Florjan Bombaj

Dominique Barjolle

Theodosia Anthopoulou

Sheep breeding system in Southern Albania between political transition and market integration

Keywords: Florjan Bombaj, Dominique Barjolle, Theodosia Anthopoulou

Session 6

General session on localized agri-food systems in a changing world.

Convenor Professor François Casabianca, INRA.

This general session on localized agri-food systems deals with a wide variety of topics such as:

 The potential of the SYAL approach to provide a vision of historical trajectories at local level  Lock-in processes  The analysis of territories and the localization (delocalization -relocalization) of activities  The limits of supply chains approach.  Innovation processes within SYAL situations, Knowledge systems and learning processes  The role of territories as subsidiary level for Sustainable Development  SYAL as its potential as social pillar for sustainable development.  Technical and gastronomical cultures to be transmitted (how and by whom) to future generations.  SYAL and solidarities in crisis time.

Abstracts

The LAS (Localized Agri-food Systems) approach has been widely recognized as an efficient analytical framework to understand the organization and the functioning of agricultural and food production systems focusing on relationships between products, local societies and territories. In disadvantaged rural areas, in particular, it helps to understand industry activity concentration and spatial dynamics generated by food microenterprises, usually considered as backward, informal/ illegal and not competitive in the global market.

Our paper addresses the dynamics of sheep breeding and the dairy industry systems in a mountain area of Southern Albania (municipality of Vithkuq, Korça District), after the fall of communism in 1991 and the subsequent agrarian reform leading to very small farm holdings and land fragmentation. At the same time the massive out-migration of the active population in lowlands and abroad (mainly in neighboring Greece) still further degraded local socio-productive systems. Nevertheless, outcomes of the fieldwork research (diagnostic phase and field observation) show a tendency to increase in the herd size accompanied by some entrepreneurial farming and collective action initiatives aiming to improve farm productivity and market integration. The increasing demand for both dairy and meat products (due to the rapid growth of regional and urban markets) accompanied by the food safety standards at national and international level opens new perspectives for local communities to reinforce farming incomes and strengthen territorial added values through the improvement of livestock farming systems and a better valorization of their typical local products.

Drawing on the results of the field survey (semi-structured interviews with key-informants, questionnaires to breeders and dairy processors, available statistic data) the paper will focus on the following main points: a) the restructuring of traditional breeding systems generates competition/ conflicts in grazing land use among breeders including transhumant herders from outside areas raising the question of the management of the community pastures, b) the establishment of a few modern small dairies (3 in number) that collect all milk production from the broader mountainous area, including isolated villages, reveals the constraints of oligopolistic conditions within the studied territory. Local diaries apply low producer prices discouraging stockbreeders to improve farming systems and milk quality standards; c) entrepreneurial dairy farming and collective action initiatives are spontaneous or unrelated to each other stemming from "up-down" and extraterritorial stakeholders (e.g. international consulting and development companies) missing of territorial development impacts.

Based on the LAS approach the main question to discuss is how to support stockbreeding farmers and actors involved in the dairy value chain to both improve sector productivity and activate territorial specificities (natural pastures, local adapted breeds, tacit knowledge, networks, etc) in a market integration perspective and better valorization of their local products.


• Worse case of migration for PHBV/wheat straw fibres trays o Trays (30g, 140x130x35 mm3, i.e. 3.7 dm 2 ) in full contact with food o 20 wt% of wheat straw fibres  Maximal quantity of migratable epoxiconazole = 0.026 mg/kg of food  This would mean that a daily ingestion of more than 21 kg of food in contact with this kind of packaging… to reach the value of 0.56 mg/day

• Taking into account the decontamination efficiency (≈80%)

 This would mean that a daily ingestion of more than 88 kg of food in contact with this kind of packaging… to reach the value of 0.56 mg/day Toxicological risks of wheat straw fibres?

• Wheat straw fibres = no safety concern : Up to 80% of decontamination of surrogates + if the remaining quantity migrated integrally from the packaging towards the food, it did not represent any danger for human health (<ADI)

• Inertness of PHBVs : Can be used as food contact materials for all types of food.

• Stability negatively affected by the addition of wheat straw fibres : Can be used as food contact materials only for low or intermediate water activity products and/or fat products.

Conclusions

QUESTIONS ?

o

  Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) = 0.008 mg/kg body weight and per day, i.e. 0.56 mg/day for a human of 70 kg o Median residue in wheat straw : 2.71 mg/kg of wheat straw(EFSA, 2008)


Long-term changes in field margin vegetation in North-western France

Alignier A. INRA, UR 0980 SAD-Paysage, 65 rue de Saint Brieuc,CS 84215,35042 Rennes Cedex,France Thematic : Long term ecology Preference for an oral presentation (12 min) Abstract (250 words):

Field margins have considerable ecological significance in agriculture-dominated landscapes by supporting biodiversity and associated services. However, agricultural changes during mid-20th century led to their drastic loss with a serious threat for farmland biodiversity. Few attempts have been made to examine the long-term dynamics of multiple field margin vegetation communities at the landscape scale. More than 300 field margins were resurveyed in northern Brittany (France) to assess long-term change in the structure and composition of vegetation communities over a 21-year period. Values of α-, β-and γ-diversity were compared between the two surveys. Changes in species composition and richness were examined with management factors. Metacommunity structure was identified and changes in metacommunity composition were related to plant traits. Analyses indicated that α-diversity increased over time, gaining ~ 10% over the period whereas γ-diversity decreased, with the total number of species falling from 308 in 1994 to 284 in 2015. Change in β-diversity revealed biotic homogenization. Plant community composition shifted over time, associated with an increase in "competitive" species and in mean Ellenberg N and R values. A consistent trend towards fewer light-demanding species, rare and specialist species was also observed. The structure of field margin vegetation community was Clementsian at both survey times, indicating species sorting. Analysis of potential structuring mechanism revealed a significant influence of management practices. This provides evidence of the impact of management practices on vegetation community of field margins at different scales and highlights challenge for their conservation. Keywords: farmland biodiversity; long-term monitoring; vegetation change; conservation; biotic homogenization; management practice; plant functional traits


Christine Tichit

The Onset of Social Class Tastes among Children of Migrants in France: Competing Food Patterns in the Context of Migration

Keywords: children, social class, migrants, France, food patterns, food preferences

This paper explores social variations in food acculturation in the context of migration. While the literature on this issue has documented changes in eating practices among adults, this study focuses on the children of migrants. The research is based on data collected among elementary and middle school students, and relies on an approach combining focus group discussions with a survey questionnaire. Results reveal that food preferences among children of migrants are more strongly influenced by their family social background than by their ethnic characteristics. Main findings confirm Pierre Bourdieu's theory about social distinction as more involved in social reproduction than in ethno-cultural reproduction. However this social reproduction doesn't follow a singular common pattern. The coexistence of competing food patterns among migrants highlights the plurality of minority cultures resisting the dominant norm, as Claude Grignon has already shown about the French working class.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the social aspects of food acculturation in the context of migration, emphasizing the point of view of the children rather than the now well-documented point of view of the adults 4 . The study focuses on the food practices and preferences within the family rather than at school or in other outside settings. Children are seen as witnesses of family practices through their factual answers to survey questions about the family meal. Their perceptions are also investigated through their interactive discussions on this issue. Method Qualitative data have been collected within one elementary school and one middle--school, among children aged 11 and 12 years, using focus groups, observation sessions, and a short food questionnaire. Children were involved with three workshops in five 5 th and 6 th grade classes. The first workshop consisted of the study of iconographic examples of meal patterns across the world, to create an initial distance from the dominant norm in France. The goal was to prepare children to relate familial practices that may be different from the French pattern or from the "correct" answer expected in school. The second workshop involved administering a questionnaire that provided opportunities for individual responses and the collection of factual data on the last family dinner and the children's favorite dish at home. During the third workshop, the anonymized results of the questionnaires were analyzed in class by the same students and the resulting discussions are parts of the observed materials.

Data

The sample consists of 119 children in an elementary and a middle school of a Parisian neighborhood in the process of becoming gentrified, where the working class is mainly composed of different waves of migration, at the moment mostly from China and sub--Saharan Africa 5 . School choices of the wealthiest families as well as changes in the school zoning system have progressively modified the demographic and socio--cultural characteristics of the student population 6 . Over two thirds (80) of the children interviewed have at least one parent not born in France. A strong relationship was found between the geographic origin of the parents and their social and occupational characteristics 7 . Professionals are mostly French or married to a French person. Manual workers are about one--third Chinese, one--third Sub--Saharan African. The remaining third is divided between parents born in other foreign countries (mostly located in North Africa and Eastern Europe) and parents born in France but whose own parents were born elsewhere. Most small business owners are of Chinese origin while most employees are primarily from Sub--Saharan Africa; the other middle--class occupations 8 represent a population of mixed background, 4 Crenn and al. Ibid. 5 Clerval (A.), La gentrification à Paris intra-muros : dynamiques spatiales, rapports sociaux et politiques publiques, Thèse de Doctorat, Université Paris1, 2008. 6 About the process of school segregation : Felouzis (G.), Liot (F.), Perroton (J.), L'apartheid scolaire. Enquête sur la ségrégation ethnique dans les collèges, Points, 2007. 7 Social characteristics of the families (household composition, parents' occupation and country of birth) were collected through individual questionnaires filled out by the students in the classroom. with some French and some migrants. Single parenthood affects all occupational categories with nearly as many migrant parents as French ones, while family size is more discriminating. Migrants from Sub--Saharan Africa make up the most homogeneous group, characterized as mostly employee and manual workers, and with the largest families. By contrast, parents born in China and in France are socially more heterogeneous. Chinese immigrant parents are either business owners or manual workers, and their children attend the same school, Native--born parents are typically either professionals or, when their own parents are from North Africa, lower--wage workers9 . Wide variations in the social characteristics and the ethnic origins of children in the sample provide the perfect setting to investigate social differentiations in children's perception regarding food practices and preferences. b In the survey's sample, categorization of parental occupations reflects the occupation of both parents in the case of two earners, retaining the higher of the two except in the case of employees. Employees are both more numerous and whose combinations of marital PCS are most diversified. If one parent is an employee and the other a manual worker, the family is categorized in the group of manual workers with reference to the definition of the "employees" as "service workers" proposed by Chauvel [START_REF] Chauvel | Le destin des générations. Structure sociale et cohortes en France au XXe siècle[END_REF] . Thus the group of "employees" includes only couples of employees and families whose only asset is also. C Parent's origin (country of birth) combines both parents main origin or takes the foreign one for mixed couple. d Proportion is the INSEE Iris foreign families for the neighborhood. For the sample, proportion includes families with both foreign parents according to actual criteria of nationality at birth and to compare with INSEE data. Thus mixed unions are categorized as French families. e Definition of a large family: at least 4 children less than 25 years, for the sample and for

INSEE Iris data Categorization of materials on food preferences

We first analyzed the favorite dish at home from the questionnaire data. In order to "standardize" responses from children of different backgrounds we compared each dish to a relevant item that carried potential markers of acculturation. For example, some answers demonstrate a preference for a dish reflecting the cultural origin of the parents among children of migrants, which remains the notion defined by Emmanuel Calvo as a "totem" dish [START_REF]The notion of totem dish is defined by Calvo as a dish that acquire a new status because of his new symbolic value in context of migration. « (plat) qui, à la suite de l'émigration, va subir une revalorisation culturelle. » Calvo (E.) «Migration et alimentation[END_REF] . Other children may refer to French or more Western dishes as a mark of possible acculturation for children of migrant parents. Three types of answers appear in this other register: First, pasta, which is assumed to be a child's preferred dishsecond, the "typical" [START_REF]Typical from the point of view of non-French people. Hubert (A), le plat National existe-t-il ?[END_REF] French dish like "steak--frites" which we classify as a "national dish" 13 ; third "other" French dishes reminiscent of some regional products or familial recipes [START_REF]Example :"pommes de terre sautées[END_REF] . We also classified in this latter category ingredients listed by themselves (e.g. maize, vegetables, meat as a single answer) when they did not evoke the origin of migrant parents. By contrast "rice", as a single answer, often and exclusively mentioned by children of Chinese origin, received the fourth classification as a "totem dish". Our analysis offers theoretical markers of acculturation that can break the dichotomy of the "totem dish" versus the "French dish". Thereby it finds various models of acculturation and competing systems of distinction including "totem dish", "child preferences", the pattern of "national dish" and "family or regional recipes". Main Results on the social differentiation of tastes Among children's stated preferences, the "national dish" is most often cited (32% of responses), followed by pasta and by the "totem dish" (27% and 25%, respectively). Last come other French dishes which are mentioned half as often as the "national dish" (16%, of which 7% include miscellaneous ingredients).

Figure 1. Children's favorite dish at home according to cultural background (Combination of PCS and country of birth of parents for employees and manual workers)

(n = 119, chi2 (6df) = 16.5, significant relationship, confidence interval 98%) The results show no gender differences (chi2 (3df) = 1.1 insignificant relationship), by contrast with what has been found among adults with a marked preference for meat and starches among men compared to women 15 . If preference for meat is not differentiated by gender for children, "pasta" is slightly more often mentioned by boys than by girls although the difference is not significant. Children's preferences for pasta are still relatively gender neutral at this age, by contrast with other types of cultural preferences which are often already differentiated by sex. Typically, children's preferences for "pasta" are also socially less discriminating for both sexes. But it carries another symbolic dimension in the preferences of children of migrants, as a substitute for other basic grains favored by the culinary traditions of the country of origin. Among children of migrants, only children of Chinese workers do not mention pasta in a culturally neutral or Western denomination ("pasta" as single answer or "pasta bolognese" for example), preferring "rice" or referring to pasta in a typical Chinese language as "small shrimp noodles" referring to the group of "totem dish". Preference for a national dish, such as "steak--frites", is socially differentiated, and particularly strong among children of some migrant groups. On the one hand there are students who do not mention this kind of dish or mention it rarely, for example the children of manual workers from China and Africa. At the other end of the social scale, children of intellectual and professionals are also among the few to never mention this type of dish. National dishes are favored by children of French natives in the lower social class who mostly belong to the third generation of North African labor migrants of the 1970s in the sample. Some children of migrants also favor a national dish, in particular children of Sub--Saharan African employees and children of North African and Eastern European migrants. What does the distinction between children of migrants reveal about "steak--frites"? During the focused discussion workshop, children revealed that for them this dish first evokes France, confirming that the symbolism of "steak--frites" as "national dish" is built into an outside view, from foreign people 16 . Then the discussion moved on to the nutritional 15 Saint Pol (T de), « La consommation alimentaire des hommes et femmes vivant seuls », Insee Première, n°1194 -mai 2008. 16 disadvantages of "steak--frites", supported by Asian children whose parents work in food service industries, and those from upper classes (of any origin). One expert child, the son of a "Maitre d'hôtel", takes the ascendancy over all others to affirm or contradict the arguments of each. A child of a North African worker resisted throughout the discussion, constantly preaching respect for "steak--frites" which he defined both as a privilege of the rich and as a typical family dish. This apparent contradiction confirms the place of "steak-frites" as a favorite dish of the children of workers. "Steak--frites" is still the most valued and consumed dish among the French working class 17 . Consumption frequency highlights the contrast between a casual consumer in the wealthiest families and a weekly consumer in the working class, despite the ambiguity of nutritional claims. Is the taste for this type of dish specific to living in France? It doesn't appear to be in French--speaking Sub--Saharan Africa where "steak--frites" remains the prerogative of trendy restaurants and wealthy urban elites as a symbol of modernity and social success. When children of migrants value this type of dish, they internalize their family model as well as the aspiration in popular culture.

Results of the questionnaire survey support the different positions argued in the focus group discussion. Children from the wealthiest families (whether native or migrant) rarely chose "steak--frites" as their favorite dish, referring to the nutritional arguments against this dish in the discussion, and raising other markers of distinction like gastronomy or moral restraint of a responsible and healthy consumption, perceived as values of the elite. In contrast, the children of migrant workers from North and Sub--Saharan Africa prefer "steak--frites" like other children of the French lower social class. Whatever the geographical origin, children from the migrants' families seem open to the French signs of distinction valorized in their parent's social class. However, the investigation also revealed competing systems of distinction among children of migrants in the lowest social class. Thus, preference for a "totem dish" evoking the parents' country of origin, contrasts with the "national dish". This concerns almost exclusively children of manual workers from China and Sub--Saharan Africa. African dishes mentioned by children are primarily international dishes, showing that food acculturation begins in the home country. The "totem dish," referring to the idea of an original cuisine, is, in fact, already acculturated and appears as a mythology [START_REF]Aloko" originally from Ivory Coast is mentioned by children from this area but also from Sahel and Central Africa. On the mixing of food cultures before migration see Tuomainen (H.M.), "Ethnic Identity, (Post)Colonialism and Foodways. Ghanaians in London[END_REF] . "Rice" is mentioned by children from Chinese families, but never by any child of African origin. This grain is nevertheless very present in Sahel food as it is practiced in France, but also in home countries where it symbolizes the opulence of the urban diet, compared to other varieties of traditional grains used in the village [START_REF] Ouedraogo | L'insécurité alimentaire à Ouagadougou[END_REF] . The fact that rice is never mentioned by children of Sahel families shows an aspiration to other food more rewarding in the French context, especially pasta and fries for children of employees, but "totem dish" for children from the lowest class. For their part, the Chinese children prefer Asian food. But while children of Chinese manual workers remain always faithful to Asian food, some of the children of the Chinese middle-class (small business owners) chose typical French dishes (steak--frites or other). This difference among Chinese children crosses the social differentiation of tastes observed among students from African families.

Main conclusion

Building on the work of Grignon, this study of food preferences suggests competing systems of distinction among children. Concerning children of migrants, several models coexist from the myth of the original "totem dish" or the myth of the French "national dish", through the pattern of some more healthy dish. The influence of the dominant culture of the elite through internalized speech on nutrition mainly appears in the preferences of children from the wealthiest families. The acculturation process as well as the time of substitution of these different patterns could depend on the duration of time in France as well as on the role of elder children. Academic and social capital of migrants, which allows access to skilled jobs and to higher social class, could also help migrants understand and follow the social codes of the dominant culture. Data cannot answer these questions, but reveal that children from migrant families who have more socio--economic capital are more receptive to French markers of distinction, whether belonging to the French working class culture or to those of the elite.

  The categorization of parental occupations is based on the classification of PCS INSEE. This French nomenclature of occupations and occupational categories (PCS) used by INSEE is quite different from the international Nomenclature of Occupations (ISCO). About comparison between ISCO and French PCS classification, see Brousse (C), ESeC: the European Union's Socio-economic Classification project, Courrier des statistiques, English series no. 15, 2009, http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/cse15e.pdf 8 Intermediate occupations like teachers, nurses, technicians

Table 1 -

 1 Social Structure of the survey's sample compared to the neighborhood

	Neighborhood	Survey

  Hubert, Op. Cit.

	Business owners
	Intellectual & High level
	Intermediate occupaqon Professionals
	Sub--Sah African Employee
	Other employees
	Sub--Sah African manual
	Asian manual workers workers
	Other manual workers
	Unknown job of migrant
	Other unknown job
	0%	2%	4%	6%	8%	10%	12%	14%	16%
	Totem Dish	Naqonal Dish	Pasta		Other	No preferences

Like most of the so-called "second generation" they are combining social discrimination and difficulties of socio-economic integration of the crisis times. Silberman (R.) et Fournier (I.), « Les secondes générations sur le marché du travail en France : une pénalité ethnique ancrée dans le temps. Contribution à la théorie de l'assimilation segmentée. » Revue française de sociologie, vol. 47, n°2, 2006, p. 243-292.


domain: spi phys

text:
Christophe Inguimbert

Thierry Nuns

Juan Barbero

Juan Moreno

Samuel Ducret

Alexandru Neldecu

Bjorn Galmander

Elke Passoth

Displacement damage effects in InGaAs photodiodes produced by electrons, protons and neutrons irradiations

Keywords: Space Environment, Displacement Damage, gamma rays, Non Ionizing Energy Loss

à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

I. INTRODUCTION

nergetic particles, when they travel through the matter, interact with the atoms' nuclei and displace them, producing defects in monocrystalline lattices. The fluxes of particles encountered in space are big enough to be able to produce a sufficient amount of defects and degrade significantly the semiconductor materials. The produced electrically active defects act as generation/recombination centres affecting the functioning of the electronic devices. Optoelectronic components are particularly sensitive to such kind of phenomenon. Some degradations, like the increase in dark current are proportional to the amount of defects. In this case, the degradation is thus proportional to the incident fluence. However, the capability of the incident particles to produce defects varies from particle to particle, and even for a given particle type, from an energy to another. The damage coefficient is defined as the ratio of dark current increase by the incident fluence. Hence, the damage coefficient differs from a type of radiation to another. It also depends on the incident energy. Therefore, the fluence is not the best metric to scale the degradation induced by the displacement damage effects. Indeed, the number of produced defect is proportional to the energy dissipated in the target material by the incident particles. The incident particles put into motion the nuclei of the target material thanks to nuclear interactions (Coulombic, elastic and inelastic). According to the binary collision approximation, the number of displaced atoms is demonstrated to be equal to the dissipated energy divided by twice the minimum energy required to displace an atom (T d ). To the first order, the final number of defects is shown to be proportional to the number of atomic displacements and thus to the energy dissipated in terms of nuclear interactions, i.e. the Displacement Damage Dose (DDD). The displacement damage dose deposited per incident particle is given by the Non Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) [1]- [START_REF] Boschini | Nuclear and non-ionizing energy-loss for Coulomb scattered particle from low energy up to relativistic regime in space radiation environment[END_REF], which is shown to be the best parameter to scale the degradations induced in microelectronic devices by atomic displacements. The wellknown "NIEL scaling approach", that consists in considering that the damage factor is proportional to the NIEL, is shown to work quite well in most of cases [START_REF] Srour | Review of displacement damage effects in silicon devices[END_REF]- [START_REF] Messenger | Modeling solar cell degradation in space: A comparison of the NRL displacement damage dose and JPL equivalent fluence approaches[END_REF]. Apart from some deviations observed for electrons [START_REF] Thommen | Recovery of low temperature electron irradiationinduced damage in n-type GaAs[END_REF]- [START_REF] Allam | Gamma and Electron NIEL Dependence of Irradiated GaAs[END_REF] in both Si and GaAs, high energy protons in GaAs [START_REF] Summers | Displacement damage in GaAs structures[END_REF]- [START_REF] Messenger | NIEL and damage correlations for high-energy protons in gallium arsenide devices[END_REF] and neutrons in GaAs [START_REF] Ougouag | Differential displacement kerma cross sections for neutron interactions in Si and GaAs[END_REF], the NIEL scaling approach is proven to be effective for silicon and gallium arsenide material, for which it is widely used [START_REF] Srour | Review of displacement damage effects in silicon devices[END_REF]- [START_REF] Messenger | Modeling solar cell degradation in space: A comparison of the NRL displacement damage dose and JPL equivalent fluence approaches[END_REF].

It is for electrons that the discrepancies with the NIEL are observed most frequently. These deviations are measured whatever the semiconductor: Si [START_REF] Srour | A framework for understanding displacement damage mechanisms in irradiated silicon devices[END_REF] [START_REF] Summers | Damage correlations in semiconductors exposed to gamma, electron and proton radiations[END_REF] [START_REF] Summers | Displacement damage analogs to ionizing radiation effects[END_REF] [START_REF] Arnolda | NIEL scaling: comparison with measured defect introduction rate in silicon[END_REF] and GaAs [START_REF] Thommen | Recovery of low temperature electron irradiationinduced damage in n-type GaAs[END_REF]- [START_REF] Xapsos | Co60 Gamma Ray and Electron Displacement Damage Studies of Semiconductors[END_REF][18] [START_REF] Warner | A comparison between p+n and n+p GaAs displacement damage coefficients following proton irradiation[END_REF] [START_REF] Allam | Gamma and Electron NIEL Dependence of Irradiated GaAs[END_REF].

Furthermore, space applications in the infrared domain have been growing rapidly, requiring a good knowledge of the reliability to radiation of some semiconductor materials such as II-VI (HgCdTe), or III-V (InGaAs). Compared to Si and GaAs, the InGaAs material has not been extensively studied. Extracting some general rules requires a large set of measurements obtained with various particles and energies [START_REF] Gilard | Damage Factor for Radiation-Induced Dark Current in InGaAs Photodiodes[END_REF]. The data from the literature that can be used to achieve this task, come from different devices having different technological characteristics that can affect the measured damage factor. Often, the damage factors of different electrical parameters (dark current, diffusion length) are mixed. However, the response to radiations can vary from a parameter to another. For example, in solar cells the degradation of the short circuit current differs slightly from the power loss. In addition, from a reference to another, the test The aim of this work is to measure the degradation of a given electrical parameter, the dark current, with a single set of devices, tested with identical conditions. The largest possible set of irradiation conditions is applied on this set of devices. It is then possible to analyse the reliability of the NIEL scaling approach for InGaAs material, based on a large set of irradiation measurements. Three devices coming from three different manufacturers (Excelitas, OSI, LYNRED) have been tested with electrons of 5 different energies (0.5 MeV, 1.5 MeV, 6 MeV, 12 MeV, 20 MeV). They have also been irradiated with protons of 60 MeV, 100 MeV, and 170 MeV and with an atmosphericlike neutron spectrum (equivalent damage energy of ~2 MeV). The damage factor has been extracted and compared to the NIEL calculated with the NEMO [4] package of ONERA implemented in the OMERE [START_REF] Omere | Outil de Modélisation de l'Environnement Radiatif Externe[END_REF] toolkit. This work has been performed in the frame of the ROVER project funded by the European Defence Agency (EDA) [START_REF][END_REF].

The section II presents the experimental setup, describing the devices in study, the irradiation facilities, the test and irradiation conditions. The section III presents some results of dark current increase and the section IV discusses the dark current damage factor of the different irradiation conditions with the NIEL scaling.

II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

A. Tested photodiodes

Three photodiodes coming from three different manufacturers (Excelitas, OSI, Lynred) have been tested during the irradiation campaigns. Lynred [START_REF]Lynred[END_REF] provided test vehicles of the SNAKE device which is an array of InGaAs PIN photodiodes that operate in the 0.9 µm to 1.7 µm wavelength domain. The SNAKE device is a new generation of VGA InGaAs FPA sensor with a high level of sensitivity and resolution dedicated to low flux applications. The test vehicles consist in a set of circular single photodiodes of different dimensions (diameter in the range [4 µm, 300 µm]) and 10x10 sub-arrays of pixels with various pitches (in the range [10 µm, 30 µm]) where all pixels are addressed in parallel. A maximum of six different elements, selected within the available topologies of the test vehicles, are measured during this study, but for some irradiation conditions, there are less measured diodes. Because the test vehicles may have some slight differences in terms of available photodiode dimensions, the measured photodiodes may change from sample to sample and, as a consequence, from one irradiation to another. For this reason, the results will mainly focus on the damage factor and the influence of the size of the photodiodes on the degradation. The measurements presented in this paper are performed at -5 V.

The second tested device is the PIN photodiode C30618 from Excelitas [START_REF]EXCELITAS: Excelitas technologies[END_REF]. This high speed single InGaAs circular photodiode is designed for use in OEM fiber-optics communications systems and high-speed receiver applications. It operates between 1000 nm and 1600 nm and has a diameter of 350 µm and a maximum intrinsic dark current of typical ~1 nA with an applied voltage of -10V (the bias at which the current measurements were made).

The last tested device is the FCIQ1000 from OSI [33]. The FCI-InGaAs-QXXX series are large active circular area InGaAs photodiodes segmented into four quadrants. As a consequence, each device has four photodiodes that are all measured independently in our study. In the graph results, they are arbitrarily numbered from 1 to 4. The Q1000 device has an active area of 1000 µm diameter and presents a 0.5 nA dark current at -5V (bias for the current measurements). The Q1000 photodiode is optimized for a good responsivity from 1100 nm to 1620 nm.

The two latter devices have been selected because they have relatively large active areas of several hundreds of micrometers of diameter, and present relatively low intrinsic dark currents. The goal was to have the optimal conditions in order to get the best sensitivity to radiation. Because all the irradiated samples are the same whatever the irradiation conditions, the data obtained on these devices are used for a direct comparison of the bias, annealing, particle type and energy, bias conditions effects.

B. Irradiation facilities

The three devices presented in the previous section have been irradiated with protons, electrons, neutrons and gammas thanks to five different facilities. Two electron energies (0.5 and 1.5 MeV) were performed at the GEODUR facility of ONERA (Toulouse, France) [START_REF] Geodur | Chambre d'irradiation électrons multi applications (matériaux, composants[END_REF] associated with a Van de Graaff accelerator providing mono-energetic beams. The fluxes can be selected from 1 nA/cm²/s up to 100 nA/cm².s (10 9 -10 12 e-/cm².s) with an inhomogeneity lower than 10% within a beam of 16 cm diameter. Three higher electron energies (6 MeV,[START_REF] Pons | Energy-dependence of deep level introduction in electron-irradiated GaAs[END_REF] MeV and 20 MeV) were performed at the RADEF facility (LINAC of the University of Jyväskylä, Finland) [START_REF]Jyväskylän Yliopisto[END_REF]. This pulsed electron beam provides average dose rates ranging from 100 rad(water)/min in water up to 10 Gy(water)/min. The beam inhomogeneity is lower than 5% over a square of 20 cm x 20 cm. Some devices have also been irradiated with protons of 60 MeV, 100 MeV, and 170 MeV, as well as with the atmospheric-like neutron spectrum of The Svedberg Laboratory (TSL, Uppsala, Sweden) facility [START_REF]The ANITA neutron beam facility[END_REF]. Protons are produced thanks to the Gustaf Werner cyclotron performing beam intensities from 10 µA down to single protons per second. They are delivered to the PAULA user facility (Proton fAcility in UppsaLA). The non-uniformity of the beam was <10% at the largest beam diameter (~20 cm). Neutrons are delivered to the Quasi-Monoenergetic Neutron (QMN) facility and the ANITA facility (Atmospheric-like Neutrons from thIck Target). The spallation neutrons of the ANITA spectrum are created in a tungsten target. The neutron beams have a continuous spectrum (Fig. 1) going from thermal energies up to ~180 MeV. The neutron flux was in the order of 10 6 cm -2 s -1 with a beam spot uniformity of ±5% within ~20 cm diameter. The part of the thermal neutron flux represents less than 1% of the total integrated flux. Based on the NIEL of the InGaAs material, the equivalent damage energy of the ANITA spectrum has been estimated to be around 2 MeV. Because the equivalent fluence at this energy in InGaAs and the associated damage dose used in this paper are the results of calculations, their values are subject to uncertainties.

C. Test conditions

The photodiodes have been irradiated with two different bias conditions. Some devices have been shorted and the others have been irradiated with a reverse bias. This is the same bias conditions as those applied during the dark current measurements: -10 V for the C30618 (Excelitas) and -5 V for both SNAKE (Lynred) and FCIQ1000 (OSI). These biases correspond to a large depletion regime dominated by the generation current. The irradiations have been performed at ambient temperature (~20°C). One device is irradiated per bias and energy. All the devices are irradiated de-lidded. One nonirradiated sample was measured as a reference at each step. The electrical measurements have been performed in a box with a controlled temperature close to 24°C. Both the Excelitas and OSI devices are placed in a well sized footprint of a thermally regulated copper plate inside the box. As a consequence, the temperature during the measurements is well controlled. The SNAKE test vehicles are just put into the box. This leads to a larger uncertainty of the device temperature during the measurements and a worse reproducibility. For the considered gap of InGaAs, considering a SRH carrier generation with an activation energy close to the mid gap, an error of 1°C around 24°C corresponds to an error of 5% in the dark current (close to 10% for 2°C).

As can be seen in TABLE I, the applied fluences correspond to quite high levels of irradiation compared to most of the space applications. The goal is to have a significant dark current increase that ensures some relevant measurements. For protons and high energy electrons, the final fluence and displacement damage dose change from one irradiation to another, but the final ionizing dose is quite the same, close to 320 Gy(InGaAs). For low energy electrons and gamma irradiations, the final dose is higher. But we provide intermediate steps at 300 Gy(InGaAs) for electron irradiations and 450 Gy(InGaAs) for gamma irradiation so that a comparison of the degradation at the same ionizing dose is quite possible. In a global point of view, intermediate fluence steps with dark current measurements in between have been performed for the neutron spectrum, the 170 MeV protons, the gamma rays, the 0.5 MeV and the 1.5 MeV electrons irradiations. In these cases, we can check the linearity of the dark current increase with the fluence. In terms of displacement damage dose, the maximum level is obtained for the ANITA neutron spectrum (~2.4 10 +10 MeV/g). The measurements have been performed within one hour after the end of the irradiation, this time depending on the access time to the irradiated samples (vacuum, activation). The dark current was measured two months after the irradiation in order to check the importance of the annealing processes.

A. Dark current increase with fluence or ionizing dose

The Fig. 2 shows an example of the photodiode response with three different irradiation conditions: the 170 MeV protons, the ANITA neutron spectrum and the gamma. These three irradiations are selected because several fluences or dose levels are available. We can see that the dark current increase is linear with the fluence or the TID. This trend is true for the three types of photodiodes. This linear dependence will allow the extraction of a damage factor as described in the section IV.

The final TID level for gamma irradiations (5240 Gy(InGaAs)) is much higher than the TID reached after the proton and electron irradiations (close to 320 Gy(InGaAs) for protons and up to 500 Gy(InGaAs) for electrons). The dark current increase is much lower for 500 Gy(InGaAs) gamma irradiation than for the other irradiations, except for 0.5 MeV electron where the degradation are similar. The conclusion is that, for 1.5 MeV or higher electrons energies, protons and neutron irradiations, the dark current degradation is dominated by displacement damage effects rather than TID effects. The comparison between the 0.5 MeV electrons and the gamma irradiation must be detailed. We look at the cases of the OSI and Excelitas devices, where all the irradiated samples are the same for these two types of irradiations. The TABLE III gives the dark current increase of the devices after 0.5 MeV 500 Gy(InGaAs) (final step) and the gamma 430 Gy(InGaAs) irradiation. The latter is the closer intermediate irradiation step from the former. The TABLE III compares the absolute values and variations for the biased and unbiased devices. We can see that the degradation levels are very similar, especially after the two month annealing of the samples irradiated with 0.5 MeV electrons. We should note that the dose rate between gamma and electrons are very different (higher for electron) and that the yields of the two particles are slightly different. Nevertheless, we conclude that the TID effects are not negligible for 0.5 MeV electron irradiation, and may be the dominant contribution of the dark current increase. This remark will be used when comparing the damage factors with the NIEL in the section IV.

B. Bias effect

The bias effect is only observable when both ON and OFF irradiations are made for a given particle type and energy, i.e. for neutron, proton, and gamma irradiations for the three 0,0E+00

C. Annealing effect

The recovery processes at room temperature have been shown to be negligible even two months after the irradiations. This is also shown on the Fig. 2 (two points at the maximum fluence or ionizing dose). The detail of the annealing percentage is given in TABLE V. Most of the time, the annealing is close to 5% of the final dark current level just after irradiation for the OSI and Excelitas devices. Higher values of annealing are observed for the low energies electron irradiation. In this case, because the dark current increase is the lowest compared to the other irradiations, this behavior maybe both an effect of the ionizing degradation. The of the SNAKE samples is close to 10%, within the uncertainty of the device temperature. The results presented in the rest of the paper correspond to the measurements two after the irradiations.

D. Effect of the photodiode dimension

In this paragraph, we specifically look at the relative degradation of the SNAKE photodiodes with respect to their surface. Indeed, all the photodiodes on the test vehicles are made in the same technology, which means that the vertical dimensions of the different photodiodes are the same. The main difference from one diode to another is the topology (circular or square), the surface and the neighborhood (for the sub-arrays of pixels). So, if the dark current increase is due to defects in the volume of the semiconductor, it should be proportional to the surface of the different elements. Measurements at 22°C.

The comparison with the OSI and Excelitas devices is not possible because we do not have any information on the device structure, except the active surface. As a consequence, any differences in the doping concentrations, vertical dimensions… will induce a different active volume. I(V) curves of all the patterns of the two test vehicles irradiated with 60 MeV protons (biased and unbiased) were measured several months after irradiation. The two test vehicles, labelled "Sample 1" and "Sample 2", come from two different InGaAs wafers. The Fig. 3 shows the normalized dark current degradation: the dark current after irradiation, much larger than the dark current before irradiation (see Fig. 2), is divided by the diode surface, defined by the area of the P-type region. The figure presents the curves of both the biased and unbiased test vehicles during irradiation. All the normalized curves follow the same trend within a factor of two. This confirms that the increase of the dark current is due to defects in the volume of the photodiodes. Note that the measurements of the dark current presented in the previous paragraphs on the SNAKE test vehicles were made at -5 V.

IV. DARK CURRENT DAMAGE FACTOR

A. Definition and evaluation

The damage factor is commonly used to compare the degradation of the devices for different particle types and energies due to displacement damage effects [START_REF] Srour | Review of displacement damage effects in silicon devices[END_REF]- [START_REF] Summers | Correlation of Particle-Induced Displacement Damage in Silicon[END_REF][16] [START_REF] Warner | Correlation of electron radiation induced damage in GaAs solar cells[END_REF][19] [START_REF] Messenger | NIEL and damage correlations for high-energy protons in gallium arsenide devices[END_REF]. In our case, the damage factor is calculated by dividing the dark current increase by the fluence

Φ. = = (1)
with Φ the dark current at the fluence Φ and 0 the initial dark current.

We should note that the dark current increase is due to both ionizing (Δ , ) and non-ionizing (Δ , ) effects:

Δ Φ = Δ , Φ + Δ , Φ (2)

The dark current density is calculated by dividing the measured current by the area of the P-type region

As a consequence, the measured damage factor is the sum of a ionizing and a non-ionizing contribution:

= , + , (3)
with i and ni referring to ionizing and non-ionizing effects respectively. The concept here is possible because both the ionizing and non-ionizing dark current increase are proportional to the TID and the fluence respectively.

In our case, we intend to compare the non-ionizing damage factor , , related to the effect of the displacement damages, with the NIEL. The presence of any ionizing contribution in the measurement of Δ Φ introduces an error in this estimation. Nevertheless, we saw that, for all the irradiations but 0.5 MeV electrons, the dark current increase was dominated by the displacement damages. In these cases, , ≪ , and ≃ , . For the 0.5 MeV electrons,

, is not negligible anymore. Because it is difficult to determine the ionizing contribution in the dark current increase, we can only remark that , < . As a conclusion, the evaluation of , is not distorted by the ionizing effects for all the irradiations, except for the 0.5 MeV electron irradiation where it is overestimated. This will be reminded in the following paragraph.

The majority of the thermal annealing processes, if any, are believed to have taken place in the first few days following irradiation. In order to take them into account and to get the "final state" of the displacement damage, the damage factor is evaluated with the measurements made two months after irradiation. Anyway, the previous section showed that the annealing is small for our devices.

In the evaluation of the damage factor, we divide the dark current by the surface of the photodiode. For the OSI and Excelitas devices, we use the optimal surface of the devices (350 µm diameter, 9.62 10 -4 cm² for Excelitas, 4 quadrants of one 1000 µm diameter, 7.85 10 -3 cm² each). For the SNAKE test vehicle, we divide the current by the diffusion surface evaluated by LYNRED, smaller than the pitch of the photodiode. This point will be discussed in the following paragraph.

Finally, we focus in this paper on the comparison of the damage factors from one energy or particle type to another. They are compared to the relative variation of the NIEL of the InGaAs material. For these reasons, the damage factors are normalized to the NIEL at a given particle type and energy. As a consequence, we evaluate the relative damage factor !" #$ %. , ' for a given particle type #$ %. at the energy E with the following formula:

!" #$ %. , ' = ( ) * +.,,

( ) * + -.,, - NIEL #$ % . , ' (4)
where #$ %. , ' is a couple of particle type and energy, the subscript 0 is for the couple of reference chosen for the normalization. In the following paragraphs, the data are normalized to the neutron results because no ionizing effects are expected after such irradiation. Indeed, #$ % . , ' is the mean value of the damage factor (over the different bias and topologies within a device type) for the neutron irradiation and NIEL #$ % . , ' is equal to the NIEL of the InGaAs for 2.07 MeV neutrons (5.71×10 -4 MeVcm²/g). Nevertheless, because the equivalent fluence for neutron irradiations is subject to uncertainties (as presented in II.B), we will see that the result of the calculation of the damage factor needs to be corrected by a factor of two generally if we intend to fit the data to the NIEL of other particles. This will be detailed in the presentation of the results.

B. SNAKE relative damage factor

We first intend to clarify the right evaluation of the damage factor for the SNAKE test vehicles. Indeed, the particularity of these samples is that different topologies are available and we want to check the consistency of the different results. The Fig. 4 (a) presents the damage factor of all the available data. The experimental relative damage factors normalized to the neutron irradiations are corrected by a factor of two in order to scale with proton NIEL. We see a dispersion in the data. In particular, the result for low electron energies is spread over a factor of five. We must note that, in contrary to the OSI and Excelitas samples that have both large dimensions, some SNAKE samples have diffusion diameters down to 4 µm. Any error in the evaluation of the diffusion diameter could leads to an error in the damage factor. Such a difference could occur if the theoretical and effective diameters differ due for example to the manufacturing processes.

In Fig. 4 (b), we introduce an offset in the diffusion diameter close to 2.5 µm, corresponding to an increase of the diffusion diameter. This correction was suggested by the manufacturer. Indeed, this small value has a great impact on the small dimensions and the effect is clearly a homogenization of the results. In the following paragraphs, we will keep this hypothesis for the analysis of the comparison of the damage factors with the NIEL. Once again, for the large photodiode dimensions (SNAKE, OSI and Excelitas), the diffusion area is close to the optimal diameter of the topology and these two surfaces are almost the same.

C. Proton relative damage factor for all the device types

In the Fig. 5, we compare the damage factors with the NIEL for proton irradiations with the same normalization factor than in Fig. 4 (i.e. neutron and a factor of two for all the devices). We see that, for the three device types, the damage factor follows the total NIEL. This is a difference compared to other publications that reported a damage factor decreasing with the proton energy above some tens of MeV, sometimes following the curve of the Coulombic part of the NIEL.

D. Electron relative damage factor for all the device types

In Fig. 6, we present the shape of the damage factors compared to the electron NIEL. We should note that, for such a comparison, we used different scale factors for the OSI and Excelitas devices than for the SNAKE. This will be clearly visible in the following paragraph where we present all the damage factors together. The consequence here is that we propose a comparison of the shape of the variation of the damage factors with the NIEL.

The general trend is that the variation of the damage factors is bigger than the electron NIEL. Indeed, the variation of the damage factors between 0.5 MeV and 20 MeV is close to a factor of one hundred, whereas the variation of the NIEL is close to a factor of ten. This behaviour is closer to the variation of the square of the NIEL, which is also represented on the figure. Such behaviour has been observed for silicon devices [START_REF] Srour | Review of displacement damage effects in silicon devices[END_REF]. An explanation was given in [START_REF] Inguimbert | Effective NIEL in Silicon: Calculation using molecular dynamic results[END_REF], related to a worse calculation of the low NIEL values. Finally, the Fig. 7 compares the damage factors all together. The normalization factor is the same for the three device types, i.e. a factor of two applied on the neutron damage factor. In this case, we see that 1) with this choice, the proton data fit with the NIEL, 2) the neutron data are lower than the neutron NIEL and 3) the electron data are spread around the electron NIEL. We could have chosen to normalize the data for the best fit with electron or neutron results. This would have shifted the data up or down. But at this stage, it is difficult to conclude on the best way to normalize the data. Anyway, because of the complex spectrum of the neutron irradiation and its uncertainties in the evaluation of the equivalent energy and fluence, the difference between the neutron NIEL and the damage factors should not be considered as abnormal (factor two). But one must retain that the gap between the proton and electron damage factors is not the same for the OSI and Excelitas devices on one side, and the SNAKE test vehicles on the other side. Fig. 7 shows that a factor close to four between all these data remains after normalization.

E. Relative damage factors for all devices and particle types

V. CONCLUSION

This work shows some irradiation data of the dark current increase in different InGaAs photodiodes. The current increases linearily with the fluence or the TID. The degradation of the different topologies of photodiodes is consistent with a degradation in the volume of the device. The experimental damage factors are compared with the NIEL for InGaAs material. The results show some differences in the ratio between proton and electron results from device type to device type. The damage factors follow the total NIEL for high energy protons and the electron NIEL overestimates the low energy electron damage factors.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Atmospheric-like neutrons spectrum provided by the ANITA facility. Depending on the tested material the equivalent damage energy is found to be in the order of 2 MeV. Some Total Ionizing Dose (TID) tests have also been performed with the CNA 60 Co facility (Centro Nacional de Aceleradores, Sevilla, Spain [34]), in order to check the sensitivity of the devices to the TID effect. The TABLE I summarizes the different irradiations performed on the devices.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Dark current of the photodiodes FCIQ1000 (OSI) irradiated with (a) 170 MeV protons, (b) ANITA neutron spectrum and (c) gamma rays. Each figure detail the response of the four photodiodes of the device, irradiated biased or unbiased. The caption indicates the photodiode number and the bias condition during irradiation. The responses are linear as a function of the DDD or the TID.

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig.3: I(V) curves of the different photodiode patterns. The current is normalized by the surface of the diodes (i.e. the diffused P-type area).Measurements at 22°C.

  mono-elements and photodiode arrays Dark current density degradation at 22°C Irradiation by 60 MeV protons, fluence = 3e11 cm-2

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Comparison between the dark current increase experimental damage factors for the SNAKE test vehicles and the NIEL of InGaAs. (a) using the diffusion surface evaluated by LYNRED and (b) by correcting the diameter by 2.5 µm.

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Comparison between the dark current increase experimental damage factors and the NIEL of InGaAs for protons. The SNAKE data correspond to the mean value over the different sizes of photodiodes.

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Comparison between the dark current increase experimental damage factors and the NIEL of InGaAs for electrons. The SNAKE data correspond to the mean value over the different sizes of photodiodes.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Comparison between the dark current increase experimental damage factors and the NIEL of InGaAs for neutrons, protons and electrons. The SNAKE data correspond to the mean value over the different sizes of photodiodes.

  Displacement damage effects in InGaAs photodiodes produced by electrons, protons and neutrons irradiations C. Inguimbert 1 , T. Nuns 1 , J.Barbero 2 , J. Moreno 2 , S. Ducret 3 , A. Nedelcu 3 , B. Galnander 4 , E. Passoth 4 E conditions are not identical. The temperature and the annealing time impact directly the measurements.

TABLE I :

 I THE DDD LEVELS APPLIED ON THE PHOTODIODES FOR ALL THE IRRADIATIONS.

	Particle	Energy	Fluence	TID level	DDD
	type	(MeV)	(p./cm²)	(Gy(InGaAs))	level
					(MeV/g)
	Neutrons	Spectrum	3 10 +11	NA	6.9 10 +8
	(ANITA)		3 10 +12		6.8 10 +9
			10 +13		2.4 10 +10
	Protons	60	3 10 +11	320	1.1 10 +9
	(PAULA)	100	4.3 10 +11	320	1.5 10 +9
		170	3 10 +11	152	8.7 10 +8
			5 10 +11	254	1.4 10 +9
			6.3 10 +11	320	1.8 10 +9
	Electrons	0.5	10 +12	200	6.7 10 +6
	(ONERA)		1.5 10 +12	300	1.0 10 +7
			2.5 10 +12	500	1.7 10 +7
		1.5	5 10 +11	100	1.5 10 +7
			10 +12	200	2.9 10 +7
			1.5 10 +12	300	4.3 10 +7
			2 10 +12	400	5.8 10 +7
	Electrons	6	1.18 10 +12	325	7.1 10 +7
	(RADEF)	12	9.22 10 +11	333	7.1 10 +7
		20	7.16 10 +11	339	6.4 10 +7
	60 Co	1.25	up to ~4.5	100	up to ~4
	(CNA)		10 +14 (*)	450	10 +7 (*)
				1050
				2720
				5240

(*) value estimated using the GaAs NIEL instead of the InGaAs one.

TABLE II :

 II LIST OF THE IRRADIATIONS PER DEVICE TYPE.

	Particle	E (MeV)	SNAKE	OSI		Excelitas
			OFF	ON	OFF	ON	OFF	ON
	n°	Spectrum	X	X	X	X	X	X
	P+

TABLE III :

 III COMPARISON OF THE 430 GY(INGAAS) GAMMA AND 500 GY(INGAAS) 0.5 MEV ELECTRON IRRADIATIONS FOR THE OSI AND EXCELITAS PHOTODIODES DARK CURRENT.

	Device	Gamma	0.5 MeV e-500 Gy	0.5 MeV e-500 Gy
		430 Gy	before annealing	after annealing
		∆I (nA)	∆I (nA)	Comp. γ	∆I (nA)	Comp. γ
	Excelitas	1.58	2.28	30.7%	1.52	-4.1%
	OFF
	Excelitas	1.17	1.73	32.4%	1.27	7.8%
	ON
	OSI OFF	1.13	1.60	29.7%	1.06	-6.8%
	(*)
	OSI ON	0.86	1.28	32.7%	0.96	9.8%
	(*)
	(*) Mean value over the 4 samples of each device.

TABLE IV

 IV

		: COMPARISON OF THE EFFECT OF THE BIAS CONDITIONS BEFORE
				ANNEALING.
	Particle	E (MeV)		OSI(*)			Excelitas
			∆I (nA)	%	∆I (nA)	%
			OFF	ON	OFF/	OFF	ON	OFF/
					ON			ON
	n°	Spectrum	2070	2030	2%	2460	2340	5%
	P+	60	202	213	-6%	233	218	6%
		100	289	307	-6%	301	277	8%
		170	454	406	11%	476	419	12%
	e-	0.5	1.6	1.3	20%	2.3	1.7	26%
		1.5	10.6	10	5%	15.5	12.5	18%
	60 Co	1.25	10.9	8.2	25%	14.6	10.7	27%
	(*) Mean value over the 4 samples of each device.

TABLE V :

 V EFFECT OF TWO MONTHS ANNEALING AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.

	Particle	E (MeV)	SNAKE		OSI	Excelitas
			OFF	ON	OFF	ON	OFF	ON
	n°	Spectrum	1.6%	0.6%	-6.0% -9.3% -3.1%
	P+	60	11.5	8.6%	-2.5% -6.5%	0.9%	-4.1%
			%
		100			1.9%	-1.5%	0%	-4.0%
		170	12.4	9.6%	0.5%	-2.6% -1.5% -4.6%
			%
	e-	0.5	18.3		27.4	17.4	33.4	26.7
			%		%	%	%	%
		1.5	10.8		19.5	15.5	18.7	15.0
			%		%	%	%	%
		6	6.2%		6.0%		5.5%
		12	-1.1%
		20	-3.9%		3.8%		2.9%
	60 Co	1.25	-2.4%	0.3%	4.5%	1.9%	2.2%	0.6%

X X X X X X 100 X X X X 170 X X X X X X e-0.5 X X X X X 1.5 X X X X X 6 X X X 12 X 20 X X X 60 Co 1.25 X X X X X X


The French arms industry and its present problems

Fontanel, J.

Conference of the International Sociology Association ISA, 1989, London Cahiers du CEDSI, Université des Sciences sociales de Grenoble Février 1989

  Quel est le niveau minimal de dépendance pour certaines armes importantes pour la défense nationale ? Quelle est l'importance politique et économique des exportations d'armes ? Quelle est la charge d'armement utile pour développer un système de dissuasion et quelle est la charge financière que la nation est prête à accepter pour quelle défense ? Military industrial complex, National defence, exportation arms, burden of defence, deterrence strategy, arms systems Complexe militaro-industriel, Défense nationale, exportation d'armes, fardeau de la défense, stratégie de dissuasion, systèmes d'armes.

	Résumé : Industrial advanced States are not often in position to convert notions
	of national security into comprehensive strategies and programmes for national
	security. Technologies dictate policy instead of serving them when a national

Military industrial complex is powerful. How organize the national production of armaments? What is the minimal level of dependence for some important weapons for the national defence? What is the political and economical importance of exporting arms? What is the burden of armaments useful to develop a deterrence system and what financial burden the nation is prepared to accept for what defence?

Les États industrialisés avancés ne sont pas souvent en mesure de convertir les notions de sécurité nationale en stratégies et programmes globaux de sécurité nationale. Les technologies dictent la politique au lieu de les servir lorsqu'un complexe militaro-industriel national est puissant. Comment organiser la production nationale d'armements ?