Philippe Ruffio

Increasing lifelong Learning in European higher education : supporting the teaching changes

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

SUMMARY

Implementing the concept of lifelong learning is a major challenge for the future of higher education institutions. They will have to adapt the .onl"nt and lormats of their teaching to face the following quadruple challenge:

-the evolution of teachers' role and mission; -the emergence of new learning and knowledge legitimisation processes; -itre integiation of disciplines and thematic contents; -the impfimentation of ôrganisational and pedagogical innovation' This paper puts forward the view that these new orientations should take place at the European level' Inter-university co-operation is a strategy and a first-choice tool to put togetherthe means and expert skills required to undertake tlle n"""rrury-uduptations. Exploiting the skills.and expertise previously acquired in community education programmes should not be oveilooked; neither should the reflection and experimentation tn teaching" "uiira out over the last three years by the Erasmus Thematic Networks. The experience acquired (1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) provides a significant-means of mobilisation and innovation to help *"", ttt"^ lifelong learning .hulltng", .subject' of course' to the necessary acknowledgement and support of the higher education authorities' As the century draws to a close, the future of higher education in Europe and worldwide appears to raise unpreceiented interest. Intemational organis*ations like IJNESCO and the European Commission have, in the last few years, published analyses and statements targeted at public authorities, cirawing their attention to the org"nt n."a for fundamental reform' The years 1997,98 and 99 in particular were Àurt"a by major polidcal commitments based on the previous reflection, groundwork and practical achievements of educational stakeholders (teachers, students, researchers, administrators,")' These statements define the context and strategic fràmework of the future. The European Commission's 1997 communication ,1owards a Europe oI Knowledge", the universal declaration on higher education adopted in paris in october t998, ihe joint statements issued by Education Ministers gâthered in Paris and Bologna in May lggg and June 1-ggg, respectively_, all stress the new expectations'and challenges to higher-education and share the common putpot" of refle-cting new requirements, considering new moda"lities of public authority intervention and demanding effective short-and mid-term measures' As an introduction to the "F2000" conference and as a supplement to Professor Thomas's contribution, the aim of this paper is to raise specific questions on the consequences of the priority given to the lifelong learning concept on thà contents of university syllabi' and to discuss the Ippropriateness of *ôbitring-Europ"in means to support these changes' It proposes that we should .àpitufir" on the gains of university co-operation in -Europe, which have greatly intensified over the last decade, thanks to the various community education prograÛrmes' In particu-lar, it proposes capitalising on the results from the pilot actioni carried out over the last three years by the European Commissiàn through the ERAsMUS Thematic Networks' CHANGING TIIGITER EDUCATION4... The political consensus currently emerging in most developed countries not only in Europe but world- wide involves four main orièntations. It reasserts that higher education is an essential component of cultural, social and human development of individuals, communities and ndtions, with special emphasis on the political dimension fthe consolidation of peaceful and democratic societies) as well as economics (graduate employability, links with the job market). It includes the act of educating and training as a long-ter* p.o"Ls to provide learners *ittt ttt" optimal means and arrangements adapted to their lifelong t"u*in!. It underlines the appropriateness ofireating an open space for teaching and training beyonà state bÀrndaries, with u .onôâ* ior solidarity, efficiency, performance and respect for diversiîy and differences. Lastly, it recommends improving the mechanisms of higher education *unug.-*"nt by updating management practi""r unà establishing forward looking and strategic thinking at the state and institution levels.

Beyond these general policy statements, it is crucial above all to consider the conditions for their implementatioriand the means to be mobilised to achieve success. More specifically, referring to the context and stakes within the European Union, careful analysis of the work p_roposed by the Commission, or more recently by the -Ministers of Education in the June 1999 Joint Statement, raises four types of problems:

-The capacity to handle change and apply future-oriented management, within the framework of a true governance, is a cruciil challenge for our institutions, which have to set up means and procedures for systematic stràtegic plaining (target definition, means identification, follow-up and the assessment of the results), -*hôr"ur thé policies implemented are often historical and rarely stem from rational and voluntary approaches;

In an open, newly competitive space where education is regarded as an international marketable products, national forums are no longer appropriate to carry out that strategic reflection even if they remain the legal and organisational reference;

The structural, organisational, managerial and financial evolution of higher education is a necessity, as underlined in a number of recent analyses and whose main aspects v/ere outlined by Professor Thomas in the first introductory paper to this Conference; and

Education/training syllabi should be adapted to reflect the development of knowledge, the emergence of new needs, the recognition of new learning and knowledge validation processes, as well as the introduction of new pedagogical tools and the growing involvement of non-university providers (private and profit-making institutions, in particular),

Underlying organisational issues are generally perceived as strategic by university officials and politicians in power, who retain the direct means to mobilise themselves around those issues. In contrast, educational contents, in their discipline or thematic dimensions, are often neglected in policy discussions, as they are often regarded as the exclusive prerogative of teachers and scientists, who are very anxious to preserve their freedom and independence in that respect. It is nevertheless obvious that the concept of lifelong learning will never be translated into operational benefits if appropriate means for in-depth reform of education practices and syllabi are not implemented. The strength of higher education establishments lies in their capacity to generate skills, expertise and knowledge. Reflections on teaching practices should therefore address the fundamental question of the role and standing of higher education institutions in the lifelong learning process.

... A PEDAGOGICAL AND HUMAN CTIALLENGE Regarding educational activities, stricto sensu, implementing these amounts to a dual pedagogical and human challenge. Four major changes are going to transform teaching, all of which will involve teachers, the main actors,

Changing the role of, teachers

Lifeiong learning leads to curriculum evolution and also to changes of role for those men and women who are in charge of teaching. It is also accompanied by a changed perception of the teaching profession. Teachers are no longer just the holders, producers (thanks to research activities) and the dispensers of knowledge. Their activities are shifting towards education design, the production of pedagogical tools and media, the organisation and the formatting of multiform and complex pieces of knowledge. Their steering and catalytic functions require new co-operative qualities, leading to dialogue with their peers and teamwork, in contrast to the current widespread individual ethic of higher education6, This tendency is all the stronger as the obligation to innovate pedagogically implies teamwork and partnership.

The relationship with learners should take their new characteristics and expectations into account. It is necessary to listen in order to advise, stimulate and guide them along an individual curriculum. This responsibility is all the greater as professional advancement is no longer the learner's sole motive; their aims are increasingly heterogeneous and changing. The teacher-tutor becomes a key link or go- between to the resource centres that the universities have become.

University teachers must also agree to share their roles with other staff. No longer the sole contributors, they must fit into networks and develop, among other things, relations with companies t ".g. '

The United States would like to include education bids in the next World Trade Organisation talks (Le Monde, 7 September 1999). and the job market as a whole, Indeed, in an organisation where work in itself is a source of knowledle and where activities are increasingly "intéfiigent", companies tend-to repossess retraining' if only bJcause un irrcreasing proportion of triining activities is carried out in the workplace' Teachers now are those who validate-tûe knowledge acquirid at work and formalise it within a context where collective solutions are increasingly diffiùlt to propose. This mission is all the more important as new ways of initiating and accrediting àipto*ur, u"làoùledging and validating training and previous work exierience are being developed and implemented'

New learning and knowledge legitimisation processes

The status of knowledge is undergoing deep upheaval in our post-modernist^society and highel education institutions aie especiall/invôtvea in tlis. For one thing, the status of scientific truth and knowledge is questioned and put into perspective by new philosophical trends whic'h question the scientism and positivism inherited from thô enfightenment and the Nineteenth Century and which modelled modern university institutions.

On the other hand, the modes and places of skill and knowledge acquisition are becoming more varied ;;à;;;i;;;;"; another: formal systems and skills are acquired through professional practice or by individuals on their own initiative. Knowledge accreditation processes are also evolving' piagmatism, which claims that knowledge is valid iflt is useful and used, tends to take precedence at the moment. It leads to a professionJisation of education and highlights practical and concrete ùo*t"ag" acquired p"tronuify and individually. In addition, employees are increasingly involved in the seleciion oi their own training objectives and methods' Under these conditions, higher education is no longer the only way to validate knowledge and skills'

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"onàition* and assessment ciiteria are also evolving' The task is no longer just toïssess'knowledge but also the know-how and know-how-to-be in an operational environment where economic partners may also become assessors. The ability to carry out a project. and to analyse the conditions of its implementation, together with its failure or success have become determining criteria' Gradually, contextual or siruational intelligence is being recognised as conceptual intelligence has been.

Transversatity and integration of disciplines and thetnes The public,s increased demand for educational quality and adaptation to their needs will make education and training change its targets, form and contents' Ongoing changes involve most disciplines at all educational levels.

.Although the emphasis is often focussed on the vocational aim of education, it should be borne in mind that scientific, technical or management disciplines are not the only ones concemed' The development of the humanities and the crlltural or artiitic disciplines is also going to expand, arising not only in the business sector (where ethics is an obvious example) but also from a growing demand from an increasing ,r.r*b", of pLople seeking new social links' These include active pensioners yho^se education level is ilcreasing ana Uuying poi.. is high in our western societies (e.g' the University for the Elderly). Another aiÀ of [f;lo;g learning l, to promote social integration and personal achievemenis of citizens, vocational or not. This "citizen" dimension, potentially applying to everyone, should not be underrated in the current provision of higher education institutions' Higher education teaching is going to have to accommodate an increasing number of youngsters who have access either througË th;oor*al channels or through the implementation o.{ th.e so-called "second chance,, channels, that Èive them access to higher education wiihout necessarily having to complete their secondary school "curriculum. This treni is going to -reinforce the move towards considering undergraduate education as an integral part of b,aslc eàucation and will upset the ways of countries where higher education has traditionally been elitist'

Higher education must also adapt specialised subject teaching as well as setting up specific syllabi to meet the demand for knowledge updating and adaptation. The need is to take scientific and technical advances into account, as well as including the emergence of new qualifications, the development of new economic activities with high intellectual input and changes in work organisation inside companies. University education indeed must keep ensuring knowledge transfer and organise the dissemination of research results.

Doctoral training and research cannot escape such changes. The doctorAl thesis is no longer just the entry ticket to an academic career but should also give access to the wider job market. In that respect, the range of subjects (vocational scope), the programme funding (multiple external co-operations) and the organisation of pait+ime research work are all evolving Within this overall context, educational priorities point to :

the orientation of teaching towards problem solving skills, to help learners mobilise their resources and skills and confront diverse and constantly evolving working situations. Knowledge is no longer sufficient; skills must be operational and situations must also to be learned; developing integrated, multidisciplinary and contexlual knowledge, to confront complex situations (either vocational or not) or to take up the challenge of new societal dernands (e,$, sustainable development).

reinforcement of the teaching of basic knowledge and methods. These skills should not be sacrificed but should, on the contrary, become a prerequisite to the changes described above.

O r ganis ational and p edago gical innov atio ns

It is also worth debating the contribution of educational technologies, whatever they are, towards the performance and quality of educational systems. The amateurish approach, which prevailed for a long time, can no longer provide appropriate solutions alone. In particular, investment iir cognitive and pedagogical sciences addressing higher education should be increased and above all the link should be improved between research findings and their practical exploitation. These activities should also be related to teacher education, where the stakes are considerable. This also applies to the training of university teachers, Without dwelling on a subject widely studied elsewhere, it is worth mentioning the need to consider the curriculum and programme changes required by information technology, which provides flexibility and easier access to education. In that area, education techniques often lag behind vocational or home practices. Fundamentally, higher education has to acknowledge and propose a wider range of learning methods, from personal study to distance leaming, via tutorship and on-site training, From the point of view of organisation, the development of part-time education, the alternation of work and learning periods and modular courses is aimed at proposing diversified, flexible, consistent and progressive courses assigned for each individual's personal and professional skills and assets. It will then be necessary to reassess and question the higher education approach and classical pedagogical progression, which favour the deductive method by giving priority to theoretical and logical thinking. Instead, pedagogies based on experience and reality should be devised, to bring a new dimension to practical knowledge and then to conceptualise it.

... A EUROPEAN COOPERATION CHALLENGE

Implementing new educational and training strategies, developing new pedagogical tools, reorganising and adapting institutions, all raise new problems and create new needs: the need for information and references to other practices, other realities, other experiences; the need for analyses, confrontations and critical comparisons; the need for tools and methods to tackle new problems and envisage alternative solutions; the needs for experiments to test and select new combinations and new material and pedagogical tools; the need for chànnels of communication to spread, try and compare experiences and lood-piactices; the need to bring together, to animate and exchange, and to co-ordinate in order to achieve greater cost effectiveness, etc'..

In a context where an open space for education and training is being outlined, where public funding is restricted, where compàtition is increasing, a national framework is no longer adapted to meet the challenges and find tÀe necessary means. The concept of a European strategy is obvious and is graduaùy imposing itself on policy makers and operators. The observation is not a new one' ln the past àecade ii rral triggàred a varièty oi initiatives such as the creation of non-profit organisations in charge of promoting IÀ'" idea of to-operation (e.g. Association of European Universities and the Confederation of European Union Rectors' Conferences); on a different scale, the European Commission education programmes have also developed'

However, it has to be acknowledged that, interesting as they may be, such initiatives are still not sufficient, in relation to the current issues at stake. The Haug Report presented during the Education Ministers' Conference in Bologna, in June 1999, confirmed the need to promote a co-ordinated approach that would take disciplines into account and proposed a few ways ahead. Likewise' the eutop"*n Commission has amông its future plans the creation of pilot, innovative, transnational proiects, creating European netwoiks with a view to bolstering the sharing of expertise and concepts.

'Studies are alsJ expected to improve comparisons between policies and systems in Europe and to identify innovative àpproaches more effectively. It has to be remembered that these.initiatives have arisen in a context *ità." higher education pedagogical research is particularly underdeveloped in the great majority of Member States. EXPLOITING COMMUNITY ASSETS... The lifelong learning idea has been a priority of the European Community for more than a decade' From 19g9, with the Social Charter of lubour's fundamental rights which set that principle, to'1998 and the adoption of guidelines for employment by the European Council in Vienna, the political priority wasimplemented in the new wave of community actions (reform of structural funds, second phase of the Leonardo programme, etc.). ln education, the'White paper "Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society" reaffirms the principle of wide and permânent access to knowledge. Its Objective 1 ("encouraging the acquisition of ne* tnor"tedge") has already resulted in a few achievements in the framework of Leonardo and Socrates. A sei of pilot projeits on the development of automated tests for skills and knowledge were initiated, with a viéw to developing validation prototypesT. These projects ^re part of a wider design to recognise knowledge and skills acquired outside educational systems (self-assessment tools, corporate trainîng support, und *unug.menf tools) and may lead to the development of pedagogical material better suited for such specific needs. They address students who want to acquire additional knowledge, young people who arô deprived of the possibility to improve or widen their knowledge for their p"rroîui benefit or to enteithe job markei and employees seeking additional training and updating. A àecisive step has been taken *ittr ttt" approval of ttre new Grundtvig action in the context of the second phase of Socrates.

Regarding higher education, a number of community co-operation assets can be taken into account uniput tJusJin future planning. Organisational frameworki and tools have been developed and tested in recent years which "un s.tu"it a basis to initiate, reinforce and accompany new actions: 7 A vatiety of areas have been selected. In Socrates : law, geography, environmental sciences and nutrition sciences, biology, chemistry, water resources-environment, adult learning, languages, statistics for engineers; in Leonardo : mathematics, physics, written expression, informatics, mapping of skills, banking, customer service, skills in industry.

Instirutionally, for example, there is the creation of the NARIC network, the setting up of the national agency network for the management of the Socrates and Erasmus programmes. It is also worth remembering the introduction of the Socrates institutional contract, as a preferred instrument to implement local community partnership policies; and

Pedagogically, it is worth mentioning the studies conducted on the "diploma supplement", the European Credit Transfer System, the curriculum development and European module activities, etc.

A pilot programme, which has been in operation for three years, known as the Erasmus Thematic

Networks, offers intefesting possibilities to support these developments at the level of the discipline.

AROUND AN ACCOMPANYING SYSTEM, THE ERASMUS TTTEMATIC

NETWORKS

In view of the complexity of the task ahead, the challenge before us implies, on the one hand, intensifying initiatives and projects within universities and developing European co-operation, on the other. However, it may be necessary to set up a support system to help universities and Member States make their organisational and pedagogical innovations.

To be effective, such an interface at the European level should fulfil three prerequisites: the involvement and participation of both the actors (teachers, students) and the educational institutions; providing relative independence and autonomy for them to act; and giving guidance encompassing not onfy institutional issues but also the discipline and thematic contents of curricula.

On the basis of the last three years' experience, the Erasmus Thematic Networks appear to have all the qualities required to form the basis of such a system and to support the move ahead, Indeed, their success is the direct result of the original combination of a tool, an approach and a framework.

A tool.., Thematic Networks are a tool for analysing and debating disciplines and themes at the European level to promote prospective thinking and to stimulate pedagogical innovation. Seven major areast have been explored, all potentially connected to issues related to lifelong learning. These activities involve teaching, scientific and institutional aspects as well as the relationship with the economic, social and technical environment of education. Basic education is far from being the sole concem of the Thematic Networks and many tackle issues related to new forms of teaching.

(i) Comparative analysis of educational policies and systems This is one of the major objectives of Networks, consisting of building up a common data and reference base; it has already produced a number of compilations and national monographs, Universities and public authorities can find there original material on higher education evolution and functioning (system organisation, the educational offer, diploma validation procedures, pedagogical syllabi and practices, new tools, etc). These studies provide useful data to promote and fuel reflection and to identify promising experiments and practices.

(ii) Analysis of the context and of society's and the job market's requirements Two dialectic approaches are prioritised. The first one aims at identifying and analysing societal, economic and technical changes in order to determine which higher education changes should be implemented in any given domain. The second approach deals with the role and contribution of higher education in the ongoing transformation of European society.

t For more information, see Ruffio (2000).

(iii) Production of teaching material

These activities include preparation, revision, translation, production and dissemination of innovative teaching material. Certain projects emphasise the innovative character of the contents; others are more specifically oriented towards innovative tools and teaching methods; others favour learning steps and knowledge validation.

(iv) Implementing new training programmes These activities, already included in the SocratesAErasmus institutional contract, clear the ground for future initiatives or contribute directly and substantially to new project design An approach and aframeworlc,,.

Thematic Networks favour the comparative approach and a meso-institutional method involving intermediate levels of higher education institutions (faculties, departments, institutes), where the reality and unity of teaching are expressed. It also relies on the direct involvement of university teachers and students.

Additionally, it is a framework which secures official recognition and provides financial means to support highly diversified initiatives. It encourages university geographical and institutional opening to non-EU countries and the civil society. It stimulates the development of partnerships outside higher education (with companies, non-governmental organisations, etc...). It promotes cohesion in the higher education teaching system by linking university and non-university institutions and permits the exploitation of their experiences and previous relations for co-operative purposes. These networks are cunently working on a transnational scale taking into consideration the complexity and diversity of teaching systems.

CONCLUSION

Implementing the concept of lifelong learning is a major challenge for the future of higher education, which will have to adapt the content and form of its teaching.

The overall context requires that these new orientations should be envisaged at the European level.

Inter-university co-operation is a strategy as well as a prefened tool to put together the means and the expertise to undertake the necessary developments.

Exploiting the experience from previous community education progranrmes may provide useful insights. This is the case for the support system set up three years ago in the form of the

  Agronomique de Rennes Département d'Économie rurale et de Gestion 65, Rue de Saint Brieuc F-35042 Rennes Cedex Tel : +33 223 48 5415 Fax : +33 223 48 54 t7 E-mail : ruffio @ agrorennes.educagri'fr DOCUlI,lEIITATIOil ÉCO}IOlT/lIE RtJMLE REiII,IES 33 I ililil ilililIil ilil ililtillfl ilil ill r* 0 0 6 S g Z -x

INTRODUCTION3

  en Formation Continue Universitaire Published for the DG EAC of the European Commission by EUCEN the European Universities Continuing Education Network 6 Quai Banning, B -4000 Liège ISBN 2-930260-08-4 EAN 9782930260082

  Developing tools to stimulate European co-operation These consist of lists of databases, directories, who's who in institutions, training programmes on offer, research themes, community tools(ECTS, diploma supplement); the tentative definition of a minimum syllabus at the European level for certain disciplines or themes; the consideration of foreign language teaching methods, multilinguism and multiculturalism.(vi) Developrnent of tools to facilitate information exchange Many initiatives have been taken in this area: Network internal bulletins, 'Web sites, Internet forums, virtual resource centres, and the publication ofscientific or pedagogical articles andjournals (vii) Organising institutional co-operation Establishing contacts and setting up formal networks between either individuals or instifutions consdrurcs an activity per se for Networks and contributes to the long-term development of higher education restructuring in Europe. A future institutional representation of Europêan Universities at the discipline level is emerging through the Networks. A number of them operate within or in partnership with university associations.

	(European Masters,
	short training sessions, etc).
	(v)

  ERASMUS

		"F2OOO" EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION
		EXPERT FORUM
	EDUCATON AND CULTURE DIRE TORATE.GENERAL	BRusseLs, 24-?S.Jenulnv 2OOO
		ReSpoNDING To CnntLENGES
		FoH EUaoPEAN UtutvensmEs

The views expressed in this paper are the author's and do not necessarily reflect those of the Commission or the Thematic Network co-ordinators'

4,iË;ïe;ù;iu"rriiy" in this paper refers to any type of higher education institution, regardless of its European status.

This changè is perfectly summarised by our Anglo-saxon colleagues' saying: "from the sage on the stage to the guide on the side".

Thematic Networks in order to promote prospective reflection and pedagogical innovation. Experience from 1996 to 99 has shown that there is significant potential for innovaiion and mobilisation io match the challenge of lifelong learning.

In the furure, higher education managers will have to consider these issues and test this analysis before committing themselves to this objective. Their support is necessary. to validate the tools and produce effective and recognised instruments of European higher education policy. The F2000 Forum initiated by the European Commission provides an opportunity to debate and disseminate to the various interested parties the recommendations for and the prerequisites oi an ambitious policy. This should also fuel future debates that the new community initiatives will undoubtedly provoke within the Member States. ' \ REFERENCES: CLEMENCEAU P. (f999) -La formation continue, visions d'Europe,',Revue POUR, numéro thématique < La formation professionnelle revisitée >>, nol62,Juin, p. +tj-Sl:. HAUG G. (1999) -Main trends and issues in Higher Ed,ucation structutres in the Bologna Forum on 18 -19 June 1999, Confederation Union of Association of European Universities (CRE), 20 p.

Eyrope, Rectors' background paper for

Conferences and the JARVIS P. (1999) -Global trends in lifelong learning and the responSes of the universities, Comparative Education, Volume 35;2, pp.249 -257 . MASINGUE B. (1999) -L'évolution des emplois dans les métiers de là formâtion, Revue POIIR, numéro thématique << La formation professibn4elle revisitée >>, no162, Juin , p: 107-114. RUFFIO Ph. (199S) -The Sociates Thematic Networks: a tool for colle:ctive tnobilisafian and, reflection on the future of Higher Education, f;.eport for th.e European :Commission, DG XXII Education Training and Youth, 40 p. + annexes. RUFFIO Ph. (1999) -Soôrat"s I vers une réflexion prospective "uropééïn" dans l'enseignemenr supérieur, Revue du Marché Commun et de l'Union Européenne, no43ô,jiilttet -aoot, ppl ieO -4gs.

.,:' RUFFIO Ph. (2000) -Changing the Universityi the supporting role of the Erasmus Theitatic Networks (a three years long experience), Report for the European Commiiiion, DG Educajtion and Culture.


J M Boussard

F Gerard

M G Piketty

A K Christensen

T Voituriez

Agricultural trade liberalization in a world Agricultural trade liberalization in a world of uncertainty: a CGE model of uncertainty: a CGE model by

• • CGE

CGE good to take care of good to take care of sectoral sectoral interactions interactions • • Easy to make use of (thanks to GAMS/GTAP!)

Easy to make use of (thanks to GAMS/GTAP!) How is capital allocated to sectors ? How is capital allocated to sectors ? Grains : Wheat,others cereal grains • 3.

Autres cultures : Vegetables-fruits-nuts, oil seeds, sugar cane-sugar beet, plant-based fibers, others crops • 4.

Productions animales : Bovine cattle-sheep-goats-horses, other animal products, raw milk, wool, silk worm cocoons, fishing • 5.

Sylviculture: Forestry • 6.

Industries agro-alimentaires (9 secteurs GTAP) • 7.

Industries du bois • 8.

Manufactures (15 secteurs GTAP) • 9. 1 8 4 9 1 8 5 7 1 8 6 5 1 8 7 3 1 8 8 1 1 8 8 9 1 8 9 7 1 9 0 5 1 9 1 3 1 9 2 1 1 9 2 9 1 9 3 7 1 9 4 5 1 9 5 3 1 9 6 1 1 9 6 9 1 9 7 7 1 9 8 5 1 9 9 3 1 9 6 7 1 9 6 8 1 9 6 9 1 9 7 0 1 9 7 1 1 9 7 2 1 9 7 4 1 9 7 5 1 9 7 6 1 9 7 7 1 9 7 8 1 9 7 9 1 9 8 1 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 3 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 5 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 8 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9

C ars To m atoe s

  risk and instability in CGE's risk and instability in CGE's • • First order conditions in presence of risk First order conditions in presence of risk • • The possible local instability of market The possible local instability of market equilibriums equilibriums • • How is capital allocated to sectors ? How is capital allocated to sectors ? First order conditions in presence of risk First order conditions in presence of risk : : • • Neglecting risk leads to the standard first o Neglecting risk leads to the standard first o This is easy to put in a CGE model ! This is easy to put in a CGE model ! Modelling instability Modelling instability

  : CES of CI(aggregate intermediate consumption) and VA (aggregated added value) -consumption : linear expenditure system -international trade : armington, bilateral flow -GTAP parameters, parametric difference between regions -Endogenous volume and prices for goods and factors -closure : Investment=Savings, endogenous trade balance

  used only by agricultural sectors, perfect mobility, flexible prices •Natural resources : used only by forestry and energyresources sectors, perfect mobility, flexible prices •Highly qualified workers : mobility inside aggregated sectors, rigid wages •Low qualified workers : mobility inside aggregated sectors, flexible wages •Capital : sector specific, flexible prices 2 types of households : Middle-Rich / Middle-Poor 2 modules : Real : physical flows of products consumption and production decision Financial sensitivity analysis and Calibrating, performing sensitivity analysis and validating on real data the reference scenario validating on real data the reference scenario… …. . Improving capital module : endogenous exchange and Improving capital module : endogenous exchange and interest

careful not to confuse model and reality! be careful not to confuse model and reality! • • Such confusions occurred when evaluating Such confusions occurred when evaluating benefits from agricultural trade liberalisation benefits from agricultural trade liberalisation The problem of agricultural trade liberalization The problem of agricultural trade liberalization

	• • Yet dangerous ! Yet dangerous !
	• • be

disconnected from market since Roosevelt Agriculture disconnected from market since Roosevelt

	--Concern with food security issues Concern with food security issues
	--Ezekiel

• • Agriculture

analysis of price instability Ezekiel analysis of price instability

into WTO negotiations in Marrakech Reinserted into WTO negotiations in Marrakech

• • Reinserted --"Farm problem" (Olson, Gardner) issues "Farm problem" (Olson, Gardner) issues --Overproduction

problems in developed countries Overproduction problems in developed countries - -Large efficiency gains expected from comparative Large efficiency gains expected from comparative advantages advantages

models played a role in CGE models played a role in evaluating change evaluating change

• • CGE --Gains significant,

but less than expected Gains significant, but less than expected - -Stability issues neglected Stability issues neglected Why is stability Why is stability important in agriculture ? important in agriculture ?

Large efficiency gains may be expected from Large efficiency gains may be expected from stabilized prices stabilized prices - -Farmers (and bankers) are risk averse Farmers (and bankers) are risk averse - -Risk premium are inefficient Risk premium are inefficient

• •

Neglecting instability may Neglecting instability may underestimate underestimate benefits from liberalisation benefits from liberalisation - -Mutualising Mutualising losses may have an insurance effect, losses may have an insurance effect, and decrease climate induced price fluctuations and decrease climate induced price fluctuations (Bale and Lutz (Bale and Lutz) )

• •

• • Neglecting instability may Neglecting instability may overestimate overestimate benefits from liberalisation benefits from liberalisation

in delivery Lags in delivery [ while standard CGE's assume consumption and production [ while standard CGE's assume consumption and production are simultaneous] are simultaneous] - -Imperfect expectations Imperfect expectations [while standard CGE's assume expectations are not only [while standard CGE's assume expectations are not only rational rational but also but also perfect perfect] ] - -Poorly elastic demand Poorly elastic demand [how are demand elasticities in most models ?] [how are demand elasticities in most models ?]

	• • Sources of instability Sources of instability
	• • Exogenous: No problems… Exogenous: No problems…
	• • Endogenous: Endogenous:

--Lags

road to explosive cobwebs The road to explosive cobwebs [but risk as a return string] [but risk as a return string]

• • The


ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

SSR-typing of Botrytis cinerea reveals rapid evolution of population structure following introduction of marked isolates in tomato greenhouses

Véronique Botrytis cinerea can rapidly produce massive amounts of inoculum on diseased plants and control methods have been developed to reduce spore production. In addition to spores produced within a crop (endogenous inoculum), the airborne spora of Botrytis over a canopy may also include exogenous inoculum carried from a variety of places and hosts. The relative proportion of both types of inoculum may influence the efficacy of control methods and the impact of selective pressures resulting from their implementation.

A trial was set up to quantify the impact of endogenous inoculum on disease development and on the population structure of B. cinerea in four tomato glasshouse compartments of CTIFL-Balandran. Plants were grown in quasi-commercial conditions. Isolates were collected from the air spora 4 days before and 14 days after inoculation of 6 plants per compartment with one of two reference strains (differing in their SSR profile and aggressiveness on tomato). Disease development was monitored and isolates were collected on stem lesions 60 days after inoculation. All isolates were characterised using 9 microsatellites described by E. Fournier, INRA-Versailles.

Among 80 isolates collected in the air spora prior to inoculation (while all plants were healthy), none had SSR profiles similar to either of the reference strains. Following inoculation with the reference strains, lesions developed and sporulation was observed on all inoculation points. Within 14 days, SSR profiles identical to those of either introduced strain represented 63% of the 323 samples characterised from the air spora of the four compartments.

The disease spread steadily to non-inoculated plants and incidence reached an average of 3-7 lesions per plant (depending on the compartment) by 90 days after inoculation. Among 224 isolates collected from stem lesions at 60 days after inoculation, 61% and 39% had SSR profiles similar to the aggressive and to the less aggressive reference strains, respectively. This suggests that the displacement of the initially dominant population of Botrytis was concomitant with its negligible contribution to the epidemic on tomatoes. These results are compatible with the hypothesis of a polyclyclic development of Botrytis epidemics in tomato greenhouses and illustrate the importance of endogenous inoculum in this growing system. Furthermore, they raise the question of possible host specificity within Botrytis cinerea in naturally occurring epidemics.

  Decognet, Philippe C. Nicot, Marc Bardin, Yannie Trottin-Caudal To cite this version: Véronique Decognet, Philippe C. Nicot, Marc Bardin, Yannie Trottin-Caudal. SSR-typing of Botrytis cinerea reveals rapid evolution of population structure following introduction of marked isolates in tomato greenhouses. 1. Workshop, Oct 2005, Kaiserslautern, Germany. hal-02763173 Comment citer ce document : Decognet, V., Nicot, P. C., Bardin, M., Trottin-Caudal, Y. (2005

  Decognet, V., Nicot, P. C.,Bardin, M., Trottin-Caudal, Y. (2005). SSR-typing of Botrytis cinerea reveals rapid evolution of population structure following introduction of marked isolates in tomato greenhouses. Presented at 1. Botrytis cinerea genome Workshop, Kaiserslautern, Germany (2005/10/06-08).

	Decognet 1 , V.; Nicot 1 , P.C.; Bardin 1 , M.; Trottin-Caudal 2 , Y.
	1 INRA, Plant Pathology Unit, BP94, Domaine St Maurice, F-84140 Montfavet, France
	2 CTIFL, Centre de Balandran, BP32, F-30127 Bellegarde, France

). SSR-typing of Botrytis cinerea reveals rapid evolution of population structure following introduction of marked isolates in tomato greenhouses. In: Botrytis cinerea genome (p. 1 p.). Presented at 1. Workshop, Kaiserslautern, DEU (2005-10-06 -2005-10-08).


Philippe C Nicot

Véronique Decognet

Marc Bardin

Corinne Romiti

Yannie Trottin

Christine Fournier

Jean-Michel Leyre

Potential for including Microdochium dimerum, a biocontrol agent against Botrytis cinerea, into an integrated protection scheme of greenhouse tomatoes

Keywords: Botrytis, grey mould, tomato, biological control, microclimate, dose Botrytis, pourriture grise, tomate, lutte biologique, microclimat, dose

Strain L13 of Microdochium dimerum was shown in earlier work to be efficient as a protectant of tomato pruning wounds against Botrytis cinerea at crop level in a wide range of environmental conditions. In a study implicating seven independent trials at crop level in 1999-2001 with different doses and application schedules, the biocontrol agent provided efficient protection of foliage against B. cinerea. It had no effect against powdery mildew at the doses tested. In these trials, it displayed complete compatibility with extracts of Reynoutria sachalinensis (Milsana), a biocontrol preparation known to control powdery mildew. The efficacy of M. dimerum against B. cinerea was not altered by co-application on foliage with recommended doses of Milsana, and the efficacy of Milsana for powdery mildew control was not altered by co-application with M. dimerum. Utilisation in combination or alternation with chemical control is also promising, as several insecticides and fungicides used on tomatoes against B. cinerea, powdery mildew and other pathogens, show no toxicity in vitro against M. dimerum.

Introduction

Strain L13 of Microdochium dimerum was shown to be efficient at crop level as a protectant of pruning wounds against Botrytis cinerea, a recurrent and important nuisance in tomato glasshouses (Decognet et al., 1999). Its use in an integrated protection scheme, however, requires compatibility with other plant health management interventions. One objective of the present study was to assess its protective effect on foliage against two major aerial diseases of greenhouse tomato, Botrytis leaf blight, and powdery mildew caused by Oidium neolycopersici. The other objective was to investigate the compatibility of using M. dimerum with chemical protectants and with biocontrol agents used on tomatoes.

Comment citer ce document : Nicot, P., Decognet, V., Bardin, M., Romiti, C., Trottin, Y., Fournier, C., Leyre, J.M. (2003). Potential for including Microdochium dimerum, a biocontrol agent against Botrytis cinerea, into an integrated protection scheme of greenhouse tomatoes. In: Tomate sous abri. Protection intégrée. Agriculture biologique (p. 19-23). Presented at Colloque International, Avignon, FRA

Materials and methods

Trials at crop level.

Tomatoes were grown hydroponically in seven 60-m² glasshouse compartments at the Balandran experimental station (Ctifl) in conditions similar to those of commercial production. Four compartments were used for the assessment of powdery mildew control and three for Botrytis. Different spray schedules, doses and combinations of protectants were tested between 1999 and 2001 in seven independent trials. Large sheets of plastic were used to isolate plots during the treatments to prevent cross-contaminations. The plants were artificially inoculated with either Oidium neolycopersici (10 4 spores/ml) or B. cinerea (dry spores) and conditions favourable to disease development were maintained (increased humidity). Disease incidence and severity were recorded at weekly intervals on at least 10 contiguous plants per compartment (8 in the powdery mildew compartments).

Effect of chemical protectants in vitro on Microdochium dimerum L13.

Commercial preparations of fungicides and insecticides were incorporated into PDA medium to obtain active ingredient concentrations of 0.1, 1, 10 and 100 mg/L. For each compound the germination rate of M. dimerum spores after 24 hrs at 21°C was compared to that on unamended medium (3 x 100 spores examined for each concentration) and the concentration responsible for 50% or 100% reduction in germination was estimated (IC 50 and IC 100 ). Similarly, the IC 50 and IC 100 were assessed for germ tube elongation after 24 hrs (35 germ tubes measured per concentration) and for mycelial growth after 7 days (3 plates per concentration).

Results

Protection of foliage by M. dimerum L13 against Botrytis blight and powdery mildew

In all crop level trials, incidence of leaf blight in the Botrytis-infested compartments remained lower on plants treated weekly with 5x10 7 sp/ml M. dimerum than on control plants. The protection relative to control plants was statistically significant (and statistically not different from the chemical reference) in 5 of 7 independent trials (data not shown). Disease severity, assessed at the end of the trials, was also noticeably reduced (Table 1). However, no protective effect of the BCA was observed against powdery mildew.

Compatibility of M. dimerum and Milsana for the control of Botrytis and powdery mildew

The adjunction of Reynoutria sachalinensis extract (Milsana-VP99) did not reduce the efficacy of M. dimerum treatments against Botrytis leaf blight (Table 1). Similarly, the adjunction of M. dimerum did not reduce the efficacy of Milsana against powdery mildew (Table2).

Sensitivity of Microdochium dimerum L13 to chemical protectants of Tomato

The compounds tested varied in their effect on spore germination and mycelial growth of M. dimerum L13 in vitro (Table 2). The BCA showed no sensitivity to several botryticides. It was also unaffected by several compounds against powdery mildew (including sulphur, and the plant extract Milsana), or other airborne or soilborne pathogens. In contrast, it was highly sensitive to compounds registered against late blight, with the exception of copper. None of the insecticides included in the tests was toxic to M. dimerum (data not shown). Validation of these results on plants will be necessary, as it was shown in an earlier study (Decognet & Nicot, 1999) that fungicides which reduced germination or/and mycelial growth in vitro did not necessarily disrupt the efficacy of wound protection by the biocontrol agent.

Comment citer ce document : Nicot, P., Decognet, V., Bardin, M., Romiti, C., Trottin, Y., Fournier, C., Leyre, J.M. ( 2003). Potential for including Microdochium dimerum, a biocontrol agent against Botrytis cinerea, into an integrated protection scheme of greenhouse tomatoes. In: Tomate sous abri. Protection intégrée. Agriculture biologique (p. 19-23). Presented at Colloque International, Avignon, FRA

Discussion-conclusions

Efficient biological control agents (BCAs), including strain L13 of M. dimerum, have been selected to protect tomato pruning wounds against B. cinerea, a recurrent and important nuisance in greenhouse production. However, their use in commercial conditions must be considered in a context of integrated protection. This requires that their efficiency is not altered when applied in conjunction with other control methods against B. cinerea, and when growers intervene against other plant pathogens and pests that may also occur in the greenhouse.

Combined with findings from earlier work, the results obtained in the present study suggest that M. dimerum has potential as a component of an integrated protection scheme in the tomato greenhouse. It retains efficacy as a wound protectant over a wide range of temperature and relative humidity levels, including humid, disease-enhancing conditions, and dry conditions sought by growers to limit the epidemics of Botrytis blight [START_REF] Nicot | Combined effect of microclimate and dose of application on the efficacy of biocontrol agents for the protection of pruning wounds on tomatoes against Botrytis cinerea[END_REF].

The spectrum of tolerance of M. dimerum to chemical protectants suggests that its application could be performed in alternation or in combination with several of the pesticides registered for use in France in tomato greenhouses. Its compatibility with copper, sulphur and Milsana also makes it a possible candidate for use in organic production.

Further work will include assessing the compatibility of M. dimerum with biocontrol agents against whiteflies, an increasingly important pest in the tomato greenhouse, and the impact of airborne inoculum, and variability of natural populations of B. cinerea on epidemics and the durability of non-chemical control methods.

  ); carbendazime (F, CR, V); carbendazime + diethofencarb (GM); copper (B, LB); Milsana (PM-not registered); pyrimethanil (GM); sulphur (PM, mites) Phytosanitaire 2003 , ACTA, France. AL: Alternaria; AN: Anthracnose; B: bacteria; BF: black foot; C: Cladosporium; CR: corky root; FR: fruit rot; F: Fusarium; GM: Gray mould; LB: late blight; PM: powdery mildew; V: Verticillium b no more registered on tomato in 2003 c IC 100 > 100 d IC 100 : 10-100 e IC 100 : 1-10 Comment citer ce document : Nicot, P., Decognet, V., Bardin, M., Romiti, C., Trottin, Y., Fournier, C., Leyre, J.M. (2003). Potential for including Microdochium dimerum, a biocontrol agent against Botrytis cinerea, into an integrated protection scheme of greenhouse tomatoes. In: Tomate sous abri. Protection intégrée. Agriculture biologique (p. 19-23). Presented at Colloque International, Avignon, FRA

Table 1 :

 1 Efficacy of Microdochium dimerum L13, alone or in combination with Milsana-VP99, for the protection of foliage against Botrytis blight at crop level.

	Protection (%) relative to control plants

Table 2 :

 2 Compatibility of Microdochium dimerum L13 with Reynoutria sachalinensis extract Milsana-VP99, for the protection of foliage against powdery mildew at crop level,.

	Protection (%) relative to control plants

a standard error of the mean

Table 3 :

 3 Effect of chemical protectants of tomato on germination and growth of Microdochium dimerum L13 in vitro.

Acknowledgements

This work was financed in part by ACTA and INRA (PIC project).


domain: sdv info

text:
F Clement

Marianne Vidament

P Daels

F Van Der Meer

J L Larry

B Colenbrander

J Turkstra

Immunocastration in stallions: effect on spermatogenesis and behaviour

published or not. The documents may come   L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire

Introduction

Pharmacological manipulation of reproduction activity using GnRH vaccines, agonists or antagonists has been reviewed recently [START_REF] Stout | Suppressing reproductive activity in horses using GnRH vaccines, antagonists and agonists[END_REF]. The aim of this study was to develop an effective and reversible method to suppress spermatogenesis and sexual behaviour in adult, breeding stallions. This method was based on active immunization against GnRH.

Material and Methods

Fourteen adult (12.2+3.2 years old and 580+62 kg per BW), fertile and experienced stallions were studied. Eight stallions received the vaccine (1 mg GnRH equivalent of the tandem peptide OVA conjugate in 2 ml CoVaccine adjuvant) in the pectoral muscles four times (22 Sept;3 Nov 2000;16 Feb;15 May 2001). Six control stallions received adjuvant.

The stallions were monitored for local and systemic adverse reactions.

The stallions were checked at six periods, each period having 5 daily collections: (1) before the 1 st injection, (2) 4 and (3) 8 weeks after the 2 nd one, (4) 1,5 and (5) 5 months after the last one and for the 4 "good responders to vaccine" (6) 9 months after the last injection.

-Semen evaluation: the last 2 ejaculates during each period were analyzed for total volume, sperm concentration, total sperm number, % motile spermatozoa after dilution, after 24 and 48 hours survival at 4°C, % live spermatozoa and morphology. -Testicle measurements: the right and left testicles width were evaluated twice using ultrasonography. The sum of the right and left values was calculated. -Sexual behavioral parameters: the erection time, the number of mounts before ejaculation, the ejaculation time, the refractory time (= time between first ejaculation to second erection) were recorded during the last 3 collections.

Blood samples were collected weekly during the experiment. Testosterone levels have been evaluated weekly during two weeks after vaccination, every two weeks until the 8 th week and then every month. Concentration of antiGnRH antibodies were assayed monthly until April, 2001.

Results

Apparent side effects were similar in both groups: mild to large edema were observed 3 days after 42/56 injections; an increased body temperature (>38°C) occurred 3 hours after 11/56 injections; one stallion had severe reaction just after the 3 rd vaccination (loss of balance during 5 mn). Vaccination efficiency Vaccinated stallions had lower testosterone level during 1 month after the 2 nd injection and 3 months after the 3 rd and the 4 th ones (P<0.001). More precisely, low testosterone levels were observed in only 4 of the 8 treated stallions (considered as good responders) and not in the others ones (bad responders) (Figure 1).

GnRH antibody titers were higher in good responders stallions than in bad responders group. For example, good responders had 6 times higher antibody titers than bad responders 1-2 months after the 3 rd vaccination. There was no antibody in the control group.

Seminal characteristics and sexual behavior

There was no difference for seminal characteristics between the groups (control, good, bad responders) before (period 1) and after the first 2 vaccinations (periods 2 and 3). However, the good responders stallions had decreased testes width (period 5), sperm concentration (period 4), total sperm number (periods 4, 5), % motile spermatozoa (period 5), % motile spermatozoa after 24 and 48h storage (periods 4, 5), % live spermatozoa (periods 4, 5) and similar % normal spermatozoa compared to control stallions.

All the sexual behavior parameters (erection time, ejaculation time, refractory times and number of mounts) remained similar between groups.

Recovery of the seminal characteristics

To observe the sperm recovery time, the 4 good responders have been checked 9 months after the last vaccination. Sperm parameters were compared to those of the control stallions at the same season during the previous year (period 3). Total testes width, sperm concentration, total sperm number and % abnormal spermatozoa were similar between the comparisons. However, the % motile spermatozoa after dilution, after 24 or 48 hours survival and % live spermatozoa were lower in the good responders group. This absence of recovery is due to one stallion that has not yet recovered in the 9 months in contrast to the 3 others stallions, which presented normal sperm.

Discussion

The vaccination induced side effects, mainly local edema and mild fever. Similar vaccines induced same effects in the study of Van der Meer et al. (2001) and only transient fever in the study of [START_REF] Turkstra | Effects of GnRH immunization in sexually mature pony stallions[END_REF].

A good immune response was observed in 4/8 stallions and 3 vaccinations were necessary. In both Dutch studies, the immune response seemed better: 4/4 and 4/5 pony stallions were immunized after 2 vaccinations.

As observed in the Dutch studies, good responders stallions showed a decline in sperm production and testes size. However, their libido remained unchanged. [START_REF] Turkstra | Effects of GnRH immunization in sexually mature pony stallions[END_REF] showed a poor libido in only 2/8 ponies. This difference can be explained by their young age, the seasonality of the breed or their absence of previous sexual experience. As castration generally didn't resolve problem behavior in experienced stallions, the absence of effect of immunocastration on sexual behavior was predictable.

The effects of immunocastration were detectable 5 months after the last booster in 4/4 good responders stallions and even 9 months in one of them. Reversibility seems variable between stallions and needs more study.

One of the good responders stallions was arteritis shedder. It was checked negative 6 weeks after the first vaccination, but positive 2, 6, 9 and 14 months after the last vaccination. It has been suggested that AVE shedding in some stallions could be stopped by chemical castration [START_REF] Fortier | The effect of GnRH agonist on testosterone secretion, spermatogenesis and viral excretion in EVA-virus excreting stallions[END_REF]. Our results confirm a partial efficiency of castration on AVE shedding.

  figure 1 : testosterone level (ng/ml)


Philippe C Nicot
email: nicot@avignon.inra.fr.l

Veronique Decognet

Laetitia Fruit

Marc Bardin

Yannie Trottin
email: trottiny@ct

Combined effect of microclimate and dose of application on the efficacy of biocontrol agents for the protection of pruning wounds on tomatoes against Botrytis cinereal

Keywords: Botrytis, grey mould, tomato, biological control, microclimate, dose

The efficacy of two fungi shown in earlier studies to provide high levels of protection on pruning wounds, Ulocladium atrum and Microdochium dimerum, was evaluated in precisely regulated growth chambers over a range of conditions known to occur in commercial greenhouses in southern France. The effect of microclimate was not identical for all components of biocontrol efficacy. It was most pronounced on the ability of the biocontrol agents (BCAs) to prevent or reduce the incidence of wound infection by B. cinerea. The efficacy of protection was mostly influenced by temperature rather than by relative humidity. Wound protection was reduced at 10°C and increased significantly with increasing temperatures for both BCAs. Other components of biocontrol efficacy, such as the ability to delay the outbreak of wound infection and the ability to slow down lesion expansion, were little influenced by climate.

The observation of microclimatic effects on efficacy of biocontrol was highly influenced by the dose of BCA applied to the plants. Effects such as described above were strongly attenuated or completely masked when BCA spores outnumbered the pathogen's 10 to 1 after inoculation. In this situation, wound protection was uniformly high over most climate regimes, suggesting that doses may be adjusted to provide satisfactory levels of efficacy in conditions unfavourable for biocontrol.

This study demonstrated that U. atrum and M. dimerum may be useful for wound protection of greenhouse tomatoes in a wide variety of microclimatic conditions, including those occurring in minimally heated structures. Those results concur with several years of trials at crop level. Combined with estimates of naturally occurring inoculum levels of B. cinerea and data on the dynamics of B. cinerea and the BCA in the wounds, these results should provide useful information to adapt inoculum doses to the environmental conditions for achievement of optimal disease control.

Introduction

Infection of pruning wounds and stem wounds by Botrytis cinerea in protected tomato production are found in France both in minimally heated tunnels and in heated glasshouses (with sophisticated microclimatic regulation) where they constitute the most damaging Botrytis symptom. They can occur in a wide range of microclimatic situations, some of which may not be favourable to the efficacy of biocontrol agents (BCAs). The main purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of temperature and relative humidity on the efficacy of Ulocladium atrum and Microdochium dimerum, two fungi shown to provide high levels of protection on pruning wounds [START_REF] Decognet | Protection of stem wounds against Botrytis cinerea in heated tomato greenhouses with a strain of Fusarium sp[END_REF][START_REF] Fruit | Biological control of Botrytis cinerea on tomato stem wounds with Ulocladium atrum[END_REF]. It was further hypothesised that the dose of application of the BCAs might influence the impact of microclimate on efficacy

Comment citer ce document : Nicot, P. C., Decognet, V., Fruit, L., Bardin, M., Trottin, Y. (2002). Combined effectif microclimate and dose of application on the efficacy of biocontrol agents for the protection of pruning wounds on tomatoes against Botrytis cinerea. In: Influence of A-biotic and biotic factors on biocontrol agents (p. 73-76). IOBC WPRS Bulletin, 25 (10). Presented at 7. IOBC Working Group

Materials and methods

The same fungal isolates were used throughout this study: monoconidial tomato isolate BC1 of B. cinerea [START_REF] Nicot | Differential spore production by Botrytis cinerea on agar medium and plant tissue under near-ultra-violet light-absorbing polyethylene film[END_REF], isolate Ua385 of U. atrum (kindly provided by J. Köhl) and isolate L13 of M. dimerum (obtained from a healthy pruning wound in a tomato greenhouse with particularly high incidence of grey mould).

We used potted tomato plants cv Raissa and cv Felicia. The plants were produced in a heated greenhouse and used when they had 7-9 fully expanded leaves. The plants were watered daily with a nutrient solution. Watering was interrupted 8-24 hours before the plants were used in experiments to avoid guttation following leaf removal and to facilitate the absorption of inoculum into the wounds.

The effect of microclimate on efficacy of biocontrol was evaluated in multifactorial studies conducted in precisely regulated growth chambers [START_REF] Boulard | Development of a controlledenvironment chamber for studying the epidemiology of fungal pathogens[END_REF]. Eighteen regimes were tested, combining a temperature of 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C or 35°C with a relative humidity (RH) of 50%, 70% or 90%. Separate tests with different inoculum concentrations and methods of inoculation were designed to evaluate different components of biocontrol efficacy.

For each climate regime, three critical steps of the disease cycle were considered: (1) infection of pruning wounds; (2) lesion expansion and (3) sporulation on diseased tissue. Five plants were used for each climate regime and each type of wound treatment under study and the whole set of experiments was repeated at least 3 times in 1998-2001 for each BCA (up to 5 times). Pruning wounds were inoculated with B. cinerea alone or together with either BCA. The number of infected pruning wounds per plant and if applicable, the length (in mm) of lesions that developed on the petiole stubs and on the stems were recorded daily between the third and seventh days after inoculation. Spore production was quantified on stem lesions seven days after inoculation in all tests with U. atrum.

To evaluate the combined effect of climate and dose of BCA application, varying inoculum concentrations were used in some of the replicated studies, to obtain different BCA-pathogen ratios in the initial microbial populations.

Results

Effect of microclimate on efficacy of wound protection

Infection of pruning wounds on plants inoculated with B. cinerea alone was observed in all conditions tested except those with a temperature of 35°C. The highest rates of disease incidence were recorded at 90% relative humidity and the lowest at 50% (Figure 1). They tended to be lower at higher temperatures.

Treatment of wounds with either U. atrum or M. dimerum immediately after inoculation with B. cinerea significantly (p<0.01) reduced the incidence of wound infection (Figure 1). However, the effect of the biocontrol agents was not identical over the different climate regimes. Infection levels on BCA-treated plants were disticntly lower at higher temperatures and also somewhat lower at 90% and 70% RH than at 50%.

To distinghuish the effect of microclimate on biocontrol from that on the infection process by B. cinerea alone, a protection index was computed as:

Protection Index = 100 x (Disease control -Disease BCA) / Disease control; where "Disease" represented the area under the progress curve over 7 days after inoculation for plants inoculated with B. cinerea alone ("control") or together with a BCA ("BCA"). Analysis of variance on these data (Figures 2 A andC) indicated a significant effect of temperature but not of relative humidity (for example, p values of 0.001, 0.17 and 0.81 for T, RH and T*RH interaction factors, respectively, for M. dimerum). Efficacy of both BCA's was distinctly lower at 10°C and increased with increasing temperatures.

Effect of microclimate on other components of biocontrol efficacy

In cases when wound infection was not prevented by treatment with the BCAs, their ability to delay the outbreak of lesion development was monitored. Both BCAs had a significant effect (average delay of 0.7 day; p<0.001 for M. dimerum for example), but a high level of variability was recorded over the different climate regimes and no significant temperature or RH effects were observed (for example, p>0.21 and 0.38, respectively, for M. dimerum).

Comment citer ce document : Nicot, P. C., Decognet, V., Fruit, L., Bardin, M., Trottin, Y. ( 2002). Combined effectif microclimate and dose of application on the efficacy of biocontrol agents for the protection of pruning wounds on tomatoes against Botrytis cinerea. In: Influence of A-biotic and biotic factors on biocontrol agents (p. 73-76). IOBC WPRS Bulletin, 25 (10). Presented at 7. IOBC Working Group

Similarly, the ability to slow down lesion expansion and to inhibit sporulation of B. cinerea was variable and little influenced by climate.

Combined effect of dose and microclimate on efficacy of biocontrol

When the dose of BCA applied to the wounds was ten times that of the inoculum of B. cinerea, the protective effects of U. atrum and M. dimerum were strongly increased (Figures 2 B andD) and temperature no longer influenced significantly their efficacy (p>0.08 for M. dimerum, for example).

Other components of efficacy were also significantly strengthened in the rare cases when lesions developed (eg, average delay of 1.2 days in the outbreak of lesions and reduction of lesion expansion from 6.6 mm/day for control plants to 3.3 with M. dimerum). No sporulation of B. cinerea was observed on any of the wounds treated with the "high" dose of U. atrum.

Discussion-conclusions

This study demonstrated that U. atrum and M. dimerum may be useful for wound protection of greenhouse tomatoes in a wide variety of microclimatic conditions. Those results concur with several years of trials at crop level. The generally limited effect of microclimate (particularly that of relative humidity) on efficacy of wound protection merits further attention, as both temperature and relative humidity are known to exert a high influence on the epidemiology of diseases caused by B. cinerea.

Combined with estimates of naturally occurring inoculum levels of B. cinerea and data on the dynamics of B. cinerea and the BCA in the wounds, these results should provide useful information to adapt inoculum doses to the environmental conditions for achievement of optimal disease control.

Comment citer ce document : Nicot, P. C., Decognet, V., Fruit, L., Bardin, M., Trottin, Y. (2002). Combined effectif microclimate and dose of application on the efficacy of biocontrol agents for the protection of pruning wounds on tomatoes against Botrytis cinerea. In: Influence of A-biotic and biotic factors on biocontrol agents (p. 73-76). IOBC WPRS Bulletin, 25 (10). Presented at 7. IOBC Working Group

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Effect of temperature (°C) and relative humidity (RH) on the incidence of wound infection 7 days after inoculation with Botrytis cinerea alone (◼) or together with a biocontrol agent (). Both the spores/m.l. Error 7 t 10 ) were inoculated a M. dimerum and U. atrum pathogen and the biocontrol agents ( bars indicate the standard errors of the means.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Effect of temperature (°C) and relative humidity (RH) on protection of tomato pruning wounds by . Protection Botrytis cinerea by spores/ml) against infection 7 (applied at 10 M. dimerum and U. atrum indices were computed on the basis of percent infected petiole stubs 7 days after inoculation with B. (B, D) spores/ml. Error bars indicate the standard errors of the means. 6 (A, C) and 10 7 at 10 cinerea