The Pyrenean-Provence thick-skinned structures were cut by extensional fault systems and grabens during the Oligocene (Figures 5a and5b), and then eroded (e.g., wave-cut platforms) and sealed by Aquitanian to Tortonian marine strata [START_REF] Besson | Architecture du bassin rhodano-provençal miocène (Alpes, SE France), Relations entre déformation, physiographie et sédimentation dans un bassin molassique d'avant-pays[END_REF]Oudet et The Aix-Middle Durance fault system (Figure 1) has been studied on the basis of field, seismic-profile, and seismicity data [START_REF] Cushing | A multidisciplinary study of a slow-slipping fault for seismic hazard assessment: The example of the Middle Durance Fault (SE France)[END_REF][START_REF] Rangin | Gravity tectonics in the SE Basin (Provence, France) imaged from seismic reflection data[END_REF][START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | Modélisation 3D multi-échelle des structures géologiques de la région de la faille de la moyenne Durance (SE France)[END_REF]. Southward, this fault system connects with the Nerthe-Etoile thrust system, as a "horse-tail" system (Figure 1). This fault system is interpreted as overlying a NE trending Late Paleozoic basement grain like the Toulouse fault in the central Pyrenees [START_REF] Arthaud | Les décrochements tardi-hercyniens du sud-ouest de l'Europe. Géometrie et essai de reconstitution des conditions de la déformation[END_REF][START_REF] Burg | Le Sillon Houiller du Massif Central français: Faille de transfert pendant l'amincissement crustal de la chaîne varisque?[END_REF] (Figure 2). It separates a thick sedimentary succession (>7 km thick) to the northwest, in contrast to the southeast (<4 km thick) [START_REF] Ménard | Profondeur du socle antétriasique dans le Sud-Est de la France[END_REF][START_REF] Le Pichon | Geodynamics of the France Southeast Basin[END_REF][START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | Three-dimensional structural modeling of an active fault zone based on complex outcrop and subsurface data: The Middle Durance Fault Zone inherited from polyphase Meso-Cenozoic tectonics (southeastern France)[END_REF], and forms the boundary between the thin-skinned and thick-skinned structural domains of Provence (Figures 1, 3, and4).

Seismic profiles 71D10 and VL85J are located close to cross-section T1 (Figures 1 and7), and these show that the Middle Durance fault zone is composed of a deep west dipping basement fault and a shallow listric normal fault that branches within Triassic evaporites [START_REF] Roure | Geometry and kinematics of extensional structures in the alpine foreland basin of southeastern France[END_REF][START_REF] Benedicto | Low-angle crustal ramp and basin geometry in the Gulf of Lion passive margin: Oligocene-Aquitanian Vistrenque graben[END_REF][START_REF] Roure | Cenozoic inversion structures in the foreland of the Pyrenees and Alps, in Peri-Tethys Memoir 2: Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands[END_REF][START_REF] Cushing | A multidisciplinary study of a slow-slipping fault for seismic hazard assessment: The example of the Middle Durance Fault (SE France)[END_REF][START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | Three-dimensional structural modeling of an active fault zone based on complex outcrop and subsurface data: The Middle Durance Fault Zone inherited from polyphase Meso-Cenozoic tectonics (southeastern France)[END_REF]. The basement fault was mostly active as a normal fault during Mesozoic times [START_REF] Roure | Geometry and kinematics of extensional structures in the alpine foreland basin of southeastern France[END_REF], which allowed deposition of a thick sedimentary pile in the western Provence domain, whereas the sedimentary cover fault system was assumed to be reactivated during Oligocene and Miocene times [START_REF] Guignard | Géometrie et cinématique post-oligocene des failles d'Aix et de la moyenne Durance (Provence, France)[END_REF][START_REF] Cushing | A multidisciplinary study of a slow-slipping fault for seismic hazard assessment: The example of the Middle Durance Fault (SE France)[END_REF]. The interpretation of seismic profile VL85J also suggests Late Paleozoic-Early Triassic extensional basins beneath the Middle Durance fault system (Figure 7). These inferred basement structures do not show structural inversion [START_REF] Rangin | Gravity tectonics in the SE Basin (Provence, France) imaged from seismic reflection data[END_REF][START_REF] Guyonnet-Benaize | Three-dimensional structural modeling of an active fault zone based on complex outcrop and subsurface data: The Middle Durance Fault Zone inherited from polyphase Meso-Cenozoic tectonics (southeastern France)[END_REF]. The Middle Durance fault zone domain is seismically active, as revealed by present-day small seismic events (M < 3.5) distributed in the sedimentary cover and the historic seismicity [START_REF] Cushing | A multidisciplinary study of a slow-slipping fault for seismic hazard assessment: The example of the Middle Durance Fault (SE France)[END_REF][START_REF] Le Pichon | Geodynamics of the France Southeast Basin[END_REF]. These data suggest structural decoupling between the crustal part and the cover part of this fault zone [START_REF] Cushing | A multidisciplinary study of a slow-slipping fault for seismic hazard assessment: The example of the Middle Durance Fault (SE France)[END_REF]. Northwest of the Aix-Middle Durance fault zone, the large-scale folding of the sedimentary cover is mainly controlled by the geometry of the underlying Triassic salt layer [START_REF] Rangin | Gravity tectonics in the SE Basin (Provence, France) imaged from seismic reflection data[END_REF]. The construction of balanced cross sections together with sediment thickness data and subsurface data suggests that the basement-cover interface geometry of western Provence is poorly deformed [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF][START_REF] Champion | La déformation post-Miocène en Provence occidentale[END_REF][START_REF] Terrier | Reassessment of the structural framework of western Provence (France): Consequence on the regional seismotectonic model[END_REF][START_REF] Rangin | Gravity tectonics in the SE Basin (Provence, France) imaged from seismic reflection data[END_REF][START_REF] Molliex | Tectonic and sedimentary inheritance on the structural framework of Provence (SE France): Importance of the Salon-Cavaillon Fault[END_REF]. The basement-cover interface is located at ~6 km bsl along section T1 (Figure 3) and ~9 km bsl along section T2 (Figure 4), and at a depth of more than 10 km bsl under the southern edge of the Baronnies in the north.

The seismic profile 82SE4D in the southern part of section T2 (Figure 6) indicates that the Istres basin is a large syncline that is composed of thick Mesozoic series [START_REF] Terrier | Reassessment of the structural framework of western Provence (France): Consequence on the regional seismotectonic model[END_REF]. Its southern limb dips ~30°n orthward, while its northern limb dips 37°southward. The seismic profile highlights thickness variations in Middle to Late Jurassic series probably controlled at depth by a Triassic salt migration north of the Istres syncline. Northward, the sedimentary cover is deformed by two ENE trending and south verging thrust-related anticlines (i.e., Fare and Costes anticlines) (Figures 1 and4). The initial activation age of these structures is probably ante-Eocene as revealed by the discordance of the Miocene strata on deformed Early Cretaceous limestones [START_REF] Dubois | Sur la sédimentation et la tectonique du Miocène de la Provence occidentale[END_REF]. A small post-Miocene reactivation of the Costes anticline is attested by deformed Serravalian-Tortonian strata on its southern flank (Figures 1 and4) [START_REF] Dubois | Sur la sédimentation et la tectonique du Miocène de la Provence occidentale[END_REF][START_REF] Champion | La déformation post-Miocène en Provence occidentale[END_REF]. The Luberon anticline forms a major curve-shaped range of about 65 km long that is bounded by the Middle Durance fault zone to the east and the Salon-Cavaillon fault zone to the west (Figure 1). Along crosssection T2, the western Luberon thrust is a broad south verging breakthrough fault-propagation fold formed of thick lower Cretaceous limestone (Figure 4). This anticline shows a 10°N dipping backlimb and a 70°S dipping forelimb. The forelimb shows locally massive (~300 m thick) Paleocene-Eocene breccia deposits with growth strata geometry that records the initial growth of the Luberon anticline during the Pyrenean-Provence compression [START_REF] Clauzon | Sur la présence d'une brèche syn-orogénique d'âge paléogène dans le chaînon du Petit Luberon (Vaucluse)[END_REF][START_REF] Villeger | Phases tectoniques post-éocènes et structuration polyphasée du panneau de couverture nord provençal (Alpes externes méridionales)[END_REF]. The western Luberon anticline is globally covered by Burdigalian-Serravallian strata and Miocene wave-cut platforms [START_REF] Besson | Architecture du bassin rhodano-provençal miocène (Alpes, SE France), Relations entre déformation, physiographie et sédimentation dans un bassin molassique d'avant-pays[END_REF]. Along section T1, the eastern Luberon structure is a north verging thrust-related anticline associated with a south verging back thrust (Figure 3). The recent compressional reactivation of eastern Luberon was recorded as before the Messinian salinity crisis [START_REF] Clauzon | Morphostructural evolution of the Luberon since the Miocene (SE France)[END_REF]. The 71D10 and VL85J seismic profiles reveal that the eastern Luberon ramp dips ~15°through the Middle Jurassic to Cenozoic series (Figure 7). The thrust probably connects down in the Triassic evaporites along the Middle Durance fault zone.

The Apt basin is a 20 km long and 40 km wide slightly deformed syncline that is filled by ~600 m thick Oligocene to Tortonian series (Figures 1 and3). This basin was transported northward on the Ventoux-Lure thrust system, which is an east trending 65 km long range (Figure 1). The Ventoux-Lure range superimposes on a major Early Cretaceous paleogeographic limit that delimited the Vocontian basin to the north (Baronnies) from the southern Provence Platform to the south [START_REF] Arnaud | Subsidence in certain domains of south-eastern France during the Ligurian Thetys opening and spreading stages[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | The geometry of a deformed carbonate slope-basin transition: The Ventoux-Lure fault zone[END_REF][START_REF] Mascle | The petroleum systems of the Southeast Basin and Gulf of Lion (France), in The Mediterranean Basins: Tertiary Extension Within the Alpine Orogen[END_REF]. Both cross sections suggest that the overall geometry of the Ventoux-Lure hanging wall consists of an ~5°S to 10°S dipping homocline formed of massive Early Cretaceous marine limestone (Figure 3). The Ventoux-Lure hanging wall is deformed by the Vaucluse Mounts anticline to the west and by the NNE trending Oligocene Sault graben in the center (Figures 1 and4). The footwall of the Ventoux-Lure thrust corresponds to imbrications of closely spaced north verging thrusts and narrow asymmetric synclines filled by Oligocene-Miocene series (Figures 5c and8). Preserved or tilted normal fault scarps are common between Mesozoic and Oligocene-Miocene series [START_REF] Casagrande | Le massif de Suzette (Vaucluse): L'inversion tectonique d'un graben oligocène[END_REF]]. An Oligocene fault that cuts the Ventoux thrust shows major thrusting before the Oligocene; i.e., during the Pyrenean-Provence shortening (Figures 5c and8). In part, the reactivation of the Ventoux thrust is post-Miocene, as revealed by the deformed Miocene series [START_REF] Villeger | Phases tectoniques post-éocènes et structuration polyphasée du panneau de couverture nord provençal (Alpes externes méridionales)[END_REF].

The geology of the southern edge of the Baronnies basin is characterized by east trending faultpropagation folds and Jurassic-Early Cretaceous syn-sedimentary normal faults that were associated with Tectonics 10.1002/2016TC004115 salt migration, like the Propiac diapir in cross section T2 [START_REF] Casagrande | Le massif de Suzette (Vaucluse): L'inversion tectonique d'un graben oligocène[END_REF] (Figures 1 and4). Crosssection balancing suggests that the thick Mesozoic sedimentary infilling of the southern edge of the Baronnies zone was expulsed southward without basement-fault reactivation, as suggested by [START_REF] Roure | Cenozoic inversion structures in the foreland of the Pyrenees and Alps, in Peri-Tethys Memoir 2: Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands[END_REF] and [START_REF] Mascle | The petroleum systems of the Southeast Basin and Gulf of Lion (France), in The Mediterranean Basins: Tertiary Extension Within the Alpine Orogen[END_REF]. Shortening was accommodated southward by internal thrust folds and in the Ventoux-Lure thrust as an intercutaneous wedge (Figures 3 and4). Thrusting activity occurred during the Lutetian-Bartonian, as revealed by locally preserved syntectonic conglomerates with growth-strata patterns [START_REF] Montenat | Enregistrement des événements pyrénéo-provençaux dans les chaînes subalpines méridionales (Baronnies, France). Sédimentation continentale et tectonique éocènes[END_REF] (Figure 1) and during the Neogene [START_REF] Villeger | Phases tectoniques post-éocènes et structuration polyphasée du panneau de couverture nord provençal (Alpes externes méridionales)[END_REF][START_REF] Casagrande | Le massif de Suzette (Vaucluse): L'inversion tectonique d'un graben oligocène[END_REF].

Campanian-Eocene Pyrenean-Provence Shortening Versus Oligocene Ligurian and Neogene Alpine Deformations

The Provence fold-and-thrust belt recorded superimposed deformations from the Campanian to the present day, due to the Pyrenean-Provence and Alpine compressions, and to the rifting of the Ligurian basin. Crosssections T1 and T2 of Figures 3 and4 are restored just after and before the Campanian-Eocene compression, i.e., Late Eocene and latest Santonian, respectively. Assuming that the top of the uppermost Santonian series was horizontal before the shortening, restoration allows modeling of the pretectonic basement geometry before the Campanian-Eocene Pyrenean-Provence compression. The Late Eocene restorations allow the precise quantification of the Pyrenean-Provence shortening and the geometry of the Provence Chain before the Oligocene Ligurian and Neogene Alpine deformations.

The restoration of cross-sections T1 and T2 at the end of the Eocene indicates that the post-Eocene to present-day horizontal tectonic movement is small, at about 1.5 km (Figures 3a and4b). The Oligocene extension is associated with high-dipping normal to strike-slip faults, delimiting grabens and half [START_REF] Arnaud | Le gypse triasique de la vallée de l'Huveaune (Bouches-du-Rhône) a été karstifié pendant le Crétacé supérieur. Implications tectoniques[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF] (Figures 5a and5b). The Neogene Alpine deformation is minor and is associated with reactivated inherited strike-slip faults, thrusts, and folding in the western thin-skinned Provence domain [e.g., [START_REF] Champion | La déformation post-Miocène en Provence occidentale[END_REF][START_REF] Molliex | Tectonic and sedimentary inheritance on the structural framework of Provence (SE France): Importance of the Salon-Cavaillon Fault[END_REF] (Figure 5c).

The total Pyrenean-Provence shortening ranges from 9.6 km (7.8%) in the west to 46.4 km (26%) in the east (sections T1 and T2, respectively; Figures 3b and4b). The western thin-skinned Provence domain shows a homogeneous along-strike shortening of about 6 km to 7 km.

Kinematics of the Provence Thrust System

The development and evolution of the fold-and-thrust belts might be significantly controlled by upper crustal inheritance that developed during the contractional stage or continental rifting and the geometry of the preorogenic sedimentary wedge [e.g., [START_REF] Baby | Structure de la zone subandine de Bolivie: Influence de la géométrie des séries sédimentaires antéorogéniques sur la propagation des chevauchements[END_REF][START_REF] Coward | Balancing sections through inverted basins, in Modern Developments in Structural Interpretation, Validation and Modelling[END_REF][START_REF] Colletta | Tectonic inheritance, crustal architecture, and contrasting structural styles in the Venezuela Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Ziegler | Mechanical controls on collision-related compressional intraplate deformation[END_REF][START_REF] Kley | Tectonic inversion in the Santa Barbara System of the central Andean foreland thrust belt, northwestern Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Lacombe | Basement-involved shortening and deep detachment tectonics in forelands of orogens: Insights from recent collision belts (Taiwan, Western Alps, Pyrenees)[END_REF][START_REF] Butler | Structural inheritance in mountain belts: An Alpine-Apennine perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Paleozoic structural controls on shortening transfer in the Subandean foreland thrust system, Ene and southern Ucayali basins, Peru[END_REF]. The Provence foreland is characterized by contrasted Variscan and Mesozoic structural and sedimentary inheritances [START_REF] Roure | Cenozoic inversion structures in the foreland of the Pyrenees and Alps, in Peri-Tethys Memoir 2: Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF]. Extensional basement faults inherited from Late Carboniferous-Permian to Early Triassic times controlled the location of the deformation during the Pyrenean-Provence compression and the synchronous activity of some thrusts over a long period of time (up to ~40 Myr) [START_REF] Espurt | Geometry and kinematic evolution of a long-living foreland structure inferred from field data and cross section balancing, the Sainte-Victoire System[END_REF].

Structural inheritance in Provence accounts for significant along-strike variations, in terms of the structural architecture, tectonic style, and shortening (Figures 3 and4). The difference in tectonic style and shortening between sections T1 and T2 might be accommodated by left-lateral strike-slip motion along the NE trending Aix-Middle Durance fault system south of the Valensole Plateau (Figure 1). Subsurface data and balanced [START_REF] Casagrande | Le massif de Suzette (Vaucluse): L'inversion tectonique d'un graben oligocène[END_REF]. This observation provides evidence for major prestructuration of Ventoux thrust during the Pyrenean-Provence compression. Bedding traces are enhanced by black lines. UTM31 view location: 667727; 4893779. For location, see also Figures 1,4a (cross-section T2), and 5c.

Tectonics 10.1002/2016TC004115 cross sections suggest that this fault system led to major thickness variations of the preorogenic Mesozoic pile between western and eastern Provence, due to the Mesozoic normal faulting (Figures 1, 3, and4). No geological evidence that might support a Cenozoic reactivation of the deep Middle Durance basement fault is visible [START_REF] Roure | Cenozoic inversion structures in the foreland of the Pyrenees and Alps, in Peri-Tethys Memoir 2: Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands[END_REF]]. This fault system had the role of an accommodation zone, in the sense of [START_REF] Faulds | The role of accommodation zones and transfer zones in the regional segmentation of extended terranes, in Accommodation Zones and Transfer Zones; the Regional Segmentation of the Basin and Range Province[END_REF], between the eastern thick-skinned domain and the western thin-skinned domain during the Pyrenean-Provence shortening. The footwall of the Aix-Middle Durance fault zone may have acted as a buttress to the N-S Pyrenean-Provence shortening [START_REF] Andreani | New structural constraints on the southern Provence thrust belt (France): Evidence for a Eocene shortening event linked to the Corsica-Sardinia subduction[END_REF], thus preventing the transfer of the thick-skinned shortening within the sedimentary cover of the western Provence. A small transfer of the thick-skinned shortening is only suspected in the Nerthe basement high [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF]. The shortening difference of 40 km observed in cross-section T1 in comparison with cross-section T2 might be also accommodated southward by thick-skinned basement thrusts that are now found in the offshore Ligurian basin and Sardinia [START_REF] Tempier | Modèle nouveau de mise en place des structures provençales[END_REF][START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF]. This along-strike structural behavior is also illustrated by the present-day compressional tectonic regime in Provence. West of the Middle Durance fault zone, most of the deep-seated seismic events related to the Alpine shortening are located near the basement-sedimentary cover interface (~8 km deep), which emphasizes the basement-cover detachment [START_REF] Terrier | Reassessment of the structural framework of western Provence (France): Consequence on the regional seismotectonic model[END_REF][START_REF] Cushing | A multidisciplinary study of a slow-slipping fault for seismic hazard assessment: The example of the Middle Durance Fault (SE France)[END_REF][START_REF] Molliex | Tectonic and sedimentary inheritance on the structural framework of Provence (SE France): Importance of the Salon-Cavaillon Fault[END_REF]. East of the Middle Durance fault zone, the existence of seismic events below the Valensole Plateau (Figure 1) at a similar depth as to the west demonstrates present-day tectonic strain within the basement.

Discussion: Reconstruction of the Provence Chain Evolution

Crustal structural inheritance can have major roles in the evolution of fold-and-thrust belts [START_REF] Lacombe | Basement-involved shortening and deep detachment tectonics in forelands of orogens: Insights from recent collision belts (Taiwan, Western Alps, Pyrenees)[END_REF]Butler et al., 2006, and references therein;[START_REF] Espurt | Lithospheric structural control on inversion of the southern margin of the Black Sea Basin, Central Pontides, Turkey[END_REF][START_REF] Bellahsen | Collision kinematics in the western external Alps[END_REF]. Little is known about the influence in terms of the geometry and thermal heterogeneities of the Provence crust and the associated Sardinia crust to the south [START_REF] Garibaldi | Thermal anomalies and geological structures in the Provence Basin; implications for hydrothermal circulations at depth[END_REF][START_REF] Le Pichon | Geodynamics of the France Southeast Basin[END_REF]. To evaluate and discuss the control of the deep processes on the structure, building, and evolution of the Provence Chain, we constructed a transorogenic (~400 km long) balanced cross-section T1′ at the scale of the lithosphere along section T1, which included the geodynamic evolution of the Ligurian basin and Sardinia to the south (Figure 9a).

In our construction, the geometry of the continental and oceanic crusts in the Ligurian basin under the post-Messinian series is modeled using lateral seismic reflection data of [START_REF] Rollet | Back-arc extension, tectonic inheritance, and volcanism in the Ligurian Sea, Western Mediterranean[END_REF] and [START_REF] Bache | Evolution of rifted continental margins: The case of the Gulf of Lions (Western Mediterranean Basin)[END_REF]. The geometry of Sardinia was simplified as a homogenous basement block that included the Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary cover. On the basis of the above-mentioned deep geophysical data, along section T1 we calculated a present crustal area of ~3 052 km 2 for the Sardinia continental crust and ~4 513 km 2 for the Eurasian continental crust (Figure 9a).

The present-day geometry of the Eurasian continental crust is characterized by southward thinning, from ~35 km beneath the Baronnies basin to ~7 km beneath the north Ligurian basin passive margin (Figure 9a) [START_REF] Jiménez-Munt | Active deformation in the Mediterranean from Gibraltar to Anatolia inferred from numerical modelling and geodetic and seismological data[END_REF][START_REF] Tesauro | EuCRUST-07: A new reference model for the European crust[END_REF][START_REF] Garibaldi | Thermal anomalies and geological structures in the Provence Basin; implications for hydrothermal circulations at depth[END_REF]. This crustal thinning might result from the Oligocene rifting and drifting of the Ligurian basin (by more than 200 km) that was associated with the counterclockwise rotation of the Sardinia-Corsica block [START_REF] Rollet | Back-arc extension, tectonic inheritance, and volcanism in the Ligurian Sea, Western Mediterranean[END_REF]. Similar thinning was observed west of the study area in the Gulf of Lion, by [START_REF] Séranne | Structural style and evolution of the Gulf of Lion Oligo-Miocene rifting: Role of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF] and [START_REF] Benedicto | Low-angle crustal ramp and basin geometry in the Gulf of Lion passive margin: Oligocene-Aquitanian Vistrenque graben[END_REF] (Figure 2a). In contrast to the Gulf of Lion, onshore the Pyrenean basement thrusts were less reactivated in Provence area. Oligocene structures might be hidden under thick post-Messinian sequences of the Ligurian basin [START_REF] Rollet | Back-arc extension, tectonic inheritance, and volcanism in the Ligurian Sea, Western Mediterranean[END_REF].

Three stages of deformation of the Provence Chain can be reconstructed from the Triassic to the Eocene, which are illustrated in Figure 9 and discussed below. In this sequential restoration, we balanced the crustal areas of Eurasia and Sardinia through consecutive deformational episodes according to the paleothicknesses and erosion of the sedimentary cover and basement units along the margins of the Ligurian basin [e.g., [START_REF] Jakni | Thermochronologie par traces de fission des marges conjuguées du bassin liguro-provençal: la Corse et le massif des Maures-Tanneron[END_REF][START_REF] Bestani | Géométrie et cinématique de l'avant-pays provençal: Modélisation par coupes équilibrées dans une zone à tectonique polyphasée[END_REF][START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF].

1. The Triassic stage (post-Variscan structure): Late Paleozoic tectonic map reconstruction of Figure 2d shows that the Eurasia-Provence and Sardinia crusts were separated by a major east to NE trending dextral shear zone [START_REF] Matte | The Variscan collage and orogeny (480 ± 290 Ma) and the tectonic definition of the Armorica microplate: A review[END_REF][START_REF] Rossi | A restored section of the "southern Variscan realm" across the Corsica-Sardinia microcontinent[END_REF][START_REF] Guillot | Paleozoic evolution of the External Crystalline Massifs of the Western Alps[END_REF]. This major deformation zone is interpreted as the eastern continuation of the North-Pyrenean Fault Zone between Eurasia and Sardinia [START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF]. Tectonic map reconstruction indicates a dextral strike-slip Tectonics 10.1002/2016TC004115 component of more than 300 km. Because this shear zone prevents precise reconstruction of the lithosphericscale balanced cross section, we assume a simplified Triassic geometry for this deformation zone, which included surficial Late Carboniferous-Permian to Early Triassic half-grabens [START_REF] Bestani | Structural style and evolution of the Pyrenean-Provence thrust belt, SE France[END_REF] and a thinned crust, probably associated with ductile deformations (Figure 9d). [START_REF] Advokaat | Eocene rotation of Sardinia, and the paleogeography of the western Mediterranean region[END_REF], the restoration before the Pyrenean-Provence compression shows an ~140 km wide rift system with crustal hyperextension between Eurasia and Sardinia (Figure 9c). This modeled rifting zone can be interpreted as the relay zone between the Pyrenean rift and Valais domain [START_REF] Stampfli | Subduction and obduction processes in the Swiss Alps[END_REF][START_REF] Rosenbaum | Relative motions of Africa, Iberia and Europe during Alpine orogeny[END_REF][START_REF] Bellahsen | Collision kinematics in the western external Alps[END_REF], although the age of the Valais domain is debated (middle to late Jurassic or/and early Cretaceous) [e.g., Beltrando et al., 2012, and references therein]. The Provence and Sardinia regions were uplifted and subject to major erosion associated with bauxites deposition since Albian and until the beginning of the Late Cretaceous (e.g., "Durance uplift").

Our reconstruction is consistent with the paleogeography of [START_REF] Hennuy | Sédimentation carbonate et silicoclastique sous contrôle tectonique, le bassin sud-provençal et sa plate-forme carbonatée du Turonien au Coniacien moyen[END_REF], which included basement high located close to sea level between the Provence and Sardinia. This massif constituted by Variscan rocks was eroded during the Middle Cretaceous-Santonian period, whence it fed terrigenous sediments at least into the Beausset basin in the north (Figure 9c).

In this rifting context, the restoration suggests extreme crustal thinning of the southern Provence crust between the underlying mantle lithosphere and the Mesozoic sedimentary cover. In contrast to the Pyrenees, the Provence rift shows no field evidence for mantle exhumation or ductile deformation at shallow crustal level [START_REF] Duée | Les lherzolites associées aux Chaînons Béarnais (Pyrénées Occidentales): Mise à l'affleurement anté-dogger et resédimentation albo-cénomanienne[END_REF][START_REF] Roure | ECORS deep seismic data and balanced cross sections: Geometric constraints on the evolution of the Pyrenees[END_REF][START_REF] Specht | Tectonique de chevauchement le long du profil ECORS-Pyrénées: un modèle d'évolution de prisme d'accrétion continental[END_REF][START_REF] Lagabrielle | Mantle exhumation, crustal denudation, and gravity tectonics during Cretaceous rifting in the Pyrenean realm (SW Europe): Insights from the geological setting of the lherzolite bodies[END_REF][START_REF] Clerc | Exhumation of subcontinental mantle rocks: Evidence from ultramafic-bearing clastic deposits nearby the Lherz peridotite body, French Pyrenees[END_REF][START_REF] Vacherat | Thermal imprint of riftrelated processes in orogens as recorded in the Pyrenees[END_REF] because these inner features have been erased by the Oligocene Ligurian rifting and drifting. On the basis of our cross-section restauration and paleogeographic reconstruction (Figures 2 and9c), the N-S total crustal extension achieved in this zone between the Triassic and Santonian is estimated to be at least of 40-45 km. This partitioned rift model, including a central basement high between Provence and Sardinia, is similar to that proposed in eastern and central Pyrenees between the North-Pyrenean Fault to the south and Eurasia to the north [START_REF] Clerc | Thermal control on the modes of crustal thinning leading to mantle exhumation: Insights from the Cretaceous Pyrenean hot paleomargins[END_REF]. The extension amount calculated for Provence rift is close to the minimum values (~50 km) estimated in the eastern and central Pyrenees by [START_REF] Vergés | Mesozoic evolution and Cainozoic inversion of the Pyrenean Rift, in Peri-Tethys Memoir 6: Peri-Tethyan Rift/Wrench Basins and Passive Margins[END_REF] and [START_REF] Mouthereau | Placing limits to shortening evolution in the Pyrenees: Role of margin architecture and implications for the Iberia/Europe convergence[END_REF], respectively.

3. The Eocene stage (post-Pyrenean-Provence compression): From north to south, the Eocene restoration shows that the Provence orogen was formed by an outer thin-skinned thrust system that deformed a thick Mesozoic sedimentary cover north of the Aix-Middle Durance fault system, an inner north verging thick-skinned system, and the Sardinia continental block bounded southward by the Tethys subduction system. As the Oligocene deformation in the outer Provence belt was small, the crustal geometry is similar to the present in this zone, although the inner basement thrust system thickened the crust to up to ~20 km (Figure 9b).

During the inversion process, we propose a tectonic model where the previously extended and thermally weakened area was sandwiched between Eurasia and Sardinia. In this model, the strong Eurasia lithosphere [START_REF] Le Pichon | Geodynamics of the France Southeast Basin[END_REF] behaved as a lower tectonic wedge that indented the Sardinia continental block at the crust-mantle boundary [START_REF] Roure | Alpine inversion of the North African margin and delamination of its continental lithosphere[END_REF]. We propose that the indentation of this lithospheric-scale tectonic wedge was accommodated by inversion of north verging crustal faults (e.g., Cap Sicié thrust), north directed subduction of the dense Sardinia mantle lithosphere under the Provence, and ductile thickening of the Provence mantle lithosphere (Figure 9b). This model does not involve the midcrustal detachment level as suggested previously by [START_REF] Vially | Geodynamics of the Gulf of Lions: Implications for petroleum exploration, in Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands, Peri-Téthys Mem[END_REF] across the entire Provence crust, but has crust/mantle interface detachment in the internal zone where the crustal thickness was reduced, and thrusts that cut through the crust of the Provence margin (Figures 9b and9c) [START_REF] Butler | Area balancing as a test of models for the deep structure of mountain belts, with specific reference to the Alps[END_REF]. The small crustal volume of Sardinia prevents the construction of an alternative balanced cross section with underthrusting of crustal material of Sardinia beneath the Eurasian crust during the collision. However, the overthrusting of the Sardinia block on the Provence crust is consistent with apatite fission track data along the western margin of Sardinia, which recorded the Late Cretaceous-Eocene cooling ages [START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF]. Our structural model, in which the crust is decoupled from the mantle lithosphere during the Pyrenean-Provence orogeny, is an efficient thickening mechanism that leads to the structural culmination of the inner thick-skinned Provence associated with a thin crust (Figure 9b).

Although the structural model illustrated in Figure 9 includes neither precise geometry of the Middle Cretaceous hyperextended rift system at depth nor the internal structure of the Sardinia block, we calculate a N-S total crustal shortening in this sector of the Provence Chain of ~155 km (~35%) over the Late Cretaceous-Eocene period (Figure 9b). This estimate of the Pyrenean-Provence contraction is a minimum value mainly because the original crustal thicknesses and rift geometry has to be better constrained. Most of this shortening Tectonics 10.1002/2016TC004115 is accommodated in the internal basement imbrication of the thick-skinned Provence belt. Ductile Triassic evaporites and thick sedimentary cover in western Provence might have favored the thin-skinned tectonic style and transfer of compressional stress in the Baronnies zone up to 100 km away from the inner orogenic wedge (Figures 1 and9). In contrast to the Pyrenees, which involved the stacking of at least three south verging crustal thrust sheets [e.g., [START_REF] Muñoz | Evolution of a continental collision belt: ECORS-Pyrenees crustal balanced cross-section[END_REF][START_REF] Teixell | The crustal evolution of the west-central Pyrenees revisited: Inferences from a new kinematic scenario[END_REF], the Provence Chain localized the overall crustal shortening along at least three north verging thrust sheets (Figure 9b). This northward structural stacking was controlled by inherited north dipping weakness zones in Provence margin related to the Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic rifting events and the high rigidity of the Variscan basement of Sardinia [START_REF] Tesauro | How rigid is Europe's lithosphere?[END_REF][START_REF] Rossi | A restored section of the "southern Variscan realm" across the Corsica-Sardinia microcontinent[END_REF]. However, these structures might have been removed by erosion or Neogene deformation.

The minimum crustal shortening amount (~155 km) across the Provence Chain is higher than the calculated ~95-100 km in the western Pyrenees [START_REF] Teixell | The crustal evolution of the west-central Pyrenees revisited: Inferences from a new kinematic scenario[END_REF], ~122-142 km [START_REF] Mouthereau | Placing limits to shortening evolution in the Pyrenees: Role of margin architecture and implications for the Iberia/Europe convergence[END_REF] in the central Pyrenees and ~125 km [START_REF] Vergés | Eastern Pyrenees and related foreland basins: Pre-, syn-and post-collisional crustal-scale cross-sections[END_REF] in the eastern Pyrenees for approximately the same period (Late Cretaceous-Eocene period). This eastward increase of the shortening amount might result from a higher amount of subduction in the Provence segment, which is consistent with counterclockwise rotation of the Sardinia block with respect to Iberia during the Pyrenean-Provence contractional period [START_REF] Advokaat | Eocene rotation of Sardinia, and the paleogeography of the western Mediterranean region[END_REF].

Conclusions

Surface structural data, seismic profiles, exploration wells, and previously published deep geophysical data together with tectonic map reconstructions have been combined here with crustal-scale to lithospheric-scale structural balancing techniques. These have thus contributed to an understanding of the dynamics of the Provence Chain and its long-term history of deformation insight into the Pyrenean and Mediterranean geodynamics.

The construction of two crustal-scale sections (~120 km long) across the present Provence belt indicates various structural styles that include deep-seated basement faults that affect the entire crust, tectonic inversions of Paleozoic-Mesozoic basins, shallower décollements within sedimentary cover, and salt diapirism. The thrust belt is also characterized by heterogeneous shortening along the strike, accommodated by a regional accommodation zone, the Aix-Middle Durance fault system, overlying a Paleozoic basement grain.

Although Oligocene-Miocene rifting and Neogene Alpine compression led to additional structural complexity (including the Ligurian continental break-up and the counterclockwise rotation of the Sardinia-Corsica block), this deformation is small (1.5 km of horizontal tectonic movement) across the present Provence belt in comparison with the Pyrenean-Provence deformation (up to 46.4 km of shortening). Consequently, the major trend of the present-day tectonic framework of Provence belt results from the Late Cretaceous-Eocene compression.

The construction of a sequentially restored cross section across the Provence-Sardinia orogen (~400 km long) at the scale of the lithosphere suggests strong similarities between Provence and Pyrenean geodynamics. The Provence belt shows evidence for Middle Cretaceous rifting between Eurasia and Sardinia that links the Pyrenean rift to the west and the Valais domain to the northeast. Restoration suggests a partitioned rift system with crustal hyperextension. The total crustal extension achieved in this zone is estimated at least of 40-45 km. During Late Cretaceous-Eocene inversion, the Eurasian lithosphere formed a rigid indent into the Sardinia lithosphere at the crust-mantle boundary. This shortening was accommodated by inversion of north verging inherited crustal faults and north directed subduction of the Sardinia mantle lithosphere under the Provence associated with ductile thickening of the Provence mantle lithophere. The total crustal shortening in the Provence segment reaches ~155 km (35%). This value is higher than in the Pyrenees for the same period. It might result from an eastward increase in the amount of subduction associated with counterclockwise rotation of the Sardinia with respect to Iberia during the Pyrenean-Provence compression.

This study shows the prime control of the Variscan structural inheritance over a long period of time on the tectonic evolution of a geological system, the Provence orogen. This includes mechanical heterogeneities, such as Late Paleozoic rift structures and shear zones, reactivated during Middle Cretaceous rifting between Eurasia and Sardinia. In domains where Mesozoic rifting is well marked, inherited basement normal faults and the weak crust favored the formation of an inner thick-skinned thrust belt during Late Cretaceous-Eocene contraction. During the Oligocene, these domains were still predisposed for the localized faulting of the Ligurian basin rifting and the seafloor spreading between Provence and Sardinia.

Tectonics 10.1002/2016TC004115

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Geological and structural settings of the Provence basin (modified from Bestani et al. [2015]). Cross sections (T1 and T2) and wells are shown. Synthetic stratigraphic and lithotectonic sedimentary columns of the western thin-skinned Provence domain and eastern thick-skinned Provence domain are shown. Major unconformities are enhanced by a wavy line. Major décollement levels are shown. Co: Corsica. Sa: Sardinia. LC Cg: La Ciotat conglomerates. Bx: Bauxite.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Tectonic map reconstructions of the Pyrenean-Provence orogenic system and western Mediterranean Sea from Paleozoic to present day (based on Choukroune et al. [1990], Matte [2001], Dèzes et al. [2004], Lacombe and Jolivet [2005], Guillot and Menot [2009], Bache et al. [2010], Molli and Malavieille [2011], and Advokaat et al. [2014]). Location of cross-section T1′ (Figure 9) is shown. CF: Cévennes fault. NF: Nîmes fault. AF: Aix-en-Provence fault. MDF: Middle Durance fault. TF: Toulouse fault. MTM: Maures Tanneron-Esterel massifs. TS: Tyrrhenian Sea.

  [2004],[START_REF] Lacombe | Structural and kinematic relationships between Corsica and the Pyrenees-Provence domain at the time of the Pyrenean orogeny[END_REF],[START_REF] Bache | Evolution of rifted continental margins: The case of the Gulf of Lions (Western Mediterranean Basin)[END_REF], and[START_REF] Malusà | Tracking the Adriatic-slab travel beneath the Tethyan margin of Corsica-Sardinia by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF] (Figures1 and 2). We also integrated tectonic reconstruction maps of[START_REF] Choukroune | Major Hercynian thrust along the ECORS Pyrenees and Biscay lines[END_REF],[START_REF] Matte | The Variscan collage and orogeny (480 ± 290 Ma) and the tectonic definition of the Armorica microplate: A review[END_REF],[START_REF] Guillot | Paleozoic evolution of the External Crystalline Massifs of the Western Alps[END_REF],Molli and Malavieille [2011], and[START_REF] Advokaat | Eocene rotation of Sardinia, and the paleogeography of the western Mediterranean region[END_REF] for location of the Sardinia during Late Paleozoic to present day.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Balanced and restored cross-section T1. (a) Present day. (b) Late Eocene state at the end of the Pyrenean orogeny. (c) Santonian before the Pyrenean-Provence compression. For location, see Figure 1. MDFZ: Middle Durance fault zone.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Balanced and restored cross-section T2. (a) Present day. (b) Late Eocene-Late Eocene state at the end of the Pyrenean orogeny. (c) Santonian before the Pyrenean-Provence compression. For location, see Figure 1.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Examples of restoration of the Pyrenean-Provence thrusts (thick red lines). (a) The Sainte-Baume (1) and Aurélien (2) thrusts were deformed by a set of high-dipping normal faults, which included migration of Triassic salt (Huveaune basin). (b) Formation of the Oligocene St. Julien basin above the Nerthe thrust (3). (c) Formation of the Oligocene-Miocene Malaucène basin above the Ventoux thrust (4). For location, see Figures 3 and 4. Li: Initial length. Lf: Final length.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. Interpretation of seismic profile 82SE4D across the Istres syncline close to section T2. For location, see Figures 1 and 4a (cross-section T2).

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. Interpretations of seismic profile (a) 71D10 and (b) VL85J across the eastern Luberon anticline and Middle Durance fault zone. For location, see Figures 1 and 3a (cross-section T1).

  local migration of Triassic salt

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. East looking panoramic view of the Ventoux thrust and Miocene Malaucène basin. The Ventoux thrust is cut by an Oligocene normal fault sealed by Miocene foresets[START_REF] Casagrande | Le massif de Suzette (Vaucluse): L'inversion tectonique d'un graben oligocène[END_REF]. This observation provides evidence for major prestructuration of Ventoux thrust during the Pyrenean-Provence compression. Bedding traces are enhanced by black lines. UTM31 view location: 667727; 4893779. For location, see also Figures1, 4a(cross-section T2), and 5c.

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. Lithospheric-scale balanced and restored cross-section T1′ across the entire Pyrenean-Provence orogenic system along cross-section T1 and Sardinia. Crustal and lithosphere thickness determined by deep geophysical data from Jiménez-Munt et al. [2003] (black point), Tesauro et al. [2008], and Garibaldi et al. [2010] (red points). See details in text and legend in Figure 3. For location, see Figure 2. MDFZ: Middle Durance fault zone. SVM: Sainte-Victoire Mountain. AM: Aurélien Mount. SB: Sainte-Baume. B: Bandol. CS: Cap Sicié. VB: Vocontian basin. DU: Durance uplift. BB: Beausset basin. Ext.: Extension. Short.: Shortening.

Acknowledgments

This research project was co-financed by the Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives; CASHIMA program), the French CNRS-INSU program SYSTER, and by the PACA region. Midland Valley is acknowledged for providing academic license of Move for structural modeling. We thank C. Montenat, J.-M. Triat, J. Philip, M. Floquet, S. Leleu, N. Cherpeau, J. Giuliano, and A. Masrouhi for fieldwork and helpful discussions. C. Berrie provided valuable improvement of an earlier version of the manuscript. We acknowledge the Associate Editor, Nicolas Bellahsen, François Roure, and an anonymous reviewer for the constructive comments which greatly helped us to improve our manuscript. All data for this paper are properly cited and referred to in the reference list and available by contacting the corresponding author (espurt@cerege.fr).