Giovanni Belletti

François Casabianca

F Gabbriellini

Formalization and legitimation in qualification processes based on Geographical indications. Evidences from the Charcuteries de Corse case

    Formalisation and legitimation in qualification processes based on Geographical indications. Evidences from the "Charcuteries de Corse" case

INTRODUCTION

According to the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement, adopted in 1994 by the World Trade Organization's, Geographical Indications (GIs) are "indications which identify a good as originating in the territory of a [WTO] Member, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin" (article 22.1). At the European level, the Council Regulation (EC) 510/2006 (now 1151/2012) assigns to the GIs various goals such as promoting products, improving the income of farmers and retaining the rural population in less favored areas. The legal recognition of a GI can effectively become the pivotal point of the so called "quality virtuous circle" [START_REF] Vandecandelaere | Linking people, places and products; A guide for promoting quality linked to geographical origin and sustainable geographical indications[END_REF]] that aims at generating positive effects on farmer livelihoods, local communities, and the environment. Notwithstanding the fact that the conditions under which these effects are considered positive are very complex, it is generally recognized that the GI protection scheme implies large processes of transformation. This is mainly due to the fact that the legal recognition of GIs is based on formalization of both the system of relationships and the production processes, and on a more complete allocation of property rights over the geographical names and other local resources (as breeds). As the setting up of a GI framework takes place in a local pre-established socio-economic environment, the equilibrium among interest groups is a crucial issue.

METHODS

This paper refers to the Corsican pork butchery sector [START_REF] Marie (de) Ch | Les activités d'élevage porcin en Corse. Des difficultés de la transition entre économie souterraine et économie formelle[END_REF]] in order to investigate the processes that can happen when a qualification strategy based on GIs official recognition is pursued. From a theoretical point of view, we consider GI registration as a transformation process from a common to a collective good as, unlike before, after the recognition only producers complying the rules are able to use the protected name. GI registration and legal protection may stimulate collective action but they may also produce a radical transformation as far as the entitlement of the local actors is concerned; based on the idea of legality, GIs may originate a veritable struggle against the local shared sense of legitimacy [START_REF] Usunier | Éthique des affaires et relativité culturelle[END_REF].

The paper in based on an in-depth examination of Corsican pork butchery sector relying on three primary sources of data. After a literature review, a first round of explorative semi-structured interviews was conducted on a group of selected farmers, and then a second round of interviews on a sample of 17 actors including pork-meat producers and distributors. Questions were formulated to understand the actors' profiles, their history, their breeding practices and their perception of the impacts of the GI implementation. The technique of participant observation has also been used during two meetings of local association of "GI promotion".

MAIN FINDINGS

In the Corsica region and abroad, the products issued from the local pork-butchery sector are widely known as a local "excellence", thanks to some major factors such as the specific breed (Nustrale), the type of feed and the way of processing the meat. Benefiting from this strong reputation, some processors import raw material from abroad, selling a middle-low-quality meat as an authentic "produit de Corse". The will of preserving the product status represents a common point of view, which is shared by all the traditional breeders. Indeed, this will has pushed a group of breeders, associated in the Syndicate, to engage themselves in an origin-linked qualification process in order to obtain a GI legal recognition. But at the same time, a lot of producers are still acting outside of the legal requirements (no identification of animals, on-farm slaughtering, selling without any label, no fiscal declaration) maintaining their activity thanks to the direct selling.

Evidences show that, on one hand, the double "split" among breeders has engendered a differentiation and the creation of a sort of elite, corresponding to the members of the syndicate; on the other hand, the efforts made by public institutions to coordinate the breed-approach together with the origin-linked-product-approach would sensibly contribute to the social acceptance of the GI.

As far as the contribution towards formal economy is concerned, a wide range of responses can be considered. Regarding breeders, if sanitary aspects are perceived as more powerful incentives, this is not completely true with reference to e.g. fiscal regulation or third part controls.

The so called "man-supply chain" [START_REF] Casabianca | Maitrise de la qualité et solidarité des acteurs. La pertinence des innovations dans les filières d'élevage en Corse[END_REF]] organization model that consists in the processing of its own animals and informal direct selling (without any label), is expected to survive to the GI legal recognition and perhaps to increase, with possible market perturbations. In this we interpreted the results of the field-survey as clues of an hybrid transition towards formal economy: some products will follow the standard procedures required by the GI recognition process; some others, in the same productive unit, will be excluded from the legal recognition. Young starting breeders could play an incentive role in the formalization process: since their entrance in the direct selling system appears as full of obstacles, the easiest way to benefit immediately from a good reputation consists in obtaining the GI legal recognition, so as to share the status of the quality sign.

Regarding the relationship among the actors of the supply chain, the GI represent a fundamental push to formalization process, in fact all the operations should be traced, with consequences for both intermediate-buyers and customers.

As a part of the formalization process, the GI official registration corresponds to a concept of legality, that is to say something which is in conformity with the law. On the contrary, the legitimacy makes reference to something which is commonly considered as "right and fair". Legitimacy is also often linked to the notion of embeddedness, involving a sense of "rooting" in the local context. The co-existence of rules of law and rules of legitimacy could give birth to two groups of actors, following respectively the code of practice and the code of what is considered commonly tolerated. Even if being part of one group or another is not always a voluntary choice (some breeders cannot materially afford the costs of a GI legal recognition), the presence of two non related-entities lead to various interpretations, such as the "empowerment" one: the respect of the Code of practice, besides giving the actors a property right on the origin name, could allow them to benefit from an authentic process of empowerment (the honest people) with regards to the non-respectful actors, who can only count on legitimacy (the fraudulent). Various scenarios can be foreseen, depending on both the degree of tolerance and the strength of legitimacy in comparison with legality. Based on [START_REF] Usunier | Éthique des affaires et relativité culturelle[END_REF] work, the case study indicates the so called "trap" hypothesis as a possible evolution: the GI mechanism could represent an incentive to the achievement of legality with comparison to legitimacy, leading to a progressive lowering of tolerance. This is particularly true from professional buyers' (e.g. supermarket) point of view, which base their transactions exclusively on legality. Consumers play also a relevant role as far as their choices are based on various quality conventions which refer to more or less formal quality evaluation criteria.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The analysis shows that in general GI devices represent a contribution to the transition to the formal economy, but it can be argued that the social and economic context is susceptible to change the intensity of this contribution in a decisive way. The logic of legality encapsulated in GI registration may conflict with the principle of legitimacy, in contexts characterized by high level of informality. Due to the GI, the entitlement of each actor face to the resource is modified, so that the individual responses to this transformation can configure contrasted scenarios. In the Corsica case, the GI scheme will be integrated in a system characterized by many structural problems, including the existence of both the formal and the informal economy. The vertically integrated breeders easily escape to the formal system because they find refuge in the direct selling and the role of "sole protagonist" of the breeder. Young breeders can play a very important role in the Corsican system. Deciding to "start from scratch" the activity of pork breeder in Corsica involves numerous risks and problems (i.e. difficulties in land management, barriers to enter the circuit of direct selling which requires a strong network of relationships). In this sense, the activation of the GI scheme could encourage the entry of young farmers in the supply chain, with repercussions on the development of the Nustrale breed, on the revaluation and redistribution of the activity of breeder, on the success of the device itself and its contribution to formalization.

July -1 August 2013 in Florence, Italy

Giovanni Belletti is from the University of Florence, Department of Economics and Management (giovanni.belletti@unifi.it). Francois Casabianca, INRA-SAD of Corte, Corsica (fca@corte.fr). Francesca Gabbriellini, University of Florence (francesca.gabbriellini@stud.unifi.it).


Marie Foulongne-Oriol

Anne Rodier

Pierre Caumont

Cathy Spataro

Jean-Michel Savoie

AGARICUS BISPORUS CULTIVARS: HIDDEN DIVERSITY BEYOND APPARENT UNIFORMITY?

Keywords: genetic diversity; cultivar identification, strain protection, essentially derived varieties

Agaricus bisporus, commonly known as the button mushroom, is the most widely cultivated species of edible fungi. The cultivars used by growers over the world are suspected to come from the same restricted pool of strains, and the genetic base of all the present day hybrids is very narrow. The aim of this study was to assess the genetic variability among traditional and modern commercially used A. bisporus strains. Fourteen codominant microsatellite markers (AbSSR) were used to characterize 75 cultivated genotypes from European spawn makers, maintained in the Collection of Agaricus in Bordeaux (CGAB) since 1990. To our knowledge, it is the most extensive sample ever studied. Seven main groups were identified which corresponded to the six ancestral lineages and the hybrids belonging to either U1 or U3 sub-group of strains. Thirty-three U1-like cultivars could not be differentiated. Very few strains have a distinct and typical SSRs pattern. Based on our results, we proposed also a cultivar identification key with a limited number of markers in order to optimize forthcoming SSRs fingerprinting. For three hybrids that seemed to be genetically identical to Horst-U1 at heterokaryotic level, the analysis of each constituting nuclei has demonstrated allelic rearrangement, suggesting essentially derived varieties. The efficiency of microsatellite markers and implications of these results for germplasm management, breeding strategy and variety identification are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Agaricus bisporus is the most widely cultivated species of edible mushrooms. However, despite its economical importance, few efforts have been done in terms of breeding and strain improvement. As a result, all currently grown cultivars are assumed to be related to a limited number of traditional genotypes [START_REF] Royse | Use of isozyme variation to identify genetic classes of Agaricus brunnescens[END_REF] and A. bisporus appears to be nearly a monolineage crop. Several studies using various molecular markers have demonstrated that most of the current hybrids are either identical of very similar to the first hybrids U1 and U3 released in the 80's [START_REF] Loftus | DNA Polymorphisms in Commercial and Wild Strains of the Cultivated Mushroom, Agaricus bisporus[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | RAPD discrimination of Agaricus bisporus mushroom cultivars[END_REF][START_REF] Guan | Differentiation of commercial strains of Agaricus species in China with inter-simple sequence repeat marker[END_REF]. Microsatellites that stand for being one of the most valuable molecular markers for genetic studies have been recently developed for A. bisporus [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]. We have already demonstrated that these SSR markers are useful tools for analysing intraspecific genetic variation, but the characterisation of a large cultivar set with such markers has not been done yet. The collection of Germplasm of Agaricus in Bordeaux (CGAB) encompasses at present time near 1000 strains among which we can find cultivars and mainly wild strains from various origins [START_REF] Callac | The germplasm of Agaricus bisporus: Main results after ten years of collecting in France, in Greece, and in North America[END_REF]. To improve germplasm management, the molecular characterisation of this collection is indispensable but raises the question of duplicates. Indeed, due to the typical life cycle and the meiotic behaviour of A. bisporus (see the review of Sonnenberg et al. in the present issue [START_REF] Sonnenberg | Breeding and strain protection in the button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]) it is impossible, at the molecular level, to distinguish vegetative copies or post-meiotic heterokaryotic mycelia.

The objective of this study was to use 14 AbSSR loci to evaluate the genetic diversity in 75 strains representing traditional and modern commercially cultivars. To our knowledge, this is the most extensive sample of A. bisporus cultivars for such analyses. Beyond the characterisation of the cultivars diversity, we have also analysed each constituting nuclei of three hybrids that seemed to be genetically identical to U1 at heterokaryotic level. By this way, we could distinguish copies from essentially derived varieties. Consequences for germplasm management, breeding strategy and strain protection will be discussed.

MATERIALS and METHODS

Fungal strains. Seventy-five fungal cultivar strains originated from various European spawn makers were analysed. Eight of them (Bs002, Bs003, Bs034, Bs061, Bs063, Bs089, U1, U3) have been already used for genetic analysis in a previous study [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF] and were included in the present sampling as controls. The detailed listing of the 75 strains and their origin is available upon request.

Six homokaryons were obtained from 3 U1-like heterokaryotic strains (Bs508, Bs516, Bs681) by the protoplast method of deheterokaryotisation described in Kerrigan et al. [START_REF] Kerrigan | The heterothallic life-cycle of Agaricus bisporus var burnettii and the inheritance of its tetrasporic trait[END_REF].

All fungal strains are maintained in the "Collection du Germplasm des Agarics à Bordeaux" (CGAB) [START_REF] Callac | The germplasm of Agaricus bisporus: Main results after ten years of collecting in France, in Greece, and in North America[END_REF]. SSR genotyping. Total DNA was extracted from freeze dried mycelium with a classical CTABchloroform-isoamyl alcohol protocol. In routine use, DNA concentration was adjusted to 25ng/µl.

Microsatellite studies were based on markers previously developed in our lab [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]. The 14 SSR loci used here for genotyping 75 cultivars were chosen on the basis of their unambiguous allele scoring, their level of polymorphism revealed in the six morphotype lineages and their multiplex compatibility. Thus, 3 sets of combined SSR loci were developed according to their expected allele size range and/or fluorescent primer labels (Table 1). Repeat units, primer sequences, fluorescently dye labelling, amplification conditions, have been previously described [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF][START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | An expanded genetic linkage map of an intervarietal Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus x A. bisporus var. burnettii hybrid based on AFLP, SSR and CAPS markers sheds light on the recombination behaviour of the species[END_REF]. Capillary electrophoresis and fragment size determination were performed on a CEQTM 8000 Genetic Analysis System Sequencer (Beckman Coulter). The analysis of possible allelic rearrangement in the 6 homokaryotic strains was performed with 8 microsatellite markers known for being heterozygous in the U1 strain. The haplotypes of the two nuclei U1-2 (equivalent to H97) and U1-7 (equivalent to H93) were taken as reference.

Data analysis. SSR data were scored as several alleles per locus distinguished by their size. For each SSR locus, we computed with PowerMarker 3.25 [START_REF] Liu | PowerMarker: an integrated analysis environment for genetic marker analysis[END_REF] several genetic diversity parameters as the number of alleles per locus (N), the number of genotypes (G), the observed heterozygosity (Ho), the polymorphic information content (PIC) and the power of discrimination (PD=1-Σg i ² where g i is the frequency of the ith genotype). The probability PI that two distinct strains share by chance the same genetic profile was computed using Identity 4.0 (Centre of Applied Genetics, University of Agricultural Sciences, Vienna).

Genetic relationship between cultivars was assessed with the unweighted pair-group method analysis (UPGMA) using genetic distance based on the proportion of shared alleles as DAS=1-(Σ S)/2u where S is the number of shared alleles and u the number of loci analysed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

SSR informativeness. An illustration of genotyping output was shown on Figure 1. The 14 SSR markers used in the present study amplified 44 alleles, ranging in size from 107 to 332 bp. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 5 with an average of 3.14 alleles (Table 1). Allele frequencies ranged from 0.02 (AbSSR06-allele 196 bp) to 0.92 (AbSSR64-allele 107 bp) with a mean value of 0.3. The most and the least informative locus were AbSSR36 (PD =0.83) and AbSSR49 (PD=0.17) respectively. The average value of PD parameter over all loci reached 0.53. Several variability parameters estimated in the present study were lower than those previously reported [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]. This result was not surprising due to our sample restricted to cultivated strains. Indeed, the level of polymorphism among cultivars was described lower compared to wild strains and near 43% of AbSSR alleles were never found in cultivars [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]. Agaricus bisporus cultivars identification. The combination of the allelic pattern obtained with the 14 SSR loci made possible to identify 13 distinct genotypes among the 75 A. bisporus cultivated strains analysed (Fig. 2). Thirty-three cultivars could not be differentiated and showed the same genetic profile as U1/U3 hybrid strains. Using a mitochondrial marker (data not shown), these 33 genotypes could be separated into two subgroups that correspond to either U1 or U3 as expected [START_REF] Sonnenberg | The occurrence of mitochondrial genotypes and inheritance of mitochondria in the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]. The small genetic difference, found at a single allele between the group of two strains (Bs005 together with Bs040) and the U1-like group, needed to be further investigated and confirmed with other markers. We could not exclude that minor differences can be due to somatic mutations that may occur in vegetative propagation system such as mycelium maintenance. Comparison of morphological and agronomical data could clarify this slight variability. Our results confirmed that most of the present day hybrids were apparently identical or closely similar to the first hybrids [START_REF] Moore | RAPD discrimination of Agaricus bisporus mushroom cultivars[END_REF]. Among the 13 diplotypes, we found the six genotypes that correspond to the six morphotype lineages already described, it is to say "off white", "small white", "white", "brown", "small brown", and "golden white" [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]. However, the off white-like strains were separated into two closely related subgroups. Two strains (Bs022 and Bs668) were singled out. present data suggested that these two strains were likely to be derived from a cross breeding scheme but it was not possible to clearly set up their pedigrees. Distance values between the 13 diplotypes ranged from 0.04 to 0.78 with an average value of 0.42. The heterozygosity levels were variable among cultivars, ranging from 7.7% (Bs006) to 57.1 % (U1-like hybrids), with an average of 42.2%.

Efficient combination of SSR markers as molecular identification key of A. bisporus cultivars.

Considering the 14 markers, the probability that two distinct diplotypes share by chance the same genotype was estimated to be 8.3 x 10 -8 . To optimize SSR fingerprinting, we would like to determine the combination(s) of AbSSR markers that could be sufficient to discriminate each diplotype. For some subgroups, it was possible to establish a molecular identification key by identifying specific AbSSR alleles. For instance, AbSSR36-148 bp allele was found only in small white-like strains. The signature of small-brown cultivars was the AbSSR39-173 pb allele (Table 2). The U1-like hybrids were characterized by specific heterozygous profiles at the two loci AbSSR36 (152/160) and AbSSR42 (179/181). The use of three selected markers (AbSSR36-AbSSR42-AbSSR45) appeared to be sufficient to distinguish the 13 distinct genotypes. Using this combination, we expected a probability of identity of 3.7 x 10 -3 to find, by chance, two strains that showed the same profile. Allelic rearrangement analysis. For the 3 U1-like strains, the analysis of the homocaryotic nuclei showed a re-assortment of alleles by comparison with the U1-7 and U1-2 nuclei. We observed 2, 3 and 4 allelic differences over the 8 examined loci for Bs516, Bs681 and Bs508 respectively. Furthermore, although these 3 strains are identical at heterokaryotic level, the allelic composition of their nuclei is different (Fig. 3). That indicates an independent assortment of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I and a pairing of non-sister nuclei in meiosis II. No crossing over was observed between loci shared by the same linkage group (AbSSR05-AbSSR06 on LG VI, AbSSR45-AbSSR60 on LG VII). Our results demonstrated that these 3 strains apparently genetically identical to U1 were likely to be issued from single spore isolates of U1. These results confirmed those reported by Sonnenberg et al. [START_REF] Sonnenberg | Breeding and strain protection in the button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF]. The redistribution of chromosomes has been demonstrated to induce some phenotypic variability [START_REF] Moquet | Selfreproduction induced variability in agronomic traits for a wild Agaricus bisporus[END_REF] and this could be favourable in breeding programs. Thus, the cultivars identical to U1 at the heterozygous level could present advantageous differences for phenotypic traits. Thus, phenotypic characterisation appeared to be inseparable from molecular one to optimize mushroom collection management. Consequently, in parallel to genotypic data, most of the strains in collection were also phenotyped for various agronomic traits (data not shown).

CONCLUSIONS

The SSR markers previously developed are confirmed to be powerful for genetic diversity and cultivar identification in A. bisporus. The molecular identification key we propose, particularly the lineage signature, may serve as an efficient tool for the A. bisporus community. Multiplex AbSSR set coupled with fluorescence-based automated detection systems make also possible the optimisation of this molecular identification key in routine use.

The narrow genetic base of the button mushroom cultivars is confirmed with the identification of six lineages that constitute the parentage of most of the available commercial strains. With this crop uniformity, the mushroom culture would be more vulnerable to pests and environmental stresses. Thus, the exploitation of wild genetic resources to broaden genetic variability is promising to develop new varieties with resistance to diseases or adaptation to climate changes [START_REF] Foulongne-Oriol | Novel microsatellite markers suitable for genetic studies in the white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF][START_REF] Callac | The germplasm of Agaricus bisporus: Main results after ten years of collecting in France, in Greece, and in North America[END_REF].

The homogeneity found within the actual commercial strains is in agreement with other studies but our results also demonstrate that a hidden diversity exist beyond the apparent uniformity. Several consequences should be considered. First, as it appears that the deheterokaryotisation of each strain in collection is unlikely, the molecular characterisation appeared to be needed but not sufficient to maximize the conserved diversity. It can not replace and avoid the phenotypic data, and thus, these two approaches are clearly complementary to optimize germplasm management. Secondly, it raises the question of strain protection and the definition of essentially derived varieties in this economical species, as underlined by Sonnenberg et al. [START_REF] Sonnenberg | Breeding and strain protection in the button mushroom Agaricus bisporus[END_REF].

Our results provide also a sound basis to manage breeding programs. The genetic data collected during this work will guide the choice of parental genotypes to cross according to their lineage belonging or their level of heterozygosity. Subsequent breeding scheme will also be facilitated through potential marker assisted selection.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Amplification fragment pattern of five microsatellites (multiplex set n°2) for U1 strain (output from CEQ8000 Genetic Analysis System)

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. UPGMA dendrogram of the 75 cultivars of Agaricus bisporus based on distance of shared alleles estimated with 14 SSR loci. Cultivar lineage morphotypes already described in Foulongne-Oriol et al. [5] are in bold characters.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Genotype of homocaryotic nuclei of 3 U1-like strains at 8 AbSSR loci and comparison with U1-2 (dark orange) and U1-7 (light orange) nuclei taken as references. Red dotted line signifies genetically linked markers on a same chromosome.

Table 1 .

 1 Locus name, multiplex and genetic parameters of the 14 SSR markers estimated in the 75 cultivar strains sample.

	AbSSR locus*	Multiplex set	N	allele size range	G	Ho	PIC	PD	PI
	AbSSR05	3	2	329-332	2	0.93	0.37	0.40	0.40
	AbSSR06	3	3	181-202	4	0.97	0.40	0.45	0.27
	AbSSR23	2	2	174-180	2	0.73	0.36	0.50	0.48
	AbSSR31	2	3	160-170	3	0.00	0.20	0.27	0.55
	AbSSR33	2	2	190-193	2	0.00	0.25	0.26	0.58
	AbSSR36	1	5	148-161	8	0.81	0.69	0.83	0.13
	AbSSR39	1	3	173-192	4	0.17	0.34	0.57	0.38
	AbSSR42	1	4	160-189	6	0.66	0.50	0.79	0.19
	AbSSR45	1	5	196-206	7	0.97	0.63	0.82	0.15
	AbSSR49	3	2	176-184	2	0.00	0.17	0.17	0.72
	AbSSR57	2	4	250-262	8	0.16	0.49	0.79	0.17
	AbSSR60	3	3	206-210	4	0.83	0.57	0.34	0.29
	AbSSR64	2	2	107-113	3	0.12	0.13	0.52	0.48
	AbSSR65	3	4	190-215	4	0.88	0.59	0.71	0.20

* color of locus name referred to fluorescent dye (black=D2, green=D3, blue=D4)

Table 2 .

 2 Allelic profile at the 14 AbSSR loci for the traditional lineages and the U1-like hybrid.

	Lineage	reference strain	AbSSR05 AbSSR06 AbSSR23 AbSSR31 AbSSR33 AbSSR36 AbSSR39 AbSSR42 AbSSR45 AbSSR49 AbSSR57 AbSSR60 AbSSR64 AbSSR65
	white	Bs034	329/332 181/202 180/180 170/170 193/193 160/160 188/188 179/179 198/206 176/176 252/258 208/210 107/107 190/215
	small white	Bs003	329/332 181/202 180/180 167/167 193/193 148/156 188/192 179/179 196/202 184/184 250/250 208/210 107/107 199/213
	off-white-1	Bs002	329/332 181/202 174/180 170/170 193/193 152/152 188/188 181/181 196/198 176/176 258/258 210/210 107/113 190/190
	off-white-2	Bs030	329/332 181/202 174/180 170/170 193/193 152/161 188/188 181/181 196/198 176/176 258/262 210/210 107/113 190/213
	small brown	Bs063	329/329 196/202 180/180 170/170 193/193 156/156 173/192 179/189 196/206 176/176 256/258 210/210 107/107 190/213
	brown	Bs061	329/332 181/202 174/180 170/170 190/190 156/161 192/192 160/179 196/200 176/176 252/252 206/210 107/107 190/213
	golden white	Bs089	329/332 181/181 180/180 170/170 190/190 160/160 192/192 160/160 198/206 176/176 252/262 208/208 107/107 190/213
	U1-like hybrid	U1/U3	329/332 181/202 174/180 170/170 193/193 152/160 188/188 179/181 196/206 176/176 258/258 208/210 107/107 190/215

Section Posters

Proceedings of the 7 th International Conference on Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products (ICMBMP7) 2011


Pauline Videcoq

Carole Assor

Olivier Arnould

Adelin Barbacci

Marc M Lahaye

Contribution of hemicellulose network to plant cell wall properties

à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Plant development with erected stature and exploration of the environment relies on tissue mechanical properties. These are determined by the turgor pressure, spatial organisation of cells in tissue and cell wall chemistry and organisation. The growing dicot plant cell wall is mostly composed by polysaccharides (cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose) and small amounts of proteins and lignin. During development, the polysaccharide network is build, reassembled and disassembled by numerous enzymes leading to significant changes of mechanical properties.

The aim of this work is to establish relationships between cell wall polysaccharides structure and parenchymatous tissue mechanical properties.

The approach used consists in a targeted alteration of the fine structure of cell wall polysaccharide by specific enzymes combined with the monitoring of the induced changes in mechanical properties at the tissue scale. The targeted polysaccharide structural domains, are xyloglucan side chains. In spite of the major role of this hemicellulose on the cell wall load-bearing network, the function of its side chains on mechanical properties has not been reported.

This study is performed on parenchymatous tissues from two contrasted apple varieties Golden delicious and Granny Smith. These varieties differ in their polysaccharide composition and texture but share close histological structure. Action of α-fucosidase and β-galactosidase on Xyloglucans In order to preserve turgor pressure of parenchyma samples, enzymes are infused in an isotonic buffer (mannitol, ascorbic acid, MES, Ca 2+ and DMSO, pH 6). This buffer was designed to maintain mechanical properties of samples for at least 5 hours without added enzymes. Vacuum infusion is realized by maintaining samples in buffer ± enzymes at 50 mbar during 30 s followed by a slow vacuum release.

β(1,4) Glcp β(1,4) β(1,4) β(1,4) β(1,4) Glcp Glcp Glcp β(1,4) β(1,4) β(1,4) Glcp Glcp Glcp β(1,4) Glcp β(1,4) β(1,4) β(1,4) Glcp Glcp Glcp β(1,4) Glcp α(1,6) Xylp Galp β(1,2) α(1,6) α(1,6) Xylp Xylp

  Impact of hemicellulose side chains modifications on plant cell wall mechanical properties P. Videcoq 1 , C. Assor 1,2 , O. Arnould 2 , A. Barbacci 1 , M. Lahaye 1 Alteration of xyloglucan side chains causes important modifications of mechanical properties at the macroscopic scale. These results emphasize the key roles of side chains in the load-bearing implication of xyloglucan in cell wall mechanical characteristics either directly in changing polysaccharides interactions or indirectly in regulating endogenous enzymes activity. These contrasted effects in Golden and Granny apple illustrate the diversity and complexity of cell wall with regards to their role on fruit development and maturation.

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  with a cork-borer following radial and longitudinal axes in order to consider apple parenchyma anisotropy. 4 apples are used per condition, for each apple, 5 cylinders are controls and 4 are tests.


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Introduction

The Linguistic Annotation Workshop (The LAW) is organized annually by the Association for Computational Linguistics Special Interest Group for Annotation (ACL SIGANN). It provides a forum to facilitate the exchange and propagation of research results concerned with the annotation, manipulation, and exploitation of corpora; work towards the harmonization and interoperability from the perspective of the increasingly large number of tools and frameworks for annotated language resources; and work towards a consensus on all issues crucial to the advancement of the field of corpus annotation. These proceedings include papers presented at LAW VI, held in Jeju, Korea, on 12-13 July 2012. This year's call for papers was answered by over 40 submissions. After careful review, the Program Committee accepted 14 long papers, together with nine additional papers to be presented as posters. This year's submissions addressed many topics of interest for resource annotation, with a particularly strong representation of papers describing annotation schemes devised to handle phenomena at a wide range of linguistic levels, from particles in Korean to social actions in discourse. Another topic that received considerable attention concerned strategies to evaluate and improve the reliability of annotations, especially those that are manually produced as well as annotations obtained via crowdsourcing. Annotated written and spoken resources in a variety of languages, including Korean, Urdu, Hindi, and Indonesian, were also represented.

The LAW VI call for papers included a new and special component: a call for submissions to answer The LAW Challenge, sponsored by the U.S. National Science Foundation (IIS 0948101 Content of Linguistic Annotation: Standards and Practices (CLASP)) and the ACL Special Interest Group on Annotation (ACL SIGANN). The challenge was established this year to promote the use and collaborative development of open, shared resources, and to identify and promote best practices for annotation interoperability. The evaluation criteria included the following:

• innovative use of linguistic information from different annotation layers;

• demonstrable interoperability with at least one other annotation scheme or format developed by others;

• quality of the annotated resource in terms of scheme design, documentation, tool support, etc.;

• open availability of developed resources for community use;

• usability and reusability of the annotation scheme or annotated resource;

• outstanding contribution to the development of annotation best practices.

The winner of the first LAW Challenge was Who Did What to Whom? A Contrastive Study of Syntacto-Semantic Dependencies, which examines interoperability among a broad range of common annotation schemes for syntacto-semantic dependencies within the LinGO Redwoods Treebank project. The strengths of the project were seen to be its design and focus on interoperability, as well as its potential to promote work on interoperability that will help the community to develop larger, richer representations to train various linguistic tools. The winning paper received a monetary award to cover the authors' travel expenses and workshop registration. The selection process for the winner of the first LAW Challenge was extremely difficult, and therefore, the committee decided to acknowledge a strong runner-up, entitled Prague Markup Language Framework, which was recognized for the extensive influence of the described scheme on the community and the extent to which the scheme and tools have been applied to other languages.

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We would like to thank SIGANN for its continuing organization of the LAW workshops, as well as the support of the ACL 2012 workshop committee chairs, Massimo Poesio and Satoshi Sekine. Most of all, we would like to thank all the authors for submitting their papers to the workshop and our program committee members and reviewers for their dedication and informative reviews.

Nancy Ide and Fei Xia, Program Committee Co-chairs