Terrane Terrane

Chibcha Terrane

PRE-ANDEAN TECTONIC EVENTS (ALBIAN TO EOCENE) IN THE MIDDLE MAGDALENA VALLEY AND SITUATION OF THE WESTERN PROTO-EASTERN

Keywords:

For years in Colombia research has been mainly centered on the knowledge of the most recent uplifting of the Eastern Cordillera, and on the evaluation of the Tertiary units in many basins to understand the recent deformation. Recently, due to the necessities of the oil industry to evaluate new targets, new information has been acquired on Cretaceous units form the Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley.

The aim of this work is to analyse the data which gives evidence of deformation in the basin of Middle Magdalena Valley during the Cretaceous.

The Cretaceous units are exposed in the Eastern Cordillera, but not in the Middle Magdalena Valley, where only a few outcrops are known. Instead a lot of seismic information is available on this area and some wells that have drilled the Cretaceous units. Using large seismic reflection sections and well information, I could identify important events, unconformities, and faults which were inverted in different stages during the Lower Cretaceous to the Eocene, prior to the Andean Orogeny.

For that, I will show some key seismic sections interpreted in the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV). This interpretation will be validated with sections using surface field information and well information, and the structural styles will be discussed.

My results highlight the new proposed interpretation for the cretaceous sequence,

showing more details especially in the MMV, due to the seismic coverage and well information, and in the Western Eastern Cordillera (WEC) with more difficulty using some surface information that was collected during this work as well as preexisting information from available literature, how there were multiple phases of deformation that include different states of uprising or relative sea level change during the Cretaceous period, which is important to understand the real process that affected the Cretaceous behavior and also to suggest that tectonics and sea level changes or their interaction could be more complex during this time.

Based on the construction and analysis of transgressive-regressive curves and Fischer relative accommodation space plots, I interpreted system tracts and sea-level variations and recognized major surface boundaries surface (unconformities or their correlative conformities) at the Barremian-Aptian, during the Late Albian-Early Cenomanianand and Early Campanian times. Aditionally, based on tracts interpreted and surface boundaries, I built regional paleo-facies maps from Berriasian to Coniacian-Santonian, showing several periods of regression and transgression till early Campanian.

From seismic interpretation made in this work, using seismic stratigraphy and wheeler diagrams, five sequences (S) and five unconformities (SU) were identified as sequence boundaries: recognized at the Jurassic-Cretaceous, Late Barremian-Early Aptian (~125 Ma), and at the Albian-Cenomanian (~100 Ma), Santonian-Campanian (~ 80 Ma), and Paleocene-Eocene boundaries, these unconformities or their correlative conformities (SU) have a regional extension.

The thermochronological information collected, prepared, analyzed, interpreted and modeled in this work, helped me to recognized two events of heating and two events of cooling for samples deposited before 85 Ma. The heating events occurred from the sedimentation of the units till ~85-80 Ma and from ~70 Ma to ~10 Ma and the cooling events occurred between ~80 Ma till ~70 Ma and from ~10-2 Ma. The paleo-geothermal gradient versus the present-day thermal gradient make it possible to identify the presence of unconformities.

The integration of the structural reconstructions made in this work through the Cretaceous, considering the sequences (S) and the discordances (SU) and the transgressive-regressive sequences (paleo-facies maps), shows the relation between deformation, deposition and erosion and when each of these events happened during the Cretaceous in these basins (MMV and WEC).

My tectonic and geodynamic reconstruction makes it possible to conclude that from the Jurassic to the Paleocene, repetitive tectonic extension and compression events produced by a cyclic subduction regime, explain the relative sea fluctuation and the deposition, exhumation and erosion phases observed in the MMV and WEC during the Cretaceous.

Finally, the presence of accreted blocks (for ex. Quebradagrande) is undeniable.

However, the deformation of the upper plate in my model is not dependent on these accreted terranes, but rather on the subduction regime, for example changes in the plate subduction angle (steep or flat subduction), the convergence rate, the polarity of subduction, the age of the slab, etc.

 Restrepo-Peace et al. (2004),) of the study area, showing the most important structural and geological features, the general stratigraphic units, the location of the section profiles analyzed in this work (pink lines); to the right is the location of the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV, light blue) and Western flank of Eastern Cordillera (WEC, pink), representing the study area. Wagoner et al. (1990) and a eustacy curve (left) modified from Hag et al (1987). 4.7 and 4.12).The seismic profile corresponds to the regional line ANH-TA-2006-4A1. MM-1976-1B, 1C and 1D in the north of the MMV (location on Figure 4.7). Above: un-interpreted section; below: proposed interpretation. dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-87-1740, DM-87-1650, SL-951800, in direction NW-SE in SE-1989-1400, MSA-1989-01, in direction NW-SE in TPBRM-1997-101, TPBG-1997-101A, H-1978-07, in 4.16. Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: section interpreted along the seismic reflection profile TMM-1991-04, RG-1991-08, SD-1985-42, H-1978-06 in approximate direction N-S in the south of the MMV. (a,b) Composed seismic profile (dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-1987-1740, DM-1987-1650, SL-95-1800) SE-1989-1400and MSA-1989-01 (location on Figure 4.7). (Gailbraith, 1990) of ZFT (left) and AFT (right) of two different samples (using radialpltter aplication from Vermeesch, 2009) from the northern study zone of this work (for location see figure 5.5). Figure 5.9. The map on the left shows the central age of the ZFT, for the samples from the norther area of study, note that the ZFT age tends to decrease towards the central part of the Los Cobardes Anticline, where the Jurassic units are present. The section in figure 5.7 shows the same behavior. The map in the center shows the minimum age from ZFT, note that also towards the center of Los Cobardes Anticline the age tends to decrease; the same behavior is observed on the map on the right, mapping the minimum age from the AFT. Figure 5.16. The map on the left shows central age of ZFT for the samples in the central area of study, note that the ZFT age tends to decrease towards the central part of the Arcabuco Anticline, where the Jurassic units are present (Figure 5.14 shows the same behavior). The map on the right shows the minimum age of DZFT, note that also at the center of the Arcabuco Anticline the age tends to decrease; however at the right and left side of the structure the central and minimum age also decrease. At the left is showing the map of the central age of the ZFT, for the samples from the Southern area of study, note that the ZFT age tends to decrease towards the core of the Villeta Anticline, where the Lower Cretaceous units are present (Trinchera/Utica), the section in Figure 5.18 shows the same behavior. At right is showing the map of the minimum age of the ZFT, note that the minimum age in the Villeta Anticline tends to decrease; however at the east of the map the central and minimum age also decrease, showing that thermochronological age values always tend to decrease in older units.

Figure 5.22. Semilogarithmic plots of vitrinite reflectance and equivalent maximum temperature (left), and temperature vs age. The maximum temperatures were calculated using Eq. 1 shown in the text. Suite of vitrinite reflectance data collected by various researchers (Gomez, 2001;Caballero, 2013;[START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF]Moreno et al., 2013). RG-1991-08, SD-19, H-1978-06, and section from surface information. 3.5. Some of these wells are described in Chapter 3.

TABLES LIST

Table 5.1. Information of the samples collected, prepared and used for the thermochronological analysis in this work.

Table 5.2 -Detrital ZFT results from the north region in the WEC. All the samples were analyzed and counted at 1250x using a BH2 Olympus microscope with digitalizing tablet by Jairo Guerrero with a zeta value of 137.14±1.57.

Table 5. [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Contornos sucesivos del mar Cretáceo en Colombia[END_REF] -Detrital AFT results from the north section of the WEC. All the samples were analyzed by Jairo Guerrero with a zeta value of 282.02±6.88. (Gomez, 2001;Caballero, 2013;[START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF]Moreno et al., 2013), the maximum temperatures (Tmax*) were calculated using Equation-1, shown in the text (after Baker and Pawlewicz, 1994).

Tabla 5.9 -Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) collected by the ICP (Instituto Colombiano de Petróleo), the maximum temperatures (Tmax*) were calculated using Equation-1 shown in the text (after Baker and Pawlewicz, 1994).

Table 5.10 -Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) collected by the ICP (Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo), the maximum temperatures (Tmax*) were calculated using Equation-1 shown in the text (after Baker and Pawlewicz, 1994). The tables also have values related to the temperature. Compiled from well description in Gomez 2001 volume II. Table 5.11a -Compiled fission-track data, analyzed with laser-ablation-inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), from the areas of Guaduas, Villeta and the Armas Syncline.

Table 5.11b -Samples taken from other authors, analyzed with (U-Th)/He in zircons and apatite, from the Armas Syncline.

Table 5.11c -Fission-track age compilation from other author mainly from the north and south, and some from the central area studied in this work.

opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean occurred in the late Middle Jurassic (≈157 Ma, [START_REF] Klitgord | Plate kinematic of the central of thr central Atlantic[END_REF] and possibly as early as in the late Liassic (180 Ma, [START_REF] Scotese | Plate tectonic reconstructions of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic ocean basins[END_REF]. Since around 157 Ma the central Atlantic just began opening (Klitgord and Schouthen, 1986) since they were together before this time [START_REF] Biari | Opening of the central Atlantic Ocean: Implications for geometric rifting and asymmetric initial seafloor spreading after continental breakup[END_REF] the Jurassic features suggest the development of symmetric rifting followed by asymmetric oceanic accretion, probably as is indicated by pre-break reconstruction, due to two possible situations 1) because Colombia was facing the continental block involved in the new oceanic crust of the Tethyan (Jaillard et al., 1990;Litherland et al., 1994) or 2) because Colombia is directly facing the oceanic paleopacific-plate [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF]. The Kimmeridgian-Berriasian period (156 to 140 Ma) is a transition period, marked in Colombia and Ecuador by accretions, compressional deformation and the end of magmatic activity (Aspden et al., 1987;Jaillard et al., 1990;1995), resulting from global geodynamic changes. If a Tethyan-Colombian oceanic arm did exist, Tethys accretion would have induced a northeastward convergence between the Phoenix and South American plates [START_REF] Duncan | Plate tectonic evolution of the Caribbean region in the mantle reference frame[END_REF]Jaillard et al., 1990). In the Late Jurassic, extensive rifting was marked by the deposition of Giron, La Quinta and Noreán formations [START_REF] Cediel | Geological Map of Colombia[END_REF]. This regional extension culminated with a shift from an extensional to a compressional tectonic regime, which is recorded by a regional erosional gap observed in the lower Aptian [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF]. The opening of the South Atlantic Ocean is important to understand the evolution of western South America, since it controlled the westward drift of the South American Plate and thus, the changes in the convergence rate in the subduction zone of Western South America [START_REF] Frutos | Andean tectonics as a consequence of sea-floor spreading[END_REF][START_REF] Sébrier | Tectonics and magmatism in the Peruvian Andes from late Oligocene time to the present[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF]. The definitive opening of the South Atlantic Ocean occurred in the Albian [START_REF] Emery | The Geology of Atlantic Ocean[END_REF][START_REF] Scotese | Plate tectonic reconstructions of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic ocean basins[END_REF], triggering the absolute westward drift of South America [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF]. This event coincides with the beginning of compressional deformation along the Peruvian-Ecuadorian-Colombian margin in the Late Albian (100-95 Ma) and with the onset of the trenchward motion of the upper plate [START_REF] Uyeda | Back-Arc Opening and the Mode of Subduction[END_REF][START_REF] Cross | Controls of subduction geometry, location of magmatic arcs, and tectonics of arc and back-arc regions[END_REF]Pilger 1982: Jarrard, 1986). The Middle Cenomanian-Turonian period (95-89 Ma) recorded a major regional marine transgression. The Albian-Turonian period is a period of high convergence, whereas the Coniacian-Late Paleocene interval is marked by a slowdown in the convergence rate (Late Santonian-Early Campanian . This period is also characterized by the beginning of the Cretaceous compressional events [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Gayet | The Mesozoic and Paleocene vertebrates of Bolivia and their stratigraphic context: A review in: Suarez-Suroco R (Ed) Fosiles y facies de Bolivia Vol. I Vertebrados. Santa Cruz-Bolivia[END_REF] and [START_REF] Jaillard | The Late Cretaceous Vilquechico Formation, Southern Peru. Sedimentology, Paleontology, Biostratigraphy, Correlations[END_REF], during the Late Campanian (75-70 Ma), a major contractional phase occurred in Peru, which was responsible for a 300 km-long overthrust.

Aims of this study

The aim of this PhD thesis is to decipher the tectonic evolution of the Cretaceous sequence in the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) basin and in the western flank of Eastern Cordillera (WEC), which bounds the MMV basin to the East. For this, we used stratigraphic, structural, chronostratigraphic and thermochronological data from this and other works to analyze the possible. Block diagrams illustrating the evolution of paleo-facies deformation are also shown. Finally, paleo-plate reconstruction and the Cretaceous tectonic evolution of the MMV and WEC are presented.

Each chapter in this dissertation includes a geological context, results, discussions, and conclusions, with the idea of generating independent articles. CHAPTER 2 Regional geological context 2.1. Tectonic framework of the Northern Andes (Colombia) and Caribbean Northwestern South America (Western margin of Colombia) is comprised of a series of plates, tectonic blocks and features, including oceanic rifts, oceanic trenches, active subduction zones, accretionary prisms, deformed belts, transform fault zones, oceanic normal faults, continental plate faults and independent lithospheric blocks (figure 2.1). These tectonic terranes are limited to the east by the Guaicáramo fault (number 43 in the figure 2.1). The Andes of Colombia present three cordilleras (Western, Central and Eastern Cordilleras), separated by the Cauca and Magdalena valleys (Figure 2.1). The Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) sedimentary basin is 560 km long and around 80 km wide (Figure 2.3). To the West, west-dipping thrust faults separate it from the central cordillera (CC), while to the East, east-dipping thrust faults separate it from the Eastern Cordillera (EC) [START_REF] Butler | Structure along the eastern margin of the Central Cordillera, Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia[END_REF]Namson et al., 1994;[START_REF] Gomez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF].

Figure 2.2 is a generalized map of tectonic blocks of northwestern South America (Colombia and Ecuador). On the map the most important terranes that are present in the Andes of Colombia are highlighted. [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF] distinguishes lithotectonic units, deformed by tectonic processes, and Morphostructural Units, the topography of which is controlled by faults, folds or discordances. Blocks like Chicamocha (Chibcha terrane), Cajamarca-Valdivia (Tahamí), Quebradagrande, Arquia, Amaime and Dagua terranes constitute the Central and Western Cordillera.

The Guiana Shield, located east of the Guaicáramo Fault, is a lithotectonic unit made of Precambrian autochthonous rocks [START_REF] Priem | Precambrian Amazonas region of southeastern Colombia (western Guiana Shield)[END_REF] pink in figure 2.2), which extends throughout eastern Colombia and southern Venezuela, and includes the Gazón massif. The Chicamocha or Chibcha Terrane (Ramos, 2008;Figure 2.2) is an allochthonous Proterozoic Terrane representing possibly a relict of the North American Plate, which was added to the Guiana Shield during the late Mesoproterozoic Orinoc orogeny (1300-900 Ma), this terrane is buried by sedimentary sequences of the Lower Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages.

These terrane are represented principally in the east of Central Cordillera by fragments of granulite grade bodies of migmatite and quartz-feldspar gneiss. [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF], consider that this wedge may be analogous to the Arequipa terrane exposed in Peru [START_REF] Dalmayrac | Geologie des Andes Peruviennes: Caracteres generaux de l'evolution geologique des Andes Peruviennes[END_REF]. The Chicamocha or Chibcha Terrane (Ramos, 2008;Figure 2.2 and 6.8) is an allochthonous Proterozoic Terrane, possibly a relict of the North American Plate, which was added to the Guiana Shield during the late Mesoproterozoic Orinoc orogeny (1300-900 Ma), this terrane is buried by sedimentary sequences of the Lower Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages (Hackley et al., 2007;Gray et al, 2010;Giunta and Orioli, 2011;Garcia-Casco et al., 2011). The Cajamarca-Valdivia terrane (Tahami terrane - Gomez et al., 2015, figure 6.8) was accreted to the Chicamocha terrane (Chibcha terrane) or directly to the Guiana shield to the south (Figure 2.2; Loja Terrane in Ecuador, Litherland et al., 1994), during a Middle Ordovician to Silurian cordilleran-type orogeny, it is composed of greenschist till lower amphibolite metamorphic facies, pelitic and graphite-bearing schists, amphibolites, intrusive rocks and ophiolites. According to Restrepo-Peace (1972), their affinity with the intra-oceanic arc and continentalmargin rocks suggest the collision and docking of an intra-oceanic magmatic arc, forming an allochthonous to parautochthomous accretionary prism of Ordovician to Silurian age. Hey, 1977;Lonsdale and Klitgord, 1978;Case et al., 1984;Adamek et al., 1988;Hardy, 1991;Zamora and Litherland, 1993;[START_REF] Meschede | A plate-tectonic model for the Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic history of the Caribbean Plate[END_REF]Gutscher et al. 1999;Audemard et al., 2000;Barckhausen et al., 2001;MacMillan et al., 2004;Giunta et al., 2006;and Escuder Viruete et al., 2006). Vector values of the relative plate movements were adapted from GPS data by Mora et al. (2014) and Protti et al. (2012). Active oceanic rifts: (1) Cayman, (2) Galápagos, [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Contornos sucesivos del mar Cretáceo en Colombia[END_REF] Ecuador, and ( 4) Costa Rica. Inactive oceanic rifts: (5) Malpelo and ( 6) Buenaventura. Oceanic trenches and active subduction zones: (7) Middle America, (8) Colomboecuatoriana,and (9) Caribbean. Oceanic trenches and inactive subduction zones: (10) Puerto Rico. Accretionary prisms-deformed belts: (11) Los Muertos, (12) Lesser Antilles, (13) Caribbean, and ( 14) Panamá. Transform fault zones: (15) Septentrional-Oriente, ( 16) (17) (18) Jordan,(19) Panamá,(20) Hey, [START_REF] Rodríguez | Mapa Geológico de la Plancha 169 de Puerto Boyacá: Ingeominas[END_REF] Yaquina, ( 22) Grijalva,and (23) Los Roques. Oceanic normal faults: (24) Pedro Bank and (25) Hess. Continental plate faults: (26) Simarúa, [START_REF] Cooper | Lower Cretaceous (Middle Albian) ammonites from Dombe Grande, Angola[END_REF] Cuisa, (28) Oca, (29) El Pilar, (30) Santa Marta, (31) Algarrobo, (32) (33) Boconó,(34) Espíritu Santo,(35) Bucaramanga,(36) Palestina,(37) Murindó,(38) Otú,(39) La Salina,(40) (41) San Jerónimo,(42) Mistrató,(43) Guaicáramo,(44) Meta, [START_REF] Labails | An alternative early opening for the Central Atlantic Ocean[END_REF] Istmina Fault Zone, (46) Garrapatas, (47) Ibagué, (48) Algeciras, (49) (50) Peltetec,and (51) Cosanga. Independent lithospheric blocks: (52) Coiba Microplate. As is shown in figure 2.2, table 2.1 and in a more simple way in chapter 6 (figures 6.8 and 6.7) conciliating different terranes divisions in a simplified manner, Colombia is divided in six terranes that from the Eastern Cordillera towards the west are: Chibcha terrane (Chicamocha terrane), Tahamí Terrane (Cajamarca-Valdivia Terrane), and Quebradagrande, Arquia, Amaime and Dagua terranes (Kwedge in figure 6.7, Romeral terrane in figure 2.2.). These terranes are located between the Guiana Shield, the Maracaibo subplate and the western tectonic units (composed in figure 2.2 by Gorgona, Sinu, San Jacinto terranes, Cañas Gordas and Baudo Terranes). [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF]Hackley et al., 2006;[START_REF] Sassi | The impact of deformation timing on the prospectivity of the Middle Magdalena sub-thrust, Colombia[END_REF]Kennan and Pindell, 2009;Gray et al,,.2010;Giunta and Orioli, 2011;Garcia-Casco et al., 2011;Schutte et al., 2012).

Figure 2.2 Tectonic framework of the northern Andes of South America (after

The Romeral, Dagua, San Jacinto and Sinu terranes correspond to the lithotectonic units recognized by [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Mapa de terrenos geológicos de Colombia[END_REF]. The Romeral Terrane was accreted to the Cajamarca-Valdivia Terrane 132-125 Ma ago (Litherland et al. 1994), based on radiometric dating of phengite and glaucophane-bearing schists in the El Oro Arch (Ecuador, McCourt and Feininger, 1984) and in Jambaló (Colombia). The Dagua Terrane (Figure 2.2) was accreted after emplacement of the Romeral Terrane [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF], which is evidenced by a period of uplift and erosion around 56 Ma, resulting in a regional unconformity. This event would have resulted from the oblique convergence of the Dagua terrane, prior to the collision of the Dagua Oceanic Plateau around 49 Ma ago [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF].

uplift during the Jurassic (185 Ma) and Late Cretaceous (≤ 77 Ma). Apatite and zircon F-T ages from granites from the same Central Cordillera suggest a Cenomanian igneous activity related to a tectonic event (Villagomez et al., 2008). In the Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV) of Colombia and in the Maracaibo basin of Venezuela unconformities of the Campanian and Cenozoic ages were recognized [START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF][START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF]. In Peru, [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF] suggest that the Late Albian Mochica tectonic event (≈ 100 Ma) was related to an increasing convergence rate, due to the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean.

General Settings

The scientific knowledge of the Cretaceous sediments in the Andes started with d'Orbigny (1840)(1841)(1842), and Charles Darwin (1846). D'Orbigny showed a special interest in the Cretaceous strata of the Andes, which are found from Colombia to Patagonia, and identified some fossils of Neocomian age.

The Cretaceous sequence is important from both the academic and economic points of view and provides information about subduction, collision and rifting, since the latter control subsidence, sedimentation, unconformities and abundance of volcanic activity, either marine or continental [START_REF] Pindell | Mesozoic passive margin of northern South America[END_REF]. The Cretaceous sequence is classically considered as deposited in an extensional basin, which was inverted during the Cenozoic. In Northwestern South America the interaction between the Nazca, Caribbean and South American Plates (figure 2.1) controls the tectonic evolution and the accretion of terranes against western Colombia (figure 2.2; Duque-Caro, 1990). The latter were responsible for the inversion of extensional basins during the Late Cretaceous and Late Miocene, respectively.

Marine deposition occurred in a wide rift system developed in the western part of Colombia (Aspden et al, 1987) during the whole Cretaceous period, and came to an end due to the accretion of oceanic terranes of the Western Cordillera, which created a Paleogene foreland basin [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF]. The MMV basin includes Tertiary sediments that are thicker to the east, below the WEC (Figure 2.1). The middle Eocene regional unconformity represents the upper limit of Pre-Tertiary units.

Tectonics and deformation

The MMV and EC (Figure 2.3) are interpreted as Mesozoic extensional basins, the tectonic inversion of which remains poorly documented and understood [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF]. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the uplift of the WEC (Figure 2.3). Van der Hammen (1958) suggested that the uplift of the EC took place during the Miocene to Pliocene, 6-4 Ma ago (see also [START_REF] Campbell | Section through the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, South America[END_REF]. In the model proposed by Colletta et al. (1990), a single inversion event occurred during the Miocene-Pliocene. Dengo and Covey (1993) proposed a two-step inversion process, in which thin-skinned deformation during the Miocene-Pliocene, was followed by the uplift of the basement in Pliocene-Holocene times. Other authors suggest that inversion tectonics began in the Paleogene ( Van der Hammen, 1961;Roeder and Chamberlain, 1965;[START_REF] George | Eocene Paleosuture of Colombia and implications for history of generation and migration of hydrocarbons: VI simposio Bolivariano, exploración petrolera en las cuencas subandinas[END_REF][START_REF] Gómez | Geodinámica, tectonoestratigrafía, cronología y evolución termal de cuencas sedimentarias complejas y de sus áreas fuente. Métodos modernos de análisis cuantitativo y aplicaciones, implicaciones para exploración y producción de hidrocarburos[END_REF][START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF]. More recently it has been proposed that the Paleocene-Middle Eocene initial shortening in the MMV was associated with the tectonic inversion of the Mesozoic rift (Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004;[START_REF] Cortés | Paleostress evolution of the northern Andes (Eastern Cordillera Colombia): Implications on plate kinematics of South Caribbean region[END_REF][START_REF] Moretti | Sedimentation and subsidence rate in the Gulf of Corinth: what we learn from the Marion Dufresne's long-piston coring[END_REF][START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust-belt hinterlands. Example from Colombian Andes[END_REF]. Crustal shortening in the MMV occurred prior to the deposition of continental sediment of the Lower-Middle Eocene age [START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust-belt hinterlands. Example from Colombian Andes[END_REF], which gave way to the regional unconformity called the Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic Unconformity by [START_REF] Gómez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF]. Restrepo-Peace et al. (2004),) of the study area, showing the most important structural and geological features, the general stratigraphic units, the location of the section profiles analyzed in this work (pink lines); to the right is the location of the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV, light blue) and Western flank of Eastern Cordillera (WEC, pink), representing the study area.

Figure 2.3 Geological Map (left) (modified from

The tectonic events are illustrated by the phases of subsidence in different sedimentary basins (Figure 2.4;[START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF]. Rapid subsidence in the Triassic-Middle Jurassic would result from the stretching of the lithosphere (e.g. McKenzie, 1978;[START_REF] Ziegler | Geodynamic processes governing development of rifted basins[END_REF], since sediments of this age were accumulated in wide rift basins (Macia, 1985;[START_REF] Bayona | La Formación Saldaña: producto de la actividad de estratovolcanes continentales en un dominio de retroarco[END_REF][START_REF] Mojica | EI Jurásico del Sector Noroccidental de Suramérica y Guía de la Excursión al Valle Superior del Magdalena[END_REF], they locally and/or sporadically affected normal faulting (Saldaña Fm, [START_REF] Guillande | Evolution Méso-Cénozoïque d'une vallée intercordilléraine andine[END_REF].

Actually, the Triassic and Jurassic succession presents several unconformities separating various stratigraphic intervals [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF].

Figure 2. [START_REF] Caballero | Tectonic Controls on Sedimentation in an Intermontane Hinterland Basin Adjacent to Inversion Structures: The Nuevo Mundo Syncline, Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. In: Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial Inversion to Full Accretion[END_REF] Subsidence curves for the MMV and WEC basins (from Sarmiento, 2001). [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF] identified three periods of rapid subsidence during the Cretaceous (between 144 to 127 Ma) associated to the maximum tectonic subsidence produced by lithosphere stretching, with extensional tectonic movement; at 121-102 Ma (Aptian -Albian) other fast subsidence event occurred at the location of EC and MV; between 113 to 85 Ma Van der Wiel (1991) interpreted an orogenic event that in the area of extensional basin probably reflects cooling and uplifting of rift shoulders (c.f. Van der Beek, 1995). In the Cenomanian-Turonian (93-88 Ma) the subsidence increased during the global sea-level maximum [START_REF] Haq | Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic (250 Myr ago to Present)[END_REF]Villamil and Arango, 1998). At 80-65 Ma (Campanian -Maastrichtian) in the area of Suesca-1, Sabal-1k y Casabe-199, the onset of the uplift is insinuated.

Within the context typically accepted by the geological community is a history of deformation that begins in the Upper-Cretaceous to Paleocene, when a first deformation phase was generated [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF] due to the accretion of the Western Cordillera as shown in Figure 2.5. According with Fabre (1985a, b) this was not notable in the EC, except in the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy, but that nevertheless determines the completion of marine sedimentation and gave rise to continental deposits. Another important deformation phase is that which occurred in the Middle Eocene known as pre-Andean orogeny (Duque-Caro, 1979, Villamil andRestrepo, 1997) and which marked the cessation of paleogene sedimentation. According to several authors, the maximum deformation occurred in the Miocene [START_REF] Villamil | Campanian-Miocene tectonostratigraphy, depocenter evolution and basin development of Colombia and western Venezuela[END_REF] approximately 10.5 million years ago [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF], producing a rapid uplift, erosion and molasic sedimentation towards the flanks of the mountain range; according to Acosta, 2002, this event is responsible for the generation of most of the EC structures. [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF].

The first models of deformation of the EC were given by [START_REF] Colleta | Tectonics style and crustal structure of the Eastern Cordillera (Colombia) from a balanced cross section[END_REF], Dengo and Covey (1993) and Roeder and Chamberlain (1994) (figure 2.6). These three models show a root depth of 36 km, the model showing a low angle of thrust, followed by the formation of the foreland basin; proposed by Dengo and Covey (1993) is the most documented of the three models, and has strong consistency with the Bouguer gravity model, although Roeder and Chamberlain proposed another model, due to its poor consistency between blocks of the crust and the position of Moho, assuming that the tilt of the Magdalena basin is due to the elastic flexure load. [START_REF] Colleta | Tectonics style and crustal structure of the Eastern Cordillera (Colombia) from a balanced cross section[END_REF]b. Dengo and Covey (1993); c. Roeder and Chamberlain (1994). [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF] Figure 2.7aTectonic history from Jurassic to Campanian (from [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF].

Figure 2.7b

Tectonic history related to the separation of North America from South America in the Proto-Caribbean from Maastrichtian to Miocene (from [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF]. [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF]. [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF], focuses his doctoral thesis on the tectonic formation of the basin and the inversion history of the EC of Colombia in terms of geodynamic processes. He compiles local data, analysis and quantitative models of tectonic subsidence and mechanisms of formation of the basin to test possible tectonic scenarios related to the Paleogenic tectonic history. The author argues that the accretion of oceanic lands of the EC during the Paleogene generates an incipient inversion of the Mesozoic extensional basin. For the author, the present discordances, lateral changes of facies, thickness, and the limited thermochronologic data suggest an incipient inversion of the extensional basin during the Paleocene and for the Mesozoic basin [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF][START_REF] Gomez | Diachronous deformation of the Central and Eastern Andean cordilleras of Colombia and syntectonic sedimentation in the Middle Magdalena Valley Basin[END_REF], together with the local formation of topography in the area of the EC, a hypothesis that contrasts with that posed by [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF] who suggests the existence of a foreland basin east of the CC for the Paleocene. According to [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF], during the Eocene the convergence of the Caribbean plate and South America increased [START_REF] Daly | Correlations between Nazca/Farallon plate kinematics and forearc basin evolution in Ecuador[END_REF], there was a lifting of the CC, folding and faulting in the VMM. This is an important point since there is a rift zone in the current position of the EC, it is difficult to think that the zones of weakness associated with the EC rift would not have been reactivated and inverted during this deformation that Sarmiento suggests (2001) and very possibly in previous shock and deformation events in times such as those proposed by Villagomez (2010).

In the Eocene-early Oligocene the convergence rate was reduced and was mainly driven by the movement from South America to the west, towards the stationary plate of the Caribbean. The Farallones plate was rotated between the plates of Coco and Nazca during the Oligocene, about 25 Ma ago [START_REF] Wortel | On the origin of the Cocos_Nazca spreading center[END_REF]Duncan and Hardgraves, 1984). According to [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF], changes in the movement of the tectonic plates (Pilger, 1984, Avraham andNur, 1987) did not cause any deformation in the EC. The collision -accretion of the Cuna terrain (Serranía del Baudo) with the north of South America occurred during the middle Miocene (Duque and Caro, 1990). According to [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF], the collision could contribute to the initial deformation of the EC. However, [START_REF] Kerr | Cretaceous basaltic terranes in Western Colombia: Elemental, Chronological and Sr-Nd isotopic constraints on petrogenesis[END_REF], based on the age of the Dabeiba magnetic arc, suggested that the obduction and accretion of the volcanic rocks of the Serrania del Baudo probably occurred during the late Eocene, similarly [START_REF] Feininger | Eclogite and related high-pressure regional metamorphic rocks from the Andes of Ecuador[END_REF]Feininger ( , 1986) ) proposes a subduction towards the west.

Authors such as Gómez (2001[START_REF] Gómez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF]Gómez ( , and 2005) ) propose explanations for the formation of the MMV and EC basin, indicating that numerous studies have tried to explain the discordance of the middle Eocene in the VMM (Figure 2.9), the inclination of the latter towards the East and strata geometry as due to the deformation of the CC [START_REF] Schamel | Middle and Upper Magdalena Basins[END_REF][START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF]. The perception has been that the basins of the Llanos and VMM behaved like a single foreland basin of the CC until the EC uprising occurred (Dengo and Covey, 1993;[START_REF] Gomez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF]. The same author also suggests that the relationship between strata is explained by a dual development of CC and EC. He establishes the relationship between sedimentary environments and the evolution of these two mountain ranges from stratigraphic and structural studies, integrated with provenance data, paleoflow, and geochronology of fission tracks and Ar-Ar on volcanic ash. This author presents a history of evolution of the CC and EC based on data from the south of the VMM (figure 2.8), evaluated from the Maastrichtian to the present, using the record of unconformities, strata and structures with which it extracts the history of exhumation of the CC and evolution of the EC. [START_REF] Gomez | Syntectonics Cenozoic sedimentation in the Northern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin and implications for exhumation of the northern Andes[END_REF]. [START_REF] Gomez | Syntectonics Cenozoic sedimentation in the Northern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin and implications for exhumation of the northern Andes[END_REF] indicates that for the Cretaceous-Cenozoic the MMV, the EC and the Llanos behaved as a single basin of foreland to the East of the CC (figure 2.8), interpreting and analyzing this configuration from the Maastrichtian to the Late Oligocene and evaluates the flexural response due to the lifting and tectonics of the CC. Additionally, the author analyzes the deposits on the Eocene discordance documenting the transformation of the MMV basin in to an inner basin due to the deformation of the EC, registered by growth strata and changes in the sediment origin during the Tertiary. He also establishes a thermal history using fission tracks in apatites and vitrinite reflectance showing two cooling events in the anticline of the Cowards, La Cira Infantas and the well Catalina-1, which began 5 Ma ago, the other event reports cooling data in sands of Tablazo and Umir in 80 and 30 Ma. The youngest event (30 Ma) correlates with the deformation of the EC during the Pliocene, but the oldest cooling event (80 Ma), it is attributed to the formation of the VMM during the Early Eocene, however this event allows to introduce the idea that old deformation events affected the VMM (Figure 2.9) and possibly the EC, facts that have not yet been sufficiently analyzed. This is possibly one of the most important deformations observable in the study area, evident in seismic data in the MMV and UMV.

Figure. 2.9

Seismic sections in the MMV area, where the intense deformation of the Cretaceous-Paleocene units is observed under the Eocene discordance (from Guerrero, 2010, unpublished report).

Unconformities and sequence boundaries Macerralli (1988) was the first author who recognized several unconformity-bounded depositional cycles in western South America, making a separation between Northern South America (Venezuela to Peru, including Colombia) and southern South America. In his extensive paleogeographical work, he recognized five cycles separated by regional unconformities in Northern South America (Figure 2.10). These cycles are comparable in magnitude to the second-order cycles of [START_REF] Haq | Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic (250 Myr ago to Present)[END_REF], and result from the interaction between thermal and tectonic subsidence, variations in sedimentation and eustatic sea-level fluctuations. According to Maceralli (1988), a large portion of the continental margin was primarily covered by Early Cretaceous quartz sandstones derived from the Guayana Massif (Aguardiente, Une and Caballos formations), deposited in deltaic to shallow marine environments. These sandstones covered the Putumayo, Upper Magdalena, Santander Massif and the Merida Arch, and grade westward to a fine-grained deposits with carbonate intercalations (Villeta, Simiti and other units). [START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF]1965 in [START_REF] Barrio | Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot Sub-Basin), Colombia[END_REF] identified three unconformities or nondepositional surfaces in the MMV, which are from base to top: 1) between Paja and Tablazo Formation (Albian age), Late Cenomanian 2) Simiti-Salto/lower La Luna Fm. (Late Cenomanian) and 3) Umir Fm (Late Campanian age), respectively. [START_REF] Barrio | Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot Sub-Basin), Colombia[END_REF] also identified an unconformity or no depositional surface at the Campanian time that could be followed from the MMV to the UMV (Upper Magdalena Valley) crossing the WEC (Villeta Apulo area) (Figure 2.11). According to these authors, another surface that probably corresponds to the same in the MMV in the Aptian time is at the base of Caballos Formation in the UMV and la Paja/Tablazo in the MMV (Figure 2.11). Macellari, 1988) Below the Caballos Formation in the UMV some authors have recognized the Yavi Formation as a continental unit (Macia and Mojica, 1981;Macia, 1985;Peñas and Vargas, 1989). The Yavi Fm is made of shallow marine to continental deposits, which were controlled by the paleotopography. Peñas and Vargas (1989) and Agudelo and Peñaloza (1990) recognized in the Quebrada Calambé that the Yavi Fm. was deposited in alluvial fans and braided river environments. The Yavi Fm correlate with the presence of an unconformity reported by [START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF] in the MMV, at the limit between the Paja and Tablazo fms (Figure 2.11).

Important changes in Villeta Fm. from western to eastern of Magdalena Basin, vary from 800 meters to 6000 in the area of Apulo-Villeta [START_REF] Sarmiento | Stratigraphy of the Cordillera Oriental west of Bogotá, Colombia[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Barrio | Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot Sub-Basin), Colombia[END_REF], clearly the subsidence rate was lower in the west than in the east. That could be interpreted as a positive relief in the Central Cordillera during this time, however the abundance of carbonates in this sequence implies minor clastic input [START_REF] Tankard | On the depositional response to thrusting and lithospheeric and lithosphere flexure: example for Apalachian and Rocky Mountain basin[END_REF]. These authors conclude that in the UMV, the first transgression took place during the Hauterivian -Barremian and was restricted to the North of the area, a second during the Aptian-Albian, and they finally indicated that regional flooding of northern of South America is recorded during the Cenomanian-Turonian deposition of Villeta Formation.

Plate reconstruction. Pindell et al., (2009), presents an update of Yucatan rotation models and Pacific origin for the evolution of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. It presents Pre-Aptian, Aptian and younger maps with a surprising simplicity of Caribbean-America interaction. The oceanic lithosphere of the Caribbean has moved little relative to the hot spot in the Cenozoic, but moved northward at 50 km / Ma during the Cretaceous, while the plates of America have traveled west farther and faster and thus they are responsible for the movement history of America with respect to the Caribbean plate. [START_REF] Barrio | Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot Sub-Basin), Colombia[END_REF].

Note that there is a great movement of the South America plate during the Cretaceous, an effect that is notorious in the maps shown by Pindell (2009) between about 84 to 70 Ma. Pindell (2009) begins reconstruction in the Lower Jurassic of western Pangea, continuing with the opening of the Central Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico and the early development of Mexico, the Northern Andes, and the Proto-Caribbean passive margin. He then continues with the evolution of the Caribbean lithosphere and its interaction with America, from the oldest to the newest and ends with the evaluation of the Neo-Caribbean phase of deformation over the last 10 Ma. Figures 2.12 show this reconstruction for 148, 125, 100 and 71 Ma.

The maps of Pindell (2009) show how the block north of South America moves towards the east until 120 and 100 Ma., When the movement changes direction towards the West, and probably at this time a compression process may have started, inverting existing areas using zones of weakness. Between 84 and 71 Ma., the great migration of South America to the west is remarkable, in Pindell's maps (2009) an area to be subducted under South America is observed that could have generated a compression that affected Cretaceous units already deposited east of the CC in the position of the MMV till the Llanos. In contrast, examples of "flat slab" subduction (western Colombia, southern Mexico) show more uplift and erosion, perhaps as much as 5-7 km. in Colombia, and the generation of the regional discordance of the "Middle Eocene"(Figure 2.13).

According to Pindell (2009), the basement was extensively exposed and eroded during this time in the CC, providing clastic detritics from the Jurassic, Paleozoic and Precambrian during the Early Paleocene-Eocene to the VMM. This hypothesis of a lifting is also supported by the maps of Pindell and Kennan (2001), which show a possible start of uplifting at the south of EC about 100 Ma.

Collision, accretion events and exhumation

For Villagomez (2010), northern South America is the only one among the Andean orogenic chain that was built by numerous land collisions and accretion events since the Early Cretaceous. The accretion of terranes has a lithological and geochemical character and are juxtaposed against the paleo-continental margin of the Romeral fault system. The time frame evolution of the Colombian Andes has been addressed by scarce data of zircon U-Pb [e.g. [START_REF] Cardona | Tectonic correlations of pre-Mesozoiccrust from the northern termination of the Colombian Andes, Caribbean region[END_REF][START_REF] Vinasco | Geochronological, isotopic, and geochemical data from Permo-Triassic granitic gneisses and granitoids of the Colombian Central Andes[END_REF]Ordoñez-Carmona and Pimentel, 2002], K / Ar, Rb / Sr [see compilation in Aspden et al., 1987;[START_REF] Restrepo | A comment on "The Quebradagrande Complex: a Lower Cretaceous ensialic marginal basin in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes" by Nivia et al[END_REF] and Apatito (U-Th) / He [START_REF] Restrepo | A comment on "The Quebradagrande Complex: a Lower Cretaceous ensialic marginal basin in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes" by Nivia et al[END_REF] The CC of Colombia is formed by autochthonous rocks that define the Pre-Cretaceous continental margin (Tahami Terrain) that is juxtaposed against tectonic blocks forautochthonous, alloctonos, accreted during the Cretaceous, forming the Romeral fault system that extends towards Ecuador. According to Villagomez (2010), there were two (2) events of collision and accretion during the Pre-Eocene against the western margin of the current CC, that produced two tectonic deformation events at 115 Ma -105 Ma (Aptian-Albian) and 75 Ma -70 Ma (Campanian -Maastrichtian) in the CC. The approach of Villagomez (2010) fits the hypothesis that during the Maastrichtian-Middle Paleocene significant deformations and uplifts of rocks had already been produced. This affected the VMM for the analyzed time, only due to the lifting of the CC and possibly to the proto-EC.

Figure 2.14 Interaction between exhumation, denudation, erosion, transport and deposition through an active orogen (taken from [START_REF] Crowley | Fission track analysis: Theory and applications[END_REF]modified by Bermúdez, 2010). Colleta et al., 1997 andmodified by Bermúdez, 2010). Note the similarity (B) with the scheme for the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (see figure 2.5).

The tectonic implications of Bermudez's work ( 2010) are that the structures and development of the Venezuelan Andes have been controlled by the reactivation of faults and pre-existing structures and the inversion of Jurassic grabens and rift (Colleta, 1997;[START_REF] Kellogg | Subduction of the Caribbean Plate and basement uplifts in the overriding South American Plate[END_REF][START_REF] Mora | Pre-Mesozoic rectangular network of crustal discontinuities: One of the main controlling factors of the tectonic evolution of northern South America[END_REF]Audemard and Audemard, 2002;[START_REF] Jacques | The influence of intraplate structural accommodation zones on delineating petroleum provinces of the Sub-Andean foreland basins[END_REF], as also happened in the EC of Colombian [START_REF] Corredor | Eastward extent of the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene onset of deformation across the northern Andes: constraints from the northern portion of the Eastern Cordillera fold belt, Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Cortes | Structure and tectonics of central segment of Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF], Mora et al., 2009, Parra et al., 2009).

(Figure 2.16).

Bermúdez (2010) also analyzes the relationship between exhumation and climate control (Figure 2.17). Establishing a lack of correlation between long-term exhumation rates and precipitation [START_REF] Bermúdez | Strong tectonic and weak climatic control on exhumation rates in the Venezuelan Andes[END_REF] he suggests that precipitation is not the main factor that controls the exhumation and the development of the relief in the Venezuelan Andes.

Figure 2.17 Thermo-tectonic processes that influence thermochronometric interpretations (Ehlers, 2005). [START_REF] Mora | Cenozoic contractional reactivation of Mesozoic extensional structures in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Tectonics[END_REF] states that the main factors that condition extensional structural styles, such as compressional, are strongly related to the nature of the basement and the pre-existing zones of weakness (Figure 2.18). Indeed, the width of the deformation, the degree of shortening, the spatial development of structures, and the places of tectonic activity are fundamentally influenced by inherited structures in the basement rocks. In conclusion, [START_REF] Mora | Cenozoic contractional reactivation of Mesozoic extensional structures in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Tectonics[END_REF] and Bermudez (2010) works highlight the role of the inherites basement structures that influence mountain growth processes and guide the deformation and uplift of the interior continent.

Figure 2.18 Regional structural section across Rio Blanco -Buenavista Anticlines. Note the control exercised by the basement, and the reactivation of normal faults (taken from [START_REF] Mora | Cenozoic contractional reactivation of Mesozoic extensional structures in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Tectonics[END_REF].

Although the observations of [START_REF] Mora | Cenozoic contractional reactivation of Mesozoic extensional structures in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Tectonics[END_REF] involve the analysis of Cretaceous rocks in a segment of the EC, he only analyzes the most recent deformations that produced the current landscape. [START_REF] Mora | The role of inherited extensional fault segmentation and linkage in contractional orogenesis: A reconstruction of Lower Cretaceous inverted rift basin in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] proposes the complex interaction between the Cretaceous extension and the subsequent inversion of the Cretaceous paleo-rift of Guatiquía (Figure 2.19).

Mapping of structures, analysis of the current topography and rocking of sections indicate that an inversion of extensional structures was focused along the boundary faults of the basin. In this way, areas of maximum subsidence accommodate maximum elevations in compression and form high topographies that remain as elevated areas.

Figura 2.19 Balanced sections across distinct segments of the studied area (taken from [START_REF] Mora | The role of inherited extensional fault segmentation and linkage in contractional orogenesis: A reconstruction of Lower Cretaceous inverted rift basin in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF].

The structures of the Andes of the EC were analyzed by [START_REF] Cortes | Structure and tectonics of central segment of Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] based on field data, reflection seismic and biostratigraphic controls, with which a series of balanced structural sections indicating two different structural styles were constructed (Figure 2.20). As a result of the deformation, a shortening of 70 km for the EC is calculated. [START_REF] Bayona | An integrated analysis of an orogen-sedimentary basin pair: Latest Cretaceous-Cenozoic evolution of the linked Eastern Cordillera orogen and the Llanos foreland basin of Colombia[END_REF], based on geodynamic models, relates the evolution of the foreland basin through temporal and spatial variation of the lithosphere geometry (Figure 2.21) on the eastern side of the EC, generated by variations in the tectonic loads (orogen). Other efforts focused on the margins of the EC define histories of deformation locally from stratigraphic-structural relationships [START_REF] Gómez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF](Gómez et al., , 2005;;[START_REF] Toro | Thermal and kinematic evolution of the Eastern Cordillera fold-and-thrust-belt, Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Sassi | The impact of deformation timing on the prospectivity of the Middle Magdalena sub-thrust, Colombia[END_REF] and thermochronologic records [START_REF] Parra | Episodic orogenic-front migration in the northern Andes: Constraints from low-temperature thermochronology in the Eastern Cordillera[END_REF]. Advances in understanding the relationship between climate and orogenic evolution have been addressed by several authors [START_REF] Koons | The topographic evolution of collisional mountain belts: A numerical look at the Southern Alps, New Zealand[END_REF], Molnar and England, 1990[START_REF] Beaumont | Erosional control of active compressional orogens[END_REF][START_REF] Masek | Erosion and tectonics at the margins of continental plateaus[END_REF][START_REF] Willett | Orogeny and orography: The effects of erosion on the structure of mountain belts[END_REF]Montgomery et al., 2001;[START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: How might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF][START_REF] Strecker | Tectonics and climate of the southern central Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Schildgen | The Topographic Evolution of the central Andes[END_REF]. For the case of the EC, [START_REF] Mora | Climatic forcing of asymmetric orogenic evolution in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] proposes an increase in the exhumation to the northernmost part of South America about 3 Ma. ago, when the EC forms an orographic barrier that intercepts the winds laden with moisture, producing great erosion and deformation to the east of the EC and dry zones towards the west of the EC with low rates of deformation and exhumation, as shown in Figure 2.22. Mora et. al., (2010), presents a study of thermochronology of low temperature with structural evidence that shows that the exhumation pattern has induced thrusts both along the two sides of the EC and between its axial segments (Figure 2.23).

Figure 2.22. Elevation model and topographic profile comparing the behavior of either sides of the EC, resulting from the erosion that differentially affected both flanks (modified from Mora, 2008). [START_REF] Parra | Cenozoic foreland-basin evolution in the northern Andes: insights from thermochronology and basin analysis in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der[END_REF], in the Medina basin, eastern flank of the EC, integrates structural mapping, sedimentological data based on palynological data that links with the early-Oligocene-to-early-Miocene tectonic wedge in a tectonic episode that began 30 Ma. ago, which according to the author, evidences the generation of topographic load due to the advance of the EC west of the basin and therefore limits the beginning of mountain formation in this area. An exhumation assessment based on apatites and zircons and thermal modeling reveals the location of these riding charges along the compressional fault of Soapaga in the eastern sector of the EC. (From Parra, 2008).

Basin Evolution

The sedimentological data evaluated by [START_REF] Parra | Cenozoic foreland-basin evolution in the northern Andes: insights from thermochronology and basin analysis in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der[END_REF] in the Medina basin reveal a rapid accumulation of fluvial and lacustrine sediments at rates of up to ~ 0.5 mm /yr during the Miocene. Provenance data based on petrography and paleo-currents, reveal that Paleocene and Upper Cretaceous sediments contributed to those fluvial systems exposed in the west of the EC. Many of the contributions to the Tertiary units possibly come from deposits of the Cretaceous age, already raised during the Pre-Eocene that contributed sediments to the adjacent basins.

According to [START_REF] Parra | Cenozoic foreland-basin evolution in the northern Andes: insights from thermochronology and basin analysis in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der[END_REF], their data demonstrates anisotropy inherited from the crust, such as that of faults formed by the limit of the rift in the EC, favoring a non-systematic progression of deformation of the foreland basin through time by sliding accommodation and load by thrust (Figure 2.24,2.25). At this point Horton's observations are valid in the sense that the contributions to the old rift must surely come from the higher parts of the Paleozoic craton that could have been lifted from both sides of the rift and even in some areas within it.

The provenance of detritic zircons during the cretaceous extension and post-rift thermal subsidence recorded the elimination of sources of the Andean basement and increases the influence of drainage systems derived from the Paleo-Proterozoic and Meso-Proterozoic craton (2050-950 Ma). Note that for [START_REF] Parra | Cenozoic foreland-basin evolution in the northern Andes: insights from thermochronology and basin analysis in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der[END_REF] the time of the beginning of the EC rise corresponds to the earlymiddle Eocene, while for Horton (2010) it corresponds to the Early Eocene-Late Oligocene representing a difference of some 15 Ma. Additionally, at that time, the EC separated the valleys of the VMM and Llanos. For [START_REF] Parra | Cenozoic foreland-basin evolution in the northern Andes: insights from thermochronology and basin analysis in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der[END_REF] this occurred in the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene while for Horton (2010) this occurred only until the Late Oligocene-Miocene with a difference of 10 Ma. Oligocene strata, where the Grenville ages increased and the Mesozoic ages decreased, which may be related to the rise of the EC (change of origin from the Cordillera Central to the Eastern Cordillera), a probable source of zircons of the Grenville age is the Cretaceous section of the EC (Horton et al., 2010), which is consistent with the initial recycling of the coverture of the EC. Studies by [START_REF] Nie | Tracking exhumation of the Andean ranges bounding the Middle Magdalena Basin[END_REF], in conjunction with previous studies [START_REF] Horton | Paleogene synorogenic sedimentation in the Altiplano plateau and implications for initial mountain building in the Central Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Decelles | Early to middle Tertiary foreland basin development and the history of Andean crustal shortening in Bolivia[END_REF][START_REF] Horton | Paleogene synorogenic sedimentation in the Altiplano plateau and implications for initial mountain building in the Central Andes[END_REF] suggest that the Andes, almost to their full extent, were probably subject to shortening related to Paleocene uprising and exhumation. In summary, the observations of Nie (2010) suggest that the initial uplift of the CC was underway by the Middle Paleocene and that the initial EC lifting occurred between the Middle to Late Eocene and the Late Oligocene, highlighting the importance of this Andean uplift in the dynamics of the Paleogene climate. Nevertheless, there is a difference between the different time intervals proposed by various authors (Nie, 2010, Horton, 2010, etc.) that must be analyzed. [START_REF] Bayona | Early Paleogene magmatism in the northern Andes: Insights on the effects of Oceanic Plateau.continent convergence[END_REF], reports ages of U/Pb in plutons that support the presence of a magmatic arc that extends 700 km along the northern margin of the Andes. Ages of 45-65 Ma in zircones of the Paleocene, from 19 localities of Colombia and Venezuela indicate that the volcanic detritus were supplied by a magmatic arc parallel to the subduction zone, which shows an intraplate magmatism that extends for more than 400 km. The distribution of this magmatism of the Early Paleogene age is related to the subduction of the Caribbean plate, the short time of magmatism and detachment of the subduction. According to the author this is related to the difficulty of the thick plate to subduct and the lateral displacement towards the north of the Caribbean and South America plates. The magmatic activity occurring predominantly between 54 and 59 Ma provides a new chronostratigraphic restriction of Paleocene-lower Eocene stratum correlation. The differences between the entire population of detritic zircons from the eastern and western locations, the presence of unstable fragments of rock in sandstones containing volcanic zircons, and the irregularity of volcanic deposits allowed the author to infer that volcanic activity reached up to 400 km from the area of the collision margin.

The short period of magmatism is related to the oblique and flat subduction of the oceanic plate against the continental one under the northwestern corner of South America. This magmatic activity reinforces the hypothesis that the subduction of the oceanic plates modifies the continental crust (Figure 2.30).

Evidences of Cretaceous deformation.

Although there are still groups looking for evidence of the lifting of the EC (ICP, ARES, Smithsonian, etc.), it is worth noting that efforts have already been made trying to find evidence of the history of the lifting of the EC. However, as this proposal indicates, few authors have focused their work on the possibility that there were old events, before 60 Ma and the existence of important old uplifts in the position of the VMM and the western side of the EC, only a few authors suggest that the configuration of EC is possibly due to a coeval rising of the CC and CO, (Gómez, 2005, Sarmiento, 2001, etc).

Authors like Jaimes and Defreitas (2006) using seismic and biostratigraphic at the level of the Villeta Formation in the area of the UMV (south of the MMV) showed evidences of the occurrence of an important unconformity during the Albia-Cenomanian age, which is totally opposite to the affirmation of [START_REF] Barrio | Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot Sub-Basin), Colombia[END_REF].

An example of the seismic evidences exposed by [START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF] is shown in Figure 2.31. A Cenomanian deformation is observed, resulting from the compressional reactivation of faults, which is sealed by an erosional unconformity at the base of the La Luna Fm (Early Turonian-Late Santonian).

Figure.2.31

Seismic profiles: a) Present-day deformation; b) flattened at the level of the La Luna marker (Cenomanian-Turonian) [START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF] Likewise, the studies of [START_REF] Jaillard | Analisis de Cuencas Sedimentaris e Historia Precoz de los Andes: marco de un convenio firmado por Petroproduccion (filial de Petroecuador) y el Orstom en el mes de Junio de[END_REF] about what the author called "Early history of the Andes", makes some geodynamic considerations and show that in addition to the most recent uplift event of the Andes from 60 to 5 Ma and 40-35 Ma, other events of great importance occurred approximately 100 Ma ago which corresponds to a time of major changes and an abrupt acceleration of the movements of the plates worldwide and in particular in the area of Andean subduction (Figure 2.32).

Also, during this period South America separated from Africa and began its migration to the West, opening the Atlantic Ocean. Between 100 to 95 Ma a slowing down in the speed of the plates occurred (Figure 2.32), towards 90 Ma. there is a deceleration event of the plates, about 80 Ma., there is a period of stabilization, followed around 75 Ma. by a period of re-invasion of the basins. A major tectonic phase occurred around 60-55 Ma. which caused an intense deformation, an event that coincides with the abrupt change in the direction of the Pacific oceanic plate (without changing the convergence rate, Figure 2.32). Other important tectonic events occurred some 40-35 Ma ago, this epoch is coeval with abrupt deceleration of the plates in the subduction zone. Jaillard (1991) studied the evolution of sedimentary basins in Ecuador between 110 to 40 Ma a period which corresponds to the incipient formation of the Andes, and which allows to date the layers and geological events, thanks to the occurrence of marine fossils. Comparing the evolution of the Ecuadorian sedimentary basins and the known geodynamic events, he recognized four tectonic-geodynamic events. The first one occurred around 100 Ma ago, a period marked by an abrupt acceleration of the plates around the world and by the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean due to the separation of South America from Africa. Another event is placed at 100 -95 Ma when a deceleration of the plates occurred, near 90 Ma, when a decrease in the velocity of convergence and in 80 Ma an important tectonic phase occurred, related with the occurrence of unconformities which is coincident with the plate velocity stabilization in the Andean zone. Finally, a major tectonic phase occurred between 60 and 50 Ma, which was coincident with the abrupt change in the direction of the Paleo-Pacific oceanic plate.

Figure 2.32

Comparison between the early tectonic events of the Andes and the geodynamics of the plates in the subduction zone (modified from Jaillard, 1991).

Meanwhile [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF] showed that some events are related to changes in the convergence rate (Figure 2.32) and suggested that a first important deformation was recorded in the Late Albian (Mochica Tectonic event), during a period of high convergence, coinciding with the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic. In the same way, [START_REF] Pindell | Mesozoic-Cenozoic Andean paleogeography and regional controls on hydrocarbon system[END_REF] proposed that compressional deformation began during the Late Albian-Early Cenomanian (100-95 Ma), coeval with the westward movement of the South American plate.

These observations are consistent with what was observed by Van der Wiel, (1991); Van der Beek, (1995);[START_REF] Gomez | Syntectonics Cenozoic sedimentation in the Northern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin and implications for exhumation of the northern Andes[END_REF]; Villagomez, (2010), and the hypothesis proposed in this doctoral

Change in Convergencia direction

Change in Convergencia direction

work, where one thinks about the existence of ancient pre-Eocene events that generated the existence of important old lifting, prior to the generation of the current EC orogen.

In the Caribbean area, [START_REF] Mattson | Caribbean structural breaks and plate movements[END_REF] recognized six unconformities from 110 to 5 Ma, which he associated with important tectonic events at 110, 85 and 66 Ma. He suggested that during the Early Cretaceous (140-110 Ma) the Northern part of South America was largely emergent.

In an internal report of Ecopetrol, [START_REF] Rollon | Analisis Estratigrafico Secuencial del Cretacico Inferior en el VMM sector Piedemonte Occidental de la Cordillera Oriental[END_REF] using sequential stratigraphic analysis in the WEC, identified three regional sequences separated by unconformities at the level of the la Paja, Tablazo and Simiti Formations. [START_REF] Guerrero | A Proposal on the Classification of Systems Tracts: Application to the Allostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Colombian Basin. Part 2: Barremian to Maastrichtian[END_REF] proposed a classification of system tracts for the Barremian to Maastrichtian sequence in the Cretaceous basin of Colombia. They made a division based on the recognition of regional sedimentary discontinuities which correspond to mainly transgressive and regressive surfaces. Based on their observations, these authors indicate that the second order sequences are of primary importance in Colombia, because they allow to make correlations through the basins, and that there are complex interactions between sedimentary supply, subsidence and eustacy, the latter being the dominant process.

In Venezuela, [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF], using seismic and paleontological information identified an important unconformity of Campanian age over a structured La Luna Fm. and the complete absence of structuring in the Colon and Mito Juan units implies early structuration. In this case at the seismic Top of La Luna Fm, as proposed by Burke et al. (1984) and [START_REF] Pindell | Mesozoic-Cenozoic Andean paleogeography and regional controls on hydrocarbon system[END_REF], structures like rollover, fold bend, but more common fold propagation fault at the level of La Luna Top [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF]) may be produced by the subduction of the Caribbean Plate beneath South America or related to the uplift of the Central Cordillera of Colombia.

Stratigraphic nomenclature

The generalized stratigraphic column of the formations described in the MMV and WEC is shown in Figure 3.4 (chapter 3). The Triassic-Jurassic sedimentary record is made of continental deposits, mainly red beds, pyroclastic and volcanic effusive rocks, locally interbedded with marine deposits. These sediments were deposited in an extensional rift.

According to [START_REF] Mojica | EI Jurásico del Sector Noroccidental de Suramérica y Guía de la Excursión al Valle Superior del Magdalena[END_REF], they are mainly located in the UMV-WEC and San Lucas region.

Girón Formation

The Girón Formation (Fm) was originally described by [START_REF] Hettner | Die Kordillere von Bogotá[END_REF], who stablished a new division for the Cretaceous, based on studies by [START_REF] Karsten | Ueber die geognostischen Verhältnisse des westlichen Kolumbien, der heutigen Republiken Neu-Granada und Ecuador[END_REF][START_REF] Karsten | Géologie de l´ancienne Colombie bolivarienne, Vénezuéla[END_REF]. The latter divided the Cretaceous into Neocom, Gault and Upper Cretaceous. However, Hettner (1892) considered the Neocom and Gault as lower Cretaceous, which corresponds to a thick set of shale, with thick beds of black and white limestones, levels of white quartz-sandstone, red or green limestones and siliceous layers. Hubach (1931b, p. 98) extended the name Girón Fm to the whole Eastern Cordillera (EC). This interpretation, supported by Liddle (1928), was erroneous, since the "Girón facies" is not characteristic of the EC. The Girón Fm has also been mentioned in the Huila (Grosse, 1935b) and Bogotá areas (Hubach, 1931b;Scheibe, 1938). Scheibe (1938) divided the Girón Fm into a lower Girón unit called the Lebrija conglomerate, and the upper Girón unit mainly made of grey, white, yellow or red sandstones, called the Arcabuco Sandstone. Based on the first description of an unconformity between the Girón and Cretaceous sequences by Notestein, Schuchert (1935, p. 670) dated the Girón Fm as pre-Cretaceous. Additionally, he noted that the poor definition of the limits of the Girón Fm was due to the similarity of the basal Cretaceous and the Girón sediments, since the base of the Cretaceous sequence reworks the Girón Formation. The age assignment by Notestein has been accepted by subsequent authors (Jullivert, 1958a(Jullivert, , 1960, p 8;, p 8;[START_REF] Langenheim | Preliminary notes on plant fossils from Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic rocks in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia[END_REF]. Then, Oppenheim (1940bOppenheim ( , p. 1616) ) extracted the quartzites of the Cocuy from the Girón Fm, correlated the La Quinta Fm in Venezuela with the Girón Fm in Colombia, and ascribed them a Jurassic age. Since then, the name of Girón Fm is restricted to pre-Cretaceous, Jurassic-Triassic sediments. Nevertheless, [START_REF] Bruckner | Note on some fossils from the Girón Group in the Río Lebrija valley[END_REF] found ostracods and flora of Carboniferous age, thus making a Paleozoic age possible for part of the Girón Fm.

The upper limit of the Girón Fm is marked by a regional unconformity below the Cretaceous series. The exact identification of this boundary is difficult due to the lithologic similarity of the Girón Fm and the basal, transgressive Cretaceous beds (Tambor Fm), and to the low angle of the unconformity. Sedimentologic and petrographic studies (Lopez, unpubl.) allow to establish a difference between the Tambor Fm and Girón units, but their distinction remains difficult in outcrops, where they are superimposed. The lower limit of the Girón Formation is clear where it rests directly on the igneous-metamorphic basement, as can be observed to the east and west of the Santander Massif (Julivert, 1960, p. 8;1963b).

In the type area, the Girón Fm. is constituted by red clastic deposits, deposited in a subaerial environment. [START_REF] Langenheim | Preliminary notes on plant fossils from Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic rocks in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia[END_REF] proposed to subdivide the Girón Fm into three members. In the area of Mesas, West and SW of Bucaramanga, Julivert (1958a) decribed a more complete, 2500 m thick stratigraphic sequence. Finally, [START_REF] Navas | Estudio estratigráfico del Girón al W del Macizo de Santander[END_REF] established a detailed stratigraphy of the Girón Fm in the same type section used by Langenheim and divided the Girón Fm into six units (Lower shaly unit, Lower arcosic unit, Upper shaly unit, Upper arcosic unit, Shaly red beds, and Upper coarse-grained unit).

Tambor Formation

According to [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF] the name Tambor Fm has been given by [START_REF] Hedberg | Cretaceous limestone as petroleum source rock in northwestern Venezuela[END_REF] to a succession that crops out in the Cañon of the Lebrija river, along the railway from Bucaramanga to Puerto Wilches, close to the hamlet El Tambor. South of Zapatoca, the Tambor Fm is composed of shales, red conglomerates and sandstones, similar to the Girón Fm (Morales et al., 1958, p. 644-645). The type section is 650 m thick, and the upper part includes some limestone beds. The Tambor Fm unconformably rests upon the Girón Fm and is covered by the Rosablanca Fm. According to [START_REF] Navas | Estudio estratigráfico del Girón al W del Macizo de Santander[END_REF] the conglomerates along the railway seem to be unconformably eroded by sandstones, which are ascribed to the Tambor Fm in the region of the Mesas. He therefore concluded that these conglomerates must be related to the Girón Fm rather than to the Tambor Fm. The thickness of the Tambor Fm is more than 200 m in the area of La Mesa de Los Santos and 120 m to the East border, suggesting that the formation thins toward the Santander Massif.

Age. The uppermost part of the Tambor Fm is marked by few layers of limestones, which yielded Choffatella decipiens Schlumbergerer, Nodosaria sp. and Robulus sp., as well as pelecipods (Pholadomya robinaldina buchiana) and bryozoans [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF]p. 644).

In spite of the paleontological data, the age of the Tambor Fm remains uncertain, and it is ascribed to the Hauterivian-Valanginian interval. In the area of Mesas and Cuestas, a succession of hard sandstone is called the Arcabuco Fm. Although this unit is similar to the Tambor Fm, these sandstones are considered Valanginian in age (Bürgl, 1954)

Los Santos Formation

The Los Santos Formation conformably rests on the Girón Fm and corresponds to the Tambor Fm [START_REF] Ward | Mapa Geológico del Cuadrángulo H-12[END_REF][START_REF] Julivert | Geología de la Mesa de Los Santos[END_REF][START_REF] Tellez | Geología de la Mesa de Barichara[END_REF]. According to Laverde and Clavijo (1985), the stratigraphic section called Tu y Yo, northwest of Zapatoca (Santander), could be the reference locality of the Los Santos Fm [START_REF] Cediel | El Grupo Girón, una molasa Mesozóica de la Cordillera Oriental[END_REF]. This formation was redefined by Laverde et al. (1985) and [START_REF] Mendoza | La Formación Cumbre, modelo de transgresión marina rítmica, de comienzos del Cretácico[END_REF]. Where the Tambor Fm rests on fine sediments of the Girón Fm it is easier to establish the limit. Its lower boundary is often difficult to define, as in the western border of the Santander Massif [START_REF] Navas | Estudio estratigráfico del Girón al W del Macizo de Santander[END_REF], type area of the Girón Fm.

Cumbre Formation

This unit was previously mapped without denomination by [START_REF] Hubach | Condiciones Geológicas de las variants de carretera en la región de Arcabuco-Barbosa-Oiba[END_REF] and Julivert (1958a, b). A regional geological survey allowed to recognize this unit around the Santander Massif (Ulloa and Rodriguez, 1979a;Pulido, 1979a, b). Environment. This unit was interpreted by [START_REF] Etayo | Ideas para la reinterpretación de ambientes desimentarios del sistema cretácico en la región de Villa de Leiva (Departamento de Boyaca), Colombia[END_REF] as deposited in a mixed tidal flat with sediments deposited in a subaerial, delta front environment.

Age. [START_REF] Hubach | Condiciones Geológicas de las variants de carretera en la región de Arcabuco-Barbosa-Oiba[END_REF] assigned to this unit a Tithonian age, and [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Cretaceous section: Villa de Leiva to Loma Piedra Gorda[END_REF] assigned a Lower Valanginian Rosablanca Formation.

According to Morales et al. (1958, unpublished report), the name of Rosablanca Fm was given by [START_REF] Wheeler | Report on Palmira Series with notes on Stratigraphy of the Umir, Lisama, and La Paz formations near the Eastern part of De Mares Concession[END_REF] to a succession located in the Rosablanca hill, located 5 km North of the northeastern corner of the Conseción De Mares. The type section was studied in the cañon of Rio Sogamoso, west of La Mesa de los Santos. Zamarreño (1953) indicated that the basal part is characterized by evaporite levels (gypsum), which suggest hypersaline and quiet conditions. The Rosablanca Fm was also mentioned by [START_REF] Groose | Informe Geológico preliminar sobre un viaje al Huila y Alto Caquetá[END_REF] in the area of Arcabuco-Moniquirá, Hubach (1931b, p. 90), Sheibe (1938) west of Vélez, and Dickey (1941). The latter mentions the occurrence of this formation, together with the la Paja Fm in the MMV. Bürgl (1954) described the Rosablanca Fm in the Villa de Leyva area, east of Loma la Yesera, and Chenevart (1963) interpreted the Rosablanca Fm as a facies change of the Tambor Fm.

Zamarreño (1963) [START_REF] Sarmiento | Importancia de la estratigrafía en la evaluaci6n de las anomalías geoquímicas: caso del área del rio Zumbe, Utica (Cundinamarca)[END_REF], the Rosablanca Fm is constituted predominantly by irregularly bedded grey limestone and dolomite. The lower part presents dolomite and sparite with ooliths, intraclasts and ostracods, and sedimentary structures such as desiccation cracks and seaweed sheets; the middle part is marked by micrites and mottled biomocrites with thalassinoides, chondrites and bivalves; and the upper part presents calcareous mudstone, biomicrites and sandstones. In the area of Otache-Coscuez-Peñas Blancas (esmerald zone), Guerrero and Carrrillo (1998) described this formation as a monotonous sequence of dark grey to black, compact, fine grained limestone, with sporadic intercalations of sandy limestones with parallel-laminae and locally wavy contacts. Toward the top, limestone beds alternate with calcareous shale. The upper boundary is represented by the contact between the overlying limestones and the shales, which marks the lithological transition to the La Paja Fm. Etayo (1968) indicated that the Rosablanca Fm rests over the Cumbre Fm and underlies the Ritoque Fm. However, [START_REF] Hubert | El limite Jurásico-Cretácico en los alrededores de Villa de Leiva, Departamento de Boyacá[END_REF] considered that the Rosablanca Fm is an intercalation within the Ritoque Fm. According to Ulloa and Rodriguez (1979a), the Rosablanca Fm concordantly overlies the Cumbre Fm and its upper limit is net and concordant with the La Paja Fm. The Rosablanca Fm is interpreted as deposited in a shallow marine, neritic to coastal environment, based on the presence of thick-shelled molluscs (Ward et al. 1973, in Ulloa and[START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 189 -La Palma[END_REF].

Age. Along the Barrancabermeja-San Gil highway [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF] and south of Villa de Leyva (Bürgl, 1954), the faunal content suggests a Valanginian to Barremian age. Following [START_REF] Sarmiento | Importancia de la estratigrafía en la evaluaci6n de las anomalías geoquímicas: caso del área del rio Zumbe, Utica (Cundinamarca)[END_REF], Etayo (1968) assigned the Rosablanca Fm to the Late Valanginian-Early Hauterivian. More recently, fauna collected from this formation in the Otanche-Peñas Blancas area by [START_REF] Guerrero | Actualización Cartográfica de Unidades Litoestratigraficas Encajantes de Mineralizaciones Esmeraldiferas en el Cinturón Occidental de la Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)[END_REF] was analyzed by [START_REF] Tchegliakova | Análisis de 31 muestras provenientes de la secuencia cretácica aflorante en la región de Otanche-Coscuez-Peñas Blancas (Parte central de La Cordillera Oriental de Colombia)[END_REF], who concluded an Upper Valangenian to Hauterivian age.

Utica Formation

The Utica Sandstone and the Murca Fm were first referred to as the Caqueza Sandstone, the upper part of which encompasses Tithonian to Hauterivian times (Champertier et al., 1961c;Bürgl, 1961;[START_REF] Campbell | Section through the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, South America[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | Guide Book of a geological section from Bogota to the Central Cordillera, Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Julivert | Lexique Stratigraphique International[END_REF][START_REF] Gallo | The environmental facies analysis of selected Tertiary and Cretaceous outcrops along the Villeta-Honda road[END_REF][START_REF] Ulloa | Guía de la excursión Bogota-Honda: Anexo.-Geologia Colombiana No[END_REF]. The Utica Sandstone was initially considered the upper part of the Cáqueza Group [START_REF] Champertier De Ribes | Mapa Geológico de la plancha K-10[END_REF]Thomson, 1966;[START_REF] Gallo | The environmental facies analysis of selected Tertiary and Cretaceous outcrops along the Villeta-Honda road[END_REF]Acosta and Obando, 1984;[START_REF] Ulloa | Guía de la excursión Bogota-Honda: Anexo.-Geologia Colombiana No[END_REF]Moreno, 1990). Later, [START_REF] Sarmiento | Importancia de la estratigrafía en la evaluaci6n de las anomalías geoquímicas: caso del área del rio Zumbe, Utica (Cundinamarca)[END_REF] present a synthesis of the Utica Fm. This unit was recognized in the railroad between Utica and Tobia, in the core of Utica anticline

The Utica Fm consists of coarse to fine sandstone with black shale interbeds. The lower part consists of black shales interlayered with yellow-gray arkosic wackestone, with some limestone beds at the top. The sandstone contains igneous and sedimentary lithic fragments [START_REF] Moreno | Petrography and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rosablanca and Cumbre Formations, Utica Sandstone and Murca Sandstone (Murca Formation)[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Moreno | Petrography and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rosablanca and Cumbre Formations, Utica Sandstone and Murca Sandstone (Murca Formation)[END_REF] on the road from Villeta to Utica, near La Magdalena, the Utica sandstone consists of interlayered beds of mudstone, with lenses of gastropods and oysters, and calcareous sandstones with plant fragments, coral fragments, and low angle crossstratification with symmetrical ripple marks. According to [START_REF] Moreno | Petrography and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rosablanca and Cumbre Formations, Utica Sandstone and Murca Sandstone (Murca Formation)[END_REF], the Utica sandstone was deposited in a shallow marine environment. The presence of plant remains and coral fragments, reported by [START_REF] Garcia | Estratigrafía de la unidad basal de la serie CretAC80 inferior en la región de Villeta[END_REF] and Allen et al. (1988), support a shallow marine environment [START_REF] Moreno | Petrography and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rosablanca and Cumbre Formations, Utica Sandstone and Murca Sandstone (Murca Formation)[END_REF] Age. The basal part of the Utica Fm was assigned by [START_REF] Garcia | Estratigrafía de la unidad basal de la serie CretAC80 inferior en la región de Villeta[END_REF] to the Middle Jurassic, based on a specimen of Nerinea decorate Piette from an outcrop on the Rio Negro river, along the railroad between Utica and Tobia. Very close to this site, an ammonite was collected, determined by Etayo as Late Berriasian in age. Fossils collected by Burgl led [START_REF] Thompson | Guide Book of a geological section from Bogota to the Central Cordillera, Colombia[END_REF] and [START_REF] Gallo | The environmental facies analysis of selected Tertiary and Cretaceous outcrops along the Villeta-Honda road[END_REF] assign a Hauterivian age. Therefore, the age of this formation could encompass the Middle Jurassic to Hauterivian interval.

Murca Formation

The Murca Fm (Upper Valanginian) was informally called the Murca-Pinzaima Sandstone in the Middle Magdalena Basin by Allen et al. (1988). The name Murca Fm is used here for the Lower Cretaceous sandstones that crop out in the core of the Murca anticline [START_REF] Moreno | Petrography and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rosablanca and Cumbre Formations, Utica Sandstone and Murca Sandstone (Murca Formation)[END_REF].

At the type locality corresponds to coarse-grained, fining-upward sandstone with large pyrite crystals at the base, and intercalations of siltstones and shales.

Paleo-environment. According to [START_REF] Moreno | Petrography and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rosablanca and Cumbre Formations, Utica Sandstone and Murca Sandstone (Murca Formation)[END_REF] a debris flow facies is suggested by the presence of siltstone intraclasts in a coarse-grained sandy matrix in the basal segment of the Murca Fm. The intraclasts show basal inverse grading and clast alignment. This segment may correspond to coarse inter-channel [START_REF] Nelson | Submarine fans and deep-sea channels[END_REF], or to channel turbidity currents of an upper submarine fan such as those proposed by [START_REF] Shanmugam | Submarine fans: characteristics, models, classification, and reservoir potential[END_REF]. The lower and middle parts of the Murca Fm show a typical boom sequence starting with a rapid flow of deposits on erosive surfaces, deposited in a middle fan; the lower segment corresponds to a interlayered fine grained sandstone, black shale and black siltstone [START_REF] Moreno | Petrography and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rosablanca and Cumbre Formations, Utica Sandstone and Murca Sandstone (Murca Formation)[END_REF], deposited in a distal turbidite [START_REF] Mutti | Turbidities of the northern Apennines: Introduction to facies analysis (English translation[END_REF]Ricci Lucchi (1972, in Walker andMutti, 1973). The upper part also was deposited in the border of the fan.

Age. Ammonites and plant-remains found along the Palma

Ritoque Formation

The name Ritoque Fm was initially proposed by Etayo (1968). The type section is located in the Ritoque river. It concordantly rests on the RosaBlanca and Arcabuco Fms and is concordantly overlain by the La Paja Fm. It is a monotonous sequence of quartz siltstone, and alternating mudstone and siltstone, with well-stratified barite lens with a reddish and gray weathering surface. According to [START_REF] Ballesteros | La Formación Ritoque: Registro sedimentario de una albufera de comienzos del Cretácico[END_REF], its mineral composition is given by equal parts of quartz, clay and heavy minerals (hematite, muscovite, zircon and tourmaline).

Paleo-environment. According to its facies, this unit was deposited in a lagoon of shallow, warm marine water with normal salinity, which episodically favored the development of bivalves, whose growth led to the formation of shallow submarine barriers. The iron oxides rich mud and the barite lenses suggest the development of muddy ponds in the lagoon. The presence of carbonate and mixed facies allow the delineation of the barrier that isolated the lagoon from the offshore regions [START_REF] Ballesteros | La Formación Ritoque: Registro sedimentario de una albufera de comienzos del Cretácico[END_REF].

Age. The Ritoque Fm is rich in ammonites, echinoderms and numerous lamelibranchs. Bürgl (1954a, p. 12) considered this unit as Valanginian, based on the presence of Polyptychites polyptychus Keyserling, Toxaster roulini Agassiz, etc. Haas (1960, p. 14) noted that the first mention by Bürgl really corresponds to Subastieria aff. sulcosae (Pavlow and Lamplugh) and indicated that the specimen from Leiva is believed to be Late Valanginian in age. Etayo (1968) concluded that "Although no abundant fauna is available, it seems that the representatives of Subastieria and Favrella hahlasen are in favor of the lower Hauterivian, as age assignable to these layers".

Paja Formation (Barremian to Late Aptian)

The name Paja Fm is derived from the valley of La Paja, a tributary of the Sogamoso river, between Bucaramanga and San Vicente. The name was given by [START_REF] Wheeler | Report on Palmira Series with notes on Stratigraphy of the Umir, Lisama, and La Paz formations near the Eastern part of De Mares Concession[END_REF][START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF]. It is a fine-grained lithostratigraphic unit that spans the Hauterivian to Aptian period. This unit was mapped by Julivert (1958a, b) in the region of the Mesa-Cuestas, where it is frequently gypsiferous.

The Paja Fm was described by Etayo-Serna (1968) in the area of Villa de Leyva as mudstone in the lower part, with scattered quartz-sandstone beds. The abundance of sandstone is an important feature in many places, like in Arcabuco where [START_REF] Renzoni | Geología del cuadrángulo J-12, Tunja[END_REF] first identified the sandstone member of the Paja Fm. Etayo-Serna (1968) also described a middle member composed of mudstone, with a level of micrite and biomicrite of Barremian-Aptian age.

According to [START_REF] Patarroyo | Amonitas de un Nivel de Alta Energía del Barremiano Inferior en la Formación Paja de los Sectores de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá) y de Vélez (Santander)[END_REF], this level is marked by abundant fossils (ammonites, bivalves and marine vertebrates). Finally, the Aptian Upper member of the Paja Fm is made of black laminated mudstone, characterized by abundant, sometimes fossiliferous nodules (Etayo, 1968). Renzoni (1969) divided the Paja Fm into two members: a sandy basal member, made of sandstone and claystone, and an upper member made of shales with intercalations of limestone.

The lower part of the middle member of the Paja Fm yielded micro-and macro-fossils (foraminifera shells, ammonite fragments), as well as wood remains [START_REF] Patarroyo | Die Entwicklung der Ammoniten der Familie Pulchelliidae aus dem Barrême von Zentral-Kolumbien[END_REF]. Is important also mention the present of important levels of gypsum at this level.

At the base of the "lodolitas abigarradas" of the La Paja Fm (term introduced by Etayo, 1968aEtayo, , 1968b)), [START_REF] Patarroyo | Amonitas de un Nivel de Alta Energía del Barremiano Inferior en la Formación Paja de los Sectores de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá) y de Vélez (Santander)[END_REF] noticed a level of high energy deposits, already identified as a stratigraphic reference level, and a possible sequence limit that marks a transgressive surface [START_REF] Forero | The basement of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia: an allocthonous terrane in nortwestern South America[END_REF]Sarmiento, 1982, 1985;Patarroyo, 2000[START_REF] Patarroyo | Die Entwicklung der Ammoniten der Familie Pulchelliidae aus dem Barrême von Zentral-Kolumbien[END_REF]. The faunal association would mark an age from Barremian to Late Aptian. At the base of the "lodolitas abigarradas" fragments of disordered molluscs, ammonites with the broken room chambers filled with foraminifera, foraminifera and trunks of plant remains can be observed. The base of the strata are irregular and may represent erosional surfaces, related to a sudden energy increase, representing a sequence boundary or a transgressive event. The presence of this erosive level from Villa de Leyva to Vélez (Boyacá) suggests that this event of Early Barremian age has a regional extension (Patarroyo, 2004) (Figure 2.33).

Following paleontological and lithological evidences, this formation was deposited in a restricted, shallow marine environment with little water circulation (Etayo-Serna, 1968). Paleoenvironmental information from the Otanche -Peñas-Blancas area suggests an inner to middle shelf environment, maybe outer shelf, with oxygen depletion. The presence of siltstone and sandstone beds at the top of the sequence probably indicates a shallow environment and possible subaerial exposition and erosion (Guerrero and Carrillo, 1997).

Age. Bürgl (1954) first dated la Paja Fm as Hauterivian-Albian. In the San Gil-La Mesa area, [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF] using paleontological data, gave a Barremian-Aptian age to the Paja Fm, and indicated that its lower limit is older from North to South. Etayo-Serna (1968) assigned the Paja Fm to the Hauterivian-Late Aptian interval, while in the area of Villa De Leyva, Hubert and Wiedmann (1978) dated the lower part of the Paja Fm as Hauterivian. Based on fauna collected from this unit and dated by Nadejda [START_REF] Tchegliakova | Análisis de 31 muestras provenientes de la secuencia cretácica aflorante en la región de Otanche-Coscuez-Peñas Blancas (Parte central de La Cordillera Oriental de Colombia)[END_REF], [START_REF] Guerrero | Actualización Cartográfica de Unidades Litoestratigraficas Encajantes de Mineralizaciones Esmeraldiferas en el Cinturón Occidental de la Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)[END_REF] assigned an age from Late Hauterivian to Late Aptian to the Paja Fm, without discarding an extension to the Early Albian. In the La Mesa de Los Santos area, Rollon and Carrero (1995) claimed that there is a shore-fall in the stratigraphic record during the Late Hauterivian. Finally, based on a paleontological study, [START_REF] Patarroyo | Barremiano Inferior en la Base de la Formaci6n Paja, Barichara, Santander -Colombia[END_REF] concluded that the age of the Paja Fm is comprised between the Early Barremian and the Late Aptian. Details on the ammonites are given by Etayo-Serna (1979) and [START_REF] Patarroyo | Die Entwicklung der Ammoniten der Familie Pulchelliidae aus dem Barrême von Zentral-Kolumbien[END_REF]. [START_REF] Patarroyo | Amonitas de un Nivel de Alta Energía del Barremiano Inferior en la Formación Paja de los Sectores de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá) y de Vélez (Santander)[END_REF].

La Naveta Formation

Description. The La Naveta Fm consists of quartzitic sandstones and thin limestone levels with shells and some levels of pyritic schist. Burgl (1955a, p. 8) says that this level consists mostly of quartzitic sandstones, usually fine-grained, locally coarse. Frequently there are veins of calcite crosscutting the sandstones. There are also intercalations of clay schists, pyrite encrusted with sulfur and iron oxide. Also, very thin veins of gypsum are often found. The thickness is 50-70 m according to Hubach (1931c) and 165 m according to Bürgl (1955a).

Age. Hubach (1931c) mentioned Cyrena sp. and Paraglauconia aff. strombiformis Schlotheim, apparently coming from the upper part, although found ex situ. Bürgl (1955a, p. 8-9) also quoted a Colombian Nicklesia (d'Orbigny), found by Intercol geologists. This fauna suggest a Hauterivian-Barremian age.

Tablazo Formation

This name was given by [START_REF] Wheeler | Report on Palmira Series with notes on Stratigraphy of the Umir, Lisama, and La Paz formations near the Eastern part of De Mares Concession[END_REF] in an unpublished report [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF]. This formation crops out on top of the first hills east of the town of Tablazo to the Rosablanca hill.

It is composed of alternating blue-gray, very fossiliferous, hard limestones, and calcareous mudstone. According to [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF], the type locality of this formation is located in El Tablazo, where the Bucaramanga-San Vicente road crosses the Sogamoso River. The Tablazo Fm rests concordantly on the Paja Fm and usually forms an abrupt relief in comparison with the overlying and underlying units. In the area of Barichara, [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF] divided the Tablazo Fm into five segments (A to E) and described each segment as follows: A (128 m): 30.9% of fossiliferous quartz-sandstone; 13.8% of fossiliferous quartz siltstones, 9.6% of quartz-sandstones, 15% of mudstones and 0.6% of quartz siltstones. B (57.2 m): 51.2% of quartz sandstone, 25.6% of fossiliferous quartz sandstone, 13.4% of mudstones, 5.2% of fossiliferous quartz-siltstone and 4.6% of biosparite. C (43.8 m): 49.9% of mudstones, 22.6% of fossiliferous quartz-sandstone, 14.1% of quartz sandstone, 10.6% of fossiliferous quartzsiltstones and 2.8% of biosparites. D (59.9 m): 48.2% of mudstones, 43.3% of fossiliferous quartz sandstone, 5.4% of fossiliferous quartz-siltstones and 3.1% of biosparite. E (70 m): 31.4% of mudstones, 27.2% of quartz-sandstones, 20.1% of fossiliferous quartz-sandstone, 13.7% of fossiliferous quartz-siltstones and 7.6% of quartz-siltstone.

The Tablazo Fm is 330 m thick in Barichara [START_REF] Tellez | Geología de la Mesa de Barichara[END_REF], 480 m near Villa De Leiva (San Gil Inferior-Conjunto arenoso Calcáreo) (Etayo, 1968a), 277 m North of Bucaramanga [START_REF] Ward | Geología de los cuadrángulos H-12 Bucaramanga y H-13 Pamplona, departamentos de Santander y Norte de Santander[END_REF], 239 m in Simacota, 239 m in Guadalupe, and 354 m in Suaita (Pulido, 1979a).

According to Ulloa and Rodriguez (1978a) and Pulido (1979), and [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF], the thickness progressively increases from north to south.

Environment. The Tablazo Fm was deposited in a shallow marine environment close to the coast (Hubach, 1957a, b), and is synchronous with the Lower San Gil Fm. According to [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF], the transition from the Paja Fm to the Tablazo represents a shallow environment. The Tablazo Fm was deposited in an open marine environment of moderate to high energy, likely corresponding to a shoreface setting. The contact between the Tablazo Fm and the overlying Simití Fm corresponds to a deep environment or sea level rise, synchronous in the entire basin, the environment, however, remaining shallow.

Based on a detailed study of the Tablazo and Simiti formations, [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF] established cycles in the sense of [START_REF] Wilkinson | Facies succession in peritidal carbonate sequences[END_REF], i.e. a succession of layers occurring in a specific order and defining a pattern indicative of the energetic conditions. This pattern suggests an upward shallowing trend for these units.

Age. Morales (in Jullivert, 1968) dated the Tablazo Fm as Late Aptian to Lower Albian, based on the occurrence of the genera Uhligella, Cheloniceras, Parahoplites and Douvilleiceras, and on its stratigraphic position. In the area of Sáchica-Puente Samacá, Etayo (1968)

San Gil Inferior Formation

It is a succession named by [START_REF] Hubach | Condiciones Geológicas de las variants de carretera en la región de Arcabuco-Barbosa-Oiba[END_REF] to refer to a succession composed of limestones, calcareous sandstones, black shales and sandstones. Along the Sachica-Tunja highway, a 480 m thick succession of shales and siltstones with intercalations of variably calcareous sandstone and limestone, gray-green and micaceous fine-grained sandstones and dark gray sandy clays, sandy limestones and sandstones with remains of echinoderms is exposed.

Age. Both Julivert (1958a) and [START_REF] Hubach | Condiciones Geológicas de las variants de carretera en la región de Arcabuco-Barbosa-Oiba[END_REF] assigned an Albian age to this unit. However, Etayo assigns an Aptian age, based on the presence of Colombiceras riedelii and Colombiceras alexandrium in limestones with gastropods and lamelibranchs.

San Gil Superior Formation

Along the Sáchica-Tunja Highway, there is a 620 m thick succession of black shales with intercalations of sandy limestones with abundant lamelibranchs. This unit underlies the Churuvita Fm. originally called by [START_REF] Hubach | Condiciones Geológicas de las variants de carretera en la región de Arcabuco-Barbosa-Oiba[END_REF] "Conjunto San Gil Superior", it has been later considered equivalent to the Simití Fm.

Age. The ammonites Knemiceras semicostatum, Lyelliceras pseudolyelli, cf. Desmoceras chimuense, Prolyelliceras prorsocurvatum allow dating this unit as late Early Albian. This formation underlies sandstones dated by Julivert and Hubach (1953) as Cenomanian. Etayo (does not indicate the year) included these sandstones within the Churuvuta Fm.

Trinchera Formation

The name was given by [START_REF] Cáceres | Bosquejo geológico de la región del Tequendama[END_REF] to describe a sequence of mudstone, with intercalation of limestone and sandstone in the lower part. It overlies the La Naveta Fm and underlies the Socotá Fm. The type location is located in the Trinchera gully (Quadrangle L-10). The Trinchera Fm. crops out from the town of Apulo to the South to the town of Utica to the North. North of the map 227 and on map 208, this unit is made of mudstone and its lower member cannot be distinguished [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF], while in the area of La Palma (Map 189), it is included in the La Palma group (La Paja, Tablazo and Simiti formations) (Rodriguez and Ulloa, 1994 a). [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF]

Socota Formation

Description. The lower part of the Socota Fm is made up of laminated, black calcareous mudstone, with thin intercalations of calcareous quartz-siltstone, and fine-grained quartzsandstone. The lamination evolves from parallel at the base to undulating to the top, due to the increasing sandstone content. At the base, thin layers of limestone sometimes lenticular and micrite concretions occur, and ammonites and fish remains may be found at the top of the coarsening-and thickening-upward sequences. The upper part is made of variably thick beds of fine-to medium-grained quartz-sandstone with calcareous cement and undulating lamination of mudstone and calcareous siltstone. This facies is organised in coarsening and thickening upward sequences. Ammonites and wood and leaf remains occasionally occur in the flaserbedded mudstone. Calcareous concretions may reach 15 cm in diameter. Quartz-sandstone mainly includes angular monocrystalline quartz, corroded by the calcareous cement.

Age. [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF]

Simití Formation

The type locality of the Simití Fm is located along the left margin of the Ciénaga de Simití (Bolívar) (Morales et al., 1985). The unit is constituted by black laminated, carbonaceous claystones, with calcareous, often fossiliferous concretions, which become more abundant to the top where they are up to 3 m in diameter. In the area of Cienaga de Simití, this formation is 410 m thick [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF], whereas in the area of Villa de Leyva, it could reach a thickness of 620 m. [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF] quoted that in the Barichara area, the Simiti Fm is composed of mudstones with some levels of clean quartz-sandstone (50-55%), quartzsandstone (24-38%), and fossiliferous quartz-sandstone (6.2-19%). In the area of Sachica (Boyacá), the Simití Fm in composed of mudstone (44-80%), fossiliferous quartz-sandstone (9.4-15%), quartz-sandstone (10-31%), biosparite (3-4%) and siltstone (3.5%) [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF]. The Tablazo and Simiti formations of the MMV and the Villa de Leyva areas, are correlated with the Socotá and Capote formations of the Tequendama area, and with the upper sandy member of the Caballos Fm and the Tetuán Fm of the Upper Magdalena Valley (Figure 2.11).

Environment. The transition from the Tablazo to the Simiti Fm is marked by the evolution from fossiliferous sandstone and biosparite (shoreface) to mudstone (offshore), which corresponds to a deepening upward trend. This change is ascribed to a sea level rise that began in the upper Albian (Villamil 1998;Guerrero et al., 2000). In the Sáchica section, the deposition in an offshore environment of the Simití Fm ended up with the deposition of quartz-sandstone beds of the Churuvita Fm (shoreface), showing a significant decrease of the deposition depth (Figure 2.34) [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF]. This limit corresponds to the Albian-Cenomanian boundary and would be indicative of a sea level drop (Villamil 1998;Guerrero et al., 2000). The Fischer plot (Figure 2.34) of the Simiti and Tablazo formations evidences a decrease in the accommodation space for the Tablazo Fm. The transition from the Simití to the overlying Churuvita Fm in the MMV and Villa de Leyva areas is correlated with Tetuán-Hondita Fm transtion in the Upper Magdalena Valley.

Age. The age of the Simití Fm ranges from Middle to Upper Albian, based on the presence of the ammonite genera Douvilleiceras, Parahoplites, Uhligella, Lyelliceras, Oxytropidoceras, Brancoceras and Pervinquieria [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF]. In the area of Villa De Leyva, Etayo (1968a) [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF].

Areniscas de Chiquinquira Formation

Description. This name was proposed by Ulloa and Rodriguez (1979) to refer to a series of lutitic sandy strata exposed along the Sutamarchan-Chiquinquira highway (Plate 190), where the type section is located. The base of this unit is defined at the first appearance of thick sandstone beds overlying conformably the black shales of the San Gil Fm. Its upper contact is concordant with the lower shales of the Chipaque Group is defined by the disappearance of sandstone beds. In the type section this unit is 337 m thick (Ulloa and Rodriguez, 1979). It comprises light grey to yellowish, micaceous, fine-grained quartz-sandstones, with thin intercalations of micaceous black shales (166 m); grey micaceous shales, with intercalations of white, fine-grained, muscovitic, massive quartz-sandstone (76 m); and grey shales with beds of micaceous siltstones and up to 3 m thick beds of quartz-sandstones (95 m) (Ulloa and Rodriguez, 1979).

Paleo-environment. Based on the homogeneous grain size, the fine lamination in some strata, the presence of muscovite and pyrite, Ulloa and Rodriguez (1979) suggest a quiet deposition environment, with little oxygenation and reducing conditions. According to [START_REF] Terraza | Estratigrafía y Ambientes de Depósito de la Arenisca de Chiquinquirá en los Alrededores de la Localidad Tipo[END_REF], the presence of bivalves and the facies of the Areniscas de Chiquinquira Fm reflect a shallow Age. Based on its stratigraphic position, the Areniscas de Chiquinquira Fm is assumed to be of Cenomanian age (Ulloa and Rodriguez, 1979).

Salto Formation

This formation was first described by [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF]. The name comes from the Salto river. It is constituted by dark grey, hard, shaly limestone, with thin beds of calcareous dark shale and local nodules. This unit is about 50 to 125 m thick. Its lower limit with the Simiti Fm is concordant and the upper limit is concordant with the Salada Fm. This formation is correlated with the Churuvita Fm of the Villa de Leyva area, since the Salto Fm is restricted to the North of the MMV, north of the Chucurí inflexion.

Age. The presence of the genera Brancoceras, Knemiceras, Neoharpoceras and Turrilites indicates an Albian age (Morales et al., 1958, p. 652). However, Exogyra squamata d´Orbigny found in the San Vicente area and Calycoceras sp. from the Cienaga of Simití indicate a Cenomanian age.

Churuvita Formation (Cenomaniano-Turoniano)

The name of this formation comes from the Quebrada Churuvita (on the Churuvita syncline), tributary of the Samaca river. This unit was first described and mapped in the Villa de Leyva area by Etayo (1965Etayo ( , 1968) ) to refer to a series of fine-to medium-grained, micaceous quartzite and sandstone. These exhibit intercalations of shales, siltstones, sandstones and limestones full of Rhynchostreon squamatum and Ostrea sp. (coquina) in the middle part, and of thick bedded sandstone (quartzite) and sandy limestones in the upper part. East of Chiquinquira, 50 to 100 m strata corresponding to this unit form crests. The Churuvita Group sensu Etayo (1965Etayo ( , 1968) ) corresponds to the Churuvita and San Rafael formations. Their lower contact corresponds to the appearance of shaly-silty levels. The lower contact with the San Gil Superior Fm may be abrupt or progressive [START_REF] Etayo | Ideas para la reinterpretación de ambientes desimentarios del sistema cretácico en la región de Villa de Leiva (Departamento de Boyaca), Colombia[END_REF]. In the type section, it is marked by a strong morphological and lithological contrast. The contact with the overlying formation is net and separated by rocks of quartz sandstones with intercalations of laminated mudstones.

Age. (Etayo, 1968). The underlying San Gil Superior Fm yielded Platiknemiceras colombiana, Rinconiceras rinconi, Lyelliceras pseudolyelliforme and Hysteroceras carinatum (Etayo-Serna, 1979;Etayo in Caicedo, 2005) of Middle to Late Albian age. In the overlying San Rafael Fm, Etayo (1968[START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF] reports the Early Turonian. Therefore, the Churuvita Fm would encompass the Late Albian-Early Turonian interval.

Simijaca Formation/Pacho Formation [START_REF] Ulloa | Mapa Geológico de Colombia[END_REF] were the first to propose the name Simijaca Fm to describe a succession of dark grey mudstone and siltstone, with partly clayey quartz-sandstone beds, which underlies the La Frontera Fm and overlies the Sandstones of Chiquinquirá. In its type locality, this unit reaches a thickness of 693 m. It consists mainly of black to dark grey laminated claystone. The lower and middle parts of this unit consist of claystones to laminated mudstones in which fish scales are frequent and, in smaller proportion, small bivalves and ammonites, as well as fragments of small crustaceans.

Paleoenvironment. The occurrence of planktic foraminifera at the base and of leaf remains, bivalves and bioturbation to the top suggests a shallow deposit. This unit may represent the prodelta area of the Une Fm sandstones known on the eastern side of the Eastern Cordillera (Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF].

Age. Some bivalves determined as Exogyra sp., Ostrea sp. and Pecten aff. tenouklensis? Are associated with scarce planktic foraminifera of the genus Hedbergella (Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF]. The suggested age for this unit is Cenomanian [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF].

Hilo Formation

This siliceous unit was initially named the Hiló Horizon by Hubach (1931), after the name of the Hiló hamlet. Later, [START_REF] Cáceres | Bosquejo geológico de la región del Tequendama[END_REF] named it the Hiló Fm and proposed the Guayabal Bituima Acosta section as the type locality. Its lower limit is marked by the first appearance of siliceous siltstones [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF] and the upper boundary is defined by the appearance of black laminated mudstones on siliceous siltstones. The thickness of this section is approximately 450 m. The lower part consists of calcareous mudstones, sometimes slightly siliceous, with parallel lamination. Inoceramus sp. and impressions of ammonites occur towards the base. The middle part consists of parallel laminated calcareous mudstones, slightly to totally siliceous (cherts), with very thin to thin bedded chert layers, and undulating, nonparallel planes, medium to thick layers of biomicritic limestones, with lenticular stratification, with a concresional aspect, siliceous levels contain abundant planktic foraminifera filled with calcite or silica. The upper part consists of laminated calcareous mudstone, slightly siliceous at the base; they contain some micritic concretions and layers of lenticular limestone, with casts of ammonites.

The presence of Oxytropidoceras sp. Paleoenvironment. Suggests this sequence was deposited in deep water conditions [START_REF] Hart | A water depth model for the evolution of the planktonic Foraminiferida[END_REF], Brasier, 1980), under anoxic conditions (Demaison andMoore, 1980, Berner 1981).

Age. The presence of Rotalipora reicheli, Praeglobotruncana stephani and Rotalipora mitcheli support a late Albian (Vraconian) to early Cenomanian age. [START_REF] Bürgl | Biostratigrafía de la Sabana de Bogotá y sus alrededores[END_REF] suggests a Middle to Late Albian age.

Socotá Formation

The name Socotá Fm was given by [START_REF] Cáceres | Bosquejo geológico de la región del Tequendama[END_REF] to a series of calcareous sandstones (Socotá member), overlain by grey shales (middle member) and capped by shales and fossiliferous marls (Capotes member, "Horizonte de Esferitas" of Hubach, 1931). Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF] suggested to restrict the term Socotá Fm to the Socotá member.

The lower part consists of black laminated calcareous mudstones, with very thin intercalations of calcareous quartz-siltstones and fine-grained quartz-sandstones with calcareous cement. The sandstone content increases upward, as well as the number of micritic concretions. Fossils (ammonites and fish remnants) are usually found at the top of coarsening-and thickeningupward sequences. The middle part consists of very thin-to thick-bedded, very fine-to mediumgrained quartz-sandstones with calcareous cement, presenting wavy layers of mudstone and limestone siltstones. Occasional ammonite and plant remnants may be found. The upper part consists of black laminated calcareous mudstones with thin intercalations of fine-grained, calcareous quartzite. Beds of conglomerates with quartzose clasts and ammonite and mollusc fragments bound by calcareous cement, exhibit erosional lower surface.

Age. [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF] determined the Stoyanowiceras treffryanus-Dufrenoyia sanctorum and Parahoplites (?) hubachi-Acanthohoplites (?) leptoceratiforme assemblage zones, of Aptian age.

La Luna Formation

The term La Luna Limestone was introduced by Garner (1926) in Venezuela for a succession of fossiliferous, calcareous, black shale, with concretions of black limestone. The name La Luna comes from the La Luna river located NW of Perijá (Venezuela). Hedberg and Sass (1937) referred to this unit as the La Luna Fm, a term that was introduced in Colombia by geologists of the Caribbean Petroleum Company. [START_REF] Notestein | Geology of the Barco Concession, Republic of Colombia, South America[END_REF] introduced the term in Colombia applying it to the Concession Barco. Renz (1956, 1960) applied the name La Luna Fm to the Peninsula of La Guajira and in the region of Punta Espada and divided it into two members. [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF] adopted the name in the MMV and subdivided the La Luna Fm into three members, which are the Salada, Pujamana and Galembo members.

The Salada Member

This member was first used in 1929 by Wheeler in an unpublished report. The type locality is located in the Salada valley, on the right margin of the Sogamoso river, NE of the Mares Concession in the MMV. The Salada Member is composed of hard and laminated, calcareous black shales, with intercalations of black micrite, concretions and pyrite. [START_REF] Notestein | Geology of the Barco Concession, Republic of Colombia, South America[END_REF] cited Inoceramus labiatus Schloteim, which indicates an Early Turonian age, without excluding a Cenomanian and Coniacian age for part of the Salada. In the MMV, [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF] assigned a Turonian-Santonian age for this member.

Pujamana Member

Description. According to Morales et al. (1958, p. 654) this name was first reported by Wheeler, after the Quebrada Pujamana, tributary of the Sogamoso river, between Bucaramanga and San Vicente. It represents the 50 to 225 m thick Middle member of the La Luna Fm, made of gray shales or marls.

Age. [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF] cite Amonia sp. and Inoceramus sp. The age would be Late Turonian to Early Coniacian, with a diachronous upper limit.

Galembo Member (Upper Turonian -Coniacian Santonian?

Description. This member was original reported by [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF] as the upper member of La Luna Fm. The name comes from the Galembo edge (in the Sogamoso valley) between Bucaramanga and San Vicente the Chucurí. It is composed of a series of calcareous shales alternating with thin layers of limestone and numerous discoidal nodules of limestones (ammonites) with several meters of ammonites. Layers of lidites are also common. The thickness of this member varies from 180 to 350 m.

Age. The Galembo Mb would be of Upper Turonian-Santonian? age (Morales et al., 1958, p. 655). The Turonian age is based on the presence of Metoicoceras (rather considered as Cenomanian), while Peroniceras and Barroisiceras support a Coniacian age. The Galembo Mb contains the following foraminifera zones: Anomalina redmondi subzone, Bolivina explicate horizon level and Marginulina curviseta Zone [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF]. The Santonian stage has not been defined paleontologically, which suggests a sedimentary hiatus of Santonian age.

La Frontera Formation

This name was given by Hubach (1931) for the sequence of limestone and siliceous layers outcropping in the La Frontera quarry, located near the railway station of the same name (Municipio de Albán). This series overlies and underlies thick shale deposits. A type section has been proposed by [START_REF] Cáceres | Bosquejo geológico de la región del Tequendama[END_REF] at "La Gran Vía", along the road between Alicachín and the El Colegio municipality. Because this site is quite covered, Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF] proposed the Rio Curi and Anolaima -La Florida sector to be the type section.

The base of this unit consists of black, laminated calcareous mudstone, locally cross-bedded. Lens-shaped, biomicritic limestone, laminated calcareous mudstone, calcareous-siliceous mudstones and giant or small-sized micritic concretions occur. The middle part is composed of black cherts in thin to very thin, undulating layers. The upper part is dominated by thin-to very thin-bedded, continuously laminated chert and calcareous-siliceous mudstones.

Environment. Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF] suggest a deep-water environment, below the photic zone, with anoxic conditions at the water-sediment interface. Parallel lamination, absence of benthic life and abundant pyrite support sulfidic, anoxic conditions (Berner, 1981).

Age. In the La Frontera Fm, [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF] proposed the Mammites nodosoides appelatus-Franciscoites suarezi ammonite assemblage zone, of Early Turonian age. The planktonic foraminifera Whiteinella archeocretacea, Whiteinella aprica, Whiteinella baltica and Heterohelix reussi support the Early Turonian age for the base of the formation (Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF]. In the upper part of the La Frontera Fm, casts of the bivalve Didymotis roemeri variabilis suggest a Middle Conianian [START_REF] Bürgl | Biostratigrafía de la Sabana de Bogotá y sus alrededores[END_REF].

Conejo Formation

The Conejo Fm is the name proposed by [START_REF] Renzoni | Mapa geológico, plancha 191[END_REF] to describe the succession of shales with sandstone and sporadic limestone beds, exposed along the road between the town of Pontezuela and the San Rafael Trail, close to the Alto El Conejo. The Conejo Fm overlies the Churuvita Group and underlies the Plaeners Fm. In the Sáchica-Tunja area, the upper part of the unit probably corresponds to the so-called Arenisca Dura Fm of the Sabana de Bogotá. [START_REF] Ulloa | Mapa Geológico de Colombia[END_REF] use the term Conejo Fm to refer to the sequence of shales below the Guadalupe Group, which overlies the siliceous siltstones of the La Frontera Fm, and proposed a reference section along the Sutamarchán-Chiquinquirá road.

The lower part of this unit is characterized, by a succession of grey claystone and laminated mudstone, commonly calcareous, in which micritic concretions (< 20 cm) occur. These are overlain by non-calcareous laminated claystones, containing thin-to medium-bedded silicified quartz-siltstone. The lower part ends up with fine-to medium-grained quartzite, in which lamination is commonly wavy and discontinuous, and Thalassinoides sp. occur.

The middle part of the Conejo Fm is marked by medium-to very thick-bedded, nodular biomicritic limestone, which evolves upward into medium-to thick-bedded intercalations of medium-to fine-grained quartz-sandstone, and quartz-siltstones with phosphatic peloids. claystone and mudstone are locally calcareous. To the south of Plate 227, the terrigenous intercalations evolve upward from fine-grained sandstone to siltstone.

Paleoenvironment. Outershelf conditions are supported by the abundance of planktic foraminifera, especially keeled foraminifera (e.g. Dicarinella sp., [START_REF] Hart | A water depth model for the evolution of the planktonic Foraminiferida[END_REF]. Oxygenation of the seabed was fluctuating, with predominance of anoxy (littl or no benthic life) and sporadic incursions of aerobic conditions (Thalassinoides) related to the presence of sandstone beds.

Occasional turbiditic flows and the increase of sandstones toward the top mark the transition to a shallow siliciclastic sea.

Age. In this unit, [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF]

Olini Group

The name Olini Group was introduced by Petters (1954[START_REF] Porta | Geología del extremo S del Valle Medio del Magdalena entre Honda y Guataquí (Colombia)[END_REF] while describing some species of foraminifera, but without presenting a lithological description. The same author used the term for a lithostratigraphic unit composed of two siliceous levels called Lower Chert (Lidita Inferior) and Upper Chert (Lidita Superior), separated by the Shale Level. The locality is found along the road that leads from the Piedras Municipality to the Cuchilla La Tabla.

The Lidita Inferior Fm is constituted predominantly by very thin layers of chert and siliceous siltstone, containing poorly preserved foraminifera. The Shale Level is made of quartzite, siltstone and micaceous and slightly siliceous calcareous mudstone, with thick intercalations of fine-to medium-grained, black-brown quartz-arenite, locally slightly silicified. The Lidita Superior Fm, comprises calcareous cherts with parallel and undulating lamination, black cherts with parallel lamination, rarely slightly inclined. There are also horizons of yellow-orange claystone, whose origin is not clear, since they usually limit sets of layers showing angularity to each other (Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF].

Age [START_REF] Caron | Cretaceous planktic foraminifera[END_REF].

Umir Formation

The type locality of this formation is the Quebrada Umir, located 3 km west of the Umir Hill in the MMV. It was first defined by Huntley (1917, unpubl. report), who included in this unit what is today known as the Lisama Fm (in Morales et al., 1958, p. 655). It was then redefined by Link (1925, unpubl. report), who gave it its present definition.

The first extensive description was given by [START_REF] Morales | General geology and oil occurrences of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia: Tulsa, Habitat of Oil Symposium[END_REF]. The lower part of the Umir Fm corresponds to grey to bluish-black, thin-bedded shales, with micaceous and carbonaceous layers, and ferruginous concretions. Its upper part is constituted by grey to black, thin-bedded, soft shales, with thin beds of coal, iron minerals, fine-grained sandstone and siltstone. The thickness of this formation is around 1000 m. Due to its predominantly shaly lithology, the Umir Fm forms wide valleys. This formation overlies in slight discordance the Galembo Member of the La Luna Fm. Its upper boundary is concordant with the Lisama Fm.

Age. Based on the occurrence of the marine foraminifera Siphogenerinoides cretacea, S. bramlettei and Ammobaculites colombianus [START_REF] Petters | Development of Upper Cretaceous foraminiferal faunas in Colombia[END_REF], the Umir Fm is ascribed to the Campanian-Maastrichtian.

Guadalupe Group

The name Guadalupe was used for the first time by [START_REF] Hettner | Die Kordillere von Bogotá[END_REF], in Hubach, 1957), who named Piso de Guadalupe the Upper Cretaceous sandstones, which crop out on the eastern hills of the Bogotá area.

In the sense of [START_REF] Renzoni | Apuntes acerca de la litología y tectónica de la zona al Este y Sureste de Bogotá[END_REF]Renzoni ( -1968)), it was limited at the base by the last occurrence of the mudstone of the Villeta Group and at the top by the first occurrence mudstone beds of the Guaduas Fm. The Guadalupe Group is distinctly sandy and is divided from base to top into the Arenisca Dura, Plaeners and Labor and Tierna formations, which are described below for Plate 227

Arenisca Dura Formation

The name Arenisca Dura is due to Hubach (1931), who proposed as type locality the strait of the San Francisco de Bogotá river. [START_REF] Renzoni | Apuntes acerca de la litología y tectónica de la zona al Este y Sureste de Bogotá[END_REF] gave it the range of Dura Sandstone Fm and proposed as reference section the section of the Choachí-Bogotá highway. Pérez and Salazar (1971) proposed as a type section the section along the road to Cerro del Cable, east of the city of Bogotá.

Description. Arenisca Dura Fm consists of fine-grained, very thin-to very thick-bedded, parallel to lens-shaped quartzite layers, with intercalations of thin-to very thin-bedded, slightly siliceous-quartz siltstones. Laminations are usually undulated, locally discontinuous, and affected by bioturbation, but rare cross-bedding (hummocky type?) and ripples are observed.

Ondulating surfaces (erosive?) may represent nonconformities. Fish remains (casts), bivalves and phosphatic peloids occur toward the base.

Paleo-enviroment. The hummocky type of stratification suggests a shallower depositional environment than the underlying unit, which is marked by turbiditic layers (Walker, 1984b).

On the other hand, upwelling currents may favor phosphate and silica precipitation, through the proliferation of radiolarians and fishes. The presence of Siphogenerinoides [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Posición de las faunas en los depósitos cretácicos colombianos y su valor en la subdivisión cronológica de los mismos[END_REF] is consistent with the abundance of phosphorus, while Inoceramus [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Posición de las faunas en los depósitos cretácicos colombianos y su valor en la subdivisión cronológica de los mismos[END_REF]) is typical of highly reducing conditions.

Age. [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Posición de las faunas en los depósitos cretácicos colombianos y su valor en la subdivisión cronológica de los mismos[END_REF] mentioned the ammonite Peroniceras (Gauthiericeras) bujuvaricum and the benthic foram Siphogenerinoides ewaldi, among others, which suggest a Santonian age.

Pleaners Formation

Hubach (1931) first used the term Plaeners, to refer to the argillosa-liditic sequence, which is located in the middle part of the Upper Guadalupe Fm. Renzoni (1968) defined it as Plaeners formation and proposes as reference sections the Bella Suiza quarry, near Usaquén and the Bogotá-Choachí highway, in the descent towards the headwaters of the Raizal gully, where the lithostratigraphic unit appears complete. Pérez and Salazar (1971) proposed as a type section the section that crops out on the hill between the Rosales and La Vieja rivers.

Age. Pérez and Salazar (1971) mention the presence of Ostrea tecticosta? and the benthic foraminifera Orthokarstenia cretacea and? Orthokarstenia clarki, to which a Campanian-Maastrichtian age is assigned.

Labor y Tierna Formation

Description. The term Labor y Tierna was used for the first time in a stratigraphic sense by Hubach (1931) to designate the upper sandy part of the Guadalupe Fm. Later (1957), the same author defined it as a member belonging to the Upper Guadalupe Fm. Then, [START_REF] Renzoni | Apuntes acerca de la litología y tectónica de la zona al Este y Sureste de Bogotá[END_REF]Renzoni ( , 1968) ) proposed the present-day name of this unit, which represent the upper part of the Guadalupe Group. They established as the type-section the outcrops along the Choachí-Bogotá highway, before arriving to the páramo, in the quebrada Rajadero.

Lithologically it is characterized by medium-to thick-bedded, lens-shaped, fine-to mediumgrained quartz-sandstone. Intercalations of mudstones and quartz-siltstone sporadically occur. Bioturbation is abundant (Thalassinoides sp. and Arenicolites sp., [START_REF] Hernández | Estratigrafía del Grupo Guadalupe al Occidente de La Sabana de Bogotá[END_REF].

Age. Pérez and Salazar (1971) mention for Labor y Tender Formation, among others, the following species: Sphenodiscus sp, Cyprimeria cf. coonensis and Tellina equilateralis, on the basis of which an early Maastrichtian age is assigned.

Lisama Formation (Paleocene)

The name of this unit comes from the Quebrada Lisama, NE of the Mares Concession (Santander Department). This formation was first defined together with the La Paz Fm (Stutzer, 1923;Huntley and Mason, 1923;Anderson, 1926Anderson, , 1927a;;Harrison, 1930). Link (1925, unpubl. report) gave it the name of Lisama Fm and defined the type section, which was then described by Wheeler (1935).

This unit is constituted by variegated shale (red, brown and grey), with intercalations of grey, massive, medium-to fine-grained sandstone beds, which become thicker upward. Coal layers occur in the upper part. This unit is 1225 m thick. Its lower limit with the Umir Fm is transitional, whereas the upper contact with the La Paz Fm is a regional unconformity. Van Der Hammen (1958) correlated the Lisama Fm with the Barco and Cuervos formations in the Barco Concesion, and with the Upper Guaduas and with the lower part of the Bogotá Fm.

Environment. The Lisama Fm was deposited in deltaic to lagoon environments (Wheeler, 1935).

Age. Based on its stratigraphic position between the Umir Fm and the Horizonte Mugrosa, both are considered as belonging to the Eocene, Wheeler (1935) ascribed this formation to the Eocene. However, palynological data led Van Der Hammen (1954) to date the Lisama Fm as Paleocene, an age that has been confirmed by subsequent authors.

Seca Formation

Description. The name of this unit derives from the Quebrada Seca that flows into the Magdalena river to the S of Cambao. The type and reference sections are located along the road from Cambao-San Juan de Río Seco to Honda Guaduas. The total thickness of the Seca Fm is about 300 m. De Porta (1965[START_REF] Thompson | Guide Book of a geological section from Bogota to the Central Cordillera, Colombia[END_REF] described the Seca Fm as a succession of red sandstones and shale, with a clear predominance of red shales in the upper half of the formation. The sandstone beds of the lower part correspond to orthoquartzite and their composition is similar to the La Primavera Member of the underlying Cimarrona Fm. Still in the lower half of the formation the sandstones change from orthoquartzite to arkoses.

Age. The available paleontological data indicate a Maastrichtian age, as indicated by the fauna mentioned by [START_REF] Bürgl | Biostratigrafía de la Sabana de Bogotá y sus alrededores[END_REF] in the surroundings of El Dindal. The palynological association formed by Leiotriletes guaduensis (Van der Hammen, 1958), Psilamonocolpites medius (Van der Hammen, 1958), Tricolpopollenites and Monocolpopollenites associated with small Angiosperms from Quebrada Seca (Porta, 1966, p. 109), is rather similar to those of the Guaduas Fm, but a greater precision is not yet possible. Consequently, this formation may encompass part of the Paleocene.

Guaduas Formation

The name of this unit comes from the town of Guaduas located on the western edge of the Cordillera Oriental on the Bogotá-Honda highway. The wide geographic extension of some sandstone levels allowed Hubach to specify that the units the Guaduas Fm had been subdivided (Hubach, 1931, in Kehrer, 1933). Basal unit: mainly dark gray clays with some fossils at the base. Middle Unit: made of two levels of sandstones (Guide Sandstone and Lajosa Sandstone); separated by compact dark grey clays, sometimes carbonaceous and containing exploitable coal seams (productive part of the Guaduas Fm). Upper Unit: "reddish, bluish, greenish and purple clay, among which locally there are unexploitable coal seams and beds of unstable, more or less coarse-grained sandstones. [START_REF] Radelli | Géologie des Andes Colombiennes[END_REF] defined the Guaduas Fm as a Group and each of its three parts as formations. Thus, the Guaduas Group would comprise from bottom to top the Lower Guaduas Fm, Middle Guaduas Fm and Upper Guaduas Fm.

Age. [START_REF] Hettner | Die Kordillere von Bogotá[END_REF] considered the Guaduas as Late Cretaceous. Leaving aside the Eocene age assigned by Berry (1924b) on the basis of Saccoglotis cipaconense and followed by Anderson (1926Anderson ( , 1927a)), the age of the Guaduas Fm has been estimated as a lower Tertiary. Scheibe (1934a) first assigned a Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary age to this unit, without specifying the position of the K-T boundary. Hubach (1957a) and Van der Hammen (1954) considered the age of this formation as Maastrichtian-Paleocene.

La Paz Formation (Paleocene-Middle Eocene)

The name La Paz Fm derives from the Cordillera La Paz, located between the Sogamoso and Lebrija rivers. The type section is located along the Lebrija river, near Puerto Wilches downstream of the city of Venegas.

The first description of this unit was made by Stutzer (1923) who wrote "the forms of the surface of this cordillera remember some of the Buntsandstein in Germany. This sand reveals discordant structures". According to this author the La Paz Fm is constituted by alternating gray-blue clay and yellow, micaceous hard sandstone. Stutzer (1923) ascribed to the La Paz Fm all the sediments between the Piso Guaduas and Piso Honda. Simultaneously, Huntley and Masson (1923) described this unit with the name of "La Paz Sandstone series", but without a precise definition, except for its lower limit. Then, Harrison (1930, p. 405) gave the La Paz Fm its presently accepted definition, placing it between the "coal group" and the "Chusoas beds". He described the following succession: (1) sandstones with shaly layers and carbonized tree trunk;

(2) gritty sandstone with coarse pebbly beds, coal pebbles and hard, fine grained, ripple marked sandstones, with carbonized tree trunk, (3) coarse pebbly-beds and red mottled clays with pebbly interbeds.

Age. Paleocene-Middle Eocene.

Hoyon Formation

Description. The name Hoyón was first introduced by Hubach in a report of the Shell Company. Later, [START_REF] Raasveldt | Mapa Geológico de la República de Colombia, Plancha K-9 "Armero[END_REF] gave this name to sediments located between the Guaduas Fm and the Gualanday Fm, in the Jerusalem-Guaduas syncline. Van der Hammen (1958, p. 101), first described the Hoyon Fm, as made of conglomerates with quartz and cherts, greenish sandstones and red-purple clays and shales, with few dark grey shales and some silicified tree trunks. Van der Hammen measured a thickness of 600 m in the type section, located along the Chaguaní and Hoyón rivers, from which its name derives. Porta (1965Porta ( , 1966, p. 122-141) , p. 122-141)

Introduction

The cretaceous clastic sediments in Colombia are normally composed of sediments derived from the Guyana Shield to the East, and from the Central Cordillera to the West. Most of the units comprise mainly fine-grain sediments like claystones and shales and also limestone, especially at the base. However, the presence of sandstone levels in different localities of the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) and western slope of the Eastern Cordillera (WEC) has to be analyzed to distinguish between tectonic, eustatic and sedimentary processes, and to provide information about the changes occurring in the basin. These changes have been analyzed in several sections of the study area. Based on well information (cuttings, wireline) and stratigraphic field sections, I built stratigraphic correlations and reconstructed the Cretaceous paleo-environments.

In spite, that identify the stratigraphic boundaries in fine-grained facies is not an easy task. I use the sequence stratigraphy concepts to determine the sequence boundarys (SB). However, the presence of sandstones in shallower environment and their distribution was important to analyze to understand the facies changes and sea level variations. For Example, in the area of Villa de Leyva, [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF] indicated that the Churuvita Formation is thinner to the south and sandier to the west. In the region of Samacá-Candelaria, Ulloa and Rodriguez (1991) showed the Churuvita Formation to be less calcareous and sand-rich, so they introduced the name of Areniscas de Chiquinquira, considering this new unit as a facial change of the Churuvita Formation. Fabre (1985) considered this unit as the western extension of the Une Sandstone.

In the study area, sedimentation is generally continuous and fine-grained, so unconformities are represented by correlative conformities (BSFR) or forced regression, represented by relatively shallow-water deposits with conformable bases [START_REF] Posamentier | Aspects of sequence stratigraphy: recent and ancient examples of forced regressions[END_REF]1992). However, in the area of the MMV and the WEC the definition of the sequence was possible thanks to the use of the Fischer plot which is a powerfull method for interpretation in shallow-water, allowing to distinguish the local tectonic and sedimentologic effect on relative sea levels, from global eustatic oscillations or largescale tectonic movements. Accommodation space plots were also used to make intrabasinal correlation (Figures 3.24,3.36 and 3.47) and to corroborate our TR curves estimated in all studied Cretaceous sections. The well information was used to support the paleo-environmental interpretation and recognition of important unconformities during the cretaceous that represent the sequence boundaries.

During this work, several sections have been interpreted in the MMV and part of the WEC (Chapter 4) and four field sections from the WEC have been studied (Figure 3.1,3.2,3.3 and 3.5). Nearly 100 control points were visited in the field (Figure 3.3), to find evidences of mountain uplift through the observation of changes in the depositional setting (e.g. grain size, paleosoils, etc), not easy to obtain in the field due to restricted outcrops. Field geology generally provides scarce data, which are interpreted by each geologist with his own criteria (Asch, 2001). Nevertheless, the field evidences obtained from this work in the WEC and MMV, from wells in the MMV and some taken from other works in the WEC [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF], Hernandez (1990), [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF][START_REF] Terraza | Estratigrafía y Ambientes de Depósito de la Arenisca de Chiquinquirá en los Alrededores de la Localidad Tipo[END_REF], [START_REF] Reyes | Geología del cinturon esmeraldifero occidental[END_REF], etc), support the hypothesis that the Cretaceous basin was tectonically active.

Materials and Methods

In the MMV due to the widespread Quaternary cover, we used wells and logs information. In the WEC, outcrop information has been obtained from four field sections which are from south to north: The La Vega-Villeta Section, the Villa de Leyva -Chiquinquira section (central part), and the Barichara -San Vicente de Chucuri and Rio Sogamoso -Lebrija (northern section) (Figures 3.1,3.2,3.3). More than 100 samples from different units were taken and analyzed (Figures 3.2 A general description of the stratigraphic units in the study area has been given in chapter 2 and its correlation is showed in the chart of Units of Jurassic to Recent age are present in the study area; however, the stratigraphic nomenclature changes from one area to another (Figure 3.4); in this chapter, we describe the units based on our observations (outcrops, drilling wells); complemented or modified with the information from others author. Stratigraphic sections are presented from South to North, with their lithological description, petrography, biostratigraphic content and sedimentological interpretation. Then, the analysis and discussion of this information is presented.

For all regions, the sections containing biostratigraphic information are presented, to assign reliable ages to the units and, when was possible, to identify non-deposition or erosion events, and to specify the depositional environment and their changes with time.

For each region a correlation was made, and facies changes and stratigraphic sequences were evaluated and interpreted. Stratigraphic sequence analysis was achieved through the Cretaceous stratigraphic succession to identify sea level fluctuation through time. Finally, facies distribution maps, taking into account the whole of the available information, were drawn for different ages, which show the sea level fluctuation. Several major transgressive-regressive cycles and depositional sequences were identified.

Key Terms and Definitions

Sequence stratigraphy is a method used to explain, describe or predict the occurrence, extension and geometry of the sedimentary facies, taking into account the fluctuations of sea level, subsidence rates, sediments input, climatic conditions and tectonic influences. For this purpose, we need to know the precise age of the units, and the depositional environment and geometry of the basin. However, part of this information is frequently not available. Well information, seismic models, biostratigraphy and geochemistry may offer additional information for the final interpretation. Biostratigraphy is the age determination and correlation of rocks, based on their fossil content (Staines, 1985).

Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies rocks in terms of time (which includes system, series, epoch and sequential depositions) (Staines, 1985).

Lithostratigraphy is based only on the lithology of sedimentary units, regardless of biostratigraphy, paleomagnetism or any temporal relation (Staines, 1985).

Depositional system defines the sediment deposited during a specific segment of the sea level variation curve.

Seismic Stratigraphy is related to the lithology in the sub-surface and its stratigraphic relations based on the analysis of seismic reflectors.

Sequence stratigraphy is a multidisciplinary approach which uses available data (lithology, stratigraphy, seismic data and well logs) to identify the genetically related facies, located between key surfaces considered as time-lines. Units located between these regionally correlated key surfaces or regional unconformities are called depositional sequences [START_REF] Vail | Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea levels, part 4: Global Cycles of relative changes of sea level[END_REF]. As the sequences tend to be cyclic, the relative positions of facies may be predicted. Therefore, the use of sequence stratigraphy generates a geologically sound and predictable stratigraphic framework.

Seismic data illustrates the regional framework and strata geometry; well logs provide precise information on lithology and depositional systems; biostratigraphy allows to identify condensed sections, chronostratigraphic surfaces, paleobathymetry and climatic conditions.

Sea level cycle is a complete period of rise and fall of the sea level. These cycles are controlled by events of different nature and have variable durations. A sea level cycle may be related to global, regional or local events. The stratigraphic record developed between two events of sea level fall is defined as a eustatic cycle (Vail et al., 1977). The latter comprises an initial period of sea level fall, followed by a period of sea level rise until the maximum immersion is reached, before a new period of sea level fall begins.

In many cases, age data is not accurate enough to know how much time is involved within a sequence, even in young and well explored basins [START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF]. Despite this, the hierarchy systems based on cycle duration are built on the assumption that the controls on cyclicity at specific hierarchical orders are predictable, repetitive, and unchanged during the evolution of the Earth. This means that the controls on stratigraphic cyclicity are governed by the law of uniformitarianism throughout the Earth´s history [START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF].

Nevertheless, recent work on Precambrian geology [START_REF] Catuneanu | The sequence stratigraphic concept and the Precambrian rock record: an example from the 2.7-2.1 Ga Transvaal Supergroup, Kaapvaal craton[END_REF][START_REF] Eriksson | The Precambrian Earth: Tempos and Events[END_REF]Eriksson et al., , 2005a, b) , b) points to different conclusions [START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF] emphasizing that the tectonic mechanisms controlling the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins, for the greater part of geological time, were far more diverse and erratic in terms of origin and process rates than originally inferred from the study of the Phanerozoic record. Similar conclusions have been reached studying the Milankovitch cycles, which demonstrate that the periods of precession and obliquity have changed significantly with time due to the continued evolution of the Earth-Moon system [START_REF] Lambeck | The earth's variable rotation[END_REF][START_REF] Walker | Lunar nodal tide and distance to the moon during the Precambrian[END_REF]Algeo and Wilkinson, 1988;[START_REF] Berger | Astronomical forcing through geological time[END_REF].

Since the assessment of the duration of the cycles is sometimes problematic, a timebased hierarchy in the rock record is difficult (Algeo and Wilkinson, 1988;[START_REF] Carter | Application of global sea-level and sequence-stratigraphic models in southern hemisphere Neogene strata[END_REF][START_REF] Drummond | Stratal thickness frequencies and the prevalence of orderedness in stratigraphic sequences[END_REF], which is highlighted by the discrepancies in the cycle duration established by different authors. For example, a third-order cycle has a periodicity of 1-10 Ma in the view of Vail et al. (1977), 0.5-3 Ma in the hierarchy of [START_REF] Mitchum | High-frequency sequences and their stacking patterns: sequence stratigraphic evidence of high-frequency eustatic cycles[END_REF], 1-11 Ma according to [START_REF] Krapez | Sequence-stratigraphic concepts applied to the identification of basin-filling rhythms in Precambrian successions[END_REF], and so on [START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF].

To understand the changes around the basins, we use the hierarchy system based on cycle duration evaluated as follows:

First order cycles (> 50 Ma) are produced by plate tectonics. Eustatic cycles of higher frequency can be generated by variations in sea floor spreading, glacio-eustacy or astronomic factors (Milankovic theory). These cycles are labeled as follow:

Second order cycles (5 -50 Ma) [START_REF] Haq | Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic (250 Myr ago to Present)[END_REF].

Third order cycles (0.5 -5 Ma) are the fundamental units of sequence stratigraphy, as identified in outcrop or subsurface, and allowed to build the global sea level curve of Haq et al. (1987) (Figure 3.6).

Fourth order cycles (0.1 -0.5 Ma) are present within third order sequences (Figure 3.6).

Fourth orden sequence stacked Figure 3.6 -Stack of fourth order sequences and its correspondence with a third order sequence. Taken from Levy (1991).

Fifth order cycle (0.01 -0.1 Ma) are assumed to be controlled by orbital elements of the earth (Milankovitch).

Sixth order cycle (< 0.01 Ma).

Parasequence is a relative conformable succession of genetically related strata, bounded at the base and top by surface boundaries (SB) (Van Wagoner, 1985;Van Wagoner et al., 1988). In general, the parasequences are an upward-shallowing succession of facies (Figure 3.6,3.7 and 3.8).

These parasequences can be (1) progradational (or forestepping), when the creation of accommodation space is lower than the sedimentation rate; (2) aggradational when the rate of accommodation space creation approximately matches the sedimentation rate; and (3) retrogradional (or backstepping) when the creation of accommodation space is quicker than the sedimentation accumulation. (Van Wagoner, 1985). Lowstand System Track (LST) is deposited during a relative sea-level fall and the early phase of sea level rise. LST sediments often fill or partially fill incised valleys that were cut in earlier deposits by subaerial erosion during platform emergence. Incised valley fills (ivf) are the only deposits of the LST that are laid down on the emergent shelf. In seismic lines, they are expressed by the erosional truncation of the underlying sequence and internal onlap. The earlier term ´Shelf-margin Systems Tract (type 2 of Posamentier et al., 1988), is nowadays left out (Posamentier and Allen, 1999;[START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF] because these deposits are now considered part of LST.

The Lowstand Prograding Wedge (lpw, or lowstand prograding) is overlain by the TST. The lpw varies from fluvial-coastal to shallow-marine environment at the base, to hemipelagic facies and, in some cases, overlapping turbidites at the top. In well logs, the lpw is funnel shaped (Figure 3.9). It may be recognized in seismic lines by offlap aggradational.

The Transgressive System Tract (TST) is an indicator of a transgressive regime, since it is deposited during relative sea-level rise. It is comprised between the transgressive surface at the top the LST, and the MFS at its top (Catuneanu et al. 2011). The TST is composed of retrogradational parasequences, which become thinner and deeper upward.

As the TST overlaps the shelf, it fills the incised valleys. The TST usually overlies the SB landward of the shelf border. It presents a bell shape (fining upward) in well logs (Figure 3.9).

The Highstand System Tract (HST) is an indicator of a high sea-level and is widely distributed on the shelf. Its basal limit is the MFS and its top is the SB on the shelf and the shelf edge. In the HST parasequences grade upward from aggradational to progradational, and their depositional environment also becomes shallower. In the basin it is represented by a condensed section. The top of the HST downlaps seaward and is also marked by toplaps and erosional truncations below the upper SB. The HST is deposited during the last phase of relative sea-level rise and the early stage of relative sea-level fall. In well logs it is represented by a funnel shape.

In this analysis I used well log shapes and description lithology in wells. The log shapes typically show changes in the depositional regime. Funnel shapes suggests coarseningupward, which means increasing-upward energy; bell shapes mean fining-upward grain and a decrease in current energy; and cylinder shapes mean relative constant grain size and depositional energy (Figure 3.9). Figures 3.9,3.10 and 3.11 show some examples of log shapes related to depositional environments.

As quoted by [START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF], efforts are being made to clarify the meaning of "unconformity-bounded units" and "discontinuity-bounded units". In this way, the term unconformity was refined by Bates and Jackson (1987), who distinguished unconformity, diastem and conformity (Figure 3.12).

Unconformity represents an important gap in the geological record; usually related to uplift and erosion, which possibly implies loss of previous deposits (due to subaerial or subaqueous erosion, non-deposition or weathering). Hence, the term unconformity (Bates and Jackson, 1987) comprises ( 1) Disconformity, when the beds above and below the hiatus are essentially parallel; (2) Paraconformity, when the overlying and underlying beds are parallel and there is an uncertain erosional or hiatus unconformity; Micro-Strat, inc., 1990).

Diastem corresponds to a short interruption of sedimentation, where little or no erosion is present (Bates and Jackson, 1987).

Conformity marks the lack of hiatus and a stratigraphic continuity in the sequence. When sediments are laid down one above the other in uninterrupted succession, the so formed strata are said conformable (Bates and Jackson, 1987). In the early stages of sea level rise (after sea level drop), sedimentation rate is most likely to outpace the rate of creation of accommodation, leading to a 'normal' regression of the shoreline, thus continuing the regressive trend. The end of shoreline regression, therefore, does not coincide with the end of base-level fall, but rather with an early stage of base level rise. Once the increasing rate of base-level rise outpaces the sedimentation rate, the transgression of the shoreline begins (Figure 3.13). In the last stages of base-level rise, when sea-level rise rate is low (decreasing to zero), sedimentation takes over once again, triggering a second 'normal' regression of the base-level cycle. Therefore, the end of shoreline transgression does not occur during the onset of base level fall, but rather during the late stages of base-level rise (Fig. 3.13).

The curve shows that transgressive stages are shorter in time (less than half of a cycle), relative to the regressive stages (normal plus forced). However, the duration of transgressive and regressive periods changes according to the basin (Catuneanu, 2004a).

In Figure 3.13 above the black curve constant sedimentation rates are assumed, but the real function curve can be asymmetrical to represent the realistic fluctuations through time [START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF].

Base level changes are idealized (symmetric sine curves) in Figures 3.13 and 3.14, but in reality, for example the tectonic control on base-level, may generate asymmetrical base-level curves. As a function between sedimentation and base-level fluctuations (Figures 3.13 and 3.14), four main events associated with changes in depositional trends are recorded during a complete cycle of baselevel shifts, 1) onset of forced regression; 2) end of forced regression (end of base-level fall); 3) end of regression (marks the change from regression to transgression); end of transgression (base-level rise) marks the change in the direction from transgression to regression (Figure 3.14 and 3.15).

MFS (Maximum flooding surface); MRS (Maximum Regression surface); BSFR -Basal surface of forced regression ( correlative conformity sensu

Posamentieretal., 1988); NR -Normal Regression; FR -Forced Regression; HSThighstand system track ; LSTlowstand system track [START_REF] Hunt | Stranded parasequences and the forced regressive wedge systems tract: deposition during base level fall[END_REF]; TSTtransgressive system track; FSST -Falling-stage system track); DSdepositional sequence; GSgenetic stratigraphic sequence; TRtransgressiveregressive sequence ; NR -normal regression; FRforced regression; Rtransgressive wave-ravinement surface; IV -incised valley; Apositive accommodation (Base level rise).

Transgressive -Regressive Curve

The onset or end of regression or transgression are shown in Figure 3.15. Each surface may be defined as a distinct stratigraphic contact that marks a specific event or stage of the base level cycle. relative to the main events (Modified from Catuneanu et al., 1998band Embry and Catuneanu, 2002[START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF].

Seven surfaces of sequence stratigraphy are shown in Figure 3.15 during a full cycle (basal surface or forced regression, subaereal unconformity and correlative conformity, maximun regression surface, maximun flooding surface). The subaerial unconformities are surfaces of erosion or nondeposition created during base-level fall. Subaerial unconformities correspond to long-lasting stratigraphic hiatuses, which separate genetically unrelated strata (Figure 3.14;[START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF], and laterally grade to correlative marine conformity, whose age corresponds to the end of the base-level fall (sensu [START_REF] Hunt | Stranded parasequences and the forced regressive wedge systems tract: deposition during base level fall[END_REF]. Vecsei and Duringer, 2003).

Abbreviations: HST--highstand systems tract; FSST--falling-stage systems tract; LST--lowstand systems tract; TST--transgressive systems tract; SB--depositional sequence boundary; BSFR--basal surface of forced regression; MRS--maximum regressive surface; MFS--maximum flooding surface; MDI--maximum depth interval; regression and coarsening upward (R); transgression and fining upward (T).

Sequence stratigraphy was interpreted using the information of each column, based on the identification of regressive, coarsening upward trends (R) and transgressive fining upward trends (T) (Figure 3.16). The water depth in any location depends on the interaction between subsidence, sea level changes and sedimentation. In this way, subsidence and sea-level rise produce water deepening, and sea-level fall and sedimentation produce water shallowing. Alternatively, sedimentation developed during transgressive and regressive shifts of the shoreline are controlled by sediment supply and depositional energy [START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF].

Stratigraphic nomenclature

In the study area, a wide variety of nomenclature has been used by successive authors. Figure 3.4 shows the nomenclature used, from south to north, in the WEC and in the MMV. In the MMV and in the northern area of WEC (Bucaramanga-Barichara) the nomenclature is basically the same, as well as in the central area for the Valanginian to Cenomanian interval. Elsewhere, nomenclatures are different, especially in the Villeta area, where the nomenclature is shared only for the Turonian -Paleocene interval. Figure 3.4 shows the lithological units and their correlations from one region to others.

The principal units and their equivalents were described in Chapter two.

Stratigraphic sections

Different stratigraphic sections will be described from South to North (area of Villeta, Villa de Leyva and Bucaramanga), in order to detect the changes along the basins.

The studied sections and their vertical evolution are shown in Figures 3.17 The sections from these three zones (south, central and North) were used for correlations: The La Tigra to the Esculela -1 section to the South (Figure 3.24), from Villa de Leyva to Guineal in the centre (Figure 3.36) and from Barichara to the Chucuri-1 section to the North (Figure 3.47). For all sections the transgressive-regressive curves have been interpreted, and relative sea-level variations have been obtained from outcrops and wells, using the accommodation space plots or Fischer plots [START_REF] Fischer | The Lofer cyclothcms of the Alpine Triassic[END_REF]. These curves do not provide the absolute magnitude of sea level fluctuation, they provide stacking patterns that can be interpreted in terms of relative sea level fall and rise, condensed intervals and sequence boundaries.

The Fischer plot is a powerfull method for basin analysis and geohistoric interpretation in shallow-water carbonate systems (Villamil, 1998). With this method, the sea-level history of different basins can be defined and compared, and it allows to distinguish local tectonic and sedimentologic effects on relative sea level, from global eustatic oscillations or large-scale tectonic movements (Villamil, 1998). Our main aim is to identify the regional events (second order cyles from 5 -50 My), which are assumed to be caused by eustatic or large-scale tectonics. Accommodation space plots were also used to make intrabasinal correlation (Figures 3.24,3.36 and 3.47) and to corroborate our TR curves estimated in all studied Cretaceous sections. The well information was used to support the paleo-environmental interpretation.

Southern region

-La Tigra section

In the La Tigra section, the studied sequence corresponds to the Trinchera Formation (Fm) of Barremian-Early Aptian age. The name was given by [START_REF] Cáceres | Bosquejo geológico de la región del Tequendama[END_REF] to describe a sequence of mudstone with intercalation of limestone and sandstone in the lower part. For further description see chapter 2.

Caceres and [START_REF] Etayo | Lenticeras Baltai Lisson en Colombia y su probable posición zonal Santoniana[END_REF] collected Heinzia, Pseudohaploceras, Heminautilus etheringtoni and Cheloniceras, of Barremian to Early Aptian age. (Drawn after personal observations and from [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF], stratigraphic interpretation from this work.)

The abundance of benthonic foraminifera in the section suggests a shallow mixed siliciclastic-calcareous system, with well oxygenated water, while the accumulation of shells, crinoids and gastropods, and sedimentary structures like wavy lamination and dropstones, suggest episodes of high energy, especially in the lower segment.

The facies succession in the lower segment (mudstone, sandstone and limestone) is interpreted as a shallowing-upward sequence of autocyclic origin. However, [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF] reported the presence of dropstones of up to 20 cm of diameter and a possible unconformity (aggradational cycles of Anderson and Goodwin, 1980;[START_REF] James | Shallowing -Upward sequences in Carbonates[END_REF], and they suggested the existence of a regional discordance for Barremian-Aptian or Upper Aptian as suggested by Maceralli (1988). [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF] proposed a mixed provenance for the sandstone, suggested by monocrystalline quartz grains derived from a recycled orogen, and by volcanic fragments proceeding from a magmatic arc [START_REF] Dickinson | Provenance and sediment dispersal in relation to paleotectonics and paleogeography of sedimentary basins[END_REF]. This suggests that input came from the Guyana shield to the East and from the volcanic Cretaceous basement of the ancestral Central cordillera (Saldaña Fm) to the West [START_REF] Cediel | Definición estratigráfica del Triásico de Colombia, Suramerica. Formaciones Luisa, Payandé y Saldaña[END_REF].

In this section (Figure 3.17) I interpreted the existence of cycles from TST-HST-RST-LST (retrogradational-aggradational-progradational and high aggradational). The second cycle lacks the RST (FSST), which probably represents an erosional unconformity as shown in Figure 3.14. This unconformity is of Late Barremian-Early Aptian age.

-Alto-Ojo stratigraphic section South of the town of Villeta, the Alto-Ojo section allows to study the Upper Aptian to Lower Albian rocks of the Socota Fm (Figure 3.18).

The lower part is constituted by black, laminated, calcareous mudstone, with thin intercalations of quartz siltstone, and fine-grained quartz sandstone with calcareous cement. The lamination varies from parallel at the base to undulating at the top, with increasing sandstone content. At the base, thin layers of limestone, locally lenticular, and micritic concretions can be observed, as well as ammonites and fish-remains, usually at the top of the coarsening-and thickening-upward sequences.

In segment 2, thin to coarse layers of fine-to medium-grained quartz sandstone with calcareous cement dominate; they show undulating laminations of mudstone, quartz siltstones and calcareous siltstone. These facies are arranged in coarsening-and thickening-upward sequences. Occasionally, mudstone with flaser bedding yield ammonoids, carbonized wood-remains, leaves and calcareous concretions generally with diameters < 15 cm. Petrographically, the quartz-sandstone is mainly composed of angular monocrystalline quartz, corroded by calcareous cement. [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF], determined the Dufrenoyia sanctorum-Stoyanowiceras treffryanus, and the Parahoplites (?) hibachi -Acanthohoplites (?) leptoceratiforme assemblage zones, which indicate a Late Aptian age. [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF], stratigraphic interpretation from this work.)

-Quebrada Cune Section (Early Aptian-Late Aptian)

The Quebrada Cune section is located near the town of Villeta in the Cune creek. The sequence is composed at the base by 30 cm to 2 m thick beds of fine-to mediumgrained sandstone, separated by thin (5 cm to 15 cm) interbeds of black to grey, siliceous shales and claystones (Figure 3.19; photo 3.1). Some layers are lens-shaped at the centimeter to meter scale (Figure 3.19; photo 3.2), which, according to field observations and comparison, corresponds to the Early Aptian Upper Trinchera Fm (Figure 3.19).

Sample JG-P4-12 was taken from a sandstone with planar lamination and internal crossbedding (detail in photo 3.1). In thin section (Petrographic Section. 3.1) is composed of quartz crystal (43%), volcanic fragments (30%), plagioclase (17%), chert (6%), micas (4%), oxides (1.7%) and heavy minerals (0.4%).

This rock was classified as an immature feldspar litharenite (Folk, 1974). In sample JG-P4-12, grain size ranges from 100 to 300 μm. Sample JG-P4-12 is finer-grained than sample JG-P4-13.

At the same level as sample JG-P4-12 I observed lens shaped levels or lenticular beds within a fine lithology as shown in detail in photo 3.2. 3.19). Classified as litharenite (Folk 1974).

In sample JG-P4-13, grain size varies from 400 to around 1000 μm. The composition is: quartz grains (45%), plagioclase (38.5%), chert and volcanic fragments (14.5%), micas (1%) and oxides (1%). The plagioclase is altered to albite and probably to microcline. Quartz grains are made up of two or more crystals, they show undulating extinction and slight differences in color, which result from deformation and mostly characterize metamorphic sources. There are rock fragments made up of very-fine-grained quartz (micro-quartz), with appearance of chert. This rock may be classified as a medium-to coarse-grained litharenite (feldspathic litharenite). As shown in Figure 3.19, the Quebrada Cune section (Early to Late Aptian) shows a coarsening-upward evolution from the base to the middle part of the section, which may represent the last part of the RST reaching a maximun regression (MRS) at meter ≈ 80. Upward, the series is interpreted as a TST.

-Bituima section (Late Aptian-Late Cenomanian)

This sequence encompasses the Late Aptian to Late Cenomanian interval (Socota, Hilo and Simijaca Fms). Its lower part (Late Aptian, Socota Fm) comprises from base to top: 1) fossiliferous sandstones (Socota member), 2) gray shales, 3) lutites and fossiliferous marls, 4) "Horizon of Esferitas" of Hubach (1931b;[START_REF] Cáceres | Bosquejo geológico de la región del Tequendama[END_REF] and clay and calcareous mud, with some levels of siliceous siltstones and few thin layers of limestones. It is overlain by Late Albian-Early Cenomanian units (Hilo Fm, correlated with the Areniscas de Chiquinquira), which correspond at the base to calcareous mudstones, sometimes slightly siliceous, with layers of micrite and casts of inoceramids and ammonites (Figure 3.20). The middle part of the Hilo Fm is made of black calcareous mudstone, locally siliceous layers of chert with wavy bedding, with thin to thick beds of biomicritic limestones. Siliceous levels contain planktic foraminifera dissolved and filled with calcite or silica, in a matrix of amorphous silica and organic material (Figure 3.20). The upper part of the Hilo Fm is composed of calcareous mudstone, slightly siliceous, with some micritic concretions and layers of lenticular limestone with casts of ammonites. The Upper part of the Bituima section is represented by the Simijaca Fm, which is composed basically of siliceous mudstone of Cenomanian age [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF].

The presence of Rotalipora reicheli, Praeglobotruncana stephani supports a Late Albian-Early Cenomanian age (Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF]. However, the occurrence of Oxytropidoceras sp. suggests a Middle Albian for part of the Hilo Fm (Burgl, 1957). In the Simijaca Fm, bivalves as Exogyra sp., Ostrea sp. and Pecten aff. tenouklensis? and planktic foraminifera like Hedbergella sp. suggest a Cenomanian age [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF].

The Socota Fm corresponds to a shallow marine deposit. The sandstone interbeds were interpreted by Polania and Rodriguez (1974) as a possible "variety of turbidites". However, [START_REF] Guerrero | A Proposal on the Classification of Systems Tracts: Application to the Allostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Colombian Basin. Part 2: Barremian to Maastrichtian[END_REF] indicated that they are probably storm beds deposited in a shallow marine environment. Polania and Rodriguez (1974) also recognized a 30-77 m thick sandy sequence in the Socota Fm, and a marker sandstone bed that marks the interruption of the dominant sedimentation. These authors also reported at the base of the section two conglomeratic layers of 14 and 22 meters, and two, 7 and 15 cm thick conglomeratic sandstones at around ~55 m.

Near the La Mesa towm, Martinez and Vergara (1999) recognized a 270 m thick section of the Socota Fm. It included a series of 120 m of fossiliferous mudstones with very thin siltstone and fine-grained sandstone interbeds, overlain by 150 m of coarsening-upward cycles. These comprise from base to top, fossiliferous mudstone, siltstone/mudstone intercalations with ammonites, leaves and tree trunks, calcite-cemented quartz arenite, overlain by 30 m of mudstones with thin beds of fine-grained sandstone with quartz conglomerate.

The sandstones and conglomerates mark a brief incursion of coarse material in a succession dominated by fine sandstones. The marker sandstone bed reported by Polania and Rodriguez (1974) presents laminar intercalations of gypsum which are more frequence at the top. According to Polania and Rodriguez (1974), the fossils and the presence of gypsum support the idea of a shallow depositional environment. However, the increase of sandstones and conglomerates may have been controled by tectonic events [START_REF] Kelling | The Turbidite concept in Britain[END_REF]. The action of weak currents is suggested by occasional undulating and cross lamination. However, according to Walker (1965, in Polania andRodriguez, 1974), parallel lamination may result from the reworking of sediment, which predominates in the Socota Fm.

In this work and according to other studies (Polania and Rodriguez, 1974;Martinez and Vergara, 1999;Guerrerro, 2002), the Bituima section involves a complete sequence cycle comprising TST, HST, RST and LST (Figure 3.20), related to sea level fluctuation and partly controlled by tectonic events as suggested by other authors.

-Escuela -1 Section (Figure 3.21)

The information gathered from cuttings samples from the Escuela-1 well allowed to date the units and evidenced three major stratigraphic breaks at 2500', 2750' and 3200'. (1) 2500 ft. This hiatus is marked by the contrast between a Tertiary terrestrial sequence above and a Cretaceous sequence below. This abrupt change is interpreted as a regional and erosional unconformity between the Tertiary and Cretaceous sequences of the Middle Magdalena Basin, which is suggested by the absence of the latest Cretaceous Ammobaculites columbianus Zone.

(2) 2750 ft. The second break, marked also by a contrast both in microfaunal preservation and composition, marks the boundary between the Bulimina kickapooensis Zone (Maastrichtian) and the underlying Siphogenerinoides bramlettei-S cretacea mixed Zone. The Bulimina kickapooensis Zone (Early Campanian-Late Campanian, Gauger in Jones, 1953) corresponds to the upper portion of the Siphogenerinoides bramlettei Zone (Campanian), which directly overlies the Siphogenerinoides bramlettei-Siphogenerinoides cretacea Mixed Zone. This contrasting boundary and the mixed character of the underlying zone appears associated with tectonic phenomena.

(3) 3200 ft. This break marks the boundary between the Siphogenerinoides bramlettei-Siphogenerinoides cretacea Mixed Zone of early Maastrichtian age, and the underlying Siphogenerinoides cretacea Zone, which appears to mark the top of the Campanian to Turonian, apparently in normal sequence.

(4) 3200-6200 ft. Buliminella spp. (associated with anoxic environments and organic matter paleoenvironments) is of common occurrence within the latest Cretaceous biostratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin [START_REF] Petters | Development of Upper Cretaceous foraminiferal faunas in Colombia[END_REF], and particularly within the Siphogenerinoides cretacea Zone (peak abundances are typical in the Campanian).

In the same way, the occurrence of Sporobulimina perforata within this zone (4300'-5300') also confirms its Campanian age.

(5) 6200 -6900 ft. The occurrences of Whiteinella inornata and Anomalina redmondi, although scarce, place this zone within the Santonian.

(6) 6900 -7800 ft. Globigerina-Radiolaria Zone. This is a typical biostratigraphic unit in other Upper Magdalena Basin localities, where it contains diagnostic Turonian and Coniacian planktonic markers.

In the Bituima section I identified four cycles (TST-LST). Three are of Cretaceous age: one in the Turonian to Santonian-Campanian, a second in the early Campanian, and a third in the Late Campanian to Paleocene-Eocene. These help to recognize surfaces or sedimentological discontinuities of transgressive or regressive surface.

-Rio Curi -Anolaima -La Florida Section.

Units cropping out in the Anolaima-La Florida section correspond to the base of the Simijaca Fm. Its base is marked by the appearance of laminated, micaceous, noncalcareous gray claystone that overlie the Upper Albian Areniscas de Chiquinquira. The top of the Simijaca Fm is marked by bioturbated quartz siltstone to medium-grained quartz sandstone beds, with wavy lamination and shells casts, which underly the Turonian Frontera Fm (Figure 3.22). The Simijaca Fm can be followed from the Chiquinquira area to the Villeta zone, with similar characteristics. Meanwhile, the Upper Albian unit laterally grades from the Areniscas de Chiquinquira, to the Pacho Fm, and to the Hiló Fm. Biostratigraphy: 50 meters below the Frontera Fm, Hubach (1957) quoted the occurrence of Exogyra squamata. Besides Exogyra sp. or Ostrea sp., Pecten aff. tenouklensis ? and planktonic foraminiferas such as Hedbergella sp. suggest a Cenomanian age [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF], in Acosta & Ulloa, 2001, Map La Mesa 227).

The micaceous clay, siltstone and sandstone of the Simijaca Fm suggest a terrigenous supply. The occurrence of planktic foraminifera, the fining upward trend at the base, and the presence of leave remains, bivalves and bioturbation, together with a coarsening upward evolution at the top, suggest a shallowing upward evolution.

In the overlying Turonian Frontera Fm, the lower and middle parts are made of blackbrown calcareous mudstone presenting parallel and cross laminations, with thin lensshaped beds of biomicritic limestone, calcareous mudstone with large concretions (1.2 m), micrite and siliceous mudstone. The middle part is composed of black chert in thin, wavy layers and occasional micritic concretions. The middle to upper parts are dominated by laminated black lidita and siliceous-calcareous mudstones, with layers of micritic limestone and very large concretions (Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF]. The upper part is made of calcareous mudstone, non-calcareous claystone and siliceous siltstone.

Predominant fossils are planktonic foraminiferas, ammonites and inoceramids. [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF] Burgl, 1957).

The scarcity of benthic life (crustaceans and echinoids) and the abundance of laminations, planktonic foraminifera and amorphous silica, suggest a pelagic to hemipelagic environment and dysoxic conditions below the photic zone, resulting from a sea level rise (Acosta and [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF].

-Quebrada Nemice section

In the area of Quebrada Nemicé, west of San Francisco, the 370 m thick, Coniacian Conejo Fm had been studied by [START_REF] Hernández | Estratigrafía del Grupo Guadalupe al Occidente de La Sabana de Bogotá[END_REF], who described a transitional lower contact with the Turonian Frontera Fm, and a transitional upper contact (Fig. 3.23).

This unit is characterized by grey claystone and laminated mudstone, usually calcareous, with micritic concretions, which grade to non-calcareous laminated claystone presenting thin intercalations of siliceous quartz-siltstone.

The upper part includes fine-to medium-grained quartz-sandstones arranged in medium to thick beds, with undulating, non-parallel, discontinuous laminae and Thalassinoides sp. bioturbations. They are overlain by medium to very thick beds of nodular biomicritic limestone. The top comprises quartz-siltstone, fine-to medium-grained quartz sandstone with peloids and phosphate, as well as claystone and mudstone, locally calcareous.

From a biostratigraphic point of view, [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF] identified the Gloriceras correai zone with Protexanites cucaitaense, Codazziceras scheibei, and assigned an Early Coniacian age. The foraminifera association includes Marginotruncana sinuosa, M. aff. schneegansi, Dicarinella concavata, Whiteinella archeocretacea, W. inornata and Whiteinella baltica.

Sedimentary facies show that the Conejo Fm evolves from a dis-aerobic (abundant planktonic foraminifera) outer shelf environment, as supported by the occurrence of keeled planktonic foraminiferas (Dicarinella sp., cf. Hard, 1980), to an oxygenated, shallow siliciclastic shelf marked by bioturbated sandstones (Thalassinoides).

Sandstone beds locally present graded bedding: erosive surface and reworked bioclasts are overlain by parallel and ondulating, bioturbated lamination.

In Quebrada Nemice, the series shows four sedimentary discontinuities corresponding to maximum regression surfaces (MRS) located at the top of regressive system (RST), and maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) at the top of the transgressive system (TST). In this section, two cycles (TST-HST-RST-LST) are identified. The transgression cycle ends in the Late Turonian and the regression starts at the Turonian/Coniacian limit, and extends through most of the Coniacian-Santonian.

The system tracts analyzed and the age indicated by biostratigraphic data (Figures 3.17 3.23) made a lateral correlation of sections of the southern studied area and to identify the regional sedimentary surfaces (Figure 3.24) possible.

Central Region

-Sachica -Chiquinquira section

This section allows the study of the Tablazo Fm (correlated with the Lower San Gil Fm). The San Gil Group has been defined by Hubach (1931) in the type locality of San Gil (Santander). In the Central area, the San Gil Group is divided into a Lower San Gil Formation and an Upper San Gil Formation. The term Upper San Gil Fm was used by Etayo (1968) near Villa De Leyva, to describe the laminated black mudstone, which is overlain by the Churuvita Fm. The latter corresponds to the Simiti Fm (Ulloa and Rodriguez, 1979;[START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simití (Santander) y Grupo San Gil[END_REF]. However, this unit presents different features in Villa De Leyva and Chiquinquira.

According to lithostratigraphic correlations, the part of the Tablazo Fm identified in this work corresponds to the Lower San Gil Formation (Figure 3.25). Its base is made of sparite and micrite with shale, siltstone, and some sandstones beds (Figure 3.25). In the lower part, red to yellow clay is interbedded with thick beds of yellow sandstone and red layers interpreted as paleosols (Photo 3.4). The upper part consists of black to grey laminated clay and shale that rest in angular and abrupt contact on a sandstone bed (blue line in Photo 3.4), interpreted in this work as an unconformity.

-Samaca-Villa de Leyva section Lower San Gil Fm (Tablazo Fm).

The Lower San Gil Fm rests on the Lower Aptian Paja Fm. In the lower part, mudstone is interbedded with fine to medium-grained sandstone beds, muddy-sandstones and sandy-mudstone (Figure 3.26).

Photo 3.4. Outcrop of yellow quartz sandstone (right red rectangle) and red layers interpreted as paleosoils (left red rectangle) of the Albian Lower San Gil Fm (Tablazo Fm). Note the angular and abrupt contact with the overlying laminated clay (blue line).

Along the Samaca-Villa de Leyva road, the Lower San Gil Fm comprises from base to top: (1) siltstone increasingly abundant upward, interbedded with black to grey claystone, and scarce intercalations of thick sandstone beds, fossiliferous sandstones and biosparitic limestone (90 m); (2) grey to black claystone with levels of siltstones, sandstone, fossiliferous sandstone and biosparitic limestone (50 m); (3) a thickening upward succession (90 m) of siltstone, sandstone and some levels of biosparitic limestone and fossiliferous sandstone interbedded with claystone; (4) thick beds of sandstone, limestone and fossiliferous sandstone (90 m); and (5) yellow to white sandstone beds, associated with paleo-soils with plant remains, layers of red mudstone and siltstone, and some packages of crossbedded sandstone. This succession (Figure 3.26) is interpreted as a shallowing upward sequence, from a middle clastic shelf environment at the base (Upper Aptian, base of Tablazo Fm) to a very shallow, sporadically emergent clastic shelf at the top (Lower Albian, top of Tablazo Fm). This shallow sequence is overlain by the Upper Albian Upper San Gil Fm (= Simiti Fm), which is mainly composed of 200 meters of dark grey shale and grey to black claystone (more than 90 % of the sequence) with scarce and thin beds of sandstone and siltstone, showing a deepening upward trend. In the UMV, the Villeta Fm shows a deepening upward trend until reaching a first transgression maximum, coinciding with an "oceanic anoxic event" (Villamil, 1998). From personal observations, and after [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF].

In the same area, the Middle Albian MFS is characterized by condensed limestone-shale cycles (phosphatic pebbles, pyritous concretions, fish debris), while it is marked by condensed chert-shale in the Bogotá region (Villamil, 1998), and by claystone in the Cocuy area [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | El límite Jurásico Cretácico en Colombia[END_REF]. The same observations can be made in the Upper San Gil Fm in the Villa de Leyva area, where the MFS is constituted by black, organic-rich shales.

The opposite situation occurs for the transition from the Upper San Gil Fm to Churuvita Fm, where the shallowing upward trend represents a regression, probably the same as described as a progradation in the UMV during Late Albian-Early Cenomanian times, interpreted as a HST by Villamil (1998). There, the latter is formed by fine grained facies, the same as in Villa de Leyva, where the Upper San Gil Fm is defined by the apparition of claystone and shales (90% of the composition in this section).

During the Early Cenomanian a regression is represented in the area of Villa de Leyva. This limit is evidenced by the Churuvita Sandstone Fm overlying the shales of the Upper San Gil Fm (Figures 3.27 and 3.28). In Villa de Leyva (MMV), this change is clearer than in the UMV, where it is marked by siltstone and claystone overlying calcareous shale and pelagic limestone (Villamil, 1998). Around Bogotá, the contact is marked by shales overlying cherts of the Hiló Fm, while in the Cocuy area it is difficult to identify (Villamil, 1998).

Biostratigraphy: Ammonites, bivalves and foraminiferas collected by [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF] and information from other authors, allow to assign a Middle to Late Albian age to the Upper San Gil Fm. Etayo (1968) mentions Platiknemiceras colombiana, Rinconiceras rinconi, Lyelliceras pseudolyelliforme of Middle Albian age [START_REF] Etayo | Ideas para la reinterpretación de ambientes desimentarios del sistema cretácico en la región de Villa de Leiva (Departamento de Boyaca), Colombia[END_REF] and

Hysteroceras carinatum of Late Albian age [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF]). In the stratigraphic section (Figure 3.27) the presence of the following had been reported: [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF]. Plancktic foraminiferas from the Upper San Gíl Mb and San Rafael Fm are species present from the Early Aptian to the Turonian -Santonian times (Hedbergella delrioensis, H. planispira, H. simplex). Rotalipora cf. cushmani has been mentioned, which would be indicative of a Late Cenomanian age [START_REF] Caron | Cretaceous planktic foraminifera[END_REF].

Villa de Leyva -Cucaita -Churuvita section (Upper part of the Chiquinquira Fm).

The Churuvita Fm was defined by Etayo (1968), who divided it into three members: a lower member made of fine-to medium-grained, micaceous quartz-sandstone, with interbeds of claystone and siltstone; a middle member composed of coquina with Rhynchostreon squamatum and Ostrea sp., interbedded with claystone, sitstone and quartzsandstone; and an upper member made of thick bedded, fine-to medium-grained quartz-sandstone and calcareous sandstone with silty-clayey interbeds.

In the studied section, the Churuvita Fm is composed of claystone with intercalations of black limestone, biomicritic limestone and yellow sandstone beds (Photo 3.5) that become more numerous and thicker upward. In the middle part of the section (Figure 3.28) thin layers of fossiliferous sandstone can be observed. Photo 3.5 shows thick packages of white to yellow, medium-grained sandstone of the Churuvita Fm. Two levels of paleosoils were identified: a red altered coquina bearing siltstone at the base of the section, and another at the top of the Churuvita Fm (Figure 3.28, photo 3.5). Note the presence of ichnofossils (burrows) at the base of some sandstone beds (Photo 3.6).

Whereas Etayo (1968) described a transitional contact between the Churivita Fm and the underlying San Gil Fm, according to [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF] this contact is clear, and there is no fault as proposed by [START_REF] Patarroyo | A propósito de la importancia paleogeográfica de la Falla de Boyacá[END_REF] and [START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simití (Santander) y Grupo San Gil[END_REF].

Our observations show that thick, massive or crossbedded quartz-sandstone beds (> 1 m), locally conglomeratic, with shell casts of the Cenomanian Churuvita Fm (Photo 3.7), rest on black laminated mudstone of the Upper Albian of San Gil Fm (Figure 3.28). This contact suggests an abrupt change from offshore mudstones (San Gil Fm) to shoreface sandstone (Churuvita Fm), probably associated with erosion (blue line on Photo 3.7).

Photo 3.5. Outcrop of the Churuvita Formation along the Sachica road, before the deviation towards

Cucaita -Villa de Leyva town. Note the unconformity with a possible level of paleosoil at the base, overlaid by thick, to medium-grained, white to yellow sandstone beds.

The contact between the Upper Albian and Lower Cenomanian strata is marked by the disappearance of laminated shales of the Upper San Gil Fm and the first appearance of sandstone and fossiliferous sandstone, locally conglomeratic, with shell casts of the Churuvita Fm (Figure 3.28). The middle member is marked by black laminated mudstone with intercalations of sandstone. The contact between the middle and upper members is marked by the sudden appearance of thick sandstone and conglomeratic sandstone with fossil casts (shells). This clearly marks an abrupt shallowing of the environment, apparently corresponding to an unconformity (Figure 3.28, Photo 3.5). The contact between the Churuvita Fm and the overlying San Rafael Fm is clear, as it separates the quartz-sandstone with an interbed of mudstone of the Churuvita Fm, from laminated mudstone with intercalated micritic limestone beds of the San Rafael Fm. The abrupt change at the boundary between the San Gil and Churuvita Fm, and the wavy and discontinuous aspect of this limit (Photo 3.7, central and upper right side) suggest an unconformity at this level (Photo 3.7 blue line).

Biostratigraphy: The Churuvita Fm is assigned with doubts to the Late Albian. Reported ammonites are a poorly preserved Acanthoceratidae (mostly Cenomanian) from the upper member, and a Venezoliceras (Late Albian) from the lower member (Etayo, 1968). Elsewhere, Burgl (1955) reported Acanthoceras? ospinae (Karsten) near the Ubaté town, which could be of Early Turonian age [START_REF] Patarroyo | Albian ammonites and decapods of the Simití Formation near Vélez (Santander -Colombia[END_REF]. In general, the information from ammonites for the Churuvita Fm is not conclusive.

Bivalves reported by [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF] The base of the Simijaca Fm yielded early Turonian ammonites (Etayo, 1968[START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF]. The Cenomanian-Turonian boundary would be located near the top of the Churuvita Fm (Villamil and Arango, 1998). According to [START_REF] Gaona | Bivalvos del Albiano y del Cenomaniano de la Cordillera Oriental de Colombia, Bioestratigrafía y Paleoecología[END_REF][START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF], the Upper Cenomanian age of the Churuvita Fm-Simijaca Fm boundary is based on the abundance of Afrogyra africana (Lamarck).

Regarding benthic foraminifera, [START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF] established that, for the whole section of the San Gil to Simijaca fms, the San Gil-Churuvita boundary corresponds to the Ammobaculites exertus local zone assigned to the Upper Albian. For the middle and lower part of the upper member of the Churuvita Fm, the Ammobaculites subcretacea local zone indicates a Late Albian to Early Cenomanian age. Finally, in the upper part of the Churuvita Fm and base of the Simijaca Fm, the benthic foraminifera Ammobaculites arenata suggests an Early to Late Cenomanian age for the Churuvita-Simijaca boundary.

The Upper San Gil Fm and Simijaca Fm yielded the planktonic foraminifera Hedbergella delrioensis, H. planispira and H. simplex and Rotalipora cf. cushmani. The latter species indicate a late Middle to early Late Cenomanian age [START_REF] Caron | Cretaceous planktic foraminifera[END_REF].

Petrography: Sample JG-P1-02 is composed of calcareous grains, some quartz grains, large perforated shells filled by micrite (center of the photo), fish teeth, echinoids and oysters. Fish teeth suggest a shallow marine environment and borings indicate very shallow to intertidal environments. This bed is interpreted as a beach deposit.

Fish teeth

Carbonate fragments

Petrographic Section 3.3. This sample, JG-P1-02, corresponds to a Biomicrite (Folk, 1962) or Packstone [START_REF] Dunham | Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture[END_REF].

The presence of planktonic foraminiferas in the San Gil Fm contrasts with the nearshore deposits of the Churuvita Fm (Figure 3.28, Photos 3.6 and 3.7) and suggests that an important discontinuity separates these two units.

This change between the shales of the San Gil Fm and the first package of beach sandsones of the Churuvita Fm, represents an increase of energy, with surface exposition and probably related to an unconformity (Figure 3.28, Photos 3.6 and 3.7).

From the Upper San Gil Fm to the Churuvita Fm, the environment changes from deep to shallow during the Late Albian to Early Cenomanian during the regressive sequence (HST-FSST).

-

Villa de Leyva -La Paja section

A 160 m thick section of the La Paja Fm (Barremian-Aptian, Figure 3.29) has been studied along the Villa de Leyva-Sachica road. There, exposed from base to top (segment 1, Figure 3.29) are the following: intercalation of black and red shales with levels of red claystone, red nodules and oxide nodules in the first 30 to 40 meters. In the middle part, the content of laminated black shale increases, containing some levels of red claystone, red and black nodules (photo without numeration in Figure 3.29) and thin levels of gypsum. In the upper part of first segment, black shale containing nodules without fossils. The upper part of the section (segment 2, Figure 3.29) begins with ≈ 20 meters of grey claystone and black shales with levels of red claystone, with fossiliferous nodules (ammonites, photo 3.9), iron crusts and scarce thin levels of fine sandstone. At the top (≈ 30 m) a thick level of black shales and gray-red claystone contains abundant black nodules (Figure 3.29).

The La Paja Fm has been widely studied by many authors [START_REF] Etayo | Zonation of the Cretaceous of Central Colombia by Ammonites[END_REF][START_REF] Forero | Las facies evaporítica de la Formación Paja en la región de Villa de Leiva[END_REF][START_REF] Patarroyo | Barremiano Inferior en la Base de la Formaci6n Paja, Barichara, Santander -Colombia[END_REF]1999;2000;2009;Hoedmaeker Ph, 2004;[START_REF] Patarroyo | Amonitas de un Nivel de Alta Energía del Barremiano Inferior en la Formación Paja de los Sectores de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá) y de Vélez (Santander)[END_REF][START_REF] Galvis | Contribución en la determinación de los posibles paleoambientes de las rocas Cretácicas tempranas sobre la via Tunja -Villa de Leyva (entre alto del Arrayanpeaje Sáchica) y sectores aledaños[END_REF][START_REF] Barbosa | Analisis facial de las secuencias del Cretacico Superior correspondientes a las Formaciones San Rafael, Conejo y Pleaners aflorantes en sectores aledaños a Villa de Leyva (Departamento de Boyaca, Colombia)[END_REF][START_REF] Pinto | Geología y estratigrafía del Corregimiento de Guane[END_REF][START_REF] Cadena | Oldest known marine turtle? A new protostegid from the Lower Cretaceous of Colombia[END_REF]. The La Paja Fm, is widely recognized as encompassing the Hauterivian to part of Aptian interval, and as deposited in a shallow marine environment.

In 1998 geologists from the Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum (NNM) in The Netherlands, collected many in situ ammonites from the Hauterivian and Barremian strata in the Villa de Leyva area. Patarroyo (1999Patarroyo ( , 2000a, b) , b) wrote his dissertation on the biostratigraphy of Barremian ammonites, integrating Hoedemaeker's data. Philip (2004) combined the sequence stratigraphy analysis of Hoedemaeker (1997) with the Barremian biostratigraphy of Patarroyo, and followed Etayo´s subdivision of the Aptian, but added the occurrence of Procheloniceras albrechtiaustriae and Cheloniceras cornuelianum (lower Aptian assemblage-zone). Philip ( 2004) concluded that the Loma La Yesera section (photo 3.8) can be procesely correlated with the European Barremian stratotype. The presence of Pseudocrioceras in Colombia can be inferred at the top of the Barremian, which probably occupies the upper part of the last HST of the Barremian stage (Philip, 2004).

The description and facial analysis of the La Paja Fm in the Villa de Leyva area was first made by Etayo (1968) and then by [START_REF] Forero | Las facies evaporítica de la Formación Paja en la región de Villa de Leiva[END_REF]. They divided the Arcillolitas Abigarradas Member into 5 segments that they describe in detail. In segment one, the presence of sparse gypsum like crystals and veins of microsparite strata like trombolites mounts, crusts of fibrous calcite with cracked rough surface led [START_REF] Forero | Las facies evaporítica de la Formación Paja en la región de Villa de Leiva[END_REF] interpreted this part of the section as deposited in a salt tidal flat.

Black Shales

Gypsum Levels

Red shales Paja Formation Photo 3.8. Expression of the La Paja Fm (Barremian-Aptian) in the area of study. Note in the lower part the presence of black shales, separated by a gypsum level from the upper red shales.

In the member of "arcillolitas abigarradas" the presence of desiccation cracks and algal mats suggests an intertidal to supratidal depositional environment [START_REF] Forero | Las facies evaporítica de la Formación Paja en la región de Villa de Leiva[END_REF]. The evolution from an intertidal to a supratidal flat environment shows a withdrawal of the sea towards the western side of the area. Toward the top, mechanical accumulations of marine fossils increase in quantity and variety, showing open sea communication, and representing the beginning of a transgression, which will continue in the lower part of the lower San Gil Fm (Late Aptian) [START_REF] Forero | Las facies evaporítica de la Formación Paja en la región de Villa de Leiva[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Forero | Las facies evaporítica de la Formación Paja en la región de Villa de Leiva[END_REF], the fauna in this unit corresponds to concentrations of ammonites and bivalves shells, bone and fish remains, reptiles and foraminifers. The accumulation of different taxonomic groups, not dispersed, indicate mechanical accumulation. Etayo (1968, 1978, 1979, in Forero and Sarmiento, 1985) proposed that this accumulation, especially the fossils in nodules, correspond to transport by selective currents in tidal channels. Fragments of wood, branches, leaves of conifers and cycads [START_REF] Huertas | Un nuevo género y especie fosil de las Lecitidaceas[END_REF], 1970[START_REF] Huertas | Theobroma verum sp. nov[END_REF], in Forero and Sarmiento, 1985), and of plants growing in continental environments were transported from the continent to the sea, and eventually deposited at the flat. Subtle prints of leafs and little stems in black shales with or without gypsum are probably related to swamp vegetation, without any transport, which suggest a swamp environment. Autochtonous fossils, like criptoalgaceas structures, burrows, trails, indicate a soft substratum. Burrows and footprints are not deformed, which suggests an early hardening of the rock before lithification of the sediment. Print of soft leaves, small stems within black claystones are associated with swamp vegetation.

-Chiquinquira Section

The name and age of the Upper Albian to Lower Cenomanian Chiquinquira Fm were proposed by Ulloa and Rodriguez (1979) (see chapter 2). The Chiquinquira Fm has been studied along the Sutamarchan-Chiquinquirá highway (Photo 3.10 and 3.11).

There, an 800 m thick series is exposed, made of claystone and dark gray shale with thick intercalations of sandstone beds (Figure 3.30).

Photo 3.10. Thick sandstone level in the Chiquinquira Sandstone (Late Albian to Early Cenomanian).

The Areniscas de Chiquinquira is divided into 5 contrasted segments [START_REF] Ulloa | Guía de la excursión Bogota-Honda: Anexo.-Geologia Colombiana No[END_REF]Rodriguez, 1979, 1991). Segments 1, 3 and 5 in Figure 3.30 correspond to sandstone levels, while sequences 2 and 4 are fine-grained claystone, mudstone and shales.

Sandstone is approximately made of quartzarenite (80%) and sublitharenite (20%).

The base of the Chiquinquira Fm is marked by the first appearance of thick sandstone beds above the shales of the Hilo Fm (Lower Simiti Fm). The sequence (1 to 5) shown in the left part of the column represents the division given originally by [START_REF] Terraza | Estratigrafía y Ambientes de Depósito de la Arenisca de Chiquinquirá en los Alrededores de la Localidad Tipo[END_REF].

The sequence 1 shows an increase in the thickness and grain size of the sandstone beds. The sequence 2 is composed principally by clay and shale with few and thin beds of sandstone. The third sequence (Figure 3.30) is composed of claystone with few levels of siltstone, and important and thick beds of fine-to medium-grained sandstone (photo 3.10). Sequence 4 is almost totally covered but the topographic aspect suggests that much of the sequence is composed by claystone. Sequence 5 is made of claystone with several beds of white, fine-to medium-grained quartz-sandstone. (Figure 3.30). These sandy segments (1, 3 and 5) represent prograding shallow marine, tidaldominated environments, under low hydraulic regime [START_REF] Terraza | Estratigrafía y Ambientes de Depósito de la Arenisca de Chiquinquirá en los Alrededores de la Localidad Tipo[END_REF], while fine facies represent a calm sea offshore bottom, interrupted by accumulation of sand and shell remains. Segments 1 and 2 are of Late Albian age and segments 3, 4 and 5 are Cenomanian in age.

In general, segments 1, 3 and 5, considered as sandy or with high sandy content, represent a prograding shallow marine environment, where shore facies prograde onto clayey offshore facies (segments 2 and 4). These shallow environment developed extensive sandy to sandy-muddy tidal flats, experiencing important periods of subaereal exposition [START_REF] Terraza | Estratigrafía y Ambientes de Depósito de la Arenisca de Chiquinquirá en los Alrededores de la Localidad Tipo[END_REF].

For example, in sequence ( 1) a deltaic environment is recognized, made of delta front, pro-delta, delta mouth bar, and mouth of distributary channels. Sequences 2 and 3 (in the sense of [START_REF] Terraza | Estratigrafía y Ambientes de Depósito de la Arenisca de Chiquinquirá en los Alrededores de la Localidad Tipo[END_REF], composed primarily of claystones, mudstones and shales, represent an offshore marine environment with storm-deposited sand accumulation.

Areniscas de Chiquinquira

Simiti Formation

Simiti Formation E W Photo 3.11. E-W panoramic view, showing from base to top, the contact between the Simití Fm and the Areniscas de Chiquinquira Fm, and the Conejo Fm at the top.

Terraza (2012) reported a stratigraphy hiatus at the base of sequence 3, probably in the Late Albian or Early Cenomanian, which is correlated with the sequence boundary of Villamil (1998) located at the base of the Churuvita Fm (top of the Upper San Gil Fm) as a consequence of a relative falling sea level (Villamil, 1998). This discontnuity was also identified by [START_REF] Guerrero | A Proposal on the Classification of Systems Tracts: Application to the Allostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Colombian Basin. Part 2: Barremian to Maastrichtian[END_REF] at the boundary between the Middle Une (Late Albian) and Upper Une Allomembers (Cenomanian). This time gap, reported by Terraza ( 2012), coincides with one of the regional unconformities (SU) identified in this work.

Petrography: Thin sections from the Upper Albian to Lower Cenomanian Chiquinquira Fm (Petrographic section 3.4) show an increasing grain size from very fine in sample JG-P1-07 (a; lower part of sequence 1), to samples JG-P1-08 (b) and JG-P1-09 (c), where the grain size is fine to medium and sand is cleaner and better sorted. Grain size then decreases from sample JG-P1-09 (c) to the top of the section (d, sample JG-P1-10).

At the base (a) and top (d), sandstone is more clayey, cleaner and better sorted. Based on our interpretation (transgressionregression curve and Fisher plot) and on observations by other authors (Ulloa and Rodriguez, 1979;1991;Villamil, 1998;[START_REF] Guerrero | A Proposal on the Classification of Systems Tracts: Application to the Allostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Colombian Basin. Part 2: Barremian to Maastrichtian[END_REF][START_REF] Terraza | Estratigrafía y Ambientes de Depósito de la Arenisca de Chiquinquirá en los Alrededores de la Localidad Tipo[END_REF], we propose the following schema of sequence stratigraphy for the Arenisca de Chiquinquira Fm (Figure 3. -

Otanche section

In the Otanche area (Puerto Boyaca), a compiled section of the Cretaceous succession (Figure 3.31) was recontructed from three stratigraphic sections [START_REF] Guerrero | Actualización Cartográfica de Unidades Litoestratigraficas Encajantes de Mineralizaciones Esmeraldiferas en el Cinturón Occidental de la Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)[END_REF]. This area is principally devoted to the exploitation of emeralds from the La Paja Fm. [START_REF] Guerrero | Actualización Cartográfica de Unidades Litoestratigraficas Encajantes de Mineralizaciones Esmeraldiferas en el Cinturón Occidental de la Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)[END_REF] collected samples for biostratigraphic purposes.

The section starts with 120 m of limestone and calcareous shales with some levels of sand of the Rosablanca Fm of Valanginian age. They are overlain by the 380 m thick la Paja Fm, composed of calcareous shales, siltstone and thick black to gray shales with foraminifera and ammonites. Then, the monotonous sequence of the 140 m thick Tablazo Fm, is covered by the 220 m thick Simiti Fm (Guaguaqui Group), made of calcareous lithologies at the base, reddish to yellow claystone with abundant altered shells. The Simiti Fm is overlain by 140 m thick series of calcareous shales, siltstones and limestones with coquina interbeds of the Salada, Pujama and Galembo Fms (La Luna Group). The section ends with the 420 m thick Umir Fm composed by calcareous shales, limolitas and sporadic levels of limestone, of Maastrichtian age. -Muzo-Paunita section

In the area of Muzo-carretera vieja-vereda Pautina, [START_REF] Reyes | Geología del cinturon esmeraldifero occidental[END_REF] studied a 273 m thick section of the Tablazo Fm resting on the La Paja Fm (Figure 3.31). According to its stratigraphic position, an Early Albian age is inferred for the Tablazo Fm [START_REF] Reyes | Geología del cinturon esmeraldifero occidental[END_REF]. From base to top this unit is composed of sandy siltstone, silty sandstones, with thin, medium and thick interbeds of gray to pink-orange grayish sandy claystones with wavy to planar lamination (73 m); gray mudstone with thick layers of argillaceous siltstone with wavy lamination, siltstone and gray compact sandy limestone (68 m); Thick sets of fine to very fine sandstone and sandy siltstone in wavy contact, separated by layers of micaceous claystone, mostly covered (20-35 m); and finally, blue-grayish silty claystone with gastropods (10 m) (Figure 3.32).

-La Palma Otanche-Florian-Terraza section

In the center of the study area (La Palma, Otanche, Florian, Terraza, Pauna, Borbur, Muzo, Coscuez, Yacopí), [START_REF] Terraza | Las Esmeraldas de Colombia en su ámbito Geologíco -Excursión Geológica a los Cinturones Esmeraldiferos de La Cordillera Oriental de Colombia en el marco del XIV Congreso Latinoamericano de Geología del 29 de Agosto al 2 de Septiembre de 2011[END_REF] -

Chima section

In the area North of Velez and South of the Barichara town, Rollon and Carrero (1995) described a succession from the Arcabuco Fm (Jurassic) to the Areniscas de Chiquinquira Fm (Cenomanian), which shows an important sandstone content with thin intercalations of shales in almost the whole series.

The content of sandstones is more important at the base (Arcabuco and Cumbre Fms) and in the upper part of the section (upper la Paja, Tablazo and Simiti Fms). In the middle part of the section, is a ~700 m thick series of shales with sporadic thin layers of sandstone. The Berriasian-Early Hauterivian Rosablanca Fm is marked by the presence of thick level of limestones. The base of the section is interpreted as the upper part of a RST reaching a MRS, overlain by two complete sequence (TST-HST-RST-LST) of Early Hauterivian to Barremian/Early Aptian boundary, and Early-Aptian to Lower Cenomanian age, respectively (Figure 3.34). (Modified from [START_REF] Rolón | Análisis estratigráfico de la sección Cretácica aflorante al oriente del anticlinal de Los Cobardes entre los Municipios de Guadalupe-Chima-Contratación[END_REF].

-Guineal well section Biostratigraphy and stratigraphy: 117 samples were analyzed from the the Guineal-1 well. Microfossils were identified from the Galembo and Pujama Mbs, while the other intervals were dated using ostracod and mollusk species. No microfossils were found in the Simiti Fm. In the Tablazo and La Paja Fms (Zone C), only ostracods and small mollusks were reported. Planktonic foraminiferas (globigerinids, radiolarians; Petters, 1995) were identified in the La Luna Fm, indicating a Coniacian age and an upper bathyal depositional environment.

Northern Region

The units of the northern area of the WEC are the same as in the MMV (see chapter 2). These units are from base to top, the Girón, Arcabuco, Tambor-Cumbre, Rosablanca, Paja, Tablazo, Simiti, La Luna, Umir and Lisama Fms (Figure 3.4).

-Barichara section -Rio Sogamoso section

The Sogamoso succession starts with a 120 m thick series of medium-to coarse-grained white quartz sandstones with intercalations of claystones (Tambor Fm, Berriasian). This is overlain by a 720 m thick set of monotonous gray limestones in variably thick layers (from 20 to 130 m) and intercalations of black shales and calcareous shales. -Yumeca-1 Section Figure 3.41 shows the lithologies described according to cuttings from the Yumeca-1 well (location on Figure 3.5). The main target of this 13664 ft deep well was to evaluate the reservoir potential of the Lower Cretaceous units (Los Santos-Cumbre and Rosablanca Fms). The Cretaceous units are described from top to base.

The Umir Fm (Campanian-Maastrichtian, not represented on Figure 3.41) is composed of thick levels of grey to dark grey, micaceous, highly carbonaceous claystone, with sporadic intercalations of sandstone, which are more frequent in the lower part.

The La Luna Fm (Cenomanian-Santonian) is mainly composed of limestone beds, claystone interbeds being more abundant in the middle and lower part of the sequence. Occasional intercalations of thin layers of sandstone and siltstone are observed. Siltstone is dark brown to white and may contain glauconitic grains. Claystone is slightly laminated. Sandstone is gray to greenish, fine-to very fine-grained, well sorted, with a clayey matrix and abundant siliceous cement, very calcareous locally. Some beds are coarse-to very coarse-grained with sub-rounded, poorly sorted grains. The Simiti Fm (Upper Albian-Lower Cenomanian) comprises grey to dark grey shale, although claystone is dominant in the upper 150 ft. The upper part shows sporadic thin beds of limestone and white to light grey, fine-to very fine-grained, slightly glauconitic sandstone. Sandstone is made of clean, sub-rounded to rounded, well-sorted quartz grains in an abundant siliceous, occasionally calcareous cement.

The upper 200 ft of the Tablazo Fm (Aptian-Albian) are made of sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone and limestone, with shale and claystone interbeds. The grey to dark grey sandstone contains very fine to fine, subangular, well sorted, translucent quartz grains in a clay matrix and calcareous cement. Limestone is light grey to white, massive, occasionally sandy. Grey claystone is present in the lower part of the unit.

The Paja Fm (Hauterivian-Lower Aptian) consists, in the lower part, of black shales and grey to dark, slightly calcareous shales, grey marls, dark grey, occasionally light grey limestone. In the upper part, thick beds of quartz sandstone and conglomeratic sandstone are present, marking the regional level "Paja Arenoso" (Barremian/Aptian). The Rosablanca Fm (Berriasian-Hauterivian) is mainly comprised of grey to dark grey limestone in the upper part, which is overlain by gray siltstone with thin lenses of limestone and sandstone, the grey shale becoming more abundant downward. The middle part is a thickening upward sequence of brown marl and shale with beds of light to dark limestone and calcareous lenses. The lower part is composed of light brown to yellow/cream limestone with shaly interbeds.

The Cumbre/Santos Fm (Berriasian) is composed, in its upper part, by sandstone with thin beds of shale and limestone. The middle part is constituted by limestone, with thin layers of sandstone and shale. The lower part is made of clay with thin sandstone in layers and lenses and shale at the base.

-Guane -1 well

The Guane-1 well crosscuts a Jurassic-Tertiary succession. 39 samples of cuttings and cores were analyzed from the La Paja, Lower Tablazo, Rosablanca and Los Santos Fms. (Petters, 1954;Bartenstein and Bolli, 1977;Boli et al., 1994). Other fossils are gastropods, teeth fish, and remains of echinoids and ammonites. Between 11717' and 11750', ostracods, glauconite, pyrite and siderite are common. Ostracod species suggest a Valanginian age.

-Iwana -1 section

In the Iwana-1 well (Figure 3.43), 36 core samples were analyzed in the Upper Tablazo-Lower Simiti Fms and from cuttings from the Rosablanca and Los Santos Fms.

-9030'-9481' (Lower Simiti-Upper Tablazo): plancktonic foraminifera: Hedbergella sp., Heterohelicacea and Globigerinina; benthonic foraminiferas: Lenticulina sp., Praebulimina sp., P. wyomingensis and remains of Rotaliina and Textulariina; radiolarians: few Dyctiomitra sp. The Aptian-Albian age is based on the presence of Hedbergellids and radiolarians. [START_REF] Duque-Caro | Microestratigrafía y correlación de los pozos Bosques-1, Punta Piedras-2, Catalina-1 y Torcoroma-1[END_REF], 2012) also quoted ammonites, while [START_REF] Patarroyo | Amonitas de un Nivel de Alta Energía del Barremiano Inferior en la Formación Paja de los Sectores de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá) y de Vélez (Santander)[END_REF] proposed an Early Albian age, based on bivalves and ammonites. The Simiti-Tablazo boundary is marked by the appearance of radiolarians reported in various wells: RW-1, Coyote-1, Iwuana-1, Punta Piedra-1, Torcoroma-1, Catalina-1, Bosques-1, Prometeo-1 and Llanito-1 [START_REF] Duque-Caro | Microestratigrafía y correlación de los pozos Bosques-1, Punta Piedras-2, Catalina-1 y Torcoroma-1[END_REF]Rodriguez et al., 2008;[START_REF] Patarroyo | Reporte final de bioestratigrafía (Micropaleontología) Pozo La Luna-1, Cuenca del Valle Medio del Magdalena[END_REF], which seems to be a significant regional event. -11010'-11220' (Rosablanca-Arcabuco/Los Santos): only Globigerinina and abundant ostracods. At 11220': presence of shells, gastropods, phosphatic pellets, glauconite, amorphous pyrite and oxides. With regards to the radiolarian event (Tablazo-Simiti boundary), the information from ammonites and bivalves in the wells RW- The presence of ostracods, echinoderms, bivalves and benthonic foraminifera (Choffatella, Lenticulina), recognized from the Lower Rosablanca Fm in the wells Iwana-1, Prometeo-1, Bosques-1 and Catalina-1, and in outcrops in the Zapatoca region at the same level [START_REF] Duque-Caro | Microestratigrafía y correlación de los pozos Bosques-1, Punta Piedras-2, Catalina-1 y Torcoroma-1[END_REF][START_REF] Montenegro | Análisis del componente micropaleontológico del segmento superior de la Formación Rosablanca, en el área de Zapatoca[END_REF][START_REF] Patarroyo | Reporte final de bioestratigrafía (Micropaleontología) Pozo La Luna-1, Cuenca del Valle Medio del Magdalena[END_REF], and the abundant appearance of ostracodes in the same interval suggests that this event at the level of the lower Rosablanca has a regional distribution in the basin of the MMV.

-RW-1 section

The RW-1 section (Figure 3.44), in the MMV, crosscut the Barremian-Campanian series. Three cores were taken in the Cretaceous section (ECP-2012). Biostratigraphic analysis have been made using cores and cutting in a total of 274 samples for palynology and 74 samples for micropaleontology. These data were complemented with macrofossil determinations in this section by [START_REF] Etayo | Informe del contenido paleontológico, en especial de amonjitas del pozo la Luna-1. Informe interno para Ecopetrol[END_REF], a level of tuff dated at 10 176 ft by [START_REF] Cardona | Informe de Geocronología de una toba de la cuenca del VMM[END_REF], and with data from the La Sorda-1, Cascajales-1 [START_REF] Brenac | Palinología Cascajales-1 y sección La Sorda (formaciones Umir-Simiti)[END_REF], Prometeo-1 (Instituto Colombiano del Petroleo (ICP), 2013) and Catalina-1 wells, and from the la Sorda field section [START_REF] Brenac | Palinología Cascajales-1 y sección La Sorda (formaciones Umir-Simiti)[END_REF].

Palynological samples were analyzed in the Instituto Colombiano del Petroleo (ICP, 2013), where 200 individuals of pollen, spores and dinoflagellates were counted. The biostratigraphic study was supported by previous studies made in the ICP and by other authors in the wells Cascajales-1 [START_REF] Brenac | Palinología Cascajales-1 y sección La Sorda (formaciones Umir-Simiti)[END_REF], Prometeo-1 (ICP, 2013), Bosques-1, Punta Piedras-2, Catalina -1, Torcoronma-1, Llanito-1 (Figure 3.46), and in the la Sorda section [START_REF] Brenac | Palinología Cascajales-1 y sección La Sorda (formaciones Umir-Simiti)[END_REF].

Palynomorphs found in the RW-1 well were classified in 108 species of pollens, 45 of spores, 49 of dynoflagellate cysts, 15 of algae and copepod eggs, and 8 of acritarchs, which allowed to define the following zones. In the Cascajales-1 well, the same zone was identified at the top of the interval with marine influence and the presence of abundant continental palynoflora. According to Tchegliakova (1995) the lower part of the Umir Fm is of Middle to Upper Maastrichtian age.

-Chucuri well

The Chucuri-1 well, located in the northwestern part of the study area (Figure 3.5), is shown in Figure 3.45. This well shows, from base to top, the Rosablanca, Paja and Tablazo Fms.

The lowermost 80 m (Rosablanca Fm) are composed by siltstone overlain by very fine-, fine-to medium-grained siliceous sandstone beds, with grey to red siltstone beds. Sandstone is white, green or grey, with subangular quartz grains. Between 80 and 140 m, the amount of claystone increases, claystone is white, grey or brown, with intercalations of grey to dark grey siltstone beds and dark grey to black shale bearing macrofossil casts. Between 140 and 340 m, dark grey to black limestone beds become more and more frequent, oolitic, and are associated with pyrite and minor marly interbeds. White anhydrite increases from 10 125 to 10 100 ft.

From 340 to 650 m is a series of dark grey to black, silty shale (La Paja Fm). The shale contains pyrite, thin veinlets of calcite, multicolor claystone and few beds of limestone.

At 650 m, the appearance of Tertiary sandstone beds marks a sudden lithologic change over a regional unconformity. From East to West, the series shows an important erosion of the Late Cretaceous deposits (from Cenomanian to Maastichtian) below this unconformity.

-Llanito -1 well

In the Llanito-1 well, the lithological change from predominantly dark grey shale and siltstone to varicolored shale, suggests that the contact between the Rosablanca and the underlying Girón Fm occurs at 13500 ft. The unfossiliferous grey quartzite, gray to green and red silt, shale and clay (core 13534'-13550') supports a continental environment for the Girón Fm. 1850). This species may be as young as Cenomanian but occurs most commonly in Barremian to Albian strata.

Stratigraphic correlations

The Berriasian to Coniacian-Santonian series of the VMM and WEC basins was divided into stratigraphic sequences of Berriassian, Valanginian-Early Hauterivian, Barremian-Early Aptian, Late Aptian-Late Albian, Albian-Cenomanian (Early Cenomanian), Late Cenomanian-Turonian and Coniacian-Santonian age. These divisions were based on the recognition of sedimentological discontinuities corresponding mainly to Regressive Surfaces (RS) located at the base or top of Regressive Systems tracts or between the Highstand systems track and Lowstand system track. These sequences were correlated across the whole basin of the MMV and WEC.

As previously shown, several sections of the study area were described from South to North, including their lithological, biostratigraphic, litological, sedimentological and sequence stratigraphic description and interpretation (see above). We then constructed three representative transects (Figures 3.24,3.36 and 3.47) to observe the lateral facies variation from East to West.

Paleo-Facies Maps

The sections described previously and their correlation permit to analyze the vertical and horizontal facies changes and sea level fluctuations. These observations allow in turn to build different Cretaceous facies maps for the WEC and the MMV ( During the Barremian, a period of regression (RST) or a fall stage system tract (FSST) occurred. Environments moved westward and shales and claystones were deposited in much of the basin. In the central area, depositions of gypsum and a lagoon environment with vegetation are observed (Paja Fm) in the Villa de Leyva region (location in Figure 3.51). To the north, the environment migrated northwestward, probably due to the geometry of the basin at that moment.

In the Barremian-Aptian (Figure 3.52) the environment migration continued toward the West. Sea level went on falling (LST) and a maximum regression surface (MRS) was reached. During this interval, the deposited units were probably partially or totally eroded. The Late Aptian-Albian is a period of transgression, produced by a sea level rise. This period recorded deposition of a transgressive systems tract that generated a 5 to 25 km eastward migration of the environment belts.

During the Early Cenomanian, a sea level fall occurred producing a regression event. At that time, the environment was shallowing westward moving from a few km to the North (Yumeca-1) to more than 50 km to the West in the central area (shale deposited in the Aptian-Albian in the San Gil area moved westward to the Muzo-Pautina area). This regression created a sequence boundary and is represented in some sections by siltstone or sandstone overlying shales or calcareous beds (eg. Yumeca-1), or by an abrupt change from claystone to siltstones. The Late Cenomanian-Turonian recorded the worldwide recognized eustatic transgression that flooded the shallow deposits to the East. During the Cenomanian-Turonian, the deep facies were moving eastward, where shales and limestones overlie sandstone beds of Early Cenomanian age (Figure 3.55).

During the Coniacian-Santonian the sea level withdrew to the west (sea level fall) producing a regression (Figure 3.56).

The stratigraphic sequences (Transgressive-Regressive) exposed in previous sections are independently illustrated in these maps. The Cretaceous evolution started with a regression and continued untill the Hauterivian with an important transgression (TST - . During the Barremian to Barremian-Aptian time-span, the facies migrated to the West due to the eustatic regression (Figure 3.51; 3.52). Once again during the Late Albian-Aptian, a transgression occurred but its observation may be more complex to the North. During the Early Cenomanian, a general regression took place and finally, during the Coniacian-Santonian, a regression occurred, which probably continued during the Early Campanian.

Discussion

This section proposes a sequence stratigraphy interpretation related to relative sea level changes for the Cretaceous units. Only the Berriasian to Coniacian-Santonian interval has been considered due to sample distribution, and to the little information available for the Campanian-Maastrichtian and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary.

The detailed description is shown in the columns for the three sections (South, Central and North (locations in Figures 3.2 to 3.5), the interpretation of sea level fluctuation using transgression-regressive curves permits to propose an interpretation for vertical and lateral variations in the basin of predominantly fine-grained Cretaceous facies. Due to the distribution of the samples in the WEC and the MMV, and the regional controls were possible to interpret the facies maps from Cretaceous units in the basin when it was possible to observe the changes. Sequence stratigraphy represents an analytical approach to predict facies changes, also the correct understanding of sequence geometry in the basin for one or several ages could be helpful to understand the movement of the environment and the dynamics of the basin. This methodology for basin analysis, as said by Villamil (1998), requires detailed field work information but not high technology, and in this case, I added detailed well information to understand the changes from the WEC to the MMV. It is important to say that stacking patterns (Parasequences) are a representation of shallowing (coarsing upward) or deepening upward (fining upward) and also changes in energy (the rate of clastic sediment supply has to decrease at specific points with transgression as coarse sediment are trapped shoreward (Villamil, 1998)) reflect changes in the vertical; In addition, a vertical distribution of the parasequence (A/S) reflects changes in the stratigraphic sequence (fine grain upward means transgression, coarse grain upward means regression); even more the analysis of the lateral distribution of these facies for the same age also shows the variation over time for all the basins .

Limited information from wells and outcrops in different localities support the existence of possible discordances, shallower conditions or subaerial exposition, relative sea level rise or sea level fall or events associated to tectonic phenomena. These evidences are shown zone by zone in this work as a part of the discussion (South to North):

In the southern area (Figures 3.5 and 3.19), one case is in the La Tigra section (Figure 3.17) of Barremian -Lower Aptian age, where, based on biostratigraphic data from the upper part of the section, two conditions support the idea of a paleo-environment of shallow waters with good oxygenation; and the accumulation of shells, crinoids, gastropods and dropstone structures support an episode of high energy in the lower segment strongly related with the cooling of the layers below (unconformity). Also in the Alto el Ojo section, supported by stratigraphy, the sequence shows an event of a shallow environment produced by a regressive event (RST) at the top of the sequence of Late Aptian -Lower Albian age, where there are remnants of woods possibly related to a shallow paleo-environment (flood plain?). In the Quebrada Cune section, the lithological description made in field shows a change from transgressive to regression conditions marked by the presence of conglomeratic sequences (Figure 3.19 and Photo 3.3), marking an increase of the energy from the base to the top (RST) and possibly associated to an unconformity likely near the limit of the Trinchera -Socota Fm. (Tablazo). In the Bituima section (Figure 3.20) of Late Albian -Early Cenomanian age (supported by biostratigraphy) the abundant content of organic material, the parallel lamination, the absence of benthonic life, the great abundance of planktonic quillado (for example Rotalipora reicheli) and the presence of radiolarians (nasselarides and espumelarides), suggest pelagic to hemipelagic sedimentation as a product of relative sea level rise. In the section Escuela-1 three majors events were identified: The first one at 2500 ft. marked by the contrast between a Tertiary terrestrial sequence and a Cretaceous sequence below, suggested by the absence of the late Cretaceous Ammobaculites columbianus Zone; the second at 2750 ft. marked by a contrast in microfaunal preservation and composition, which also marks a mixed zone at the limit between the Bulimina kickapooensis Zone and the underlying Siphogenerinoides bramlenei-Siphogenerinoides cretacea, this mixed zone and the contrast appear associated with tectonic phenomena during the Campanian or Campanian -Maastrichtian. In the Rio Curi section (Figure 3.22), the lithology suggests a terrigenous supply, the presence of planktonic foraminifera, bivalves and bioturbation at the top suggest a sea level fall showing conditions for prodelta deposits. The lithology, structures, fossils and paleo-environmental suggest that a sea level rise (TST) are coincident with global changes at the Cenomanian-Turonian limit. The Quebrada Nemice section (Coniacian age -Figure 3.23) shows variations of external platform conditions (abundance of planktonic) to shallow siliciclastic condition (aerobic conditions RST) related with the presence of sandstones (Thalassinoides), erosive surfaces and bioclasts, followed by parallel and ondulating-bioperturbed lamination.

In the central regional area (Figures 3.4 [START_REF] Cosgrove | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] show an event of subaerial conditions (RST). Also, at the base of the same section at the limit of the San Gil Fm/Churuvita Fm. an unconformity is recognizable in an outcropping (lower part of Figure 3.28) as an angular surface (Photo 3.7) showing the abrupt change from deep to a shallow environment during this limit (Late Albian/Early Cenomanian) conforming a change from a high stand system tract (HST) to a regression system tract (RST = FSST). In the Villa de Leyva -La Paja section (Figure 3.29 -Barremian-Aptian), the La Paja Fm. as is recognize by the geologists the presence of gypsum and anhydrite make it possible to interpret a salt tidal flat as the depositional environment for this unit, also the presence of cracking, desiccation marks and algal mats are signs of subaerial conditions (intertidal depositional environment), according to Huertas (1967Huertas ( , 1970[START_REF] Huertas | Theobroma verum sp. nov[END_REF]) the fragments of wood, branches, plants, leafs, conifers and plants that grow in continental environments were transported from the continent to the sea and deposited finally at the flat. The subtle prints of leafs and little stems in black shales with or without gypsum are surely related with swamp vegetation. This, without any transport, suggests a swamp environment. In the Otache -Cozcuez Section (Figure 3.6), the fossils were dated from Valangenian to Maastrictian units (Rosablanca Fm. to Umir Fm in [START_REF] Guerrero | Actualización Cartográfica de Unidades Litoestratigraficas Encajantes de Mineralizaciones Esmeraldiferas en el Cinturón Occidental de la Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)[END_REF] in environments that vary from internal to external shelf; In the area of Muzo-Paunita a sandy sequence of Albian age of the Tablazo Fm. (Capotes Fm.) was also described by [START_REF] Reyes | Geología del cinturon esmeraldifero occidental[END_REF]; In the same area Muzo-Coscuez-Otanche-Yacopi, Terraza and Montoya (2011) compiled a section from Valanginian to Lower Albian for the whole area, which suggests the absence in this area of the Early Aptian (erosion or non-deposition).

In the north regional area (Figures 3.4 and 3.5); the Barichara section of the Tablazo Fm (Lower Albian -Figure 3.37) shows an important content of calcareous and siliceous sandstone. The increase of sandstone levels at the top insinuates the regression system towards the top, and the presence of paleo-soils insinuates shallow conditions for sediment deposition; In the Yumeca 1 section (Figure 3.41), the well crosses from Berresian units at the base (Cumbre/Los Santos Fm.) to Maastrichtian (Umir Fm.) at the top. Interesting lithological changes can be observed in the sequence crossed. The changes from fine lithology to thick packages of sandstones at Berresian (Cumbre/Los Santos Fm.), Early Aptian (Paja Fm -Arenoso Mb), Early Albian (Top of Tablazo) and Early Cenomanian (Simiti Top) highlight the clear regressive events. Nevertheless the Lower Aptian is the point where the coarse grain as conglomerate lithology are present, which could represent the point of maximum regressive surface in all the sequence. In the Guane-1 section the Cretaceous sequence in more monotonous with scarse levels of sandstones. The majority of the sequence is represented from the base to the top by thick packages of limestone at the base from Valangenian to Lower Aptian, and then from Lower Albian to Turonian the fine grain content increases with sporadic levels of limestones, showing in general that for almost all the Cretaceous sequence the western part (of the MMV) shows a deeper environment (deeper facies) than those that could be observed at the east (towards the WEC). The same could be observed in the case of the Iwana-1 section. In the case of the RW-1 section (Barremian to Campanian), several zones were defined in the well to determine the age of the units present, however the Zone of Dinogymnium sp, that are present in the Umir Fm, are present in the well Prometeo-1 but apparently absent in the well Cascajales-1 and la Sorda section which means a lack of time towards the top of this biozone (it passes from a predominantly marine to a markedly continental sequence). This could be related to erosion or nondeposition; erosion supported by the absence of this biozone and dated as 80.3 ±1.3 Ma (Cardona, 2012) using U/Pb, and by foraminifera (In ICP 2012; Petters, 1995) locating this zone in the Early to medium Campanian. The Llanito-1 section is constituted by a monotonous sequence of shales different only during the Hauterivian and Cenomanian-Turonian boundary with important sequences of limestone, some levels of limestone and siltstone in the middle of Simiti Fm. From the middle Turonian to Coniacian it is a monotonous sequence of Shales, with some scarse and thin levels of sandstone, where the middle Turonian have been interpreted as deposited in a flood plain, finally covered by the Tertiary of Toro Shale. The presence of the radiolarians event in different wells in the MMV, like RW-1, Coyote-1, and Iwuana-1 [START_REF] Patarroyo | Reporte final de bioestratigrafía (Micropaleontología) Pozo La Luna-1, Cuenca del Valle Medio del Magdalena[END_REF], and Punta Piedra-1, Torcoroma-1, Catalina-1, Bosques-1, Prometeo-1 and Llanito-1 [START_REF] Duque-Caro | Microestratigrafía y correlación de los pozos Bosques-1, Punta Piedras-2, Catalina-1 y Torcoroma-1[END_REF]Rodriguez et al., 2008;[START_REF] Patarroyo | Reporte final de bioestratigrafía (Micropaleontología) Pozo La Luna-1, Cuenca del Valle Medio del Magdalena[END_REF], shows that the radiolarians events (104-112 Ma. Based on ammonites and bivalves) present over and below of the Tablazo-Simiti contact, has a stratigraphic regional significance in the MMV for this limit.

Stratigraphic correlation from different sections shows the behavior of the units in the WEC to MMV in the orientation South to North and East to West. This allowed me to understand the variation in deposition using lithology, energy changes and possible sea level changes. The vertical variation and correlations permit me to analyze sea level variation and facies changes .

In this chapter I recognized six transgression events and five regression events occurred during the Berriasian to Campanian in the area of the MMV and the WEC.

Conclusions

1. Sequence stratigraphy of the Cretaceous units has been analyzed in an area of 50 000 km 2 that covers the MMV and the WEC, using outcrop information collected in the WEC and well information from the MMV. A total of 30 sections were described and analyzed to understand the facies distribution, sea level fluctuations and sedimentary changes occurring from Berriasian to Campanian times.

2. Interpretation of sea level fluctuation using Transgression-Regressive curves in each section permitted to propose an interpretation for vertical and lateral facies variation in the basin. For these analyses, third (0.5-5 Ma) to second order cycles (5 -50 Ma) were identified in outcrops which allowed to build sea level curves. Transgressive-Regressive curves and relative sea-level variations have been obtained using relative accommodation space plots proposed by [START_REF] Fischer | The Lofer cyclothcms of the Alpine Triassic[END_REF].

3. From the interpreted TR curves and Fischer diagrams, we determined cycles based on the identification of maximum regression surfaces, transgressive surfaces at the base of transgressive systems tract, maximum flooding surfaces, and regressive surfaces (RS) or sequence boundaries (SB), located at the base of regressive system track (RST). Figures 3.24,3.36 and 3.47). 5. Based on the above information, we built facies maps from Berriasian to Coniacian-Santonian times. 1) the Berriasian correspond to a period of regression, 2) followed during the Berriasian/Valangenian by an onset of transgression 3) that continues during the Hauterivian to the east, 4) the Barremian represents the onset of a new regression that 5) continues during the Barremian/Aptian where the MRS was reached, 6) during the Late Aptian/Late Albian a new period of transgression is recorded 7) followed during the Early Cenomanian by a period of regression; 8) during the Late Cenomanian/Turonian a regional period of transgression occurred, 9) followed by a period of regression that could continue during the Early Campanian where the MRS could be reached. 6. Shallow marine conditions associated with high energy were identified in the Barremian-Early Aptian, for example in la Tigra Section and RW-1. Also, a possible unconformity occurred at the Late Aptian -Early Albian as is insinuated in different sections such as Quebarada Cune, Samaca-lower San Gil, Barichara sections, and Yumeca -1. At the Late Albian-Early Cenomanian boundary and in the Late Cenomanian, shallow marine environments and erosive surfaces (unconformities) were identified in the Samaca-Churuvita, Chiquinquira section, RW-1. In the Campanian, an event of erosion or non-deposition surface is reported in the section RW-1. 7. According to the regional facies maps, shallower facies are always present eastward towards the WEC, while deep facies are located westward in the MMV towards the CC.

The variations in the Cretaceous deposits suggest that there was an uprising zone to the west that was always affected by sea level fluctuations.

Introduction

The study area covers a large part of the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) and of the Western part of the Eastern Cordillera (WEC), with a special focus on the MMV, which is a Cretaceous basin located between the Central Cordillera (CC) and the Eastern Cordillera (EC) of Central Colombia (Fig 4.1). The MMV basin recorded several sea level changes and sedimentary unconformities related to the evolution of the north Andean active margin. The Cretaceous fine-grained marine succession of the MMV and WEC is classically considered deposited in a syn-rift basin related to an extensional regime, without major compression tectonic events [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF].

However, observations made in other Andean regions suggest that Cretaceous times were marked by some tectonic events, the nature of which needs to be specified. [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF] suggested that the Late Albian Mochica tectonic event is related to the high convergence rate along the Andean margin, due to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean at Equatorial latitude. Based on seismic information and biostratigraphy, sedimentary hiatuses in the Cretaceous sedimentary record have been recognized in the Cenomanian in the Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV) (James and de Freitas, 2006), and during the Campanian in the Maracaibo basin [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF]. Comparable time gaps were also reported by Macellari (1988) based on paleogeographic synthesis, and by [START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF] based on regional observations in the MMV. Dates on apatites and zircons from granites of the CC in Colombia (Villagómez, 2010), and K-Ar ages from igneous rocks from the Cordillera de la Costa, Curaçao and Isla de los Hermanos (Santamaria and Schubert, 1972) indicate Cenomanian igneous activity related to tectonic events [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF].

These observations led us to analyze the Cretaceous sedimentary record of the MMV and WEC, based on seismic reflection profiles and information from wells (e.g. RW-1 in Figure 3.5) in the MMV, and from geological field sections in the WEC. These works allowed us to identify five regional unconformities of Jurassic/early Cetaceous to Paleocene/Eocene age, some of them being newly defined here.

Geological Setting

The tectonic evolution of northwestern South America is controlled by the interaction between the Nazca, Caribbean and South American plates. This led the western part of Colombia to behave as an active margin submitted to subduction processes and provoked the accretion of oceanic terranes (Western Cordillera, Baudó-Panamá block) against the western margin of Colombia (Duque-Caro, 1990). These accretionary events are assumed to be responsible for compressional tectonic events, especially the tectonic inversion of rift basins during Late Cretaceous and Late Miocene times [START_REF] Gomez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF] 4.1). It is about 560 km long and 80 km wide, and is separated from the CC to the west by eastward thrust faults and from the EC to the east by a westward thrust belt [START_REF] Butler | Structure along the eastern margin of the Central Cordillera, Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia[END_REF]Namson et al., 1994;[START_REF] Gómez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF].

The MMV and the EC are made of varied lithologie. The Grenvillian orogeny is responsible for high grade metamorphism of rocks of the EC [START_REF] Forero | The basement of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia: an allocthonous terrane in nortwestern South America[END_REF], which were then intruded by plutonic rocks during the Cambrian and Ordovician (Horton et al. 2010a, b). The Grenvillian sequence is unconformably overlain by metamorphic rocks of Cambrian and Ordovician age and these unconformably overlain by sedimentary rocks of Devonian-Carboniferous age (Forero-Suárez 1990). Jurassic red beds unconformably overly the Paleozoic rocks, and are coeval with plutonic and volcanic activity in the MMV and CC, related to the creation of a Mesozoic rift. As a matter of fact, the MMV -WEC basin is considered a Mesozoic extensional basin, subsequently tectonically inverted during the Cenozoic.

Thick sequences of continental Triassic-Jurassic, and marine Cretaceous rocks were deposited in the extensional basins during the phases of rifting and thermal subsidence [START_REF] Etayo | Lenticeras Baltai Lisson en Colombia y su probable posición zonal Santoniana[END_REF][START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF][START_REF] Clavijo | Evolución geológica de la Serranía de San Lucas, Norte del Valle Medio del Magdalena y Noroeste de la Cordillera Oriental[END_REF]. According to Aspden et al. (1987), the deposition of marine sediments during the whole Cretaceous in a wide rift system related to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate in western Colombia came to an end due to the accretion of oceanic terranes in the present-day Western Cordillera, which created a Paleogene foreland basin in the MMV [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF].

Van der Hammen (1957) and [START_REF] Campbell | Section through the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, South America[END_REF] suggested that uplift of the EC took place during the Late Miocene and Pliocene (6-4 Ma). Colletta et al. (1990) proposed that a single inversion event occurred in the Miocene-Pliocene, while Dengo and Covey (1993) proposed that thin-skinned deformation during Miocene -Pliocene times was followed by the uplift of the basement in the Pliocene-Holocene. Other authors suggest that incipient inversion occurred in Paleogene time (Roeder and Chamberlain, 1955;Van der Hammen, 1961;[START_REF] George | Eocene Paleosuture of Colombia and implications for history of generation and migration of hydrocarbons: VI simposio Bolivariano, exploración petrolera en las cuencas subandinas[END_REF][START_REF] Restrepo-Pace | A fold and Thrust belt along the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. Style, Kinematics, and timing constrains derived from seismic data and detailed surface mapping[END_REF][START_REF] Gómez | Geodinámica, tectonoestratigrafía, cronología y evolución termal de cuencas sedimentarias complejas y de sus áreas fuente. Métodos modernos de análisis cuantitativo y aplicaciones, implicaciones para exploración y producción de hidrocarburos[END_REF][START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF]. More recently, the initial shortening in the MMV has been related to the tectonic inversion of the Mesozoic rift in Paleocene-Middle Eocene times (Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004;[START_REF] Cortés | Paleostress evolution of the northern Andes (Eastern Cordillera Colombia): Implications on plate kinematics of South Caribbean region[END_REF][START_REF] Moretti | Integrated exploration workflow in the South Middle Magdalena Valley (Colombia)[END_REF][START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust-belt hinterlands. Example from Colombian Andes[END_REF]. Crustal shortening in the MMV occurred prior to the deposition of the Lower to Middle Eocene continental units [START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust-belt hinterlands. Example from Colombian Andes[END_REF], which coincide with the regional unconformity called the Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic Unconformity by [START_REF] Gómez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF].

Subaerial deposition began in the MMV during the Maastrichtian [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Villamil | Campanian-Miocene tectonostratigraphy, depocenter evolution and basin development of Colombia and western Venezuela[END_REF][START_REF] Gómez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF]. Paleocene deposits consist of alluvial, fluvial and coastal strata [START_REF] Gómez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Moreno | Depositional and provenance record of the Paleogene transition from foreland to hinterland basin evolution during Andean orogenesis, northern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Bayona | Onset of fault reactivation in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and proximal Llanos Basin; response to Caribbean -South America collision in early Paleogene time. In: Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial Invertion to Full Accretion[END_REF]. In the MMV basin, Tertiary sediments thicken toward the East and toward the WEC. A Mid-Eocene regional unconformity represents the upper limit of the studied time-interval.

In the Santander Massif, the uplift began around 55-32 Ma (Eocene-early Oligocene) [START_REF] Fabre | Tectonique et géneration d'hydrocarbures: Un modèle de l'évolution de la Cordillère Orientale de Colombie et du Bassin des Llanos pendant le Crétacé et le Tertiaire[END_REF]. However, the initial uplift of the Garzon Massif probably occurred during the Early Cretaceous, ≈ 110 Ma ago (Van der Wiel and Andriessen, 1991; Andriessen, 1995). In the Bogotá and Cocuy areas, uplift would have begun around 5 Ma ago [START_REF] Hooghiemstra | Quaternary and Upper-Pliocene glaciations and forest development in the tropical Andes: evidence from long high-resolution pollen record from the sedimentary basin of Bogotá, Colombia[END_REF], which could be coeval with the structural recent inversion of the basin (Restrepo, 2004). Restrepo et al., 2004). Some seismic references lines location using in this work are shows in red lines in the map.

Materials and methods

The MMV and WEC area is about 50.000 km 2 wide. 1559 seismic lines representing more than 50.000 km were made available for regional projects (Figure 4.7, light blue and black lines). We selected the most representative and best quality lines to carry out the regional analysis in the MMV and WEC and to build structural sections. Detailed seismic interpretation using well logs, structural and stratigraphic information, allowed to regionally correlate the seismic units and to construct chronostratigraphic charts.

Thousands of wells have been drilled in the MMV and only a few wells in the WEC, the majority of which only crossed the Tertiary sequence. Only wells that crossed the Cretaceous sequence and have lithological and sedimentological information were taken in to account.

The list of the wells used in this work is shown in Table 4.1, and some key wells are shown in Figure 3.5.

Information used for the structural description of the WEC has been collected during field work, or derives from published works and geological maps [START_REF] Renzoni | Mapa geológico, plancha 191[END_REF]Rodriguez and Ulloa, 1991;1994;[START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF][START_REF] Fuquen | Geología de la Plancha 190 Chiquinquirá[END_REF].

Seismic reflection patterns and identification of unconformities.

Distinct types of stratal terminations like truncation, toplap, offlap, onlap, dowmlap have been defined by [START_REF] Ramsayer | Seismic stratigraphy, a fundamental exploration tool: 11th Annual. Offshore Technology Conference Proceedings[END_REF] and Emery and Meyers (1996) as is shown ig Figures 4. The seismic expression of reflectors (Figure 4.5), their geometry, the relation between strata and stratigraphic surfaces (reflector surfaces) against which they terminate were important to define the sequences and their boundaries (unconformity). Our observations derive from 2D and 3D seismic analysis and from outcrops (Fig. 4.6a, 4.6b). Other terms have been introduced to define the architecture of seismic reflections [START_REF] Mitchum | Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level, part 11: glossary of terms used in seismic stratigraphy[END_REF][START_REF] Mitchum | Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea-level, part 7: stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection patterns in depositional sequences[END_REF], or to describe staking patterns, surfaces and system tracts (Posamentier et al., 1988;Van Wagoner et al., 1988;[START_REF] Christie-Blick | Onlap, offlap, and the origin of unconformity bounded depositional sequences[END_REF].

Truncation represents the termination of strata against an overlying erosional surface.

Truncation implies the development of an erosional relief or an angular unconformity. Toplap represents the termination of inclined strata (clinoform) against an overlying lower angle surface (mainly result of nondeposition or minor erosion). Onlap describes a low angle termination against a steeper stratigraphic surface; it may develop in marine, coastal and non marine settings. Downlap is a termination of inclined strata against a lower angle surface.

Offlap results from the progressive offshore shift of the updip termination of sedimentary bodies within a conformable sequence; it usually results from a base level fall, and is therefore related to forced regression [START_REF] Mitchum | Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level, part 11: glossary of terms used in seismic stratigraphy[END_REF][START_REF] Galloway | Genetic stratigraphic sequences in basin analysis, I. Architecture and genesis of flooding-surface bounded depositional units[END_REF]Emery and Meyers, 1996). Growth Strata are stratigraphic intervals in which deposition occurred during deformation and are important to define unconformities or erosional surfaces. The age of growth strata define the timing of deformation.

These definitions were used to identify the seismic sequences and boundaries in the MMV-WEC Basin. [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF], which were limited by normal faults, presently tectonically inverted [START_REF] Sarmiento-Rojas | Mesozoic transtensional basin history of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombian Andes: Inferences from tectonic models[END_REF][START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF]Fabre, 1983;Etayo, 1968). It is usually believed that compressive deformation did not occur before the Maastrichtian to Paleocene, and was associated to the oblique accretion of the present-day Western Cordillera, which produced shortening and uplift of the Central Cordillera (Gómez, 2005;[START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF]. This event occurred during the Paleocene-Eocene interval and produced an important erosion that affected the foreland basin.

According to Restrepo (2004) Paja Fm. Tablazo Fm.

Lower Simiti Fm.

La Luna Fm.

Upper Simiti Fm.

Salada Fm.

Umir Fm.

Seismic Sequences

Several seismic lines were interpreted from North to South (Figure 4.7) in the MMV and in the WEC, to understand the behavior of the basin during the Cretaceous. Based on the interpretation of wells and seismic lines, and on the few available biostratigraphic, we identified five Cretaceous sequences (S), bounded by five unconformity surfaces (SU). Seismic sequence boundaries were defined by the identification of discontinuity surfaces interpreted in the seismic lines as unconformities or their correlative conformities. These discontinuities were followed using seismic patterns (Figure 3.12, 4.4 and 4.5). Figure 4.9 shows the interpretation of a NE-SW trending seismic line. As shown in figure 4.9, the Cretaceous sequence exhibits a complex structure and evolution, and most of it is locally eroded by pre-Andean unconformity surfaces (SU1 to SU5). The five sequences (S1 to S5) are described below.

The complex Cretaceous tectonic-sedimentary evolution of the MMV-WEC (Figures 4.9

S2 Sequence (Early Berriasian-Late Barremian)

The S2 sequence is bounded by the regional unconformities SU1 at the base and SU2 at the top. It has been recognized in all the study area from North (Figure 4.9) to South (Figure 4.16), and is composed by units deposited from Early Berriasian to Late Barremian times, and partly eroded by the SU2 (Barremian-Aptian). This observation is consistent with the erosion and/or hiatus presented in Chapter 3, and with the marine regression highlighted by the analysis of the Barremian-Aptian facies (Figure 3.52). As a matter of fact, shallow marine facies apparently migrated from East to West through time, the observed facies being deeper to the west. In the RW-1well, the ammonite succession from the core section evidences the Late Barremian-Early Aptian hiatus in the La Paja Fm (Etayo, 2012, internal report).

S3 Sequence (Early Aptian -Late Albian)

The S3 sequence is bounded by the unconformities SU2 at the base and SU3 at the top and is present in the whole study area (Figures 4.9 The SU3 unconformity may encompass the Early Cenomanian as shown in Figure 3.54, where the unconformity interpreted on the seismic line would be coeval with the regression which eroded partially or totally units deposited in a period of marine transgression, probably due to a sea level rise during the Albian (Tablazo-Lower Simiti). The Early Cenomanian unconformity may be represented in the study area, by outcrops along the Villa de Leyva-Cucaita road (Figure 3.28). There, a possible unconformity marks the contact between finegrained deposits of the San Gil Fm, and coarse sandstones and conglomeratic sandstones at the base of the Early Cenomanian Churuvita Fm (Figure 3.28, photo 3.7, Figures 4.17 S4 Sequence (Early Cenomanian -Late Santonian)

The S4 sequence is defined between unconformities SU3 at the base and SU4 at the top. It is composed by the Simijaca, Pacho, Frontera, Conejo and Arenisca Dura stratigraphic units in the South; by the Churuvita (Figure 3.28), Simijaca, Conejo and Lidita Superior Fms in the center; by the Upper Simiti, Salto and La Luna Fms in the north of the WEC and in the MMV.

The Campanian SU4 unconformity that bounds the S4 sequence has also been recognized in the well RW-1, and is a regional unconformity also present in Venezuela [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF].

In the RW-1and Cascajales-1 wells and in the Quebrada la Sorda, the SU4 unconformity (Lower Campanian) is marked by the lack of the Dynogymniun zone described in The base of this sequence is marked by the agglomeration of species (Andalusiella mauthei, Andalusiella complex, Spinizonocolpites baculatus, etc), with the first occurrence of the pollen Ulmoidipites krempii, and its top by the occurrence of the pollen Proteacidites dehanni. The base presents a marked continental influence. This sequence was eroded by the regional Eocene unconformity (SU5). The same interval has been recognized in the Cascajales-1 well, where deposits bearing continental palynoflora overlie a marine sequence.

Cretaceous unconformities

The unconformities identified in the MMV basin may be due to tectonic activity or to sea level fluctuations (Chapter 3). Unfortunately biostratigraphical information is usually not accurate enough to identify stratigraphic gaps, except in the RW-1well, which is exceptionally rich in ammonites (Etayo, 2012, internal report).

Some unconformities are supported by information from well log (i.e. biostratigraphy and palynology in RW-1and Cascajales-1), and from scarce outcrops (see chapter 3). These data, and above all the interpretation of seismic reflection sections allowed to identify and follow the unconformities in the whole MMV and in some areas of the WEC (e.g. the 147 km long seismic profile ANH-TA-2006-4A1, in Figure 4.12).

In the study area, five unconformities (SU1 to SU5) define the above described seismic sequences. Two of these unconformities were already recognized: around the Jurassic-Cretaceous (SU1) and the Cretaceous-Tertiary (SU5).

Unconformity SU1

This unconformity encompasses the Upper Jurassic-lower Cretaceous boundary, and may erode sequence S1 and even basement rocks. It is acknowledged as a regional unconformity that is locally an angular unconformity, suggesting compressional deformation in the latest Jurassic (Pulido et al., 1979a;1979b;1980). In the Los Cobardes range, SU1 is identifued in the Early Cretaceous units with angular unconformity upon the Jurassic units (see Figures 4.11 to 4.16). In the rest of the study area, SU1 is an erosional surface, which underlines the Cretaceous sequence (Figures 4.9 to 4.16, and 4.5).

Unconformity SU2

The [START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF] identified an unconformity of Aptian age. In the UMV, [START_REF] Barrio | Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot Sub-Basin), Colombia[END_REF] and Allen (1989) reported an unconformity of Barremian-Aptian age in the Payande-Chaparral area, and in the area of Ortega, respectively (Figure 4.26).

Unconformity SU3

An important unconformity (SU3) has been identified within the Simití Fm or at the San Gil-Churuvita boundary of Cenomanian age (orange line in Figures 4.9 to 4.16,3.28 and 4.17 4.11, 4.13, 4.14 and 4.15). Line dmw-2008-1500 (Figure 4.5) shows both an oblique truncation below the SU3 unconformity, and pre-Late Cenomanian deformation generated by faults sealed by SU3. This stratal termination shows a deformation that occurred in the MMV, previous to the erosion of SU3.

Such a Cenomanian unconformity has been reported by [START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF] in the MMV, and by Macellari (1988) in Maracaibo, Middle Magdalena Valley and western Peru (Figure 4.26), and by [START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF] in the UMV. The SU3 is responsible for an important erosion, which may have removed strata of Lower Cenomanian to Aptian age.

Unconformity SU4

The SU4 unconformity of Campanian age (red line in Figure 4-5 to 4.16) underlies the Umir Fm or the Guadalupe Group. In the MMV, much of the SU4 surface has been removed by the Paleocene-Eocene erosion (SU5, Figure 4.9-4.16). In Figure 4.14, only patches of the S4 sequence may be observed to the East, near the surface, but S4 is widespread in other parts of the basin (e.g. Figure 4.10 and 4.19). Our analysis shows that the SU4 erosional unconformity removed deposits of sequence S4 (Early Campanian to Cenomanian), removing up to a ≈ 1500 m thick pile of sediments (Figure 4.9). Compared with the previous SU2 and SU3 unconformities, SU4 is the most important erosional event. This SU4 major event has been recognized by Balkwill et al. (1995), [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF], [START_REF] Veloza | Dislocación de facies en el tope de la secuencia Cretacica de la subcuenca de Neiva, Valle Superior del Magdalena y sus implicaciones en el modelo estratigráfico secuencial colombiano[END_REF] and [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF], in Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela and Colombia.

Unconformity SU5

The SU5 unconformity is located at the top of the Cretaceous sequence, and represents the well known Mid-Eocene regional unconformity. It is easily seen in seismic profiles, where it is always represented by angular truncations.

The SU5 unconformity is well known in the MMV, but is frequently eroded by younger erosions (Oligocene and Miocene unconformities). In our study area, the Paleocene-Eocene SU5 unconformity is totally eroded North of the Cimitarra town (Armas syncline). This observation shows that the strong seismic reflector, with angular truncation, at the top of the Cretaceous sequence, which is usually interpreted as the Paleocene-Eocene unconformity, can be much younger.

A fundamental law in geology [START_REF] Steno | De Solido intra solidum naturaliter contento Dissertationis Prodromus[END_REF], later formulated by [START_REF] Hutton | Theory of the Earth with proofs and illustrations[END_REF] and Lyell ( 1830)) indicates that a feature that cuts another one is the younger of the two features. In the MMV, we clearly observe that younger unconformities cut and erode totally or partially the older ones. As an example, the Paleocene-Eocene or younger (Oligocene) unconformities cut the Campanian unconformity (SU4) or older unconformities (Figures 4.9 to 4.16, and 4.17 to 4.22). In the same way, the Early Campanian unconformity (SU3) may cut the Cenomanian, the Cenomanian may cut the Barremian-Aptian (SU2) and so on.

The more recent unconformities may have eroded the oldest sediments in the basin (Figures 4.9 to 4.16,and 4.17 to 4.22). In Figure 4.11, the SU3 unconformity in some places (ex. right side) locally eroded the whole Cretaceous sequence until reaching Jurassic deposits, leading to the disappearance of the SU1 and SU2 unconformities. In the same way, in some areas of the MMV, the Mid-Eocene SU5 unconformity eroded totally or partially older unconformities (Figure 4.17 to 4.22). This may lead to confusing interpretations, when several unconformities are amalgamated.

Chronostratigraphic seismic interpretation

3500 km of 2D seismic lines (Figures 4.7, and 4.9 to 4.16) as well as tie wells were used to construct the chronostratigraphic charts across the MMV and in some parts of the WEC, in order to identify the sequences and unconformities in the basins.

We first identified and constructed paleo-facies maps (Figures 3.48 to 3.56) from the well information to visualize the evolution of the basin during the Cretaceous time, from 145 to 85 Ma. In Chapter 3 we distinguished four facies (sandstone/siltstone, shale/claystone, limestone, and swamp clay with vegetation) to try to illustrate the facies migrations, the sea level variations, and to evidence the possible erosions.

In seismic sequence stratigraphy, the basic idea is that the seismic reflectors follow the geological time line, and are thus chronostratigraphic lines. Thus, seismic reflection profiles were used to build chronostratigraphic charts (Wheeler diagrams). The Wheeler diagram is one of the fundamental tools used by geologists to understand the spatio-temporal relationships of strata. This diagram displays the horizontal distribution of sequences and facies, and highlight the significant sedimentary hiatus. Theoretically, this diagram is used to show the time relationships of both the depositional system and system tracts, and their relationship to surfaces of erosion or non-deposition [START_REF] Emery | Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF]. In these charts the basic units are called "chronosomes", represented by horizontal ribbons representing sedimentary units bounded by time planes (called here unconformities). Chronostratigraphic charts are best constructed from interpreted seismic sections, because these images help to understand how sedimentary sections spatially develop through time. In chronostratigraphic charts, the horizontal axis matches the horizontal dimension of the seismic section and the vertical axis represents the time (Figures 4.17 Using Wheeler diagrams, we constructed seismic chronostratigraphic charts showing the identified sequences (S1 to S5) and the sequence boundaries or unconformities (SU1 to SU5). When a reflector truncates the seismic horizons and is related to a hiatus, it corresponds to an unconformity. Sediment present between sequence boundaries represents the deposit unit preserved during a particular geological time period. Seismically driven Wheeler diagram are constructed in relative geological time without additional well information.

Our constructed chronostratigraphic charts (Figures 4.17 to 4.22) show that the defined sequences (S1 to S5) and identified unconformities (SU1 to SU5) were observed in all the interpreted sections in the study area.

In Figure 4.17 (upper part), the surface defined as an unconformity cuts down previous deposits expressing erosion. This is notorious for all unconformities (SU1 to SU5). For example SU3 (orange in Figure 4.17) locally removes the Albian-Aptian units (Lower Simiti and Tablazo Fms), as is also observed in the NW part of profile CP-2008-1410 (Figure 4.17).

In the lower part of Figure 4.17, the chronostratigraphic chart expresses the time gap related to the unconformities. Unconformity SU1 (Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary) produced an important erosion, mainly in the central part of the section. SU2 (Barremian-Aptian boundary) affected the whole area crossed by the section, eroding ≈ 450 m to ≈ 700 m of deposits, and cutting part of the Barremian-Early Aptian sequence (Paja Fm) and reaching the Late Hauterivian sequence (Rosablanca Fm). SU3 (Albian-Cenomanian boundary) locally eroded the Early Cenomanian to Middle Aptian sequence (Lower Simití and Tablazo Fms), eroding up to ≈ 900 m of deposits. SU4 (Santonian-Campanian boundary) removed the Santonian to Late Cenomanian deposits (Upper Simiti, Salto and La Luna Fms), eroding 350 to 1500 m of sediments. Finally, the well-documented Paleocene-Eocene unconformity (SU5) eroded the Campanian to Paleocene units (S5, Umir and Lisama Fms). Considering that in the MMV, S5 may be 2500 m thick, around ~1700 m of sediment may have been eroded in this area. In seismic section CP-2008-1335 (Figure 4.19), a series of anticlines and synclines are limited by faults, some of which cross cut the S1 to S5 sequences. Unconformities are marked by truncations below, or growth strata above the unconformity. The chronostratigraphic chart for section CP-2008-1335 (Figure 4.19) shows that SU1 eroded part (100 m to 1250 m) of the Jurassic sediments (Girón Fm). SU2 eroded partially or totally the Hauterivian-Barremian, and partially the Berriasian-Valanginian strata, eroding 500 to 728 m of S2. SU3 (Early Cenomanian unconformity) eroded sequence S3, i.e. ~50 to ~720 m of Late Aptian-Late Albian sediments. The SU4 unconformity removed Late Santonian to Early Cenomanian deposits (220 to 1150 m). Finally, considering that the sequence had been eroded by Tim unconformities SU2 to SU4 untill Late Santonian, the pre-Eocene erosion removed the Campanian to Paleocene sequence that could represent an erosion of 1100 to 2200 m.

The NW-SE trending seismic section of Figure 4.20 shows the erosion of almost the whole Upper Cretaceous sequence around the Infantas-E5 well and in the western part of the section (Chucuri-1 well). The Chucuri-1, RW-1, Colorado-39 and Brao-1 wells were used to tie stratigraphy with seismic sequences, and to identify and analyze the Cretaceous succession.

The key well RW-1 cut almost the complete Cretaceous sequence and represents one of the best-documented sections of the Cretaceous series in the MMV (Figure 4.20, see Chapter 3). The biostratigraphic information from the RW-1well has been used to identify the unconformities, sequences and time-gaps (Aptian, Campanian, Figure 3.44). As shown in the resulting chronostratigraphic chart (Figure 4.20), the RW-1 well has been drilled in the middle part of the section, where most of the Cretaceous sequence is preserved There, the seismic interpretation reveals that these two unconformities are present (Figure 4.20). In the RW-1 area, SU2 eroded Early Aptian to Late Barremian deposits (around 300 m), but in the rest of the section the erosion removed sediments down to the Hauterivian strata (i.e. 90 to 765 m). In the RW-1 well area, SU3 (Early Cenomanian) is not visible, and sequence S3 is ~570 m thick. Extrapolating this value, the SU3 unconformity may have eroded ~270 m to ~570 m of sediments. Around the RW-1 well, sequence S4 reaches a thickness of 1250 m, and SU4 eroded less than 320 m. Finally, erosion related to the Mid-Eocene unconformity SU5 removed the Lisama Fm. This latter erosion is sealed by Late Eocene deposits (Esmeraldas Fm). To the West the erosion removed much of the Cretaceous sequence, making the analysis of Cretaceous discontinuities impossible, whereas to the East, Late Cenomanian to Maastrichtian units (Upper Simití to Umir Fms) are locally preserved. SU1 (Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary) locally eroded the Jurassic units (Girón Fm). Considering that this sequence may be up to ~2500 m thick, the erosion in this area may reach ~750 m to ~2250 m in thickness. The SU2 unconformity (Barremian-Early Aptian) eroded almost all the S2 sequence (Berriasian -Barremian) to the West (only part of the Early Berriasian was preserved). However, around the Guie-1 well and to the East, sequence S2 is better preserved; since its maximum thickness is ~ 1100 m, erosion may have removed up to ~750 m. In the same way, erosion of the middle Aptian-Late Albian sequence S3 by SU3 (Barremian-Cenomanian) is estimated at ~620 to ~120 m. SU4 eroded a great part of the sequence S4; removing a maximum of ~ 450 m. In this section, the SU5 Unconformity (Paleoce/Eocene) seems to have eroded sequence S5 in most parts, but to the East ~ 430 m were eroded. However, the Oligocene unconformity eroded the SU5 unconformity totally.

In the southern area of the MMV, because the Cretaceous sequence and evidences of Cretaceous unconformities have been totally removed by Miocene and post-Miocene erosions to the West, only the eastern part of the section will be analyzed (Figure 4.22). Jurassic sediments (sequence S1) were eroded by SU1. The Early Aptian unconformity (SU2) would have removed the Early Cretaceous deposits (Naveta, Lower Trinchera Fm) and only relics of Berriasian-Early Valangenian deposits (Utica and Murca Fms) are preserved. In the area of Villeta the Utica Fm is ~ 600 m thick, the La Naveta Fm is ~ 165 m thick (Bürgl and Julivert, 1968) and the Lower Trinchera Fm is 320 m thick [START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF], which suggests that S2 was ~1100 m thick. Based on this thickness (figure 4.22), SU2 could have eroded ~750 to ~1100 m of the S2 sequence. In the Villeta area, sequence S3 is ~1550 m thick (620 m for upper Trinchera Fm, 380 m for El Peñon Fm and 550 m for Capotes Fm, see Fig. 3.4), so the Early Cenomanian SU3 may have eroded 1230 to 1550 m of sediment. (dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-1987-1740, DM-1987-1650, SL-95-1800) The S4 sequence may have reached a maximun of ~1500 m is this area, even though the type section of this unit reaches a total of ~2000 m. In this way, the Campanian unconformity SU4 may have eroded between ~ 500 and 2000 m of S4 sediments. Above the SU4 unconformity, deposits were eroded by pre-Oligocene erosions, which were sealed by the Mugrosa Fm.

Stratigraphic column based on new observations

Although outcrops are scarce in the MMV, synclines in the northern part of the valley (e.g. Nuevo Mundo syncline) exhibit Tertiary deposits and Cretaceous units in their flanks.

Cretaceous units can also be studied in the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera. Using these observations, together with information from seismic reflection, wells from the MMV and WEC, and published data, we constructed a composite stratigraphic column of the MMV and WEC (Fig. 4.23). Sequence S1 overlies the Jurassic-Berriasian unconformity (SU1) that erodes previous deposits totally or partially. Sequence S2 (middle Berriasian-Late Barremian) is partially eroded by the SU2 discordance (Barremian-Aptian). Sequence S3 (Aptian to Late Albian) is capped by unconformity SU3 (Albian-Cenomanian). Sequence S4 (Middle Cenomanian to the Late Santonian) is eroded by unconformity SU4 (Santonian-Campanian). Finally, sequence S5 (Campanian-Paleocene) is deeply eroded by the SU5 unconformity (Paleocene-Eocene).

Discussion

The seismic evidence (Figures 4.9 to 4.16) combined with information from wells and outcrops, show that the Cretaceous sequences of the MMV and WEC are controlled not only by sea level changes but also by deformations that occurred at different periods of the Cretaceous (Figures 4.5 to 4.12). Together with sea level variations, these movements triggered sedimentary hiatuses and erosion of deformed units, generating the unconformities SU1 to SU5 (Figure 4.17 Five sequences (S1 to S5) and their bounding unconformities (SU1 to SU5) were identified (Figure 4.24). According to the description of the RW-1 well (Figure 4.24 left), three unconformities could be interpreted based on biostratigraphic information. Following the facies analysis (chapter 3), one may conclude that these event are of eustatic origin. However, seismic interpretation and chronostratigraphic chart analysis (Wheeler diagrams, Figures 4.17 Other authors mentioned the existence of Cretaceous unconformities or identified Cretaceous regional sedimentary discontinuities in Andean basins (Etayo, 1974;Khon et al., 1984;[START_REF] Mattson | Caribbean structural breaks and plate movements[END_REF]Hanq et al., 1987;Macellari, 1988;Van der Wiels, 1991;Pindell and Tabutt, 1995;[START_REF] Rollon | Analisis Estratigrafico Secuencial del Cretacico Inferior en el VMM sector Piedemonte Occidental de la Cordillera Oriental[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF]Ramos and Alleman, 2000;[START_REF] Guerrero | A Proposal on the Classification of Systems Tracts: Application to the Allostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Colombian Basin. Part 2: Barremian to Maastrichtian[END_REF]Duarte, 2003;[START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF][START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF]Patarrollo, 2009). In Figure 4.26, we compare the hiatuses (gaps) and unconformities reported by other authors with those stablished in this work. Macellari (1988) recognized several unconformity-bounded depositional cycles across the whole western margin of South America and in Venezuela, distinguishing northern of southern South America (Figure 4. 25 and 4.26). The cycles stablished by Macellari (1988) are comparable in amplitude to the second-order cycles of [START_REF] Haq | Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic (250 Myr ago to Present)[END_REF].

The cycles recognized by Macellari (1988) are interpreted as a result of eustactic variation. In chapter 3, analyzing facies changes (see facies maps), I identified four major regression cycles and three transgressive cycles during the Cretaceous. Sandy sediments dominated to the East of the basin, whereas the western, deeper part of the basin received limestones and finegrained sediments with calcareous intercalations. These cycles can be described as follows: 3. From Barremian to Aptian a general regression produced the shallowing of the basin and deposited sand, shales and claystone in a shallow environment, as shown in wells Guane-1, Chucuri-1, Guineal-1, Agata-1 Escuela-1, RW-1 and Butuima, while sandstones were laid down in Cune, Anolaima and Alto Ojo in the western part of the WEC (Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.51, 3.52) 4. Between Late Aptian and Late Albian times (Figure 3.53), a marked transgression occurred in the eastern and central parts of the basin, and to the west, resulting in a deepening of the depositional environments; shales and clays were deposited over the Barremian-Early Aptian sands.

5. During the early Cenomanian a regression took place in all the basin (Figure 3.54), while a subtle transgression occurred to the West.

6. In the Cenomanian-early Turonian (Figure 3.55), a general transgression occurred, flooding all the basin including the WEC, where shales and clays were deposited, while limestone deposits dominated to the West (Figure 3.55).

7. During the Coniacian-Santonian (Figure 3.56), a general regression occurred again from North to South, leading to shallower deposits.

In Figure 4.26 the correlations of sedimentary basins from Peru to Venezuela are shown. In northwestern South America, Macellari (1988) In the MMV, [START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF] identified unconformities between the La Paja and Tablazo formations of Early Aptian age, in the Middle Cenomanian (Salto-Salada Fm boundary), and in the Campanian between the La Luna Fm and Umir Fms. These unconformities are almost coincident with those determined in this research.

In western Venezuela, [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF] proposed that the age variation at the top of the La Luna Fm would be explained by an uplift and erosion event occurring during the Campanian (Figure 4.28 and 4.29), that can be correlated with a Caribbean Plate-wide event of Late Campanian-Early Maastrichtian age (74-68 Ma). This important event may correspond to my SU4 and is evidenced in the MMV and WEC at 80-70 Ma by our thermochronological analysis (see chapter 5). It represents, therefore, the most important Cretaceous tectonic event with a regional extension. [START_REF] Guerrero | A Proposal on the Classification of Systems Tracts: Application to the Allostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Colombian Basin. Part 2: Barremian to Maastrichtian[END_REF] divided the Cretaceous series of Colombia based on regional sedimentary discontinuities corresponding to mainly transgressive and regressive surfaces. He concluded that, in spite of complex interactions of eustacy, sedimentary supply and subsidence, sequences are mainly controlled by eustatic changes. He recognized second order regressive surfaces at the Early-Late Hauterivian, Late Aptian-Early Albian, Late Albian-Cenomanian, Santonian-Campanian and Campanian-Maastrichtian boundaries, which represent changes from deep to shallow depositional environments. The Santonian-Campanian and Albian-Cenomanian regressions are consistent with our SU4 (Santonian-Campanian) and SU3 (Late Albian-Cenomanian), respectively. However, our SU2 (regression surface and erosion at the Barremian-Aptian boundary), was interpreted as a transgressive event by [START_REF] Guerrero | A Proposal on the Classification of Systems Tracts: Application to the Allostratigraphy and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Colombian Basin. Part 2: Barremian to Maastrichtian[END_REF].

In the Caribbean, [START_REF] Mattson | Caribbean structural breaks and plate movements[END_REF] recognized six unconformities related to important tectonic events between 110 and 5 Ma, among which those occurring at 110, 85 and 66 Ma are important. Using sequence stratigraphy analysis in the western foothills of the Eastern Cordillera, Rollon et al. (1997) defined 3 regional sequences separated by unconformities in the Paja, Tablazo and Simiti Fms. Jaillard and Soler (1996) and [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF] recognized four Cretaceous tectonic events (Figure 4.30). The first one (~100 Ma) is coeval with an abrupt acceleration of the plates around the world and with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean at equatorial latitudes. Another event occurred at 100-95 Ma (Late Albian-Early Cenomanian), during a slowdown of the convergence rate. A Santonian event (≈ 85 Ma), coincides with a decrease in the convergence velocity, and in the mid-Campanian (≈ 80 Ma) a major tectonic event is coincident with the plate velocity stabilization in the Andean zone. Stratigraphic series are from Western South America (Macellari, 1988), the Upper Magdalena Valley (Allen, 1988;Barrios, 1992;[START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF], the Middle Magdalena Valley (Morales et al., 1985) and western Venezuela [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF] and are compared with the column proposed in this work (right). The Late Aptian, mid-Cenomanian and mid-Campanian unconformities are identified in most basins. Jaillard, 1991). [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF], indicated that the change in the convergence direction that occurred between 60-50 Ma, may be responsible for the major tectonic event recorded in the Andean margin in the Late Paleocene. Jaillard and Soler (1996), observed that the beginning of contractional deformation in Albian times approximately coincides with the rejuvenation of the subducted oceanic plate, and that the Late Cretaceous and Paleocene shortening phase occurred during a continuous increase in the relative age of the subducted slab (Figure 4.30).

All of the authors cited above recognized erosions, non-depositional surfaces or unconformities during the Cretaceous. Some of these authors explained these events by sea level changes, others related them to the occurence of tectonic events related to plate movements. In this work, I propose that the Cretaceous erosional unconformities identified during this work resulted from significant tectonic events.

Conclusions

1. Structural and stratigraphic interpretations of 3500 km of seismic reflection profiles were carried out to understand the complex sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the MMV-WEC basin. Using well information, seismic reflection profiles from the MMV and partially from the WEC, and constructing Wheeler diagrams, we identified five sequences and unconformities interpreted as sequence boundaries. Cretaceous unconformities are dated at the Late Barremian-Early Aptian boundary (~125 Ma); at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary (~100 Ma), and at the Santonian-Campanian boundary (~ 80 Ma).

2. Our analysis suggests that the basin inversion may have started earlier than previously proposed by [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF] 2012). The presence of faults sealed by unconformities, folds related to faults, truncation, deformation and growth strata are evidence that deformation started before the Late Cretaceous.

3. I suggest that the basin inversion began with an incipient initial inversion during the Barremian-Aptian (incipient deformation below the SU2 unconformity). A generalized composite stratigraphic column of the MMV and WEC is proposed, based on information from outcrops, seismic reflections, wells and published data.

4. The unconformities identified in this work are consistent with the early tectonic phases identified in Peru and Ecuador [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF], in the Middle Magdalena Valley [START_REF] Morales | General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil[END_REF], in the Upper Magdalena Valley (Allen, 1989;Barrios, 1992;[START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF] and in western Venezuela [START_REF] Cooney | A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data[END_REF]. These comparisons allow me to propose that at least three pulses of uplift, deformation and erosion occurred at the Barremian-Aptian, Albian-Cenomanian, Santonian-Campanian boundaries, and an additional one around the Paleocene-Eocene boundary, all of them are significant tectonic events of regional extension.

5. However more accurate biostratigraphic data are needed to support the proposed observations.

CHAPTER 5

Thermal Evolution of the Western Eastern Cordillera and MMV: Relationship with the Cretaceous Unconformities

Sampling

In general, for all the WEC and the eastern border of the MMV about 90 samples were collected from Cretaceous to Tertiary sedimentary rocks, of which 45 samples were selected for preparation and finally 39 samples were analyzed with the zircon (1842 zircons crystals of 21 samples) and apatite (409 apatite crystals of 17 samples) fissiontrack methods. The aim was to obtain information on basin thermal and tectonic evolution, and to improve our understanding on the evolution of the WEC and the eastern border of the MMV. Samples used for fission track analysis in this project were collected from three different areas as shown in table 5.1and on the map of figure 5.1.

Methodology: Theory, concepts and laboratory processes.

Due to the complex history of the analyzed basins the fission-track data of detrital samples used in this project are usually more complex than data from other types of rocks such as metamorphic or igneous rocks. It is known that single-grain ages of detrital sediments provide information on landscape evolution, thermal history and exhumation or provenance (e.g., [START_REF] Hurford | The role of fission track dating in discrimination of provenance[END_REF][START_REF] Ireland | Crustal evolution of New Zealand: Evidence from age distributions of detrital zircons in Western Province paragneisses and Torlesse greywacke[END_REF][START_REF] Gehrels | Detrital zircon geochronology of the Adams Argillite and Nation River Formation[END_REF][START_REF] Carter | Present status and future avenues of source region discrimination and characterization using fission-track analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Gehrels | Introduction to detrital zircon studies of Paleozoic and Triassic strata in western Nevada and Northern California[END_REF]. These applications are related to each other, but the most common application is for provenance analysis. In active mountain belts the sediment source areas show different thermochronological patterns which allow to identify different areas by analyzing 50-100 grains or more per sample [START_REF] Dodson | A search for ancient detrital zircons in Zimbabwean sediments[END_REF]Bernet et al., 2004;Vermeesch, 2012) if the grains were not partially or fully annealed during burial heating. From the attained single-age distributions, major age components are derived and compared with the source area age patterns. This works very well for modern river samples which allow a direct comparison, whereas detrital age spectra from ancient sandstone need to be carefully evaluated [START_REF] Bernet | Fission-track analysis of detrital zircon[END_REF]. Another application is the use of thermo-and geochronological data for landscape evolution, invaluable help in the reconstruction of the dynamic evolution of orogens [START_REF] Bernet | detrital thermochronology-provenance analysis, exhumation, and landscape evolution of mountain belts[END_REF]. Several dating techniques exist for dating single grains. The most common is zircon U-Pb dating which provides general crystallization ages, whereas 40 Ar/ 39 Ar in white mica, apatite and zircon fission-track analysis and apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He dating provide information for cooling ages (Bernet, et al., 2004), based on the closure temperature concept of Dodson (1973Dodson ( , 1979)).

The thermochronological dating methods are based on the concept that decay-products (daughter isotopes or fission tracks) are lost while the crystal is above the so-called closure temperature. Decay-products are retained when the crystal cools below the closure temperature (Dodson, 1973). Cooling can be post-magmatic or caused by tectonic and erosional exhumation [START_REF] Gallagher | A novel method for constraining heat flow histories in sedimentary basins, in Basin Modeling: Practice and Progress[END_REF].

In this study only apatite and zircon fission-track analysis was used. Fission tracks are the damage produced in the crystal due to the spontaneous nuclear fission of 238 U and track densities are obtained by optical microscopy. Fission tracks may be partially or totally annealed if the crystals are exposed to elevated temperatures. The temperatures of the partial annealing zone (PAZ) of fission-tracks in apatite of average chemical composition are of about 80-110°C, and about 190-230°C for radiation damaged zircon, depending on hold time [START_REF] Reiners | Using thermochronology to understand orogenic erosion[END_REF]. The temperature for total annealing is around 110°C for apatite [START_REF] Gleadow | A natural long-term annealing experiment for apatite[END_REF] and for zircons around 240°C, depending on cooling rate during monotonic cooling (Hurford, 1986;Brandon et al., 1998;[START_REF] Bernet | A field-based estimate of the zircon fission-track closure temperature[END_REF].

The external detector method used for dating single detrital grains is explained in Fig. 5.2 [START_REF] Gallagher | A novel method for constraining heat flow histories in sedimentary basins, in Basin Modeling: Practice and Progress[END_REF] In order to understand the exhumation history of the western Eastern Cordillera we used zircon (ZFT) and apatite fission-track (AFT) thermochronology. For better constraining the thermal history additional parameters are normally used in the case of apatite, such as track length measurements, which was not measured in this work, and etch pit size (Dpar) which were measured only when it was possible. Both are recommended because the annealing behavior of apatite depends on the chemical composition of the apatite (e.g. [START_REF] Gleadow | Confined track lengths in apatite: A diagnostic tool for thermal history analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Donelick | Variability of apatite fission-track annealing kinetics II: Crystallographic orientation effects[END_REF][START_REF] Donelick | Apatite fission-track analysis[END_REF], Ketcham et al., 1999). In rocks that have not been submitted to temperatures greater than 50°C since deposition, spontaneous fission tracks have characteristics of confined track lengths with a range of 14-15 μm and a deviation of 1 μm, in which case the FT age will be equal to the time over which the tracks have been accumulated (Gomez, 2001).

In rocks subjected to temperatures greater than 50°C after deposition, the FT are shortened in a process known as annealing, in that way the final length of each tracks is determined by the maximum temperature reached. Temperature is the dominant factor in determining the final fission track parameters (Gomez, 2001), independent of when they were formed.

The track length can be related to the maximum temperature reached by the grain. The degree of shortening depends of time of heating and the composition of the apatites, this shortening produces a reduction in fission track age, however the age is highly dependent on the temperature reached being around 120°C due to the total annealing. Samples that were heated to the maximum paleo-temperature (~120°C) at some time in the past and then cooled will probably contain two populations of tracks as happened with some samples here (figure 5.2 and 5.5), and contain a more complex distribution of length and ages. Tracks formed prior to the maximum temperature could be shortened to the same magnitude, so those formed during or after cooling will be longer (Gomez, 2001), the length distribution could consist of shorter and longer components. If the paleo-temperature was enough to shorten traces to 9 -11 μm, and cooling was rapid up to temperatures of 50°C or less, traces could have a length of 14 -15 μm; if the temperature was ~120°C all the pre-existing tracks will disappear and new traces will be formed after the onset cooling (related directly to the time of cooling).

Figure 5.2. The external detector method for fission-track dating is shown step by step: from top to base the formation of spontaneous fission tracks over geological time, polished grain mounts of zircon or apatite minerals; in the next step etching is used to reveal spontaneous tracks; grain mounts are covered

with an uranium-free detector typically a muscovite mica, and the sample is irradiated in a nuclear reactor with low energy thermal neutrons, which induce fission in 235 U. After irradiation the mica detectors are etched to reveal the induced tracks on a mirror image of the original grain mount. Finally spontaneous and induced tracks are counted to determine the fission-track age on each grain [START_REF] Gallagher | A novel method for constraining heat flow histories in sedimentary basins, in Basin Modeling: Practice and Progress[END_REF].

Thermal histories can be determined by forward and inverse modelling of timetemperature (t-T) paths based on grain age, track length and Dpar measurements (e.g., [START_REF] Ketcham | Forward and inverse modeling of low-temperature thermochronometry data[END_REF], and additional information such as depositional age and vitrinite reflectance (maximum burial temperature; e.g., Burnham and Sweeney, 1989) or ZFT data.

Detrital age spectra obtained from sedimentary rocks, are usually composed of more than one grain age population. To distinguish the possible presence of multiple age components the value P(χ 2 ) is used. When the value is less than 5% it is assumed that more than one population is present [START_REF] Galbraith | On statistical models for fission tracks counts[END_REF]. Different age peaks can be determined using statistical techniques [START_REF] Galbraith | Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture[END_REF][START_REF] Sambridge | Mixture modeling of multi-component data sets with application to ion-probe zircon ages[END_REF][START_REF] Brandon | Decomposition of fission-track grain-age distributions[END_REF]1996). Normally P1 is the youngest age peak and Pn is the oldest (figure 5. ). The different ages, P1 to P3, were extracted from a raw dataset using statistical techniques [START_REF] Galbraith | Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture[END_REF][START_REF] Sambridge | Mixture modeling of multi-component data sets with application to ion-probe zircon ages[END_REF][START_REF] Brandon | Decomposition of fission-track grain-age distributions[END_REF]1996), the ages are indicated with a one sigma error (1σ); the number in parentheses is the number of grains beloning to each peak.

Fission-track age equation:

The general equation of fission track age calculation is given by: Eq. 5.1

Where is the total decay constant of 238 U (1.55 x 10 -10 yrs -1 ); ρs, ρi in practical terms are the measured spontaneous and induced track density on internal crystal surfaces which are determined during the fission track counting of NsNi which are substituted by ρs, ρi, and ρd is the dosimeter track density. For more information see Wagner and Van den Haute (1992); c is a geometric factor (0.5). Where Ns/Ni is know as R.

The term is called Z factor, which is a personal calibration factor (between 250 to 390 yr/cm 2 ) for apatite and zircon methods [START_REF] Fleischer | Fission-track dating techniques and problems[END_REF], this factor is calculated and applied for the External Detector Method [START_REF] Wagner | Fission-track dating: Netherlands: Solid Earth Sciences Library[END_REF][START_REF] Gallagher | A novel method for constraining heat flow histories in sedimentary basins, in Basin Modeling: Practice and Progress[END_REF]. This Z factor is calculated using the following equation.

Eq. 5.2

Where, is the neutron flux; is a cross section of neutron capture (580.2x10 -24 cm 2 ); represents the fission decay constant of 238 U (8.5 x 10 -17 y -1 ); I is the 238 U/ 235 U ratio (7.2527x10 -3 ) and is the track density of the glass monitor which is proportional to the fluence.

Pooled age is defined by:

The estimation of R is shown in the following equation [START_REF] Burchart | Evaluation of uncertainties in fission track dating: Some statistical and geochemical problems[END_REF]in Bermudez, 2010):

Eq. 5.3

Central age: This ages from many observations converge numerically to the maximum likelihood estimator for the ratio R, which allows this statistical estimation to be generally used as an age estimator, [START_REF] Galbraith | Statistical models for mixed fission track ages[END_REF]Galbtaith, 2005;in Bermudez, 2010).

Where, Eq. 5.4

The expression Nsj and Nij represent respectively the spontaneous and induced fission track counts for grains j=1……..n. and the sum is expressed by

Minimum Age:

The term "minimum age" was introduced by [START_REF] Galbraith | Statistical models for mixed fission track ages[END_REF], and it can be expressed as the pooled age of the largest concordant fractions of young grains in a Fission track distribution. For the estimation of minimum age of a distribution the bimodal peak can also be used, which will be equal to the youngest component in the distribution. The minimum age from zircons is useful, for example, for a tuff can remove the contaminant effect of the older contaminant grains. For the rocks that have been reset it represents the time of closure for the fraction of grains with the lowest retention for fission tracks. Such radiation-damage zircons in ZFT dating (Brandon and Vance, 1992) or flourapatites in AFT (Brandon, et al. 1998).

Vitrinite Reflectance -Ro -Tmax

Vitrinite reflectance Ro is a measurement of maturity of organic matter. The vitrinite reflectance increases with increasing temperature (e.g., [START_REF] Bustin | Determining levels of organic diagenesis in sediments and fossil fuels[END_REF]. The Ro measurement is related to heating in most cases associated to burial. The measure of Ro can provide the paleo-temperature reached during the burial history (sedimentation load). In this case, Vitrinita values were taken from existing literature. The range of vitrinite reflectance typically varies from 0.2 for temperatures ˂30°C to 6 for maximum paleo-temperature of ˃280°C. In the case of this study, Ro was used to estimate the paleo-temperature and determine the amount of overburden.

The maximum temperature (Tmax) can be estimated from the vitrinite reflectance (Ro) values, using empirical relations as indicated by Baker and Pawlewicz, (1994):

(

) 3
Where Tmax is the maximum temperature in Celsius degrees and Ro is vitrinite reflectance in %. It is know that there are other relationships to stablish the Tmax and other possibly more sophisticated methods (e.g., [START_REF] Sweeney | Evaluation of a simple model of vitrinite reflectance based on Chemical kinetics[END_REF], however I decided to use this one (equation 3), because the possible refining in methodology would be small in comparison with other methods as is indicated by Lee Y. et al, (1999). The Tmax calculated using the equation ( 3) are shown in numeral 5.4.

t-T Thermal Modeling

In Figure 5. 4 Ketcham et al. (2016), show us an interesting diagram that describes the paths t-T. In the figure solid boxes are used as a constrain and dashed boxes are implicit constrains from stratigraphic reasons. Lines linking cubes are in reality t-T paths, the dashed lines show paths controlled by samples and solid lines that are free to vary; A represents continuous deposition indicating what the lower sample is hosting between its deposition and the deposition of the upper section; B indicates unconformity, at least one episode of erosion (it means cooling between two consecutive episodes); C is independent where the upper and lower samples don't influence the others; and finally D represents the parallel where the upper sample has a history that is the inverse of the lower, while the lower sample is being buried.

Thermal history modeling is a more general and more comprehensive treatment of the thermo chronometric data [START_REF] Ketcham | Deciphering exhumation and burial history with multi-sample down-well thermochronometric inverse modeling[END_REF]. An advantage of thermo-kinematic models is that they stablish a spatial-structural relation between samples to evaluate structural scenarios (Erdos et al, 2014;Castellucio et al., 2015 and McQuarrie and Ehlers;[START_REF] Ketcham | Deciphering exhumation and burial history with multi-sample down-well thermochronometric inverse modeling[END_REF]. Information can predict the dates that corresponding to the exhumation of the source region and transport to the depocenter [START_REF] Bernet | Fission-track analysis of detrital zircon[END_REF]. [START_REF] Ketcham | Deciphering exhumation and burial history with multi-sample down-well thermochronometric inverse modeling[END_REF], showed that thermal history could be modeled using multiple samples simultaneously in HeFTy thermal history modeling software [START_REF] Ketcham | Forward and inverse modeling of low-temperature thermochronometry data[END_REF].

In the case of QtQt modeling software one may try to determine the structure of the thermal history necessary to fit the data. In the case of HeFTy the application is written starting from the point of view that geological histories are more complex than the thermochronometers data could resolve [START_REF] Ketcham | Deciphering exhumation and burial history with multi-sample down-well thermochronometric inverse modeling[END_REF]. In HeFTy modeling software [START_REF] Ketcham | Deciphering exhumation and burial history with multi-sample down-well thermochronometric inverse modeling[END_REF] describe an extension that allows to explore questions that are inherent to sedimentary sequences and involve distinguishing different thermal histories for different strata, major unconformities, the amount of missing sections, and timing of burial. The new implementation works with a combination of a set of sample files that establish the stratigraphic and pre-depositional relationship with one another.

Relations between the samples are defined in couples from bottom to top. [START_REF] Ketcham | Deciphering exhumation and burial history with multi-sample down-well thermochronometric inverse modeling[END_REF].

Figure 5.4 -Shows schematic time-temperature (t-T) paths, solid boxes are used as imposed constrains and dashed boxes constrains are derived from stratigraphic relationships, lines represent t-T paths. Solid lines represent paths that are free to vary and dashed lines represent paths controlled by lower samples. A) Continuous deposition, B) An unconformity relationship, at least one episode of erosion and thus cooling, C) inheritance or pre-depositional history can be independent, D) parallel, not influenced by other sample (Taken from

According to [START_REF] Ketcham | Deciphering exhumation and burial history with multi-sample down-well thermochronometric inverse modeling[END_REF], the burial history is defined by the relation between the adjacent samples, two relations were provided; continuous deposition where the thermal history of the lower sample is monotonically heating until deposition of the upper one; unconformity, where there is a missing section between the two samples, involving a period of exhumation and a later period of burial before the upper sample is deposited (its mean heating, cooling, heating again). The amount of missing section is determined using thermochronology (related to when the samples were at the maximum temperature; [START_REF] Corcoran | A Review of Techniques for the Estimation of Magnitude and Timing of Exhumation in Offshore Basins[END_REF]. Independent, neighbor samples with entirely independent thermal histories prior to deposition which are linked after deposition of the upper sample (C in figure 5.4); Parallel is the case where two samples behave similarly, cooling and exhumation at the same rate (after the lower sample is deposited the upper sample is forced to cool at the same rate as the lower sample is being heated or the source region is being eroded as fast as the sediment column is being buried (1D in figure 5.4). The thermal modeling (t-T thermal modeling) from samples in the three different areas in this work are shown in numeral 5.7.

Analytical procedure

In the lab the samples were crushed, pulverized and sieved, and from the 160 to 60 μm fraction heavy minerals were separated with standard magnetic and heavy liquid separation in three different laboratories (National University of Colombia at Bogotá, GMAS lab and ISTerre, University Grenoble Alpes). In the ISTerre thermochronology laboratory zircons were mounted in Teflon® sheets, polished and etched. For each zircon sample two mounts were prepared and etched for different lengths of time (10-30 h) at 228°C in a NaOH-KOH melt. Apatite grains were mounted in epoxy resin, polished and etched for 20s at 21°C in 5.5 molar HNO3 (Figure 5.2).

Before sending the samples for irradiation to the FRM II reactor in Munich, Germany, the grain mounts were covered with muscovite sheets as external detectors. The samples were irradiated together with Fish Canyon Tuff and Buluk Tuff age standards and IRMM541 dosimeter glasses for zircons, and Durango Tuff and Fish Canyon Tuff age standards and IRMM540R dosimeter glasses for apatite. After irradiation the mica detectors were etched at 20°C for 18 minutes in 48% HF to reveal induced fission tracks (Figure 5.1). Zircon fission tracks were counted at 1250x with an Olympus BH2 microscope, whereas apatite fission tracks were counted at 1250x with an Olympus BX51 microscope at the ISTerre thermochronology laboratory in Grenoble, France.

The fission-track ages of single grains in addition to best-fit peak ages were first determined for each sample using BinomFit for Windows ver. 1.2. whereas minimum and central ages were calculated using the RadialPlotter software of Vermeesch ( 2009) (e.g., Figures 5.2 and 5.3).

Results

The results of the detrital ZFT and AFT analyses are shown in Tables 5.2, 5.4 and 5.6 for the zircons and 5.3, 5.5 and 5.7 for the apatites. The ZFT data show a large range of grain age distributions, with minimum age range varying from lower Eocene to Coniacian, and central age range varying from Turonian to Middle Jurassic. ) is the chi-square probability [START_REF] Galbraith | On statistical models for fission tracks counts[END_REF]Green, 1981)

Discussion

Northern Section

For the northern section eleven zircon and nine apatite samples were analyzed (Tables 5.2 and 5.3). Figure 5.5 shows a wide range of peak ages determined for the different samples and many of the peak ages are younger than the age of deposition, indicating partial annealing because of burial heating. For interpreting the detrital fission-track data, I separated the peaks into five different population ages (D1 to D5), showing that the ZFT ages for detrital tendencies D1 to D3 are in the partial resetting zone Lag-time ˂ 0, whereas the samples D4 and D5 are older than the stratigraphic age. However D4 and D5 grain populations were also affected by partial annealing probably to a lesser degree than the other grains. Under these conditions the samples analyzed in this work do not provide a clear provenance signal, however, as we will see later, they could be useful to understand the thermal history of the area. In the Rio Sogamoso section (Figures 5.6,5.7 and 5.8) the ZFT ages are older on the western flank of the Los Cobardes anticline (samples JG-P3-32 at 142.2±5.2 Ma and sample JG-P3-41 with 143.6±8.4 Ma; figure 5.6 and 5.7). In the Girón Fm. in the core of the Los Cobardes anticline the ZFT ages are 104±3.5 Ma, somewhat younger (see Table 5. 1 and Figure 3.4) where the stratigraphically younger units where cooled earlier than the stratigraphically older units during the exhumation. The same behavior is observed mapping minimum age from ZFT (Figures 5.6 and 5.9) and also mapping minimum age from AFT (Figures 5.9,5.10 and 5.11), for the maps showing these tendencies see Figure 5.9. The same relation that is interpreted for the ZFT samples is observed for the minimum age of the AFT. The cooling age is younger at the core of the Los Cobardes anticline at the level of the Girón Fm., and successively older outwards (Figure 5.9). This indicates that the youngest stratigraphic units cooled first and the older units in the stratigraphic sequence (Girón Fm.) cooled after. The central age of the AFT does not show a clear tendency.

Also, what can be observed from the central age is that the only samples with a cooling age younger than the stratigraphy age are the units located in the core of the Los Cobardes anticline (Jurassic units) as is shown in Figures 5. 6 and 5.7, which means that FT from the Jurassic units (Girón Fm.) were partially reset (more than the other younger units).

The location of the FT samples is shown in the structural sections of the Sogamoso River above and the Barichara-San Vicente de Chucuri section below (Figure 5.11).

On the left side the interpretation was made using only surface information and on the right it was constructed using seismic information and surface information, the latter allowed to observe in more detail. Two faults were identified and contrasting values of AFT can be observed on both sides of the fault: at the hanging wall (sample JG-P3-32) with a minimum age of 1), above is shown the section in the Sogamoso River and below is shown the Barichara-San Vicente de Chucuri section, both sections were built using surface information, the structural section from the Sogamoso River is also shown above to the right, built using structural dips from surface and seismic information which allowed to interpret a subsurface structural section in detail, where one of the important fault is identified and its movement is consistent with the AFT ages (minimum and central) from samples JG-P3-32 and JG-P3-42. For the central section, six zircon and four apatite samples were analyzed. The ZFT data is shown on table 5.4 and the AFT data on Table 5.5.

Central Section

In the Villa de Leyva-Chiquinquira structural section constructed from field data in this work, the ZFT ages are shown in Figure 5.13 and the AFT ages in Figure 5.14. The central and minimum ZFT ages show a clear tendency to younger ages from the flanks to the core of the Arcabuco anticline (Figure 5.16).

I suggest that the deformation associated to these ages very likely occurred during the cooling events, which will be discussed below with t-T models in this chapter.

Nevertheless, the AFT central and minimum ages are increasing from the east to west, showing a different behavior than that of the ZFT ages. The behavior of the AFT ages seems to reflect a syn-deformation cooling. For the southern section five zircon samples (Table 5.6) and four apatite samples (Table 5.7) were analyzed. The locations of the samples are shown in the maps of figures 5.1 and 5.17 and in the structural sections in figures 5.18 (zircons) and 5.19 (apatite). In the La Vega-Villeta section the behavior observed from ZFT ages is a little more complex than that observed in the central and northern sections, showing two different tendencies: One of these towards the Villeta anticline, where the Trinchera/Utica Formations of lower Cretaceous age are present (Figure 3.4 and 5.17). In this area central and minimum age from ZFT tends to decrease towards the core of the Villeta anticline; the second tendency is that the central and minimum ZFT age tends to decrease towards the east (to the right on the maps -Figure 5.21). In general, as is expected, the ZFT ages tend to decrease toward the core of the anticlines where older units of these folds are present (Figures 5.17 From the northern (Figure 5.8), central (Figure 5.15) and southern (Figure 5.20) areas of the western Eastern Cordillera (WEC) I show lag-time plots of detrital ZFT of data collected from the three areas assessed. In the graphs showing detrital ZFT age versus stratigraphic age, it is noted that the oldest stratigraphic units in each section are partially or totally reset; in the northern and central area this corresponds to Jurassic units (Girón Formation and Arcabuco Formation respectively), and in the south to rocks from the Hauterivian (Murca Formation). However, on the other hand, the young units at the northern, central, and for the southern areas are from the Barremian-Valangenian to Paleocene and were also partially reset as is shown by the peak age in Figure 5.5 (Tables 5.2 -5.7).

Southern Section

In this way, since all the samples suffer from partial or total annealing, it is not possible to determine the exhumation rate of stratigraphic units during the basin inversion, because it is not possible to stablish a lag time. However, the totally annealing fission track ages from AFT could provide the timing of basin inversion and rates of exhumation but not the ZFT data.

Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro)

From Ro we can determine the maximum paleo-temperature and temperature gradient (Tables 5.8 and 5.9). Tabla 5.8 -Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) collected by several authors (Gomez, 2001;Caballero, 2013;[START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF]Moreno et al., 2013), the maximum temperatures (Tmax*) were calculated using Equation 1, shown in the text (after Baker and Pawlewicz, 1994). (Gomez, 2001;Caballero, 2013;[START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF]Moreno et al., 2013). Tabla 5.9 -Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) collected by the ICP (Instituto Colombiano de Petróleo), the maximum temperatures (Tmax*) were calculated using Equation-1 shown in the text (after Baker and Pawlewicz, 1994).

Table 5.8 shows published vitrinite reflectance data ranging from 0.43 for temperatures ˂68°C to 6.42 for maximum paleo-temperature of ˃285°C (Gomez, 2001;Caballero, 2013;[START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF]Moreno et al., 2013). In table 5.9, vitrine reflectance values from the ICP collection range from 0.25 for temperatures ˂24°C to 2.08 for maximum paleo-temperature of ˃194°C. Table 5.10, vitrinite reflectance values from the RW-1, Infantas-1613 and Catalina -1 drill holes vary from 0.3 (temperatures ˂40°C) to 2.08 for maximum paleo-temperatures of ˃194°C. Ro values of ̴ 0.8 correspond to temperatures of about 117-120°C (Burnham and Sweeney, 1989). This Ro value is equivalent to the AFT total annealing temperature. According to the data from the wells RW-1, Infantas-1613 and Catalina-1 and considering only one lineal tendency, the temperature gradient in the position of the wells RW-1 and Infantas-1613 is ~57.1°C/km to 57.4°C/km respectively and in the position of the well Catalina-1 is around ~121.5°C/km (Figure 5.24). However, the correlation coefficient (Temperature/Depth) from the wells RW-1 and Infantas-1613 is 0.95 to 0.90, while the coefficient for Catalina-1 is as low as 0.56. The location of the samples listed in tables 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10 are shown on the map of figure 5.27.

Figure 5.25 represents the Tmax °C calculated using Ro data collected from several sources (Tables 5.8 to 5.10) versus stratigraphic age. This figure shows the maximum paleo-temperature that different stratigraphic units experienced. In this figure I separated and ploted the Tmax from north to south to observe the paleo-temperature's behavior. It was observed that the lowest paleo-temperature was reached in the northernmost area (Norean-1) and this progressively rose towards the south zone where the highest paleo-temperature was reached. These high temperatures (central and south zones) are probably due to one of the following reasons: 1) Sediment supply was enough to reach these paleo-temperatures.

2) The central and southern areas were affected by magmatic activity that increased the temperature till values as high as 285°C in rock.

An additional observation is that in the central and southern sections in the sediments deposited close to about 73-70 Ma, the paleo-temperature goes from 170 °C to 90 °C, and for the Villeta anticline area the paleo-temperatures behave in a more complex way in rocks deposited between 110 to 85 Ma. Guaduas area,Arcabuco,Nuevo Mundo,and Villeta anticline. The APAZ (pink) and ZPAZ (light blue) are highlighted in the graph.

The relation between paleo-temperatures and present-day temperatures is shown in Figure 5.26. The maximum paleo-temperatures are determined from samples from the wells (Tables 5.9 and 5.10). These maximum paleo-temperatures are also shown for the MMV in Figure 5.25 in which the maximum paleo-temperature in the central and southern zone can be observed. By comparing the paleo-geothermal gradient and present-day geothermal gradient, it is possible to interpret the cause of the high paleotemperatures and the cause of the cooling to present temperature conditions.

In Figure 5.26, the presence of major unconformities during the Cretaceous in all the sections is shown (as is shown also in Dow W.G., 1976). The difference in paleothermal slopes probably suggests different thermal histories for the Cretaceous and Tertiary sections, reflecting (longer exposure time) a slower sedimentation rate in the Cretaceous (Dow W.G., 1976).

vs depth plots for wells Infantas-1613 (A), RW-1 (B) and Cascajales-1 (C). The Paleotemperatures were greater than the present-day temperatures, in general in A, B and C the paleogradient presents two tendencies that mark an Albian-Cenomianian or earlier unconformity. The Paleogeothermal gradient line in A and B over the unconformity is greater than the present-day gradient and not offset at the surface. This indicates a drop in the geothermal gradient due to changes in heat flow which was responsible for cooling to the present temperature conditions. Two additional behavior differences between the paleogeothermal gradient and Present day gradient could indicate that the cooling must occur in response only to denudation (similar paleogeothermal gradient to the present-day gradient with an offset at the surface). A third possible case is if the cooling happens in response to both changes in the geothermal gradient and in denudation (O´Sullivan. 1999).

As to the slope in the section over the Cenomanian in A and B (Figure 5.26), the paleogradients are higher than the present-day gradients with no offset at the surface. This probably means that the high temperatures are due to changes in the geothermal gradient, however in figure C this section showed a different behavior with a small paleo-gradient of 1.6°C/km while the preset-day gradient is of 24°C/km. In this case, cooling is probably a response to both factors (changes in geothermal gradient and denudation).

The plots shown in Figure 5.28 relate the central age for ZFT and AFT ages measured in this work with the Tmax calculated here from Ro. Also shown are samples for each region and the linear temperature tendencies region by region. The red reference lines show the lower limit of the PAZ (limit required to enter into a Total Annealing Zone-TAZ) and the blue reference lines show the upper limit of the PAZ.

In the northern zone (left in Figure 5.28), we observe that only older stratigraphic samples from the Girón Fm. (samples P3-43, 22, 21 and 20 in Table 5.2) suffered partial annealing because the heating was insufficient to produce complete annealing of preexisting ZFT. For the northern area all samples were above red reference line of the TAZ (total annealing zone) which means that these samples were not totally reset.

The samples from the northern area, stratigraphically younger than ~140 Ma, corresponding to the Tambor, Paja, Tablazo, Simiti and Lisama formations, were never heated enough to suffer partial annealing in the ZPAZ. For sample JG-P3-36 from the Lisama Fm., heating was sufficient to fully anneal fission tracks in apatite before cooling during basin inversion. All apatite samples in this area were subjected to total or partial annealing as described above.

In the central zone, in the sample from the Arcabuco Fm, (JG-P5-03 in Table 5.4) the heating event was enough to anneal all pre-existing ZFT in this sample. In the sample from the Tablazo Fm. (JG-P1-06) the opposite happened: the heating was not enough to completely anneal all the pre-existing ZFT, as a result, in spite of the Tmax related with this sample (~240) that is shown in Figure 5.28, the ZFT age for this sample is probably older than the stratigraphic age. For the rest of the samples from Conejo, Churuvita and Simijaca formations (samples JG-P2-01, JG-P2-05, and JG-P2-07 see in Table 5.4) the heating was sufficient to completely anneal the AFT (samples in the TAZ).

The southern area probably has the most complex heating (Figure 5.28right); the sample form the Utica/Trinchera Fm (JG-P4-13 in Table 5.6) was probably totally annealed, as is shown in Figure 5.28 (right) located in the TAZ for zircons (below the red reference line). The rest of the samples (Table 5.6) stayed in the APAZ. In this zone the heating was also sufficient to completely anneal the AFT. 202

Discussion

Based on the previous plots (Figures 5.25 and 5.28) it is possible to conclude that the three thermal histories are different for the three sectors analyzed. Almost all samples are partially or totally annealed. Probably the southern section has the most complex history.

The partial or totally reset ZFT ages are probably due to one of these reasons: 1) According to our calculation of thermal gradients in the positions of the wells (from Ro data) RW-1 and Infantas-1613 (Figure 5.23), a burial at less between 3.5 to 4.5 km of sediment accumulation of Cretaceous deposits was necesary (4-6 km for Sanchez, 2012), and with regards to the AFT data, as much as 1.3 to 2 km of sediments or 2) Thermal anomalies due to magmatic activity as have been reported for example in the Villa de Leiva area (Bürgl, 1954) in the Paja Fm. [START_REF] Forero | Ambiente de sedimentación del miembro de arcillolitas abigarradas, Formacion Paja, área de Villa de Laiva[END_REF]. In the Girón Fm. (Morales et al., 1968¸ Taborda, 1965), dacite porphyr cut the Tambor Fm. (Wards et al. 1973). In the south area of the study zone (Villeta zone) basic intrusions in the Cretaceous succession, that according to Fabre and Delayon (1983), and [START_REF] Moreno | Nuevas manifestaciones ígneas básicas en el flanco occidental de la Cordillera Oriental, Colombia.-Geología Colombiana[END_REF] are small bodies (dikes and sills) of gabbroid, tholeite and alkalines with evidence of hydrothermal alteration in black shales of the lower Cretaceous [START_REF] Fabre | Intrusiones básicas Cretácicas de la Cordillera Oriental. Geología. Norandina[END_REF] indicating that these intrusions were located in the thinned lithosphere [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF], with incipient fusion of the mantle that permitted the intrusion.

Based on Tmax (Ro) different paleo-temperatures with less heating in the north (at the position of Norean-1) and stronger heating to the south, being higher in direction toward the south in Villeta-Guaduas area, are generally observed, (Figure 5.25).

The new AFT and ZFT data collected from Cretaceous to Paleocene sedimentary rocks are compared to the published data (Figure 5.27) from Gomez (2001), [START_REF] Gomez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF]2005) Gomez (2001), [START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust-belt hinterlands. Example from Colombian Andes[END_REF] and Caballero et al., (2013). 2012) in the area of the Armas Syncline as is illustrated in Figure 5.29 (north zone above). Three AFT samples with P(χ2)=0 from the Girón, Simiti and Umir formations (Table 5. [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Contornos sucesivos del mar Cretáceo en Colombia[END_REF] show cooling ages between 40.4±6.4Ma to 25.6±2.3Ma, indicating partial or total resetting of the AFT, which is consistent with the Ro data (Figure 5.28, left). However, the younger ages could be related to a recent rapid cooling event, as we will see with the thermal modeling.

The ZFT cooling ages of the Girón Formation samples show partial annealing, which is also consistent with the Ro data (Figure 5.28). The ZFT cooling age calculated for units younger than the Girón Fm (˂150Ma in Figure 5.28) are consistent with the ZFT dating by Sanchez et al ( 2012) for upper units of the Lisama Fm., and also for AFT of the Tambor Fm as shown by Gomez (2001) in Figure 5.29 (north zone), which are older than the stratigraphic age.

Central region.

In the central zone (Figures 3.5 and 5.1) I obtained ZFT and AFT cooling ages from Jurassic to Late Cretaceous units. As discussed for the north area, the characteristics related to P(χ2) ˂5 and to the cooling ages younger than the depositional age (Figure 5.15, Tables 5.4 and 5.5) are also present.

My new AFT data varies from 5.47±0.6Ma from the Churuvita Fm. to 9.3±8.2Ma from the Arenicas de Chiquinquira. These AFT ages are in general older than what we observed in the southern area, and as in the north, are related to the Neogene cooling episode.

I obtained ZFT cooling ages of 63.7±5 Ma for the Arcabuco Formation and 133.5±10.4 for the Churuvita Fm. According to the Ro (Tmax) data of the Arcabuco Fm. the ZFT must have been totally reset because the heating event was intense enough to anneal all the pre-existing ZFT of this sample (see the Tmax trend line in Figure 5.25 at the center). In the case of the Tablazo Fm., sample JG-P1-06 resided in the PAZ, and 71%

of the ZFT ages are older than the stratigraphic age (Table 5.4). For the rest of the samples from the Conejo, Churuvita, and Simijaca formations the samples remained in the TRZ for zircons . An additional 47.3±7.6 Ma ZFT age of Caballero et al. (2013) for the Arcabuco Fm. is consistent with the age reported in this work (Figure 5.29).

Southern region.

In the southern zone (Figures [START_REF] Cosgrove | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF]. This means that these samples were never heated enough to suffer annealing and always stayed in the TRZ.

Exhumation of the Eastern Cordillera

The AFT ages in this study provide new information on the exhumation of the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera. The new AFT ages from this study are younger than the AFT ages reported by Gomez (2001[START_REF] Gomez | Controls on architecture of the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic southern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF] and Caballero (2013) (Tables 5.11a and b).

Our dates vary from AFT in the range of 1.9±0.39 Ma in the southern area to 3.41±0.36 Ma in the north (location in Figure 5.1). The AFT samples from the north and south compared with the central zone (5.47±0.58 to 9.3±4.1 AFT age) showed younger ages, which probably means an earlier age of exhumation at the central zone (Figure 5.1) than at the south and north. Additionally, the new AFT ages in the north and south of the WEC (1.9±0.39 to 3.41±0.36 Ma), are similar to AFT cooling age of 0.8±0.3 to 3.8±0.7 Ma of [START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics and exhumation processes in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Mora | Climatic forcing of asymmetric orogenic evolution in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] from the east flank of the EC. These new AFT values indicate that exhumation was almost simultaneous on both sides of the EC.

8 t-T. THERMAL MODELING

Although I obtained the cooling age of ZFT and AFT with Dpar measure, the AFT samples in general have young cooling ages < 5 Ma with very low Uranium concentration. With these characteristics, even with 252Cf irradiation it is unlikely to obtain a significant number of track lengths, for that reason we could not get track lengths from our samples. Understanding the importance of the track lengths for modeling, we decided to try to construe the thermal modeling (t-T) with this limitation using whenever possible the track lengths reported from the same unit analyzed by other authors (Caballero et al. 2013, Gomez E. 2001and Sanchez et al., 2012 in Tables 5.11a to 5.11c) to give more validity to our models. I then made a comparison with the models construed by other authors. From this exercise we obtained the result that is shown and discussed in the next paragraphs.

Eleven samples from all the areas were modeled integrating AFT and ZFT (ages, Dpar values), depositional age and whenever possible the Ro and track lengths reported by others authors (Figure 5.28). In general these thermal events correspond to: the first heating occurred from sedimentation age until ~ 85-80 Ma, followed by a fast steadycooling which started at ~80Ma and finished at ~ 70Ma; the second heating occurred form ~70Ma till the onset of the second cooling in most cases from ~15-2Ma (recent event) until the present.

In general the thermal modeling from the north to the south indicates the occurrence of two events of heating and two events of cooling for units older than Campanian (Figure 5.30 A, B and C) and as is expected one event of heating and one event of cooling for units younger that ~70Ma (Figures 5.30D).

In Figure 5.30 (A, B, C), I show the representative samples for all the area analyzed, from Early Cretaceous Tablazo Formation samples from the northern and central areas (JG-P3-04, JG-P1-06) and from the southern zone from the Trinchera Formation (sample JG-P4-13).

The sample JG-P3-04 (Figure 5.30-A), indicates a period of heating from deposition age till near to 80 Ma, from this time the sample indicates a period of cooling from depths below the apatite partial annealing zone (APAZ), reaching a temperature of ~145°C. This reset sample shows initial cooling at ~ 80 Ma till ~ 77 Ma and rapid cooling of 12°C/Myr, then a period of slow steady-heating while it spent a significant amount of time in the APAZ untill it reached a maximum temperature of ~ 122°C (0.57°C/Myr), finally a last period of cooling started at ~12 -~2 Ma with a rapid cooling of 8.5-34 °C/Myr. Tablazo Fm sample JG-P1-06 (Figure 5.30-B) shows the first heating from deposition age till ~80 Ma when the first cooling started and extended till ~70 Ma with a rapid cooling of 10°C/Myr. The onset of a second period of heating occurred at ~70 Ma (at 65°C) untill it reached the temperature of 110°C at 10 Ma, staying in the APAZ with a slow heating rate of 0.75°C/Myr. The last event shown is a cooling onset at 10 Ma with a rate of 9°C/Myr. The Trinchera sample JG-P4-13 located at the south, shows the first onset of heating from the onset of the Trinchera deposition time till the ~85 Ma and a rapid heating rate of 5.4 °C/Myr, this event is followed by the first cooling which started at ~85 Ma till ~75 Ma with a rate of 16. Similar thermal behavior is observed in all the samples collected and analyzed in this work, showing that in the MMV and WEC in general, two events of heating and two event of cooling occurred in Campanian rocks or older rocks.

Discussion

The thermal history obtained from younger units in this work (Late Cretaceous) are similar and consistent with those shown by Sanchez et al., (2012), (for comparison see Figure 5.32) where an event of heating from deposition age until ~20 Ma is observed, and both showing a cooling event that in my model starts later (~4 Ma) and with faster cooling than in the model presented by Sanchez et al. (2012). As is shown in Figures 5.4A and B, the time-temperature paths (thermal model) may be interpreted in terms of heating (deposition and subsidence) or cooling (erosion and/or exhumation), applying this general concept in our t-T models, I can say that these events of heating and cooling probably indicate, at least for units older than ~80Ma, two events of deposition related to subsidence and two events of erosion related with the generation of unconformities (like the ones that were shown in chapter 4).

For units that showed high temperature values from Ro (˃3.5) or during the modeling in which high-temperatures are observed in some levels in the central area and more intensely in the southern area where the temperature could exceed ~250°C, and where the thermal history could be more complex, it could be interpreted that those temperature excesses at the central and south areas were due to the presence of enough sediment supply in the cretaceous basin: at least between 3.5 to 4.5 km (this work) of sediment (4-6 km for Sanchez et al., 2012), or due to magmatic activity in the area of Villa de Leyva and basic intrusion in the southern area of this work in the Cretaceous succession, and in general for the southern area with evidences of hydrothermal alteration in black shales from the lower Cretaceous.

Due to the limit of the fission track resolution and the characteristics of the samples, the only event of erosion from the Cretaceous sequence that could be determinated from FT in this work corresponds to the ~80-70Ma, which is also supported by other data and other observations in this work like the Campanian unconformity recognized using seismic information (SU4 in Chapter 4), which have been recognized in the regional context. Caballero et al. (2013) in the Cagui area based on results from the Rosablanca Formation (Lower Cretaceous) documented that the cooling onset (inversion and thrusting) can be as early as Late Cretaceous (70-75 Ma) which is consistent with the first age of cooling determined by FT in this work (80-70 Ma) as was discussed in the previous paragraph. These new data suggest that one of the most important deformation and erosional-exhumation events occured at this time, this event is also documented by the preserved growth strata (this work). [START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust-belt hinterlands. Example from Colombian Andes[END_REF], suggest a Mesozoic reactivation, claiming that the initial age of deformation started in the MMV during the late Paleocene, as is documented farther west in the CC where rapid cooling and erosion, including contractional reactivation of Mesozoic age that persists until Los Cobardes in the WEC [START_REF] Gomez | Syntectonics Cenozoic sedimentation in the Northern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin and implications for exhumation of the northern Andes[END_REF]Nie et al., 2010;and Caballero et al., 2012). With this idea, the onset of cooling proposed in this work occurred earlier than had been proposed previously.

Finally, in this work, based on different evidences, specially on seismic sections and also thermochronology data, a Campanian activity zone of deformation was identified and from the seismic data others as old as Lower Cretaceous. The evidences in this work shows that the initial deformation occurred in units beneath the MMV angular unconformity of Middle Eocene age, probably started during the Lower Cretaceous time.

Conclusions

1. In the WEC and MMV two events of heating an two events of cooling were identified: the first heating occurred from sedimentation age until ~ 85-80 Ma, followed by a fast steady-cooling which started at ~80Ma and finished at ~ 70Ma; the second heating occurred form ~70Ma till the onset of the second cooling which started at ~12-2Ma (recent event) until the present.

2. In general for all the areas (northern, central and southern) the AFT and ZFT central ages in Jurassic to Early Cretaceous units are younger than the depositional age because of post-deposition partial or total annealing. In contrast, in all samples from the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary units zircons conserved their source area cooling ages, whereas apatites have been partially annealed.

3. In the structural sections displacement blocks can be observed along faults, for example in the Rio Sogamoso section a displacement is detectable that could be explained using FT ages (Figure 5.11), where minimum and central age from AFT marked a movement of the block at around ~2.8 ±0.33 Ma (sample JG-P3-32) at the east with respect to the west block of ~32.3 ±4.6Ma (sample JG-P3-42). This shows that at the east of the fault the exhumation occurred more recently than at the west.

4. The zircon and apatite iso-age maps show in general that the younger ZFT central ages are located in the core of anticlines where the stratigraphically older units are exposed. In some cases a similar trend is observed in the AFT, but it is less pronounced.

5. The AFT age from this work showed that the cooling age at the north is younger than 2.5±0.19-3.41±0.36. This could be related with the most recent event of exhumation in the northern sector of the WEC; For the Central area the AFT ages vary from 5.47 ±0.58 to 9.3±4.1 which is older than in the northern and southern area; and in the southern area the younger age reached 1.9±0.39. The new dates of AFT at the south from this work show that the ages are younger than had been reported by other authors.

6. We observe from our new data of AFT, that the cooling age reported at the eastern flank of the East Cordillera by [START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics and exhumation processes in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] is not substantially younger than the age reported in this work (Tables 5.3-5.7) at the western flank of the East Cordillera (northern and southern area), which probably means that the onset of rapid exhumation could be similar at both flanks of the Eastern Cordillera.

7. The time-temperature paths (thermal models) can be interpreted in general in terms of deposition (subsidence) or erosion (exhumation). I can say that these events of heating and cooling in the area of study generally indicate at least two events of deposition related to subsidence and two events of erosion related to the generation of unconformities. All of these are probably related to the tectonic inversion of the basin which occurred earlier than was previously suggested.

8. The paleo-geothermal gradient versus present-day thermal gradient plots permit to identify the presence of Late Abian/Early Cenomanian unconformities or older and insinuate that the excess of paleo-temperature (~250°C) is due to changes in the geothermal gradient because of changes in the heat flow (probably magmatic activity) or a combination of changes in the geothermal gradient, sediment charge and denudation.

CHAPTER 6 Late Jurassic to Early Eocene tectonic and sedimentary evolution in the Middle Magdalena

Valley and western flank of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia.

Introduction

Tectonics is the study of geometric or deformational features, and of their nature, origin and evolution. As an example, seismic interpretation allows to determine the total shortening of the Cretaceous sequence from the Late Jurassic-Berriasian to the Present.

Sedimentary tectonics refers to the analysis and interpretation of deformation as recorded by sedimentary rocks. Interpreting paleofacies maps allows to explore the distribution of sedimentary facies in a depositional basin during a given time interval and the process responsible for these patterns (see chapter 3). In this work, I used the paleofacies maps constructed in chapter 3, combined with the structural deformation observed in the field and seismic information, to draw 3D block diagrams to understand the relation between facies and deformation through time (from the Jurassic to the| Coniacian-Santonian) (Figure 6.11). Finally, the tectonic paleo-reconstruction of northwestern South-America from the Jurassic to the Eocene, based on observations done in the MMV and the WEC, made it possible to propose a model to explain the relation between our local tectonic events and plate tectonic evolution during the analyzed period.

Tectonics is a key factor that controls stratigraphy in most basins, since it can change the base level, generate or reduce accommodation space (Figure 6.1), and controls surface rock-exposition and erosion (Figure 6.2).

STRATIGRAPHIC ARCHITECTURE OF BASIN

Subsidence/Uplift (Tectonics) Regional or local) Sedimentary supply Sea Level change Eustacy Figure 6.1 -Controls of stratigraphic architecture of a basin with a marine connection, also applicable to an intermountain lacustrine connection (modified from [START_REF] Williams | Tectonics and seismic sequence stratigraphy: an introduction[END_REF].

The study of subsidence, regional and local uplift, climate, eustacy, sediment supply and erosion are key factors to understand the role of tectonics (Figure 6.1). As indicated by [START_REF] Williams | Tectonics and seismic sequence stratigraphy: an introduction[END_REF], it is difficult to separate tectonics from other factors controlling the stratigraphic architecture in a basin. The eustatic sea-level changes may result from periods of glaciation and deglaciation, plate tectonic processes, or from a combination of both mechanisms. Regional subsidence rate interacts with the rate of sea level changes to generate accommodation space that may be filled by sediment, depending on sedimentation rate [START_REF] Williams | Tectonics and seismic sequence stratigraphy: an introduction[END_REF], Figure 6.1). Regional subsidence/uplift is controlled by the thinning/thickening of the lithosphere, isostatic balance (loading/unloading the lithosphere) and thermal anomalies of the lithosphere. Therefore, basin stratigraphy will result from the interaction of tectonics, eustacy, sediment supply (Figure 6.1) and contemporaneous system tracts (Allen and Allen, 1990). Local tectonic features may control stratigraphic sequences and megasequences at scales of hundreds of meters to kilometers (Figure 6.2), as is shown in several sections in the MMV, from seismic cross-sections to reconstructed chronostratigraphic charts (4.5 in chapter 4).

Steep subduction or flat subduction?

A simple subduction could generate thickening or thinning of the lithosphere, deposition, exhumation, deformation and erosion, however the variability of plate coupling modes depending on the geometry of the slab (shallowing, steepening) inferred from among other factors in the regional stress regimen, generating compression (coupled margin), not upper plate deformation (Neutral margin) or extensional regimen (decoupled margin) and in fact the deformation depends on these regimes [START_REF] Harabaglia | Topography and gravity across subduction zones[END_REF]Figure 6.3).

Topography, structure and all the other geological features fall into what [START_REF] Doglioni | Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction. Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction[END_REF] described as W-Class and E-Class. They show that the nature and age of the downgoing lithosphere is not the primary factor in determining the characteristics of these classes. With regards to the elevation, they propose that subduction with a high angle is related to low elevation and a deep trench of the hanging wall plate; and when the slab has a low angle, there is high elevation of the upper plate and trenches are shallower, whatever the nature, continental or oceanic, of the upper plate. [START_REF] Doglioni | Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction. Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction[END_REF]. [START_REF] Doglioni | Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction. Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction[END_REF] also focused their analysis on the direction of subduction (Eastward or Westward). The geographic polarity of the subduction, more than any other parameter, constrains the different characters in the two classes. This analysis finally poses the question of whether subduction can be ascribed only to slab pull or whether it is also influenced by the relative westward drift of the lithosphere with regards to the upper mantle, postulated by several authors (Le Pichon, 1968;[START_REF] O'connell | Toroidal-poloidal partitioning of lithospheric plate motions[END_REF][START_REF] Ricard | Differential rotation between lithosphere and mantle: a consequence of lateral viscosity variations[END_REF]. Although the contribution of Doglioni (1999) may be important, Colombia presents the interaction between at least three plates, and subduction occurs in ENE or ESE directions (Figure 6.5). [START_REF] Gutscher | Geodynamics of flat subduction: Seismicity and tomographic constraints from the Andean margin[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Flat subduction dynamics and deformation of the South American plate: Insights from analog modeling[END_REF].

The models constructed following experiments (Gutscher et al., 2000b;van Huene et al., 2002avan Huene et al., , 2002b) (Figure 6.5) suggest that the development of a flat slab results from large buoyance ridges/plateaus forced to subduct. The experiment shows that when a negatively buoyant slab subducts, the overriding plate motion does not modify the vertical component of the slab velocity. Thus, increasing the overriding plate motion results in a decrease of the dip of the slab, c) if the slab bears a 50 Ma old, 2 km high plateau, flat subduction occurs after approximately 700 km of buoyant plateau subduction. In northern Ecuador and northern Chile, the process of the slab flattening could be active but not completed, supporting the idea that the slab-flattening needs time to occur. Such a situation may have occurred in the Andes of Colombia (Figure 6.13).

Tectonic setting

The convergence of three lithospheric plates in the Northern Andes (South America, Nazca and Caribe) produces a complex tectonic area [START_REF] Freymueller | Plate motions in the North Andean Region[END_REF].

terrain and the Central Continental Sub-Plate. The Guayana shield extends beneath the eastern foreland of Colombia, through the Garzon Massif and under the Putumayo Basin.

The study area in this work is part of the Central Continental Sub-Plate (CCSP) (Figure 6.7), forming part of the South American Plate that contains the Proterozoic Chicamocha terrane, the Paleozoic Cajamarca-Valdivia terrane, the Mesozoic San Lucas and Ibague blocks [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF][START_REF] Cediel | Geology and Tectonics of Northwestern South America[END_REF], the Magdalena Valley and the Eastern Cordillera. A simplified terrane map of Colombia (Figure 6.8) shows the principal terranes identified in Colombia from the Eastern Cordillera to the Central Cordillera (Chibcha terrane = Chicamocha terrane, Tahamí Terrane = Cajamarca-Valdivia Terrane, and Kwedge = Quebradagrande, Arquia, Amaime and Dagua terranes).

The oldest allochthonous Precambrian component in the Central Continental Sub-Plate is the Chicamocha terrane (Chibcha Terrane), which is considered a relic of the North American plate [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF][START_REF] Cediel | Geology and Tectonics of Northwestern South America[END_REF], accreted to the Guiana Shield during the Grenville-Orinoco orogeny (1300-900 Ma, [START_REF] Cediel | Geological Map of Colombia[END_REF].

This belt is exposed in the Santander, Garzon and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta massifs (granulites), and is bounded to the west by the Cajamarca-Valdivia terrane (CA-VA) = Tahamí Terrane(TA), intra-oceanic arc and continental margin accreted in the Ordovician-Silurian. This terrain collided the Chicamocha Terrane (Chibcha) to the North, and the Guyana shield to the South. The presently inverted sedimentary basin of the Eastern Cordillera and VMM overlies the Chicamocha Terrain [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF][START_REF] Cediel | Geology and Tectonics of Northwestern South America[END_REF].

The separation of South America from North America and Africa during the Pangea break-up in the Early Jurassic [START_REF] Wadge | Neogene Caribbean plate rotation and associated Central American tectonic evolution[END_REF]Burke, 1983, Pindel andKennan, 2001) marks the start of the Caribbean evolution and generated different phases of extension, compression, plate convergence, subduction and obduction, which resulted in the current struture of the northwestern corner of South-America (Figure 6.7). (Modified -after Colombian Geological Survey - Gomez et al., 2015).

Models summarizing the evolution of the deformation of northwestern South America were proposed by several authors. Mann (1995) proposed two hypotesis for the evolution of the Caribbean plate: 1) The Caribbean ocean results from the separation of North and South America between 130 and 80 Ma, and 2) The Caribbean plate is a result of the drift of an oceanic crust over the Galapagos hot spot.

The North Andean area extends from northwestern Peru to Colombia and eastern Costa Rica for about 2500 km, where Cretaceous allochthonous intra-oceanic arcs and oceanic terranes were accreted to the northwestern margin of South America.

The northern Andean zone has been subjected to different tectonic events for billions of years. At 1300-900 Ma the Grenville Orogeny (Orinoco Collision Orogeny) occurred as a result of the collision of the North American continental block with the Guiana Shield of South America [START_REF] Kroonenberg | A Grenvillian granulite belt in the Colombian Andes and its relation to the Guiana Shield[END_REF][START_REF] Hoffman | Did the breakup of Laurentina turn Gondwanaland inside-out?[END_REF][START_REF] Hartnady | About turn for supercontinents[END_REF]. High grade metamorphism occurred and the granulite belt of the Garzon Massif was exhumed at this time. At 480-416 Ma, a Cordilleran type orogeny took place, and subsidence of the basement allowed deposition of an extensive sequence of marine and epicontinental sediments during the Ordovician to Silurian. These supra-crustal levels underwent regional metamorphism and continental-type orogenic deformation (Quetame Orogeny in Colombia), evidenced by fragments of ophiolite and accretionary prism exposed in the Cajamarca-Valdivia (CA-VA) or Tahamí terrane (Figure 6.8), Loja and El Ori terranes [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF]. The Tahamí terrane (or CA-VA) was added to western South America approximately along the Paleo-Palestina fault [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF][START_REF] Cediel | Geology and Tectonics of Northwestern South America[END_REF]. Between 360 and 125 Ma the Valle Alto rift opened (Bolivar Aulacogen), which allowed the invasion of a Cretaceous epicontinental seaway, marked by the deposition of variably thick sequences over extensive areas of the Central Continental Sub-Plate (CCSP), the Maracaibo Sub-plate, and part of the Guiana shield. Regional extension ended in the middle Cretaceous with the change of the compressional tectonic regime, as recorded by the lower Aptian regional erosional gap evidenced by stratigraphy [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF].

During the Late Jurassic (157 Ma), the separation of North America from northwest Africa is well documented, although still debated (Cinthia Labails, 2010). The pattern of volcanism, crustal thickness, geometry, and seismic velocities in the transition zone suggests symmetric rifting followed by asymmetric oceanic crustal accretion [START_REF] Biari | Opening of the central Atlantic Ocean: Implications for geometric rifting and asymmetric initial seafloor spreading after continental breakup[END_REF].

In general the tectonic style in the region is influenced by its interaction with the Caribbean plate (Pindell and Kennan, 2009). The northern Andean margin in Colombia comprises a series of accreted and autochthonous terranes juxtaposed to the continental plate during the Mesozoic (McCourt et al., 1984;[START_REF] Nivia | The Quebradagrande Complex: A Lower Cretaceous ensialic marginal basin in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes[END_REF]Villagómez et al., 2011).

The deformation at the western margin of South America may result from two tectonic regimes: extension with lithospheric thinning of the margin during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, and contraction from the Late Cretaceous to the Present. Then the igneous Quebradagrande Complex (140-130 Ma) onset to closed at 100 Ma (Kennan and Pindell, 2009;Aspden and McCourt, 1986;[START_REF] Nivia | The Quebradagrande Complex: A Lower Cretaceous ensialic marginal basin in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes[END_REF]. The northern Andes (Ecuador, Colombia) include oceanic terranes accreted to the western part of the continental northern South-America margin [START_REF] Gansser | Facts and theories on the Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Goossens | Chemical composition and age determination of tholeitic rocks in the basic Cretaceous Complex, Ecuador[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Nivia | The Quebradagrande Complex: A Lower Cretaceous ensialic marginal basin in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes[END_REF] metamorphic rocks of the Central Cordillera are Neoproterozoic in age, and are considered to be formed by at least two terranes separated by the Otú-Pericos fault [START_REF] Etayo | Mapa de terrenos geológicos de Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Restrepo | Terranes and Continental Accretion in the Colombian Andes[END_REF]; the eastern terrane, named the Chibcha Terrane (or Chicamocha Terrane by [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF], definitely has Proterozoic rocks (Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2006) while in the western one, named the Tahamí Terrane (or Cajamarca-Valdivia (CA-VA) in [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF][START_REF] Cediel | Geology and Tectonics of Northwestern South America[END_REF], there are no reliable Pre-Devonian radiometric datings neither for the age of formation of the protoliths or for the age of metamorphism.

Three metamorphic events are reported: a Devo-Carboniferous one [START_REF] Restrepo | Precisiones geocronológicas sobre el occidente Colombiano.Simposio sobre magmatismo Andino y su marco tectónico[END_REF]; a Permian-Triassic one [START_REF] Restrepo | Precisiones geocronológicas sobre el occidente Colombiano.Simposio sobre magmatismo Andino y su marco tectónico[END_REF][START_REF] Ordóñez | Edad Sm/Nd del metamorfismo de alto grado de El Retiro (Antioquia). VIII Congreso Colombiano de Geología[END_REF][START_REF] Vinasco | Geochronological, isotopic, and geochemical data from Permo-Triassic granitic gneisses and granitoids of the Colombian Central Andes[END_REF], and the Neoproterozoic age for the metamorphic basement is based on the Ordovician age of fossils of the Santa Teresa Formation [START_REF] Nivia | The Quebradagrande Complex: A Lower Cretaceous ensialic marginal basin in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes[END_REF].

For the autochthonous Quebradagrande (QG) complex, Arquía blocks are located at the western edge of QG but are not clast of Arquia found in the sediments interbedded with basalts. [START_REF] Gómez-Cruz | Edad y origen del ''Complejo metasedimentario Aranzazu-Manizales" en los alrededores de Manizales (Departamento de Caldas, Colombia)[END_REF], show that the QG´s composition is bimodal, at the west composed by continental-derived sediments, while those composed of clast of basic and intermediate volcanic rocks and immature sediments, and metamorphic rocks are absent. The Quebradagrande complex (sensu [START_REF] Maya | Unidades litodémicas en la Cordillera Central de Colombia[END_REF], forms an elongated belt in N-S direction limited by the San Jerónimo fault at the east and Silvia-Pijao fault at the west, it is constituted by basalt, andesites and volcanoclastic rocks, occasionally ophiolites. The age of these units, based on fossils found in this formation, indicate Early Cretaceous (Moreno-Sánchez and Pardo-Trujillo, 2003). For Gonzáles (1980), the Mid-Hauterivian -Early Albian paleontological age of Quebradagrande is indicative that this terrane and all to the west were accreted after the Albian

The age of the Arquía metamorphic rocks corresponds to the Cretaceous to Paleocene ages [START_REF] Restrepo | Modelos Orogénicos de tectónica de placas de los Andes colombianos[END_REF]McCourt et al., 1984). The relation between Arquía and plutons is unknow, because the Arquia complex crops out in a very complex tectonic zone between the Romeral (San Jerónimo) and Cauca fault system ( [START_REF] Vinasco | Geochronological, isotopic, and geochemical data from Permo-Triassic granitic gneisses and granitoids of the Colombian Central Andes[END_REF]. The age of these blocks has been dated using K-Ar (55-58 +/-1), Rb-Sr (53 -57+/-2 Ma) and Ar-Ar (45.8+/-1.7), which indicates Paleocene ages (McCourt et al., 1984;[START_REF] Restrepo-Pace | Late Precambrian to Early Mesozoic tectonic evolution of the Colombian Andes, based on new geochronological, geochemical and isotopic data[END_REF]. For [START_REF] Maya | Unidades litodémicas en la Cordillera Central de Colombia[END_REF], the Arquía complex in general is formed by a belt of metamorphic rocks of high to medium pressure, limited at the west by the Cauca-Almaguer fault and to the east by the Sylvia-Pijao fault, the age of the metamorphic event based on dates is Early Cretaceous. This complex is the result of the union of several blocks of different ages and origins.

According to McCourt et al. (1984), the Amaime Formation is constituted by ophiolites, lavas and basaltic compositions affected by granitic intrusions (A. [START_REF] Nivia | El Terreno Amaime -Volcánico: Una Provincia Acrecionada de Basaltos de Meseta Oceánica[END_REF]. Its age is subject to controversy, but the Early Cretaceous is suggested based on intrusions of Buga Batholic. This unit groups the rocks of the Amaime Fm. between a block originated in an oceanic plateau, including the volcanic formation, located at west of the Cauca-Almaguer fault.

A stratigraphic gap is observed at 125-120 Ma (Barremian-Early Aptian) [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF], which supports the hiatus identified in this work using stratigraphic (Chapter 3) and geochronological information (chapter 4). During Late Aptian to early Albian times (115-105 Ma) an extensional regime prevailed [START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary evolution of an active margin during middle and upper Cretaceous times: the North Peruvian margin from Late Aptian up to Senonian[END_REF]. In Albian times (105-100 Ma), the Mochica phase records alternating extensional and contractional tectonic deformation [START_REF] Cobbing | The geology of the Westem Cordillera of Northern Peru[END_REF][START_REF] Mégard | The Andean orogenic period and its major structures in Central and Northern Peru[END_REF], responsible for the progradation of east-proceeding deltaic sandstones [START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary evolution of an active margin during middle and upper Cretaceous times: the North Peruvian margin from Late Aptian up to Senonian[END_REF]1994), while the western part of the margin recorded intense volcanic activity (Casma Group;Atherton et al., 1985;[START_REF] Soler | Contribution a l'étude du magmatisme associé aux zones de subduction[END_REF]. This event is interpreted as related to the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, which provoked the westward drift of South America and an increased coupling along the subduction zone (Sébrier and Soler, 1990;[START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the arc zone of southwestern Ecuador during Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary times[END_REF].

Around the Albian-Cenomanian boundary (≈100 Ma), flat subduction and metamorphism (K-Ar, high-pressure schist, eclogite) occurred in the northwest margin of South-America. Then, in Middle Cenomanian-Turonian times (95-89), a major marine transgression deposited shelf carbonates, while the volcanic arc front remained stable [START_REF] Soler | Relations of magmatic activity to Plate dynamics in Central Peru from Late Cretaceous to Present In: Plutonism from Antarctica to Alaska[END_REF]Jaillard 1991Jaillard -1996)).

Coniacian fine grained detrital (argillaceous) sediments overly, locally disconformably, Turonian limestones [START_REF] Sempéré | Kimmeridgian (?) to Paleocene tectonic evolution of Bolivia[END_REF], and are probably related to the erosion of locally uplifted coastal areas [START_REF] Jaillard | Kimmeridgian to Paleocene tectonic and geodynamic evolution of the Peruvian (and Ecuadorian) margin[END_REF]. They are followed by coarser grained deposits of Santonian age and by a regional sedimentary hiatus [START_REF] Jaillard | Late Cretaceous marine transgressions in Ecuador and northern Peru: a refined stratigraphic framework[END_REF], which represent the Peruvian phase of Steimann (1929). In the Late Campanian (75-70 Ma) a major contractional phase [START_REF] Gayet | The Mesozoic and Paleocene vertebrates of Bolivia and their stratigraphic context: A review in: Suarez-Suroco R (Ed) Fosiles y facies de Bolivia Vol. I Vertebrados. Santa Cruz-Bolivia[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | The Late Cretaceous Vilquechico Formation, Southern Peru. Sedimentology, Paleontology, Biostratigraphy, Correlations[END_REF] is responsible for a regional, widespread unconformity, and is followed by a new period of relative quiescence in the Maastrichtian. During the Maastrichtian-Paleocene times volcanic and plutonic rocks were emplaced along the Peruvian margin (Laughlin et al., 1968;[START_REF] Beckinsale | Rb-Sr whole-rock isochron and K-Ar age determinations for the Coastal Batholith of Peru. In: Magmatism at a Plate Edge, the Peruvian Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Clark | Geologic and geochronologic constraints on the metallogenic evolution of the Andes of Southeastern Peru[END_REF]. Later, widespread unconformities are observed between the fine-grained Paleocene and the coarse-grained Eocene continental deposits [START_REF] Faucher | Esquisse géologique des Andes de l´equarteur[END_REF]Maroco et al., 1987;[START_REF] Noble | Cenozoic stratigraphy, magmatic activity, compressive deformation, and uplift in Northern Peru[END_REF][START_REF] Naeser | Tertiary Fission-Track ages from the Bagua syncline (Northern Peru).Stratigraphic and tectonic implications[END_REF][START_REF] Gayet | The Mesozoic and Paleocene vertebrates of Bolivia and their stratigraphic context: A review in: Suarez-Suroco R (Ed) Fosiles y facies de Bolivia Vol. I Vertebrados. Santa Cruz-Bolivia[END_REF], evidencing a major Late Paleocene tectonic phase. Then the Late Eocene shortening phase (Incaic phase) caused folding and reverse faulting [START_REF] Dalmayrac | La chaîne hercynienne d'Amérique du Sud: Structure et évolution d'un orogène intracratonique[END_REF].

The accretion of the Dagua terrane occurred in the Early Eocene (~49 Ma), and the accretion of the Gorgona terrane appears to be recorded in Middle Eocene-Oligocene times (40-28 Ma). Continued subduction and magmatism affected the Dagua-Piñon and Caribbean Mountain terrane. The Piñon in Ecuador typically was assigned to the Early Cretaceous [START_REF] Goossens | Chemical composition and age determination of tholeitic rocks in the basic Cretaceous Complex, Ecuador[END_REF]Jaillard et al. 1995a). However recently dated at the west of Guayaquil, the interpillow sediments are Coniacian-Campanian based on radiolarians and foraminifers (Vanmelle et al. 2008). The basalts, pillow basalts, dolerites and gabbroic intrusion are part of the Piñon Fm. According to [START_REF] Jaillard | Accreted oceanic terranes in Ecuador: southern edge of the Caribbean Plate?[END_REF], this rock is geochemically very similar to Gorgona picrites, thus supporting the idea that some Colombian and Ecuadorian terranes belong to the same oceanic plateau [START_REF] Jaillard | Accreted oceanic terranes in Ecuador: southern edge of the Caribbean Plate?[END_REF]. As is indicated by Jaillard E. ( 2009), The Piñon terrane was accreted during the Late Paleocene (c, 58 Ma).

Tectonic evolution of the MMV and WEC

As indicated by [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF], the MMV and EC were a major sedimentary area, which exhibits a complex history of evolution from Triassic to Recent times. The history started in the Jurassic as a synrift megasequence extending until the Early Cretaceous (Figures 6.6 and 6.11). Then the basin evolved as a back-arc basin located east of the subduction zone during the Cretaceous, and was dominated by shallow sedimentation until the Campanian. This sedimentation was suddenly interrupted by the collision of the Western Cordillera, which generated a foreland basin during the Maastrichtian (see also [START_REF] Etayo | Lenticeras Baltai Lisson en Colombia y su probable posición zonal Santoniana[END_REF]Fabre, 1985;[START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF]. Between Late Maastrichtian and Early Eocene times, this foreland basin received shallow marine sediments deposited in coastal plains and estuarine environments.

Cretaceous deformation and sedimentation in the MMV and WEC

The sequence of deformation and sedimentation in the MMV and WEC is illustrated on Figures 6.6 and 6.11. I used seismic information to understand and illustrate the evolution from Late Jurassic to Early Eocene times. Jurassic syn-rift sediments (sequence S1) were partially eroded (SU1) during the Late Berriasian (Figure 6.9-1). Sequence S2 (6.9-2) was deposited during the Valanginian-Early Barremian, possibly during a sea level rise. In the Late Barremian-Early Aptian (Figure 6.9-3), a second emergence period eroded part of sequence S2 and generated the erosional surface SU2. A new marine transgression took place during the Late Aptian-Early Albian (Figure 6.9-4) and deposited sequence S3. A well-developed Late Albian to Early Cenomanian sequence was deposited (S3, Figure 6.9-5), which is subsequently deformed, generating a third unconformity (SU3) that deeply eroded sequence S3 and even locally reached sequence S2. The sequence S4, deposited during the Late Cenomanian-Santonian (Figure 6.9-6), was then eroded by unconformity SU4 during the Early Campanian (Figure 6.9-7). Finally, sequence S5 deposited from Late Campanian to Maastrichtian times (Figure 6.9-8) was deformed and eroded during the Paleocene-Early Eocene, generating unconformity SU5 (Figure 6.9-9).

The sections restored in Figure 6.9 show that several cycles of deposition and erosion occurred during the Cretaceous, which could result from the interaction between subsidence, local or regional uplift, compressional events, climate, eustacy and sediment supply.

In the restored sections (Figures 6.9 and 6.10), I measured the shortening in each stage of deformation using length balancing (Figure 6.9). The total shortening, from late Jurassic to the present, is 13.7 km to the North (Figure 6.9) and 18.7 km to the South (Figure 6.10). The calculated shortening is almost 27% greater at the southern secion than at the northern section (Figure 6.9 and 6.10), which means that the total deformation was greater at the south along through the MMV and the WEC. 1991-08, SD-19, H-1978-06-06, and section from surface information. From non-deformed section during the Jurassic to the present. In these section the sequences deposited (S1 to S5), the unconformity surfaces (SU1 to SU5) and also the total shortening are shown (this work).

Geological evolution of the Middle Magdalena Basin and the Western Eastern Cordillera

Figure 6.11 shows schematic 3D-diagrams depicting the evolution of the MMV and WEC basins between Late Jurassic and Santonian times, taking into account the information obtained in chapters 3, 4 and the present chapter (Figure 6.6).

Paleofacies maps integrated in these diagrams show the vertical and lateral facies variations, the vertical distribution of parasequences (A/S) and the sea level fluctuations using transgressive-regression curves (chapter 3, Figure 3.5). Unconformities (sequence boundaries) have been identified, based on local information from wells, outcrops and chronostratigraphic analysis, using mainly seismic information. 3.56). The Early Campanian erosion surface (SU4) partially or totally eroded the sequence S4, and older sequences locally. Sequence S5 was deposited discordantly over the eroded S4 sequence and is followed with the regional erosion surface of Paleocene-Early Eocene age (SU5). Note that deformation along through the 3D-diagrams in the northern areas is represented by dotted lines, while in the southern are represented by the continuous lines.

I J 230

Ro and Thermal models

As was shown in chapter 5 the thermal modeling from the north to the south indicates the occurrence of two events of heating and two events of cooling for units older than Campanian (Figures 5.30 A, B and C) and as expected one event of heating and one event of cooling for units younger than ~70Ma (Figure 6.12).

As was discussed also in chapter 5, the higher temperatures in the southern area may be due to the sufficient sediment supply to the basin to reach a higher thickness, or magmatic activity in the central and southern areas that increased the temperature till values as high as 285°C (Gomez, 2001;[START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] at 200 Ma (Gomez, 2001). The thermal models from this work evidence a slow heating event between ~70 and ~5 Ma, and a rapid cooling event in the last 5 Ma or less. These last thermal observations from this work are consistent with that shown by Sanchez (2012) (see chapter 5, Figure 5.39) and differs from that evidenced by Villagómez et al. ( 2010) for the same period.

Model for the pre-Andean tectonic evolution of the MMV and WEC.

As is indicated by Jaillard et al. (1995), the onset of subduction in Colombia and Ecuador is poorly constrained, and may be subsequent to Triassic rifting and the opening of the western Tethys ocean. However, 40 Ar/ 39 Ar and U-Pb (Villagomez et al., 2010) and K/ 39 Ar on horblend and biotite dates [START_REF] Sillitoe | Setting, characteristics and age of the Andean porphyry copper belt in Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Mccourt | New geological and geochronological data from the Colombian Andes: continental growth by multiple accretion[END_REF] from granitoids of the Ibague Batholith suggest that subduction-related magmatism in Colombia occurred at 180 Ma, continued till 147 Ma and finalized around 145 Ma ago (Aspeden et al., 1987;Jaillard et al., 1990).

My tectonic reconstruction shows eight evolution stages for northwestern South America between 150 Ma (Late Jurassic, Figures 6.13-A-a) and 50 Ma (Early Eocene, Figure 6.13-G-g). In this interpretation I try to use simple concepts only related to the regime of subduction [START_REF] Doglioni | Boudinage of the Alpine belt in the Apenninic back-arc[END_REF]Horton andFuentes, 2016, Espurt et al., 2008) to explain the deformation observed in the MMV and WEC, taking into account our observations from the MMV-WEC and aiming to give a likely model explaining the evolution of the analyzed basin.

To the West, the Tahamí Terrane (CA-VA) was emplaced since the Ordovician-Silurian (Figure 6.13). Against this block, steep-dipping subduction of an oceanic plate below the proto-Central Cordillera occurred between 150 Ma-130 Ma (Figure 6.13-Aa), generating extension in the MMV and WEC paleo-basins and allowing the deposition of the sequences S1 and S2 in a rift basin. Between 132 to 125 Ma, no continental volcanic-arc activity is known [START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF]. I propose that, during the Late Barremian -Early Aptian (125-118 Ma), the angle of subduction of the paleo-oceanic plate changed and flattened, probably till below the MMV, producing compression, elevation and shortening in the basin, thus generating partial or total erosion of the deposited sequences SU1 and SU2 (Figure 6.13 Bb).

During the Late Aptian -Early Albian (115-107 Ma), the slab continued subducting in a high angle (Figure 6.13C), inducing a period of extension and relaxation in the basin, generating acommodation space and depositing sequence S3 in the MMV-WEC.

The 150 to 110 Ma period is marked by the complete reorganization of the paleogeographic pattern, due to a drastic change in the convergence direction, which generated tectonic deformation and a magmatic arc reorganization, followed by a diachronous marine transgresion (Aspden et al., 1987;Jaillard et al., 1990;1995;2000).

In the Late Albian-Early Cenomanian (105-97 Ma), a flat subduction period induced a contractional tectonic regime, shortening, and erosion materialised in SU3 (Figure 6.13-Dd). At this time the Quebradagrande terrane was drifting toward the proto-Central Cordillera. This event was triggered by the openning of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean that forced South America to drift Westward (Jaillard, 1991;1996;2000). It can be correlated with the Mochica phase [START_REF] Mégard | The Andean orogenic period and its major structures in Central and Northern Peru[END_REF], related to an increased convergence rate between the paleo-Pacific and South American plates (Jaillard, 1991;1996;2000), and provoking the progradation of deltaic sandstones proceeding from the east [START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary evolution of an active margin during middle and upper Cretaceous times: the North Peruvian margin from Late Aptian up to Senonian[END_REF]1994). This event is alternatively considered as extensional and contractional [START_REF] Cobbing | The geology of the Westem Cordillera of Northern Peru[END_REF] and responsible for early deformation in Peru [START_REF] Cobbing | The geology of the Westem Cordillera of Northern Peru[END_REF] and for the incipient uplift of the Eastern Cordillera in Ecuador (Litherland et al., 1994),

Between 95 and 83 Ma (Late Cenomanian-Late Santonian), the slab continued sudducting with a high angle below the continent, generating a tectonic extension and enough space to deposit limestones and calcareous shales of the La Luna Formation (sequence S4, Figure 6.13 E). At this time a volcanic arc formed at the western edge of the paleo-Pacific Plate (Quebradagrande arc-Arquia), which drifted toward Northwestern South America.

The Piñon basement (Ecuador) was classically ascribed to the Early Cretaceous [START_REF] Goossens | Chemical composition and age determination of tholeitic rocks in the basic Cretaceous Complex, Ecuador[END_REF]Jaillard et al. 1995a). It has been recently dated west of Guayaquil, where interpillow sediments yielded Coniacian-Mid Campanian radiolarians and foraminifera (Vanmelle et al., 2008;[START_REF] Jaillard | Accreted oceanic terranes in Ecuador: southern edge of the Caribbean Plate?[END_REF]. The top of the Piñón Formation would be of Early Coniacian age, implying that the Piñón Formation is not Early Cretaceous, and represents a fragment of the Caribbean Colombian Oceanic Plateau (CCOP). This unit was also dated by Luzieux et al. (2007), who obtained a 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age of 88 Ma±1.6 on horblend, from oceanic plateau basement rock in coastal Ecuador.

Between 80-70 Ma, a new portion of the oceanic plate was subducted as a flat slab below the proto-CC and the proto-VMM (Figure 6.13 Ff), generating a tectonic compresion, shortening and deformation that triggered erosion. At that time, the Amaime terrane was drift toward the continent. This event is responsible for the erosion represented by surface SU4, which provoked the partial or total erosion of sequence S4, and locally down to sequence S2, and the rapid cooling evidenced by our fission track data (Figure 6.12), representing the most important Cretaceous unconformity. [START_REF] Gayet | The Mesozoic and Paleocene vertebrates of Bolivia and their stratigraphic context: A review in: Suarez-Suroco R (Ed) Fosiles y facies de Bolivia Vol. I Vertebrados. Santa Cruz-Bolivia[END_REF] and [START_REF] Jaillard | The Late Cretaceous Vilquechico Formation, Southern Peru. Sedimentology, Paleontology, Biostratigraphy, Correlations[END_REF] consider the Late Campanian event as a major contractional phase. According to [START_REF] Pindell | A Plate kinematic framework for models of Caribbean evolution[END_REF]Pindell et al. ( , 2001)), the spreading rate in the Proto-Caribbean plate decreased strongly in the Campanian, and the Caribbean boundary became compressional. This event triggered a significant uplift of the Central Cordillera of Colombia and Ecuador and accretion of oceanic terranes to the Ecuadorian and Colombian margin (Pindell et al., 2001;[START_REF] Jaillard | Accreted oceanic terranes in Ecuador: southern edge of the Caribbean Plate?[END_REF] (Figure 6.13-Ff).

In the MMV and WEC of Colombia, Middle Campanian deposits (Umir Fm) directly rest upon Cenomanian (Simiti Fm, Figure 4.13), Turonian (Lower La Luna Fm), or even Jurassic strata (see Figure 4.14 in chapter 4). In Ecuador, Litherland et al. (1994) noted that this event is marked by a regional hiatus of Campanian age and by a significant thermal event recorded in the Eastern Cordillera around 80-70 Ma.

Santonian-Campanian times are known as a turning point in the Andean evolution [START_REF] Steinmann | Geologie von Peru[END_REF]. In Peru, diachronous Late Santonian to Middle Campanian transgressive shelf sediments overlie unconformably the deformed pre-Santonian turbidites (Jaillard et al., 1995[START_REF] Jaillard | Stratigraphy and evolution of the Cretaceous forearc "Celica-Lancones Basin" of Southwestern Ecuador[END_REF]). In the Talara basin of northern Peru, Albian deposits are unconformably overlain by Campanian trasngressive deposits (Gonzales, 1976;Macharé et al., 1986;[START_REF] Séranne | Evolution tectono-sédimentaire du bassin de Talara (nord-ouest du Pérou)[END_REF][START_REF] Morales | Reinterpretación geológica del area de Lagunitos (NW Perú) en base a sísmica reflexión. 3rd INGEPET[END_REF]; and in Paita (northern Peru), Middle Campanian beds unconformably overly the Paleozoic basament [START_REF] Jaillard | Stratigraphy and evolution of the Cretaceous forearc "Celica-Lancones Basin" of Southwestern Ecuador[END_REF]2005).

In Early Maastrichtian-Early Paleocene times (70-60 Ma) a new oceanic plate subducted with a high angle (Figure 6.13 Gg), generating an extensional tectonics; accommodation space was created and sequence S5 was deposited. At that time, the Dagua terrane is migrating towards the proto-Central Cordillera.

Finally for the Late Paleocene-Early Eocene (60-50 Ma), the oceanic plate was subducted with a low angle (Figure 6.13 Hh) below the proto-Central-Cordillera (CC) and below the basin of the MMV and probably the WEC, generating a period of compression, shortening, uplift and erosion (SU5 unconformity). [START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the arc zone of southwestern Ecuador during Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary times[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF], Spiking et al. (2015), Villagómez (2010), Restrepo et al. (2004), [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF]. Relative positions of the plates and arcs are modified from [START_REF] Burke | Caribbean tectonics and relative plate motions[END_REF]Kennan et al. (2001, 2009).

Between 60-50 Ma, the Dagua Terrane, which correlated with the Piñon terrane in Ecuador, was accreted to the West of South America, probably at the same time that the Piñon was accreted in Ecuador. According to [START_REF] Jaillard | Stratigraphy of the late Cretaceous-Paleogene deposits of the cordillera occidental of central Ecuador: geodynamic implications[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | Accreted oceanic terranes in Ecuador: southern edge of the Caribbean Plate?[END_REF], the Piñon terrane, last fragment of the COP, was accreted to the Ecuadorian margin in the Late Paleocene (c. 58 Ma).

The Late Paleocene-Early Eocene interval corresponds to one of the most important unconformities (SU5) recorded in the MMV and WEC (11-Hh). The accretion of the Dagua terrane coincides with the abrupt change from Paleocene fine-grained deposits to Eocene coarse-grained continental deposits [START_REF] Faucher | Esquisse géologique des Andes de l´equarteur[END_REF]Marocco et al., 1987;[START_REF] Noble | Cenozoic stratigraphy, magmatic activity, compressive deformation, and uplift in Northern Peru[END_REF][START_REF] Naeser | Tertiary Fission-Track ages from the Bagua syncline (Northern Peru).Stratigraphic and tectonic implications[END_REF][START_REF] Gayet | The Mesozoic and Paleocene vertebrates of Bolivia and their stratigraphic context: A review in: Suarez-Suroco R (Ed) Fosiles y facies de Bolivia Vol. I Vertebrados. Santa Cruz-Bolivia[END_REF], as is also the case in Peru [START_REF] Mégard | The Andean orogenic period and its major structures in Central and Northern Peru[END_REF][START_REF] Noble | Cenozoic stratigraphy, magmatic activity, compressive deformation, and uplift in Northern Peru[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | The Late Cretaceous Vilquechico Formation, Southern Peru. Sedimentology, Paleontology, Biostratigraphy, Correlations[END_REF][START_REF] Contreras | Subsidence history of the north peruvian Oriente (Marañón basin) since the Cretaceous[END_REF][START_REF] Gil | Continum tectonic during Cretaceous-Paleocene times in the north peruvian foreland Basin (Marañón Basin).3rd lntern[END_REF] and Ecuador [START_REF] Dashwood | Aspects ofthe petroleum geology of the Oriente Basin, Ecuador[END_REF][START_REF] Rivadeneira | La Cuenca Oriente: Estilo tectónico, etapas de deformación y caracttrfsticas geológicas de los principales campos de Petroproducción[END_REF]. The Paleocene or Early Eocene deposits rest unconformably on Cretaceous rocks in the MMV and WEC, and in other parts of Colombia [START_REF] Cheilletz | Datation K-Ar et 40 Ar/ 39 Ar à 65 M.a. des gisements d'émeraude du district Chivor-Macanal, argument en faveur d'une déformation précoce dans la Cordillère Orientale de Colombie[END_REF]; this work).

Discussion

Contrary to [START_REF] Fabre | Tectonique et géneration d'hydrocarbures: Un modèle de l'évolution de la Cordillère Orientale de Colombie et du Bassin des Llanos pendant le Crétacé et le Tertiaire[END_REF], according to the models proposed in this work, the Cretaceous-Early Paleocene deformation was not restricted to the Western Cordillera, Central Cordillera and Santander Massif, but also affected the MMV and WEC basins. [START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF] indicated that the Pre-Andean foreland basin developed in the Middle Magdalena Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Llanos Basin previous to the Early Miocene. Many tectonic plate interpretations have been published [START_REF] Pindell | Permo-Triassic reconstructionof western Pangea and the evolution of theGulf of Mexico/Caribbean region[END_REF]Burke et al., 1984;Duncan and Hardgraves, 1984;[START_REF] Ross | A hierarchical tectonic model of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean region[END_REF][START_REF] Pindell | Geological evolution of the Caribbean region: A plate tectonic perspective[END_REF]Jaillard et al., 1990;2000;2009;[START_REF] Pindell | Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region: A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration[END_REF]Pindell and Ericson, 1994;[START_REF] Meschede | A plate-tectonic model for the Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic history of the Caribbean Plate[END_REF]Pindell and Kennan, 2001;[START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF]Villagómez, 2010).

The tectonic evolution shown in Figure 6.13 is related to some key moments that mark changes in the subduction regimes (Figures 6.3,6.4 and 6.5) that triggered the changes in the subduction slab, in the velocity of subduction, geometry, etc.

First of all, the onset of the Caribbean evolution is related to the separation of South America from North America and Africa during the Pangea break-up in the Early Jurassic [START_REF] Wadge | Neogene Caribbean plate rotation and associated Central American tectonic evolution[END_REF]Burke, 1983, Pindel andKennan, 2001) generating different phases of extension, compression, plate convergence, subduction and obduction (Le Pichon, 1968;[START_REF] O'connell | Toroidal-poloidal partitioning of lithospheric plate motions[END_REF][START_REF] Ricard | Differential rotation between lithosphere and mantle: a consequence of lateral viscosity variations[END_REF]). This regional event may have generated the formation of an extensional basin that permitted the deposition of sequences S1 and S2 (Figure 6.13-Aa).

A stratigraphic gap is observed at 125-120 Ma (Barremian-Early Aptian) [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF], which is supported by the hiatus identified in this work using stratigraphic and geochronological information. This gap and hiatus evidence a tectonic compression that produced shortening and erosion of S2 (unconformity SU2) (Figure 6.13 Bb), which is related to the development of a flat slab as shown in Figure 6.5.

During Late Aptian to early Albian times (115-105 Ma) an extensional regime prevailed [START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary evolution of an active margin during middle and upper Cretaceous times: the North Peruvian margin from Late Aptian up to Senonian[END_REF], which is consistent with the model shown in Figure 6.13C and modeled in Figures 6.5a and 6.3-1C.

During the Late Albian-Early Cenomanian (105 -97 Ma), a tectonic compression was associated with shortening, related again to a new flat-slab period (Figures 6.3,6.5), producing uplift and erosion of sequence S3 (unconformity SU3) (Figure 6.13D). This event was probably related to the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, which provoked the westward drift of South America and an increased coupling along the subduction zone (Sébrier and Soler, 1990;[START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the arc zone of southwestern Ecuador during Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary times[END_REF].

In the Late Cenomanian -Late Santonian (95-83 Ma), an extensional regime was established (Figure 6.13E) allowing the deposition of sequence S4 and a steep subduction was produced (Figure 6.3 and 6.5), allowing the establishment of an extensional regime (Figure 6.13E). This model is partly in agreement with the period determined by [START_REF] Soler | Relations of magmatic activity to Plate dynamics in Central Peru from Late Cretaceous to Present In: Plutonism from Antarctica to Alaska[END_REF]), and Jaillard (1991, 1996), as a major marine transgression that deposited shelf carbonates, while the volcanic arc front was present.

During the Early Campanian -Late Campanian 80-70 Ma (Figure 6.13F), a compressive tectonic phase produced the shortening and deformation of all sequences, and the erosion of sequence S4 (discordance SU4). This compressional tectonic phase was due to the formation of a flat slab (Figures 6.3,6.4,6.5). This tectonic event is in agreement with a major contraction phase during the Late Campanian (75-70 Ma) [START_REF] Gayet | The Mesozoic and Paleocene vertebrates of Bolivia and their stratigraphic context: A review in: Suarez-Suroco R (Ed) Fosiles y facies de Bolivia Vol. I Vertebrados. Santa Cruz-Bolivia[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | The Late Cretaceous Vilquechico Formation, Southern Peru. Sedimentology, Paleontology, Biostratigraphy, Correlations[END_REF], which is responsible for a regional, widespread unconformity as shown in chapters 4 and 5.

In the Early Maastrichtian -Early Paleocene (70-60 Ma), an extensional context allowed the deposition of sequence S5 (Figure 6.13G), due to a steep subduction (Figure 6. 3-1C and 6.5a). During this period the Amaime terrane was emplaced to the west of the Arquia complex, and plutonic and volcanic rock were emplaced in the Amaime terrane. This is consistent with the volcanic and plutonic emplacement observed by Laughlin et al. (1968), [START_REF] Beckinsale | Rb-Sr whole-rock isochron and K-Ar age determinations for the Coastal Batholith of Peru. In: Magmatism at a Plate Edge, the Peruvian Andes[END_REF] and [START_REF] Clark | Geologic and geochronologic constraints on the metallogenic evolution of the Andes of Southeastern Peru[END_REF] along the Peruvian margin.

Finally, during the Late Paleocene-Early Eocene (60-50 Ma), the shortening, deformation and erosion of sequences S5 and older, resulted from the flattening of the slab (Figures 6.3A,6.4 and 6.5 c,d). During this period, the Dagua terrane was accreted to Colombia. The Piñon terrane was also accreted during the Late Paleocene (c, 58 Ma) [START_REF] Jaillard | Accreted oceanic terranes in Ecuador: southern edge of the Caribbean Plate?[END_REF], supporting the idea that Colombian and Ecuadorian terranes belong to the same oceanic plateau (Figure 6.13f, g and h) (Reynaud et al., 1999;Lapierre et al., 2000).

All of these subduction, exhumation, deformation and erosion events resulted from changes in the subduction regime (Figures 6.3,6.4 and 6.5) that triggered changes in the subduction slab, in the subduction velocity, geometry, etc., as observed in the western side of South-America in Peru and Chile. Since, in the latter countries, these events are not dependent on accretions of oceanic terranes, our schematic model only shows terrane accretions as reported by other authors. The schematic models shown on Figure 6.13 are based on the observations from this work in the MMV and WEC, and are independent of the postulated accretionary events.

Conclusions

1. The new information suggests that both sea level variations and tectonic events controlled the Cretaceous deposition and erosion periods in the MMV and WEC basins.

2. The Cretaceous sequence of the MMV underwent a total shortening of around 14.8 km to the South, and to 13.7 km to the North since the Late Barremian-Early Aptian. The calculated shortening is 1.6 km during the Barremian-Early Aptian; 4.3 km during the Late Albian-Early Cenomanian; 4.2 km during the Early Campanian, and 3.6 km from then on. The Late Barremian-Early Aptian shortening represents the first Cretaceous contractional event in the MMV and WEC.

3. Stratigraphic information from the WEC and the MMV allowed to identify several events of transgressions and regressions, controlled by sea level fluctuations.

4. Based on the seismic interpretation and the construction of chronostratigraphic charts, I identified five periods of erosion or non-deposition, which span the Late Jurassic-Early Berriasian (SU1), Late Barremian-Early Aptian (SU2), Late Albian-Early Cenomanian (SU3), Early Campanian (SU4), and Late Paleocene-Eocene (SU5). The latter represents one of the most important erosion periods in Colombia.

5. Thermal modelling showed that a fast cooling event occurred around 80-70 Ma in all the areas (Figure 6.12), with an average cooling rate of ≈ 13-15°C/Ma. This Campanian cooling event is interpreted as related to a major collisional event (80-70 Ma). Then a period of slow heating (65-5 Ma), followed by a new rapid cooling event is recorded since 5 Ma, with a mean rate of ≈ 9°C/Ma, recorded by AFT analyses in the WEC.

6. From the Jurassic to the Paleocene, repetitive tectonic extension and compression events produced by a cyclic subduction regime may explain the deposition, exhumation and erosion phases observed in the MMV and WEC during the Cretaceous. The presence in the northwestern corner of South America of accreted blocks from the Campanian, starting with the accretion of the blocks such as Quebradagrande is undeniable. However, the deformation of the upper plate in my model is not dependent on these terrane accretions (Figure 6.13), but rather on the subduction regime, for example changes in the plate subduction angle (steep or flat subduction), the convergence rate, the polarity of subduction, the slab age, etc.

CHAPTER 7 Synthesis and General Conclusions.

Synthesis

This dissertation has contributed with the following geological aspects for the understanding of the evolution and tectonics events of the Cretaceous sequences in Colombia based on the data from the entire basin of the Middle Magdalena Valley and the Western Eastern Cordillera:

-I contributed with newly acquired and collected data from an extensive area of 50.000 km2 in the Middle Magdalena Valley and Western Eastern Cordillera with a new focus, analysis and interpretation.

-I provided new structural, sedimentological, stratigraphic, petrographic and thermochronological information from different measurements, samples and descriptions made during the several field trips and laboratory phases.

-I made a regional-structural and stratigraphic-seismic interpretation along the MMV and part of the WEC, using more than 300 seismic reflection lines, and several wells in the basin were analyzed.

-I identified several stratigraphic sequences and unconformities based on sequence stratigraphy analysis made on stratigraphic columns described and measured in this work; I used sedimentological and lithological facts collected in this work, information from the wells and also reported by other authors. In general, the biostratigraphic information was compiled from information provided in other works.

-I presented new paleo-facies maps from the Berriasian to the Coniacian-Santonian, based on the periods of regression, transgression and sequence limits, to understand the cycle periodicity, sea level variation and facies distribution in the study area.

-Using seismic reflection data, I identified five sequences (S) and five unconformities (SU) corresponding to the sequence boundaries during the Cretaceous, three of which had not been identified before: at 125 Ma, 100 Ma and 80 Ma. Based on these new observations, I propose a new generalized composite stratigraphic column for the MMV and the WEC.

-Using the new thermochronological data from this work, I identified two events of heating and two events of cooling; the first of these occurred at 80-70 Ma, which corresponds to the unconformity of Campanian age identified from seismic information. The second cooling event occurred between 10 and 2 Ma.

-I proposed a new possible regional tectonic model, with repetitive tectonic extension and compression events during the Cretaceous, generated by a cyclic subduction regime that explains the cyclicity in the deposition, exhumation and erosion phases and also the sea level variation.

General Conclusions

This thesis initially involved structural, lithological, sedimentological and stratigraphic information collected during this work in several field trips, in four different sections from the north to the south of the MMV and the WEC. Descriptive information from the wells was also used and I took into account descriptive information from other works. Based on these descriptive information, the information were totally analyzed and interpreted in this work.

1. With the information from 30 stratigraphic sections, sea level fluctuation analysis, transgressive regressive curves, and the Fisher plots constructed it was possible to conclude that:

-The analysis of third and second order cycles allowed to identify sea level curves and the vertical and lateral facies variation in the basin.

-Based on Genetic stratigraphic sequence-analysis composed by high-stand systems tract (HST), forced regression or falling-stage systems tract (FSST), low-stand systems tract (LST) and transgressive systems tract (TST); I identified cycles between the sequence boundaries (SB) occurred during the regression system, based on transgressive-regressive curves and the Fisher plots.

-Considering that the cycles are limited by the surface boundaries or unconformities (SU) represented by time gaps generated during regression systems tracts (RST), between the HST and LST; I recognized three new major erosion surfaces (SU) close to the Barremian-Aptian boundary, and in Late Albian-Early Cenomanian and Early Campanian times.

-The unconformities or sequence limits (SU) additionally to the description from field work and wells, were supported by some unconformities identified in outcrops and some biostratigraphic dates that insinuate some time gaps in sequences from the Albian-Cenomanian limit, Barremian-Aptian and Lower Campanian. The Fisher plots helped to identify the correlative conformities towards the basin center in the fine sequences.

-New paleo-facie maps from Berriasian to Coniacian-Santonian were interpreted in this work: The Berriasian correspond to a period of regression, Berriasian/Valangenian to the onset of transgression, Barremian represent the onset of new regression, the MRS was reached during Barremian/Aptian, a new period of transgression is recorded in the Late Aptian/Late Albian, Early Cenomanian features a period of regression, Late Cenomanian/Turonian a regional period of transgression, and finally a period of regression that could continuous during the Early Campanian.

-Shallow conditions related to high-energy events are interpreted at Barremian-Early Aptian (in the La Tigra Section, RW-1 well section); at the Late Albian-Early Cenomanian boundary and in the Late Cenomanian (Samaca-Churuvita, Chiquinquira section, RW-1); and at the Campanian (reported in the RW-1 section).

2. In general, the facies from different system tracts shown in the regional maps interpreted in this work indicate that shallower facies are always present eastward while deep facies are located westward in the MMB towards the CC. Structural and Stratigraphic seismic interpretation of the Cretaceous sequence in the study area permit to conclude that:

-The regional presence of five sequences (S) limited by their corresponding unconformities (SU) interpreted as sequence boundaries at the Jurassic-Cretaceous unconformity (SU1), Late Barremian-Early Aptian unconformity (SU2), Albian-Cenomanian unconformity (SU3), Santonian-Campanian unconformity (SU4), and Paleocene-Eocene Unconformity (SU5).

-The chronostratigraphic charts construed along several seismic sections using Wheeler diagrams, permitted to stablish the regional extension across the MMV and WEC of the five stratigraphic sequences (S1 to S5) and their boundary surfaces (SU1 to SU5).

-Based on these interpretations and the extension of the surface boundaries or unconformity surfaces (SU), I proposed a generalized stratigraphic column for the whole region of this study that shows these five sequences and their boundaries.

-The presence of truncation, onlap, down-lap and growth strata, permitted to identify the major limit of the sequence with a regional extension.

-Comparison of the sequences and sequence boundaries interpreted in this work, with the regional sequences and the sequence boundaries interpreted in Peru, Magallanes, the Neuquén basin, Venezuela, the Upper Magdalena Valley, and in recent works done in the Catatumbo basin, show that these sequences and their limits have a regional extension.

3. Based on the new AFT and ZFT ages from this work, and my thermal modeling it was possible to conclude:

-Two events of heating and two events of cooling were identified; the events of heating for samples older than 85 Ma. occurred from the sedimentation age to ̴ 80 Ma and from ̴ 70 Ma to ̴ 10 -2 Ma. The cooling events occurred between ̴ 80-70 Ma. and from ̴ 10-2 Ma to the present.

-The AFT age at the north area (2.5±0.2-3.41 ±0.37 Ma) and the age at the south area (1.9±0.39,2.97±0.32Ma) are younger than in the center area (5.47 ±1.16 -7.04±1.28) and younger than the ages that have been reported by other authors.

-According to the cooling age reported at the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera (EEC) by [START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics and exhumation processes in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF], the ages are not substantially younger than some ages reported in this work at the western flank of the East Cordillera (north and south area of the WEC), which probably means that the last exhumation could be similar on both flanks of the Eastern Cordillera.

-ZFT ages decrease from the flanks towards the core of the anticline, being younger in older units in each sequence like Giron, Arcabuco and Trinchera which present ZFT ages younger than stratigraphic ages evidencing total annealing. This behavior is confirmed with the Tmax data (Ro).

-Comparing the present-day thermal gradient versus the paleo-geothermal gradient permits to identify the presence of unconformities between Aptian-Barremian and Late Albian-Early Cenomanian ages.

-It is observed that the present temperature decrease compared with the paleotemperature, and also that the excess of paleo-temperature (~250°C), especially at the south, is due to changes in the geothermal gradient because of changes in heat flow (probably magmatic activity) or a combination of changes in the geothermal gradient, sediment charge and denudation.

-I used the criterion of comparison between the central age and the pooled age as a discrimination of age population to show that dispersion of age is only significant in the oldest samples in all the areas (Giron, Arcabuco and Trinchera Formations), where ZFT ages for the samples which underwent total annealing are younger than the stratigraphic ages. The other samples never were heated enough to suffer annealing.

4. A new regional tectonic model for the lower Cretaceous to Paleocene-Eocene ages is proposed in this work.

-The restoration shows a differential shortening in the basin, with a total shortening of around 18.7 km to the South, and 13.7 km to the North since the Early Berriasian to the present. Additionally, a section with the shortening calculated for each age from the Jurassic to the present is presented.

-I show the complete history of deformation and deposition in the basin, based on structural interpretations and the restoration of the section, taking into account the deposited sequences and erosion.

-The integration of the paleo-facies maps and structural restorations, shows that structural deformation in the basin and sea level fluctuation control deposition and erosion in the basin. The different stages of the basin's evolution (deformation, sea level fluctuation, deposition and erosion) are shown stage by stage from Jurassic/Berriasian to Coniacian/Santonian.

-The structural reconstruction through the Cretaceous considering the sequences (S), the discordances (SU) and the transgressive-regressive sequences (paleo-facies maps), shows the relation between deformation, deposition and erosion and when each of these events happened during the Cretaceous in these basins (MMV and WEC).

-From the Jurassic to the Paleocene, repetitive tectonic extension and compression events produced by a cyclic subduction regime, explain the deposition, exhumation and erosion phases observed in the MMV and WEC during the Cretaceous.

-The presence of accreted blocks (for example Quebradagrande) is undeniable. However, in my model the deformation of the upper plate is not dependent on these terrane accretions, but rather on the subduction regime, for example changes in the plate subduction angle (steep or flat subduction), the convergence rate, the polarity of subduction, the slab age, etc.

Impact on the Petroleum Industry

-The results obtained in this work have several impacts on the Petroleum industry: the first one is to understand the tectonic history of the Cretaceous sequence which could impact the understanding of the petroleum system in several aspects such as presence of the seal rock, the tramp, reservoir and the source rocks, etc. These are important, because unlike classic models, the models in this work shows the presence of unconformities and missing sedimentary sequences or eroded sequences which in some cases cause the source rocks to not be present. Sometimes the reservoirs may have totally eroded, or the seal may not be present. This important difference with the previous models, affects all the basin history including the Tertiary sequence, but with a great impact over the Cretaceous sequence.

-The second impact is related to the unconventional oil industry which explores the Cretaceous sequence and the MMV is probably the best example in Colombia. The most important difference with the models that has been classically used, probably lies in the fact that these models considers a continuous sedimentation and in this way considers the presence of the complete sequence in all the basin. However, the model that I propose in this work considers that the sequences are not complete in the basin due to erosion which causes missing sections in the stratigraphic sequence, that have to be analyzed sector by sector during any new drilling well proposals or the new proposals for areas to explore. This understanding will reduce the uncertainty and the risk and allow to choose the best areas for future unconventional prospects.

-The understanding of the regional tectonic events suggested in this work and their relation with the deposition, exhumation and erosion phases observed in the MMV and WEC during the Cretaceous, have to be analyzed in conjunction with the synchronism necessary to have the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the basin.

-The knowledge of the thermal history is a key to understanding the maturity of organic matter. According to the Ro analysis made in this work, the temperature is progressively growing towards the south, reaching temperatures of up to 250°C. The excess of paleotemperature is produced by changes in the geothermal gradient because of changes in the heat flow, which definitely helps define what kind of hydrocarbon will be expected to be accumulated in the trap.

-The understanding of when the heating and cooling events happened, and if those events happened over a short or long period of time is another important fact in order to know if the organic matter is mature or over-mature. For that (considering the thermal history in the valuation of the hydrocarbon) it is necessary to know the quality of the hydrocarbon and if the organic matter was exposed for a long time to high temperatures or if this came out quickly from the window of high temperature, probably of zircon total annealing zone.

Future Perspectives

-It is necessary to incorporate more detail in biostratigraphic analysis to determinate the gaps in the Cretaceous sequences. For these details it is important to acquire more dense and regional sampling from the basins.

-Increase the database for apatite and zircons in situ for the Cretaceous sequence, especially in the central area of this work, towards the syncline de Armas and Otanche area.

-Create future local projects that focus on corroborating the cretaceous unconformities in cretaceous sequence in the MMV and WEC.

-Future regional projects in other basins like the UMV, Putumayo basin, Catatumbo, etc, to corroborate the regional extension as is proposed in this work.

-Determine the AFT age in samples collected in field and wells using the Dpar and the track length measure to strengthen the model.

-Incorporate new and pre-existing data into 3D thermal modeling in conjunction with a structural deformation model, to test the model proposed and other possible models.

-Because this is a regional work, it is necessary to make several local studies in different areas to prove the existence of sequences and their surface boundaries, unconformities or correlative conformities that are suggested in this work.

-

Figure 2 . 1 .

 21 Figure 2.1. Tectonic Framework of Northwestern South America and the Caribbean.

Figure 2 . 2

 22 Figure 2.2 Tectonic framework of the northern Andes of South America Figure 2.3. Geological Map (left) (modified from Restrepo-Peace et al. (2004),) of the study area, showing the most important structural and geological features, the general stratigraphic units, the location of the section profiles analyzed in this work (pink lines); to the right is the location of the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV, light blue) and Western flank of Eastern Cordillera (WEC, pink), representing the study area.

Figure 2 . 4 .

 24 Figure 2.4. Subsidence curves for the MMV and WEC basins.

Figure 2 . 5 .

 25 Figure 2.5. Tectonic evolution of the Eastern Cordillera since the Cretaceous.

Figure 2 . 6 .

 26 Figure 2.6. Comparison of three deformation models of the Eastern Cordillera.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.7a. Tectonic history from Jurassic to Campanian.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.7b. Tectonic history related to the separation of North America from South America in the Proto-Caribbean from Maastrichtian to Miocene.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.7c. Foreland Andean megasequence, showing the incipient Andean deformation in the EC, which separates the MMV from the Llanos basin.

Figure 2 . 8 .

 28 Figure 2.8. Palinspastically restored section of the Maastrichtian foreland basin (MMV and EC) attached to the Central Cordillera.

Figure. 2 . 9 .

 29 Figure. 2.9. Seismic sections in the MMV area, where the intense deformation of the Cretaceous-Paleocene units is observed under the Eocene discordance.

Figure 2 . 10 .

 210 Figure 2.10. Unconformities identified from Northern South America, Neuquén basin and Austral basin.

Figure 2 . 11 .

 211 Figure 2.11. Cretaceous stratigraphic correlation between the MMV, the Eastern Cordillera and the Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV -Girardot and Neiva sub-basins) Figure 2.12. Plate reconstruction for 148, 125, 100 and 71 Ma.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.13. E-W trending seismic section across the MMV, showing the Eocene unconformity.

Figure 2 . 14 .

 214 Figure 2.14. Interaction between exhumation, denudation, erosion, transport and deposition through an active orogen.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.15. Present-day configuration of the tectonic plates.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.16. Simplified structural section of the Venezuelan Andes and its surroundings Figure 2.17. Thermo-tectonic processes that influence thermochronometric interpretations.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure2.18. Regional structural section across Rio Blanco -Buenavista Anticlines.

Figura 2. 19 .

 19 Figura 2.19. Balanced sections across distinct segments of the studied area.

Figure 2 .Figure 2 . 21 .

 2221 Figure 2.20. Present-day and restored structural sections of the Eastern Cordillera Figure 2.21. Flexural behavior of the lithospheric plate generated by two different sections, with different loads up to the present.

Figure 2 . 22 .

 222 Figure 2.22. Elevation model and topographic profile comparing the behavior of either sides of the EC, resulting from the erosion that differentially affected both flanks.

Figure 2 . 23 .

 223 Figure 2.23. Structural section of the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera, showing the migration of deformation, the same effect is observable on the western side of the mountain range.

Figure 2 . 24 .

 224 Figure 2.24. Map of the location and geology of the Medina area, showing the most important structural features, the position of the samples for vitrinite reflectance and ZFT.

Figure 2 . 25 .

 225 Figure 2.25. Deformed structural section of the study area, showing the data of ZFT and AFT, sample Z20 from the Cretaceous age shows a modified age by re-cooking, and samples Z11-Z12 show an increase in ages towards shallower structural levels.

Figure 2 . 26 .

 226 Figure 2.26. Sketch illustrating the evolution of the foreland basin in response to the uplift of the Central and Eastern Cordillera.

Figure 2 . 27 .

 227 Figure 2.27. Restored section through the Medina basin, the projected location of the stratigraphic sections and vitrinite samples and ZFT analysis are indicated for each time.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.28. Sketch illustrating of the evolution of the Colombian Andes.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.29. Map showing the study area (Nuevo mundo syncline), and the different tectonomorphological provinces of the northernmost part of the Andes.

Figure 2 . 30 .

 230 Figure 2.30. Regional section, showing the relationship between subduction, magmatic activity and basin filling, in northern Colombia (A) and in the central zone (B).

Figure. 2 . 31 .

 231 Figure.2.31. Seismic profiles: a) Present-day deformation; b) flattened at the level of the La Luna marker (Cenomanian-Turonian).

Figure 2 . 32 .

 232 Figure 2.32. Comparison between the early tectonic events of the Andes and the geodynamics of the plates in the subduction zone.

Figure 2 . 33 .

 233 Figure 2.33. Generalized stratigraphic section of Villa de Leyva (location in the map) with details of the Lodolitas Abigarradas level of the La Paja Fm.

Figure 2 . 34 .

 234 Figure 2.34. Fischer plot (relative accommodation space plot) for the Tablazo and Simití formations (Sachica section).

Figure 3 . 1 .

 31 Figure 3.1. Location map of the study area. MMV: Middle Magdalena Valley; WEC: Western flank of the Eastern Cordillera.

Figure 3 . 2 .

 32 Figure 3.2. Field sections in the WEC.

Figure 3 . 3 .

 33 Figure 3.3. Location of field samples in the WEC.

Figure 3 . 4 .

 34 Figure 3.4. Correlation chart in the study area, showing the different nomenclatures used for different areas (compiled in this work).

Figure 3 . 5 .

 35 Figure 3.5. Location of wells and field sections. Green dots: wells; red dots: field sections and samples; blue dots: information from other authors; red stars: sections with biostratigraphy information; black dots: cities.

Figure 3 . 6 .

 36 Figure 3.6. Stack of fourth order sequences and its correspondence with a third order sequence.

Figure 3 . 7 .

 37 Figure 3.7. Example of relation between a progradational parasequence set (right) modified from Wagoner et al. (1990) and a eustacy curve (left) modified fromHag et al (1987).

Figure 3 . 8 .

 38 Figure 3.8. Nomenclature of systems tracts and timing of sequence boundaries for the various stratigraphic sequences approached.

Figure 3 . 9 .

 39 Figure 3.9. Types of log shapes.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.10. Examples of gamma Ray response to different depositional environments.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.11. Example of curve patterns, their system tracks and their possible depositional environment in the Gulf of Mexico.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.12. Types of stratigraphic contacts.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.13. Concept of transgression, normal regression and forced regression, showing the relation between base-level changes (blc) and sedimentation.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.14. Stratigraphic surfaces, sequence and system tracts defined based of sea-level and Transgressive-Regressive curves.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.15. Transgressive -regression curve (base-level cycle) relative to the main events.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.16. Sequence stratigraphic model for a low gradient ramp in an intracratonic basin.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.17. La Tigra stratigraphic section, near the town of Villeta, corresponding to the Trinchera Fm (Barremian -Early Aptian).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.18. Alto-Ojo Stratigraphic section, near to Villeta town, corresponding to the Socotá Fm (Tablazo-Simiti Fm, Upper Aptian -Lower Albian).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.19. Quebrada Cune stratigraphic section, near the Villeta town, corresponding to the Trinchera and Socotá Fms (Late Aptian).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.20. Bituima section of the Hilo Fm, showing Late Aptian -Late Cenomanian units.

Figure 3 . 21 .

 321 Figure 3.21. Stratigraphic section of Escuela-1 well, showing the sequence of the Turonian -Maastrichtian units to the present.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.22. Rio Curi-Anolaima section, corresponding to the Simijaca (Cenomanian) and Frontera (Turonian-Middle Coniacian) Fm… Figure 3.23. Quebrada Nemice section, describing the Lower Coniacian Conejo Fm.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.24. N-NE-NW correlation of the southern part of the study area.

Figure 3 . 25 .

 325 Figure 3.25. Sachica -Chiquinquira road section, corresponding to the Tablazo Fm.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.26. Section along the Samaca -Villa de Leyva road, showing the Lower San Gil Fm.

Figure 3 . 27 .

 327 Figure 3.27. Section along the Samaca -Villa de Leyva road, corresponding to the Upper San Gil Fm.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.28. Stratigraphic section in the Villa de Leyva-Cucaita road that corresponds to the Churuvita Formation.

Figure. 3 .

 3 Figure. 3.29. Section of the La Paja Fm (Barremian-Aptian age), measured and described along the Villa de Leyva-Sachica road.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.30. Chiquinquira section.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.31. Stratigraphic section in the area of Otanche, showing the La Rosablanca-Tablazo to Umir Fm succession.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.32. Muzo-Painita stratigraphic section, corresponding to the Tablazo Fm.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.33. Stratigraphic section in the Pauna -Muzo -Coscuez area, showing the Rosablanca to Tablazo Fm succession.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.34. Stratigraphic section of Chima, North of Velez town -southwest of Barichara town, showing the succession from the Arcabuco (Jurassic) to the Areniscas de Chiquinquira Fm (Cenomanian).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.35. Stratigraphic section of the Guineal well, showing all the sequences from the Berriasian -Santonian.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.36. SEE-NWW correlation in the Centre of the study area, showing stratigraphic changes from the Berriasian to the Cenomanian.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.37. Barichara section of the Tablazo Fm.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.38. Rio Sogamoso section, corresponding to the Berriasian-Lower Cenomanian interval.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.39. Boqueron del Medio section, showing the Jurassic-Albian succession.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.40. Playon-Cuesta Rica section, showing the Jurassic-Albian succession.

Figure. 3 .

 3 Figure. 3.41. Yumeca 1 well section, showing a succession of Berriasian to Turonian age.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.42. Guane-1 Section, showing a Berriasian to Turonian succession.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.43. Iwana-1 section, corresponding to a Jurassic to Paleocene-Eocene succession, Biostratigraphic analysis taken from ECP-ICP (2014).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.44. RW-1 well, corresponding to a Barremian-Campanian succession and proposed interpretation.

Figure 3 . 45 .

 345 Figure 3.45. Chucuri-1 well section, corresponding to Hauterivian-Tertiary succession and proposed interpretation.

Figure. 3 .

 3 Figure. 3.46. Stratigraphic section for Llanito-1 well; corresponds to all sequence from Giron-La Luna on and fossils position.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.47. Correlation SEE-NNW-SSW-W for the North Study area, showing stratigraphic changes from Berriasian to Cenomanian ages.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.48. Facies distribution map for the Berriasian.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.49. Facies distribution map (left) for the Berriasian-Valanginian.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.50. Facies distribution map (right) for the Hauterivian.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.51 Facies distribution map for the Barremian (left).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.52 Facies distribution map for the Barremian/Aptian (right).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.53. Facies distribution map in North to South areas for the Late Aptian/Late Albian (left).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.54. Facies distribution map in North to South areas for the Early Cenomanian (right).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.55. Facies distribution map for the Late Cenomanian-Turonian (left).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.56. Facies distribution map for the Late Coniacian-Santonian (right).

Figure 4 . 1 .

 41 Figure 4.1. Location map of the Middle Magdalena Valley (light blue) and the Western margin of Eastern Cordillera (pink).

Figure 4 . 2 .

 42 Figure 4.2. Map showing of Cretaceous units and main structural features of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera and Upper Magdalena Valley.

Figure 4 . 3 .

 43 Figure 4.3. Types of stratal termination expected to be seen in seismic profiles and outcrops.

Figure 4 . 4 .

 44 Figure 4.4. Types of stratal terminations as observed in seismic profiles.

Figure 4 . 5 .

 45 Figure 4.5. Seismic reflection patterns for the identification of unconformities. Truncation and growth strata are shown on different examples of seismic sections from this work.

Figure 4 . 6 .

 46 Figure 4.6. Unconformities identified in outcrops. Note the angularity between the units below and above the unconformities.

Figure 4 . 7 .

 47 Figure 4.7. Simplified geological map of the study area. Green: Cretaceous; Yellow and orange: Tertiary; Dark pink and light purple: Pre-Cretaceous. 2D seismic information available in the MMV (light blue).

Figure 4 . 8 .

 48 Figure 4.8. Structural interpreted section, at the North of the MMV and WEC (for the location see figures4.7 and 4.12).The seismic profile corresponds to the regional lineANH-TA-2006-4A1.

Figure 4 . 9 .

 49 Figure 4.9. Seismic reflection profile CP-2008-1410, orientated NW-SE, in the northern MMV (location on Figure 4.7).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.10. S-N trending seismic reflection profile MM-1976-1B, 1C and 1D in the north of the MMV (location on Figure 4.7). Above: un-interpreted section; below: proposed interpretation.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.11. S-N trending seismic reflection profile CP-2008-1335 in the northern part of the MMV (location on Figure 4.7). Above: un-interpreted section; below: proposed interpretation.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.12 NW-SE trending seismic reflection profile ANH-TA-2006-4A1 in the north of the MMV (location on Figure 4.7). Above: un-interpreted section; below: proposed interpretation.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.13. Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: interpreted along the seismic reflection profile dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-87-1740, DM-87-1650, SL-951800, in direction NW-SE in the north of the MMV.

  Figure 4.13. Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: interpreted along the seismic reflection profile dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-87-1740, DM-87-1650, SL-951800, in direction NW-SE in the north of the MMV.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.14. Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: section interpreted along the seismic reflection profileSE-1989-1400, MSA-1989-01, in direction NW-SE in the north of the MMV.

  Figure 4.14. Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: section interpreted along the seismic reflection profileSE-1989-1400, MSA-1989-01, in direction NW-SE in the north of the MMV.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.15. Seismic section at the north of the MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: interpreted along the seismic reflection profileTPBRM-1997-101, TPBG-1997-101A, H-1978-07, in direction near N-S in the south of the MMV.

  Figure 4.15. Seismic section at the north of the MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: interpreted along the seismic reflection profileTPBRM-1997-101, TPBG-1997-101A, H-1978-07, in direction near N-S in the south of the MMV.

Figure

  Figure4.16. Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: section interpreted along the seismic reflection profileTMM-1991-04, RG-1991-08, SD-1985-42, H-1978-06 in approximate direction N-S in the south of the MMV.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.17 a-Seismic stratigraphic interpretation of inline CP-2008-1410; b-Chronostratigraphic chart after seismic stratigraphic interpretation using a Wheeler diagram.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.18 a, b -Chronostratigraphic chart of the 147 km long profile ANH-1A-2006-4A1 (location on Figure 4.7).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.19. Chronostratigraphic chart generated from seismic reflection profile CP-2008-1335 (location on Figure 4.7).

Figure 4

 4 Figure 4.20(a,b) Composed seismic profile(dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-1987- 1740, DM-1987-1650, SL-95-1800); (b) Chronostratigraphic chart for the section above (location on Figure4.7).

  Figure 4.20(a,b) Composed seismic profile(dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-1987- 1740, DM-1987-1650, SL-95-1800); (b) Chronostratigraphic chart for the section above (location on Figure4.7).

Figure 4 . 21

 421 Figure 4.21 Seismic section and chronostratigraphic chart for the composite sectionSE-1989-1400 and MSA-1989-01 (location on Figure 4.7).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.22. Seismic section and chronostratigraphic chart in the southern part of the study area (location on Figure 4.7). To the east, the Cretaceous series has been removed by pre-Miocene erosions.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.23. General stratigraphic column proposed for the MMV and WEC, showing the identified unconformities (SU1 to SU5) and sequences (S1 to S5).

Figure 4 .Figure 4 . 25 .

 4425 Figure 4.24. Stratigraphic column of the RW-1 well reconstructed from the well log description and gamma ray data (left). Chronostratigraphic chart for the seismic profile, showing the sequences, unconformities and hiatuses, and the location of the RW-1 well (center). General stratigraphic column Figure 4.25. Comparison of Cretaceous cycles identified by Macellari (1988) in northern South America, and the Neuquén and Austral Basins with the global chart of coastal onlap.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.26. Stratigraphic chart, correlation and comparison between sections from different localities from Peru to Venezuela.

Figure 4 . 27 .

 427 Figure 4.27. Seismic profile from the Upper Magdalena Valley, flattened to La Luna marker (Cenomanian-Turonian boundary).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.28. Seismic profile in the Maracaibo Basin (Venezuela), flattened on the horizon "Colon-Mito Juan" units.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.29. Schematic chronostratigraphic section showing variations in the missing intervals for different areas studied.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.30. Comparison between the early tectonic event (Precoz) in the Andes and the geodynamics of the plates in the subduction zone.

Figure 5 . 1 .

 51 Figure 5.1. Location map of thermochronological samples collected in this work (red points), and other authors (green, blue and yellow; the location of cities are marked as black dots).

Figure 5 . 2 .

 52 Figure 5.2. The external detector method for fission-track dating is shown step by step.

Figure 5 . 3 .

 53 Figure 5.3. Radial plot representation (Gailbraith, 1990) of ZFT (left) and AFT (right) of two different samples (using radialpltter aplication from Vermeesch, 2009) from the northern study zone of this work (for location see figure 5.5).

Figure 5 . 4 -

 54 Figure 5.4 -Shows schematic time-temperature (t-T) paths, solid boxes are used as imposed constrains and dashed boxes constrains are derived from stratigraphic relationships, lines represent t-T paths. Solid lines represent paths that are free to vary and dashed lines represent paths controlled by lower samples.

Figure 5 . 5 .

 55 Figure 5.5. Graph showing detrital thermochronological age (tc) in x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td) in y-axis. Raw data, real example from the samples taken at the north area of this work.

Figure 5 . 6 .

 56 Figure 5.6. Map showing the location of ZFT ages in the North area of study (for the location see figure 3.5).

Figure 5 . 7 .

 57 Figure 5.7. Structural section in the Northern section above at the height of Rio Sogamoso and below at the Barichara-San Vicente de Chucuri road, showing of the location of the zircon samples.

Figure. 5 . 8 .

 58 Figure. 5.8. Graph showing detrital thermochronological central age (tcc) in x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td) in y-axis.

Figure 5 . 10 .

 510 Figure 5.10. Map showing the location of AFT ages in the Northern section Barichara-Bucaramanga.

Figure 5 . 11 .

 511 Figure 5.11. Structural sections (this work) in the northern area (figure 5.1), above is shown the section in the Sogamoso River and below is shown the Barichara-San Vicente de Chucuri section Figure 5.12. Map showing the location of the apatites and zircon samples in the Central section: Villa de Leyva -Chiquinquira.

Figure 5 . 13 .

 513 Figure 5.13. Structural section in the Northern section Villa de Leyva -Chiquinquira, showing the location of the zircon samples.

Figure 5 . 14 .

 514 Figure 5.14. Structural section in the Northern section Villa de Leyva -Chiquinquira, showing the location of the apatites samples.

Figure. 5 . 15 .

 515 Figure. 5.15. Graph showing detrital thermochronological central age (tcc) on the x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td) on the y-axis.

Figure 5 . 17 .

 517 Figure 5.17. Map showing the location of the AFT and ZFT ages in the Southern section La Vega-Villeta.

Figure 5 . 18 .

 518 Figure 5.18. Structural section in the Northern section La Vega-Villeta, showing the location of the zircon samples.

Figure 5 . 19 .

 519 Figure 5.19. Structural section in the Northern section La Vega-Villeta, showing the location of the apatites samples.

Figure. 5 . 20 .

 520 Figure. 5.20. Graph showing detrital thermochronological central age (tcc) on the x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td) on the y-axis.

Figure

  Figure 5.21.At the left is showing the map of the central age of the ZFT, for the samples from the Southern area of study, note that the ZFT age tends to decrease towards the core of the Villeta Anticline, where the Lower Cretaceous units are present (Trinchera/Utica), the section in Figure5.18 shows the same behavior. At right is showing the map of the minimum age of the ZFT, note that the minimum age in the Villeta Anticline tends to decrease; however at the east of the map the central and minimum age also decrease, showing that thermochronological age values always tend to decrease in older units.

Figure 5 . 23 .

 523 Figure 5.23. Semilogarithmic plots of vitrinite reflectance and equivalent maximum temperature (left), and temperature vs age. The maximum temperatures were calculated using Eq. 1 shown in the text. Suite of vitrinite reflectance data collected by the ICP, mainly from samples from the MMV.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.24. Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) and temperature (Tmax) vs depth.

Figure 5 . 25 .

 525 Figure 5.25. Cross plot of Stratigraphic age Vs Tmax, organized by sectors to assess the behavior of different zones in the basin.

Figure 5 . 26 .

 526 Figure 5.26. Temperature vs depth plots for wells Infantas-1613(A), RW-1 (B) and Cascajales-1 (C). The Paleotemperatures were greater than the present-day temperatures, in general in A, B and C the paleogradient presents two tendencies that mark an Albian-Cenomianian or earlier unconformity.

Figure 5 . 27 .

 527 Figure 5.27. Map showing the distribution of Ro in all the area of study, the bubble colors correspond toRo value samples from tables 5.8 and 5.9.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.28. Plots of DAFT, DZFT and Temperature versus stratigraphic age, by sector: for the south (right); for the central (center) and for the north (left).

Figure 5 . 29 .

 529 Figure 5.29. Detrital fission track age collected and measured in this work compared with the FT age measured by other authors in the three areas studied in this work.

Figure 5 . 30 .

 530 Figure 5.30. Thermal modeling of samples from the northern (A) and central (B) area at the level of the Tablazo Formation and Trinchera at the southern area (C) in this study.

Figure 5 . 31 .

 531 Figure 5.31. Compendium of thermal modeling solutions for selected samples from the study area MMV and WEC.

Figure 5 . 32 .

 532 Figure 5.32. Comparison between the Cooling histories obtained from the Lisama Fm. in this work (Upper Cretaceous) and from the same formation in Sanchez (2012).

Figure 6 . 1 .

 61 Figure 6.1. Controls of stratigraphic architecture of a basin with a marine connection, also applicable to an intermountain lacustrine connection.

Figure 6 . 2 .

 62 Figure 6.2. Schematic stratigraphic cross-section (above) and corresponding chronostratigraphic chart (below).

Figure 6 . 3 .

 63 Figure 6.3. In 1) Schematic cross section showing models of variable plate coupling, variability of plate coupling (shallowing, steepening) inferred from among other factors in the regional stress regimen, generating compression (coupled margin), not upper plate deformation (Neutral margin) or extensional regimen (decoupled margin).

Figure 6 . 4 .

 64 Figure 6.4. Schematic section showing a steeper and deeper slab to the W with regards to the ENE.

Figure 6 . 5 .

 65 Figure 6.5. Diagrams showing the evolution of the flat slab from analog models.

Figure 6 . 6 .

 66 Figure 6.6. Tectonic-plate setting and major structures of the Northern Andes.

Figure 6 . 7 .

 67 Figure 6.7. Section across the Colombian Andes.

Figure 6 . 8 .

 68 Figure 6.8. Simplified map of northwestern South America showing the allochtonous terranes.

Figure 6 . 9 .

 69 Figure 6.9. Restored sections on profile CP-2008-1410 at different periods from Late Jurassic-Berriasian to the present times.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.10. Restored sections from the southern composed profile from seismic sectionRG-1991-08, SD-19, H-1978-06, and section from surface information.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.11. Schematic 3D Diagrams, showing the evolution of the Middle Magdalena Basin from Late Jurassic (A) to Coniacian-Santonian times (J).

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.12. Compendium of thermal modeling solutions for selected samples in the study area for Aptian-Albian units in the north, central and south zones.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.13. Plate reconstruction (a to h) and sketchy tectonic evolution of northwestern South America (Western Colombia) (A to H) from Late Jurassic to Eocene times.

Figure 2 . 1 .

 21 Figure 2.1. Tectonic Framework of Northwestern South America and the Caribbean (modified fromHey, 1977; Lonsdale and Klitgord, 1978; Case et al., 1984; Adamek et al., 1988; Hardy, 1991; Zamora and Litherland, 1993;[START_REF] Meschede | A plate-tectonic model for the Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic history of the Caribbean Plate[END_REF] Gutscher et al. 1999; Audemard et al., 2000; Barckhausen et al., 2001; MacMillan et al., 2004; Giunta et al., 2006; and Escuder Viruete et al., 2006). Vector values of the relative plate movements were adapted from GPS data byMora et al. (2014) andProtti et al. (2012). Active oceanic rifts: (1) Cayman, (2) Galápagos, (3) Ecuador, and (4) Costa Rica. Inactive oceanic rifts: (5) Malpelo and (6) Buenaventura. Oceanic trenches and active subduction zones: (7) Middle America, (8) Colomboecuatoriana, and (9) Caribbean. Oceanic trenches and inactive subduction zones: (10) Puerto Rico. Accretionary prisms-deformed belts: (11) Los Muertos, (12) Lesser Antilles, (13) Caribbean, and (14) Panamá. Transform fault zones: (15) Septentrional-Oriente, (16) Motagua-Swan, (17) Celmira-Ballena, (18) Jordan, (19) Panamá, (20) Hey, (21) Yaquina, (22) Grijalva, and (23) Los Roques. Oceanic normal faults: (24) Pedro Bank and (25) Hess. Continental plate faults: (26) Simarúa, (27) Cuisa, (28) Oca, (29) El Pilar, (30) Santa Marta, (31) Algarrobo, (32) Cauca-Almaguer, (33) Boconó, (34) Espíritu Santo, (35) Bucaramanga, (36) Palestina, (37) Murindó, (38) Otú, (39) La Salina, (40) Silvia-Pijao, (41) San Jerónimo, (42) Mistrató, (43) Guaicáramo, (44) Meta, (45) Istmina Fault Zone, (46) Garrapatas, (47) Ibagué, (48) Algeciras, (49) Pallatanga-Pujili, (50) Peltetec, and (51) Cosanga. Independent lithospheric blocks: (52) Coiba Microplate.

Figure 2 . 5

 25 Figure 2.5 Tectonic evolution of the Eastern Cordillera since the Cretaceous[START_REF] Cooper | Basin development and tectonic history of the Los Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley. Colombia[END_REF].

Figure 2 . 6

 26 Figure 2.6 Comparison of three deformation models of the Eastern Cordillera: a.[START_REF] Colleta | Tectonics style and crustal structure of the Eastern Cordillera (Colombia) from a balanced cross section[END_REF] b. Dengo and Covey (1993); c.Roeder and Chamberlain (1994).

  , propose a hypothesis of development and tectonic history of the Llanos, EC and MMV basin that goes from the Triassic to the Middle Miocene (Figure 2.7). Development begins in the Triassic until the early Cretaceous with the formation of a Synrift megasequence (Figure 2.7a and b), which continues in the Cretaceous in a Back-arc frame to the east of the Andean subduction zone, marine deposits were interrupted during the early Maastrichtian due to the accretion of the Western Cordillera (CW) (Figure 2.7b), which creates the megasequence of the pre-Andean Foreland basin (Late Masstrichtian -Early Eocene) dominated by fluvio-deltaic strata that covers the VMM, the EC and the Llanos basin (Figure 2.7b). Since the beginning of the Middle Miocene the deformation of the EC separates totally the MMV from the Llanos Basin as is observed in Figure 2.7c.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.7c. Foreland Andean megasequence, showing the incipient Andean deformation in the EC, which separates the MMV from the Llanos basin (from Cooper, 1995).

Figure 2 . 8

 28 Figure 2.8 Palinspastically restored section of the Maastrichtian foreland basin (MMV and EC) attached to the Central Cordillera (from Gomez, 2005).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.10 Unconformities identified from Northern South America, Neuquén basin and Australbasin (modified from Macellari, 1988)

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.11 Cretaceous stratigraphic correlation between the MMV, the Eastern Cordillera and the Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV -Girardot and Neiva sub-basins) (from[START_REF] Barrio | Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot Sub-Basin), Colombia[END_REF].

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.12 Plate reconstruction for 148, 125, 100 and 71 Ma (from Pindell 2009).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.13 E-W trending seismic section across the MMV, showing the Eocene unconformity (from Pindell 2009).

  , which have been interpreted to determine the time of intrusive magmatism and metamorphism in CC. New data taken by Villagomez (2010) from isotopes (16 zircon, 35 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, 76 data from apatite and zircon fission track, 21 from apatite and Zircon ((U-Th) / He) and 43 geochemical analyzes allowed him to characterize the tectonic origin of the geological units. Villagomez (2010) presents geochronological, thermochronological and geochemical data of different types of rock from the southern Ecuadorian border to the extension of the Western Cordillera (WC), CC, and Cauca Valley and up to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The peculiarity of the northern Andean zone (Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela) compared to the southern Andean zone (Peru-Chile), is that it comprises a number of oceanic allochthonous and para-autochtonic blocks accreted mainly during the Cretaceous against the paleocontinental margin in the location of the Romeral fault.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.15 Present-day configuration of the tectonic plates (taken fromColmenares and Zoback, 2003 and modified by Bermúdez, 2010).Bermudez (2010), presents the history of exhumation of the Venezuelan Andes during the Miocene to the present supported by thermochronological data of AFT, rock samples, detrital sediments and modern sediments, and the relationship between non-inherited structures and the development of the topography in response to tectonic and surface processes (Figure2.14). These mountainous belts are the result of the transpression caused by the oblique convergence of the continental block of Maracaibo and the plate of South America, controlled on a large scale by the triple convergence between the South American, Caribbean and Nazca plates (Figure2.15). The author presents data on the history of the exhumation of the Venezuelan Andes, but only analyzes exhumation events from the Miocene to the recent one, without

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.20 Present-day and restored structural sections of the Eastern Cordillera (from[START_REF] Cortes | Structure and tectonics of central segment of Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF].

Figure 2 . 21 .

 221 Figure 2.21. Flexural behavior of the lithospheric plate generated by two different sections, with different loads up to the present (from Bayona, 2008).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.23. Structural section of the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera, showing the migration of deformation, the same effect is observable on the western side of the mountain range (from Mora, 2010).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.24 Map of the location and geology of the Medina area, showing the most important structural features, the position of the samples for vitrinite reflectance and ZFT (From Parra, 2008).

Figure 2 . 25

 225 Figure 2.25 Deformed structural section of the study area, showing the data of ZFT and AFT, sample Z20 from the Cretaceous age shows a modified age by re-cooking, and samples Z11-Z12 show an increase in ages towards shallower structural levels (From Parra, 2008). Horton et al., (2010), based on the analysis of 29 samples of EC, reveals the origin of the basement and sedimentation patterns during the Paleozoic subsidence, the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous extension, the post-rift subsidence, the Cenozoic shortening and the evolution of the foreland basin. According to the author, U-Pb geochronological data indicates that the Pre-Cambrian basement is the product of Paleozoic-early magmatism (520-420 Ma). Data from U-Pb zircons in Paleozoic strata from the Andean basement show non-depositional magmatic sources (420-380 Ma), and distal sources mainly from the Meso-Proterozoic basement (1650-900 Ma) present in the East Amazonian craton (Guyana) or in continental lands along the western margin of South America. Sedimentation during early Jurassic-Cretaceous rifting is expressed in the age of detrital zircons, with an Andean base source recycled from the Paleozoic and from igneous sources of the Carboniferous-Permian (310-250 Ma) and late Triassic-early Jurassic (220-180 Ma).

For

  Horton, even during the Eocene zircons from the Guyana massif dominated the detrital signal in the easternmost part of the EC, coetaneous deposits in the axial part of the EC show record of zircons from the Cretaceous-Paleocene (90-55 Ma), Jurassic (190-150 Ma), and the Permian-Triassic limit (280-220 Ma), recording the initial uplift and exhumation mainly of rocks of Mesozoic magmatic arcs to the west in the CC. Oligocene-Miocene sandstones of the Eastern Plains basin document uplift induced by exhumation of the folded and failed belt from the EC and the recycling of the Paleocene cover rich in detritus derived from arc (180-40 Ma) and craton derivatives (1850-950). Following these observations Horton shows some schematic sections of the evolution of the Colombian Andes beginning in the Fanerozoic until the late Oligocene-Miocene. For the author the beginning of the uplift of the EC occurs until the late Eocene-Early Oligocene and it's not until the Late Oligocene-Miocene that the EC separates the VMM from the Llanos basin (figure 2.28).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.26 Sketch illustrating the evolution of the foreland basin in response to the uplift of the Central and Eastern Cordillera (from Parra, 2008).

Figure 2 . 27

 227 Figure 2.27 Restored section through the Medina basin, the projected location of the stratigraphic sections and vitrinite samples and ZFT analysis are indicated for each time. Exhumation induced by thrusting along the Quetame massif during the early Miocene incorporated the western part of the syntectonic wedge of the Medina basin between the folded and faulted belt (from Parra, 2008).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.28 Sketch illustrating of the evolution of the Colombian Andes (from Horton et al, 2010).Nie et al. (2010) indicate that the moment of the lifting of the northernmost part of the Andes is limited to ranges that go from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene (Figure 2.29). Ages from U-Pb detrital zircons from the VMM in Colombia reveal two changes in provenance during the Cenozoic, indicating that the first change occurred between the early and late Paleocene strata. Nie's results show a change from Proterozoic domain to Phanerozoic domain, the author attributes this change to the exhumation related to the lifting of the CC (a change of origin from the Craton to the CC). The second change occurred between the Late Eocene and Late

Figure 2 . 29 .

 229 Figure 2.29. Map showing the study area (Nuevo mundo syncline), and the different tectonomorphological provinces of the northernmost part of the Andes (from de Nie et al., 2010).

Figure 2 . 30 .

 230 Figure 2.30. Regional section, showing the relationship between subduction, magmatic activity and basin filling, in northern Colombia (A) and in the central zone (B) (from Bayona, 2011).

Figure 2 . 33 .

 233 Figure 2.33. Generalized stratigraphic section of Villa de Leyva (location in the map) with details of the Lodolitas Abigarradas level of the La Paja Fm. The stratigraphic position of the high energy deposits and the distribution of some species of ammonites are shown (Modified from[START_REF] Patarroyo | Amonitas de un Nivel de Alta Energía del Barremiano Inferior en la Formación Paja de los Sectores de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá) y de Vélez (Santander)[END_REF].

Figure 2 . 34 .

 234 Figure 2.34. Fischer plot (relative accommodation space plot) for the Tablazo and Simití formations (Sachica section) (modified from[START_REF] Moreno | Estratigrafía Cuantitativa de las Formaciones Tablazo y Simiti en las localidades de Sáchica (Boyacá) y Barichara -San Gil (Santander), Colombia[END_REF].

Fischer

  by tides, encompassing offshore bottom to muddy intertidal plain. The plant remains suggest the development of vegetation on the coast line.

Figure 3 . 1 -

 31 Figure 3.1 -Location map of the study area. MMV: Middle Magdalena Valley; WEC: Western flank of the Eastern Cordillera.

Figure 3 Figure 3 . 2

 332 Figure 3.2 Field sections in the WEC.

Figure 3 . 3

 33 Figure 3.3 Location of field samples in the WEC.

Figure 3 . 4 .

 34 Figure 3.4. Correlation chart in the study area, showing the different nomenclatures used for different areas (compiled in this work).

Figure 3 . 5 -

 35 Figure 3.5 -Location of wells and field sections. Green dots: wells; red dots: field sections and samples; blue dots: information from other authors; red stars: sections with biostratigraphy information; black dots: cities.

Figure 3 . 7 -

 37 Figure 3.7 -Example of relation between a progradational parasequence set (right) modified from Wagoner et al. (1990) and a eustacy curve (left) modified from Hag et al (1987). HST = Highstand Systems track, TST = Transgressive systems track, LSW = Lowstand Wedge systems track, LSF= Lowstand fan system track SMW = Shelf margin wedge system tract.

Figure 3 . 8 -

 38 Figure 3.8 -Nomenclature of systems tracts and timing of sequence boundaries for the various stratigraphic sequences approached (modified from Catuneanu, 2002). In the graph: LST -lowstand systems tract; TST-transgressive systems tract; HST-highstand systems tract; FSST-falling-stage systems tract; RST-regressive systems tract; T-R-transgressive-regressive.

Figure 3 . 9 -

 39 Figure 3.9 -Types of log shapes; a) Funnel shape: coarsening upward; b) Cylinder shapeblocky; c) Bell shape: fining upward.

Figure 3 .( 3 )

 33 Figure 3.10 -Examples of gamma Ray response to different depositional environments (fromTsai-Bao[START_REF] Kuo | Well log correlation using artificial intelligence (Rule-based, Expert System[END_REF]

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.11-Example of curve patterns, their system tracks and their possible depositional environment in the Gulf of Mexico (taken fromMicro-Strat, inc., 1990).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.12 -Types of stratigraphic contacts (modified fromBates and Jackson, 1987)

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.13 -Concept of transgression, normal regression and forced regression, showing the relation between base-level changes (blc) and sedimentation. The upper sine curve shows the magnitude of base level changes through time; the red portions in this curve indicate early and late stages of base-level rise (increasing from zero and increasing to zero, respectively) are outpaced by sedimentation rates. Below: The green area shows the constant sedimentation rate; the black curve shows the rate of baselevel change, which equals zero at the end of base-level rise and base-level fall stages. Transgression occurs when the rate of base level rise outpaces the sedimentation rate, for simplicity the reference baselevel curve is symmetrical but in the real case asymmetrical is more likely in the geological record. Abbreviations: FR-forced regression; NR-normal regression (from Catuneanu, 2004a).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.14 -Stratigraphic surfaces, sequence and system tracts defined based of sea-level and Transgressive-Regressive curves (in Catuneanu 2006). MFS (Maximum flooding surface); MRS (Maximum Regression surface); BSFR -Basal surface of forced regression ( correlative conformity sensuPosamentieretal., 1988); NR -Normal Regression; FR -Forced Regression; HSThighstand system track ; LSTlowstand system track[START_REF] Hunt | Stranded parasequences and the forced regressive wedge systems tract: deposition during base level fall[END_REF]; TSTtransgressive system track; FSST -Falling-stage system track); DSdepositional sequence; GSgenetic stratigraphic sequence; TRtransgressiveregressive sequence ; NR -normal regression; FRforced regression; Rtransgressive wave-ravinement surface; IV -incised valley; Apositive accommodation (Base level rise).

Figure

   relative to the main events (Modified fromCatuneanu et al., 1998b and Embry and Catuneanu, 2002[START_REF] Catuneanu | Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF].

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.16. Sequence stratigraphic model for a low gradient ramp in an intracratonic basin (modified by Vecsei and Duringer, 2003). Abbreviations: HST--highstand systems tract; FSST--falling-stage systems tract; LST--lowstand systems tract; TST--transgressive systems tract; SB--depositional sequence boundary; BSFR--basal surface of forced regression; MRS--maximum regressive surface; MFS--maximum flooding surface; MDI--maximum depth interval; regression and coarsening upward (R); transgression and fining upward (T).

  to 3.46; as well as regions presenting some biostratigraphic information(Figures 3.17

  to 3.23 in the South; in the centre; in the North) to corroborate the age of the units and to obtain information, if available, about depositional environments.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.17. La Tigra stratigraphic section, near the town of Villeta, corresponding to the Trinchera Fm (Barremian -Early Aptian). Two successions of sandstones are shown at the base and top of the section.(Drawn after personal observations and from[START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF], stratigraphic interpretation from this work.)

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.18 Alto-Ojo Stratigraphic section, near to Villeta town, corresponding to the Socotá Fm (Tablazo-Simiti Fm, Upper Aptian -Lower Albian). A thick succession of sandstone is capped by mudstone and calcareous siltstones (Drawn after personal observations and from[START_REF] Ulloa | Geología de la Plancha 227 -La Mesa[END_REF], stratigraphic interpretation from this work.)

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.19 -Quebrada Cune stratigraphic section, near the Villeta town, corresponding to the Trinchera and Socotá Fms (Late Aptian). Thick beds of sandstones capped by thin shales are overlain by thick conglomerate levels; mudstone crops out at the top. Personal observations.

Photo 3 . 1 .

 31 Photo 3.1. Litharenite of Early Aptian age (Upper Trinchera Fm). Note the lens-shaped layers and cross laminations (upper red square).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.20. Bituima section of the Hilo Fm, showing Late Aptian -Late Cenomanian units. (Lithological description modified from Ulloa and Acosta (2001); stratigraphic interpretation from this work.)

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.21. Stratigraphic section of Escuela-1 well, showing the sequence of the Turonian -Maastrichtian units to the present (reconstruction and interpretation from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.22. Rio Curi-Anolaima section, corresponding to the Simijaca (Cenomanian) and Frontera (Turonian-Middle Coniacian) Fm, showing the transgresive-regession curve and the Fischer plot. After personal observations and Ulloa and Acosta (2001).

  -

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.23. Quebrada Nemice section, describing the Lower Coniacian Conejo Fm. Section initially described by Hernandez (1990) and revised during this work.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.24. N-NE-NW correlation of the southern part of the study area.

Figure 3 . 25 .

 325 Figure 3.25. Sachica -Chiquinquira road section, corresponding to the Tablazo Fm. Local coal mining has been reported for this formation in this area. This work.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.26. Section along the Samaca -Villa de Leyva road, showing the Lower San Gil Fm. Sandstone beds and paleosoils were observed in the upper part of the section.

Figure 3 . 27 .

 327 Figure 3.27. Section along the Samaca -Villa de Leyva road, corresponding to the Upper San Gil Fm.From personal observations, and after[START_REF] Caicedo | Significado Facial de la Formación Churuvita y su Respuesta Cartográfica[END_REF].

Photo 3 . 6 .

 36 Photo 3.6. Detail of ichnofossils (burrows) at the base of a thick sandstone bed of the Churuvita Fm.Same location as photo 3.5.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.28. Stratigraphic section in the Villa de Leyva-Cucaita road that corresponds to the Churuvita Formation, with an important content of sandstones which are increasing from the base to the top of the sequence (from this work).

Photo 3 . 7 .

 37 Photo 3.7. Contact between the Upper San Gil and Churuvita Fms along the Villa de Leyva -Cucaita road. This contact is interpreted as an unconformity as shown in the central and upper right side.

Figure. 3 .

 3 Figure. 3.29. Section of the La Paja Fm (Barremian-Aptian age), measured and described along the Villa de Leyva-Sachica road (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.30. Chiquinquira section, composed by observations made in this work and modified from Terraza (2012).

4 .

 4 Sandstone from the Upper Aptian-Lower Cenomanian Areniscas de Chiquiquira Fm. a) Near the Simiti-Lower Areniscas de Chiquinquira limit; b) Upper part of sequence 1; c) Lower part of sequence 3; d) Near the top of the Arenicas de Chiquinquira Fm.

  30): Three complete T-R sequences as is shown in Figure 3.14 (TST-HST-FSST-LST) are developed from the base to the top in the section of Figure 3.30. The lower T-R sequence coincides with the unit sequence 1 of Terraza (2012), the second T-R sequence covers the unit sequences 2 and 3 in the sense of Terraza (2012); and finally our third T-R sequence (at the top) covers the unit sequences 4 and 5 of Terraza (2012). In the description of the Areniscas de Chiquinquira, Terraza (2012) recognizes an unconformity at the Late Albian/Early Cenomanian boundary which probably corresponds to the unconformity SU3 recognized in this work (chapter 4).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.31. Stratigraphic section in the area of Otanche, showing the La Rosablanca-Tablazo to Umir Fm succession. Modified from Guerrero et al. (1998).

  Guerrero et al. (1998) collected 31 samples from the Cretaceous series of the Otanche section (WEC) and determined the age of the different formations as shown in Figure 3.31. Macrofossils collected by Guerrero et al. (1998) indicate ages corresponding to the Upper Hauterivian-Lower Valangenian (Olcostephanus sp.) to Aptian (Gargasiceras sp.??), and to the base of the Late Albian (Laraiceras sp. Oxytropidoceras sp., Venezoliceras sp.).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.32. Muzo-Painita stratigraphic section, corresponding to the Tablazo Fm. Modified from Reyes et al. (2006).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.33. Stratigraphic section in the Pauna -Muzo -Coscuez area, showing the Rosablanca to Tablazo Fm succession. Modified from[START_REF] Terraza | Las Esmeraldas de Colombia en su ámbito Geologíco -Excursión Geológica a los Cinturones Esmeraldiferos de La Cordillera Oriental de Colombia en el marco del XIV Congreso Latinoamericano de Geología del 29 de Agosto al 2 de Septiembre de 2011[END_REF] and interpreted in this work. Note the Early Aptian hiatus reported by[START_REF] Terraza | Las Esmeraldas de Colombia en su ámbito Geologíco -Excursión Geológica a los Cinturones Esmeraldiferos de La Cordillera Oriental de Colombia en el marco del XIV Congreso Latinoamericano de Geología del 29 de Agosto al 2 de Septiembre de 2011[END_REF].

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.34. Stratigraphic section of Chima, North of Velez town -southwest of Barichara town, showing the succession from the Arcabuco (Jurassic) to the Areniscas de Chiquinquira Fm (Cenomanian)(Modified from[START_REF] Rolón | Análisis estratigráfico de la sección Cretácica aflorante al oriente del anticlinal de Los Cobardes entre los Municipios de Guadalupe-Chima-Contratación[END_REF].

Figure 3 .( 1 )

 31 Figure 3.35 shows the Guineal well section (location in Figure 3.5). It comprises from top to base:(1) Galembo Mb (Santonian-Coniacian): The upper half part consists of marl and claystone, with 20-50 ft thick beds of sandstone in lesser proportion. The lower half part is a calcareous series made of claystone, calcareous siltstone with an increase of calcareous detrital and of limestone beds; at the base, the unit presents massive, 40 ft thick limestone beds. Siltstone and claystone are black, locally dark brown, slightly to very calcareous, locally with sparse pyrite crystals, veins and siliceous to slightly calcareous nodules. Remains of cephalopods, fish scales, pelecypods and ichnofossil are

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.35. Stratigraphic section of the Guineal well, showing all the sequences from the Berriasian -Santonian (Well data taken from Ecopetrol, reconstruction and interpretation from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 36.SEE-NWW correlation in the Centre of the study area, showing stratigraphic changes from the Berriasian to the Cenomanian. Note that the sandstone levels in the eastern and central parts become fine sediments to the West, and that units become thicker in the same direction.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.37. Barichara section of the Tablazo Fm. Personal observations, reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.38. Rio Sogamoso section, corresponding to the Berriasian-Lower Cenomanian interval. The column indicates the trangresive-regresive curve (dust red line) and the Fisher plot shows the variation in the accomodation space. Reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.39. Boqueron del Medio section, showing the Jurassic-Albian succession. Reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.40. Playon-Cuesta Rica section, showing the Jurassic-Albian succession. (Modified from[START_REF] Rolón | Análisis estratigráfico de la sección Cretácica aflorante al oriente del anticlinal de Los Cobardes entre los Municipios de Guadalupe-Chima-Contratación[END_REF]. Reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure. 3 .

 3 Figure. 3.41. Yumeca 1 well section, showing a succession of Berriasian to Turonian age. Reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.42. Guane-1 Section, showing a Berriasian to Turonian succession. Reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.43. Iwana-1 section, corresponding to a Jurassic to Paleocene-Eocene succession, Biostratigraphic analysis taken from ECP-ICP (2014). Reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure 3 . 45 .

 345 Figure 3.45. Chucuri-1 well section, corresponding to a Hauterivian-Tertiary succession, and proposed interpretation. Reconstruction and interpretation from this work.

Figure. 3 .

 3 Figure. 3.46. Stratigraphic section for Llanito-1 well; corresponds to a full sequence from Giron-La Luna. Descriptive lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic information from Ecopetrol, section described and interpreted from this work.At the base of the succession, we observe a regressive sequence represented by medium-to coarse-grained quartz sandstone of Jurassic age (RST or FSST), which is more or less continuous toward the West and North. The overlying Berriasian deposits vary from quartz sandstone to the East to claystone, mudstone and shales to the West.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.47. Correlation SEE-NNW-SSW-W for the North Study area, showing stratigraphic changes from Berriasian to Cenomanian ages. Note that the levels of sandstones in the columns at the east and in the central part in the correlation tend to become fine sediments towards the west and thicker in the same direction.

  Figures 3.48 to 3.56). These maps show the facies variation due to the sea level changes from Berriasian to Upper Coniacian times, using three base facies; sandstone, shaleclaystone, and limestone.The Berriasian is represented by a regressive sequence (RST) limited by a TS at the Early/Late Berriasian boundary(Figure 3.48). Its extension and areal distribution are shown in Figure3.48. To the north the sandstone facies extends from the East to Llanito-1 and Chucuri-1 wells to the North, and to Buriburi in the centre. Fine facies are present in Boqueron del Medio and RW-1. In the Central area, Berriasian sandstones were deposited till 30 km to the west of the Chiquinquira section and about 5 km East of the Buriburi section (Figure3.48). Shales and claystones were deposited to the West. This interval ends up with the transgressive surface (TS) at the top of the Early Berriasian when the TST started, which will last from Late Berriasian to Early Hauterivian times (deposition of the Rosablanca Fm.)During the Berriasian -Valanginian, (Figure3.49), a transgression (TST) started, showing a marine invasion and a sea level rise to the East, causing the migration of deep environments from West to East. This transgression continued until the deposition of the highstand systems tract in the Hauterivian, especially to the North when the environment continued deepening to the East (Figure3.50). Limestone facies covered all the northern area probably during the maximum flooding surface. In the central area, little environmental changes occurred in the Hauterivian.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.48. Facies distribution map for the Berriasian (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.49. Facies distribution map (left) for the Berriasian-Valanginian (from this work).Figure 3.50. Facies distribution map (right) for the Hauterivian (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.49. Facies distribution map (left) for the Berriasian-Valanginian (from this work).Figure 3.50. Facies distribution map (right) for the Hauterivian (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.51. Facies distribution map for the Barremian (left) (from this work).Figure 3.52. Facies distribution map for the Barremian/Aptian (right) (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.51. Facies distribution map for the Barremian (left) (from this work).Figure 3.52. Facies distribution map for the Barremian/Aptian (right) (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.53. Facies distribution map in North to South areas for the Late Aptian/Late Albian (left) (from this work).Figure 3.54. Facies distribution map in North to South areas for the Early Cenomanian (right) (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.53. Facies distribution map in North to South areas for the Late Aptian/Late Albian (left) (from this work).Figure 3.54. Facies distribution map in North to South areas for the Early Cenomanian (right) (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.55. Facies distribution map for the Late Cenomanian-Turonian (left) (from this work).Figure 3.56. Facies distribution map for the Late Coniacian-Santonian (right) (from this work).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.55. Facies distribution map for the Late Cenomanian-Turonian (left) (from this work).Figure 3.56. Facies distribution map for the Late Coniacian-Santonian (right) (from this work).

  and 3.5): From field information from the Sachica Chiquinquira section (Figure3.25-Albian age) an unconformity is recognized (Photo 3.4) in the sequence of the Tablazo Fm (Upper part of the Lower San Gil Fm). In the Samaca section (Lower San Gil -Figure3.26) the same unconformity was recognized for the upper part of the column (Albian age). In the Samaca section (Upper San Gil -Figure3.27) the maximum flooding surface is observed (MFS) at Middle Albian times (around 104 Ma). In the Samaca -Villa de Leyva -Churuvita section (Upper part of the Chiquinquira Fm. -Figure3.28), field evidences of shallow conditions (Photo 3.6) like paleosoils, thalasinoids and angularity in erosive surfaces (unconformityupper part of Figure3.28 and Photo 3.

Figure 4 . 1 .

 41 Figure 4.1. Location map of the Middle Magdalena Valley (light blue) and the Western margin of Eastern Cordillera (pink), modified from Sarmiento (2001).

Figure 4 . 2 .

 42 Figure 4.2. Map showing of Cretaceous units and main structural features of the Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera and Upper Magdalena Valley. (Modified fromRestrepo et al., 2004). Some seismic references lines location using in this work are shows in red lines in the map.

  [START_REF] Etayo-Serna | Contornos sucesivos del mar Cretáceo en Colombia[END_REF]

Figure 4 . 3 -

 43 Figure 4.3 -Types of stratal termination expected to be seen in seismic profiles and outcrops. Note that truncations are usually related to conformities or erosion surfaces (from[START_REF] Emery | Sequence Stratigraphy[END_REF].

Figure 4 . 4 -

 44 Figure 4.4 -Types of stratal terminations as observed in seismic profiles. A and B defines the seismic facies unit(modified from[START_REF] Ramsayer | Seismic stratigraphy, a fundamental exploration tool: 11th Annual. Offshore Technology Conference Proceedings[END_REF] and C defines the reflection character based on types of stratal termination.

Figure 4 . 5 -

 45 Figure 4.5 -Seismic reflection patterns for the identification of unconformities. Truncation and growth strata are shown on different examples of seismic sections from this work. From base to top: SU1 in pink (Jurassic unconformity); SU2 in light blue (Barremian/Aptian unconformity); SU3 in Orange (Albian/Cenomanian unconformity); SU4 in red (Santonia/Campanian Unconformity); SU5 in brown (Paleocene/Eocene Unconformity or younger).

4 . 4

 44 Figures 4.5 (a to g) show truncations and growth strata (more examples in[START_REF] Shaw | Seismic Interpretation of Contractional Fault-Related Folds: An AAPG Seismic Atlas[END_REF]. We added examples where faults are sealed by an unconformity (Figure4.5g). Truncations, growth strata and faults are good evidences of unconformities or erosion surfaces, and of tectonic-sedimentary events affecting the basin. Seismic interpretation of the Cretaceous series in the MMV and WEC4.4.1 Structural Cretaceous behaviorThe WEC and MMV basin has been created as a rift basin associated to normal faulting. The rifting occurred during the Late Triassic-Middle Jurassic and gave way to the deposition of the Jordán and Girón Formations. Rifting continued during the Lower Cretaceous associated with a rapid subsidence, which allowed the deposition of a thick marine sedimentary pile (mudstone, limestone, sandstones, shales, chert, and phosphorites). Such deposition took place in the Eastern Cordillera in the Bogotá sub-basin, in the Cocuy sub-basin to the North, and in the Tablazo sub-basin to the west

Figure 4 . 6 -

 46 Figure 4.6 -Unconformities identified in outcrops. Note the angularity between the units below and above the unconformities. a) The Late Albian (Upper San Gil) -Early Cenomanian (Churuvita Fm) limit along the Villa de Leyva-Cucaita road; b) The Cenomanian Simijaca/Frontera Fm south of the town of Susa town.

Figure 4 . 7 -

 47 Fig. 4.10

Table 4 . 1 -

 41 List of the wells used in this work. Location are shown in Figure 3.5. Some of these wells are described in Chapter 3.Based on detailed mapping of an area along of the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera,Restrepo-Pace et al. (2004) studied rocks varying in age from Barremian to Holocene, and determined an important hiatus (unconformity) in the late Paleocene-early Eocene, coeval with the uplift of the Central Cordillera. For these authors, the fold belt resulted from a series of compressional events that began in the WEC during the late Paleocene-early Eocene, and farther West, with the uplift of Central Cordillera (CC) during the late Campanian to Maastrichtian(Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004). Finally, during the Late Miocene structural reactivation and exhumation occurred in the break-back thrusting sequence.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.8 shows a regional section from the Central Cordillera (CC) to the WEC crossing the MMV. Its upper part presents two interpretative structural sections from the WEC along the Rio Sogamoso. The interpretation details are shown using (1) only field information and geological maps (left), and (2) seismic information (right), which allow to interpret in more detail in order to identify unconformities (Figure4.8).

Figure 4

 4 Figure 4.8 -Structural interpreted section, at the North of the MMV and WEC (for the location see figures 4.7 and 4.12).The seismic profile corresponds to the regional line ANH-TA-2006-4A1, a) corresponds to a structural seismic profile from Structural and lithological information collected at the field and b) from seismic information. Note the different interpretation from field data and using the seismic reflection

Figure 4 . 9 .

 49 Figure 4.9. Seismic reflection profile CP-2008-1410, orientated NW-SE, in the northern MMV (location on Figure 4.7). a -Seismic section; b -Seismic interpretation, showing unconformities or non-deposition surfaces below the Eocene unconformity; c -Sketch illustrating the seismic units and unconformities from Barremian to Paleocene times; d -Seismic stratigraphy sketch, showing the main sequences identified in the Cretaceous (S1 to S5) and surface unconformities (SU1 to SU5).

d

  In Figure4.9c, all sequences are limited by unconformities or boundaries, which were only identified in some wells in the MMV (e.g. RW-1 well) and correlated during the seismic interpretation(Figures 4.9 to 4.22). These unconformities are labeled as follows: SU1 corresponds to a Jurassic/Cretaceous unconformity (pink), SU2 is of Barrremian/Aptian age (light blue), SU3 is the Cenomanian unconformity (orange), SU4 represents the Campanian unconformity (red), and SU5 the Tertiary unconformity (brown)(Figures 4.9 to 4.22). The Cretaceous deformation and the presence of several unconformities evidence that the Cretaceous history of the MMV-WEC basin is more complex than previously thought(Figures 4.17

  to 4.22).

to 4 .

 4 16) is not only due to tectonic deformation, but also to the erosion or non-deposition occurring in different time-spans during the Cretaceous. Reverse faults produced deformation in the basin as observed in different sections, where some faults affect only a part of the sequence and other faults other parts of the sequence (Figures 4.9 to 4.16). For example in Figure4.9, some faults are propagated only till unconformity SU2 affecting only the Pre-Aptian sequence (S2), others affect Aptian-Albian deposits (sequence S3) till unconformity SU3 and others crosscut the pre-Campanian sequence (S4) till unconformity SU4, and the last one affects sequence S5 till the unconformity SU5. This indicates that various tectonic events occurred during the Cretaceous, which is supported by the folding observed in the pre-Tertiary unconformity surfaces (SU1 to SU5). The inversion started during the Barremian-Aptian times and continued till Cenomanian and Campanian times, being more and more intensive through time, and finally culminating with the pre-Tertiary erosions, in which the Campanian unconformity produced the most important erosion during the Cretaceous.S1 Sequence (Jurassic prior to 145 Ma)The S1 sequence (Figures 4.9 to 4.16) was deposited during Jurassic times. It corresponds to the Girón Fm or Los Santos Fm in the MMV and north of the WEC (Bucaramanga-Barichara area), and to the Arcabuco Fm in the central part of the WEC (Villa de Leyva-Chiquinquira, location on Figure3.5). The regional facies distribution of this sequence has not been analyzed in chapter 3, but the sequences are shown in the seismic sections(Figures 4.9 to 4.16). In the MMV, no wells crosscut this sequence but it crops out in the in the northern part of the WEC (Los Cobardes syncline, Figure3.5) and in the central part of the study area (Arcabuco syncline, Figure3.5).

  to 4.16). The duration of this sequence is about 25 Ma and it corresponds to the Upper La Paja, Tablazo and Simiti Fms (San Gil Central area) in the MMV and in the northern and central areas of the WEC (location in figure3.5), and to the Trinchera, Peñon/Socota, Capotes e Hilo Fms in the southern part of the WEC (Figure3.4). S3 sequence comprises the units deposited during the Early Aptian-Late Albian interval, which were partly eroded by SU3 as shown inFigures 4.9a to 4.9c and 4.17 to 4.22.

  chapter 3, accompanied by a change in thickness for example between the Pujamana Top and base of Umir (Internal report ICP-Ecopetrol, 2013) marked in the seismic data by truncations, growth strata or onlap (figure 4.5). The top of this zone is marked by a change from mainly marine to mostly continental palynological assemblages at the base of Umir Formation (for more details see chapter 3).S5 Sequence (Campanian -Paleocene)S5 sequence is limited by SU4 at the base and by the Paleocene-Eocene hiatus (SU5) at the top. It is composed to the North by the Umir and Lisama Fms; in the central area by the Arenisca Dura, Pleaners, Labor y Tierna, Guaduas, Cacho, Bogotá and Regadera Fms; to the South by the Pleaners, Labor y Tierna, Cordoba and Guaduas Fms; and by the Umir and Lisama Fms in the MMV.

to 4 .

 4 22). The SU3 unconformity erodes sequence S3 possibly till Jurassic rocks (Figures 4.19 to 4.22). Growth strata and onlap terminations are visible above and below the the SU3 surface. Angular truncation can be observed (probably divergent as shown in figure 4.4) (Figures 4.9

  ,

Figure 4 .Figure 4 .

 44 Figure 4.10. S-N trending seismic reflection profile MM-1976-1B, 1C and 1D in the north of the MMV (location on Figure 4.7). Above: un-interpreted section; below: proposed interpretation. The main faults are presently reverse faults. Note the northward increasing erosion below the Mid-Eocene unconformity: to the North, the Albian unit is directly overlain by Tertiary units.

Figure 4 .Figure 4 .

 44 Figure 4.12 -NW-SE trending seismic reflection profile ANH-TA-2006-4A1 in the north of the MMV (location on Figure 4.7). Above: un-interpreted section; below: proposed interpretation. Sequences and unconformities have been labeled as S1 to S5, and SU1 (pink), SU2 (light blue), SU3 (orange), SU4 (red) and SU5 (brown), respectively.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.13 a -Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: interpreted along the seismic reflection profile dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm- 1989-1440, DM-87-1740, DM-87-1650, SL-951800, in direction NW-SE in the north of the MMV. (see Figure 4.7 for the location). Intense deformation in the Cretaceous sequence limited by faults that didn´t affect the Tertiary units which cover cretaceous unit at the central and western part, while at the East the Lower Cretaceous units are exposed in the surface. Seismic sequences observed in the section have been labeled as S1 to S5 and the sequence boundaries labeled in the section as SU1 (pink), SU2 (blue light), SU3 (orange), SU4 (red), SU5 (brown).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.14 -Seismic section at the north of MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: section interpreted along the seismic reflection profile SE-1989-1400, MSA-1989-01, in direction NW-SE in the north of the MMV. (see figure 4.7 for the location). Intense deformation in the Cretaceous sequence limited by faults that didn´t affect the Tertiary units which cover cretaceous unit at the central and western part, while at the East the Lower Cretaceous unit are exposed in the surface. Seismic sequences observed in the section have been labeled as S1 to S5 and the sequence boundaries labeled in the section as SU1 (pink), SU2 (blue light), SU3 (orange), SU4 (red), SU5 (brown).

Figure 4 .Figure 4 .

 44 Figure 4.15 -Seismic section at the north of the MMV. Above: un-interpreted section. Below: interpreted along the seismic reflection profileTPBRM-1997-101, TPBG-1997- 101A, H-1978-07, in direction near N-S in the south of the MMV. (see Figure4.7 for the location). Intense deformation in the Cretaceous sequence limited by faults that didn´t affect the Tertiary units which cover cretaceous unit at the central and western part, while at the East the Lower Cretaceous unit are exposed in the surface. Seismic sequences observed in the section have been labeled as S1 to S5 and the sequence boundaies labeled in the section as SU1 (pink), SU2 (blue light), SU3 (orange), SU4 (red), SU5 (brown).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.17a-Seismic stratigraphic interpretation of inline CP-2008-1410; b-Chronostratigraphic chart after seismic stratigraphic interpretation using a Wheeler diagram. The Chart clearly shows the unconformities for Aptian (SU2), Cenomanian (SU3) and Campanian (SU4) times; and also for the Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous (SU1), Eocene and Oligocene (SU5) that bounded stratigraphic sequences from S1 to S5.

  b

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.18a shows two well marked and broad pre-Campanian synclines determined by the fact that SU4 is burying the underlying units and less deformation on the Umir Fm (overlying SU4) is in turn sealed by the unconformity of Mid-Eocene. In Figure 4.18, the SU1 unconformity erodes ~ 380 m of sediments of the Jurassic unit (probably Girón Fm). Unconformity SU2 (Barremian-Aptian boundary) erodes early Hauterivian-late Aptian deposits strongly and the Berriasian-Valanginian unit (Rosablanca Fm) partially, leaving a relic of the lower La Paja Fm. SU2 erodes up to ~ 750 m of the S2 sequence, probably due to the Late Barremian-Early Aptian low sea level period. SU3 (Albian-Cenomanian boundary) eroded the Albian sequence S3, but also part of the Aptian-Lower Albian Tablazo Fm, removing up to ~ 650 m. SU4 (Santonian-Campanian boundary) was responsible for the erosion of Early Cenomanian to Late Santonian deposits, eroding ~ 580 m to ~1150 m of sediments from sequence S4. SU5 (Mid-Eocene unconformity) only preserved part of the Campanian units (relict of the Umir Fm), removing units of Campanian to Lower Paleocene age (~1700 to ~ 2200 m of sediment removed).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.21 shows a composite seismic section based on linesSE-1989-1400 and MSA-1989- 01. To the West the erosion removed much of the Cretaceous sequence, making the analysis of Cretaceous discontinuities impossible, whereas to the East, Late Cenomanian to Maastrichtian units (Upper Simití to Umir Fms) are locally preserved. SU1 (Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary) locally eroded the Jurassic units (Girón Fm). Considering that this sequence may be up to ~2500 m thick, the erosion in this area may reach ~750 m to ~2250 m in thickness. The SU2 unconformity (Barremian-Early Aptian) eroded almost all the S2 sequence (Berriasian -Barremian) to the West (only part of the Early Berriasian was preserved). However, around the Guie-1 well and to the East, sequence S2 is better preserved; since its maximum thickness is ~ 1100 m, erosion may have removed up to ~750 m. In the same way, erosion of the middle Aptian-Late Albian sequence S3 by SU3 (Barremian-Cenomanian) is estimated at ~620 to ~120 m. SU4 eroded a great part of the sequence S4; removing a maximum of ~ 450 m. In this section, the SU5 Unconformity (Paleoce/Eocene) seems to have eroded sequence S5 in most parts, but to the East ~ 430 m were eroded. However, the Oligocene unconformity eroded the SU5 unconformity totally.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.18 a, b -Chronostratigraphic chart of the 147 km long profile ANH-1A-2006-4A1 (location on Figure 4.7). This section covers from the Central Cordillera to the WEC. Stratigraphic time-scale on the left, numerical ages on the right. Identified sequences are named S1 to S5 and unconformities labeled SU1 to SU5 (right).

Figure 4 .Figure 4 .

 44 Figure 4.19 -Chronostratigraphic chart generated from seismic reflection profile CP-2008-1335 (location on Figure 4.7). Five sequences (S1 to S5) are bounded by five unconformities (SU1 to SU5), responsible for hiatuses 5 to 25 Ma long.

  Figure 4.20. (a,b) Composed seismic profile(dmw-2008-1200, dm-1987-1320, dm-1989-1440, DM-1987-1740, DM-1987-1650, SL-95-1800); (b) Chronostratigraphic chart for the section above (location on Figure 4.7). The stage ages are shown in the scale to the left and the age in Ma to the right. Five sequences (S1 to S5) are limited by five unconformities (SU1 to SU5). Three wells crosscut the Cretaceous sequence: the most complete succession has been found in the RW-1 well.

Figure 4 . 21 -

 421 Figure 4.21 -Seismic section and chronostratigraphic chart for the composite section SE-1989-1400 and MSA-1989-01 (location on Figure 4.7). Stratigraphic and numerical ages are shown on the left and right, respectively. The five identified sequences (S1 to S5) are bounded by five unconformities (SU1 to SU5). Hiatuses are in white.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.22 -Seismic section and chronostratigraphic chart in the southern part of the study area (location on Figure 4.7). To the east, the Cretaceous series has been removed by pre-Miocene erosions. The Wells Potosi-1, Yaguali-1, El Segundo-1 and Escuela-1 were used to tie seismic interpretation and the horizons were also follow from other seismic sections.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.23 -General stratigraphic column proposed for the MMV and WEC, showing the identified unconformities (SU1 to SU5) and sequences (S1 to S5).

  to 4.22).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.24. Stratigraphic column of the RW-1 well reconstructed from the well log description and gamma ray data (left). Chronostratigraphic chart for the seismic profile, showing the sequences, unconformities and hiatuses, and the location of the RW-1 well (center). General stratigraphic column (this work).

  to 4.22) allowed me to conclude that in addition to eustatic variations, tectonic activity played a role which resulted in a geometry of the MMV-WEC basin, in which Cretaceous unconformities seal deformed sedimentary sequences.

Figure 4 . 25 -

 425 Figure 4.25 -Comparison of Cretaceous cycles identified byMacellari (1988) in northern South America, and the Neuquén and Austral Basins with the global chart of coastal onlap (simplified from[START_REF] Haq | Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic (250 Myr ago to Present)[END_REF].1. A regression occurred during the Early Berriasian (Figure3.48). At this time sandstones are present in the Llanito-1, Guane-1, Iwana-1 and Chucuri-1 wells in the MMV (Figure3.5), whereas shales and claystone were deposited in the RW-1 well (Figure3.48).2. During late Berriasian to Hauterivian times, a transgression produced a deepening of the depositional environments. Limestone facies reached the east of the study area(Figure 3.49, 3.50).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.26. Stratigraphic chart, correlation and comparison between sections from different localities from Peru to Venezuela.

Figure 4 . 27 .

 427 Figure 4.27. Seismic profile from the Upper Magdalena Valley (flattened to La Luna marker (Cenomanian-Turonian boundary), showing the structures sealed by the La Luna Fm[START_REF] Jaimes | An Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the northern Andes: Evidence and tectonic signifi cance[END_REF]).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.28. Seismic profile in the Maracaibo Basin (Venezuela), flattened on the horizon "Colon-Mito Juan"units(Cooney and Lorente, 2012). Note the compressional deformation of pre-Late Campanian age.

Figure 4

 4 Figure 4.29. Schematic chronostratigraphic section showing variations in the missing intervals for different areas studied by Cooney et al., 2009. Note the diachronous top of the la Luna Formation.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.30. Comparison between the early tectonic event (Precoz) in the Andes and the geodynamics of the plates in the subduction zone (modified from Jaillard, 1991).

  , Restrepo-Pace et al. (2004), Cortés et al. (2005), Gómez (2005), Moretti et al. (2010) and Parra et al. (

Figure 5 . 1 .

 51 Figure 5.1. Location map of thermochronological samples collected in this work (red points), and other authors (green, blue and yellow; the location of cities are marked as black dots).

Figure 5 . 3 .

 53 Figure 5.3. Radial plot representation(Gailbraith, 1990) ofZFT (left) and AFT (right) of two different samples (using radialpltter aplication from Vermeesch, 2009) from the northern study zone of this work (for location see figure5.5). The different ages, P1 to P3, were extracted from a raw dataset using statistical techniques[START_REF] Galbraith | Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture[END_REF][START_REF] Sambridge | Mixture modeling of multi-component data sets with application to ion-probe zircon ages[END_REF][START_REF] Brandon | Decomposition of fission-track grain-age distributions[END_REF] 1996), the ages are indicated with a one sigma error (1σ); the number in parentheses is the number of grains beloning to each peak.

Figure 5 . 5 -

 55 Figure 5.5 -Graph showing detrital thermochronological age (tc) in x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td)in y-axis. Raw data, real example from the samples taken at the north area of this work. The measured ages showed five detrital population (D1 to D5). The area at the left below the stratigraphic line (tc=td) corresponds to the resetting zone (Lag Time=tc-td ˂0), which is a zone where grains (zircons in this case) had been heated after sedimentation to temperatures greater or in the range of temperature of closure (Tc) where there is a thermal overprint and reset the thermochronological clock. The samples over the stratigraphic age (D4 and D5) also present partial annealing even to a lesser degree.

Figure 5 . 6 -

 56 Figure 5.6-Map showing the location of ZFT ages in the North area of study (for the location see figure 3.5). In the squares are the sample name, central and minimum age, at right a detail of the samples collected at SW is shown.

Figure 5 . 7 -

 57 Figure 5.7-Structural section in the Northern section above at the height of Rio Sogamoso and below at the Barichara-San Vicente de Chucuri road, showing of the location of the zircon samples, the peak age measured in laboratory, central and minimum age are also included in the squares with the ZFT age.

Figure. 5 . 8 -

 58 Figure. 5.8-Graph showing detrital thermochronological central age (tcc) in x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td) in y-axis. About the raw data, note how the oldest Jurassic samples from ZFT (red points) are in the resetting zone, while the ZFT (red points) samples from Berriasian -Valangenian to Paleocene age are not reset. This probably shows that the Jurassic samples (Girón Fm.) had reached the partial annealing zone (PAZ). The Central ages from the AFT (pink points) are also plotted, which are all in the partial annealing zone PAZ.

Figure 5 . 9 -

 59 Figure 5.9 -The map on the left shows the central age of the ZFT, for the samples from the norther area of study, note that the ZFT age tends to decrease towards the central part of the Los Cobardes Anticline, where the Jurassic units are present. The section in figure 5.7 shows the same behavior. The map in the center shows the minimum age from ZFT, note that also towards the center of Los Cobardes Anticline the age tends to decrease; the same behavior is observed on the map on the right, mapping the minimum age from the AFT.

Figure 5 . 10 -

 510 Figure 5.10-Map showing the location of AFT ages in the Northern section Barichara-Bucaramanga.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.11-Structural sections (this work) in the northern area (figure 5.1), above is shown the section in the Sogamoso River and below is shown the Barichara-San Vicente de Chucuri section, both sections were built using surface information, the structural section from the Sogamoso River is also shown above to the right, built using structural dips from surface and seismic information which allowed to interpret a subsurface structural section in detail, where one of the important fault is identified and its movement is consistent with the AFT ages (minimum and central) from samples JG-P3-32 and JG-P3-42.

Figure 5 . 12 -

 512 Figure 5.12-Map showing the location of the apatites and zircon samples in the Central section: Villa de Leyva -Chiquinquira.

Figure 5 . 13 -

 513 Figure 5.13-Structural section in the Northern section Villa de Leyva -Chiquinquira, showing the location of the ZFT ages.

Figure 5 . 14 -

 514 Figure 5.14-Structural section in the Northern section Villa de Leyva -Chiquinquira, showing the location of the AFT samples.

Figure. 5 . 15 -

 515 Figure. 5.15-Graph showing detrital thermochronological central age (tcc) on the x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td) on the y-axis. Above raw data, note how the oldest Jurassic ages are in the partial annealing zone, while the samples from the lower Aptian to Paleocene units are not totally annealed. This probably shows that the Jurassic samples (Girón Fm.) had reached the partial annealing zone (PAZ).

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.16 -The map on the left shows central age of ZFT for the samples in the central area of study, note that the ZFT age tends to decrease towards the central part of the Arcabuco Anticline, where the Jurassic units are present (Figure 5.14 shows the same behavior). The map on the right shows the minimum age of DZFT, note that also at the center of the Arcabuco Anticline the age tends to decrease; however at the right and left side of the structure the central and minimum age also decrease.

Figure 5 . 17 -

 517 Figure 5.17-Map showing the location of the AFT and ZFT ages in the Southern section La Vega-Villeta.

Figure 5 . 18 -

 518 Figure 5.18-Structural section in the Northern section La Vega-Villeta, showing the location of the ZFT ages.

Figure 5 . 19 -

 519 Figure 5.19-Structural section in the Northern section La Vega-Villeta, showing the location of the AFT ages.

Figure. 5

 5 Figure. 5.20. Graph showing detrital thermochronological central age (tcc) on the x-axis versus stratigraphic age (td) on the y-axis. Above raw data, note how the oldest DZFT (red point) from the lower Aptian age are in the resetting zone, while the samples from Campanian to Paleocene are not resetting. That probably shows that the Aptian samples (Giron Fm.) had reached the partial retention zone (PRZ) or partial annealing zone (PAZ).

  and 5.18). In the case of AFT, there is no clear trend that we can observe related with the core of the anticlines, nevertheless could be related with the recent displacement of local faults (Figure5.19).

Figure 5 . 21 -

 521 Figure 5.21 -At the left is showing the map of the central age of the ZFT, for the samples from the Southern area of study, note that the ZFT age tends to decrease towards the core of the Villeta Anticline, where the Lower Cretaceous units are present (Trinchera/Utica), the section in Figure 5.18 shows the same behavior. At right is showing the map of the minimum age of the ZFT, note that the minimum age in the Villeta Anticline tends to decrease; however at the east of the map the central and minimum age also decrease, showing that thermochronological age values always tend to decrease in older units.

Figure 5

 5 Figure 5.22 -Semilogarithmic plots of vitrinite reflectance and equivalent maximum temperature (left), and temperature vs age. The maximum temperatures were calculated using Eq. 1 shown in the text. Suite of vitrinite reflectance data collected by various researchers(Gomez, 2001; Caballero, 2013;[START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] Moreno et al., 2013).

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.23 -Semilogarithmic plots of vitrinite reflectance and equivalent maximum temperature (left), and temperature vs age. The maximum temperatures were calculated using Eq. 1 shown in the text. Suite of vitrinite reflectance data collected by the ICP, mainly from samples from the MMV.

  In all cases (figures 5.22 to 5.24), the temperature (Tmax) increases directly with the stratigraphic age(Figures 5.22 and 5.23). In figure5.24 the relation between Ro or Tmax increases proportionally with depth, as is shown for the RW-1, Infantas-1613 and Catalina-1 wells.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.24 Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) and temperature (Tmax) vs depth. The maximum temperatures were calculated using Eq. 1 shown in the text. Suite of vitrinite reflectance data collected by the ICP, mainly from samples in the MMV from the wells RW-1, Infantas-1613 and Catalina-1.

Figure 5 . 25 -

 525 Figure 5.25 -Cross plot of Stratigraphic age Vs Tmax, organized by sectors to assess the behavior of different zones in the basin: Yumeca well, Infantas 1613 well, Cascajales well, Bosques-1, Norean,Guaduas area, Arcabuco, Nuevo Mundo, and Villeta anticline. The APAZ (pink) and ZPAZ (light blue) are highlighted in the graph.

  Figure 5.26. Temperature vs depth plots for wells Infantas-1613 (A), RW-1 (B) and Cascajales-1 (C). The Paleotemperatures were greater than the present-day temperatures, in general in A, B and C the paleogradient presents two tendencies that mark an Albian-Cenomianian or earlier unconformity. The Paleogeothermal gradient line in A and B over the unconformity is greater than the present-day gradient and not offset at the surface. This indicates a drop in the geothermal gradient due to changes in heat flow which was responsible for cooling to the present temperature conditions. Two additional behavior differences between the paleogeothermal gradient and Present day gradient could indicate that the cooling must occur in response only to denudation (similar paleogeothermal gradient to the present-day gradient with an offset at the surface). A third possible case is if the cooling happens in response to both changes in the geothermal gradient and in denudation (O´Sullivan. 1999).

Figure 5 . 27 -Figure 5 .

 5275 Figure 5.27 -Map showing the distribution of Ro in all the area of study, the bubble colors correspond toRo value samples from tables 5.8 and 5.9.

  ,[START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust-belt hinterlands. Example from Colombian Andes[END_REF],Sanchez et al. (2012) andCaballero et al. (2013), as is listed in tables5.11a, 5.11b, 5.11c. The comparison between paleo-geotemperatures and present-day temperatures gives an idea of the reason the presence of very high anomalous temperatures in some sectors in the MMV and WEC. It is observed that the paleo-temperatures were greater in all the wells (Infantas-1613 (A), RW-1 (B) and Cascajales (C)) than the present day temperatures. Two different tendencies are observed in all the cases shown in Figure5.26; one at the Albian-Cenomanian limit or older and another over the Albian Cenomanian. These different tendencies marked the presence of unconformities at least at the Albian-Cenomanian time, in the Early-Albian/Cenomanian (Figure5.26B) or Barremian -Aptian/Albian Cenomanian (Figure 5.26A) intervals. In Figures 5.26 A and B, below the unconformity the paleo-geothermal gradients are almost similar to what is observed in the present-day, contrary to what is observed in the well Cascajales-1 (Figure 5.26C).For the Paleo-geothermal gradients over the unconformity in Figure5.26 (A, B) are higher than the present-day gradient and not offset at the surface, also in the well Cascajales-1 (Figure5.26C) over the unconformity it is observed that the gradient is less than the present-day gradient or probably similar. The tendencies observed in Figures 5.26 A and B, probably indicate a drop in the geothermal gradient due to changes in heat flow. Finally the anomalous paleo-tendency observed in Cascajales-1 is a response to the change in the geothermal gradient and in denudation(O´Sullivan, 1999).

Figure 5 .Figure 5 .

 55 Figure 5.29. Detrital fission track age collected and measured in this work compared with the FT age measured by other authors in the three areas studied in this work. North area (above), central area (center), and South area (below).

Figure 5 . 30 -

 530 Figure 5.30-Thermal modeling of samples from the northern (A) and central (B) area at the level of the Tablazo Formation and Trinchera at the southern area (C) in this study. Boxes define constraining events from Ro, unconformities determined from seismic chronostratigraphic interpretation, Cooling age from DAFT, DZFT, DPAR and Track length taken from others author. The Purple color represents good models and green acceptable models. Different model's (acceptable and good) paths are highlighted in each graph.

  5 °C/Myr. The second period of slow steady-heating of 85 -115 °C occurred between ~75 Ma till ~5 Ma showing a heating rate of 0.43°C/Myr. The onset of the last cooling at ~5 Ma till the present shows a rapid cooling rate of 19°C/Myr. t-T comparison from Figures 5.30 A,B and C with t-T tendency of Villagomez (2010) in the Western Cordillera, shows a similar behavior to what is observed in the MMV/WEC (left in Figure 5.31), consistent with the cooling event occurred at 80-70 Ma (Campanian) and with the fast exhumation in all the areas at ~12 -2 Ma. Additionally, I made the same comparison with older units from the northern and central areas using the samples JG-P5-03, JG-P3-21 and JG-P3-19 (right in figure 5.31) from the Tambor and Girón (north area), and Arcabuco Fms (Central area), also showing a clear fast-cooling event at 80-70 Ma and the recent event at >5 Ma.

Figure 5 . 32 -

 532 Figure 5.32-Comparison between the Cooling histories obtained from the Lisama Fm. in this work (Upper Cretaceous) and from the same formation in Sanchez (2012). Observe that both models show cooling and heating episodes.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.2 -Schematic stratigraphic cross-section (above) and corresponding chronostratigraphic chart (below), showing local tectonic control on the observed stratigraphy in a thrust-related fold (modified from Williams, 1993).

Figure 6 . 3 .

 63 Figure 6.3. In 1) Schematic cross section showing models of variable plate coupling, variability of plate coupling (shallowing, steepening) inferred from among other factors in the regional stress regimen, generating compression (coupled margin), not upper plate deformation (Neutral margin) or extensional regimen (decoupled margin) and in fact the deformation depends on these regimens; 2) Average topographic profiles (a), (b), and free-air gravimetric profiles (c), (d) across the main subduction zones of the earth. These confirm the presence of two classes of subduction zones of which differences are related to the geographic polarity of the subduction zone (after Harabaglia and Doglioni, 1998).

Figure 6 . 4 .

 64 Figure 6.4. Schematic section showing a steeper and deeper slab to the W with regards to the ENE. The décollement plane to the East is deformed; the flat slab and ramp to the East provoke an uplift, while tothe West, low elevation and even extension are observed (Taken from[START_REF] Doglioni | Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction. Orogens and slabs vs. their direction of subduction[END_REF].

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.5 -Diagrams showing the evolution of the flat slab from analog models (after Gutscher et al. 2000a). a) Steep subduction of the dense Nazca plate; b) Subduction of buoyant and overthickened oceanic crust with uplift of the fore-arc area, the dip and slab decreases and volcanic arc migrate landward; c) The upper slab starts to underplate the overriding plate (flat slab) while the lower slab is steeper; d) The developed and Propagation of the flat slab continues beneath the overriding plate (experiments suggest that it is necessary to involve a large amount of buoyant plate to obtain a flat slab segment) (After[START_REF] Gutscher | Geodynamics of flat subduction: Seismicity and tomographic constraints from the Andean margin[END_REF][START_REF] Espurt | Flat subduction dynamics and deformation of the South American plate: Insights from analog modeling[END_REF].

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.7. Section across the Colombian Andes. 1: Grenville (Orinoco) Santa Marta Bucaramanga -Suaza faults; 2: Ordovician-Silurian Palestina fault System; 3: Aptian Romeral-Peltetec fault system; 4: Oligocene-Miocene Garrapatas-Dabeiba fault system; 5: Late Miocene Atrato fault system. Abbreviations: K-wedge: Cretaceous wedge; CA-VA: Cajamarca-Valdivia terrane; MMB: Middle Magdalena Basin; sl: San Lucas Block; Pz: Paleozoic; K: Cretaceous; P: Paleogene; N: Neogene (Modified from Cediel et al, 2003).

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.8.-Simplified map of northwestern South America showing the allochtonous terranes. TA: Tahamí terrane; AM: Amaime terrane; DA: Dagua terrane; AR: Arquia Terrane; QBg: Quebradagrande terrene; CA-VA: Cajamarca-Valdivia terrane = CH: Chibcha terrane; GU :Guiana; SMBF: Santa Martha -Bucaramanga Fault; CA:Caribe Terrane; Of: Oca fault.(Modified -after Colombian Geological Survey -Gomez et al., 2015).

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.9 -Restored sections on profile CP-2008-1410 at different periods from Late Jurassic-Berriasian to the present times. SU1 to SU5, and S1 to S5 correspond to the unconformities and sequences identified in this work, respectively.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.10 -Restored sections from the southern composed profile from seismic sectionRG- 1991-08, SD-19, H-1978-06, and section from surface information. From non-deformed section during the Jurassic to the present. In these section the sequences deposited (S1 to S5), the unconformity surfaces (SU1 to SU5) and also the total shortening are shown (this work).

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.11 -Schematic 3D Diagrams, showing the evolution of the Middle Magdalena Basin from Late Jurassic (A) to Coniacian-Santonian times (J). Note that these sketches take into account depositional and erosion periods, as well as structural deformation. During the Late Jurassic-Early Berriasian, red beds of sequence S1 were deposited in a rift basin (Figure 6.11-A) and partially eroded during the Late Berriasian (Figure 6.11-A). Deposition of sequence S2 started during the Late Berriasian regression (Figures 6.11-B and 3.48) and continued during the transgression occurred during the Hauterivian (Figures 6.11-C and 3.50). A new regression started during the Barremian (Figures 6.11D and 3.51), and the sequence S2 was partially eroded (Figures 6.11E and 3.52) during a major Late Barremian-Early Aptian regression. During the Late Aptian-Early Albian transgression (Figures 6.11F and 3.53), sequence S3 was deposited and subsequently partially eroded during a regression occurred in the Late Albian-Early Cenomanian (SU3; Figures 6.11G and 3.54). Sequence S4 began to be deposited during the Late Cenomanian transgression (Figure 6.11-H) that continued during the Late Cenomanian-Turonian, during an important regional marine transgression (Figures 6.11-I and 3.55) and ended with sandstone deposition during the Coniacian-Santonian regression (Figures 3.11J,3.56). The Early Campanian erosion surface (SU4) partially or totally eroded the sequence S4, and older sequences locally. Sequence S5 was deposited discordantly over the eroded S4 sequence and is followed with the regional erosion surface of Paleocene-Early Eocene age (SU5). Note that deformation along through the 3D-diagrams in the northern areas is represented by dotted lines, while in the southern are represented by the continuous lines.

  ,

A

  comparable and similar behavior to what was determined in this work, was also observed by Villagómez et al. (2010) along the eastern margin of the Western Cordillera of Colombia (Figure 6.12). Also Villagómez et al. (2010) observed a slow cooling (˂ 2°C/Ma) between 65 Ma and 30 Ma, although our T-t tendency in this period is more similar to that observed by Sanchez (2012) in the WEC (Figure 5.32 in chapter 5). However, the last cooling event started at ~30 Ma in the WC for Villagómez et al. (2010) and at 20 Ma for Sanchez (2012), whereas I found that this event began at an age ˂ 5 Ma in the WEC.

Figure 6 . 12 -

 612 Figure 6.12 -Compendium of thermal modeling solutions for selected samples in the study area for Aptian-Albian units., in the north, central and south zones. Data by Villagómez (2010) from the western Cordillera is also shown. Red squares at the top represent the timing of major tectonic events in Colombia.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.13. Plate reconstruction (a to h) and sketchy tectonic evolution of northwestern South America (Western Colombia) (A to H) from Late Jurassic to Eocene times. Reconstruction based on this work and reconstructions proposed by[START_REF] Jaillard | Sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the arc zone of southwestern Ecuador during Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary times[END_REF][START_REF] Jaillard | Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile[END_REF],Spiking et al. (2015), Villagómez (2010),Restrepo et al. (2004),[START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF]. Relative positions of the plates and arcs are modified from[START_REF] Burke | Caribbean tectonics and relative plate motions[END_REF] Kennan et al. (2001, 2009).

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-05-Zr\JG-P2-05-4-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 05 Irr 10-2015-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06a-Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06Zr.ft40 C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06-Zr.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2):

  \BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P1-06\JG-P1-06-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P1-06 Irr 8-2015-10 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2):

  \BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P5-03\JG-P5-03-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P5-03 Irr 8-2015-25 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2):

  Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06b.ftz août FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2):

  \BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-06 Irr 8-2015-23 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2):

  :\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-06 Irr 8-2015-23 octobre 13 2015 18:07 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-06 Irr 8-2015-23 octobre 14 2015 18:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-10\JG-P4-10-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-10 Irr 8-2015-24 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2):

  :\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-10\JG-P4-10-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-10 Irr 8-2015-24 octobre 14 2015 18:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-10\JG-P4-10-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-10 Irr 8-2015-24 septembre 29 2015 18:51 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13-Ap2.fta Title: JG-P4-13 Irr 5-2015-22 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2):

Table 2 . 1 .

 21 Shows the most important accretion terranes related with figures 2.2,6.7 and 6.8.

Table 4 . 1 -

 41 List of the wells used in this work. Locations are shown in Figure

Table 5 .

 5 4 -Detrital ZFT results from the central region in the WEC, for description see table 5.1.

Table 5 .

 5 5 -Detrital AFT results from the central section of the WEC. All the samples were analyzed by Jairo Guerrero with a zeta value of 282.02 ± 6.88, for description see table5.1.

Table 5 . 6 -

 56 Detrital ZFT results from the south region in the WEC, for description see table5.1.

Table 5 .

 5 7 -Detrital AFT results from the south region in the WEC, for description see table5.1.

	Tabla 5.8 -Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) collected by several authors

Tectonics Phases Convergence Ratec Slab age at the Time it subducted Age Pliocene Miocene Oiligocene Eocene Paleocene Maastrichtian Campanian Santonian Turonian Cenomanian Albian Aptian Hauterivian Berrecian Pliocene

		5	10	15	20	40	60 70 Ma
	12 -
	20 -
	30 -
	40 -
	50 -
			Change in Convergencia
	60 -			direction
	70 -
	80 -
	90 -
	100 -	Opening of Equatorial
		South Atlantic
	110 -

  identified Colombiceras alexandrium (d´Orbigny), Colombiceras obliquum (Riedel) and Rhytidohoplithes sp.; he considered the Tablazo Fm as Late Aptian-Early Albian, and the San Gil Fm as Late Aptian-Albian in age.

  Age.Caceres and Etayo (1969) collected Heinzia sp., Pseudohaploceras sp., Heminautilus etheringtoni and Cheloniceras sp., which indicate a Barremian to Early Aptian age.

	thick layers, with wavy to lenticular bedding, and very thin layers of claystone and siltstone,
	and two layers of sandy-shaly limestone (Figure 3.15).
	divided this formation into two members. The lower member
	comprises three units: Lower unit (20 m): non calcareous mudstone and micaceous claystone,
	with fine-grained quartzsandstone and volcanic fragments, medium-grained sub-litharenite, and
	finally biosparitic limestone with ostreids; Second unit (154 m): non calcareous claystone and
	mudstone with siliceous concretions, with beds of siltstone and thin layers with echinoderms
	and foraminiferas; Third unit (150 m): fine-to medium-grained quartz-sandstone in medium to

  stated an Early to Late Albian age for this formation, based on the occurrence of Prolyelliceras prosocurvatum (Gerhardt), which overlies Desmoceras chimuense, Platiknemiceras sp., Knemiceras semicostatum (Sommermeier), Parengonoceras guadalupaeforme (Sommermeier), Engonoceras sp., cf. Desmoceras chimuense and Lyelliceras pseudolyelli sensu Benavides Cáceres (non Par and Bon).

  The Churuvita Fm is assumed to be of Cenomanian-Turonian age because it overlies units of Late Albian age and contains Mammites afer and cf. Coilopoceras lesseli of Early Turonian age. Although scarce and poorly preserved, the ammonites of the Churuvita Fm (Acanthoceratidae, Venezoliceras) suggest a Late Albian age

  identified the Gloriaceras correai-Protexanites cucaitaense-Codazziceras scheibei ammonite assemblage zone, of early Conianian age. In the memoir of the geological sheet 227 (Ingeominas), the following foraminifera Marginotruncana sinuosa, M. aff. schneegansi, Dicarinella concavata, Whiteinella archeocretacea, W. inornata and Whiteinella baltica, support the Coniacian age.

  Whiteinella aprica, Whiteinella baltica and Heterohelix reussi support an Early Turonian age for the Lower Frontera Fm. The upper part yielded casts of Didymotis roemeri variabilis of middle Coniacian age (

proposed the ammonite zone Mammites nodosoides appelatus -Franciscoites suarezi, of Early Turonian age. The planktic foraminiferas Whiteinella archeocretacea,

  The lower half part is a calcareous series made of claystone, calcareous siltstone with an increase of calcareous detrital and of limestone beds; at the base, the unit presents massive, 40 ft thick limestone beds. Siltstone and claystone are black, locally dark brown, slightly to very calcareous, locally with sparse pyrite crystals, veins and siliceous to slightly calcareous nodules. Remains of cephalopods, fish scales, pelecypods and ichnofossil are present, as well as few thin beds of friable sands. Planktonic microfossils (globigerina, radiolarian) indicate a Santonian-Coniacian age and an upper bathyal environment.(2) Pujama Mb (Coniacian-Turonian): The Pujama Mb is the middle member of the La Luna Fm. It is mainly made of shale and in minor proportion of siltstone. Scattered, 1-20 ft thick levels of sandstone are present mostly in the lower part of the member. Claystone and siltstone are black to dark grey, hard to soft, finely laminated, tabular, bituminous, slightly calcareous and locally dolomitic. Pyrite is disseminated in small crystals or in veins. Ichnofossils are present. The upper part exhibits beds of mediumgrained, consolidated sandstone formed of white to milky, angular, well sorted quartz grains and siliceous cement. The sandstone is poor in glauconite and has a low porosity. Massive limestone beds are greyish to black, hard, microcrystalline, occasionally with abundant pyrite and crystals of sparite, and grade locally to calcareous sandstone. thin intercalations of dark brown to brown cream colored mudstone, of wackstone and occasionally packstone texture. The lower third (below 7450 ft) is made of calcareous shale and silty, calcareous claystone; limestones beds are more frequent. The base exhibits soft, brown to grey and black calcareous clay, locally silty, with abundant pyrite and limestone at the base.

	(6) Paja Fm (Aptian-Barremian): The Paja Fm is mainly composed by hard to very
	hard calcareous claystone. It locally presents black to dark brown shales, levels of soft
	calcareous claystone, occasionally dolomitic, with micro-pyrite in veins, and abundant
	veins and fractures filled of calcite.

(3) Salada Mb (Turonian-Upper Cenomanian): The lower member of the La Luna Fm is dominantly made of calcareous shale, with thin limestone beds and occasional clastic intercalations. Shales are black to greyish black, bituminous to very bituminous, locally silty to sandy, and grade to clayey limestone. Limestone is black to greyish, very hard, occasionally slightly silty to sandy. Clastic intercalations are made of medium-to coarse-grained loose quartz, sub-angular to sub-rounded, poorly sorted, and contain sporadic grains of calcite and glauconite.

(4) Simiti Fm (Middle to Lower Albian): The upper part of the Simiti Fm is composed of black shale, in part silty or calcareous, with intercalations of thin layers of limestone and sandstone. These lithologies gradually change in the lower part to dark brown, silty shales with beds of limestone and marl. Sandstone is loose, made of medium-to coarsegrained, angular and moderately sorted translucent quartz. Occasionally, white, clean, well consolidated, fine-grained sandstone, present sub-angular to sub-rounded grains and a good porosity. No fauna is reported. The lack of fauna and the abundance of pyrite, siderite and carbonaceous remains indicate a low energy, dysoxic marine environment, with little circulation at the bottom.

(5) Tablazo Fm (Albian-Upper Aptian): The two upper thirds of this unit are constituted by massive, grey dark and dark brown, 20-40 ft thick limestone beds, with

  The limestone is black, greyish or dark brown, hard to very hard, micritic and locally very argillaceous. It locally grades to silty shale, of wackstone and packstone textures. The clayey sandstone beds are black to dark grey, hard, with abundant clay matrix, sometimes calcareous; they vary from fine up to siltstone sandy. The upper part of this unit comprises beds of grey to greenish, silty to fine-grained siliceous sandstone, well cemented (quartzite-like). Its midlle part is composed by a thick series of grey to dark brown, very lignitic, carbonaceous and bitumen-rich mudstone, claystone and black greyish to black shales, hard to soft, slightly to very calcareous and carbonaceous with thick levels of limestone at the base. In the lower part, shales become harder, foliated, less carbonaceous, more siliceous and less calcareous. Silt laminae alternate with claystone. The 30-50 ft thick, black to brown and grey, micritic limestone beds are very argillaceous, hard, with calcite veins.

	(7) Rosa Blanca Fm (Hauterivian):

  The Late Hauterivian is composed of shales. The Barremian is marked by the first appearance of thin layers of sandstone, which are present till the Early Albian, together with fossiliferous limestone beds (bivalves, ostracods and shells), dissolution and replacement of iron oxides. The Late Barremian-Early Aptian interval is marked by increasingly thick quartz sandstone beds, with abundant oxides filling the fractures, suggesting a close continent. The upper part of Early Aptian series is made of black shales with thin layers of gypsum and anhydrite. The succession continues upward with a thick series of black shales, calcareous sandstones, calcareous shales containing radiolarian and pelagic nannofossils, deposited in a low energy, anoxic environment during the Late Aptian-Early Albian (Tablazo Fm). The last 100 m comprise 20 meters of shales at the base, an increasing upward amount of sand layers in the next 60 m, showing an increase of the energy to the top and the last 20 m of limestone and shales. Some levels of limestone present a phosphate smell, red calcareous sandstones and dark limestone, some levels have thalassinoides and glauconitic sands. The boundary with the Simiti Fm is marked by the appearance of red levels of clayey sandstone. The thickness of this unit changes from 270 m in Bucaramanga, to around 280 m in Barichara, and to 440 m in Lower San Gil in the Villa de Leyva area (see Figure3.24 from this work; Etayo 1968).

-Boqueron del Medio Section -Playon Cuesta Rica Section.

Figures 3.39 and 3.40

show successions of Jurassic to Cenomanian age (Los Santos to Simiti Fms). At the base, quartz sandstone and siltstone of Jurassic age correspond to the Los Santos Fm. Limestones of Berriasian-Lower Hauterivian age (Rosablanca Fm) are overlain by monotonous shales of Upper Hauterivian-Lower Aptian age (La Paja Fm). The Aptian-Albian interval is represented by sandstones and shales of the Tablazo Fm, in turn overlain by monotonous shales of Upper Albian-Lower Cenomanian age (Simiti Fm).

  1, Prometeo-1 and Iwana-1 restricts this event from Early Albian to lower Late Albian (104-112 My, Gradstein et al. 2012). However, the absence of the genus Ticinella (specially T. Primula) dated by Leckie et al. (2002) as late Lower Albian to Middle Albian in age (109-105 My) suggests that this event is no younger than the Middle Albian.

  In this zone, the last occurrence of Pseudoceratium sp. is reported. Its top corresponds to the last occurrence of Classopollis sp. This biozone has been defined in the Simiti Fm (12273-14414 ft). In the Prometeo Well (9582'-11940') the assemblage Classopollis sp., subtilisphaera sp., Callialasporites sp., Subtilisphaera sp., Callialasporites sp. and Pseudoceratium sp. encompasses the Tablazo Fm and is correlated with the Callialasporites sp. biozone. In the La Sorda section and Cascajales-1 well, the last occurrence of Classopollis sp. together with the presence of Afropollis sp. and Psilatriletes sp., testify the presence of this biozone, which is restricted to the upper Simiti Fm and lower La Luna Fm. The base of this interval is difined by the appearance of the top of the Callialasporites sp. biozone, and the top of this interval by first occurrence of Psilatriletes sp. This interval is poor in palynomorphs and corresponds to the Salada Mb and the lower part of the Pujamana Mb (lower part of La Luna Fm). It had been recognized in the Cascajales-1 well above the Classopollis sp. zone, with occasional occurrence of Psilatriletes sp.; and also in the La Sorda section and in the Prometeo-1 well, from the upper part of the Simiti Fm/Upper Salada Mb to the lower part of the Pujamana Mb. Samples present abundant marine organic amorphous material, which increases upward, while phytoclasts decrease in number. Its base is defined by the top of the Amorphous Interval II zone, and its top by the decreasing abundance of Psilatriletes sp. and Ephedripites sp. Other taxa are Retitrescolpites "pujamanai", Tetradites sp., Crasulina sp., Dicthyophyllidite sp., Striatricolpites cf. guzmanii and Subtilisphaera sp. This biozone is present in the Pujamana Mb, and was identified in the La Sorda section, and in the Cascajales-1, Prometeo-1 and Catalina-1 wells, related to the Pujamana Mb. This suggests nondeposition or erosion, the latter interpretation being supported by the absence of this biozone in the La Sorda section and Cascajales-1 well, and by thickness variations in the Pujamana Mb. The Lower to Middle Campanian age given by foraminiferas(ICP 2012; Petters, 1995) is supported by a U/Pb date of 80.3 ± 1.3 Ma (Cardona, 2012).

1. Callialasporites sp. Zone. Figure 3.44. RW-1 well, corresponding to a Barremian-Campanian succession and proposed interpretation. Data taken from Ecopetrol (unpublished data). Reconstruction and interpretation from this work. 2. Amorphous Interval II. 3. Psilatriletes sp. -Ephedripites sp. Zone. 4. Amorphous Interval I. Its base is defined by the top of the Psilatriletes sp. -Ephedripites sp. biozone, while the top is given by the first occurrence of Dinogymnium sp. It is characterized by a low palynological recovery, occurrence of dinoflagellate cysts and a high concentration of amorphous organic matter together with other phytoclasts. It corresponds to the Galembo Mb of the La Luna Fm. This zone has been recognized in the La Sorda section, and in the Cascajales-1, Prometeo-1 and Catalina-1 wells. Based on its palynological content and to the occurrence of Dinogymnium sp. (which appears around 90.8 My (ICP, 2012; Brinkhuis et al., 2009), it indicates a Turonian/Coniacian age.

5. Dinogymnium sp. Zone. The base of this zone is defined by the top of the Amorphous Interval I, and its top corresponds to an assemblage of land and marine palynomorphs. It is marked by the occurrence of Odontochitina operculata, Alisogymnium sp. and Cerodinium sp. It is found in the Umir Fm (= Olini Group in the Guaduas Syncline). This zone was only identified in the Prometeo-1 well, which may mean a time gap at the top of this biozone, which presents a change from predominantly marine to markedly continental palynomorph assemblages.

6.

Ulmoideipites krempii Zone. Its base is defined by the first occurrence of Ulmoideipites krempii, and by the assemblage of Andalusiella mauthei, Palaeocystodinium-Andalusiella complex, Spinizonocolpites baculatus, Buttinia andreevi, Echitriporites suescae, Echimonocolpites protofranciscoi, Echitriletes intercolensis, Gabonisporis vigorouxii and Scabratriletes granularis. Its top is marked by the occurrence of Proteacidites dehanni. This biozone corresponds to the Umir Fm.

  The Valanginian to Early Hauterivian interval is represented by a transgressive series (TST) represented by thick limestones, with some thin beds of claystone, calcareous claystone and siltstone. In Late Hauterivian to Early Aptian times, a regressive series (RST) is deposited, represented by fine-grained sediments (claystone, mudstone, shale, etc.) in an extensive area. These deposits are composed in the middle and upper parts by thin to thick beds of quartz sandstone marking the top of the regressive series (Paja Fm). The latter is overlain by a T-R sequence of Late Aptian -Early Albian age, marked by the increase of sandstone towards the top (ex. Yumeca section, Figure3.41).During the Late Aptian, a transgression occurred, followed by a regression of Early Albian age. The Late Aptian to Late Albian time-span is interpreted as a general regression (RST) from East to West. The latest Albian to Early Cenomanian also represents a complete T-R sequence, with apparition of sands marking possible erosion surfaces. Shallow deposits were migrating westward, expressing a regression and producing an erosion. During the Late Cenomanian-Turonian a general transgression (TST) occurred, expressed by fine deposits (claystone, mudstone, shale) of deep marine enviroment to the East and by limestone to the West. Finally, in the Coniacian to Santonian, a regression (RST) caused the shallow environments to move westward in the MMV and WEC.

	SECTION
	SECTION CHUCURI-1
	LLANITO-1
	SECTION
	RW-1

  Authors like Maceralli C. (1988), Villamil T. (1998) andGuerrero J. (2001), have recognized cycles in the Cretaceous, some of Maceralli´s unconformities or boundary cycles correspond to the boundarie sequences recognized also byVillamil T, (1998) andGuerrero J. (2001) which are consistent with the unconformities or cycles recognized in this work. For example during the Late Cenomanian to Early Turonian all of us interpreted a transgressive cycle (TS o condensed section).Villamil (1998), working in the UMV from Albian to Campanian recognized five sequence boundaries (SB) or unconformities and four transgressive surfaces (TS). Villamil´s sequence boundaries (SB) are located at the Albian/Cenomanian limit, Late Cenomanian, Late Turonian?, Early Santonian and Campanian, and his transgressive surfaces (TS) at the middle Albian, Early Cenomanian, Late Cenomanian to Cenomanian/Turonian and Late Santonian.Guerrero (2001) recognized regional sedimentary discontinuities in Colombia, based on the recognition of transgressive surfaces (TS) located at the base of the TST and regressive surfaces (RS) located at the base of the Regresive system track (RST). He Early Campanian/Late Campanian. So, some of the SB and TS recognized in this work are consistent with those stablish byVillamil (1998) andGuerrero J. (2001). However, considering that the unconformities SU or time gaps are generated during the regression system track (RST), during a period between the HST and LST (Figure3.14), our surface erosion surface (SU) are located in the Barremian-Aptian, Late Albian-Early Cenomanian and Early Campanian(Figures 3.24, 3.36 and 3.47).

recognized RS at Berriasian/Valangenian, Early Hauterivian-Late Hauterivian, Aptian-Albian, Late Albian-Cenomanian, Santonian-Early Campanian, Late Campanian-Maastrichtian, and TS at Hauterivian-Barremian, Early-Middle Albian, Cenomanian-Turonian, Early Campanian-Late Campanian, and Early-Late Maastrichtian. In our area of study (MMV and WEC) we recognized in the same sense of Villamil T. (1998) a sequence boundary SB (coincident with the MFS) and TS (coincident with the MRS). Our SB are located at Early Hauterivian/Late Hauterivian, Late Aptian/Early Albian, Late Albian/Early Cenomanian, Turonian/Coniacian, Late Campanian; and for the TS, we recognized Berriasian/Valangenian, Early Aptian/Late Aptian, Early Albian/ Late Albian, Early Cenomanian/Late Cenomanian, Cenomanian/Turonian,

  4. Consistent withVillamil (1998) andGuerrero (2001), we recognized a MFS at the Early/Late Hauterivian boundary, near the Late Aptian/Early Albian boundary, and in Late Albian/Early Cenomanian, Turonian/Coniacian and Late Campanian times. Considering that the unconformities (SU) or time gaps are generated during regression systems tracts (RST), between the HST and LST (Figure 3.14), we recognized major erosion surfaces (SU) close to the Barremian-Aptian boundary, and in Late Albian-Early Cenomanian and Early Campanian times (see

  ; Colmenares & Zobac 2003, Cortes et al, 2005;[START_REF] Sassi | The impact of deformation timing on the prospectivity of the Middle Magdalena sub-thrust, Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Parra | Cenozoic foreland-basin evolution in the northern Andes: insights from thermochronology and basin analysis in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der[END_REF][START_REF] Parra | Episodic orogenic-front migration in the northern Andes: Constraints from low-temperature thermochronology in the Eastern Cordillera[END_REF] Horton et al. 2010[START_REF] Moreno | Depositional and provenance record of the Paleogene transition from foreland to hinterland basin evolution during Andean orogenesis, northern Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia[END_REF].The Andes of Colombia comprise three cordilleras (Western, Central and Eastern Cordilleras), separated by two valleys(Cauca Valley and Magdalena Valley, Figures 4.1,[START_REF] Caballero | Tectonic Controls on Sedimentation in an Intermontane Hinterland Basin Adjacent to Inversion Structures: The Nuevo Mundo Syncline, Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. In: Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial Inversion to Full Accretion[END_REF]2). The MMV basin is located between the Central Cordillera (CC) and Eastern Cordillera (EC) of Colombia (Figure

  second unconformity corresponds to the Late Barremian to Early Aptian unconformity (SU2 -light blue in Figures 4.9 to 4.22 and 4.5), which underlines the Tablazo Fm. It deeply erodes sequence S2, as shown inFigures 3.25, 3.26,[START_REF] Caballero | Tectonic Controls on Sedimentation in an Intermontane Hinterland Basin Adjacent to Inversion Structures: The Nuevo Mundo Syncline, Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. In: Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial Inversion to Full Accretion[END_REF].9 and 4.17, and may remove part of the

Rosablanca Fm of Berriasian-Valanginian age (e.g. figure

4

.20), or even Jurassic deposits

(Figures 4.13 to 4.21)

. Figure

4

.13 shows an angular truncation below SU2 (light blue) at the Infantas-E5 well. Growth strata are other evidences of this unconformity

(Figures 4.14, 4.15, 4.26)

. It conrresponds to the Late Barremian-Early Aptian hiatus reported in the RW-1well (Chapter 3).

Few authors report comparable unconformities.

Macellari (1988)

identified various unconformities; one of them of Aptian age would be consistent with the unconformity SU2 recognized in this work.

  identified three unconformities of Late Aptian, middle Cenomanian and middle Campanian age, respectively. In PeruMacellari (1988) indentified an additional unconformity of Valanginian age, and the Late Cretaceous unconformity is ascribed to the Santonian/Campanian boundary. However, the valanginian unconformity of Peru does not appear in my analysis, while my Berriasian unconformity has not been recognized byMacellari (1988) in Peru.

	In the Upper Magdalena Valley, Allen (1989) identified an unconformity of Barremian-
	Aptian age. In the same area, Barrios (1992) determined a diachronic Barremian-Aptian
	unconformity, and a Late Albian unconformity that eroded the Caballos Fm (Figure 4.26). In
	the same region, based on biostratigraphy and seismic interpretation, Jaimes and De Freitas
	(2006) recognized internal deformation and a Late Albian-Cenomanian unconformity in the
	Villeta Fm (Figure 4.26, 4.27).

Table 5 .1. Information

 5

of the samples collected, prepared and used for the thermochronological analysis in this work, organized by areas, showing the name of the samples, formation, age, elevation, location coordinates, and a short description from the thin section.

Table 5

 5

	.2 microscope with -Detrital ZFT results from the north region in the WEC. All the samples were analyzed and counted at 1250x using a BH2 Olympus	ρ S and ρ i are the measured spontaneous and induced track densities; Ns and Ni are the digitalizing tablet by Jairo Guerrero with a zeta value of 137.14±1.57.	number of spontaneous and induced tracks;P( χ 2

Table 5

 5

		± 6.88,
		zeta value of 282.02
		by Jairo Guerrero with a
	.4 -Detrital ZFT results from the central region in the WEC, for description see table 5.1.	All the samples were analyzed Table 5.5 -Detrital AFT results from the central section of the WEC.	for description see table 5.1. For zeta value see table 5.2

Table 5 .

 5

		For zeta value see table 5.2
	Detrital ZFT results from the south region in the WEC, for description see table 5.1.	-Detrital AFT results from the south region in the WEC, for description see table 5.1.
	6-	Table 5.7

Table 5

 5

	.10 -Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) collected by the ICP (Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo), the
	maximum temperatures (Tmax*) were calculated using Equation-1 shown in the text (after Baker and

[START_REF] Barker | Calculation of vitrinite reflectance from thermal histories and peak temperatures: a comparison of methods[END_REF]

. The tables also have values related to the temperature. Compiled from well description in

Gomez 2001 volume II.

Table 5

 5

	.11a -Compiled fission-track data, analyzed with laser-ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry	by Caballero (LA-ICP-MS), from the areas of Guaduas, Villeta and the Armas Syncline. Data collected and analyzed	(2013), Sanchez (2012), etc.	in zircons and apatite, from the Table 5.11b -Samples taken from other authors, analyzed with (U-Th)/He	Armas Syncline. Data collected and analyzed by Sanchez (2012).

Table 5 .

 5 11c -Fission-track age compilation from other author mainly from the north and south, and some from the central area studied in this work. The apatite fission track (AFT) also includes measurements for Dpar and track length. Data collected and analyzed by

  Table5.11a), for the Cretaceous to Paleocene units. The samples shown in this work, have two characteristics related first with the P(χ2) which in the majority is ˂5, which means that there is a high probability for multiple age populations in the sample and that these samples were annealed differentially or there was different inheritance. Three samples for AFT in this area are the exception (JG-P3-19, JG-P3-32 and JG-P3-36) which have P(χ2) >5. Second, an important percentage of the grains have cooling ages younger than the depositional age (Figures 5.5 and 5.8, Tables5.2 and 5.3). The majority of my samples have an AFT cooling age between 2.5±0.19 Ma to 9.4±0.19 Ma, related probably to a regional Neogene cooling episode, which is consistent with the data shown bySanchez et al. (

  3.5 and 5.1) I obtained ZFT and AFT cooling ages from Early Hauterivian to Late Maastrichtian units. The P (χ2) ˂5 and cooling age younger than the depositional age (Figure5.5 and Tables 5.[START_REF] Cosgrove | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF] and 5.7) show that almost all the samples had suffered partial annealing. According to the AFT data samples from the Labor and Tierna Formation JG-P4-06 and From Seca (JG-P4-02) have a P (χ2)>5 indicating one cooling age population. The age measured from the samples with P(χ2)>5 varies from 3.11±0.7 from the La Naveta/Murca Fm to 1.9±0.4 from the Seca Fm., being the youngest ages measured in all the study area. This is related to a Pliocene-Pleistocene cooling episode. These age are consistent with some AFT data ofGomez (2001) andCaballero et al. (2013), as shown in Figure5.29 and Tables 5.11a,c.

Not all the ZFT ages measured in this work for this area are younger than the depositional age (Figure

5

.20). Two samples from the Labor and Tierna Fm. (JG-P4-06) and the Guaduas Fm. (JG-P4-19) with The P (χ2) ˂5 have a P1 age older or the same as the stratigraphic age (Table

5

.

  In future unconventional prospects (Shale gas), it is necessary to involve the models proposed in this work, and analyze the sections to know which parts of the sequence are still present, what was the deformation sequences, and also to know what was the thermal history. Title: Sample No. JG P3 214 Irr 10-2015-37 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-43Zr\JG-P3-43Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 43 Irr 10-2015-47 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-01Zr\JG-P2-01-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 01 Irr 10-2015-32

	APPENDIX CHAPTER 5 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Zr.ftz novembre 16 2015 13:41 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36aZr\JG-P3-36aZr.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,89E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,26 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) 1,57 no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--Page 1 5,78E+06 ( 168) 1,79E+06 ( 52) 35 230 64 85.4 62.4 119.1 4,63E+06 ( 123) 1,02E+06 ( 27) 32 131 50 119.9 79.1 189.2 3,43E+06 ( 199) 9,64E+05 ( 56) 70 124 33 93.9 69.7 128.8 9,46E+06 ( 377) 2,06E+06 ( 82) 48 264 59 120.8 95.2 153.3 2,38E+06 ( 138) 4,65E+05 ( 27) 70 60 23 134.3 89.1 211.0 4,89E+06 ( 73) 8,03E+05 ( 12) 18 103 58 158.5 86.9 320.5 2,56E+06 ( 85) 6,02E+05 ( 20) 40 77 34 111.7 68.6 192.2 4,37E+06 ( 116) 5,65E+05 ( 15) 32 73 37 201.2 118.9 369.9 4,14E+06 ( 206) 1,02E+06 ( 51) 60 132 37 106.6 78.4 147.9 4,28E+06 ( 142) 2,62E+06 ( 87) 40 337 72 43.2 33.0 56.4 8,68E+06 ( 346) 3,44E+06 ( 137) 48 442 76 66.8 54.7 81.5 2,17E+06 ( 72) 6,93E+05 ( 23) 40 89 37 82.6 51.4 138.6 4,24E+06 ( 88) 1,16E+06 ( 24) 25 149 60 96.6 61.4 158.9 5,62E+06 ( 112) 1,20E+06 ( 24) 24 155 63 122.7 79.0 199.4 5,96E+06 ( 89) 5,35E+05 ( 8) 18 69 47 285.0 142.6 672.7 6,73E+06 ( 201) 9,04E+05 ( 27) 36 116 44 194.6 131.1 302.0 5,57E+06 ( 111) 1,71E+06 ( 34) 24 219 75 86.2 58.5 130.7 5,36E+06 ( 178) 2,17E+06 ( 72) 40 279 66 65.2 49.6 85.7 4,72E+06 ( 196) 1,98E+06 ( 82) 50 254 56 63.1 48.7 81.7 5,66E+06 ( 94) 2,11E+06 ( 35) 20 271 91 71.1 47.9 108.1 7,59E+06 ( 252) 8,43E+05 ( 28) 40 108 41 234.6 160.0 358.8 9,47E+06 ( 110) 1,12E+06 ( 13) 14 144 78 219.5 125.4 423.5 4,66E+06 ( 232) 1,77E+06 ( 88) 60 227 49 69.6 54.4 88.9 5,60E+06 ( 186) 3,46E+06 ( 115) 40 445 84 42.8 33.9 54.1 4,37E+06 ( 145) 2,53E+06 ( 84) 40 325 71 45.6 34.9 59.7 2,64E+06 ( 105) 7,28E+05 ( 29) 48 94 35 95.5 63.2 149.6 9,48E+06 ( 118) 1,45E+06 ( 18) 15 186 87 171.3 105.1 298.5 4,31E+06 ( 179) 1,73E+06 ( 72) 50 223 53 65.6 49.9 86.2 8,57E+06 ( 128) 1,47E+06 ( 22) 18 189 80 152.5 97.4 251.6 5,79E+06 ( 101) 1,78E+06 ( 31) 21 229 82 86.0 57.3 133.3 3,92E+06 ( 52) 1,28E+06 ( 17) 16 164 79 80.6 46.2 148.9 6,82E+06 ( 198) 9,64E+05 ( 28) 35 124 47 185.0 125.3 285.1 5,82E+06 ( 87) 2,48E+06 ( 37) 18 318 104 62.3 42.1 94.2 4,88E+06 ( 162) 1,87E+06 ( 62) 40 240 61 68.8 51.4 92.1 4,96E+06 ( 144) 2,20E+06 ( 64) 35 283 71 59.7 44.2 81.5 5,82E+06 ( 169) 2,44E+06 ( 71) 35 314 75 62.8 47.6 82.8 3,58E+06 ( 95) 1,92E+06 ( 51) 32 247 69 49.4 34.9 71.0 7,03E+06 ( 140) 8,53E+05 ( 17) 24 110 53 214.3 131.0 376.9 2,46E+06 ( 102) 1,28E+06 ( 53) 50 164 45 51.1 36.4 72.6 3,77E+06 ( 250) 1,97E+06 ( 131) 80 254 45 50.5 40.8 62.5 3,90E+06 ( 291) 4,02E+05 ( 30) 90 52 19 252.5 174.9 379.5 2,38E+06 ( 79) 9,34E+05 ( 31) 40 120 43 67.4 44.2 105.8 3,15E+06 ( 157) 1,85E+06 ( 92) 60 237 50 45.1 34.9 58.4 8,11E+06 ( 175) 2,50E+06 ( 54) 26 322 87 85.7 63.0 118.6 5,99E+06 ( 154) 1,87E+06 ( 48) 31 240 69 84.8 61.2 120.0 3,98E+06 ( 198) 7,43E+05 ( 37) 60 95 31 140.7 99.2 205.6 4,53E+06 ( 188) 5,30E+05 ( 22) 50 68 29 222.6 144.5 362.5 novembre 16 2015 13:41 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36aZr\JG-P3-36aZr.ftz Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--53 3,65E+06 ( 212) 1,72E+06 ( 100) 70 221 44 56.1 44.1 71.1 54 9,76E+06 ( 162) 2,35E+06 ( 39) 20 302 96 109.5 77.2 159.7 55 4,82E+06 ( 212) 9,55E+05 ( 42) 53 123 38 132.9 95.5 189.7 56 4,58E+06 ( 57) 2,17E+06 ( 27) 15 279 107 55.9 34.9 92.0 57 8,13E+06 ( 135) 2,53E+06 ( 42) 20 325 100 85.0 59.9 123.3 58 3,28E+06 ( 234) 1,36E+06 ( 97) 86 175 36 63.7 50.3 80.8 59 6,59E+06 ( 82) 2,73E+06 ( 34) 15 351 120 63.9 42.5 98.3 60 8,14E+06 ( 473) 1,33E+06 ( 77) 70 170 39 160.8 126.5 204.3 61 2,86E+06 ( 95) 1,66E+06 ( 55) 40 213 57 45.9 32.6 65.2 62 7,55E+06 ( 94) 8,84E+05 ( 11) 15 114 67 221.2 120.6 456.0 63 7,50E+06 ( 112) 1,14E+06 ( 17) 18 146 70 172.0 104.1 305.3 novembre 16 2015 13:41 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36aZr\JG-P3-36aZr.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,90E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,28 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 1,57 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--3,23E+06 ( 161) 1,89E+06 ( 94) 60 242 50 45.4 35.1 58.5 5,66E+06 ( 282) 1,20E+06 ( 60) 60 155 40 123.4 93.5 162.7 9,66E+06 ( 561) 1,15E+06 ( 67) 70 148 36 218.3 169.9 280.3 5,85E+06 ( 170) 3,27E+06 ( 95) 35 420 87 47.4 36.8 61.0 3,73E+06 ( 217) 1,12E+06 ( 65) 70 144 36 87.9 66.7 115.9 4,04E+06 ( 335) 1,52E+06 ( 126) 100 195 35 70.4 57.3 86.5 3,92E+06 ( 228) 1,38E+06 ( 80) 70 177 40 75.2 58.3 97.1 6,38E+06 ( 429) 7,44E+05 ( 50) 81 95 27 223.1 167.1 297.4 3,46E+06 ( 115) 1,48E+06 ( 49) 40 189 54 62.3 44.3 89.0 4,96E+06 ( 247) 4,62E+05 ( 23) 60 59 25 278.9 184.1 445.7 2,27E+06 ( 151) 4,22E+05 ( 28) 80 54 20 141.8 95.0 220.4 8,73E+06 ( 290) 1,05E+06 ( 35) 40 135 46 216.8 153.5 316.5 2,52E+06 ( 209) 6,87E+05 ( 57) 100 88 23 96.4 72.0 129.0 3,25E+06 ( 108) 1,75E+06 ( 58) 40 224 59 49.5 35.7 69.4 7,03E+06 ( 350) 1,20E+06 ( 60) 60 155 40 152.7 116.4 200.3 3,41E+06 ( 198) 1,41E+06 ( 82) 70 181 40 63.8 49.3 82.6 7,75E+06 ( 315) 1,38E+06 ( 56) 49 177 47 147.3 111.0 195.1 6,53E+06 ( 325) 8,63E+05 ( 43) 60 111 34 198.2 144.8 278.6 5,72E+06 ( 475) 5,30E+05 ( 44) 100 68 20 281.2 207.9 390.6 2,04E+06 ( 169) 9,40E+05 ( 78) 100 121 27 57.3 43.8 74.9 3,44E+06 ( 200) 1,70E+06 ( 99) 70 219 44 53.5 42.0 68.1 3,16E+06 ( 262) 1,94E+06 ( 161) 100 249 40 43.2 35.4 52.7 8,13E+06 ( 270) 1,17E+06 ( 39) 40 151 48 181.7 130.4 260.8 7,83E+06 ( 117) 9,37E+05 ( 14) 18 120 63 217.3 126.6 408.1 5,61E+06 ( 233) 6,27E+05 ( 26) 50 80 31 233.8 157.2 364.1 4,94E+06 ( 328) 1,76E+06 ( 117) 80 226 42 74.2 60.0 91.7 6,67E+06 ( 238) 8,69E+05 ( 31) 43 111 40 201.0 139.1 301.8 2,45E+06 ( 197) 3,35E+05 ( 27) 97 43 16 191.1 128.6 296.6 2,50E+06 ( 83) 4,52E+05 ( 15) 40 58 29 144.9 84.1 270.4 3,22E+06 ( 107) 1,33E+06 ( 44) 40 170 51 64.5 45.1 93.9 2,89E+06 ( 168) 8,09E+05 ( 47) 70 104 30 94.6 68.3 133.7 8,22E+06 ( 273) 1,36E+06 ( 45) 40 174 52 159.6 116.7 223.7 4,70E+06 ( 156) 6,02E+05 ( 20) 40 77 34 203.7 129.0 341.6 POOLED 4,74E+06(17933) 1,34E+06( 5088) 4559 173 7 93.4 89.2 97.7 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 93.4, 91.2 --95.5 ( -2.1 +2.2) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 89.2 --97.7 ( -4.1 +4.3) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 92.8, 87.6 --98.2 ( -5.1 +5.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 83.0 --103.7 ( -9.8 +11.0) AGE DISPERSION (%): 51.0 novembre 16 2015 13:41 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36aZr\JG-P3-36aZr.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 43.50 0.621 18.8 18.02 2. 93.30 0.779 19.1 18.36 3. 216.00 0.892 20.9 20.10 Total range for grain ages: 40,7 to 279,3 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 96 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 91 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,19 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,22 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 49.2 -2,1 ...+2,2 -4,0 ...+4,3 0.16 21.6 5.2 20.8 2. 76.4 -3,0 ...+3,2 -5,9 ...+6,3 0.18 36.9 5.8 35.4 3. 181.8 -6,6 ...+6,8 -12,7 ...+13,6 0.22 41.5 5.2 39.9 Log-likelihood for best fit: -415,798 Chi-squared value for best fit: 94,299 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,036 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 6,37 Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 2,72E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,34 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 4,04 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--7,43E+06 ( 74) 1,20E+06 ( 12) 12 221 125 113.4 62.1 230.0 1,25E+07 ( 145) 6,02E+05 ( 7) 14 111 81 369.4 181.2 916.0 8,67E+06 ( 108) 1,20E+06 ( 15) 15 221 113 132.4 77.8 245.1 9,71E+06 ( 145) 9,37E+05 ( 14) 18 172 91 189.5 111.1 354.6 6,95E+06 ( 75) 1,20E+06 ( 13) 13 221 121 106.2 59.3 209.3 8,84E+06 ( 88) 9,04E+05 ( 9) 12 166 108 178.0 91.6 401.8 5,82E+06 ( 87) 6,69E+05 ( 10) 18 123 76 158.9 84.0 343.2 9,77E+06 ( 73) 1,74E+06 ( 13) 9 320 174 103.4 57.6 204.1 1,18E+07 ( 98) 2,41E+06 ( 20) 10 443 196 90.7 56.1 155.3 1,16E+07 ( 87) 1,61E+06 ( 12) 9 295 167 133.1 73.6 267.9 5,00E+06 ( 83) 9,04E+05 ( 15) 20 166 84 102.1 59.1 191.0 8,34E+06 ( 256) 1,01E+06 ( 31) 37 186 66 152.4 105.5 228.9 1,13E+07 ( 178) 1,40E+06 ( 22) 19 256 108 149.1 96.4 243.9 8,25E+06 ( 137) 6,63E+05 ( 11) 20 122 72 226.5 125.2 462.4 1,37E+07 ( 159) 2,15E+06 ( 25) 14 395 157 117.6 77.4 187.3 1,61E+07 ( 134) 1,45E+06 ( 12) 10 266 151 203.7 114.9 403.0 1,29E+07 ( 128) 1,00E+06 ( 10) 12 185 114 232.3 125.1 493.7 1,19E+07 ( 187) 1,40E+06 ( 22) 19 256 108 156.5 101.4 255.7 1,40E+07 ( 139) 1,10E+06 ( 11) 12 203 120 229.7 127.1 468.7 1,02E+07 ( 144) 7,09E+05 ( 10) 17 130 80 260.8 141.1 551.4 6,96E+06 ( 231) 5,72E+05 ( 19) 40 105 48 222.4 141.1 375.0 1,02E+07 ( 76) 2,28E+06 ( 17) 9 418 200 82.7 48.9 149.8 1,26E+07 ( 157) 1,69E+06 ( 21) 15 310 134 137.8 88.0 229.0 1,47E+07 ( 146) 1,41E+06 ( 14) 12 258 136 190.7 111.9 356.9 9,54E+06 ( 95) 1,61E+06 ( 16) 12 295 146 109.5 64.8 199.8 1,31E+07 ( 402) 8,47E+05 ( 26) 37 156 61 282.1 192.0 434.9 1,41E+07 ( 211) 1,47E+06 ( 22) 18 271 114 176.3 114.6 287.0 1,05E+07 ( 105) 2,01E+06 ( 20) 12 369 163 97.1 60.3 165.8 août 19 2015 17:49 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41a.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 2,72E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,36 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 4,04 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--29 4,90E+06 ( 61) 6,43E+05 ( 8) 15 118 81 139.0 67.8 337.2 30 8,01E+06 ( 133) 1,08E+06 ( 18) 20 199 93 136.0 83.7 236.7 31 1,14E+07 ( 85) 1,34E+06 ( 10) 9 246 152 155.2 82.0 335.6 32 7,83E+06 ( 104) 8,28E+05 ( 11) 16 152 90 172.6 94.3 356.2 33 5,00E+06 ( 83) 6,02E+05 ( 10) 20 111 68 151.6 80.0 328.2 34 1,11E+07 ( 120) 2,50E+06 ( 27) 13 460 176 82.4 54.2 130.4 35 1,25E+07 ( 104) 1,81E+06 ( 15) 10 332 169 127.5 74.8 236.4 36 6,93E+06 ( 161) 2,41E+06 ( 56) 28 443 119 53.6 39.4 74.1 37 9,88E+06 ( 82) 2,05E+06 ( 17) 10 377 180 89.1 52.9 160.8 38 9,75E+06 ( 89) 1,97E+06 ( 18) 11 363 169 91.4 55.1 161.6 39 1,11E+07 ( 211) 1,15E+06 ( 22) 23 212 90 176.2 114.6 286.9 40 1,20E+07 ( 90) 2,14E+06 ( 16) 9 394 194 103.7 61.2 189.7 41 1,21E+07 ( 241) 1,31E+06 ( 26) 24 240 94 170.5 114.6 266.2 42 1,45E+07 ( 325) 1,38E+06 ( 31) 27 254 91 192.7 134.2 287.9 43 1,07E+07 ( 80) 1,20E+06 ( 9) 9 222 144 162.0 82.9 367.2 44 1,22E+07 ( 91) 1,07E+06 ( 8) 9 197 135 206.0 102.9 490.0 45 1,26E+07 ( 125) 1,81E+06 ( 18) 12 332 155 127.9 78.5 223.1 46 6,53E+06 ( 65) 7,03E+05 ( 7) 12 129 94 168.3 79.3 435.3 47 1,02E+07 ( 178) 1,15E+06 ( 20) 21 211 93 163.6 103.9 274.1 48 1,29E+07 ( 107) 1,57E+06 ( 13) 10 288 157 150.8 85.9 292.7 49 1,23E+07 ( 133) 1,11E+06 ( 12) 13 205 116 202.0 114.0 399.9 POOLED 1,01E+07( 6616) 1,26E+06( 821) 786 231 17 149.3 135.8 164.2 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 149.3, 142.2 --156.7 ( -7.1 +7.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 135.8 --164.2 (-13.5 +14.9) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 144.4, 135.2 --154.2 ( -9.2 +9.8) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 126.9 --164.2 (-17.5 +19.8) AGE DISPERSION (%): 30.7 août 19 2015 17:49 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41a.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 87.90 0.825 19.2 9.41 2. 149.40 0.890 39.1 19.15 Total range for grain ages: 53,4 to 354,1 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 49 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 46 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,28 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,32 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 81.7 -11,2 ...+13,0 -20,6 ...+27,5 0.27 15.3 9.7 7.5 2. 167.8 -10,4 ...+11,1 -19,8 ...+22,4 0.31 84.7 9.7 41.5 Log-likelihood for best fit: -151,620 Chi-squared value for best fit: 45,840 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,997 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 14,57 Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 2,73E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,22 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 4,04 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1,11E+07 ( 101) 1,53E+06 ( 14) 11 281 148 133.2 76.9 252.7 9,20E+06 ( 84) 1,53E+06 ( 14) 11 281 148 111.0 63.4 212.2 6,91E+06 ( 109) 1,52E+06 ( 24) 19 279 113 84.6 54.4 137.9 9,74E+06 ( 97) 2,71E+06 ( 27) 12 496 190 67.1 43.6 107.1 1,55E+07 ( 116) 2,41E+06 ( 18) 9 441 205 119.4 73.1 208.8 6,43E+06 ( 80) 9,64E+05 ( 12) 15 176 100 123.0 67.7 248.5 1,21E+07 ( 171) 1,56E+06 ( 22) 17 285 121 143.9 92.9 235.7 8,37E+06 ( 125) 1,14E+06 ( 17) 18 208 100 136.0 82.6 241.0 7,53E+06 ( 100) 1,13E+06 ( 15) 16 207 105 123.3 72.2 228.8 1,45E+07 ( 132) 2,41E+06 ( 22) 11 441 186 111.4 71.2 184.0 1,28E+07 ( 127) 1,51E+06 ( 15) 12 276 140 156.1 92.4 287.1 7,61E+06 ( 101) 1,20E+06 ( 16) 16 221 109 116.9 69.4 212.6 3,37E+06 ( 84) 6,83E+05 ( 17) 30 125 60 91.7 54.6 165.3 9,10E+06 ( 68) 1,47E+06 ( 11) 9 270 159 114.0 60.9 239.9 4,34E+06 ( 54) 1,61E+06 ( 20) 15 294 130 50.4 29.9 89.2 1,50E+07 ( 249) 2,05E+06 ( 34) 20 375 128 136.0 95.4 200.8 1,13E+07 ( 299) 1,28E+06 ( 34) 32 234 80 162.9 114.9 239.5 6,69E+06 ( 100) 1,54E+06 ( 23) 18 282 116 81.0 51.4 133.8 8,43E+06 ( 70) 2,77E+06 ( 23) 10 507 210 56.8 35.2 95.6 1,28E+07 ( 106) 1,93E+06 ( 16) 10 353 174 122.6 73.0 222.6 1,17E+07 ( 97) 1,81E+06 ( 15) 10 331 168 119.6 69.9 222.3 1,51E+07 ( 125) 2,05E+06 ( 17) 10 375 179 136.0 82.6 241.0 8,11E+06 ( 101) 1,37E+06 ( 17) 15 250 120 110.1 66.2 196.8 1,28E+07 ( 106) 1,69E+06 ( 14) 10 309 162 139.7 80.8 264.5 8,43E+06 ( 105) 1,20E+06 ( 15) 15 221 112 129.4 75.9 239.7 1,38E+07 ( 137) 1,71E+06 ( 17) 12 312 150 148.9 90.7 263.0 1,32E+07 ( 131) 1,20E+06 ( 12) 12 221 125 200.1 112.8 396.1 août 10 2015 14:13 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15a.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 2,73E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,24 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 4,04 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--8,20E+06 ( 143) 5,16E+05 ( 9) 21 95 61 287.9 151.5 636.1 1,23E+07 ( 184) 8,03E+05 ( 12) 18 147 83 279.2 159.4 546.0 1,26E+07 ( 94) 1,74E+06 ( 13) 9 319 174 133.4 75.5 260.2 8,06E+06 ( 107) 1,05E+06 ( 14) 16 193 101 141.0 81.6 266.9 1,18E+07 ( 167) 1,28E+06 ( 18) 17 233 109 171.1 106.3 295.6 7,56E+06 ( 138) 1,48E+06 ( 27) 22 271 103 95.1 63.1 149.8 1,05E+07 ( 87) 8,43E+05 ( 7) 10 154 113 225.3 108.0 573.7 9,54E+06 ( 95) 1,51E+06 ( 15) 12 276 140 117.2 68.4 218.0 1,11E+07 ( 92) 1,57E+06 ( 13) 10 287 156 130.6 73.8 255.0 1,37E+07 ( 193) 7,80E+05 ( 11) 17 143 84 318.1 178.1 640.8 1,25E+07 ( 83) 1,66E+06 ( 11) 8 303 179 138.9 75.0 289.4 1,04E+07 ( 241) 9,47E+05 ( 22) 28 173 73 201.9 131.8 327.4 8,50E+06 ( 127) 1,07E+06 ( 16) 18 196 97 146.6 88.0 264.3 6,59E+06 ( 82) 9,64E+05 ( 12) 15 176 100 126.1 69.5 254.4 8,73E+06 ( 87) 7,03E+05 ( 7) 12 129 94 225.3 108.0 573.7 9,52E+06 ( 79) 1,45E+06 ( 12) 10 265 150 121.5 66.8 245.6 8,89E+06 ( 155) 1,09E+06 ( 19) 21 200 90 150.8 94.4 257.2 9,47E+06 ( 110) 6,88E+05 ( 8) 14 126 86 249.4 125.7 587.8 8,52E+06 ( 99) 1,29E+06 ( 15) 14 236 120 122.1 71.4 226.7 1,32E+07 ( 131) 2,01E+06 ( 20) 12 368 163 121.4 76.2 205.5 1,51E+07 ( 250) 1,27E+06 ( 21) 20 232 100 219.0 141.9 358.9 8,84E+06 ( 110) 8,03E+05 ( 10) 15 147 91 201.1 107.6 429.9 1,05E+07 ( 113) 1,48E+06 ( 16) 13 271 134 130.6 78.0 236.5 6,67E+06 ( 277) 1,64E+06 ( 68) 50 300 73 75.8 57.8 99.2 8,56E+06 ( 199) 1,29E+06 ( 30) 28 236 86 123.2 84.2 187.6 1,16E+07 ( 116) 1,10E+06 ( 11) 12 202 119 193.2 106.1 396.9 1,42E+07 ( 189) 1,51E+06 ( 20) 16 276 122 174.4 111.0 291.7 1,10E+07 ( 220) 1,46E+06 ( 29) 24 266 98 140.7 96.0 215.0 1,01E+07 ( 101) 1,41E+06 ( 14) 12 257 135 133.2 76.9 252.7 1,30E+07 ( 151) 1,29E+06 ( 15) 14 236 120 185.2 110.4 338.5 6,78E+06 ( 90) 1,51E+06 ( 20) 16 276 122 83.7 51.6 143.9 1,47E+07 ( 219) 1,14E+06 ( 17) 18 208 100 236.2 146.4 411.2 1,15E+07 ( 143) 1,61E+06 ( 20) 15 294 130 132.4 83.5 223.5 7,43E+06 ( 185) 1,00E+06 ( 25) 30 184 73 137.2 90.8 217.5 POOLED 9,85E+06( 8032) 1,35E+06( 1098) 982 247 16 136.3 124.9 148.8 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 136.3, 130.4 --142.6 ( -6.0 +6.2) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 124.9 --148.8 (-11.4 +12.5) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 134.0, 126.7 --141.8 ( -7.3 +7.8) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 120.0 --149.6 (-14.0 +15.6) AGE DISPERSION (%): 26.4 août 10 2015 14:13 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15a.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 136.30 0.880 49.0 29.91 2. 221.70 0.923 14.1 8.59 Total range for grain ages: 49,9 to 309,5 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 61 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 58 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,27 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,31 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 77.5 -8,0 ...+8,9 -14,9 ...+18,4 0.25 13.4 5.8 8.2 2. 151.4 -7,4 ...+7,8 -14,2 ...+15,7 0.30 86.6 5.8 52.8 Log-likelihood for best fit: -187,110 Chi-squared value for best fit: 61,232 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,056 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 8,62 Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,84E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,14 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 1,57 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--6,69E+06 ( 111) 1,27E+06 ( 21) 20 165 71 136.8 86.1 229.6 7,41E+06 ( 123) 1,75E+06 ( 29) 20 228 84 110.2 73.5 171.4 5,93E+06 ( 123) 2,75E+06 ( 57) 25 358 95 56.5 41.0 78.8 6,63E+06 ( 121) 2,19E+06 ( 40) 22 285 90 78.9 55.0 115.9 5,27E+06 ( 175) 1,60E+06 ( 53) 40 208 57 86.2 63.2 119.5 4,79E+06 ( 167) 1,61E+06 ( 56) 42 209 56 77.9 57.4 107.4 6,88E+06 ( 120) 1,72E+06 ( 30) 21 224 81 104.0 69.7 160.9 1,00E+07 ( 200) 1,36E+06 ( 27) 24 177 67 191.1 128.7 296.6 9,50E+06 ( 276) 2,13E+06 ( 62) 35 278 71 115.2 87.6 151.5 5,68E+06 ( 212) 1,18E+06 ( 44) 45 153 46 125.2 90.6 177.4 3,21E+06 ( 112) 1,49E+06 ( 52) 42 194 54 56.4 40.3 79.9 8,54E+06 ( 163) 1,57E+06 ( 30) 23 205 74 140.8 95.7 215.3 5,59E+06 ( 232) 7,23E+05 ( 30) 50 94 34 199.5 137.2 301.6 7,47E+06 ( 124) 1,81E+06 ( 30) 20 235 85 107.5 72.1 166.0 9,64E+06 ( 280) 1,79E+06 ( 52) 35 233 65 139.9 104.2 191.7 1,14E+07 ( 133) 1,64E+06 ( 19) 14 213 97 180.4 112.4 308.4 4,59E+06 ( 61) 1,51E+06 ( 20) 16 196 87 79.4 47.6 139.1 6,61E+06 ( 181) 6,94E+05 ( 19) 33 90 41 244.2 154.1 413.0 7,58E+06 ( 151) 1,51E+06 ( 30) 24 196 71 130.6 88.4 200.2 6,63E+06 ( 88) 1,05E+06 ( 14) 16 137 72 161.8 92.9 307.7 8,65E+06 ( 79) 1,20E+06 ( 11) 11 157 93 184.0 99.3 382.6 8,12E+06 ( 128) 9,51E+05 ( 15) 19 124 63 218.7 129.8 400.6 9,73E+06 ( 105) 1,76E+06 ( 19) 13 229 104 142.9 88.0 246.6 6,10E+06 ( 76) 2,01E+06 ( 25) 15 262 104 79.2 50.1 130.0 1,20E+07 ( 120) 1,51E+06 ( 15) 12 196 100 205.3 121.5 376.9 9,90E+06 ( 115) 1,38E+06 ( 16) 14 179 88 184.9 110.7 333.5 4,42E+06 ( 132) 7,36E+05 ( 22) 36 96 40 155.1 99.2 255.6 4,06E+06 ( 101) 7,23E+05 ( 18) 30 94 44 145.0 88.2 254.3 5,94E+06 ( 138) 1,08E+06 ( 25) 28 140 56 142.9 93.7 228.4 4,42E+06 ( 132) 2,95E+06 ( 88) 36 384 82 39.2 29.9 51.3 7,97E+06 ( 172) 8,80E+05 ( 19) 26 115 52 232.3 146.3 393.5 3,55E+06 ( 118) 1,99E+06 ( 66) 40 259 64 46.8 34.4 64.4 3,82E+06 ( 130) 1,12E+06 ( 38) 41 145 47 89.2 62.0 131.7 7,85E+06 ( 176) 2,01E+06 ( 45) 27 262 78 101.9 73.4 144.7 6,22E+06 ( 62) 1,00E+06 ( 10) 12 131 81 159.0 82.5 347.7 1,03E+07 ( 94) 1,75E+06 ( 16) 11 228 113 151.6 89.8 275.8 5,70E+06 ( 142) 8,03E+05 ( 20) 30 105 46 183.0 115.5 308.0 7,72E+06 ( 173) 8,48E+05 ( 19) 27 110 50 233.6 147.1 395.6 5,00E+06 ( 112) 1,74E+06 ( 39) 27 227 72 75.0 51.8 110.9 5,30E+06 ( 154) 9,64E+05 ( 28) 35 126 47 142.5 95.6 221.3 5,69E+06 ( 85) 1,07E+06 ( 16) 18 139 69 137.2 80.8 250.9 6,37E+06 ( 317) 6,63E+05 ( 33) 60 86 30 247.0 173.9 363.6 4,31E+06 ( 143) 5,42E+05 ( 18) 40 71 33 204.2 126.4 353.3 5,12E+06 ( 102) 6,02E+05 ( 12) 24 78 44 217.4 121.5 432.6 2,79E+06 ( 139) 7,63E+05 ( 38) 60 99 32 95.3 66.4 140.3 5,02E+06 ( 125) 1,93E+06 ( 48) 30 251 72 68.1 48.6 97.1 décembre 1 2015 19:22 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04a.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,84E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,14 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 1,57 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--5,75E+06 ( 167) 3,41E+06 ( 99) 35 443 89 44.1 34.4 décembre 1 2015 19:22 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04a.ftz CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 126.0, 122.7 --129.3 ( -3.3 +3.3) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 119.7 --132.6 ( -6.3 +6.6) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 124.5, 118.3 --131.0 ( -6.2 +6.5) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 112.6 --137.6 (-11.9 +13.1) AGE DISPERSION (%): 42.7 décembre 1 2015 19:22 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04a.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 43.90 0.626 4.4 4.18 2. 125.90 0.828 31.3 29.39 3. 175.00 0.871 34.2 32.11 Total range for grain ages: 39,3 to 244,8 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 94 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 89 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,22 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,26 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 50.9 -3,6 ...+3,8 -6,8 ...+7,8 0.18 7.9 3.3 7.4 2. 92.2 -6,8 ...+7,4 -12,9 ...+15,0 0.23 25.2 6.1 23.7 3. 168.3 -6,4 ...+6,6 -12,3 ...+13,2 0.26 66.9 6.5 62.9 Log-likelihood for best fit: -338,780 Chi-squared value for best fit: 90,577 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,018 Probability for F test: 1% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 9,71 Number of iterations: 76 33 246.5 157.3 410.8 3,87E+06 ( 77) 5,52E+05 ( 11) 24 71 42 181.6 97.9 378.1 9,00E+06 ( 112) 1,12E+06 ( 14) 15 145 76 207.6 120.7 390.7 5,03E+06 ( 146) 8,26E+05 ( 24) 35 106 43 159.2 103.9 256.2 6,83E+06 ( 102) 8,70E+05 ( 13) 18 112 61 203.6 115.8 394.0 3,36E+06 ( 67) 4,52E+05 ( 9) 24 58 38 192.4 97.7 437.6 6,48E+06 ( 215) 2,26E+06 ( 75) 40 291 67 75.5 58.0 98.1 8,55E+06 ( 142) 2,29E+06 ( 38) 20 295 95 98.5 68.8 144.9 4,73E+06 ( 110) 8,61E+05 ( 20) 28 111 49 144.0 89.8 244.7 7,08E+06 ( 188) 1,39E+06 ( 37) 32 179 59 133.5 94.0 195.4 7,59E+06 ( 126) 1,45E+06 ( 24) 20 186 75 137.7 89.2 222.7 5,18E+06 ( 43) 7,23E+05 ( 6) 10 93 73 184.0 80.4 527.1 8,11E+06 ( 101) 1,37E+06 ( 17) 15 176 84 155.2 93.4 276.6 5,98E+06 ( 124) 1,69E+06 ( 35) 25 217 73 93.4 64.0 140.2 3,92E+06 ( 78) 1,51E+06 ( 30) 24 194 70 68.7 44.8 108.5 5,54E+06 ( 69) 1,37E+06 ( 17) 15 176 84 106.5 62.6 193.4 3,27E+06 ( 57) 1,15E+06 ( 20) 21 148 65 75.1 44.8 132.2 7,95E+06 ( 132) 1,27E+06 ( 21) 20 163 70 164.3 104.3 273.9 3,16E+06 ( 105) 6,33E+05 ( 21) 40 81 35 131.1 82.2 220.5 7,34E+06 ( 128) 1,03E+06 ( 18) 21 133 62 185.3 114.1 322.0 7,20E+06 ( 233) 1,36E+06 ( 44) 39 175 53 139.2 101.0 196.6 7,48E+06 ( 149) 9,54E+05 ( 19) 24 123 56 204.1 127.8 347.6 1,11E+07 ( 147) 2,18E+06 ( 29) 16 281 104 133.1 89.5 205.6 7,23E+06 ( 246) 1,56E+06 ( 53) 41 200 55 122.2 90.9 167.7 4,57E+06 ( 91) 9,04E+05 ( 18) 24 116 54 132.4 80.1 233.3 8,12E+06 ( 182) 1,61E+06 ( 36) 27 207 69 132.9 93.1 195.6 5,66E+06 ( 141) 8,03E+05 ( 20) 30 103 46 183.9 116.0 309.6 8,59E+06 ( 107) 2,25E+06 ( 28) 15 289 109 100.6 66.3 158.6 8,24E+06 ( 260) 1,08E+06 ( 34) 38 139 47 199.8 140.5 294.0 9,74E+06 ( 97) 1,91E+06 ( 19) 12 245 111 133.7 82.0 231.6 6,57E+06 ( 267) 2,02E+06 ( 82) 49 259 57 85.7 66.9 109.7 7,78E+06 ( 155) 2,46E+06 ( 49) 24 317 90 83.6 60.4 117.8 4,28E+06 ( 71) 8,43E+05 ( 14) 20 109 57 132.5 75.0 254.7 7,16E+06 ( 107) 1,47E+06 ( 22) 18 189 80 127.6 80.8 212.1 5,00E+06 ( 170) 6,46E+05 ( 22) 41 83 35 201.4 130.2 329.0 3,92E+06 ( 91) 6,45E+05 ( 15) 28 83 42 158.2 92.3 294.0 7,73E+06 ( 231) 1,84E+06 ( 55) 36 237 64 110.7 82.5 151.4 5,42E+06 ( 63) 7,75E+05 ( 9) 14 100 65 181.1 91.6 413.3 POOLED 6,83E+06(14459) 1,27E+06( 2690) 2552 164 7 141.4 134.2 149.0 novembre 6 2015 12:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32a\JG-P3-32a.ftz CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 141.4, 137.7 --145.2 ( -3.7 +3.8) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 134.2 --149.0 ( -7.2 +7.6) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 142.3, 136.8 --148.0 ( -5.5 +5.7) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 131.7 --153.7 (-10.6 +11.5) AGE DISPERSION (%): 28.2 novembre 6 2015 12:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 5 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32a\JG-P3-32a.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 141.30 0.843 39.2 38.37 2. 201.90 0.885 38.7 37.93 Total range for grain ages: 68,2 to 278,0 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 98 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 95 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,24 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,28 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 92.3 -4,3 ...+4,5 -8,3 ...+9,1 0.20 25.3 5.3 24.8 2. 172.7 -5,8 ...+6,0 -11,1 ...+11,9 0.26 74.7 5.3 73.2 Log-likelihood for best fit: -319,893 Chi-squared value for best fit: 86,796 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,914 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 4,36 Number of iterations: août 13 2015 14:00 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19.ftz Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--95 9,40E+06 ( 234) 1,00E+06 ( 25) 30 184 73 172.8 115.2 272.2 96 7,47E+06 ( 310) 1,57E+06 ( 65) 50 287 71 88.5 67.4 116.1 97 8,21E+06 ( 327) 8,03E+05 ( 32) 48 147 52 188.6 132.1 279.9 98 9,85E+06 ( 327) 7,83E+05 ( 26) 40 144 56 231.1 156.5 357.9 99 7,43E+06 ( 370) 8,23E+05 ( 41) 60 151 47 167.0 121.5 236.4 100 4,82E+06 ( 80) 2,17E+06 ( 36) 20 397 132 41.6 27.8 63.6 101 6,19E+06 ( 190) 1,24E+06 ( 38) 37 227 73 93.1 65.7 135.7 102 2,75E+06 ( 73) 9,41E+05 ( 25) 32 173 68 54.5 34.4 89.8 POOLED 8,85E+06(29290) 1,00E+06( 3316) 3989 184 8 164.0 152.7 176.1 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 164.0, 158.1 --170.0 ( -5.9 +6.1) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 152.7 --176.1 (-11.3 +12.1) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 162.3, 154.7 --170.3 ( -7.6 +7.9) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 147.8 --178.3 (-14.5 +15.9) AGE DISPERSION (%): 31.2 août 13 2015 14:00 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 41.40 0.688 1.4 1.42 2. 163.90 0.898 40.0 40.85 3. 231.00 0.926 32.4 33.04 Total range for grain ages: 41,4 to 303,2 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 102 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 97 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,2 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,24 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 46.5 -6,9 ...+8,1 -12,6 ...+17,3 0.25 1.8 1.4 1.9 2. 117.9 -6,0 ...+6,4 -11,5 ...+12,8 0.19 28.8 6.3 29.4 3. 198.3 -8,4 ...+8,8 -16,2 ...+17,6 0.23 69.3 6.3 70.7 Log-likelihood for best fit: -366,878 Chi-squared value for best fit: 89,307 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,921 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 135,35 Number of iterations: CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 161.6, 158.0 --165.2 ( -3.5 +3.6) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 154.7 --168.7 ( -6.9 +7.2) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 161.4, 153.3 --169.8 ( -8.0 +8.5) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 146.0 --178.4 (-15.4 +17.0) AGE DISPERSION (%): 44.2 novembre 23 2015 17:19 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-23-Zr\JG-P3-23.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 23 Irr 10-2015-41 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 4) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 43.80 0.623 2.1 1.87 2. 53.20 0.668 1.9 1.68 3. 77.70 0.747 2.9 2.65 4. 161.60 0.860 36.0 32.77 Total range for grain ages: 43,8 to 315,4 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 91 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 84 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,17 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,19 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 45.0 -6,5 ...+7,6 -11,9 ...+16,2 0.16 1.2 1.3 1.1 2. 66.9 -4,0 ...+4,2 -7,5 ...+8,5 0.12 5.4 2.5 4.9 3. 111.0 -5,3 ...+5,6 -10,2 ...+11,2 0.15 19.6 4.9 17.8 4. 206.7 -5,6 ...+5,8 -10,8 ...+11,4 0.18 73.8 5.3 67.2 Log-likelihood for best fit: -386,875 Chi-squared value for best fit: 91,053 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,084 Probability for F test: 1% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 165,63 Number of iterations: août 18 2015 12:47 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20.ftz CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 125.2, 120.8 --129.8 ( -4.4 +4.6) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 116.7 --134.4 ( -8.6 +9.2) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 125.1, 119.5 --130.9 ( -5.6 +5.8) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 114.4 --136.8 (-10.7 +11.7) AGE DISPERSION (%): 27.6 août 18 2015 12:47 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 107.30 0.852 39.3 40.10 2. 125.20 0.871 40.4 41.22 3. 179.40 0.906 32.6 33.21 Total range for grain ages: 50,7 to 228,7 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 102 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 97 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,2 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,23 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 76.0 -5,0 ...+5,4 -9,5 ...+10,9 0.17 11.5 4.6 11.8 2. 113.5 -6,0 ...+6,3 -11,4 ...+12,7 0.20 44.4 8.4 45.3 3. 168.6 -8,5 ...+8,9 -16,2 ...+17,9 0.23 44.1 8.3 45.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: -370,862 Chi-squared value for best fit: 99,865 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,030 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 10,09 Number of iterations: Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-21-Zr\JG-P3-21-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 214 Irr 10-2015-37 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 49.90 0.655 4.5 4.49 2. 83.60 0.761 19.2 19.24 3. 113.00 0.812 44.5 44.48 Total range for grain ages: 49,9 to 208,6 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 100 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 95 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,18 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,21 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 69.4 -4,1 ...+4,4 -7,8 ...+8,8 0.17 20.4 5.8 20.4 2. 107.6 -8,6 ...+9,3 -16,2 ...+19,0 0.18 31.5 10.7 31.5 3. 145.3 -6,5 ...+6,8 -12,5 ...+13,7 0.20 48.1 12.3 48.1 Log-likelihood for best fit: -382,896 Chi-squared value for best fit: 98,475 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,037 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 20,30 Number of iterations: décembre 11 2015 14:52 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22-Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22a-Zr.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,86E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,17 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 1,57 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--8,86E+06 ( 103) 1,98E+06 ( 23) 14 256 106 116.8 74.4 192.5 4,77E+06 ( 95) 1,86E+06 ( 37) 24 241 79 67.4 45.8 101.5 4,49E+06 ( 108) 1,25E+06 ( 30) 29 161 59 94.2 62.7 146.4 6,70E+06 ( 178) 2,26E+06 ( 60) 32 293 76 77.4 57.8 103.6 4,32E+06 ( 86) 1,86E+06 ( 37) 24 241 79 61.1 41.2 92.5 3,29E+06 ( 131) 1,08E+06 ( 43) 48 140 43 79.9 56.4 115.7 6,08E+06 ( 338) 1,98E+06 ( 110) 67 256 49 80.5 64.8 99.8 3,94E+06 ( 98) 1,00E+06 ( 25) 30 130 52 102.4 65.9 166.0 5,82E+06 ( 145) 2,33E+06 ( 58) 30 302 79 65.7 48.3 90.8 5,34E+06 ( 155) 2,20E+06 ( 64) 35 285 71 63.3 47.3 84.6 5,57E+06 ( 194) 3,59E+06 ( 125) 42 464 84 40.8 32.5 51.1 7,08E+06 ( 141) 2,46E+06 ( 49) 24 319 91 75.6 54.4 106.9 2,11E+06 ( 70) 5,12E+05 ( 17) 40 66 32 107.3 63.1 194.7 5,46E+06 ( 272) 1,63E+06 ( 81) 60 211 47 87.8 68.5 112.4 4,34E+06 ( 119) 1,79E+06 ( 49) 33 232 66 63.8 45.5 91.0 4,70E+06 ( 78) 1,14E+06 ( 19) 20 148 67 107.1 64.8 187.4 3,82E+06 ( 95) 2,49E+06 ( 62) 30 323 82 40.4 29.1 56.6 4,94E+06 ( 82) 1,27E+06 ( 21) 20 164 71 101.9 63.0 173.5 4,94E+06 ( 164) 1,14E+06 ( 38) 40 148 48 112.9 79.3 165.2 3,92E+06 ( 130) 1,63E+06 ( 54) 40 211 57 63.3 45.9 88.7 3,82E+06 ( 152) 1,18E+06 ( 47) 48 153 44 84.8 61.0 120.4 3,70E+06 ( 123) 6,33E+05 ( 21) 40 82 35 152.2 96.3 254.4 8,32E+06 ( 435) 2,85E+06 ( 149) 63 369 61 76.6 63.5 92.3 7,11E+06 ( 118) 3,86E+06 ( 64) 20 499 125 48.6 35.6 66.9 6,16E+06 ( 92) 1,94E+06 ( 29) 18 251 93 83.1 54.5 131.0 4,46E+06 ( 100) 1,52E+06 ( 34) 27 197 67 77.1 52.0 117.5 5,90E+06 ( 196) 1,81E+06 ( 60) 40 234 60 85.2 63.9 113.6 4,42E+06 ( 154) 8,03E+05 ( 28) 42 104 39 143.3 96.1 222.5 8,96E+06 ( 223) 2,81E+06 ( 70) 30 364 87 83.2 63.6 108.7 4,85E+06 ( 153) 1,40E+06 ( 44) 38 181 54 91.1 65.0 130.6 3,80E+06 ( 101) 2,30E+06 ( 61) 32 297 76 43.6 31.5 61.0 5,56E+06 ( 83) 2,74E+06 ( 41) 18 355 111 53.3 36.3 79.5 7,47E+06 ( 248) 1,72E+06 ( 57) 40 222 59 113.2 85.0 150.6 6,73E+06 ( 67) 2,81E+06 ( 28) 12 364 137 62.8 40.0 101.5 6,06E+06 ( 352) 1,94E+06 ( 113) 70 252 48 81.6 65.9 100.9 5,66E+06 ( 235) 1,98E+06 ( 82) 50 256 57 75.0 58.3 96.4 2,98E+06 ( 247) 6,02E+05 ( 50) 100 78 22 129.1 95.4 178.6 1,59E+06 ( 74) 3,44E+05 ( 16) 56 45 22 120.3 70.2 221.5 4,75E+06 ( 130) 8,76E+05 ( 24) 33 114 46 141.0 91.5 227.9 5,69E+06 ( 302) 2,05E+06 ( 109) 64 266 51 72.6 58.3 90.4 5,60E+06 ( 93) 1,81E+06 ( 30) 20 234 85 81.2 53.6 127.1 4,39E+06 ( 51) 2,24E+06 ( 26) 14 290 113 51.6 31.7 86.2 3,96E+06 ( 92) 6,45E+05 ( 15) 28 84 43 158.9 92.8 295.1 8,07E+06 ( 67) 1,93E+06 ( 16) 10 250 123 109.0 63.2 201.8 9,17E+06 ( 137) 1,87E+06 ( 28) 18 243 91 127.6 85.1 199.1 1,40E+07 ( 116) 4,22E+06 ( 35) 10 546 184 86.8 59.3 130.7 2,59E+06 ( 129) 8,23E+05 ( 41) 60 107 33 82.5 57.9 120.4 décembre 11 2015 14:52 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22-Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22a-Zr.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 41.10 0.609 6.9 6.93 2. 47.90 0.645 7.0 7.00 3. 89.30 0.773 43.6 43.63 Total range for grain ages: 40,3 to 182,7 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 100 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 95 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,19 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,22 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 44.8 -3,2 ...+3,5 -6,1 ...+7,0 0.18 6.3 2.8 6.3 2. 80.3 -2,4 ...+2,5 -4,6 ...+4,9 0.18 60.0 6.4 60.0 3. 129.7 -5,5 ...+5,8 -10,6 ...+11,5 0.22 33.7 6.2 33.7 Log-likelihood for best fit: -374,143 Chi-squared value for best fit: 93,987 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,989 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 11,40 Number of iterations: Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-43Zr\JG-P3-43Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 43 Irr 10-2015-47 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 4) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 46.90 0.638 2.3 2.31 2. 52.60 0.664 4.9 4.91 3. 105.60 0.799 35.8 35.76 4. 224.50 0.895 5.3 5.34 Total range for grain ages: 46,9 to 224,5 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 100 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 93 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,17 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,2 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 55.0 -6,2 ...+7,0 -11,5 ...+14,5 0.16 3.4 2.8 3.4 2. 80.0 -5,1 ...+5,5 -9,8 ...+11,1 0.17 30.8 12.9 30.8 3. 103.0 -9,0 ...+9,8 -16,8 ...+20,1 0.17 27.6 12.2 27.6 4. 147.0 -5,8 ...+6,1 -11,2 ...+12,1 0.19 38.3 7.4 38.3 Log-likelihood for best fit: -398,991 Chi-squared value for best fit: 102,098 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,098 Probability for F test: 3% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 87,43 Number of iterations: novembre 4 2015 14:08 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-36 Irr 8-2015-18 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,29E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,18 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 1,81E+05 ( 6) 7,58E+06 ( 252) 52 88 11 4.5 1.6 9.6 2 2,74E+05 ( 7) 1,23E+07 ( 315) 40 143 16 4.1 1.6 8.4 3 1,37E+05 ( 7) 4,75E+06 ( 243) 80 55 7 5.4 2.1 11.0 4 2,09E+05 ( 4) 1,24E+07 ( 237) 30 144 19 3.2 0.8 8.0 5 2,01E+05 ( 5) 1,31E+07 ( 327) 39 152 17 2.9 0.9 6.6 6 2,09E+05 ( 4) 8,09E+06 ( 155) 30 94 15 4.9 1.3 12.3 7 1,25E+05 ( 8) 6,74E+06 ( 431) 100 78 8 3.4 1.5 6.7 8 1,66E+05 ( 7) 1,13E+07 ( 477) 66 131 12 2.7 1.1 5.6 9 1,04E+05 ( 2) 1,06E+07 ( 204) 30 124 18 1.9 0.2 6.5 10 1,13E+05 ( 5) 8,16E+06 ( 360) 69 95 10 2.6 0.8 6.0 11 1,17E+05 ( 6) 7,75E+06 ( 396) 80 90 9 2.8 1.0 6.1 12 1,79E+05 ( 8) 6,93E+06 ( 310) 70 80 9 4.8 2.0 9.4 13 1,84E+05 ( 2) 1,22E+07 ( 132) 17 141 25 3.0 0.3 10.2 14 3,13E+05 ( 6) 8,24E+06 ( 158) 30 96 15 7.1 2.5 15.4 15 1,12E+05 ( 5) 8,58E+06 ( 384) 70 100 10 2.4 0.8 5.6 16 1,88E+05 ( 6) 7,32E+06 ( 234) 50 85 11 4.8 1.7 10.3 17 7,82E+04 ( 3) 6,34E+06 ( 243) 60 74 10 2.4 0.5 6.7 POOLED 1,56E+05( 91) 8,33E+06( 4858) 913 97 4 3.4 2.8 4.2 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 86.0 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 3.4, 3.1 --3.8 ( -0.4 +0.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.8 --4.2 ( -0.7 +0.8) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 3.4, 3.1 --3.8 ( -0.4 +0.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.8 --4.2 ( -0.7 +0.8) AGE DISPERSION (%): 0.2 novembre 4 2015 14:08 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-36 Irr 8-2015-18 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 1) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 3.40 0.018 33.2 5.65 Total range for grain ages: 2,2 to 7,5 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 17 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 16 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,45 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,52 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 3.4 -0,4 ...+0,4 -0,7 ...+0,8 0.51 100.0 0.0 17.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: -34,145 Chi-squared value for best fit: 10,124 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,633 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 1,00 Number of iterations: novembre 27 2015 13:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-37\JG-P3-37Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-37 Irr 8-2015-19 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 19.10 0.095 14.5 12.50 2. 38.90 0.176 16.7 14.34 3. 51.40 0.220 18.3 15.71 Total range for grain ages: 1,8 to 89,5 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 86 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 81 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,51 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,6 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 3.3 -0,6 ...+0,7 -1,0 ...+1,5 0.63 13.6 4.9 11.7 2. 14.2 -1,3 ...+1,5 -2,5 ...+3,0 0.50 43.8 7.3 37.7 3. 49.5 -3,2 ...+3,4 -6,1 ...+7,0 0.38 42.6 6.7 36.6 Log-likelihood for best fit: -245,778 Chi-squared value for best fit: 75,584 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,933 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 26,93 Number of iterations: 18 novembre 27 2015 13:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-37\JG-P3-37Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-37 Irr 8-2015-19 novembre 27 2015 13:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 5 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-37\JG-P3-37Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-37 Irr 8-2015-19 octobre 5 2015 19:02 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-42\test.ftz Title: JG-P3-42 Irr 8-2015-20 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,30E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,25 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 2,01E+05 ( 5) 1,08E+06 ( 27) 39 13 5 34.7 10.2 88.9 2 5,59E+04 ( 1) 6,71E+05 ( 12) 28 8 4 17.3 0.4 102.5 3 1,27E+05 ( 3) 6,43E+06 ( 152) 37 74 12 3.8 0.7 10.8 4 5,63E+05 ( 9) 3,26E+06 ( 52) 25 38 10 32.1 13.7 64.7 5 1,04E+05 ( 2) 1,67E+06 ( 32) 30 19 7 12.3 1.3 44.8 6 4,04E+05 ( 8) 1,82E+06 ( 36) 31 21 7 41.3 16.3 88.6 7 4,37E+05 ( 12) 1,49E+06 ( 41) 43 17 5 54.0 25.6 103.3 8 2,96E+05 ( 7) 6,56E+06 ( 155) 37 76 12 8.5 3.3 17.5 9 2,61E+05 ( 4) 6,52E+05 ( 10) 24 8 5 74.6 16.8 249.4 10 1,89E+06 ( 29) 6,52E+06 ( 100) 24 75 15 53.2 33.8 80.6 11 3,85E+05 ( 15) 2,41E+06 ( 94) 61 28 6 29.5 15.7 50.6 12 8,03E+05 ( 20) 2,17E+06 ( 54) 39 25 7 67.9 38.4 114.4 13 1,84E+05 ( 6) 1,32E+06 ( 43) 51 15 5 26.1 8.9 60.1 14 2,00E+05 ( 6) 1,17E+06 ( 35) 47 13 5 32.1 10.8 75.1 15 3,48E+05 ( 8) 7,39E+05 ( 17) 36 9 4 86.6 32.1 207.6 16 3,74E+05 ( 11) 9,19E+05 ( 27) 46 11 4 74.9 33.3 153.8 17 6,89E+05 ( 11) 2,07E+06 ( 33) 25 24 8 61.4 27.8 122.8 18 1,74E+05 ( 2) 8,17E+06 ( 94) 18 94 20 4.2 0.5 14.5 19 3,73E+04 ( 1) 6,71E+05 ( 18) 42 8 4 11.6 0.2 64.2 20 3,77E+05 ( 13) 3,33E+06 ( 115) 54 38 7 20.9 10.7 36.8 21 1,49E+05 ( 2) 5,96E+05 ( 8) 21 7 5 48.2 4.7 225.7 22 1,04E+05 ( 2) 8,87E+05 ( 17) 30 10 5 23.0 2.4 90.3 23 9,00E+05 ( 23) 4,73E+06 ( 121) 40 55 10 35.0 21.2 54.6 24 2,35E+05 ( 6) 1,53E+06 ( 39) 40 18 6 28.8 9.7 66.8 POOLED 3,71E+05( 206) 2,40E+06( 1332) 868 28 2 28.3 24.2 33.1 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 28.3, 26.1 --30.6 ( -2.2 +2.3) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 24.2 --33.1 ( -4.1 +4.8) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 32.3, 28.0 --37.3 ( -4.3 +5.0) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 24.4 --42.8 ( -7.9 +10.5) AGE DISPERSION (%): 55.2 octobre 5 2015 19:02 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-42\test.ftz Title: JG-P3-42 Irr 8-2015-20 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 4.20 0.022 3.5 0.85 2. 28.30 0.134 20.7 4.98 3. 54.70 0.231 19.4 4.65 Total range for grain ages: 4,2 to 88,4 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 24 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 19 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,5 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,58 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 5.9 -1,5 ...+2,0 -2,6 ...+4,5 0.65 17.3 8.9 4.1 2. 29.6 -4,2 ...+4,8 -7,6 ...+10,2 0.44 46.6 19.0 11.2 3. 53.9 -9,1 ...+10,9 -16,4 ...+23,5 0.39 36.1 18.3 8.7 Log-likelihood for best fit: -65,224 Chi-squared value for best fit: 23,538 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,239 Probability for F test: 1% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 14,51 Number of iterations: 7 octobre 5 2015 19:02 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-42\test.ftz Title: JG-P3-42 Irr 8-2015-20 octobre 5 2015 19:02 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-42\test.ftz Title: JG-P3-42 Irr 8-2015-20 octobre 29 2015 15:50 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-04\JG-P3-04Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-04 Irr 8-2015-13 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,27E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,11 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--2,04E+05 ( 3) 7,89E+06 ( 116) 23 93 17 4.9 0.9 13.9 1,96E+05 ( 4) 1,22E+07 ( 249) 32 144 18 3.0 0.8 7.5 8,46E+04 ( 2) 1,21E+07 ( 287) 37 143 17 1.3 0.2 4.6 2,74E+05 ( 7) 1,37E+06 ( 35) 40 16 5 36.4 13.4 81.4 1,91E+05 ( 11) 9,39E+05 ( 54) 90 11 3 36.8 17.2 70.3 8,94E+04 ( 4) 6,22E+06 ( 278) 70 73 9 2.7 0.7 6.7 1,88E+05 ( 6) 5,04E+06 ( 161) 50 59 9 6.9 2.4 14.8 1,15E+05 ( 5) 5,75E+06 ( 250) 68 68 9 3.7 1.2 8.5 1,42E+05 ( 2) 5,90E+06 ( 83) 22 70 15 4.6 0.5 16.1 9,48E+04 ( 4) 7,04E+06 ( 297) 66 83 10 2.5 0.7 6.2 6,26E+04 ( 2) 1,19E+06 ( 38) 50 14 5 10.1 1.1 36.4 1,88E+05 ( 12) 1,97E+06 ( 126) 100 23 4 17.3 8.6 30.8 1,04E+05 ( 4) 1,51E+06 ( 58) 60 18 5 12.8 3.3 33.3 5,22E+04 ( 1) 8,82E+06 ( 169) 30 104 16 1.2 0.0 6.0 1,74E+05 ( 5) 1,04E+07 ( 299) 45 123 14 3.1 1.0 7.1 2,31E+05 ( 13) 1,49E+06 ( 84) 88 18 4 28.0 14.2 49.9 2,15E+05 ( 7) 1,20E+07 ( 392) 51 142 15 3.3 1.3 6.7 4,69E+04 ( 3) 8,65E+06 ( 553) 100 102 9 1.0 0.2 2.9 1,22E+05 ( 7) 1,90E+06 ( 109) 90 22 4 11.8 4.5 24.5 6,26E+05 ( 14) 3,44E+06 ( 77) 35 41 9 32.8 17.0 57.8 1,10E+05 ( 7) 1,31E+06 ( 84) 100 16 3 15.2 5.8 32.1 3,91E+04 ( 2) 5,30E+06 ( 271) 80 63 8 1.4 0.2 4.8 2,74E+05 ( 7) 7,20E+06 ( 184) 40 85 13 7.0 2.7 14.3 2,76E+05 ( 6) 7,04E+06 ( 153) 34 83 14 7.2 2.5 15.6 2,50E+05 ( 4) 5,38E+06 ( 86) 25 64 14 8.7 2.2 22.1 8,69E+04 ( 4) 1,35E+06 ( 62) 72 16 4 12.0 3.1 31.1 9,39E+04 ( 3) 1,00E+07 ( 320) 50 118 13 1.8 0.3 5.0 2,66E+05 ( 17) 1,74E+06 ( 111) 100 21 4 27.6 15.4 45.8 4,12E+04 ( 2) 1,13E+06 ( 55) 76 13 4 7.0 0.8 24.7 2,11E+05 ( 5) 1,08E+07 ( 255) 37 127 16 3.6 1.1 8.3 3,13E+05 ( 20) 2,57E+06 ( 164) 100 30 5 22.0 13.0 34.8 7,82E+04 ( 5) 1,71E+06 ( 109) 100 20 4 8.5 2.6 19.8 3,91E+04 ( 2) 7,43E+05 ( 38) 80 9 3 10.1 1.1 36.4 1,83E+05 ( 7) 3,10E+06 ( 119) 60 37 7 10.8 4.1 22.4 1,04E+05 ( 4) 9,68E+06 ( 371) 60 114 12 2.0 0.5 5.0 1,56E+05 ( 8) 7,51E+06 ( 384) 80 89 9 3.8 1.6 7.4 2,82E+05 ( 18) 2,21E+06 ( 141) 100 26 4 23.0 13.2 37.4 POOLED 1,58E+05( 237) 4,43E+06( 6622) 2341 52 2 6.4 5.6 7.4 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 6.4, 6.0 --95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 5.6 --CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 9.4, 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 6.8 --12.8 ( -2.5 +3.5) AGE DISPERSION (%): 88.0 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): AGE DISPERSION (%): 40.3 102.2 --120.1 ( -8.6 +9.3) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 117.6 --141.3 (-11.3 +12.4) POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 110.8, 106.3 --115.4 ( -4.5 +4.7) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 128.9, 123.0 --135.1 ( -5.9 +6.2) 8.0 --11.0 ( -1.4 +1.6) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.1 --2.9 ( -0.4 +0.4) AGE DISPERSION (%): 1.9 43 1,39E+07 ( 162) 1,72E+06 ( 20) 14 314 139 150.1 95.1 252.3 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 126.6 --139.1 ( -6.1 +6.4) 7.4 ( -0.8 +1.0) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.5, 2.3 --2.7 ( -0.2 +0.2) 42 8,01E+06 ( 133) 1,27E+06 ( 21) 20 231 100 117.7 74.7 196.7 POOLED 8,58E+06( 9465) 1,45E+06( 1599) 1329 265 15 110.8 102.2 120.1 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 132.7, 129.5 --135.9 ( -3.2 +3.2) 6.9 ( -0.4 +0.5) octobre 29 2015 15:50 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-04\JG-P3-04Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-04 Irr 8-2015-13 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 6.40 0.035 10.3 3.81 2. 23.20 0.115 10.5 3.90 Total range for grain ages: 1,1 to 37,8 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 37 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 34 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,47 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,55 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 3.2 -0,4 ...+0,4 -0,7 ...+0,9 0.58 63.6 9.6 23.5 2. 20.3 -2,3 ...+2,6 -4,2 ...+5,4 0.38 36.4 9.6 13.5 Log-likelihood for best fit: -111,998 Chi-squared value for best fit: 40,163 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,181 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 3,03 Number of iterations: Datafile: F:\Termo_Lab_Grenoble\Jairo\Apatites\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P3-15 Irr 5-2015-24 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,23E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,41 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 4,06E+05 ( 7) 1,05E+07 ( 182) 27 129 19 6.8 2.6 14.0 2 2,24E+05 ( 3) 8,42E+06 ( 113) 21 103 20 4.8 0.9 13.8 3 1,04E+05 ( 4) 6,16E+06 ( 236) 60 75 10 3.1 0.8 7.6 4 1,68E+05 ( 3) 9,84E+06 ( 176) 28 120 18 3.1 0.6 8.8 5 7,82E+04 ( 4) 4,91E+06 ( 251) 80 60 8 2.9 0.7 7.2 6 2,74E+05 ( 7) 1,10E+07 ( 281) 40 134 16 4.4 1.7 9.0 7 2,72E+05 ( 8) 1,06E+07 ( 312) 46 130 15 4.5 1.9 8.9 8 1,74E+05 ( 6) 1,15E+07 ( 397) 54 140 15 2.7 1.0 5.8 9 2,61E+05 ( 10) 7,41E+06 ( 284) 60 90 11 6.2 2.9 11.4 10 3,19E+05 ( 11) 7,65E+06 ( 264) 54 93 12 7.3 3.6 13.1 11 2,27E+05 ( 9) 1,13E+07 ( 449) 62 138 14 3.5 1.6 6.7 12 1,30E+05 ( 6) 8,37E+06 ( 385) 72 102 11 2.8 1.0 5.9 13 5,87E+05 ( 3) 1,23E+07 ( 63) 8 150 38 8.7 1.7 25.2 14 2,43E+05 ( 7) 9,39E+06 ( 270) 45 115 14 4.6 1.8 9.4 15 1,49E+05 ( 4) 4,99E+06 ( 134) 42 61 11 5.4 1.4 13.6 16 9,07E+04 ( 4) 7,39E+06 ( 326) 69 90 10 2.2 0.6 5.5 17 2,38E+05 ( 7) 7,72E+06 ( 227) 46 94 13 5.5 2.1 11.2 18 2,09E+05 ( 2) 7,41E+06 ( 71) 15 90 22 5.2 0.6 18.3 19 1,96E+05 ( 4) 1,30E+07 ( 266) 32 159 20 2.7 0.7 6.8 20 7,82E+04 ( 3) 1,07E+07 ( 409) 60 130 13 1.3 0.3 3.7 21 4,43E+05 ( 17) 1,01E+07 ( 388) 60 124 13 7.7 4.4 12.3 22 2,82E+05 ( 9) 1,14E+07 ( 364) 50 139 15 4.4 1.9 8.2 23 4,07E+05 ( 13) 1,26E+07 ( 402) 50 154 16 5.7 3.0 9.7 24 2,74E+05 ( 7) 3,25E+06 ( 83) 40 40 9 14.9 5.7 31.4 25 2,28E+05 ( 7) 1,04E+07 ( 319) 48 127 15 3.9 1.5 7.9 26 1,07E+05 ( 5) 9,99E+06 ( 466) 73 122 12 1.9 0.6 4.4 27 1,28E+05 ( 4) 6,07E+06 ( 190) 49 74 11 3.8 1.0 9.5 POOLED 2,11E+05( 174) 8,86E+06( 7308) 1291 108 4 4.1 3.5 4.8 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 2.1 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 4.1, 3.8 --4.5 ( -0.3 +0.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 3.5 --4.8 ( -0.6 +0.7) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 4.2, 3.8 --4.7 ( -0.4 +0.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 3.5 --5.1 ( -0.7 +0.9) AGE DISPERSION (%): 26.5 diciembre 28 2015 08:58 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: F:\Termo_Lab_Grenoble\Jairo\Apatites\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P3-15 Irr 5-2015-24 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 4.10 0.023 27.3 7.37 2. 15.50 0.082 3.1 0.83 Total range for grain ages: 1,5 to 15,5 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 27 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 24 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,43 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,5 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 3.4 -0,6 ...+0,8 -1,1 ...+1,7 0.50 66.6 34.6 18.0 2. 5.9 -1,4 ...+1,8 -2,4 ...+4,2 0.41 33.4 34.6 9.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: -66,468 Chi-squared value for best fit: 28,317 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,180 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 19,56 Number of iterations: Title: JG-P3-15 Irr 5-2015-24 diciembre 28 2015 09:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: F:\Termo_Lab_Grenoble\Jairo\Apatites\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P3-32 Irr 5-2015-23 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,23E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,36 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 2,24E+04 ( 1) 6,73E+06 ( 301) 70 82 10 0.7 0.0 3.2 2 2,45E+05 ( 5) 6,90E+06 ( 141) 32 84 14 6.3 2.0 14.7 3 1,74E+05 ( 2) 1,87E+07 ( 215) 18 228 32 1.7 0.2 5.9 4 1,25E+05 ( 4) 1,17E+07 ( 375) 50 143 15 1.9 0.5 4.8 5 5,22E+04 ( 1) 9,02E+06 ( 173) 30 110 17 1.1 0.0 5.7 6 2,24E+05 ( 10) 1,34E+07 ( 598) 70 163 14 2.9 1.4 5.4 7 2,74E+05 ( 7) 1,68E+07 ( 430) 40 205 21 2.9 1.1 5.9 8 4,24E+05 ( 16) 1,63E+07 ( 613) 59 199 17 4.6 2.6 7.4 9 1,04E+05 ( 4) 9,57E+06 ( 367) 60 117 13 2.0 0.5 4.9 10 2,29E+05 ( 13) 1,27E+07 ( 720) 89 155 12 3.2 1.7 5.4 11 1,56E+05 ( 4) 9,55E+06 ( 244) 40 117 15 3.0 0.8 7.4 12 1,04E+05 ( 4) 8,14E+06 ( 312) 60 99 12 2.3 0.6 5.7 13 2,04E+05 ( 3) 1,11E+07 ( 163) 23 135 22 3.4 0.7 9.5 14 2,93E+05 ( 3) 7,34E+06 ( 75) 16 90 21 7.3 1.4 21.0 POOLED 1,83E+05( 77) 1,13E+07( 4727) 657 138 5 2.8 2.2 3.6 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 26.1 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.8, 2.5 --3.2 ( -0.3 +0.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.2 --3.6 ( -0.6 +0.7) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.8, 2.5 --3.2 ( -0.3 +0.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.2 --3.6 ( -0.6 +0.7) AGE DISPERSION (%): 7.4 diciembre 28 2015 09:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: F:\Termo_Lab_Grenoble\Jairo\Apatites\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P3-32 Irr 5-2015-23 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 1) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 2.80 0.016 31.0 4.35 Total range for grain ages: 0,9 to 8,0 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 14 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 13 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,52 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,61 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 2.8 -0,3 ...+0,4 -0,6 ...+0,7 0.50 100.0 0.0 14.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: -30,934 Chi-squared value for best fit: 15,775 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,213 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 1,00 Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,28E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,11 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 6,26E+04 ( 4) 6,34E+06 ( 405) 100 75 8 1.8 0.5 4.6 2 1,41E+05 ( 9) 8,34E+06 ( 533) 100 98 9 3.1 1.4 5.8 3 9,39E+04 ( 6) 5,40E+06 ( 345) 100 64 7 3.2 1.1 6.9 4 2,61E+05 ( 5) 1,14E+07 ( 219) 30 134 18 4.2 1.3 9.7 5 7,82E+04 ( 5) 7,25E+06 ( 463) 100 85 8 2.0 0.6 4.6 6 1,25E+05 ( 8) 8,95E+06 ( 572) 100 105 9 2.6 1.1 5.0 7 1,17E+05 ( 3) 7,55E+06 ( 193) 40 89 13 2.9 0.6 8.3 8 8,69E+04 ( 5) 5,03E+06 ( 289) 90 59 7 3.2 1.0 7.3 9 5,87E+04 ( 3) 2,39E+06 ( 122) 80 28 5 4.6 0.9 13.2 10 7,82E+04 ( 5) 7,79E+06 ( 498) 100 92 8 1.9 0.6 4.2 11 9,94E+04 ( 4) 6,93E+06 ( 279) 63 82 10 2.7 0.7 6.7 12 1,10E+05 ( 7) 5,29E+06 ( 338) 100 62 7 3.8 1.5 7.8 13 9,78E+04 ( 5) 4,50E+06 ( 230) 80 53 7 4.0 1.3 9.3 14 1,17E+05 ( 6) 7,24E+06 ( 370) 80 85 9 3.0 1.1 6.4 15 1,10E+05 ( 7) 6,65E+06 ( 425) 100 78 8 3.0 1.2 6.2 16 3,91E+04 ( 2) 5,22E+06 ( 267) 80 61 8 1.5 0.2 4.9 17 6,26E+04 ( 4) 8,81E+06 ( 563) 100 104 9 1.3 0.3 3.3 18 7,82E+04 ( 5) 5,87E+06 ( 375) 100 69 7 2.5 0.8 5.6 19 7,82E+04 ( 5) 2,57E+06 ( 164) 100 30 5 5.7 1.8 13.0 20 1,25E+05 ( 4) 4,95E+06 ( 158) 50 58 9 4.7 1.2 11.9 21 1,28E+05 ( 4) 7,28E+06 ( 228) 49 86 11 3.3 0.9 8.2 22 7,82E+04 ( 5) 5,43E+06 ( 347) 100 64 7 2.7 0.8 6.1 23 6,26E+04 ( 4) 6,79E+06 ( 434) 100 80 8 1.7 0.4 4.3 24 1,42E+05 ( 7) 8,23E+06 ( 405) 77 97 10 3.2 1.2 6.5 25 1,83E+05 ( 7) 1,01E+07 ( 386) 60 118 12 3.3 1.3 6.8 26 1,25E+05 ( 8) 5,96E+06 ( 381) 100 70 7 3.8 1.6 7.5 27 1,74E+05 ( 10) 8,36E+06 ( 481) 90 98 9 3.8 1.8 6.9 28 1,37E+05 ( 7) 7,45E+06 ( 381) 80 88 9 3.4 1.3 6.9 29 5,22E+04 ( 3) 7,76E+06 ( 446) 90 91 9 1.3 0.2 3.6 30 3,48E+04 ( 2) 9,09E+06 ( 523) 90 107 10 0.7 0.1 2.5 31 5,87E+04 ( 3) 7,86E+06 ( 402) 80 93 9 1.4 0.3 3.9 32 3,13E+04 ( 2) 8,15E+06 ( 521) 100 96 9 0.7 0.1 2.5 33 1,04E+05 ( 4) 8,53E+06 ( 327) 60 100 11 2.3 0.6 5.7 34 1,56E+05 ( 7) 1,10E+07 ( 494) 70 130 12 2.6 1.0 5.3 POOLED 9,65E+04( 175) 6,93E+06(12564) 2839 81 2 2.5 2.1 2.9 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 63.0 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.5, 2.3 --2.7 ( -0.2 +0.2) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 2.1 --2.9 ( -0.4 +0.4) octobre 20 2015 17:42 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-19 Irr 8-2015-14 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 1) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 2.50 0.014 26.1 8.88 Total range for grain ages: 0,9 to 6,0 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 34 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 33 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,45 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,53 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 2.5 -0,2 ...+0,2 -0,4 ...+0,4 0.52 100.0 0.0 34.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: -74,086 Chi-squared value for best fit: 29,752 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,902 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 1,00 Number of iterations: 5 octobre 20 2015 17:42 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-19 Irr 8-2015-14 octobre 20 2015 17:42 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-19 Irr 8-2015-14 octobre 23 2015 15:53 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-22\JG-P3-22Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-22 Irr 8-2015-16 NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,28E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,14 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 5,28E+05 ( 27) 1,56E+06 ( 80) 80 18 4 61.0 37.8 94.9 2 1,41E+05 ( 9) 5,01E+05 ( 32) 100 6 2 51.3 21.3 108.2 3 6,71E+04 ( 3) 7,62E+06 ( 341) 70 89 10 1.7 0.3 4.7 4 6,71E+04 ( 3) 8,20E+06 ( 367) 70 96 10 1.6 0.3 4.4 5 3,72E+05 ( 19) 1,72E+06 ( 88) 80 20 4 39.2 22.4 64.4 6 7,44E+05 ( 29) 2,31E+06 ( 90) 61 27 6 58.3 36.8 88.9 7 8,76E+05 ( 56) 2,33E+06 ( 149) 100 27 5 67.8 48.9 92.5 8 1,41E+05 ( 9) 3,60E+05 ( 23) 100 4 2 71.2 28.8 157.0 9 2,91E+05 ( 16) 3,02E+06 ( 166) 86 35 6 17.6 9.7 29.1 10 1,17E+06 ( 45) 4,67E+06 ( 179) 60 55 8 45.5 31.9 63.1 11 2,19E+05 ( 14) 4,85E+05 ( 31) 100 6 2 81.7 40.0 156.4 12 2,66E+05 ( 17) 2,22E+06 ( 142) 100 26 4 21.8 12.3 35.8 13 6,10E+05 ( 39) 2,66E+06 ( 170) 100 31 5 41.5 28.4 58.9 14 3,84E+05 ( 14) 9,33E+05 ( 34) 57 11 4 74.6 36.8 141.0 15 1,25E+05 ( 8) 1,25E+06 ( 80) 100 15 3 18.4 7.5 37.3 16 3,13E+05 ( 10) 9,08E+05 ( 29) 50 11 4 62.8 27.1 130.4 17 4,76E+05 ( 7) 1,46E+07 ( 215) 23 171 24 6.0 2.3 12.3 18 2,97E+05 ( 19) 8,61E+05 ( 55) 100 10 3 62.6 34.9 106.2 19 2,97E+05 ( 19) 6,10E+05 ( 39) 100 7 2 87.9 47.9 154.5 20 2,01E+05 ( 10) 1,12E+06 ( 56) 78 13 4 32.7 14.7 63.6 POOLED 3,61E+05( 373) 2,29E+06( 2366) 1615 27 1 28.5 25.2 32.1 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 28.5, 26.8 --30.3 ( -1.7 +1.8) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 25.2 --32.1 ( -3.2 +3.7) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 39.9, 34.2 --46.6 ( -5.7 +6.7) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 29.5 --54.1 (-10.5 +14.2) AGE DISPERSION (%): 63.0 octobre 23 2015 15:53 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-22\JG-P3-22Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-22 Irr 8-2015-16 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 1.80 0.010 4.6 0.92 2. 28.50 0.136 5.1 1.02 3. 43.20 0.193 23.0 4.61 Total range for grain ages: 1,7 to 88,7 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 20 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 15 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,32 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,38 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 2.5 -0,6 ...+0,8 -1,1 ...+1,9 0.57 14.9 8.0 3.0 2. 19.6 -3,2 ...+3,9 -5,8 ...+8,3 0.34 16.6 8.8 3.3 3. 54.8 -3,7 ...+4,0 -7,1 ...+8,1 0.28 68.5 10.8 13.7 Log-likelihood for best fit: -70,184 Chi-squared value for best fit: 23,048 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,537 Probability for F test: 1% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 18,93 Number of iterations: Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-21\JG-P3-21Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-21 Irr 8-2015-15 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 1.70 0.010 17.1 3.07 2. 3.10 0.017 21.0 3.78 Total range for grain ages: 0,7 to 7,3 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 18 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 15 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,49 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,57 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 1.9 -0,4 ...+0,5 -0,7 ...+1,1 0.62 60.8 19.8 11.0 2. 4.7 -0,8 ...+0,9 -1,4 ...+2,0 0.37 39.2 19.8 7.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: -44,878 Chi-squared value for best fit: 16,861 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,124 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 5,61 Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,82E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,12 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 1,57 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 2,15E+06 ( 57) 1,32E+06 ( 35) 32 172 58 42.5 27.5 66.7 2 3,13E+06 ( 52) 8,43E+05 ( 14) 20 110 58 95.8 52.9 187.6 3 6,33E+06 ( 63) 1,61E+06 ( 16) 12 210 104 101.6 58.6 188.8 4 3,06E+06 ( 61) 1,96E+06 ( 39) 24 256 82 40.8 26.9 62.7 5 8,43E+06 ( 84) 1,10E+06 ( 11) 12 144 85 194.7 105.4 403.6 6 4,65E+06 ( 54) 1,20E+06 ( 14) 14 158 83 99.5 55.1 194.2 7 6,11E+06 ( 71) 1,12E+06 ( 13) 14 146 80 140.2 78.1 276.1 8 3,44E+06 ( 80) 2,24E+06 ( 52) 28 293 81 40.2 28.0 58.1 9 8,96E+06 ( 305) 1,06E+06 ( 36) 41 138 46 217.5 154.9 315.5 10 5,42E+06 ( 108) 2,46E+06 ( 49) 24 322 92 57.4 40.7 82.3 11 6,76E+06 ( 157) 3,74E+06 ( 87) 28 490 105 46.9 36.1 60.9 12 5,49E+06 ( 114) 2,27E+06 ( 47) 25 296 86 63.1 44.7 90.8 13 7,44E+06 ( 105) 9,92E+05 ( 14) 17 130 68 191.7 111.1 361.8 14 2,01E+06 ( 20) 4,02E+05 ( 4) 12 53 50 125.8 43.7 507.0 15 4,92E+06 ( 49) 8,03E+05 ( 8) 12 105 72 156.0 74.9 381.2 16 6,27E+06 ( 52) 1,08E+06 ( 9) 10 142 92 147.5 73.5 340.6 17 7,95E+06 ( 99) 1,77E+06 ( 22) 15 231 98 116.2 73.3 193.9 18 5,34E+06 ( 124) 1,68E+06 ( 39) 28 219 70 82.6 57.4 121.7 19 9,56E+06 ( 127) 1,05E+06 ( 14) 16 138 72 231.2 135.1 432.7 20 3,29E+06 ( 41) 7,23E+05 ( 9) 15 95 61 116.7 56.9 273.7 21 8,23E+06 ( 82) 1,00E+06 ( 10) 12 131 81 208.5 110.2 449.1 22 9,92E+06 ( 107) 2,22E+06 ( 24) 13 291 118 115.2 74.1 187.7 23 5,42E+06 ( 180) 1,39E+06 ( 46) 40 181 53 101.5 73.4 143.6 24 6,83E+06 ( 68) 1,10E+06 ( 11) 12 144 85 158.1 84.5 331.3 POOLED 5,72E+06( 2260) 1,58E+06( 623) 476 206 17 94.3 85.9 103.6 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 94.3, 89.9 --98.9 ( -4.4 +4.6) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 85.9 --103.6 ( -8.4 +9.2) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 96.8, 86.1 --108.9 (-10.8 +12.1) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 76.9 --122.0 (-20.0 +25.1) AGE DISPERSION (%): 52.1 novembre 17 2015 17:33 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-01Zr\JG-P2-01-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 01 Irr 10-2015-32 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 60.40 0.698 11.7 2.80 2. 94.30 0.784 26.0 6.25 Total range for grain ages: 40,1 to 226,5 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 24 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 21 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,28 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,32 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 50.8 -4,6 ...+5,1 -8,6 ...+10,4 0.20 27.5 10.0 6.6 2. 142.2 -10,6 ...+11,5 -20,1 ...+23,4 0.31 72.5 10.0 17.4 Log-likelihood for best fit: -87,369 Chi-squared value for best fit: 25,319 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,206 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 3,22 Number of iterations: août 25 2015 12:28 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 2,74E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,18 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 4,04 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 6,87E+06 ( 114) 1,08E+06 ( 18) 20 198 92 117.6 71.9 205.8 2 7,35E+06 ( 61) 6,02E+05 ( 5) 10 110 94 220.0 92.8 696.1 3 6,73E+06 ( 67) 5,02E+05 ( 5) 12 92 78 241.2 102.4 758.5 4 1,41E+07 ( 70) 2,01E+06 ( 10) 6 367 226 129.1 67.4 281.6 5 5,30E+06 ( 44) 8,43E+05 ( 7) 10 154 113 115.4 52.8 305.1 6 4,82E+06 ( 36) 8,03E+05 ( 6) 9 147 115 109.9 47.1 321.0 7 6,75E+06 ( 84) 1,04E+06 ( 13) 15 191 104 119.6 67.2 234.4 8 6,88E+06 ( 80) 9,47E+05 ( 11) 14 173 102 134.2 72.3 280.1 9 6,51E+06 ( 54) 8,43E+05 ( 7) 10 154 113 141.2 65.7 368.9 10 4,57E+06 ( 91) 7,53E+05 ( 15) 24 138 70 112.5 65.6 209.7 11 6,51E+06 ( 54) 9,64E+05 ( 8) 10 176 121 124.1 60.0 303.1 12 5,72E+06 ( 76) 9,04E+05 ( 12) 16 165 93 117.2 64.3 237.3 13 8,73E+06 ( 87) 1,71E+06 ( 17) 12 312 149 95.2 56.7 171.2 14 9,04E+06 ( 135) 1,20E+06 ( 18) 18 220 102 139.0 85.7 241.8 15 8,11E+06 ( 101) 1,12E+06 ( 14) 15 205 108 133.5 77.1 253.2 16 6,35E+06 ( 58) 8,76E+05 ( 8) 11 160 110 133.2 64.7 323.9 17 4,58E+06 ( 76) 7,23E+05 ( 12) 20 132 75 117.2 64.3 237.3 18 8,73E+06 ( 116) 1,13E+06 ( 15) 16 206 105 143.1 84.4 264.0 19 6,18E+06 ( 77) 8,03E+05 ( 10) 15 147 91 141.8 74.5 307.9 20 2,11E+06 ( 35) 3,01E+05 ( 5) 20 55 47 127.4 51.4 418.5 21 6,71E+06 ( 117) 5,16E+05 ( 9) 21 94 61 237.1 123.7 528.3 22 5,12E+06 ( 85) 7,23E+05 ( 12) 20 132 75 130.9 72.3 263.7 23 9,00E+06 ( 112) 1,20E+06 ( 15) 15 220 112 138.2 81.4 255.4 24 8,03E+06 ( 60) 1,20E+06 ( 9) 9 220 143 122.8 61.8 282.5 25 6,57E+06 ( 109) 1,39E+06 ( 23) 20 253 105 88.4 56.4 145.5 26 6,21E+06 ( 98) 1,08E+06 ( 17) 19 197 94 107.1 64.3 191.7 27 9,56E+06 ( 119) 1,12E+06 ( 14) 15 205 108 157.0 91.3 295.8 28 1,33E+07 ( 88) 1,66E+06 ( 11) 8 303 179 147.4 79.9 306.4 29 9,29E+06 ( 108) 1,20E+06 ( 14) 14 220 116 142.6 82.6 269.8 30 6,80E+06 ( 79) 9,47E+05 ( 11) 14 173 102 132.5 71.4 276.8 31 1,26E+07 ( 125) 1,71E+06 ( 17) 12 312 149 136.3 82.8 241.5 32 9,17E+06 ( 137) 1,47E+06 ( 22) 18 269 114 115.8 74.1 191.1 33 7,23E+06 ( 108) 1,27E+06 ( 19) 18 232 105 105.7 65.2 182.7 34 1,20E+07 ( 100) 1,69E+06 ( 14) 10 308 162 132.2 76.3 250.8 35 9,84E+06 ( 98) 1,41E+06 ( 14) 12 257 135 129.6 74.7 246.1 36 9,56E+06 ( 119) 1,04E+06 ( 13) 15 191 104 168.7 96.5 326.0 37 1,08E+07 ( 144) 1,28E+06 ( 17) 16 234 112 156.7 95.7 276.4 38 8,43E+06 ( 112) 9,79E+05 ( 13) 16 179 97 158.9 90.7 307.8 39 1,05E+07 ( 87) 1,45E+06 ( 12) 10 264 149 133.9 74.1 269.6 40 5,92E+06 ( 59) 1,61E+06 ( 16) 12 293 145 68.8 39.4 128.4 41 1,02E+07 ( 136) 9,79E+05 ( 13) 16 179 97 192.4 110.7 370.0 août 25 2015 12:28 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 2,74E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,17 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 4,04 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1,36E+07 ( 90) 2,86E+06 ( 19) 8 522 237 88.3 53.9 153.8 1,22E+07 ( 202) 3,55E+06 ( 59) 20 649 169 64.3 48.0 87.5 6,16E+06 ( 92) 7,36E+05 ( 11) 18 134 79 154.2 83.8 319.7 1,11E+07 ( 222) 3,51E+06 ( 70) 24 641 153 59.3 45.1 77.9 1,49E+07 ( 223) 2,14E+06 ( 32) 18 391 137 129.8 89.9 194.4 1,34E+07 ( 200) 2,01E+06 ( 30) 18 366 133 124.2 84.9 189.0 1,24E+07 ( 124) 3,51E+06 ( 35) 12 641 216 66.4 45.5 99.7 8,43E+06 ( 70) 1,08E+06 ( 9) 10 198 128 143.1 72.7 326.5 1,12E+07 ( 335) 1,81E+06 ( 54) 36 330 90 115.2 86.1 153.9 9,28E+06 ( 154) 1,69E+06 ( 28) 20 308 116 102.6 68.7 159.7 1,34E+07 ( 100) 1,34E+06 ( 10) 9 244 151 183.6 97.8 394.1 1,17E+07 ( 97) 2,05E+06 ( 17) 10 374 179 106.1 63.6 189.9 1,20E+07 ( 200) 3,37E+06 ( 56) 20 616 164 67.0 49.7 91.9 6,48E+06 ( 43) 2,26E+06 ( 15) 8 412 210 53.6 29.4 104.2 8,19E+06 ( 170) 3,23E+06 ( 67) 25 589 144 47.4 35.6 63.2 1,12E+07 ( 139) 1,93E+06 ( 24) 15 352 142 107.9 70.2 174.3 1,31E+07 ( 152) 1,89E+06 ( 22) 14 345 146 128.5 82.6 211.2 8,67E+06 ( 108) 1,04E+06 ( 13) 15 191 104 153.4 87.4 297.5 7,16E+06 ( 107) 1,41E+06 ( 21) 18 257 111 95.0 59.6 160.0 6,22E+06 ( 62) 9,04E+05 ( 9) 12 165 107 126.9 64.0 291.4 9,04E+06 ( 120) 1,58E+06 ( 21) 16 289 125 106.4 67.2 178.4 4,74E+06 ( 59) 1,45E+06 ( 18) 15 264 123 61.3 35.9 110.7 5,57E+06 ( 74) 1,43E+06 ( 19) 16 261 118 72.7 43.8 127.9 7,43E+06 ( 111) 1,00E+06 ( 15) 18 183 93 137.1 80.7 253.4 3,74E+06 ( 87) 1,51E+06 ( 35) 28 275 92 46.7 31.3 71.3 4,42E+06 ( 44) 8,03E+05 ( 8) 12 147 101 101.4 48.2 250.8 6,75E+06 ( 56) 7,23E+05 ( 6) 10 132 104 170.0 75.7 482.7 9,87E+06 ( 172) 1,26E+06 ( 22) 21 230 97 145.2 93.8 237.7 9,44E+06 ( 329) 1,03E+06 ( 36) 42 188 63 169.8 121.0 246.4 8,25E+06 ( 137) 1,20E+06 ( 20) 20 220 97 127.3 80.1 215.1 8,06E+06 ( 107) 1,66E+06 ( 22) 16 302 128 90.7 57.4 151.1 1,08E+07 ( 90) 2,05E+06 ( 17) 10 374 179 98.5 58.8 176.9 6,87E+06 ( 57) 9,64E+05 ( 8) 10 176 121 131.0 63.6 318.9 1,08E+07 ( 287) 1,66E+06 ( 44) 32 302 91 121.7 88.8 171.3 7,23E+06 ( 84) 1,20E+06 ( 14) 14 220 116 111.3 63.6 212.8 1,11E+07 ( 83) 2,01E+06 ( 15) 9 366 186 102.8 59.6 192.4 6,63E+06 ( 44) 1,51E+06 ( 10) 8 275 170 81.6 41.1 182.8 1,39E+07 ( 115) 1,69E+06 ( 14) 10 308 162 151.9 88.2 286.6 1,11E+07 ( 257) 1,38E+06 ( 32) 28 251 88 149.4 103.9 222.9 7,83E+06 ( 65) 2,77E+06 ( 23) 10 506 209 52.9 32.6 89.5 8,97E+06 ( 67) 1,74E+06 ( 13) 9 318 173 95.7 53.0 189.6 7,97E+06 ( 119) 1,67E+06 ( 25) 18 305 121 88.9 57.8 143.1 août 25 2015 12:28 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 62.90 0.770 11.9 10.14 2. 110.70 0.855 44.8 38.05 Total range for grain ages: 46,4 to 229,4 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 85 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 82 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,29 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,33 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 60.2 -4,2 ...+4,5 -7,9 ...+9,1 0.22 12.4 4.1 10.5 2. 127.6 -5,6 ...+5,8 -10,7 ...+11,7 0.31 87.6 4.1 74.5 Log-likelihood for best fit: -244,326 Chi-squared value for best fit: 75,113 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,916 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 4,29 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3.ftz CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 136.5, 131.0 --142.3 ( -5.5 +5.7) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 126.0 --148.0 (-10.6 +11.5) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 134.3, 127.8 --141.1 ( -6.5 +6.8) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 121.8 --147.9 (-12.4 +13.7) AGE DISPERSION (%): 24.8 août 6 2015 17:01 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 136.50 0.880 52.1 43.73 2. 290.30 0.940 4.2 3.57 Total range for grain ages: 43,2 to 290,3 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 84 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 81 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,27 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,32 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 60.6 -6,7 ...+7,5 -12,4 ...+15,5 0.25 6.1 3.0 5.1 2. 144.5 -6,1 ...+6,3 -11,6 ...+12,6 0.29 93.9 3.0 78.9 Log-likelihood for best fit: -249,328 Chi-squared value for best fit: 77,067 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,951 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 16,86 décembre 7 2015 15:44 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-05-Zr\JG-P2-05-4-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 05 Irr 10-2015-33 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 95.50 0.786 17.4 17.44 2. 132.70 0.836 28.5 28.55 3. 161.10 0.861 47.6 47.56 Total range for grain ages: 51,1 to 239,9 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 100 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 95 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,2 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,24 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 60.0 -3,2 ...+3,4 -6,1 ...+6,8 0.17 12.3 4.0 12.3 2. 99.5 -6,9 ...+7,4 -13,1 ...+15,1 0.22 20.5 5.4 20.5 3. 173.3 -5,4 ...+5,6 -10,4 ...+11,1 0.23 67.2 5.7 67.2 Log-likelihood for best fit: -363,343 Chi-squared value for best fit: 90,171 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,949 Probability for F test: 3% Number of iterations: août 6 2015 17:01 Condition number for COVAR matrix: 8,83 Number of iterations: CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 Number of iterations:
	4,60E+06 ( 107) 1,46E+06 ( 34) 6,99E+06 ( 116) 2,65E+06 ( 44)	28 20	188 64 343 103	83.2 69.2	56.3 126.3 48.7 100.4
	4,50E+06 ( 112) 6,02E+05 ( 15) 8,49E+06 ( 282) 1,42E+06 ( 47) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 112.2, 106.5 --118.2 ( -5.7 +6.0) 30 77 39 194.4 114.7 357.9 40 183 53 156.4 115.1 217.6
	4,29E+06 ( 210) 2,80E+06 ( 137) 4,44E+06 ( 70) 6,34E+05 ( 10) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):	59 19	360 62 82 51 180.2 40.6 101.3 --124.3 (-10.9 +12.1) 32.7 50.5 94.3 391.2
	3,73E+06 ( 186) 1,89E+06 ( 94) 7,07E+06 ( 176) 1,33E+06 ( 33) AGE DISPERSION (%):	60 30 28.3	243 50 172 59 139.1 52.3	40.8 96.1 208.2 67.1
	4,23E+06 ( 172) 2,31E+06 ( 94) 6,43E+06 ( 96) 2,68E+06 ( 40)	49 18	297 62 347 109	48.4 63.1	37.6 43.3	62.3 93.7

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P5-03a-Zr\JG-P5-03a.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P5 03a Irr 10-2015-40 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P5-03a-Zr\JG-P5-03a.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P5 03a Irr 10-2015-40 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL Title: Sample No. JG P5 03a Irr 10-2015-40 octobre 9 2015 16:05 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P2-05\JG-P2-05-Ap.ftz Title: JG-Pé-0( Irr 8-2015-12 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P2-05\JG-P2-05-Ap.ftz Title: JG-Pé-0( Irr 8-2015-12FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green INITIAL

	décembre 3 2015 16:58 octobre 28 2015 18:59 octobre 28 2015 18:59 octobre 9 2015 16:05	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2			Page 3 Page 2 Page 3 Page 2
	Merged dataset:
	C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06a-Zr.ftz
	C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06Zr.ft40
	C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06-Zr.ftz
	3,82E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,12 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) 1,57 (cm^-2) RhoS (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--3,03E+06 ( 88) 6,54E+05 ( 19) 35 86 39 119.5 72.9 207.9 7,71E+06 ( 224) 9,98E+05 ( 29) 35 131 48 198.4 135.6 302.3 6,33E+06 ( 105) 7,23E+05 ( 12) 20 95 54 222.7 124.6 442.7 8,96E+06 ( 119) 1,28E+06 ( 17) 16 167 80 179.5 108.9 317.7 4,42E+06 ( 88) 7,03E+05 ( 14) 24 92 48 161.1 92.5 306.5 5,54E+06 ( 138) 6,02E+05 ( 15) 30 79 40 234.5 139.6 428.3 8,07E+06 ( 201) 1,49E+06 ( 37) 30 194 64 140.4 99.1 204.9 1,04E+07 ( 129) 1,12E+06 ( 14) 15 147 77 234.7 137.3 439.1 5,00E+06 ( 83) 8,43E+05 ( 14) 20 110 58 152.1 87.0 290.1 4,59E+06 ( 198) 6,95E+05 ( 30) 52 91 33 170.0 116.3 258.2 5,77E+06 ( 91) 9,51E+05 ( 15) 19 124 63 155.7 90.8 289.3 3,19E+06 ( 172) 6,86E+05 ( 37) 65 90 29 120.3 84.4 176.6 4,86E+06 ( 121) 8,84E+05 ( 22) 30 116 49 141.7 90.3 234.4 2,85E+06 ( 45) 1,59E+06 ( 25) 19 207 82 46.9 28.2 79.8 2,82E+06 ( 82) 6,20E+05 ( 18) 35 81 38 117.5 70.6 208.1 6,91E+06 ( 172) 8,03E+05 ( 20) 30 105 46 220.0 139.9 367.8 6,63E+06 ( 55) 1,33E+06 ( 11) 10 173 102 128.2 67.5 272.0 5,94E+06 ( 148) 8,03E+05 ( 20) 30 105 46 189.8 120.0 319.0 8,73E+06 ( 87) 1,20E+06 ( 12) 12 158 89 185.2 102.6 371.2 8,38E+06 ( 167) 1,10E+06 ( 22) 24 144 61 194.7 125.8 318.3 9,16E+06 ( 114) 1,37E+06 ( 17) 15 179 85 172.0 104.2 305.1 8,11E+06 ( 202) 8,84E+05 ( 22) 30 116 49 234.8 152.8 381.4 9,90E+06 ( 115) 1,20E+06 ( 14) 14 158 83 209.7 122.0 394.1 5,66E+06 ( 94) 1,27E+06 ( 21) 20 165 71 115.6 72.1 195.5 8,79E+06 ( 416) 9,93E+05 ( 47) 57 130 38 227.3 168.9 313.3 6,79E+06 ( 124) 1,53E+06 ( 28) 22 201 75 114.5 76.0 179.4 5,62E+06 ( 84) 1,27E+06 ( 19) 18 166 75 114.1 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green Grain no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 56.30 0.683 2.8 2.01 2. 81.00 0.757 8.2 5.92 3. 159.20 0.860 41.2 29.65 Total range for grain ages: 46,6 to 235,6 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 72 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 67 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,26 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,31 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 58.2 -10,3 ...+12,5 -18,5 ...+27,0 0.26 3.5 2.7 2.5 2. 118.3 -14,5 ...+16,5 -26,8 ...+34,5 0.28 22.1 12.4 15.9 3. 181.3 -9,2 ...+9,7 -17,6 ...+19,5 0.29 74.3 12.5 53.5 Log-likelihood for best fit: -217,626 Chi-squared value for best fit: 63,905 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,954 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 66,50 EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,93E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,41 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 1,57 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--3,37E+06 ( 140) 1,59E+06 ( 66) 50 202 50 56.5 42.2 75.8 4,82E+06 ( 200) 3,61E+06 ( 150) 50 460 76 35.7 28.9 44.3 4,40E+06 ( 219) 1,91E+06 ( 95) 60 243 50 61.6 48.3 78.4 5,38E+06 ( 219) 6,39E+05 ( 26) 49 81 32 222.0 149.0 346.4 6,43E+06 ( 192) 1,91E+06 ( 57) 36 243 64 90.0 66.8 123.3 5,38E+06 ( 268) 1,59E+06 ( 79) 60 202 46 90.3 70.2 116.0 9,20E+06 ( 229) 6,27E+06 ( 156) 30 796 129 39.4 32.0 48.3 6,99E+06 ( 174) 2,81E+06 ( 70) 30 357 86 66.2 50.2 87.4 5,46E+06 ( 290) 2,18E+06 ( 116) 64 278 52 66.8 53.8 83.0 6,43E+06 ( 320) 1,75E+06 ( 87) 60 222 48 97.9 77.2 124.1 3,54E+06 ( 147) 1,54E+06 ( 64) 50 196 49 61.6 45.7 84.0 5,26E+06 ( 131) 3,86E+06 ( 96) 30 490 101 36.5 28.0 47.6 4,35E+06 ( 253) 1,69E+06 ( 98) 70 214 44 68.9 54.5 87.1 3,77E+06 ( 125) 2,11E+06 ( 70) 40 268 64 47.7 35.6 63.9 3,92E+06 ( 130) 1,96E+06 ( 65) 40 249 62 53.6 39.6 73.5 1,12E+07 ( 297) 2,15E+06 ( 57) 32 273 72 137.8 104.0 182.6 5,54E+06 ( 184) 2,83E+06 ( 94) 40 360 75 52.3 40.8 67.1 2,47E+06 ( 164) 6,63E+05 ( 44) 80 84 25 99.5 71.2 142.2 4,08E+06 ( 264) 1,68E+06 ( 109) 78 214 41 64.7 51.7 81.0 6,79E+06 ( 547) 1,47E+06 ( 118) 97 186 35 123.3 101.0 150.6 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--54 3,58E+06 ( 104) 2,24E+06 ( 65) 35 284 71 43.0 31.2 59.6 55 6,47E+06 ( 188) 1,76E+06 ( 51) 35 223 63 98.4 72.1 137.0 56 5,34E+06 ( 266) 2,73E+06 ( 136) 60 347 60 52.4 42.5 64.5 57 3,33E+06 ( 174) 1,70E+06 ( 89) 63 216 46 52.2 40.4 67.5 58 3,37E+06 ( 252) 1,65E+06 ( 123) 90 209 38 54.8 44.1 68.1 59 5,42E+06 ( 144) 1,02E+06 ( 27) 32 129 49 141.6 94.1 222.1 60 3,27E+06 ( 217) 1,23E+06 ( 82) 80 157 35 70.6 54.7 91.0 61 8,19E+06 ( 204) 2,41E+06 ( 60) 30 306 79 90.3 67.8 120.3 62 5,58E+06 ( 139) 2,81E+06 ( 70) 30 357 86 53.0 39.7 70.6 63 3,53E+06 ( 170) 1,31E+06 ( 63) 58 166 42 71.8 53.8 95.8 64 6,75E+06 ( 112) 2,11E+06 ( 35) 20 268 90 85.5 58.2 128.9 65 1,89E+06 ( 94) 1,43E+06 ( 71) 60 181 43 35.6 25.9 49.2 66 2,41E+06 ( 100) 1,66E+06 ( 69) 50 211 51 38.9 28.4 53.8 67 4,78E+06 ( 127) 2,37E+06 ( 63) 32 302 76 54.1 39.7 74.4 68 5,01E+06 ( 187) 1,87E+06 ( 70) 45 238 57 71.2 54.1 93.6 69 3,64E+06 ( 151) 1,61E+06 ( 67) 50 205 50 60.1 45.0 80.1 70 5,59E+06 ( 102) 2,96E+06 ( 54) 22 376 102 50.7 36.1 71.9 71 4,62E+06 ( 188) 2,16E+06 ( 88) 49 275 59 57.1 44.3 73.5 72 6,63E+06 ( 77) 2,50E+06 ( 29) 14 317 117 71.0 46.0 113.0 73 6,55E+06 ( 261) 2,26E+06 ( 90) 48 287 61 77.3 60.8 98.3 74 5,27E+06 ( 394) 4,04E+06 ( 302) 90 514 61 35.0 30.0 40.8 75 3,94E+06 ( 206) 2,66E+06 ( 139) 63 338 58 39.7 32.0 49.3 76 3,00E+06 ( 224) 1,77E+06 ( 132) 90 225 40 45.4 36.6 56.4 77 5,16E+06 ( 210) 3,05E+06 ( 124) 49 388 70 45.3 36.3 56.7 78 5,22E+06 ( 130) 1,53E+06 ( 38) 30 194 63 91.3 63.5 134.9 79 5,27E+06 ( 175) 2,11E+06 ( 70) 40 268 64 66.6 50.5 87.9 80 3,44E+06 ( 160) 1,10E+06 ( 51) 56 139 39 83.9 61.0 117.4 POOLED 4,77E+06(16033) 2,01E+06( 6739) 4049 255 10 63.8 61.0 66.8 Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 39.10 0.592 18.7 14.95 2. 63.80 0.704 42.7 34.20 3. 91.30 0.773 21.5 17.21 Total range for grain ages: 35,1 to 219,6 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 80 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 75 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,15 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,18 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 39.6 -2,0 ...+2,1 -3,8 ...+4,2 0.14 15.9 5.2 12.7 2. 59.9 -1,8 ...+1,9 -3,5 ...+3,7 0.15 60.6 6.5 48.5 3. 111.2 -4,5 ...+4,7 -8,7 ...+9,5 0.17 23.5 5.1 18.8 Log-likelihood for best fit: -357,023 Chi-squared value for best fit: 83,423 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,112 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 13,77 Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,27E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,12 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--1 1,25E+05 ( 4) 6,54E+06 ( 209) 50 77 11 3.6 0.9 8.9 2 1,13E+05 ( 6) 5,60E+06 ( 297) 83 66 8 3.7 1.3 7.9 3 3,26E+05 ( 10) 8,22E+06 ( 252) 48 97 12 7.2 3.4 13.3 4 6,71E+05 ( 12) 1,17E+07 ( 210) 28 139 19 10.3 5.2 18.2 5 2,24E+05 ( 8) 2,54E+06 ( 91) 56 30 6 16.0 6.6 32.2 6 1,17E+05 ( 3) 5,16E+06 ( 132) 40 61 11 4.3 0.8 12.1 7 2,85E+05 ( 4) 1,20E+07 ( 169) 22 142 22 4.4 1.1 11.0 8 3,48E+04 ( 2) 5,58E+06 ( 321) 90 66 8 1.2 0.1 4.1 9 8,94E+04 ( 4) 8,90E+06 ( 398) 70 105 11 1.9 0.5 4.6 10 1,83E+05 ( 7) 8,95E+06 ( 343) 60 106 12 3.7 1.5 7.6 11 2,39E+05 ( 11) 8,46E+06 ( 389) 72 100 10 5.1 2.5 9.1 12 1,30E+05 ( 5) 9,99E+06 ( 383) 60 118 12 2.4 0.8 5.5 13 2,30E+05 ( 5) 1,33E+07 ( 289) 34 157 19 3.2 1.0 7.3 14 4,12E+05 ( 10) 7,82E+06 ( 190) 38 93 14 9.5 4.4 17.7 15 4,17E+05 ( 16) 1,06E+07 ( 405) 60 125 13 7.1 4.0 11.6 16 2,01E+05 ( 9) 4,25E+06 ( 190) 70 50 7 8.6 3.8 16.4 17 3,83E+05 ( 22) 9,88E+06 ( 568) 90 117 10 7.0 4.3 10.6 18 2,71E+05 ( 13) 7,55E+06 ( 362) 75 89 10 6.5 3.4 11.1 19 3,07E+05 ( 11) 1,07E+07 ( 382) 56 126 13 5.2 2.5 9.3 20 2,35E+05 ( 12) 5,93E+06 ( 303) 80 70 8 7.2 3.6 12.5 Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD 2,70E+06 ( 157) 1,15E+06 ( 67) 70 147 36 62.4 46.9 83.1 6,59E+06 ( 164) 1,29E+06 ( 32) 30 163 58 136.2 21 1,39E+05 ( 8) 3,70E+06 ( 213) 90 44 6 6.8 2.9 13.5 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 93.4 205.6 7,78E+06 ( 452) 1,79E+06 ( 104) 70 228 45 115.6 POOLED 2,24E+05( 182) 7,50E+06( 6096) 1272 89 3 5.3 4.6 6.2 93.3 143.1 4,24E+06 ( 176) 2,29E+06 ( 95) 50 291 60 49.5 38.5 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 63.8, 62.4 --65.3 ( -1.5 +1.5) 63.6 4,48E+06 ( 223) 1,18E+06 ( 59) 60 151 39 100.3 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 61.0 --66.8 ( -2.8 +3.0) CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.2 75.3 133.5 5,11E+06 ( 339) 2,29E+06 ( 152) 80 291 48 59.7 49.2 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< 72.4 7,50E+06 ( 112) 3,21E+06 ( 48) 18 408 118 62.5 44.3 CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 63.7, 61.0 --66.6 ( -2.7 +2.8) 89.7 3,48E+06 ( 260) 1,66E+06 ( 124) 90 211 38 56.1 45.2 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 58.5 --69.4 ( -5.2 +5.7) POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 5.3, 4.9 --5.8 ( -0.4 +0.4) 69.6 4,97E+06 ( 371) 2,03E+06 ( 152) 90 259 43 65.3 53.9 AGE DISPERSION (%): 32.9 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 4.6 --6.2 ( -0.8 +0.9) 79.0 69.4 199.0 28 7,03E+06 ( 70) 1,00E+06 ( 10) 12 131 81 178.5 93.4 387.6 29 7,59E+06 ( 126) 8,43E+05 ( 14) 20 110 58 229.4 134.0 429.5 30 5,21E+06 ( 225) 7,41E+05 ( 32) 52 97 34 180.9 125.6 270.4 31 5,39E+06 ( 94) 9,18E+05 ( 16) 21 120 59 150.9 32 6,24E+06 ( 88) 1,13E+06 ( 16) 17 148 73 141.4 33 6,35E+06 ( 79) 8,03E+05 ( 10) 15 34 8,61E+06 ( 200) 9,90E+05 ( 23) 28 35 8,17E+06 ( 61) 1,20E+06 ( 9) 9 158 102 172.6 36 5,72E+06 ( 133) 6,45E+05 ( 15) 28 37 5,54E+06 ( 170) 6,19E+05 ( 19) 37 38 7,18E+06 ( 268) 1,26E+06 ( 47) 45 39 5,71E+06 ( 128) 8,48E+05 ( 19) 27 40 5,22E+06 ( 65) 6,43E+05 ( 8) 15 41 8,06E+06 ( 107) 1,20E+06 ( 16) 16 42 9,75E+06 ( 178) 1,04E+06 ( 19) 22 43 7,83E+06 ( 117) 1,14E+06 ( 17) 18 44 8,82E+06 ( 205) 2,02E+06 ( 47) 28 265 77 113.0 45 4,98E+06 ( 62) 1,20E+06 ( 15) 15 158 80 106.6 46 5,04E+06 ( 46) 8,76E+05 ( 8) 11 115 79 146.6 47 5,56E+06 ( 83) 8,03E+05 ( 12) 18 105 59 176.8 7,83E+05 ( 26) 1,51E+05 ( 5) 40 19 16 135.3 52.7 451.7 97.7 355.2 5,49E+06 ( 310) 8,68E+05 ( 49) 68 110 32 167.9 124.5 231.7 70.0 359.7 5,84E+06 ( 194) 3,10E+06 ( 103) 40 394 78 50.4 39.6 64.0 60.6 202.0 5,56E+06 ( 277) 3,01E+06 ( 150) 60 383 63 49.5 40.5 60.4 82.3 158.7 3,76E+06 ( 156) 1,90E+06 ( 79) 50 242 55 52.7 40.2 69.1 149 71 176.5 107.0 312.7 2,83E+06 ( 108) 1,57E+06 ( 60) 46 200 52 48.3 34.9 67.5 136 62 239.2 150.8 404.8 6,02E+06 ( 235) 2,13E+06 ( 83) 47 270 60 75.5 58.7 97.0 158 78 171.5 102.3 310.3 7,68E+06 ( 255) 2,86E+06 ( 95) 40 364 75 71.6 56.5 90.7 84 58 205.9 101.1 494.8 8,31E+06 ( 138) 3,19E+06 ( 53) 20 406 112 69.7 50.5 97.7 111 50 173.0 107.6 296.2 7,45E+06 ( 235) 1,46E+06 ( 46) 38 185 55 135.9 99.2 190.7 165 48 147.4 108.3 205.3 3,43E+06 ( 114) 1,57E+06 ( 52) 40 199 55 58.8 42.0 83.3 81 37 228.7 143.9 387.5 7,11E+06 ( 118) 4,16E+06 ( 69) 20 528 128 45.9 33.8 62.8 84 43 226.2 134.5 413.6 4,64E+06 ( 77) 1,81E+06 ( 30) 20 230 83 68.6 44.7 108.5 87.1 394.8 6,36E+06 ( 285) 3,26E+06 ( 146) 54 414 69 52.3 42.7 63.9 129 53 222.6 145.9 358.0 4,57E+06 ( 360) 2,45E+06 ( 193) 95 311 46 50.0 41.9 59.7 105 65 201.0 106.0 433.8 4,37E+06 ( 145) 2,20E+06 ( 73) 40 280 66 53.0 40.0 70.2 83.4 258.1 5,11E+06 ( 123) 1,95E+06 ( 47) 29 248 72 70.0 49.8 100.3 89.4 274.6 3,94E+06 ( 196) 1,29E+06 ( 64) 60 163 41 81.5 61.4 107.9 4,47E+06 ( 141) 2,98E+06 ( 94) 38 379 79 40.1 30.9 CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 5.5, 4.9 --6.1 ( -0.6 +0.6) 52.1 3,15E+06 ( 235) 1,47E+06 ( 110) 90 187 36 57.1 45.5 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 4.4 --6.8 ( -1.1 +1.3) 71.7 5,35E+06 ( 142) 3,88E+06 ( 103) 32 493 98 36.9 28.6 47.6 AGE DISPERSION (%): 33.8
	2,82E+06 ( 164) 1,20E+06 ( 70)	70	153 37	62.5	47.2	82.6
	8,88E+06 ( 442) 2,65E+06 ( 132)	60	337 59	89.4	73.4 108.7
	2,41E+06 ( 54) 1,12E+06 ( 25)	27	142 56	57.8	35.5	97.0

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P1-08\JG-P1-08-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P1-08 Irr 8-2015-11FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green INITIAL

	octobre 6 2015 16:21	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2	Page 2
	Peak #. Peak Age 1. 5.30 2. 7.10 Total range for grain ages: Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): Theta Fraction(%) 0.029 22.6 0.038 33.0 1,4 to 16,6 Ma Count 4.74 6.92 21 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 18 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,39 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,45 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS Standard error for peak age includes group error Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% 1. 2.6 -0,7 ...+0,9 -1,1 ...+2,0 0.55 28.8 16.2 2. 6.6 -0,7 ...+0,8 -1,3 ...+1,6 0.37 71.2 16.2 Log-likelihood for best fit: * * -58,234 Chi-squared value for best fit: 24,547 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,364 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 12,31 EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 1,26E+06 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,13 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 6,88 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--Count 6.1 14.9 1 1,45E+05 ( 5) 8,98E+06 ( 310) 54 107 12 3.0 0.9 6.8 2 2,85E+05 ( 8) 1,09E+07 ( 306) 44 129 15 4.7 2.0 9.3 3 4,35E+05 ( 5) 9,13E+06 ( 105) 18 109 21 8.7 2.7 20.4 4 2,74E+05 ( 7) 1,33E+06 ( 34) 40 16 5 37.2 13.7 83.5 5 4,35E+05 ( 5) 1,36E+07 ( 157) 18 162 26 5.8 1.8 13.5 POOLED 2,70E+05( 30) 8,20E+06( 912) 174 97 7 5.9 3.9 8.4 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 5.9, 4.8 --7.1 ( -1.1 +1.3) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 3.9 --8.4 ( -2.0 +2.5) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 9.3, 6.0 --14.4 ( -3.3 +5.1) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 4.0 --21.9 ( -5.4 +12.5) Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD AGE DISPERSION (%): 88.3

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 1)

			Peak #. Peak Age		Theta	Fraction(%)	Count
				1.	5.90		0.032		24.5	1.23
		Total range for grain ages:			3,2 to 38,6 Ma
		Number of active grains (Num. used for fit):	5
		Number of removed grains:				0
		Degrees of freedom for fit:			4
		Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains:	0,41
		Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,48
				PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS
	*	Standard error for peak age includes group error
	*	Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60
	#. Peak Age(Ma)	68%CI			95%CI		W(Z) Frac(%) SE,%	Count
	1.	5.9	-1,0 ...+1,2	-1,8 ...+2,6	0.48	100.0	0.0	5.0
	Log-likelihood for best fit:		-17,538
	Chi-squared value for best fit:		29,335
	Reduced chi-squared value:			7,334
	Probability for F test:			0%
	Condition number for COVAR matrix:	1,00
	Number of iterations:			5

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P1-06\JG-P1-06-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P1-06 Irr 8-2015-10FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green INITIAL

	octobre 1 2015 13:36	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2		Page 2
									1,26E+06
			RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,15 Theta Fraction(%) Count EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 Peak #. Peak Age ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 1. 6.60 0.036 24.1 5.79 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 2. 13.20 0.069 18.7 4.48	6,88
			Total range for grain ages:				1,8 to 13,6 Ma
			GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Number of active grains (Num. used for fit):	24
	Grain no. 1 2	RhoS Number of removed grains: (Ns) RhoI (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Degrees of freedom for fit: (Ni) Squares U+/-2s 3,80E+05 ( 17) 1,35E+07 ( 602) 70 160 14 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 3,35E+05 ( 15) 1,15E+07 ( 513) 70 137 12 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,34 0 Grain Age (Ma) Age 21 --95% CI--5.1 2.9 0,29 8.1 5.2 2.9 8.6
		3	9,27E+05 ( 16) 1,68E+07 ( 289)		27	200 24	9.9	5.5	16.2
		4	6,99E+05 ( 21) 1,54E+07 ( 462) PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS 47 183 18	8.1	4.9	12.5
	* *	5 6 Standard error for peak age includes group error 3,56E+05 ( 15) 1,23E+07 ( 519) 66 147 13 5,87E+05 ( 15) 1,26E+07 ( 321) 40 150 17 7 9,91E+05 ( 19) 1,32E+07 ( 253) 30 157 20 Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 5.2 8.4 13.4	2.8 4.6 7.9	8.5 13.9 21.2
		8 #. Peak Age(Ma) 3,39E+05 ( 13) 1,67E+07 ( 642) 68%CI 95%CI	60	200 16 W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% 3.6 1.9	6.2 Count
		9 1.	5,32E+05 ( 17) 1,35E+07 ( 431) 4.4 -0,5 ...+0,6 -0,9 ...+1,2 50	161 16 0.35	7.1 44.6	4.0 13.8	11.3 10.7
		10 2.	2,35E+05 ( 9.2 -0,9 ...+1,0 9) 6,96E+06 ( 267) -1,6 ...+2,0 60	83 10 0.29	6.1 55.4	2.7 13.8	11.5 13.3
	11 12 Log-likelihood for best fit: 7,04E+05 ( 27) 1,35E+07 ( 517) 3,13E+05 ( 12) 6,68E+06 ( 256) 13 4,69E+05 ( 15) 1,76E+07 ( 563) Chi-squared value for best fit: 14 4,30E+05 ( 11) 1,12E+07 ( 285) Reduced chi-squared value: 15 2,01E+05 ( 5) 1,80E+07 ( 448) Probability for F test: 16 3,65E+05 ( 14) 6,29E+06 ( 241) Condition number for COVAR matrix: 17 1,96E+05 ( 5) 2,07E+07 ( 529) Number of iterations:	60 60 -78,160 50 25,525 40 1,215 39 0% 60 4,25 40 14	161 15 80 10 210 18 133 16 214 21 75 10 247 22	9.3 8.4 4.8 6.9 2.0 10.4 1.7	6.0 4.2 2.6 3.4 0.6 5.5 0.5	13.6 14.8 7.9 12.4 4.7 17.6 3.9
		18	5,48E+05 ( 14) 7,82E+06 ( 200)		40	93 13	12.5	6.7	21.3
		19	5,01E+05 ( 16) 1,52E+07 ( 486)		50	181 17	5.9	3.3	9.6
		20	2,91E+05 ( 13) 3,98E+06 ( 178)		70	47	7	13.1	6.8	22.7
		21	6,57E+05 ( 21) 1,20E+07 ( 384)		50	143 15	9.8	5.9	15.0
		22	7,82E+05 ( 20) 1,19E+07 ( 303)		40	141 17	11.8	7.0	18.4
		23	1,56E+05 (	4) 6,22E+06 ( 159)		40	74 12	4.6	1.2	11.6
		24	2,04E+05 (	9) 7,42E+06 ( 327)		69	88 10	5.0	2.2	9.4
	POOLED 4,37E+05( 343) 1,17E+07( 9175) 1228	139	4	6.6	5.9	7.5
	CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0
	POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		6.6,	6.2 --	7.0 ( -0.4 +0.4)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			5.9 --	7.5 ( -0.7 +0.8)
	CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		7.0,	6.4 --	7.7 ( -0.6 +0.7)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			5.8 --	8.5 ( -1.2 +1.4)
				AGE DISPERSION (%):		35.3

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P5-03\JG-P5-03-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P5-03 Irr 8-2015-25 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-19Zr\JG-P3-19.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 19 Irr 10-2015-50FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green INITIAL

	octobre 2 2015 14:13	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2		Page 2
									1,32E+06
			RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,47 Theta Fraction(%) Count EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 Peak #. Peak Age ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 1. 2.70 0.014 17.3 1.73 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 2. 5.40 0.028 23.7 2.37	6,88
			Total range for grain ages:				2,7 to 12,5 Ma
			GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Number of active grains (Num. used for fit):	10
	Grain no. 1 2	RhoS Number of removed grains: (Ns) RhoI (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Degrees of freedom for fit: (Ni) Squares U+/-2s 2,97E+05 ( 19) 1,19E+07 ( 763) 100 135 11 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 1,25E+05 ( 8) 2,50E+06 ( 160) 100 28 5 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,32 0 Grain Age (Ma) Age 7 --95% CI--4.7 2.8 0,27 7.3 9.5 4.0 18.8
		3	2,66E+05 ( 17) 5,52E+06 ( 353)		100	63	7	9.1	5.2	14.6
		4	4,23E+05 ( 27) 6,38E+06 ( 408) PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS 100 72 7	12.4	8.0	18.2
	* *	5 6 Standard error for peak age includes group error 2,97E+05 ( 19) 6,84E+06 ( 437) 100 78 2,35E+05 ( 15) 8,23E+06 ( 526) 100 93 7 2,36E+05 ( 14) 9,88E+06 ( 587) 93 112 10 8 9 Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 8.2 5.4 4.5	4.8 3.0 2.4	12.8 8.9 7.5
		8 #. Peak Age(Ma) 3,25E+05 ( 11) 1,80E+07 ( 609) 68%CI 95%CI	53	204 18 W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% 3.4 1.7	6.1 Count
		9 1.	1,41E+05 ( 3.9 -0,4 ...+0,5 9) 1,03E+07 ( 657) -0,8 ...+1,1 100	117 10 0.33	2.6 61.4	1.2 16.3	4.9 6.1
		10 2.	1,74E+05 ( 11) 1,12E+07 ( 709) 9.7 -1,2 ...+1,4 -2,2 ...+2,9 99	127 10 0.28	2.9 38.6	1.4 16.3	5.2 3.9
	POOLED 2,48E+05( 150) 8,63E+06( 5209) Log-likelihood for best fit:	945 -32,410	98	4	5.4	4.5	6.4
	Chi-squared value for best fit: CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 Reduced chi-squared value: >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< 8,998 1,285 Probability for F test: 0%
	POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): Condition number for COVAR matrix: 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): Number of iterations:	5.4, 1,97	4.9 --4.5 --	5.9 ( -0.4 +0.5) 6.4 ( -0.8 +1.0)
	CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		5.9,	5.0 --	6.9 ( -0.9 +1.1)
				95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			4.3 --	8.1 ( -1.6 +2.2)
				AGE DISPERSION (%):		43.9

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-19Zr\JG-P3-19.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 19 Irr 10-2015-50 novembre 17 2015 12:43 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-02Zr\JG-P4-02-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P4 19 Irr 10-2015-49 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-02Zr\JG-P4-02-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P4 19 Irr 10-2015-49 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-02Zr\JG-P4-02-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P4 19 Irr 10-2015-49FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green INITIAL

	novembre 17 2015 12:43 novembre 17 2015 12:43	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2		Page 2 Page 3
	Peak #. Peak Age 1. 37.50 2. 125.00 3. 235.90 Total range for grain ages: Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): Theta Fraction(%) 0.583 0.9 0.825 42.3 0.899 8.4 37,5 to 285,5 Ma Count 0.91 43.16 8.53 102 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 97 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,18 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,21 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS Standard error for peak age includes group error Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% 1. 59.2 -4,0 ...+4,3 -7,6 ...+8,7 0.17 7.7 3.1 2. 102.8 -4,5 ...+4,7 -8,6 ...+9,4 0.17 32.9 6.8 3. 157.3 -5,3 ...+5,4 -10,2 ...+10,8 0.20 59.4 7.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: * * -403,138 Chi-squared value for best fit: 101,115 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,042 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 9,17 EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 3,91E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,33 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,14 1,57 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--Count 7.9 33.6 60.6 6,37E+06 ( 74) 1,20E+06 ( 14) 14 154 81 138.9 78.9 266.5 6,85E+06 ( 91) 1,66E+06 ( 22) 16 212 89 109.4 68.6 183.2 2,68E+06 ( 100) 6,43E+05 ( 24) 45 82 33 110.2 70.6 180.1 9,14E+06 ( 91) 2,91E+06 ( 29) 12 372 137 83.3 54.6 131.4 6,72E+06 ( 223) 6,93E+05 ( 23) 40 89 37 253.4 166.7 406.1 8,65E+06 ( 366) 8,98E+05 ( 38) 51 115 37 252.4 181.9 361.1 9,34E+06 ( 93) 1,31E+06 ( 13) 12 167 91 187.1 105.9 363.6 4,56E+06 ( 87) 6,29E+05 ( 12) 23 80 45 189.4 104.9 379.6 8,26E+06 ( 144) 1,15E+06 ( 20) 21 147 65 189.0 119.3 317.9 8,78E+06 ( 102) 1,20E+06 ( 14) 14 154 81 190.6 110.3 360.1 5,75E+06 ( 167) 6,20E+05 ( 18) 35 79 37 242.2 150.8 416.8 3,99E+06 ( 106) 5,27E+05 ( 14) 32 67 35 198.0 114.7 373.3 4,10E+06 ( 102) 2,17E+06 ( 54) 30 277 75 50.4 35.9 71.5 8,73E+06 ( 174) 1,00E+06 ( 20) 24 128 57 227.6 144.8 380.4 6,49E+06 ( 97) 2,28E+06 ( 34) 18 291 99 75.8 51.0 115.7 6,41E+06 ( 117) 7,67E+05 ( 14) 22 98 52 218.1 127.0 409.7 3,28E+06 ( 87) 1,28E+06 ( 34) 32 164 56 68.1 45.5 104.5 1,05E+07 ( 140) 1,36E+06 ( 18) 16 173 81 203.7 125.9 352.7 3,61E+06 ( 27) 1,87E+06 ( 14) 9 240 126 51.2 26.1 105.9 CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0 POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 141.8, 136.2 --147.7 ( -5.6 +5.8) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 131.1 --153.5 (-10.8 +11.7) CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 131.1, 120.6 --142.5 (-10.5 +11.4) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 111.4 --154.4 (-19.8 +23.3) Number of iterations: NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER AGE DISPERSION (%): 48.5
	4,08E+06 ( 61) 2,61E+06 ( 39)	18	334 107	41.8	27.5	64.2
	3,28E+06 ( 87) 1,24E+06 ( 33)	32	159 55	70.1	46.7 108.2
	3,06E+06 ( 71) 1,16E+06 ( 27)	28	148 57	69.9	44.5 113.4
	4,70E+06 ( 78) 1,20E+06 ( 20)	20	154 68 103.1	63.0 178.2
	4,69E+06 ( 105) 7,14E+05 ( 16)	27	91 45 172.2 102.6 311.8
	5,46E+06 ( 127) 6,45E+05 ( 15)	28	82 42 221.1 131.2 405.0
	4,70E+06 ( 78) 1,27E+06 ( 21)	20	162 70	98.3	60.6 167.8
	6,18E+06 ( 77) 8,84E+05 ( 11)	15	113 67 182.8	98.5 380.5
	2,71E+06 ( 54) 5,02E+05 ( 10)	24	64 40 141.4	72.6 311.6
	7,50E+06 ( 112) 9,37E+05 ( 14)	18	120 63 209.0 121.5 393.2
	1,00E+07 ( 133) 2,11E+06 ( 28)	16	269 101 125.6	83.6 196.2
	2,11E+06 ( 49) 4,30E+05 ( 10)	28	55 34 128.5	65.4 284.8
	7,29E+06 ( 242) 7,53E+05 ( 25)	40	96 38 253.1 169.3 397.1
	4,22E+06 ( 105) 6,83E+05 ( 17)	30	87 42 162.3	97.9 288.8
	6,02E+06 ( 100) 1,57E+06 ( 26)	20	200 78 101.9	66.1 163.6
	2,48E+06 ( 37) 1,14E+06 ( 17)	18	145 70	57.8	32.0 109.7
	8,13E+06 ( 81) 8,03E+05 (	8)	12	103 70 261.3 130.1 619.9
	3,16E+06 ( 105) 8,13E+05 ( 27)	40	104 40 103.0	67.4 163.7
	1,49E+06 ( 31) 2,41E+05 (	5)	25	31 26 159.9	63.8 526.0
	3,05E+06 ( 152) 4,22E+05 ( 21)	60	54 23 190.0 121.3 315.2
	5,27E+06 ( 70) 7,53E+05 ( 10)	16	96 59 182.6	95.5 396.4
	9,22E+06 ( 153) 1,02E+06 ( 17)	20	131 63 235.0 144.2 412.1
	3,24E+06 ( 43) 6,78E+05 (	9)	16	87 56 125.1	61.3 292.4
	3,44E+06 ( 60) 4,02E+05 (	7)	21	51 38 221.4 104.1 570.5
	5,54E+06 ( 92) 9,04E+05 ( 15)	20	115 59 161.0	94.0 299.0
	POOLED 5,24E+06( 4691) 9,80E+05( 877) 1078	125	9 141.8 131.1 153.5

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3)

	août 26 2015 13:55			BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2	Page 3
	Merged dataset:
	C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06.ftz
	C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06b.ftz
	FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green
		Peak #. Peak Age INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2) Theta Fraction(%) Count
			1. Peak #. Peak Age 41.60	0.609 Theta	4.8 Fraction(%)	2.10 Count
				2. 1.	141.80 77.60	0.842 0.807		19.9 12.7	8.76 10.65
				3. 2.	187.50 155.60	0.876 0.894		33.9 37.1	14.93 31.14
		Total range for grain ages: Total range for grain ages:			41,6 to 252,2 Ma 59,0 to 334,1 Ma
		Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): Number of active grains (Num. used for fit):	44 84
		Number of removed grains: Number of removed grains:				0 0
		Degrees of freedom for fit: Degrees of freedom for fit:			39 81
		Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains:		0,27 0,26
		Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,32 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,31
					PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS
	* *	Standard error for peak age includes group error Standard error for peak age includes group error
	* *	Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60
	#. Peak Age(Ma) #. Peak Age(Ma)	68%CI 68%CI		95%CI 95%CI		W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% W(Z) Frac(%) SE,%	Count Count
	1. 1.	53.8 88.2	-11,5 ...+14,7 -6,6 ...+7,1	-20,3 ...+32,5 -12,5 ...+14,5	0.24 0.26	9.8 23.5	9.9 6.0	4.3 19.8
	2. 2.	95.1 184.3	-11,9 ...+13,7 -8,6 ...+9,0	-22,0 ...+28,6 -16,5 ...+18,1	0.27 0.29	30.0 76.5	10.9 6.0	13.2 64.2
	3. Log-likelihood for best fit: 206.7 -12,0 ...+12,8	-22,9 ...+25,7 -273,265	0.31	60.2	8.7	26.5
	Log-likelihood for best fit: Chi-squared value for best fit:		-145,925 84,662
	Chi-squared value for best fit: Reduced chi-squared value:		40,401 1,045
	Reduced chi-squared value: Probability for F test:		1,036 0%
	Probability for F test: Condition number for COVAR matrix:	1% 6,16
	Condition number for COVAR matrix: Number of iterations:	36,01
	Number of iterations: CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0
	POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 155.6, 149.3 --162.1 ( -6.3 +6.5)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		143.5 --168.7 (-12.1 +13.1)
	CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): 148.7, 140.5 --157.3 ( -8.2 +8.6)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		133.1 --166.1 (-15.6 +17.4)
				AGE DISPERSION (%):	35.1

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-02Paila\JG-P4-02-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-02 Irr 8-2015-21FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green

	2,71E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,41 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) 4,04 (cm^-2) RhoS (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--7,68E+06 ( 255) 9,94E+05 ( 33) 40 183 63 142.4 99.5 211.4 1,14E+07 ( 170) 1,14E+06 ( 17) 18 210 100 183.0 112.4 321.0 1,14E+07 ( 114) 9,04E+05 ( 9) 12 166 108 229.1 119.4 511.3 1,13E+07 ( 103) 1,64E+06 ( 15) 11 303 154 126.1 73.9 233.9 1,20E+07 ( 149) 6,43E+05 ( 8) 15 118 81 333.3 170.0 774.5 6,39E+06 ( 53) 2,29E+06 ( 19) 10 422 191 51.7 30.3 92.8 9,96E+06 ( 248) 2,61E+06 ( 65) 30 481 120 70.5 53.4 93.1 1,45E+07 ( 108) 9,37E+05 ( 7) 9 173 126 276.7 134.0 696.8 5,02E+06 ( 100) 1,86E+06 ( 37) 24 342 112 50.3 34.3 75.6 1,47E+07 ( 110) 1,20E+06 ( 9) 9 222 144 221.2 115.1 494.5 1,06E+07 ( 79) 3,08E+06 ( 23) 9 567 235 63.7 39.8 106.4 1,27E+07 ( 158) 1,20E+06 ( 15) 15 222 113 192.4 114.9 351.2 9,56E+06 ( 127) 2,86E+06 ( 38) 16 527 171 62.1 43.0 91.9 7,23E+06 ( 60) 1,08E+06 ( 9) 10 200 130 121.8 61.2 280.1 5,80E+06 ( 77) 2,41E+06 ( 32) 16 444 156 44.8 29.4 70.0 8,05E+06 ( 147) 2,85E+06 ( 52) 22 525 146 52.6 38.2 73.8 7,83E+06 ( 104) 9,79E+05 ( 13) 16 180 98 146.5 83.2 284.5 8,71E+06 ( 94) 1,95E+06 ( 21) 13 359 155 82.8 51.5 140.2 1,26E+07 ( 94) 9,37E+05 ( 7) 9 7,97E+06 ( 119) 3,08E+06 ( 46) 18 567 167 48.1 34.1 9,52E+06 ( 79) 3,61E+06 ( 30) 10 666 242 48.9 31.9 6,63E+06 ( 110) 2,83E+06 ( 47) 20 522 152 43.6 30.8 1,04E+07 ( 104) 2,61E+06 ( 26) 12 481 187 74.1 1,18E+07 ( 293) 2,73E+06 ( 68) 30 503 122 79.6 5,44E+06 ( 122) 2,77E+06 ( 62) 27 510 130 36.7 26.8 1,54E+07 ( 166) 1,67E+06 ( 18) 13 307 143 169.0 105.0 292.0 7,89E+06 ( 262) 2,59E+06 ( 86) 40 477 103 56.5 44.0 72.5 50.7 1,00E+07 ( 83) 2,17E+06 ( 18) 10 399 186 85.2 51.2 151.2 60.8 104.1 6,43E+06 ( 64) 1,61E+06 ( 16) 12 296 146 73.9 42.6 137.5 48.1 119.0 7,41E+06 ( 123) 4,40E+06 ( 73) 20 810 190 31.5 23.4 42.7 62.8 7,58E+06 ( 107) 2,98E+06 ( 42) 17 548 169 47.4 33.0 69.6 77.4 1,07E+07 ( 133) 3,13E+06 ( 39) 15 577 184 63.4 44.2 93.2 69.3 1,62E+07 ( 121) 2,81E+06 ( 21) 9 518 224 106.4 67.1 178.4 173 126 241.5 116.2 612.6 août 21 2015 17:19 Grain no. BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 2 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01b.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01.ftz NEW PARAMETERS -ZETA METHOD EFFECTIVE TRACK DENSITY FOR FLUENCE MONITOR (tracks/cm^2): 2,72E+05 RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,39 EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 50,00 ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 137,95 4,04 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 8,30E-07 Grain RhoS (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s Grain Age (Ma) no. (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Age --95% CI--6,83E+06 ( 68) 2,91E+06 ( 29) 12 536 198 43.6 28.0 70.1 1,28E+07 ( 340) 1,81E+06 ( 48) 32 333 96 131.0 97.0 181.2 5,50E+06 ( 137) 3,53E+06 ( 88) 30 651 139 28.9 22.0 38.1 7,30E+06 ( 212) 1,89E+06 ( 55) 35 349 94 71.7 53.2 98.4 5,99E+06 ( 194) 1,39E+06 ( 45) 39 256 76 80.0 57.8 113.5 7,34E+06 ( 67) 1,86E+06 ( 17) 11 343 164 72.9 42.7 132.9 6,43E+06 ( 64) 5,02E+05 ( 5) 12 92 79 228.8 96.8 722.0 5,90E+06 ( 49) 8,43E+05 ( 7) 10 155 113 127.3 58.8 334.5 1,12E+07 ( 140) 1,20E+06 ( 15) 15 222 113 170.9 101.6 313.3 8,21E+06 ( 109) 1,88E+06 ( 25) 16 347 138 80.8 52.2 130.5 7,33E+06 ( 73) 2,11E+06 ( 21) 12 388 168 64.4 39.5 110.6 9,18E+06 ( 160) 2,70E+06 ( 47) 21 496 145 63.3 45.6 89.8 7,76E+06 ( 58) 1,20E+06 ( 9) 9 222 144 117.8 59.1 271.5 1,30E+07 ( 97) 1,74E+06 ( 13) 9 320 175 136.8 77.5 266.5 1,23E+07 ( 164) 1,51E+06 ( 20) 16 277 123 150.7 95.5 253.3 7,50E+06 ( 56) 2,14E+06 ( 16) 9 394 194 64.8 36.9 121.4 1,26E+07 ( 125) 1,61E+06 ( 16) 12 296 146 143.5 86.0 258.9 1,12E+07 ( 93) 1,08E+06 ( 9) 10 200 130 187.7 96.9 422.7 1,03E+07 ( 128) 1,77E+06 ( 22) 15 325 137 107.4 68.5 177.7 8,88E+06 ( 221) 2,73E+06 ( 68) 30 503 122 60.2 45.6 79.4 août 21 2015 17:19 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01b.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01.ftz FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 36.60 0.662 7.5 4.43 2. 80.50 0.812 23.1 13.60 3. 133.10 0.878 20.7 12.23 Total range for grain ages: 29,0 to 321,1 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 59 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 54 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,25 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,29 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 38.1 -3,2 ...+3,5 -6,1 ...+7,3 0.18 12.9 6.3 7.6 2. 66.6 -3,8 ...+4,0 -7,3 ...+8,2 0.21 43.5 8.0 25.7 3. 164.2 -10,4 ...+11,0 -19,7 ...+22,3 0.32 43.6 6.9 25.7 Log-likelihood for best fit: -225,268 Chi-squared value for best fit: 59,215 Reduced chi-squared value: 1,097 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 7,83 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13.ftz Number of iterations: août 28 2015 13:40 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 3) Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 54.40 0.745 6.9 6.45 2. 87.80 0.826 27.7 26.00 3. 116.10 0.863 22.7 21.34 Total range for grain ages: 42,1 to 273,0 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 94 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 89 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,21 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,24 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 49.1 -3,2 ...+3,4 -6,0 ...+6,9 0.15 7.9 3.2 7.4 2. 85.4 -4,3 ...+4,5 -8,2 ...+9,1 0.20 39.2 5.9 36.8 3. 173.9 -7,7 ...+8,0 -14,8 ...+16,1 0.22 52.9 6.0 49.8 Log-likelihood for best fit: -364,825 Chi-squared value for best fit: 88,257 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,992 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 5,09 Peak #. Peak Age Theta Fraction(%) Count 1. 1.90 0.010 26.9 1.88 Total range for grain ages: 1,4 to 4,4 Ma Number of active grains (Num. used for fit): 7 Number of removed grains: 0 Degrees of freedom for fit: 6 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 0,52 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,61 PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS * Standard error for peak age includes group error * Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 #. Peak Age(Ma) 68%CI 95%CI W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% Count 1. 1.9 -0,4 ...+0,4 -0,6 ...+1,0 0.63 100.0 0.0 7.0 Log-likelihood for best fit: -12,788 Chi-squared value for best fit: 4,485 Reduced chi-squared value: 0,748 Probability for F test: 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 1,00 Number of iterations: INITIAL GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 1) Number of iterations: 5
	1,37E+07 ( 182) 1,36E+06 ( 18) POOLED 9,31E+06( 7812) 2,15E+06( 1804) 1011 16	250 116 185.1 115.3 318.8 396 22 80.5 74.2 87.3
	1,37E+07 ( 114) 2,05E+06 ( 17)	10	377 181 123.3	74.6 219.4
	1,33E+07 ( 110) 1,69E+06 ( 14) CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0	10	311 163 144.0	83.4 272.2
	1,28E+07 ( 202) 5,90E+06 ( 93)	19 1086 227	40.3	31.3	51.9
	1,14E+07 ( 171) 6,69E+05 ( 10) POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):	18 80.5, 77.3 --83.9 ( -3.3 +3.4) 123 76 307.8 167.6 646.5
	1,12E+07 ( 242) 2,64E+06 ( 57) 95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):	26	487 129 74.2 --87.3 ( -6.3 +6.8) 78.8 59.0 107.3
	CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):	83.9, 77.3 --91.0 ( -6.6 +7.1)
	95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		71.5 --98.3 (-12.4 +14.5)
	AGE DISPERSION (%):	53.5

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 1)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-06\JG-P4-06-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-06 Irr 8-2015-23 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model of Galbraith and Green INITIAL

	octobre 13 2015 18:07	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2			Page 2
									1,31E+06
			RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,37 Theta Fraction(%) Count EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 Peak #. Peak Age ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 1. 3.00 0.016 32.6 5.54	6,88
			SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 Total range for grain ages: 1,9 to 8,5 Ma
			Number of active grains (Num. used for fit):	17
			GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Number of removed grains:	0
	Grain no. 1	RhoS Degrees of freedom for fit: (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 2,74E+05 ( 7) 6,34E+06 ( 162) 40 72 12 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,49 16 Grain Age (Ma) Age 0,42 --95% CI--8.2 3.2 16.9
		2	1,17E+05 (	5) 9,30E+06 ( 398)		67	106 11	2.4	0.8	5.5
		3	1,02E+05 (	6) 1,05E+07 ( 619) PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS 92 120 10	1.8	0.7	3.9
	* *	4 5 Standard error for peak age includes group error 1,30E+05 ( 5) 8,79E+06 ( 337) 60 100 11 2,35E+05 ( 6) 1,26E+07 ( 321) 40 143 16 6 1,04E+05 ( 4) 3,78E+06 ( 145) 60 43 7 Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 2.8 3.6 5.3	0.9 1.3 1.4	6.5 7.6 13.4
		7 #. Peak Age(Ma) 1,22E+05 (	7) 1,01E+07 ( 579) 68%CI 95%CI	90	115 10 W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% 2.3 0.9	4.6 Count
		8 1.	9,39E+04 ( 3.0 -0,3 ...+0,3 3) 8,92E+06 ( 285) -0,6 ...+0,7 50	102 12 0.50	2.1 100.0	0.4 0.0	5.8 17.0
	9 10 Log-likelihood for best fit: 6,39E+04 ( 4) 6,45E+06 ( 404) 1,22E+05 ( 5) 6,70E+06 ( 274) 11 1,34E+05 ( 6) 8,54E+06 ( 382) Chi-squared value for best fit: 12 1,36E+05 ( 6) 6,62E+06 ( 292) Reduced chi-squared value: 13 1,79E+05 ( 8) 8,52E+06 ( 381) Probability for F test: 14 2,28E+05 ( 7) 1,23E+07 ( 376) Condition number for COVAR matrix: 15 1,04E+05 ( 4) 8,97E+06 ( 344) Number of iterations:	98 64 -36,788 70 15,758 69 0,985 70 0% 48 1,00 60 5	74 77 98 10 8 9 76 9 97 10 140 15 103 11	1.9 3.5 3.0 3.9 4.0 3.5 2.2	0.5 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.4 0.6	4.7 8.0 6.4 8.4 7.7 7.2 5.6
		16	1,27E+05 (	6) 8,08E+06 ( 382)		74	92 10	3.0	1.1	6.4
		17	1,30E+05 (	5) 4,43E+06 ( 170)		60	51	8	5.6	1.7	13.0
	POOLED 1,32E+05(	94) 8,23E+06( 5851) 1112	94	4	3.0	2.4	3.7
	CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 47.0
	>>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<<
	POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		3.0,	2.7 --	3.3 ( -0.3 +0.3)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			2.4 --	3.7 ( -0.6 +0.7)
	CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		3.0,	2.7 --	3.3 ( -0.3 +0.3)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			2.4 --	3.7 ( -0.6 +0.7)
				AGE DISPERSION (%):		0.5

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 1)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P4-10\JG-P4-10-Ap.fta Title: JG-P4-10 Irr 8-2015-24 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green INITIAL

	octobre 14 2015 18:06	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2	Page 2
								1,32E+06
			RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,42 Theta Fraction(%) Count EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 Peak #. Peak Age ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 1. 2.90 0.015 9.5 0.86	6,88
			SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 Total range for grain ages: 1,8 to 22,6 Ma
			Number of active grains (Num. used for fit):	9
			GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Number of removed grains:	0
	Grain no. 1	RhoS Degrees of freedom for fit: (Ns) RhoI (Ni) Squares U+/-2s (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 9,39E+04 ( 6) 9,94E+06 ( 635) 100 113 10 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,79 8 Grain Age (Ma) Age 0,68 --95% CI--1.8 0.6 3.8
		2	2,24E+05 ( 10) 1,16E+07 ( 520)		70	132 12	3.6	1.7	6.6
		3	6,26E+04 (	4) 7,43E+06 ( 475) PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS 100 85 8	1.6	0.4	4.0
	* *	4 5 Standard error for peak age includes group error 1,56E+04 ( 1) 1,19E+06 ( 76) 100 14 2,30E+04 ( 1) 4,83E+05 ( 21) 68 6 6 2,37E+04 ( 1) 3,32E+05 ( 14) 66 4 Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 3 2.8 2 10.1 2 15.0	0.1 0.2 0.3	14.0 54.8 86.6
		7 #. Peak Age(Ma) 4,60E+04 (	2) 8,05E+05 ( 35) 68%CI 95%CI	68	9	3 W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% 11.4 1.2	41.2 Count
		8 1.	1,56E+04 ( 2.8 -0,5 ...+0,6 1) 5,48E+05 ( 35) -0,9 ...+1,3 100	6	2 0.67	6.1 100.0	0.1 0.0	31.5 9.0
	9 POOLED 5,68E+04( 3,13E+04 ( Log-likelihood for best fit: 2) 3,13E+05 ( 20) 28) 3,71E+06( 1831) Chi-squared value for best fit:	100 772 -18,384 20,177	4 42	2 2	19.8 2.9	2.1 1.9	76.0 4.1
	Reduced chi-squared value: CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 1.0 Probability for F test: >>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<< 2,522 0% Condition number for COVAR matrix: 1,00
	POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma): Number of iterations:	5	2.9,	2.3 --	3.5 ( -0.6 +0.6)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			1.9 --	4.1 ( -1.0 +1.3)
	CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		3.1,	2.5 --	3.9 ( -0.6 +0.8)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			2.0 --	4.9 ( -1.1 +1.7)
				AGE DISPERSION (%):		26.2

GUESS FOR MODEL PARAMETERS (number of peaks to fit = 2)

  Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13-Ap2.fta Title: JG-P4-13 Irr 5-2015-22 FIT OPTION: Best-fit peaks using the binomial model ofGalbraith and Green INITIAL

	septembre 29 2015 18:51	BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2			Page 2
										1,23E+06
			RELATIVE ERROR (%): 1,31 Theta Fraction(%) Count EFFECTIVE URANIUM CONTENT OF MONITOR (ppm): 15,00 Peak #. Peak Age ZETA FACTOR AND STANDARD ERROR (yr cm^2): 282,02 1. 4.60 0.026 16.5 6.42 SIZE OF COUNTER SQUARE (cm^2): 6,39E-07 2. 5.90 0.033 18.4 7.18	6,88
			Total range for grain ages:					1,9 to 24,7 Ma
			GRAIN AGES IN ORIGINAL ORDER Number of active grains (Num. used for fit):	39
	Grain no. 1 2	RhoS Number of removed grains: (Ns) RhoI (cm^-2) (cm^-2) Degrees of freedom for fit: (Ni) Squares U+/-2s 4,69E+04 ( 3) 1,61E+06 ( 103) 100 20 4 Average of the SE(Z)'s for the grains: 1,30E+05 ( 1) 4,17E+06 ( 32) 12 51 18 Estimated width of peaks in PD plot in Z units: 0,67 0 Grain Age (Ma) Age 36 --95% CI--5.3 1.0 0,57 15.1 6.2 0.1 32.3
		3	3,13E+04 (	2) 3,63E+06 ( 232)		100	44	6		1.6	0.2	5.5
		4	1,56E+04 (	1) 4,69E+05 ( 30) PARAMETERS FOR BEST-FIT PEAKS 100 6 2		6.6	0.1	34.6
	* *	5 6 Standard error for peak age includes group error 2,03E+05 ( 13) 1,09E+07 ( 698) 100 133 11 1,22E+05 ( 5) 9,78E+05 ( 40) 64 12 4 7 1,28E+05 ( 8) 4,34E+06 ( 272) 98 53 7 Peak width is for PD plot assuming a kernel factor = 0.60 3.3 22.2 5.2	1.7 6.7 2.2	5.6 54.6 10.2
		8 #. Peak Age(Ma) 1,25E+05 (	8) 1,27E+06 ( 81) 68%CI 95%CI	100	15	3 W(Z) Frac(%) SE,% 17.4 7.1	35.3 Count
		9 1.	4,35E+04 ( 4.1 -0,4 ...+0,4 2) 2,24E+06 ( 103) -0,7 ...+0,9 72	27	5 0.55	3.6 79.9	0.4 12.9	12.5 31.1
		10 2.	1,56E+04 ( 13.0 -3,7 ...+5,2 1) 3,29E+05 ( 21) -6,3 ...+12,3 100	4	2 0.62	9.4 20.1	0.2 12.9	51.1 7.9
	11 12 Log-likelihood for best fit: 2,50E+05 ( 4) 2,50E+06 ( 40) 1,29E+05 ( 8) 6,45E+06 ( 400) 13 1,14E+05 ( 7) 3,18E+06 ( 195) Chi-squared value for best fit: 14 6,26E+04 ( 4) 1,64E+06 ( 105) Reduced chi-squared value: 15 6,26E+04 ( 4) 1,28E+06 ( 82) Probability for F test: 16 3,48E+04 ( 2) 2,96E+05 ( 17) Condition number for COVAR matrix: 17 3,48E+04 ( 2) 5,91E+05 ( 34) Number of iterations:	25 97 -87,305 96 33,299 100 0,925 100 0% 90 18,79 90	31 10 79 8 39 6 20 4 16 3 4 2 7 2		17.9 3.5 6.4 6.8 8.8 21.7 10.9	4.5 1.5 2.5 1.8 2.2 2.3 1.2	47.8 6.9 13.0 17.4 22.4 85.3 39.6
		18	3,13E+04 (	2) 1,08E+06 ( 69)		100	13	3		5.4	0.6	18.8
		19	2,52E+04 (	1) 8,58E+05 ( 34)		62	10	4		5.8	0.1	30.3
		20	3,29E+05 ( 20) 9,95E+06 ( 604)		95	122 10		5.8	3.5	8.9
		21	1,37E+05 (	7) 8,90E+06 ( 455)		80	109 11		2.7	1.1	5.5
		22	6,26E+04 (	4) 1,00E+06 ( 64)		100	12	3		11.2	2.9	29.0
		23	3,16E+04 (	2) 2,07E+06 ( 131)		99	25	4		2.8	0.3	9.7
		24	3,13E+04 (	2) 5,48E+05 ( 35)		100	7	2		10.6	1.2	38.4
		25	7,82E+04 (	5) 1,49E+06 ( 95)		100	18	4		9.4	2.9	22.0
		26	4,69E+04 (	3) 3,91E+05 ( 25)		100	5	2		21.7	4.0	67.8
		27	9,88E+04 (	6) 5,50E+06 ( 334)		95	67	8		3.2	1.1	6.8
		28	7,20E+04 (	4) 7,43E+06 ( 413)		87	91	9		1.7	0.5	4.3
		29	5,80E+04 (	3) 8,50E+05 ( 44)		81	10	3		12.4	2.3	36.7
		30	2,41E+05 (	8) 1,04E+07 ( 347)		52	128 14		4.1	1.7	8.0
		31	1,41E+05 (	9) 6,12E+06 ( 391)		100	75	8		4.1	1.8	7.6
		32	3,16E+04 (	2) 4,43E+05 ( 28)		99	5	2		13.2	1.4	48.9
		33	3,19E+04 (	2) 5,43E+05 ( 34)		98	7	2		10.9	1.2	39.6
		34	1,56E+04 (	1) 9,23E+05 ( 59)		100	11	3		3.4	0.1	17.0
		35	3,13E+04 (	2) 9,70E+05 ( 62)		100	12	3		6.0	0.7	21.0
		36	3,13E+04 (	2) 3,15E+06 ( 201)		100	38	6		1.9	0.2	6.3
		37	9,68E+04 (	6) 5,89E+06 ( 365)		97	72	8		2.9	1.0	6.3
		38	9,78E+04 (	6) 2,72E+06 ( 167)		96	33	5		6.4	2.2	13.8
		39	1,56E+04 (	1) 9,70E+05 ( 62)		100	12	3		3.2	0.1	16.1
	POOLED 7,77E+04( 173) 2,92E+06( 6504) 3485	36	1		4.6	3.9	5.4
	CHI^2 PROBABILITY (%): 0.0
	>>> Beware: possible upward bias in Chi^2 probability due to low counts <<<
	POOLED AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		4.6,	4.2 --	5.0 ( -0.4 +0.4)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			3.9 --	5.4 ( -0.7 +0.8)
	CENTRAL AGE W/ 68% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):		5.4,	4.8 --	6.0 ( -0.6 +0.6)
			95% CONF. INTERVAL(Ma):			4.3 --	6.7 ( -1.0 +1.3)
				AGE DISPERSION (%):		39.2

Acknowledgments

To my great God for helping me in the difficult moments and giving me strength, the capacity and the opportunity to finish this important project in my life.

To my advisor in Grenoble, Etienne Jaillard, for believing in this project, for all the support and for finding the resources to make technical analysis and for the revision of Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-04\JG-P3-04Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-04 Irr 8-2015-13 octobre 29 2015 15:50 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-04\JG-P3-04Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-04 Irr 8-2015-13 diciembre 28 2015 08:58 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Datafile: F:\Termo_Lab_Grenoble\Jairo\Apatites\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P3-32 Irr 5-2015-23 diciembre 28 2015 09:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: F:\Termo_Lab_Grenoble\Jairo\Apatites\Echantillon-IRR052015\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P3-32 Irr 5-2015-23 octobre 20 2015 17:42 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-19 Irr 8-2015-14 décembre 16 2015 14:28 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 3 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-21\JG-P3-21Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-21 Irr 8-2015-15 décembre 16 2015 14:28 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-21\JG-P3-21Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-21 Irr 8-2015-15 novembre 17 2015 17:33 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-01Zr\JG-P2-01-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 01 Irr 10-2015-32 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P2-05\JG-P2-05-Ap.ftz Title: JG-Pé-0( Irr 8-2015-12 octobre 9 2015 16:05 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P2-05\JG-P2-05-Ap.ftz Title: JG-Pé-0( Irr 8-2015-12 octobre 6 2015 16:21 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P1-08\JG-P1-08-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P1-08 Irr 8-2015-11 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P5-03\JG-P5-03-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P5-03 Irr 8-2015-25 octobre 2 2015 14:13 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P5-03\JG-P5-03-Ap.ftz Title: JG-P5-03 Irr 8-2015-25 novembre 11 2015 12:24 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-19Zr\JG-P3-19.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 19 Irr 10-2015-50

Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36aZr\JG-P3-36aZr.ftz novembre 16 2015 13:41 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 6 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-36Zr\JG-P3-36aZr\JG-P3-36aZr.ftz août 19 2015 17:49 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41a.ftz Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41a.ftz août 19 2015 17:49 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 5 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-41\JG-P3-41a.ftz août 10 2015 14:13 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15a.ftz Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15a.ftz août 10 2015 14:13 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 5 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-15\JG-P3-15a.ftz décembre 1 2015 19:22 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04a.ftz Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04a.ftz décembre 1 2015 19:22 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 6 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-04-Zr\JG-P3-04a.ftz novembre 6 2015 12:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32a\JG-P3-32a.ftz Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32a\JG-P3-32a.ftz novembre 6 2015 12:06 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 7 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32\JG-P3-32.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-32-Zr\JG-P3-32a\JG-P3-32a.ftz août 13 2015 14:00 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19.ftz Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19.ftz août 13 2015 14:00 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 6 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-19\JG-P3-19.ftz novembre 23 2015 17:19 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-23-Zr\JG-P3-23.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 23 Irr 10-2015-41 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20.ftz août 18 2015 12:47 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 6 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P3-20\JG-P3-20.ftz décembre 11 2015 12:41 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-21-Zr\JG-P3-21-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 214 Irr 10-2015-37 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22-Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22a-Zr.ftz décembre 11 2015 14:52 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 6 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22-Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-22-Zr\JG-P3-22a-Zr.ftz Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-36 Irr 8-2015-18 novembre 4 2015 14:08 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-36\JG-P3-36Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-36 Irr 8-2015-18 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-22\JG-P3-22Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-22 Irr 8-2015-16 octobre 23 2015 15:53 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 4 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR082015\JG-P3-22\JG-P3-22Ap.fta Title: JG-P3-22 Irr 8-2015-16 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07.ftz août 25 2015 12:28 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 5 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P1-07\JG-P1-07.ftz août 6 2015 17:01 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3.ftz Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3.ftz août 6 2015 17:01 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 6 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P2-05-3\JG-P2-05-3.ftz décembre 7 2015 15:44 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-05-Zr\JG-P2-05-4-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 05 Irr 10-2015-33 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06a-Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06Zr.ft40 C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06-Zr.ftz décembre 3 2015 16:58 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 5 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06a-Zr.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06Zr.ft40 C:\BH2\Jairo\Echentillon-IRR-12-2015\JG-P1-06Zr\JG-P1-06-Zr.ftz octobre 28 2015 18:59 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P5-03a-Zr\JG-P5-03a.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P5 03a Irr 10-2015-40 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01b.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01.ftz août 21 2015 17:19 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 5 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01b.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-01\JG-P4-01.ftz août 28 2015 13:40 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 1 Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13.ftz Merged dataset: C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13a.ftz C:\BH2\Jairo\Samples-IRR-6-2015\JG-P4-13\JG-P4-13.ftz août 28 2015 13:40 BinomFit for Windows ver.1.2 Page 6 Merged dataset: 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Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-23-Zr\JG-P3-23.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 23 Irr 10-2015-41 novembre 23 2015 17:19 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-21-Zr\JG-P3-21-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 214 Irr 10-2015-37 décembre 11 2015 12:41 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P3-43Zr\JG-P3-43Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 43 Irr 10-2015-47 novembre 19 2015 19:03 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-01Zr\JG-P2-01-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 01 Irr 10-2015-32 novembre 17 2015 17:33 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P2-05-Zr\JG-P2-05-4-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P2 05 Irr 10-2015-33 décembre 7 2015 15:44 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P5-03a-Zr\JG-P5-03a.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P5 03a Irr 10-2015-40 octobre 28 2015 18:59 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-19Zr\JG-P3-19.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P3 19 Irr 10-2015-50 novembre 11 2015 12:24 Datafile: C:\BH2\Jairo\Echantillon-IRR-10-2015\JG-P4-02Zr\JG-P4-02-Zr.ftz Title: Sample No. JG P4 19 Irr 10-2015-49 novembre 17 2015 12:43

Subduction of the Nazca Plate at 70 mm/yr beneath the western margin of South America results in a seismically active area. The North Andean system is bounded to the west by the Colombian-Ecuadorian trench and the Panamá block, at the north by the South Caribbean and Bocono and at the east by the Andean fault. Right-lateral transpressive movement is taking place along the Borde Llanero fault (Guaicaramo) [START_REF] Pennington | Subduction of the Eastern Panama Basin and seismotectonics of northwestern South America[END_REF]. To the East, the Eastern Cordillera is bounded by a west-dipping reverse fault and the North Andes is moving NNE-ward relative to the South American Plate at a velocity of 10 mm/yr [START_REF] Kellogg | Cenozoic tectonics of the Panama and North Andes blocks[END_REF]. To the West, the Sinú and San Jacinto deformed belts result from the SEward subduction of the Caribbean plate beneath South America, at a rate of 17 mm/yr (Figure 6.6). Figure 6.6. Tectonic-plate setting and major structures of the Northern Andes (from [START_REF] Sarmiento | Mesozoic Rifting and Cenozoic Basin Inversion History of the Eastern Cordillera Colombian Andes-Inferences fron tectonic models[END_REF], modified from Mora, 1995in Acosta et al 2000). [START_REF] Cediel | The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics[END_REF] divided Colombia into five tectono-stratigraphic zones: the Guyana Shield, the Maracaibo Sub-Plate, the Western Tectonic Realm, the Guajira Falcon

Van der Beek, P., 1995, Tectonic evolution of continental rifts, inferences from numerical modellingand fission track thermochronology. Ph.D. Thesis, Vrije Universitteit, Amsterdam, 232 p.

Van der Hammen Th., 1957b, Periodicidad climática y evolución de floras del Maestrichtiano y del Terciario,Bol. Geol. Inst. Geol. Nal.,vol. 5,nº 2,9 fig.,1 lám,Bogotá. Van der Hammen, T., 1957, Estratigrafia palinologica de la Sabana de Bogotá, Cordillera Oriental de Colombia: Boletin Geologico del Instituto Geologico Nacional, v. 5, no. 2, p. 189-203 Van der Hammen Th., 1958a, Estratigrafía palinológica de la Sabana de Bogotá (Cordillera Oriental). Ibid., vol. 5 (1957), n° 2, pp. 187-203, 3 pl., Bogotá Van der Hammen Th., 1958b, Estratigrafía del Terciario y Maestrichtiano continentales y tectogénesis de los Andes Colombianos. Ibid., vol. 6 n° 1-3, pp. 67-128, 7