Etienne Valette
email: etienne.valette5@etu.univ-lorraine.fr

Bril El-Haouzi

Guillaume Demesure
email: guillaume.demesure@univ-lorraine.fr

Vincent Boucinha
email: vboucinha@parisot.com

Toward an anthropocentric approach for hybrid control architectures: case of a furniture factory

Keywords: Automated and Flexible Production System, Autonomation, Control System Hybridization, Just In Time Organization

Typology of goods and services' consumption has changed. In order to adapt to this change, it is relevant for a company to turn toward new ways of production and management. Slowly, the concept of industry 4.0 starts to set up in manufacturing companies. Research on hybrid control systems favours achieving automated and flexible production system through "jidoka" (or autonomation) and Just In Time principles. Still, studies stay mainly techno-centred rather than anthropocentric. Parisot company suffers today of a lack of reactivity to its market and of a production tool maladjusted to customer's consumption habits. This article aims to sum up the company's current situation, and to introduce the thesis project that intends to back it through its economic, technological and sociological transition toward a flexible, adaptive and sustainable human-centered manufacturing system.

Introduction

Pine II [START_REF] Pine | Mass Customization -The New Frontier in Business Competition[END_REF] was one of the very first to identify and enunciate the concept of mass customization. Ten years ago, Klein stated about this concept "Typology of consumption of goods and services has evolved over the last few years, especially with the emergence of e-commerce. [...] the trend is now to personalize them, implying an increase of diversity and of end customer requirements in terms of costs, quality, features and delivery time." [START_REF] Klein | Le kanban actif pour assurer l'interopérabilité décisionnelle centralisé/distribué, thesis of the university Henry Pointcarré of Nancy[END_REF]. That assertion has been proved to be true, especially in the furniture industry, which Parisot, Saint-Loup's Production Unit (PSL) is part of. As a matter of facts, Klein wrote this as part of his thesis within this company. Customers need complex, customizable and quality products, available by e-commerce at the lowest price and with the shortest delivery time. This is no more a trend: this is the new way of consuming manufactured goods. Manufacturers' production tools, like PSL's one, were and are still designed to produce large batches of undifferentiated products. New ways of consuming imply new ways of producing for manufacturers.

Still, like PSL, many manufacturers haven't changed their production methods yet.

Zimmermann have identified the necessity to master the material and information flows and the importance of keeping these flows flexible and adaptable to the market demand as being the main challenges of this new consuming habits [START_REF] Zimmermann | A case study of an Intelligent Manufacturing Control based on multi-agents'system to deal with batching and sequencing on rework context, 7th Workshop on Service Orientation in Holonic and Multi-Agent Manufacturing[END_REF]. In fact, these challenges can be considered as secondary for many companies: the main challenge would be to adapt an old complex and rigid pre-existing industrial tool to new production methods. Moreover, what is rarely considered in these situations is the strong tendency the different actors have to resist to any changes, even if these changes are of vital necessity.

A company is represented as a moral person and considered as a complex system, composed by humans, tools and data. Koestler defines a holon as something both whole and part, and where parts keep properties of global system, despite their independence [START_REF] Koestler | The ghost in the machine[END_REF]. If a company is both a whole entity (moral person) and the sum of its parts (humans, tools and data), then it is to be considered as a holonic system, simultaneously parts and whole. This paradigm can easily be linked to the complex apprehension of the universe praised by Morin [START_REF] Morin | La méthode, Tome 6 -Ethique[END_REF]. Then, the socio-ecological transition that should be undertaken by mankind would be associated to the necessary anthropocentric technical and economic transition of the industry [START_REF] El-Haouzi | Contribution à la conception et à l'évaluation des architectures de pilotage des systèmes de production adaptables : vers une approche anthropocentrée pour la simulation et le pilotage[END_REF]. What Morin assess as unavoidable to achieve socio-ecological transition, is the need of "reliance1" between each part of the universe.

This philosophical concept is surprisingly close to the need of breaking the knowledge and responsibility partitioning between the services and actors of the material and data flows in a company. This partitioning finds its origin in the strong specialization of the flows' actors, which are grouped by in separated offices. Since services are physically separated, effective and efficient communication becomes uneasy. Responsibility is rejected on upstream and downstream services, problems are solved locally without consulting other actors and communication slowly turns to permanent conflict. Data and information becomes valuable pressure levers on other services, and get jealously protected. Hence, data reliability decrease and the whole flow weaken. Instead of developing a team spirit, knowledge's partitioning generates a competitive spirit. Huybens explains these phenomena trough the psycho-sociology of restricted groups approach [START_REF] Huybens | notes for communication's lessons associated to the ecocounsellors'formation[END_REF].

This approach and issues are really interesting to study since they are rarely taken into consideration. If Klein, Zimmermann and many others consider the human factor in their works, this element stays minimal in regard to the importance given to the technical studies. What is studied is the impact of the human on the process. But what could be interesting to study would be the interactions between the human and the process and even the interactions between the human and the process as parts of a larger entity, such as the company.

Thus, we can assess that PSL is suffering from a great lag in its adaptation to its market. The adaptation of the company to the new consumption ways will occur through a complex transition, as much human as technological and economic. This article brings a complex vision of the current situation and suggests research leads that should be depth as part of a CIFRE2 thesis. The present paper will now quickly introduce the economic transition that is today operated by the company, and then will focus on the issues and challenges that will be raised by the technological and organizational transition. The fourth part of this paper will focus a bit more on the sociological transition and on human challenges. Finally, the conclusion will quickly sum the purpose of this article up and introduce the outlooks that could be considered.

Initiating economic transition

The company has its own New Products Development (NPD) process. This process goes through services like trading, design, marketing, innovation, technical and Industrialization studies and prototypes workshop. This process has two entries. In one hand, a client demand can trigger the development of a new product (or product range). In the other hand, the company occasionally suggests to its clients a product range complement or can spontaneously decide to renew a part of its own collection (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 : PSL's New Products Development process

Today, around 80% of sales are still signed with specialized (60%) and DIY (20%) superstores, and concern large production batches (more than 1.000 products). Around 25% of the sales are made for export (European and worldwide).

Today, PSL is strongly attached to its great historical clients (specialized superstores like Conforama, But and Fly). This dependence is a real threat for the company since its sells are tributaries of superstores' ones. PSL lacks effective negotiation levers towards its clients and have no satisfying fallback solution in case of loss of one of them. The company almost faced this situation recently with the economic difficulties that has touched Conforama's headquarter in December 2017 [START_REF] Garnier | Conforama's headquarter, in a state of collapse[END_REF].

Since specialized superstores' demand became increasingly unpredictable and uncertain, the company tries to reinforce its sells with DIY superstores. Unfortunately, this can only be a provisional solution. According to the Prospective and Furnishing Studies' Institute (IPEA) "DIY brands are increasing their development on furniture's trade, but global sales are struggling despite the recovery in real estate dynamics. The furniture's trade seems to be a source of growth for them, but for now, the creation of a specific identity on the market is cruelly lacking to each one of them" [START_REF] Meubloscope | Prospective and Fusnishing Studies' Institute[END_REF].

Mail-order selling and home delivery are not new concepts in the company, as part of the activity for more than twenty years. These are today reaching around 20% of the sales (in terms of volume and turnover). Regarding e-commerce, IPEA, FNAEM3, and UA4 's studies assess "Regarding the other circuits of the market, growth is also on time on e-commerce circuit both among historical mail-ordering players and pureplayers. Many players are speeding up on the furniture's trade as shown by the strong double-digit progressions displayed by some." [START_REF]Survey Special Furniture Sector, Prospective and Fusnishing Studies' Institute (IPEA), French furniture and home equipement's trading federation (FNAEM)[END_REF]. Therefore, PSL turned to the reinforcement of its internet commerce and exports (Fig. 2): for 2018, the sales objectives are 35% for export and 25% for e-commerce. The economic transition is already in progress. Still, the gait is slow, hesitating and iterative. Many mistakes are today accepted, the first one being the lack of a global vision and approach. Nowadays, the company needs to speed up this transition, especially through the upgrade of its production methods and tool.

3

Technological and organizational transition: launching production tools' upgrade PSL's production tool is the inheritance of eighty years of industrial development. The industrial site was originally organized in Autonomous Production Units (APU). The most recent unit, UGV, was inaugurated in 1996. Since, these units became less and less autonomous, as services like technical and industrialization studies were merged and centralized. The only unit to be considered as APU remaining is PMK (Fig. 3).

On this map, the red circle points the offices, the three green circles points the main production units and the two blue circles are for support production units. The MAF is the centralized storehouse for all products that are not particle boards or packaging. UDC is the main storage, picking and shipping unit. SAV stands for After Sales Service.

Figure 3: PSL's aerial view

This industrial site has two geographical particularities. The first one is the road (orange line) and the river (blue line) which split the site in three while separating the main production units. This leads to rather complex internal logistics issues. Many trucks and tractors are running through the site to deliver raw and transformed products, hardware or various materials. The second one lies in the location of the unit PMK. This production unit is the fastest one, and was designed for the greatest series' production, but is implanted in flood zone.

Figure 4 is an update of Klein's mapping. It's interesting to superimpose this representation to the aerial view, in order to get a better understanding of the complexity of physical flows in the company today (Fig. 5). Despite Klein's work and efforts to develop and implement a system of active Kanban, none of these flows is today automated or integrated in a global management, leading to an insufficient global service rate. Worst, economic difficulties occurred in 2012 and almost led the company to the bankrupt. These difficulties had a serious impact on both global and local management. For the company focused mainly on its survival, many good practices and procedures were lost and production management turned anarchic on many levels. Today, the company only starts to define and put in place good practices and rigorous procedures again. To limit and simplify these flows, a project of fusion between the units UVG and UVA has been evocated. This project would be a great opportunity to start the upgrade of the production tool. Still, many issues could be highlighted.

─ On the physical level, mechatronics, data processing and information's transfer's technological breakthrough favours AGV5 and drone's implanting and utilization [START_REF] Demesure | Decentralized Motion Planning and Scheduling of AGVs in FMS[END_REF]. Thanks to these breakthroughs the implanting could be quick and cheap and would bring a great flexibility in the production process. Some questions would then have to be considered. What would be the best workshop configuration? Which of products, machines or both should be mobile? What roles and responsibilities should be given to mobile entities? How much would the system be flexible? ─ On the informational level, the main challenges would lie in the coordination between the mobile elements and between the local and global management systems. Which level of intelligence should be given to mobile elements? What would be the nature of the decisions that would be delegated to them [START_REF] Demesure | Smartness Versus Embeddability: A Tradeoff for the Deployment of Smart AGVs in Industry. 7th Workshop on Service Orientation in Holonic and Multi-Agent Manufacturing[END_REF]? The main objectives here are to guarantee the security of operators [START_REF] Sallez | How to Build a "Cooperative" Safety Bubble for a Reconfigurable Assembly System? 7th Workshop on Service Orientation in Holonic and Multi-Agent Manufacturing[END_REF], the good functioning of the machines (mobile or not) and to prevent local machine taken decisions to be detrimental to the global industrial system [START_REF] Cardin | Coupling predictive scheduling and reactive control in manufacturing hybrid control architectures: state of the art and future challenges[END_REF].

These issues could mainly be solved by an intelligent use of the new ICTs6 or artificial neural networks for machine learning and data mining (data mining could be used to refine the sales' previsions and then to improve the production schedule and stock level) [START_REF] Trentesaux | Emerging ICT concepts for smart, safe and sustainable industrial systems[END_REF].

Sociological transition: what about human aspects?

The most important element of a production system lies in its operators. The human being is the most flexible and "agile" element of the workshop. This assertion is particularly observable in PSL's productions units.

For example, to achieve the packaging step, the different pieces have to be spread on particular decks in order to be placed at the right place in the package. This implantation is designed by an industrialization studies' technician and conducted by a specialized operator. But if the designed implantation occurs to be improvable, the operator has the liberty to adapt it. This is the cause of many problems. If this liberty is allowed in order to maximize the local efficiency of the packaging line (in case of problem, the operator can solve it quickly, then inform the technician), its application is today full of drifts. Operators take the liberty to change the packaging plan without need, in order to increase the production rate, but to the detriment of the packages' quality. Since they only have an incomplete knowledge of the global process, what seems to be a good idea on their level turns out to be detrimental to the process. Once -9 -again emerges the problem of communication and of the risks presented by a local based management for the global management's performances. Lots of similar example could be indentified within the company.

Hence we can assess that PSL is already working with kind of hybrid system, in fact really near from QRQC 7 organization. This organization is based on a field approach (Gemba), with immediate reaction to specific issues, described with precise facts and data, by the people directly concerned. The manager comes as a support for the operator if it turns out that this one can not solve the problem by himself. The QRQC organization is a human-centered bottom-up approach of efficient problem solving.

Still, lack of rigor, formalization, and of continuous improvement of the system plus insufficient training, education and accountability of operators have led to a dysfunctional state where both global and local performances are degraded. An empowerment policy has been implemented in a system with dysfunctional information transformation and management system. The global entity has delegated some of its powers to its parts. Since the company is both part and whole, these powers are not lost, and should still operate. But what was forgotten was the principle of "reliance". Without it, parts could not accord to each others. PSL's example is the proof by the failure of the need of complex apprehension of a system on both global and local levels in order to successfully achieve its transition to Industry 4.0.

The concept of Lean manufacturing could be a way toward this achievement. It finds its origins in the TPS 8 system developed between the years 1950 and 1960 [START_REF] Womack | Lean Thinking, Banish Waste and Create Wealth in Your Corporation[END_REF]. This concept is highly based on the humans for its two main pillars are JIT 9 and "jidoka" (or autonomation). The Jidoka is based on the "andon". The andons are visual cues by which the operator or the machine communicate and on which they can base their decisions. Short loops of identification, quality control and immediate reactions are then possible. They are the base of the global management. The JIT is based on a "kanban" system that is used to control local information loops, linked to steps of the physical production process. Thereby, the inertia of centralized information management systems can be avoided. Plus, global site management is prompted to work as much in the short term with ground issues as in the long term with fundamental causes analysis. Jidoka leads to JIT at a human level: according to Sakichi Toyoda 10 , jidoka is to be considered as "automation with a human touch".

Jidoka leads to empowerment of the operators, by giving them decisional power and thus responsibilities. In the case of PSL, the empowerment could be even more important, since operators could contribute to the very thinking, creation, implantation and improvements of the system. But again, several questions already arise. Many employees are aged of 40 years old and more. These persons are mostly uneasy with new technologies 'usage. How to deal with the question of age and formation in this transition? How will the question of the staff's competences evolutions be treated? What will be the new skills to search or develop to assure the sustainability, flexibility and continuous improvement of the company?

In addition to that, a Kanban system will potentially suffers from difficulties to adjust to the variability of customers' requests. Plus, questions arise. Which level of decisional power should be given to operators? How would operators efficiently interact with automated systems? How would the adequate level of information for taking decisions be given to operators?

The use of ICT and artificial neural networks could to be viable solution parts to solve these issues. Anyway, what will be needed here are, in addition to technical expertise, strong managerial knowledge and skills doubled with both an accurate vision of the field reality and a global vision of tactical and even strategic objectives.

Conclusions and outlooks

Yesterday, a mass production tool with little visibility on the future was quite enough for a company to subsist. Today, ways of consumption have changed, and the industry struggles to answer to it. What is needed for Tomorrow is to think the transition in order to accord the industry to its present market and to prepare its future, especially through flexibility and adaptability (Figure 6: economic, technological and sociological evolutions). The detailed analysis of the existing system, the conception and implanting and mastering of such a complex system is far from being an easy or common project. Some difficulties have been here identified, but many others will occur as the project will progress. Hybrids systems are no new concepts but globally stay at a state of experimental management. Robust decisions are very effective for recurrent issues, but lacks adaptability when confronted to unpredicted hazards.

The main objective of this paper was to bring a complex and representative vision of PSL's situation. In this article, some issues have been raised, and propositions have been made to partly solve them. PSL is obviously passing through an important transition phase. A better understanding of those issues and establishing of adequate solutions could be partly achieved through a CIFRE thesis within the company and in partnership with the CRAN 11 .

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Evolution of PSL's annual exports (Diane export)

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Main physical flows in PSL's production units

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: PSL's current physical flows

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6 : economic, technological and sociological evolutionsMarket evolutions Stable and predictable environmentUnstable and unpredictable environment

The word is based on the French word "relier", meaning "connect". This concept was first studied from 1975 to 1985 by Bolle De Bal[START_REF] De Bal | La tentation communautaire. Les paradoxes de la reliance et de la contre-culture[END_REF].(Morin,

2014) use this term to describe a need to connect to each other's and to the universe, in order to achieve the socio-ecological transition.

CIFRE : Industrial Convention of Formation through REsearch

FNAEM : French furniture and home equipement's trading federation

UA : National Union of french furniture's industries

AGV: Automated guided vehicle

ICT: Information and Communication Technology

QRQC : Quick Response Quality Control

TPS : Toyota Production System

JIT : Just-In-Time

Sakichi Toyoda (1867 -1930) : founder of Toyota Industries, inventor of automatic power loom, implemented with Jidoka principles, creator of the 5Whys rule


Thibaud Decaëns
email: thibaud.decaens@cefe.cnrs.fr

Marlúcia B Martins

Alexander Feijoo

Johan Oszwald

Sylvain Dolédec

Jérôme Mathieu

Xavier Arnaud De Sartre

Diego Bonilla

George G Brown

Andrea Cuellar Yeimmy

Criollo

Florence Dubs

Ivaneide S Furtado

Valérie Gond

Erika Gordillo

Solen Le Clec

Raphaël Marichal

Danielle Mitja

Izildinha Miranda De Souza

Catarina Praxedes

Rodolphe Rougerie

Darío H Ruiz

Joel Tupac Otero

Catalina Sanabria

Alex Velasquez

Elena M Luz

Zararte

Patrick Lavelle

Biodiversity loss along a gradient of deforestation in Amazonian agricultural landscapes

Keywords: biodiversity conservation, biodiversity erosion, Brazil, Colombia, landscape intensification, land-use changes, threshold

Assessing how much management of agricultural landscapes, in addition to protected areas, can offset biodiversity erosion in the tropics is a central issue for conservation that still requires cross-taxonomic and landscape-scale studies. We measured the effects of Amazonia deforestation and subsequent land-use intensification in 6 agricultural areas (landscape scale), where we sampled plants and 4 animal groups (birds, earthworms, fruit flies, and moths). We assessed land-use intensification with a synthetic index based on landscape metrics (total area and relative percentages of land uses, edge density, mean patch density and diversity, and fractal structures at 5 dates from 1990 to 2007). Species richness decreased consistently as agricultural intensification increased despite slight differences in the responses of sampled groups. Globally, in moderately deforested landscapes species richness was relatively stable, and there was a clear threshold in biodiversity loss midway along the intensification gradient, mainly linked to a drop in forest cover and quality. Our results suggest anthropogenic

Introduction

Tropical rainforests support some of the greatest diversities of living organisms on Earth [START_REF] Myers | The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future[END_REF]. The Amazonian forest in particular has been popularized as the last frontier forest and one of the most diverse regions in the world (Wilson 2002;[START_REF] Da Silva | The fate of the Amazonian areas of endemism[END_REF]. It is, however, dramatically threatened by ongoing deforestation resulting from expanding timber production and agricultural frontiers and by the increased frequency of largescale forest fires [START_REF] Peres | Biodiversity conservation in human-modified Amazonian forest landscapes[END_REF][START_REF] Newbold | Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity[END_REF]. Recent estimates report a loss of about 770,000 km 2 of forest from 1970 to 2016, nearly 20% of the original forest cover [START_REF] Butler | Calculating deforestation figures for the Amazon[END_REF].

This gradual destruction of forest ecosystems and the resulting fragmentation and degradation of forest remnants are strongly affecting Amazonian biodiversity and the environmental sustainability of the whole region (Haddad et al. 2015;[START_REF] Barlow | Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests can double biodiversity loss from deforestation[END_REF].

The protection of pristine forests in integral protected areas is vital to prevent loss of biodiversity. However, their current coverage remains limited and their integrity is frequently threatened in areas undergoing widespread deforestation [START_REF] Rodrigues | Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity[END_REF]). They are also not representative of most of the tropical world, where the vast majority of tropical rainforests are not comprised within reserves and parks [START_REF] Chazdon | Beyond reserves: A research agenda for conserving biodiversity in humanmodified tropical landscapes[END_REF]) and >70% of remaining patches are within 1 km of the forest edge (Haddad et al. 2015). It is therefore important to focus not only on these protected areas, but also on the conservation value of agricultural landscapes, which are now replacing the pristine forest matrix at an increasing pace (Barlow et al. 2007a;[START_REF] Gardner | Prospects for tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world[END_REF][START_REF] Chazdon | Beyond reserves: A research agenda for conserving biodiversity in humanmodified tropical landscapes[END_REF]).

Significant theoretical and empirical advances have been made during the past decade in understanding of the relative importance of different landscape properties in explaining biodiversity loss in tropical rainforest biomes. For instance, recent studies emphasize the importance of habitat amount (Melo et al. 2017), landscape and within-forest disturbances [START_REF] Barlow | Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests can double biodiversity loss from deforestation[END_REF], and landscape configuration (Villard & Metzger 2014) to explain the decline of biodiversity following deforestation. However, most of these studies considered only a single or a limited number of data-rich taxonomic groups, with a strong bias toward vertebrates or plants [START_REF] Fazey | What do conservation biologists publish?[END_REF][START_REF] Gardner | Prospects for tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world[END_REF]. Understanding of the relative sensitivity of different taxonomic groups to disturbance at the landscape level remains insufficient [START_REF] Dunn | Managing the tropical landscape: a comparison of the effects of logging and forest conversion to agriculture on ants, birds, and lepidoptera[END_REF]; some important components of terrestrial biodiversity, such as invertebrates, are weakly documented [START_REF] Collen | Monitoring change in vertebrate abundance: the Living Planet Index[END_REF][START_REF] Decaëns | Macroecological patterns in soil communities[END_REF].

Although ecological theory predicts a global decrease of biodiversity as ecosystem fragmentation increases [START_REF] Andren | Effects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammals in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat -a review[END_REF]Wilson 2002), the pattern of this decrease is still debated [START_REF] Estavillo | Forest loss and the biodiversity threshold: an evaluation considering species habitat requirements and the use of matrix habitats[END_REF]. Indeed, taxon-and guild-specific responses to the degradation or transformation of tropical forest have been reported repeatedly [START_REF] Schulze | Biodiversity indicator groups of tropical land-use systems: Comparing plants, birds, and insects[END_REF]Barlow et al. 2007a;[START_REF] Newbold | A global model of the response of tropical and sub-tropical forest biodiversity to anthropogenic pressures[END_REF]. Such idiosyncratic patterns may seriously hinder the ability to assess the global impact of deforestation when considering a limited number of indicator taxa.

Comparative studies conducted at the landscape scale and across a wide range of taxa are thus critically needed to accurately assess the patterns of biodiversity loss along deforestation and agricultural intensification gradients and to identify the environmental drivers and potential thresholds and tipping points in the response of biodiversity to these perturbations [START_REF] Newbold | A global model of the response of tropical and sub-tropical forest biodiversity to anthropogenic pressures[END_REF]).

We measured the effects of Amazonia deforestation and the subsequent land-use intensification on seven different taxa including plants, vertebrates and invertebrates from above and below ground habitats at the landscape scale. Our main hypothesis was there exists a threshold in the response of biodiversity to gradual deforestation and landscape intensification beyond which species are extirpated at a higher rate. We thus expected biodiversity to decrease nonlinearly along a gradient of deforestation and agricultural intensity. This assumption was tested using a synthetic index of land-use intensity and specific landscape metrics related to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and land-use temporal dynamics.

Methods

Study sites

The study was carried out in Brazil (state of Pará) and Colombia (department of Caquetá) (Figure 1). We studied 3 areas per country that represented 6 different stages along a gradient of deforestation and agricultural intensification, from recently affected areas, where deforestation was in the early stage (Brazil), to regions with old agricultural histories and extensive pastures (Colombia) (Figure 1 & Supporting Information). We did not examine pristine forests (i.e., the starting point of the deforestation process) because the extensive agricultural landscapes behind the Amazonian deforestation front no longer contain large areas of intact forests. In a socioeconomic survey X. Arnaud de Sartre categorized agricultural systems at 51 farms in each area (306 systems total) (see Supporting Information). We then selected from this initial pool a set of 54 farms (9 noncontiguous farms per area) that best represented the local production systems (Lavelle et al. 2016a). We further used this set of 54 farms as replicated elementary units to describe the landscape mosaic of the entire landscape and to measure species richness for the different target groups. At each farm, 5 equidistant sampling points (200 m from each other) were geolocated along a 1-km transect that ran along the longest diagonal line of the farm plot (Fig. 1). This design guaranteed a distribution of sampling effort among land uses that was proportional to relative representation of the uses within each farm.

Sampling

We used standardized methods to sample plants and 4 groups of animals (earthworms, fruit flies, moths, and birds) on each farm. Groups were chosen for their link to soil ecosystem services (earthworms, plants [START_REF] Diaz | Incorporating plant functional diversity effects in ecosystem service assessments[END_REF]Lavelle et al. 2016b]), sensitivity to local perturbations (fruit flies [START_REF] Gottschalk | Changes in Brazilian Drosophilidae (Diptera) assemblages across an urbanisation gradient[END_REF]), or specific response to landscape composition and migrating abilities (moths and birds [Barlow et al. 2007b;[START_REF] Hawes | Diversity and composition of Amazonian moths in primary, secondary and plantation forests[END_REF]). Sampling was carried out from April to July 2008 with the aim of providing accurate and comparable estimates of species richness among the 6 study areas.

At each sampling point, a quadrat sampling area of 50 x 50 m was defined within a homogeneous landscape element. For each taxonomic group, we determined the species composition and counted the number of individuals.

At each sampling point, plant species were counted in 3 vegetation strata in an area of a particular size: trees >10 cm dbh in a 10  50 m area; shrubs and young trees <10 cm diameter and >2 m tall in a 5  50 m area; herbaceous species (spermatophytes and pteridophytes) and seedlings of both trees and shrubs in 10 x 10 m 2 5 m from each other. For each species, samples were collected, dried in a field oven, and taken to the lab for identification.

Saturniidae and Sphingidae (moths) were collected with light trapping during a single collecting night at each transect for a total of 9 collecting night per study area. Traps were located as close as possible to the largest forest remnant on the farm. Moths were sampled throughout the night on moonless nights (i.e., from 1800 to 0600 [START_REF] Lamarre | Stay out (almost) all night: contrasting responses in flight activity among tropical moth assemblages[END_REF]) with a white sheet (2 m height × 3 m width) illuminated by a 175W-mercury vapor bulb powered by a small portable generator. Specimens were killed by injection of ammonia, stored and dried in labeled paper envelopes, and brought to the laboratory for identification.

Drosophilidae (fruit flies) were collected with cylindrical traps (10 cm diameter × 25 cm height) closed at one extremity with a funnel at the other. Traps were baited with approximately 100 g of fermented banana [START_REF] Martins | Traps for tropical drosophilids survey[END_REF]. Three traps were placed at each sampling point and deployed for 48 hours. Specimens were fixed in 70 % alcohol and taken to the laboratory for identification. When necessary, specimens were kept alive to allow laboratory rearing and more precise identifications.

Earthworms were collected by hand sorting 3blocks of soil at each sampling point: 1 central block of 25 × 25 × 30 cm and 2 blocks of 25 × 25 × 10 cm (1 block 5 m north of the central block and the other 5 m south of the central block). Individual specimens were fixed in 4% formaldehyde and taken to the laboratory for identification. Because most of the collected species were new to science, morphospecies were defined on the basis of external and internal morphological characters, and the number of morphospecies was used as a surrogate for species richness.

Point counts for birds were conducted at each sampling point by two persons in a single 20-minute session in the morning (from approximately 0600 to 1100) to encompass the period of maximal bird activity. The total sampling effort was of 45 bird counts per study area.

Relying on a single sampling period and a single season could have led to undersampling of rare species or taxa with strong seasonal occupancy patterns. However, we considered our sampling strategy relevant to efficiently sampling, for each focal group, at least the dominant species that are active during the rainy season. This allowed us to conduct a broad comparison of diversity levels among the different study areas.

Species richness

Regional species richness was described by calculating the cumulative number of species observed in each area and the abundance-based coverage estimator (ACE), which provides an estimate of the theoretical size of the species pool [START_REF] Chao | Estimating the number of classes via sample coverage[END_REF]. For rarefaction and extrapolation curves, we plotted the number of species according to sampling intensity (i.e., number of specimens collected or observed) and extrapolated this number in a hypothetical situation where the sampling size was doubled. This was done using the iNEXT package for R (R Development Core Team 2011; [START_REF] Chao | Coverage-based rarefaction and extrapolation: standardizing samples by completeness rather than size[END_REF].

At the farm scale, local species richness was rarefied for a subsample size that corresponded to the median density of each group of organism. For each farm, species richness transformed in this way represented the average number of species observed in a standardized sample of n individuals, where n is the median density of the corresponding target group and n equaled 1586, 219, 35, 107, 30, 29, and 140 for herbaceous plants, shrubs, trees, fruit flies, moths, earthworms, and birds, respectively. Calculations were done using the vegan library of the R software [START_REF] Oksanen | Vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 1[END_REF].

At both scales, we computed a standardized index of species richness, modified from [START_REF] Dunn | Managing the tropical landscape: a comparison of the effects of logging and forest conversion to agriculture on ants, birds, and lepidoptera[END_REF], that reduced most of the species richness variation into a single metric. We transformed each value of estimated regional richness (ACE index) or local rarefied richness as a percentage of the highest value observed at the relevant scale for the corresponding taxonomic group. The resulting data set was composed of normalized species richness that ranged from 0 to 100 for each group of organisms. The standardized index of species richness was calculated for each farm and each area as the mean of the transformed richness of the seven focal groups; it also ranged from 0 (theoretical farm or area where species richness was null for all the groups) to 100 (theoretical farm or area where species richness in all groups were the highest observed values). Pairwise correlations in species richness among the focal groups of organisms were assessed with Spearman correlation index.

Landscape effects on species richness

We used remote sensing to describe landscape composition and structure within each farm.

Our set of metrics included total area of land use and relative percentages, edge density, mean patch density, patch diversity (patch richness, Shannon diversity, Shannon evenness, and dominance), and fractal structures (perimeter/area, mean shape). We used available Landsat images for 1990, 1994, 1998, 2002, and 2007. These metrics were further used to calculate a single index of land-use intensity (LI) (Oszwald et al. 2011) that integrates the current pattern and the dynamics of the landscapes (Supporting Information).

We also used these metrics to assess the specific effect of five potential landscape drivers (Table on species Co-inertia analysis was conducted to assess the relationships between the rarefied richness of the 7 focal groups of organisms and the landscape drivers measured in the 54 farms.

Co-inertia analysis consists of a simultaneous ordination of 2 tables (for instance an environmental and a floristic/faunistic table) that share the same row codes and provides axes that maximize the covariation between them [START_REF] Dolédec | Co-inertia analysis: an alternative method for studying speciesenvironment relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Dray | Co-inertia analysis and the linking of the ecological data tables[END_REF]). In the present case, we used the ADE-4 package for R [START_REF] Dray | The ade4 package: implementing the duality diagram for ecologists[END_REF] to independently performed principal component analysis (PCA) on each table and used their results to run the co-inertia analysis. This allowed a simultaneous ordination of the 7 focal groups according to the 5 landscape drivers in the 54 farms and provided a measure of the global similarity among the data sets (matrix correlation coefficient Rv) that we tested using a Monte Carlo permutation test (999 randomizations).

Graphical exploration of the data suggested the relationship among local species richness, land-use intensity, and individual landscape metrics was often nonlinear and was characterized in some cases by an abrupt change along predictors. Thus, we adjusted species richness to landscape metrics with 3 kinds of models and selected the one with the best AIC. The 3 models included simple linear effect of a predictor, segmented linear model effect, or nonlinear logistic model effect. Segmented analyses automatically estimating the break point in the predictor were performed with the segmented and MASS package of R. Linear and logistic regressions were done using the lm and SSlogis functions of the stats package. Only the best model for each predictor is shown on figures, and nonsignificant models are not shown.

Results

In total, we sampled or recorded >3,800 species, including 100 species of fruit-flies, 136 species of moths, 338 species of birds, 21 species of earthworms, and 1746, 1049, and 414 species of herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees, respectively. At the regional scale (Figure 2 & Supporting Information), the general pattern was a transient stability of species pools at the beginning of the landscape gradient (i.e., areas of less intensive agriculture). In moderately degraded areas there was sometimes a slight increase in the number of species (e.g., fruit flies and earthworms) (Figures 2d and2f), followed by a sharp decrease beyond a threshold leading to poorly diversified assemblages in landscapes with the highest land-use intensity. The exact position of the threshold on the gradient was different among the target groups, occurring, for example, at low levels of land-use intensity for herbaceous plants and moths (Figures 2a and2e) and at the most degraded extreme of the gradient for trees (Figure 2c). The synthetic index of regional richness efficiently summarized these patterns and highlighted a clear threshold in the loss of regional richness mid-way along the land-use intensity gradient (Figure 2h).

With the exclusion of birds, we found a general decrease in local richness along the landscape gradient for all our target groups (Figure 3). The rarefied richness of herbaceous plants and earthworms decreased rather monotonically (Figures 3a and3c). Shrubs, trees, fruit flies, and moths presented a transient stability in their richness and a marked drop in richness at moderate land-use intensity (Figures 3b,3c,3d and 3e). As for regional diversity, local richness appeared rather constant in the first stages of forest conversion before a clear threshold was reached, mid-way along the gradient, beyond which diversity declined sharply (Figure 3h).

Co-inertia analysis highlighted a significant costructure between species richness and landscape metrics (Rv coefficient = 0.44; Monte Carlo simulated p = 0.001). The first co-inertia axis explained 99.6 % of the covariation among data sets. It separated farms with high forest cover and quality (mostly Brazilian sites) from farms with a high percentage of agricultural land cover and to a lesser extent rapid land-use turnover and high edge density (negative scores, mostly Colombian sites) (Figure 4a andSI4). Rarefied species richness of all groups of organisms had positive scores along this axis (Figure 4b), meaning biodiversity was globally and positively linked with the availability and quality of forests in the landscape and negatively linked with agriculture intensification.

Accordingly, the correlation between local species richness and the percentage of forest ecosystems showed richness stability in moderately deforested farms (40-50% of forest dominance) and a clear threshold between 30% and 40% of forest coverage below which biodiversity tended to decline rapidly (Figure 5a). Differences between farms with comparable forest cover were further explained by differences in the quality of the forest patches, here defined as the percentage of undisturbed forests (Figure 5b). We also observed an almost linear decrease of local richness as the proportion of agricultural lands increased in the landscape (Figure 5c). No significant relationship occurred between local richness and land-use turnover or total edge density (Supporting Information).

Although positive and significant correlations of local species richness occurred with all possible pairwise comparisons between groups (Supporting Information), the average correlation was low (mean r = 0.54). Birds and moths were poorly correlated with other groups (0.33 and 0.41, respectively), whereas other groups of animals had higher correlations (0.57 and 0.58 for fruit flies and earthworms, respectively). Plant richness was more closely correlated to the other groups (0.61 for the herbaceous layer and 0.63 for shrubs and trees).

Average between-group correlations of ACE-estimated regional richness was higher than that observed at the local scale (mean r = 0.71) , but pairwise comparisons were significant in only 7 cases out of 21 (Supporting Information). For the comparison between shrub and herbaceous plant layers, p was <0.01, whereas other significant pairwise comparisons had p values from 0.01 to 0.05.

Discussion

We identified a dramatic impact of land-use intensity on Amazonian biodiversity. The clear threshold we found in the response of cross-taxonomic species richness to land-use intensity represents significant empirical support for the existence of tipping points in the response of biodiversity to deforestation and land-use intensity. Although Brazilian and Colombian sites may not have originally equivalent species diversity, this threshold is supported for some focal taxa within species pools of equivalent size in both regions, or even larger species pools in Colombia (Supporting Information). This finding suggests loss of species richness could have been underestimated in the higher range of our gradient. Such a nonlinear decrease in species richness following deforestation is predicted by ecological theory [START_REF] Andren | Effects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammals in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat -a review[END_REF]Wilson 2002;[START_REF] Lindenmayer | A checklist for ecological management of landscapes for conservation[END_REF]), but little empirical evidence has been collected so far to test for such a pattern, especially at the landscape scale. To date, the validity of the threshold hypothesis has been questioned by authors who believe minor changes in native vegetation cover will not result in abrupt biodiversity changes due to contrasting responses of individual species [START_REF] Lindenmayer | A checklist for ecological management of landscapes for conservation[END_REF][START_REF] Pardini | Beyond the Fragmentation Threshold Hypothesis: Regime Shifts in Biodiversity Across Fragmented Landscapes[END_REF]. However, in spite of the variety of the groups considered, we found that overall local biodiversity dropped steeply when forest cover fell below 30-40%. This threshold value is in the higher range of those predicted by [START_REF] Andren | Effects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammals in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat -a review[END_REF], who hypothesized the existence of a universal threshold value around 10-30% of native vegetation cover. It is also consistent with the results of [START_REF] Rigueira | Forest cover, extinction thresholds and time lags in woody plants (Myrtaceae) in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest: resources for conservation[END_REF], who found a 6fold decrease in Myrtaceae species richness when forest cover drops below 30-40 % in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We also found that forest patch quality was an important factor in explaining biodiversity dynamics in deforested landscapes, which is consistent with the results of [START_REF] Barlow | Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests can double biodiversity loss from deforestation[END_REF], who highlighted that forest disturbance in individual forests and at the landscape level can explain a significant proportion of conservation value loss in Amazonian landscapes.

Landscape structure (total edge density) and temporal dynamics did not explain biodiversity patterns, which suggests habitat amount may have greater effects than habitat fragmentation [START_REF] Andren | Effects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammals in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat -a review[END_REF]. This is an unexpected result because the link between landscape composition and fragmentation is well established especially in the context of deforestation fronts, where intensification of land use results in an increase in anthropic ecosystems and a reduction of the average size of landscape units (and consequently an increase in total edge density). Our finding that temporal dynamics did not explain biodiversity patterns also contrasts with the results of other studies that show patch temporal turnover does affect biodiversity [START_REF] Fischer | Landscape dynamics can accelerate metapopulation extinction[END_REF][START_REF] Ernoult | Potential landscape drivers of biodiversity components in a flood plain: past or present patterns?[END_REF]). One explanation for this is that we considered several taxa with potentially different ecological responses to landscape dynamics, which could have blurred the global response of biodiversity to landscape structure and land use turnover.

Besides the clear threshold for loss of overall species richness as land use intensifies, significant variations in the response patterns among our focal groups were apparent. For instance, the species richness of herbaceous plants, trees, and earthworms dropped sooner at the local than at the regional scale, suggesting that forest patches allowed these groups to maintain transient pools of species regionally or that the extinction of forest species was temporarily compensated by the invasion of extraregional species adapted to agricultural land uses. By contrast, shrubs, fruit flies, and birds presented simultaneous variations of their regional and local richness with land-use intensity, indicating that local species extirpations rapidly trigger extirpations at the regional scale. Moths showed a rather idiosyncratic pattern; regional richness decreased more rapidly than local richness, which may be explained by a transient decrease in community turnover at moderate levels of land-use intensity, allowing for a higher proportion of the regional species pool to occur in local assemblages.

Despite positive correlations among species richness of our different target groups, our results highlighted that these correlations were mostly nonsignificant at the regional scale and that only a small fraction of the variance in local species richness of one taxonomic group enabled prediction of species richness of another group. These observations follow the conclusions of previous studies conducted in other tropical environments [START_REF] Lawton | Biodiversity indicators, indicator taxa and effects of habitat modification in tropical forest nature[END_REF][START_REF] Schulze | Biodiversity indicator groups of tropical land-use systems: Comparing plants, birds, and insects[END_REF]. Discrepancies in the response of different taxa to deforestation can be caused by differences in their sensitivity to landscape transformation because they experience landscape changes at different spatial and temporal scales, are affected differently by changes in landscape configuration, use different habitats and resources within these landscapes, and present different dispersal capabilities to offset the effects of habitat fragmentation [START_REF] Montoya | Animal versus wind dispersal and the robustness of tree species to deforestation[END_REF][START_REF] Gardner | Prospects for tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world[END_REF]Villard & Metzger 2014). Therefore, species extinctions tend to occur at different levels of landscape perturbation, and the general response of species richness may differ significantly among the target groups. Altogether, these results emphasize the importance of considering a large range of organisms, rather than focusing on a few indicator taxa, when addressing the question of biodiversity response to forest modification and destruction [START_REF] Lawton | Biodiversity indicators, indicator taxa and effects of habitat modification in tropical forest nature[END_REF]Barlow et al. 2007a). The use of a synthetic index of species richness represents an efficient tool to summarize both the constancy and variability of the patterns among groups in a single and easily manageable metric.

A comparison of the total number of species observed in our samples with the estimated sizes of regional species pools for the few taxonomic groups for which this information is available suggests that an important proportion of the species potentially occurring in the surveyed regions was lacking in our study (Supporting Information). In the less affected landscapes, however, observed and estimated numbers of species for trees, fruit flies, moths, and birds were higher or in the range of those numbers found locally by Barlow et al. (2007a) in primary Amazonian forest based on a comparable sampling intensity. This suggests that although less intense agricultural landscapes are likely to sustain high levels of species richness, a number of forest species are lacking in those areas probably as a consequence of local extirpations occurring very early during the onset of the deforestation process. In agricultural landscapes, our results, however, underline the importance of old secondary vegetation, managed forests, and tree plantations in the maintenance of local species richness for different groups of plants and animals [START_REF] Lawton | Biodiversity indicators, indicator taxa and effects of habitat modification in tropical forest nature[END_REF]Barlow et al. 2007a).

Finally, our findings improve substantially understanding of the importance of landscape structure and dynamics for the maintenance of biodiversity in human-affected areas.

The sharp threshold observed for the biodiversity response to land-use intensity is mainly explained by forest availability and quality. Species richness was not maintained when forest cover fell below 40% and when forest patches contained <50% of undisturbed forest. An interesting correlate is that biodiversity loss may be mitigated either by sustaining forest quality (maintaining a high proportion of primary forest in the remaining patches) in highly deforested landscapes or by maintaining large forest surfaces in regions where forest has been extensively degraded. Landscape fragmentation and dynamics seemed of lesser importance for the taxa we studied. Our findings therefore suggest that anthropogenic landscapes with highquality forests covering >40 % of the surface area (Figure 5a-b) may have a significant potential to offset biodiversity loss in Amazonia.

Although this result provides valuable clues for identifying landscape management options toward meeting the challenges of biodiversity conservation and economic development in rural areas, it could be mistakenly used to justify the development of agriculture in still intact forest areas. The applicability of our findings must be considered with caution and should not be considered outside the context of already degraded landscapes because the maintenance of species richness alone may not represent a sufficient indicator of conservation success (Barlow et al. 2007a). For instance, the use of biodiversity metrics to measure the dissimilarity in community composition between intact forests and anthropogenic landscapes or to examine species life-trait shifts along deforestation gradients, although not possible in our study, should be considered in future cross-taxonomic studies. If we could have conducted such investigations, we would have been able to determine the relative importance of intact forest to species along the gradient of agricultural development or to determine species that are particularly sensitive to forest degradation. Additionally, the presence of a threshold at intermediate levels of deforestation does not exclude the possibility of an early drop in biodiversity at the onset of the deforestation process; we did not considered this. However, identifying relevant landscape characteristics for biodiversity conservation in agricultural lands paves the way to a definition of management policies for the reconstruction of sustainable landscapes, which will help reduce biological erosion by complementing the existing networks of protected forest areas. For instance, both Colombia and Brazil have the political will to preserve their forest resources and reforest already degraded areas (e.g., 20x20 initiative in Colombia and the revised Forest Code in Brazil [START_REF] Civil | Presidência da República[END_REF]). However, existing policies are often not applicable (Vedovato et al. 2016;[START_REF] Landau | Variação geográfica do tamanho dos Módulos Fiscais no Brasil[END_REF] and do not consider the quality of forest patches (e.g., up to 50% of non-native tree species are allowed in reforested areas in Brazil). Our results suggest that current legislation imposes fragile conditions on the conservation of biodiversity in rural landscapes and that the quality of forest remnants should be better considered when dealing with biodiversity monitoring.

  richness: forest loss based on relative cover of mature forests (percentage of farm area); agricultural intensification based on the relative cover of agricultural land (percentage of farm area covered by pastures and crops); landscape fragmentation based on total edge density, which appeared to be significantly correlated with other metrics describing landscape structure and diversity (Oszwald et al. 2011); forest quality based on the proportion of forest in a given farm that was undisturbed during the past 17 years (hereafter undisturbed forest); and landscape dynamics, calculated using Euclidean distance with the daisy function in the R cluster library as the mean between-year land-use turnover (i.e., change in land-use composition) from 1990 to 2007 (Maechler et al. 2012). See Oszwald et al. (2011) and Supporting Information for further details.

a

  Age of human colonization. b Land-cover percent calculated from 2007 Landsat images: FO, primary forests; BF, burned forests; UW, undergrowth wetlands; PA, pastures; LP, ligneous pastures; FA, fallows; WA, water areas; BS, bare soil. c Measures of landscape structure: Fqual, forest quality (percent of forest in a given area that was undisturbed during the past 17 years), ED, total edge density; LUTO, land-use turnover (i.e., mean between-year dissimilarity in land-use composition from 1990 to 2007); LI, land-use index (0, lowest intensity; 1, highest intensity).

Figure legends Figure 1 .

 legends1 Figure legends

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Variations in regional species richness with land-use intensity for : (a-g) 7 target

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Relationships between local species richness and land-use intensity (0, lowest

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Contributions of (a) landscape metrics and (b) rarefied species richness to the

Table 1 .

 1 Vedavato LB, Fonseca MG, AraiE, Oighenstein Anderson L, Aragão LEOC. 2016. The extent of 2014 forest fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazon. Regional Environmental Change 16: 2485-2490. Villard M-A, Metzger J-P. 2014. Beyond the fragmentation debate: a conceptual model to predict when habitat configuration really matters. Journal of Applied Ecology 51, 309-318. Wilson EO. 2002. The future of life. Vintage Books, New York. Main characteristics of the Amazonian landscapes in the 6 agricultural areas examined.

Acknowledgments

This work is dedicated to the late J. C. Ribeiro da Silva and M. do Espirito Santo Da Silva whose farm was one of the study sites of this work. Their murder on 24 May 2011 in Maçaranduba is doubtlessly tied to their strong engagement in the preservation of biodiversity in Brazilian Amazonia and the development of sustainable agriculture in the region. We thank all the colleagues from the Federal University of Pará (Maraba campus, Brazil), Universidad de la Amazonia (Florencia, Colombia), Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi (Belém, Brazil), and the Institut Recherche pour le Développement (Paris, France) for their critical logistical support of this study. We are also grateful to the Brazilian, Colombian, and French students who enthusiastically participated in field sampling and helped process the enormous number of samples and data sets, the Brazilian and Colombian technical and field staff, especially D. da Costa Carvalho and M. Cordeiro, and the Brazilian and Colombian farmers for allowing us to carry out our study. This study was supported through grants from the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche and the Brazilian National Council of Research to the project AMAZ.

Figure 5. Relationships between the synthetic index of species richness and selected landscape metrics and (a) percent forest area, (b) forest quality, and (c) percent agricultural lands.

Supporting information

Details on the selection of study sites and calculation of the land use index (Appendix S1), questionnaire used for farmers interviews in the socioeconomic survey of agricultural systems (in Portuguese) (Appendix S2), and species' pool estimated sizes for some taxa, rarefaction curves, additional results of the co-inertia analysis, nonsignificant correlations between species


Julie Bibaud-Alves
email: julie.bibaud-alves4@etu.univ-lorraine.fr

Hind Bril El-Haouzi

Philippe Thomas
email: philippe.thomas@univ-lorraine.fr

Vincent Bou- Cinha
email: vboucinha@parisot.com

Toward a sustainable New Product Development approach based on industry 4.0 assets

Keywords: New Product Development, Sustainable Development, Digital Transformation

The consumption society becomes more and more complex and challenging for companies. Therefore, industries must adapt their capacities to drive and continually improve their processes, resources and data management in a competitive environment. This paper aims to bring together and to link the concepts of new product development (NPD) process, digital transformation and sustainable development through a human centered approach. Organization, Process and Knowledge Management are the main NPD's classic critical focuses. The introduction of advanced technologies in products, in their development and in project portfolio management represents a huge opportunity to deal with their inherent complexity and to develop smart, connected products in a smart and connected industrial system. These evolutions should be considered within the framework of sustainable development, in order to design and produce better products in a better way regarding, among others, social, economic, environmental and ethic aspects.

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, companies have to design and produce more and more complex products, in a shorter time period, while reducing costs, in order to meet new customer's needs and to stay in adequacy with the organization's business goals. To succeed, the companies have to control their New Product Development (NPD) processes [START_REF] Cooper | Winning at New Products[END_REF], the involved resources and the received, created, and broadcasted data. NPD is a central process that transform a market opportunity into a salable product. Several services are simultaneously involved (design, trading, technical and industrial studies, methods, purchasing and logistics departments) to choose the right concept, the right design, the adequate raw materials, components, assemblies, etc. The interdependences between all these activities, jobs and tools and the multiple iterations due to the creative nature of this process make it even more complex. To achieve the translation of the customer's needs into a manufacturable technical solution, the participation and involvement of all the departments is required, in a common way, and have to rely on a strong Knowledge Management System [START_REF] Belbaly | Etude empirique de l'effet de la création de connaissances sur le processus de développement de nouveaux produits[END_REF].

In many companies, the NDP process is not properly managed. Besides, 85 % of the problems in the production process are known to be related to NPD process level decisions [START_REF] Schomberger | Japanese manufacturing techniques: nine hidden lessons in simplicity[END_REF]. The process, the methods and the role of each person involved in the process are not clarified nor shared. The functional separation between the departments involved in the NPD process tend to worsen the situation. Modifications on current projects are more than frequent, leading to numerous iterations in the NPD process. Consequently, quality, cost and time objectives are not achieved [START_REF] Rossi | Engineering and Design Best Practices in New Product Development: an Empirical Research[END_REF]. Besides, the lack of clear and shared project management methods makes the portfolio and the NPD management even more difficult to synchronize with the organization's business goals. Best practices concerning project management and projects portfolio management have to be restored. Focus has to be set on organization (work organization, roles and coordination, training, skills and competencies), process (process management, activities and value, decision making factors and methods) and knowledge management (formalization and computerization) [START_REF] Tai | Effects of product lifecycle management systems on new product development performance[END_REF]. In many companies, the number of projects, the heterogeneity between them, the number of different skills, in and out of the company, increase the resources and data management complexity [START_REF] Rossi | Engineering and Design Best Practices in New Product Development: an Empirical Research[END_REF]. In order to make the right decisions, companies also have to be able to reuse and to analyze data. The introduction of advanced technologies can be a huge opportunity to deal with this complexity [6] [7]. It allows the design and production of smart connected products, which can interact with their environment and among each over and take decision. It can also automate low value-added activities.

The NPD process renewal is crucial point in the digital transformation of manufacturing companies. Before products became smart and connected, data was generated primarily by internal operations and through transactions across the value chain in the NPD process. In many companies, the data management system is unstructured, and the computer system is outdated. Technologies can help to computerize the NPD only if this one is clarified, shared and operational. The redesign of the NPD and its integration into the digital transformation should be developed within the framework of sustainable development in order to design and produce better products in a better way. The sustainable development is also a framework to organize the transition. It can help to develop a human centered approach, which can help to deal with the possible change resistance and take advantage of human capital skills. This paper aims to bring together and to link the concepts of new product development process and of digital transformation, through a sustainable development approach. It is also an introduction to a PhD project with Parisot, a French octogenarian furniture manufacture, which seems to affirm its desire to significantly move towards new ways of working. Considering the crisis Parisot is facing, the obsolescence of its computer system and its management's difficulties, how can Parisot deal with this transformation (new objective-methods-tool's definition and implementation) while continuing to develop and produce goods? The first step is to define a global project, focused on research, to integrate sustainable development's concepts and tools into the NPD process methods and tools through the digital transformation of the whole company. In this article, NPD process definition and some classic methods and issues are presented. Then digital transformation is explained through a list of the different technologies used in the Industry 4.0 and how they can respond to the NPD issues. Finally, sustainable development is introduced as a new paradigm: a global framework to design and implement a digital NPD. The PhD project is approached in the conclusion as a potential pilot project.

NPD process 2.1 DEFINITION

In this part, NPD process definition and classic issues and methods are presented. It is important to highlight that NPD can be studied according to different and complementary perspectives (Fig. 1). In order to keep or win market shares, the company has to develop new products (1 in the Fig. 1). The complexity of the project management depends on the nature of the project, from a simple component change to an innovation project with a new industrial know-how.

Fig. 1. NPD perspectives

Even if the NPD process modalities can vary according to companies' specificities and projects' maturity, the common steps are: Opportunity Identification; Opportunity Analysis; GO/NOGO; Idea Genesis; Idea Analyses; Idea Selection; GO/NOGO; Development; Testing; GO/NOGO; Launch.

The two first steps are often considered as predevelopment activities, during which, among others, source-of-supply, market research, customer value, business opportunities are detailed and assessed. It is also called the Fuzzy Front End and considered as a messy early phase of the NPD process. Most, if not all, of departments are of relevance to each of these phases. The departments' combined expertise enabled them to quickly draw a global specification up [START_REF] Genç | Cross-functional integration in the sustainable new product development process: The role of the environmental specialist[END_REF]. The coordination of all the departments is also crucial to take right decisions. The GO/NOGO phase can be associated to locks, controlled by a committee making decision thanks to tools such as multi-criteria analysis. To facilitate those phases and their coordination, a dynamic, efficient and structured information and data management system is required [START_REF] Scheidel | Product Data Management in the Context of Industry 4[END_REF]. This system is a base, which enable to reuse and analyze the data, using KPI to assess the making decision process performance, and globally the NPD performance [10] [4]. Adopting a continuous improvement approach is essential. Decision-making tools and management rules are also crucial, not only for projects, but for the whole NPD projects flow (2 in the Fig. 1). The challenge is increased by the number of project and their type variability. A formal Knowledge Management is required in order to bring efficiency into NPD process, decision-making process, their management and their continuous improvement (3 in Fig. 1) [START_REF] Belbaly | Etude empirique de l'effet de la création de connaissances sur le processus de développement de nouveaux produits[END_REF]. Knowledge cover both all the NPD experiences and the current industrial know-how. Indeed, the NPD is integrated to the whole company's system, which is divided in this article, in three parts: NPD, Strategy and Supply Chain / Machine Park (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. NPD integrated in the company's system

In a functional system, NPD have to efficiently respond to the company's strategy, while making optimal use of the Supply Chain and Machine Park with a continuous improvement (short and medium term) and based a knowledge management system (1 in the Fig. 2) [START_REF] Afrouzy | A genetic algorithm for supply chain configuration with new product development[END_REF]. On long term level, companies have to anticipate the adaptation of their NPD, Supply Chains and Machine Parks (2 and 3 in the Fig. 2). Through this definition, in addition to the usual challenges of the human resource's management issues in such transdisciplinary business process, the complexity of the NPD management is easily perceived. The NPD's unmastered complexity is visible through various the issues and poor practices that can be find in many companies.

PRINCIPAL ISSUES

The principal issues find their origins in poor practices [START_REF] Tai | Effects of product lifecycle management systems on new product development performance[END_REF] (Fig. 3). The first dimension (Organization) concerns all the people involved in daily company's activities. The second dimension (Process) investigates how NPD is practically performed. The third dimension (Knowledge Management) is related to how companies create, share, represent and re-use their tacit and explicit knowledge. The figure below focuses on dimension 2 and 3. Fig. 3. NPD poor and best practices [START_REF] Tai | Effects of product lifecycle management systems on new product development performance[END_REF] Issues also concern the NPD process position in the global company's system (Fig. 4). In the first case, NPD can develop new products adapted to the Supply Chain and the Machine Park, but that are not responding to the company's strategy. In the second case, NPD can develop new products responding to the company's strategy but impossible to produce with the current Supply Chain and Machine Park. In the third case, NPD can develop new products adapted to the strategy and to the Supply Chain and Machine Park, but for which the development stays inefficient because of the miscommunication between NPD office, Supply Chain and Machine Park. The global company's performance is reduced, and many quality issues appear [START_REF] Afrouzy | A fuzzy stochastic multi-objective optimization model to configure a supply chain considering new product development[END_REF].

Fig. 4. Issues concerning NPD situation in the company's system

More research is needed about the most suitable practices to be used, considering the context [START_REF] Tai | Effects of product lifecycle management systems on new product development performance[END_REF]. Therefore, a PhD thesis project is a good opportunity to support a company in this challenge, while contributing to the research. Sustainable development and digital transformation will be two keys to find solutions, in order to implement best practices in the case study, for each NPD perspective, dimension and its integration into the global system [START_REF] Gmelin | Achieving sustainable new product development by integrating product life-cycle management capabilities[END_REF].

CASE STUDY THROUGH THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION

ANALYSIS of THE COMPANY STATE OF PLAY THROUGH THE NPD CONCEPTS AND THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION

Parisot -Saint Loup's Unithas been chosen, as a company, to be supported in its transition through a PhD thesis project. It's an octogenarian French furniture industry, which is facing a crisis primarily due to economic difficulties since 2012. This crisis went along with a reduction of its workforce, without transfer of knowledge or experience. It is one of the principal reasons why there are many poor practices, especially in the NPD. People have developed their own methods without sharing with each other's.

Beyond the above-mentioned poor practices (Fig. 3), Parisot's computer system is outdated, lacking a central data base. The informational flow is mainly paper-based, Email based, with no shared plan for the archives management, or is passing through meetings without agenda nor report. To stay competitive, Parisot needs to evolve and refresh its methods and tools using the Industry 4.0 opportunities. "Industry 4.0" stands for "4th industrial revolution", based on Cyber-Physical Systems, following the 3rd one, which was based on electronics and IT usage for further automation of production. The term was created to emphasize the opportunities of digitizing and integrating all instances of value-adding system [START_REF] Neugebauer | Industrie 4.0 -From the perspective of applied research[END_REF]. The fundament is the availability of relevant information everywhere they are needed and at any time, thanks to the involvement of all resources like humans, objects and systems. Those are integrated as dynamic, self-organized, real-time and autonomously optimized value-adding systems. The core technologies are [START_REF] Neugebauer | Industrie 4.0 -From the perspective of applied research[END_REF]: i.

Engineering (e.g. digital and virtual engineering embedded software, smart materials) ii.

Manufacturing technologies and organization (e.g. self-directed manufacturing, responsive and adaptive manufacturing, additive manufacturing) iii.

Machines (e.g. intelligent sensors and actuators, remote and predictive maintenance, plug and produce integration and configuration) iv.

Smart capabilities (e.g. machine learning, multi-agent control, self-localization) v.

Robotics and human-robot-collaboration (e.g. mobile robots, soft robotics, data and sensor fusion) vi.

Production planning and control (e.g. intelligent production planning and control, manufacturing execution system integration, standardized interfaces) vii.

Logistics (e.g. autonomous logistics systems, track and trace concepts, geo-fencing) viii.

Work organization (e.g. flexible work organization, social business process management, competence management) ix.

Workplace design and assistance (e.g. human-machine interfacing, knowledge augmentation through Virtual / Augmented Reality, mobile devices, wearables, assistance and decision support systems) x.

Resource and energy efficiency (e.g. emission-neutral production, recycling management, urban manufacturing)

Those technologies are concerning different functions in the Enterprise, in the Information and Production dimensions and in the Business, Management and Human resources areas [START_REF] Neugebauer | Industrie 4.0 -From the perspective of applied research[END_REF]:

1. Data collecting and processing (through sensors, RFID, storage and transmission, etc.) 2. Assistance systems (through Augmented Reality, human-machine-interfacing, decision support, etc.) 3. Networks and integration (through connected devices, cyber-physical systems, etc.) 4. Decentralization, service-orientation and flexibility (leading to new business models, flexibility and modular as well as scalable systems.) 5. Self-organization and autonomy (through control loops, self-configuration and optimization, machine learning, etc.)

As with the NPD practices, more research is needed about the most suitable technologies to be used depending on the context. The challenge is to find the best NPD practices coupled to the adapted technologies for a specific company, according to its needs and financial capacities.

3.2

Future directions

The PhD thesis project has two main axis, both leading to one single objective: select and implement the adapted best practices and methods with the adequate advanced technologies system, considering Parisot's situation.

Concerning the best practices, some affirmations are selected from Fig. 3 and adapted to the different NPD perspectives. The research concerning each perspective (1/ Project management, 2/ NDP flow management, 3/ Knowledge Management; Fig. 1) for each dimension (2. Process, 3. Knowledge Management; Fig. 3) will be focused through five functional areas (1-Data Collection and processing, 2-Assistance systems, 3-Networks and integration, 4-Decentralization, service-orientation and flexibilities, 5-Self-organization and autonomy). Fig. 5. Advanced Technologies integrated to the company's system For example, thanks to a cyber-physical system with smart products based on the Internet of Things, NPD, Supply Chain and Machine Park can easily communicate and be synchronized for an optimal new product launch regarding to quality, cost and delays [START_REF] Santos | Opportunities Assessment of Product Development Process in Industry 4[END_REF] (Fig. 5). All these processes can be recorded and analyzed [START_REF] Scheidel | Product Data Management in the Context of Industry 4[END_REF] and, thanks to a machine learning system, can improve the knowledge management and continuous improvement. This system improves the decision support, perfecting the decision-making process concerning one project or the project portfolio management. The Augmented Reality can support the different actors involved, according to their respective tasks [START_REF] Nunes | Smart products development approaches for Industry 4.0[END_REF]. For example, it can help designers to prototype and the sales representatives to present and sell the products.

Making a system efficient is part of the Lean concept and, more broadly, of the sustainable development goals. Furthermore, through the introduction of advanced and disruptive technologies under the Industry 4.0 framework, Lean principles can be implemented in a more effective and consistent way [START_REF] Nunes | Smart products development approaches for Industry 4.0[END_REF], [START_REF] Rauch | The way from Lean Product Development (LPD) to Smart Product Development (SPD)[END_REF]. The Lean Product Development (LPD) and Green Product Development (GPD) belong to the same "currency", in which the implementation of both concepts calls for a systems perspective where the dimensions of process-people-tools/techniques are linked holistically [START_REF] Johansson | Lean and green product development : two sidesof the same coin ?[END_REF].

Sustainable Development (SD) is also associated to the concept of "Transition". Concerning the case study, the PhD thesis project will support a huge transition for the company. For this reason, it is important to build and drive this project within a SD framework.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AS A FRAMEWORK

Often, people associate sustainable development to ecology or environment. But there is more than this dimension. "Environmental", "social" and "economic" dimensions are the most known. But regarding to the Chair of Eco-Advising's work -University of Quebec at Chicoutimi -"governance", "cultural", "ethical" and even "territorial" dimensions have to be added. Besides, based on the UNO's works, 17 goals have been defined. The NPD process in the furniture industry is particularly concerned by at least 3 out of these 17 goals:

• Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. • Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation. • Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

Through the thesis project, SD will be integrated at different levels. This concept will be used to adapt best practices, advanced technologies system and their management to Parisot's needs, but also to elaborate and manage the transition action plan. This SD integration aims to respond to the three UNO's goals and to the company's goals (growth and performance). To achieve these, the work of the Chair on Eco-Advising will be used as a fundamental base. Among the policy instruments developed by this research chair, the Sustainable Development Analysis Grid (GADD) is a tool for systematic analysis that assesses the extent to which a policy, strategy, program or project promotes, among others, the improvement of human conditions [START_REF] Villeneuve | How is sustainable development analyzed? User Guide for the Sustainable Development Analysis Grid[END_REF]. It can be adapted to design and drive NPD best practices, for example by defining a complex set of KPIs to measure NPD performances.

The challenge lies in the implementation of the chosen methods. The process of implementation is the Transition (Fig. 6). In general, market perturbances put pressure on the company's system, which have to adapt its functioning, putting pressure on the operational activities. Without a plan, initiatives and projects start independently of each other. This provokes redundancy in the system and a lack of consistency, which therefore makes the system inefficient, even if people demonstrate willingness and determination. This leads to poor practices, disconnected from each other (Fig. 3).

To be able to anticipate market perturbances, in a continual adjustment and improvement perspective, the company have to elaborate a plan. This transition action plan aims to bring the system to a target situation, which functions with best practices supported by advanced connected technologies in a Sustainable Development framework. This plan consists of three segments: Strategic, Tactical and Operational activities. This structuration helps to coordinate the various Initiatives and Projects through the company's system in order to make the transition more efficient. From the target situation, Strategic activities are defined to achieve the target. To achieve those Strategic activities, these are subdivided into Tactical activities. Those are also subdivided into Operational activities. The target situation and the Strategy have to be elaborated by the management committee. Concerning the case study, the master thesis project aims to help this committee finding the right pentagon composed by the five dimensions explained through this article (Strategy, Supply Chain and Machine Park, Organization, Process, and Knowledge Management) and the adapted advanced technologies to support the new system. It also aims to elaborate the transition action plan, concerning the Tactical and Operational Activities. Those activities could take the form of workshops, which enable a humancentered approach, focusing on the social, cultural and ethics SD dimensions.

CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOKS

NPD has a central position between the company's strategy and the Supply Chain and Machine Park. In the Industry 4.0 context, advanced technologies allow to link those three parts through a cyber-physical system with smart connected products from the fuzzy early stage of the development (Opportunity Identification) to the launch or even to the streamlining of the range of products, thanks a dynamic updated knowledge management system. The quest for efficiency and effectiveness of the global system is carried out in a global sustainable development framework, which help to better grasp the complexity.

Various models have been developed but the current challenge is their adaptation and implantation in companies. The PhD thesis project is an opportunity to work on this through a case study. Parisot is today ready to change and needs to be supported through its transition. Here, the future step will consist in defining the adapted methods and an action plan to drive Parisot's transition.

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Transition Management (inspired by [19])